COMPRISING 


A  DICTIONARY  OF  NAUTICAL  WORDS  AND  PHRASES;  BIOGRAPHICAL 
NOTICES,  AND  RECORDS  OF  NAVAL  OFFICERS; 


SPECIAL  ARTICLES  ON  NAVAL  ART  AND  SCIENCE, 


WRITTEN   EXPRESSLY   FOR  THIS   WORK 


BY    OFFICERS    AND    OTHERS    OF    RECOGNIZED    AUTHORITY    IN    THE 
BRANCHES  TREATED  BY  THEM. 


TOGETHER  WITH 


DESCRIPTIONS  OF  THE  PRINCIPAL  NAVAL  STATIONS  AND  SEAPORTS  OF  THE  WORLD. 


COMPLETE   IlSrONE  VOLUME. 


PHILADELPHIA: 

L.   R.   HAMERSLY    &    CO. 

1884. 


Copyright,  1880,  by  L.  B.  HAMERSLY  &  Co. 


PREFACE. 


THE  great  abundance  of  encyclopaedias  that  distinguishes  our  day  would,  at  first 
sight,  seem  to  discourage  any  attempt  to  add  to  that  department  of  literature.  But 
among  all  the  works  coming  properly  under  the  name  of  encyclopaedia  there  is 
not  one,  at  least  in  the  English  language,  that  supplies  the  want  which  it  is  the  aim 
of  this  volume  to  meet.  The  sea  is,  so  to  speak,  a  world  in  itself.  It  has  its  own 
vegetable  and  animal  life,  and  its  own  natural  laws;  while  on  its  surface  floats  a 
multitude  of  vessels  that  serve  either  as  the  outlying  defenses  of  the  nations  which 
border  upon  it,  or  as  the  carriers  of  the  commodities  which  they  find  a  profit  in 
exchanging.  This  world  of  men  and  things,  so  peculiar  and  distinct,  necessarily 
has  a  peculiar  language,  peculiar  customs,  and  peculiar  belongings.  It  is,  more 
over,  a  progressive  world,  and  the  arts  and  sciences  that  have  relation  to  it  are 
moving  and  developing  pari  passu  with  those  that  relate  solely  to  the  terrene  por 
tion  of  the  globe.  When  to  these  considerations  is  added  the  fact  that  the  sea  is  the 
especial  field  of  operations  of  a  profession  which  unites  in  itself  the  characteristics  of 
the  sailor  and  of  the  soldier,  and  to  which  is  committed  the  high  trust  of  maintaining 
the  honor  and  dignity  of  the  nation  which  it  represents  in  all  parts  of  the  globe,  and 
of  extending  over  the  citizens  of  its  own  country,  wherever  their  business  or  pleasure 
may  call  them,  the  protecting  segis  of  the  national  flag,  it  would  certainly  appear 
that  sufficient  warrant  exists  for  the  issuing  of  this  work,  which  has  for  its  object  the 
bringing  together  in  one  view,  and  within  convenient  compass,  the  several  kinds  of 
information  most  useful  to  naval  officers,  and  most  likely  to  be  sought  for  by  sea 
faring  men  of  every  name  and  grade.  Nor  is  it  only  those  that  are  by  profession, 
or  calling,  identified  with  the  sea  who  will  find  profit  and  instruction  in  this  volume. 
There  is  a  large  and  increasing  class  among  the  gentlemen  of  our  own  and  other 
countries  who  cultivate  the  sea  for  the  pleasure  that  it  yields,  and  who  take  a  manly 
delight  in  the  danger  and  excitement  incident  to  sporting  upon  its  surface,  to  whom 
a  book  like  this  must  prove  an  auxiliary  of  great  value.  To  these  may  be  added, 
as  likely  to  find  advantage  in  this  book,  all  whose  business,  or  love  of  knowledge, 
prompts  them  to  investigate  the  science  of  that  world  which  has  its  habitation  in, 
under,  or  upon  the  waters  of  the  great  deep. 

We  have  already  intimated  that  this  work  claims  to  be  unique.  It  embraces, 
first,  a  complete  dictionary  of  marine  words  and  phrases;  second,  a  large  number  of 
original  articles  on  special  topics  ;  third,  a  copious  fund  of  biographical  data ;  and, 
fourth,  a  gazetteer  of  the  principal  naval  stations  and  seaports  of  the  world.  No 
other  work  uniting  these  several  features  exists  in  our  language,  nor,  we  think  we 
may  confidently  add,  in  any  other. 

Custom,  no  less  than  justice  to  those  whose  labors  have  produced  the  volume 


iii 


;i 


iv  PKEFACE. 


now  offered  to  the  public,  makes  it  proper  to  assign  to  the  several  collaborators  the 
credit  due  for  their  respective  shares  in  its  preparation. 

To  Mr.  Lewis  R.  Hamersly,  who  saw  service  with  the  navy  during  the  war  of 
the  Rebellion,  and  who,  as  the  compiler  of  "  The  Records  of  Living  Officers  of  the 
Navy,"  and  as  the  head  of  the  military  and  naval  publishing  house  of  L.  R.  Ham 
ersly  &  Co.,  is  well  known  to  the  naval  profession,  credit  is  due  for  the  conception 
and  plan  of  the  work,  and  also  for  the  preparation  of  the  general  mass  of  records 
of  officers  which  it  contains. 

On  Lieutenant  J.  W.  Carlin  has  devolved  the  main  burden  of  the  editorial 
conduct  of  the  work.  Besides  numerous  articles  in  other  departments,  he  has  ex 
clusively  written  or  compiled  the  astronomical  articles  and  definitions,  as  also  the 
entire  mass  of  nautical  definitions  not  herein  specifically  credited  to  others. 

Medical  Director  Edward  Shippen,  whose  biographical  sketches  of  distin 
guished  naval  men  of  our  own  and  former  times  constitute  a  feature  of  the  work, 
has,  besides  the  articles  bearing  his  signature,  given  it  the  benefit  of  his  editorial 
assistance  in  ways  that  have  contributed  largely  to  improve  and  perfect  it. 

Rear- Admiral  George  Henry  Preble,  besides  the  articles  which  appear  over  his 
signature,  has  contributed  the  definitions  of  naval  titles,  and  has  greatly  assisted  the 
work  by  his  advice  and  encouragement. 

Chief  Engineer  Albert  Aston  has  contributed  the  general  mass  of  definitions 
relating  to  machinery  and  steam-engineering,  and  Passed  Assistant  Engineer  L.  W. 
Robinson  has  also  made  valuable  contributions  to  the  same  department. 

To  Naval  Constructor  S.  H.  Pook  belongs  the  credit  of  having  furnished  the 
definitions  of  the  terms  pertaining  to  ship-building. 

Lieutenant  E.  T.  Strong,  in  addition  to  the  articles  signed  by  him,  has  con 
tributed  the  definitions  of  nautical  and  naval  terms  which  occur  under  the  letters 
K,  L,  and  T,  respectively. 

Lieutenant  F.  S.  Bassett,  in  addition  to  the  articles  which  appear  over  his  sig 
nature,  has  compiled,  or  written,  the  greater  part  of  the  definitions  included  under 
the  alphabetical  headings  F,  S,  W,  and  X. 

In  several  departments  of  the  work  Colonel  George  A.  Woodward,  U.S.A., 
has  assisted  by  contributions  and  editorial  supervision. 

The  following  is  a  list  of  the  principal  works  consulted  in  the  preparation  of 
this  volume:  Smyth's  Sailor's  Word-book,  Falconer's  Marine  Dictionary,  Burn's 
Naval  and  Military  Technical  Dictionary,  Cooper's  Naval  History,  Bedford's 
Sailor's  Pocket-book,  Luce's  Seamanship,  Nares's  Seamanship,  Totten's  Naval  Text 
book,  Dana's  Seaman's  Friend,  Harbord's  Glossary  of  Navigation,  Bowditch's 
Navigator,  Loomis's  Astronomy,  Peabody's  Astronomy,  Proctor's  Hand-book  of 
the  Stars,  Cooke's  Naval  Gunnery,  Ordnance  Instructions  (1880),  Lippincott's 
Gazetteer,  Wilson's  Ship-building,  Very's  Navies  of  the  World,  King's  War-ships 
and  Navies  of  the  World,  Knight's  Mechanical  Dictionary,  Sleeman's  Torpedoes  and 
Torpedo  Warfare  (Electricity),  Myer's  Manual  of  Signals,  Navy  Regulations,  Web 
ster's  Dictionary,  Worcester's  Dictionary,  Brande's  Encyclopaedia,  Chambers's  En 
cyclopaedia,  Appleton's  Encyclopaedia,  Johnson's  Encyclopaedia,  Kent's  Commen 
taries,  Sharswood's  Blackstone. 


LIST  OF  CONTRIBUTORS  AND  ARTICLES. 


AMMEN,  DANIEL,  Kear-Admiral  U.S.N. 
Balsa. 

Canals,  Interoceanie. 
Cushing,  W.  B.;  Commander  U.S.I*. 
Life-boats  and  Life-rafts. 
Marine  Rams. 

ASTON,  ALBERT,  Chief  Engineer  U.S.N. 
Compound  Engine. 
Compound  Screw. 
Condenser. 
Crank. 

Expansion  of  Steam. 
Marine  Steam-boiler. 
Marine  Steam-engine. 
Ship-building,  Iron. 

BASSETT,  F.  S.,  Lieutenant  U.S.N. 

Barren,  James,  Commodore  U.S.N. 

Barry,  John,  Commodore  U.S.N. 

Bay. 

Cape. 

Continents. 

Currents. 

Decatur,  Stephen,  Commodore  U.S.N. 

Elliott,  Jesse  Duncan,  Commodore  U.S.N. 

Exploring  Expeditions. 

Fire-ships  and  Bafts,  Explosion-vessels  and 

Booms. 
Gulf. 

Hopkins,  Esek,  Commodore  U.S.N. 
Hull,  Isaac,  Commodore  U.S.N. 
Islands. 
Lake. 

Lawrence,  James,  Commodore  U.S.N". 
Oceans. 

,  Perry,  M.  C.,  Commodore  U.S.N. 
Perry,  O.'H.,  Commodore  U.S.N. 
Bivers. 

Boutine  of  Duty  in  a  Man-of-war. 
Sea. 
Ship. 
Sound. 

Stewart,  Charles,  Commodore  U.S.N. 
Wilkes,  Charles,  Bear-Admiral  U.S.N. 

BELKNAP,  GEORGE  E.,  Captain  U.S.N. 
Deep-sea  Sounding. 
Navy-yard,  Pensacola. 

BLACK,  C.  H.,  Lieutenant-Commander  U<S.N. 
Compass,  The  Mariner's. 

BLODGETT,  LORIN,  Esq.     . 
Commerce,  Modern. 

BLOODGOOD,     DELAVAN.     Medical     Inspector 

U.S.N. 
Naval  Hospital,  Brooklyn. 


BROOKE,  J.  M.,  Professor  Virginia  Military  In 
stitute. 
Ordnance. 

BROWN,  B.  M.  G.,  Lieutenant  U.S.N. 
Nebular  Hypothesis. 
Porter,  D.  IX,  Admiral  U.S.N. 
Submarine  Mines. 
Torpedo-boat. 
Torpedoes. 
Torpedo  Station. 

BROWNE,  J.  M.,  Medical  Director  U.S.N. 
Naval  Hospital,  Mare  Island. 

CARPENTER,  JOHN  T.,  M.D.,  President  of  the 

Pennsylvania  State  Medical  Society. 
Hospital  Gangrene. 
Scurvy. 

CHAD  WICK,    F.     E.,     Lieutenant-Commander 

U.S.N. 

Coast  Guard  of  Great  Britain. 
Naval  Training  Systems^  Foreign. 
Beserve,  Boyal  Naval. 

COCHRANE,  H.  C.,  Captain  U.S.M.C. 
Court-martial. 
Court-martial,  Summary. 
Inquiry,  Court  of. 
Judge-advocate. 
Judge-advocate-general. 
Marine  Corps. 
Oaths 

Pardoning  Power. 
Provost-marshal. 
Witness. 

COLHOUN,  E.  B.,  Commodore  U.S.N. 
Navy-yard,  Mare  Island. 

COLLUM,  B.  S.,  Captain  U.S.M.C. 
Marine  Corps,  Foreign. 

COLVOCORESSES,  G.  P.,  Lieutenant  U.S.N. 
Chart. 
Sketching. 

DICKINS,  F.  W.,  Lieutenant-Commander  U.S.N. 
Naval  Academies. 

Dow,  JESSE  E. 

Navy  Department. 

Navy,  Volunteer,  of  the  United  States. 

DULIN,  JAMES  C. 

Examination  of  Officers  for  Promotion  and 
Betirement  in  the  Navy,  Board  of. 


vi 


LIST  OF  CONTRIBUTORS  AND  ARTICLES. 


EMMONS,  G.  F.,  Rear-Admiral  U.S.N. 
Navy  of  the  United  States,  1775-1812. 

ETTING,  THEODORE  M. 
Marine  Insurance. 
Maritime  Law. 

FARRAGUT,  LOYALL. 

Farragut,  David  Glasgow,  Admiral  U.S.N. 

FRANKLIN,  S.  R.,  Captain  U.S.N. 

Hydrographer  to  the  Bureau  of  Navigation. 
Hydrographic  Office. 

GALT,  W.  W.,  Assistant  Paymaster  U.S.N. 
Naval  Station,  Key  West. 

GLASS,  HENRY,  Commander  U.S.N. 
School-ships,  Nautical. 

GREEN,  F.  M.,  Lieutenant-Commander  U.S.N. 
Hydrography. 
Latitude. 
Longitude. 
Navigation. 
Sextant. 

HANFORD,  F.,  Lieutenant  U.S.N. 
Naval  Lyceum. 
Navy-yard,  Brooklyn,  N.  T. 

HILL,  WALTER  N. 
Explosives. 

HOFF,    WILLIAM     BAINBRIDGE,     Lieutenant- 
Commander  U.S.N. 
Bainbridge,  William,  Commodore  U.S.N. 

HORD,  W.  T.,  Medical  Director  U.S.N. 
Naval  Hospital,  Chelsea. 

HUTCHINS,  C.  T.,  Lieutenant  U.S.N. 
Anchor. 

JOHNSON,    A.    B.,    Chief  Clerk    Light-House 

Board. 
Light-house  Establishment. 

KIDDER,  J.  H.,  Surgeon  U.S.N. 
Dry  Rot. 
Yellow  Fever. 

KUNHARDT,  C.  P. 

Yachts  and  Yachting. 

LUCE,  S.  B.,  Captain  U.S.N. 
Administration,  Naval. 
Admiralty. 
Anchoring. 
Commission. 
Corvette. 

Emergencies  at  Sea. 
Government,  Naval. 
Mooring. 
Naval  Songs. 
Naval  Tactics. 
Naval  Training  System. 
Organization. 

LULL,  E.  P.,  Commander  U.S.N. 
Coast  and  Geodetic  Survey. 


LYLE,  D.  A.,  Lieutenant  U.S.A. 
Wreck-artillery. 

LYON,  H.  W.,  Lieutenant  U.S.N. 
Guns,  Casting  of. 
Projectiles. 

MANSFIELD,  C.  D.,  Paymaster  U.S.N. 
Pay  Corps,  U.S.N. 

MASON,  T.  B.  M.,  Lieutenant  U.S.N. 
Diving. 

Landing-parties. 
Naval  Brigade. 
Naval  Institute. 
Organization. 

MASSIE,  A.  H. 

Navy-yard,  Boston. 

McBLAIR,  C.  H. 

Navy  of  the  Southern  Confederacy. 

MERRYMAN,  J.  H.,  Captain  U.S.R.M. 
Revenue  Marine  Service. 

METCALFE,  HENRY,  Captain  U.S.A. 
Machine-guns. 
Magazine-guns. 

NELSON,    THOMAS,    Lieutenant-Commander 

U.S.N. 
Storms. 

NOEL,  J.  E.,  Lieutenant-Commander  U.S.N. 
Lead. 
Log. 
Navigator. 

OLIVER,  PAUL  A. 
Gunpowder. 

PEARSE,  JOHN  B.,  Manager  South  Boston  Iron 

Company. 
Iron  and  Steel. 

POOK,  S.  H.,  Naval  Constructor  U.S.N. 
Ship,  Launching  of. 

PREBLE,  G.  H.,  Rear-Admiral  U.S.N, 
Admiral. 
Captain. 
Naval  Titles. 
Registers,  U.S.N. 
Salutes. 

SANDS,  F.  P.  B. 

Preston,  Samuel  N.,  and  Porter,  Benjamin 
H.,  Lieutenants  U.S.N. 

SIDDONS,  J.  H. 

Biographical  Sketches. 
Great  Britain,  Navy  of. 

SHIPPEN,  E.,  Medical  Director  U.S.N. 
Asylum,  Naval,  of  the  United  States. 
Bart,  Jean. 
Decres,  Denis. 
Doria,  Andrea. 
Duguay,  Tronin  Rene". 
Duquesne,  Abraham,  Marquis. 
Exmouth,  Viscount. 


LIST  OF  CONTKIBUTOES  AND  ARTICLES. 


vii 


SHIPPEN,  E. — Continued. 
Forbin,  Claude. 
Kane,  Elisha  Kent. 
La  Perouse. 
La  Vallette. 

L'Isle,  Adam  Phillipe  de. 
Medical  Corps  of  U.  S.  Navy. 
Medical  Officers  of  U.  S.  Navy,  Duties  of. 
Quarantine. 

Euyter,  Michel  Adrianzoon  Van. 
Sargasso  Sea. 
Ship  Fever. 
Sick-bay. 
Sufferin. 
Tourville. 
Tromp,  Von. 
Villeneuve. 

SIMPSON,  E.,  Commodore  TJ.S.N. 
Armor. 
Ironclads. 

SOLEY,  J.  EUSSELL,  Professor  U.S.N. 
International  Law. 

STEVENS,  T.  H.?  Eear- Admiral  IT.S.N. 
Navy  of  the  United  States,  1812-80. 
Eowan,  S.  C.,  Vice-Admiral  U.S.N. 

STOCKTON,  H.  T.,  Lieutenant  TJ.S.N. 
Armor,  Compound. 
Clubs,  British  Service. 

STRONG,  E.  T.,  Lieutenant  U.S.N. 
Capstan. 
Dock. 


STRONG,  E.  T. — Continued. 
Masting. 
Masts. 

Preparing  for  Sea. 
Eope. 
Eope-walk. 
Eudder. 
Sails. 

Small-stuff. 
Tackles. 

Telegraph-cables. 
Getting  under  Way. 

TODD,  D.  P. 

Almanac,  The  Nautical. 
Ephemeris,  The  Astronomical. 

TRUXTUN,  W.  T.,  Captain  U.S.N. 
Executive-officer. 

UPSHUR,  J.  H.,  Commodore  U.S.N. 
Inspection,  Board  of. 

VERY,  EDWARD  W.,  Lieutenant  U.S.N. 
Signals. 

WHITFIELD,  "W.  E.,  Ensign  U.S.N. 
Naval  Station,  Port  Eoyal. 

WILSON,  JOSEPH,  Medical  Director  U.S.N. 
Hygiene,  Naval. 

WOOD,  WM.  MAXWELL,  Lieutenant  U.S.N. 
Life-boats  and  Boat-detaching  Apparatus. 


THE  following  is  a  summary  of  the  contents  of  the  book : 

I.     A  complete  Dictionary  of  Nautical  Terms  and  Phrases. 
II.     Biographical  Notices  of  Distinguished  Naval  Officers  of  our  own  and  foreign  services. 

III.  Special  Articles    prepared    expressly  for  this  work  by  officers  and   others   of  recognized 

ability  in  their  respective  fields   of,  discussion,  and  comprehending  the  freshest  and 
most  authentic  information  attainable  respecting  the  several  subjects  treated. 

IV.  A  Gazetteer  of  the  Principal  Naval  Stations  and  Seaports  of  the  World. 

V.  A  Supplement  containing  concise  Kecords  of  Living  Officers  of  the  Navy,  including 
Captains,  Commanders,  Lieutenant-Commanders  and  Lieutenants,  and  Staff-Officers 
of  relative  rank.  The  records  of  Flag-Officers  are  included  in  the  body  of  the  work. 


viii 


A  NAVAL  ENCYCLOPAEDIA. 


A. 


A.  Abbreviation  for  after  in  the  U.  S.  Gen 
eral  Service  Code  of  Signals.  Contraction  for 
at,  on,  or  in,  as,  a-stern,  a-shore,  a-poise. 

A 1.  The  highest  class  of  excellence  in  mer 
chant  vessels.  See  CLASSIFICATION  OF  MER 
CHANT  VESSELS. 

Aalborg.  A  city  and  seaport  of  Denmark,  in 
Jutland,  on  the  south  shore  of  the  Lymfiord, 
near  its  mouth,  in  the  Cattegat.  Lat.  57°  2' 
46"  N. ;  Ion.  9°  55'  38"  E.  Pop.  11,721. 

Aarhuus.  A  seaport  of  Denmark,  in  Jutland, 
on  the  Cattegat,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Molle-Aue, 
37  miles  S.E.  of  Viborg.  Lat.  56°  9'  27"  N. ; 
Ion.  10°  12'  46"  E.  Pop.  15,000. 

A.  B.  An  abbreviation  signifying  Able  Sea 
man.  See  ABLE. 

Abab.  A  Turkish  sailor  who  plies  in  coasting 
craft. 

Aback.  The  situation  of  a  sail  when  the  wind 
acts  on  its  forward  surface.  The  sails  are  laid 
aback,  or  thrown  aback,  by  hauling  in  the  weather- 
braces  or  by  putting  the  helm  down,  or  both. 
They  are  caught  aback,  or  taken  aback,  by  a  shift 
of  wind,  or  by  inattention  at  the  helm.  Flat 
aback  means  that  the  wind  acts  nearly  at  a  right 
angle  to  the  forward  surface  of  the  sail.  Taken 
aback  is  also  used  figuratively  for  being  taken  by 
surprise.  All  aback  forward  is  the  notice  from 
the  forecastle  that  the  head-sails  have  been  taken 
aback.  Brace  aback  is  the  order  given  to  swing 
the  yards  and  lay  the  sails  aback. 

Abaft.  Behind.  Abaft  the  beam,  astern  of  a 
line  forming  a  right  angle  with  the  keel. 

Abaka.  "The  fibre  of  which  Manilla  rope  is 
made. 

Abandon.  To  relinquish  to  underwriters  all 
claim  to  property  which  may  be  recovered  from 
shipwreck,  capture,  or  any  other  peril  stated  in 
the  policy.  To  desert  a  vessel  on  account  of  the 
danger  in  remaining  on  board. 

Abatement.  A  demand  for  a  reduction  of 
freight  when  unforeseen  causes  have  delayed  or 
hindered  the  performance  of  a  stipulated  charter- 
party. 

Abeam.  Opposite  the  centre  of  the  ship's 
side ;  on  a  line  which  forms  a  right  angle  with 
the  keel. 

Aberration.  The  apparent  displacement  of 
the  stars,  caused  by  the  motion  of  the  earth 
combined  with  the  motion  of  light.  The  devia 


tion  of  the  rays  of  light  from  the  principal  focus 
of  a  lens. 

Abet.     To  excite,  encourage,  or  assist. 

Able.  Competent ;  strong.  Able  Seaman,  a 
rating  on  the  ship's  books.  He  must  be  compe 
tent  to  perform  all  the  duties  required  of  a  sailor. 

Able-whackets.  A  sea  game,  in  which  the 
loser  is  beaten  over  the  hands  with  a  handker 
chief,  tightly  twisted. 

Aboard.  On  board ;  inside,  or  upon  a  ship. 
Residing  afloat.  To  keep  the  land  aboard  is  to 
hug  the  shore.  To  fall  aboard  of  is  for  one 
vessel  to  foul  another.  To  lay  an  enemy  aboard 
is  to  run  into  or  alongside  of  him.  To  haul  the 
tacks  aboard  is  to  set  the  courses. 

About.  To  go  about  is  to  change  the  course  of 
a  ship  by  tacking.  Ready  about,  or  'boutship,  is 
the  order  to  prepare  for  tacking. 

Abox.  The  position  of  the  head-yards  when 
they  are  braced  aback,  the  after-sails  remaining 
full.  Brace-abox,  the  order  to  lay  the  head-yards 
abox.  This  is  done  in  boxhauling  and  occa 
sionally  in  heaving-to,  but  is  more  generally 
done  to  box  the  ship's  head  off  from  the  wind 
after  she  has  been  caught  aback,  or  after  she  has 
missed  stays. 

Abraham-men.  An  English  cant  term  for 
vagabonds  who,  under  pretence  of  being  desti 
tute  mariners,  beg  about  the  dock.  A  malin 
gerer  wanting  to  go  on  the  sick-list  is  said  to 
"sham  Abraham." 

Abrase.     To  dub  or  smooth  planks. 

Abreast.  Side  by  side ;  opposite  to ;  parallel 
with.  Line  abreast,  a  formation  in  which  the 
ships  are  abeam  of  each  other. 

Abri.  (Fr.)  Cove;  shelter;  under  the  lee; 
a  safe  anchorage  on  a  weather  shore. 

Abrid.     A  pintle-plate. 

Abroach.     On  tap  ;  in  use. 

Abroad.  On  a  foreign  station  ;  in  a  foreign 
country.  An  old  word  for  spread;  as,  all  sail 
abroad, 

Abrupt.  Steep  ;  broken  ;  craggy  ;  as,  of  cliffs 
and  headlands. 

Absence.  State  of  being  absent.  Leave  of 
absence,  permission  of  the  proper  authority  to  be 
absent  from  post  or  duty  for  a  specified  time. 
Absence  without  leave,  with  manifest  intention 
not  to  return,  is  desertion.  When  there  is  a 
probability  that  the  party  intends  to  return,  he 

13 


ABSORPTION 


14 


ACADEMIES 


is  to  be  considered  a  straggler  for  ten  days,  at 
the  expiration  of  which  he  is  to  be  regarded  as  a 
deserter. 

Absorption.  A  term  formerly  used  for  the 
sinking  of  islands  and  tracts  of  land  Subsi 
dence. 

Abstract.  An  abridgment  of  the  contents 
of  a  book  or  document. 

A-burton.  The  situation  of  casks  when 
stowed  athwartships. 

Abut.  When  two  planks  are  joined  endwise 
they  are  said  to  butt  or  abut  against  each  other. 
Abutting-joint  is  a  joint  where  the  pieces  come 
together  at  a  right  angle. 

Abutment.     The  breech-block  of  a  fire-arm. 

Abyme.  The  site  of  constant  whirlpools,  as 
the  Maelstrom  was  supposed  to  be.  An  abyss. 

Abyss.     A  depth  without  bottom. 

Academies,  Naval.  The  United  States  Naval 
Academy  at  Annapolis  was  founded  and  formally 
opened  on  October  10,  1845.  On  August  7,  1845, 
Mr.  George  Bancroft,  Secretary  of  the  Navy 
under  President  James  K.  Polk,  issued  instruc 
tions  to  Commander  Buchanan  for  the  opening 
of  the  school.  The  War  Department  had  pre 
viously  transferred  to  the  naval  authorities  the 
site  and  buildings  of  Fort  Severn,  one  of  the 
defenses  of  Annapolis  harbor,  at  the  mouth  of 
the  Severn  Kiver,  in  the  State  of  Maryland. 
The  first  step  was  to  collect  the  midshipmen, 
who,  from  time  to  time,  were  on  shore,  and  give 
them  occupation  in  the  study  of  subjects  essential 
to  the  education  of  a  naval  officer.  In  October, 
1849,  a  board  of  officers  was  convened  to  reor 
ganize  the  institution,  and  to  make  it  conform, 
as  nearly  as  possible,  to  the  system  pursued  at 
the  Military  Academy  at  West  Point.  The 
course  of  instruction  and  the  regulations  were 
revised,  and  the  title  of  the  institution  was 
changed  from  Naval  School  to  U.  S.  Naval 
Academy.  In  November,  1851,  the  course  of 
study  was  fixed  at  four  years.  A  practice-vessel 
was  attached  to  the  Academy  for  summer  cruis 
ing,  and  a  Board  of  Visitors  was  provided  for, 
to  attend  the  annual  examinations,  and  to  report 
upon  the  condition  of  the  school.  After  the 
breaking  out  of  the  civil  war,  in  May,  1861,  the 
Academy,  with  all  its  apparatus  and  personnel, 
was  transferred  to  Newport,  R.  I.,  where  it  re 
mained  until  September,  1865,  when  it  was  re 
turned  to  Annapolis.  The  programme  of  studies 
was  then  rearranged  to  conform  more  closely  to 
modern  ideas,  and  remains  practically  unaltered 
at  this  date.  The  course  of  instruction  embraces 
the  following  studies,  viz. :  seamanship,  which 
includes  naval  construction,  naval  tactics,  prac 
tical  exercises,  signals,  swimming,  gymnastics, 
etc. ;  ordnance  and  gunnery,  which  includes 
infantry  tactics,  field-artillery  and  boat-howitzer 
exercise, great  guns,  mortar  practice,  and  fencing; 
mathematics,  which  comprises  algebra,  geometry, 
trigonometry,  analytical  geometry,  descriptive 
geometry,  and  calculus  ;  steam  engineering,  com 
prising  practical  exercises,  theory  of  steam-engine, 
and  fabrication  and  designing  of  machinery  ; 
astronomy,  navigation,  and  surveying;  physics 
and  chemistry ;  mechanics  and  applied  mathe 
matics,  which  includes,  besides  mechanics,  the 
differential  and  integral  calculus,  and  theoretical 
naval  architecture;  English  studies,  history  and 
law ;  modern  languages,  French  and  Spanish ; 
drawing,  comprising  right-line,  free-hand  and 


perspective,  topographical,  and  chart  making. 
On  June  1,  1880,  the  personnel  of  the  Academy 
was  as  follows :  commanding  officer  and  staff, 
including  medical  and  pay  officers  and  chap 
lain,  12;  instructors,  46  commissioned  officers 
and  15  civilians,  61 ;  civil  officers,  including 
secretary,  librarian,  clerks,  etc.,  14 ;  marine 
officers,  3 ;  warrant-officers,  2 ;  and  7  mates  at 
tached  to  the  gunnery -ship  and  practice-vessels  ; 
total  staff  of  the  Academy,  99  ;  number  of  cadet 
midshipmen,  253 ;  of  cadet  engineers,  99  ;  total 
of.  students,  352;  aggregate,  451.  The  list  of 
successive  superintendents  is  as  follows :  1st, 
Commander  Franklin  Buchanan,  1845-47  ;  2d, 
Commander  George  P.  Upshur,  1847-50;  3d, 
Captain  C.  K.  Strihling,  1850-53  ;  4th,  Captain 
L.  M.  Goldsborough,  1853-57  ;  5th,  Commodore 
George  S.  Blake,  1857-65 ;  6th,  Vice-Admiral 
D.  D.  Porter,  1865-69  ;  7th,  Rear-Admiral  John 
L.  Worden,  1869-74  ;  8th,  Rear-Admiral  C.  R. 
P.  Rodgers,  1874-78  ;  9th,  Commodore  Foxhall 
A.  Parker,  1878-79.  In  June,  1879,  Commodore 
Parker  died,  and  was  succeeded  by  Rear-Admiral 
George  B.  Balch  as  the  tenth  superintendent.  In 
1865  two  classes  of  cadet  engineers,  not  to  exceed 
50  in  the  aggregate,  were  admitted  into  the  Acad 
emy.  The  duration  of  their  course  was,  until  June 
1, 1873,  two  years.  By  act  of  Congress,  approved 
February  24,  1874,  their  course  was  lengthened 
to  four  years,  and  the  number  of  classes  increased 
to  four.  The  examinations  of  candidates  for  cadet 
engineers  are  competitive.  Candidates  must  be 
between  16  and  20  years  of  age,  and  of  sound 
body.  The  number  of  appointments  that  can  be 
made  is  limited  by  law  to  25  each  year.  The 
academic  examination  previous  to  appointment 
is  on  the  following  subjects,  namely  :  arithmetic, 
algebra,  through  equations  of  the  first  degree, 
plane  geometry,  natural  philosophy,  reading, 
writing,  spelling,  grammar,  composition,  geog 
raphy,  free-hand  drawing,  and  the  elementary 
principles  governing  the  action  of  the  steam- 
engine.  Candidates  who  possess  the  best  knowl 
edge  of  machinery,  other  qualifications  being 
equal,  have  precedence  for  admission.  The  pay 
of  cadet  engineers  while  at  the  Academy  is  $500 
per  annum.  After  the  academic  course,  two 
years'  sea-service  is  required  before  being  eligible 
to  be  commissioned  as  assistant  engineers,  and 
then  only  as  vacancies  occur.  The  studies  of 
cadet  engineers  at  the  Academy  consist  of  math 
ematics,  analytical  mechanics,  theory  and  prac 
tice  of  steam  engineering,  physics  and  chemistry, 
French  and  Spanish,  drawing,  designing  of  ma 
chinery,  naval  architecture,  and  practice  in  the 
workshops.  On  March  3,  1873,  Congress  passed  a 
law  changing  the  duration  of  the  course  for  cadet 
midshipmen  from  four  to  six  years,  to  apply  to 
the  class  admitted  in  1873  and  to  all  subsequent 
classes.  Four  years  of  the  six  are  passed  in 
completing  the  academic  course,  the  remaining 
two  years  are  passed  at  sea  on  board  a  regular 
cruising-vessel,  after  which  they  return  to  the 
Academy  and  are  required  to  pass  the  following 
final  graduating  examination:  physical,  ord 
nance,  naval  tactics,  navigation,  French  and 
Spanish,  seamanship,  and  steam.  The  marks  of 
this  examination,  combined  with  those  of  the 
academic  course,  determine  the  graduating  num 
ber;  and  passing  successfully,  the  cadet  midship 
man  becomes  a  midshipman,  and  he  is  then 
eligible  to  be  commissioned  an  ensign  when  va- 


ACADEMIES 


15 


ACADEMIES 


cancies  occur.  The  number  of  cadet  midship 
men  allowed  at  the  Academy  is  one  for  every 
member  and  delegate  of  the  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives,  ten  at  large,  and  one  from  the  District 
of  Columbia,  appointed  by  the  President.  The 
nomination  of  a  candidate  from  any  Congres 
sional  district  or  territory  is  made  on  the  recom 
mendation  of  the  member  or  delegate  from  actual 
residents  of  his  district  or  territory.  Candidates 
must  be  of  sound  body,  between  14  and  18  years 
of  age,  and  present  themselves  to  the  superin 
tendent  of  the  Academy  for  examination  for 
admission  in  June  and  September.  The  exam 
ination  in  reading  is  of  course  conducted  orally, 
all  other  examinations  are  in  writing.  A  satis 
factory  examination  must  be  passed  in  arithme 
tic,  geography,  grammar,  writing,  and  spelling. 
Candidates  who  pass  the  physical  and  mental 
examinations  will  be  appointed  as  cadet  mid 
shipmen  and  become  inmates  of  the  Academy. 
Each  cadet  is  required  to  sign  articles  by  which 
he  binds  himself  to  serve  in  the  navy  eight  years, 
including  the  time  at  the  Academy,  unless  sooner 
discharged.  The  pay  of  a  cadet  midshipman  is 
$500  a  year,  commencing  at  the  date  of  his 
admission.  The  academic  year  begins  October 
1,  and  ends  May  30.  The  year  is  divided  into 
two  academic  terms,  the  first  term  extending 
from  October  1  to  January  30.  Each  of  the 
classes  is  divided  into  a  convenient  number  of 
sections  of  from  nine  to  twelve  members,  and 
the  recitation  hours  into  three  periods  of  two 
hours  each,  and  no  student  is  required  to  attend 
more  than  three  recitations  during  the  day ;  so 
that  besides  the  evening  study  hours,  one  hour 
of  each  period  may  be  devoted  to  study.  The 
system  of  examination  comprises  monthly,  semi 
annual,  and  annual  examinations,  all  of  which 
are  conducted  in  writing,  the  same  questions 
being  proposed  to  each  member  of  a  class.  If 
the  cadet  fail  to  pass  the  semi-annual  or  annual 
examination  he  is  dropped.  The  monthly  ex 
amination-marks  are  combined  with  the  daily 
marks  to  determine  the  monthly  standing.  These 
marks  are  combined  with  those  of  the  semi 
annual  examination  to  find  the  term  standing, 
which  latter  are  again  combined  to  form  the 
annual  record.  The  summer  months  are  em 
ployed  in  cruising  at  sea.  The  sailing-vessels 
"Santee,"  "Constellation,"  and  "Dale,"  the 
ironclad  monitor  "  Nantucket,"  and  the  steamers 
"Mayflower"  and  "  Standish"  are  permanently 
stationed  at  the  Academy  during  the  two  aca 
demic  terms  for  the  purpose  of  instruction  in 
great  guns,  and  in  sails,  spars,  steam,  etc.  The 
"  Constellation"  is  commissioned  for  the  summer 
cruise  of  the  first  and  third  classes  of  cadet  mid 
shipmen.  The  second  class  is  granted  leave 
during  the  summer,  and  the  fourth  class,  ad 
mitted  in  June,  is  quartered  on  -board  the 
"  Santee"  for  practical  instruction  until  the  be 
ginning  of  the  academic  year.  The  first  and 
third  classes  of  cadet  engineers  are  embarked  on 
board  the  practice-steamers,  and  visit  the  United 
States  navy-yards  and  private  ship-yards,  par 
ticularly  those  where  iron  ship-building  is  done, 
foundries,  rolling-mills,  machine-shops,  etc.  They 
are  required  to  take  notes  and  make  sketches  of 
machinery,  etc.,  at  every  place  visited.  The 
second  class  of  cadet  engineers  goes  on  leave. 
The  officers  for  all  the  practice-vessels  are  detailed 
from  the  officers  attached  to  the  Academy.  The 


academic  grounds  inside  the  walls  consist  of  50 
acres.  The  grounds  outside  consist  of  109  acres. 
Aggregate,  159  acres.  The  departments  of  study 
and  the  observatory  are  amply  supplied  with 
models  and  apparatus.  The  library  contains 
20,000  volumes,  chiefly  historical,  scientific,  and 
professional.  At  the  International  Exhibition 
held  at  Paris,  France,  in  1878,  the  United  States 
Naval  Academy  received  a  diploma  of  the  value 
of  a  gold  medal,  which  was  one  of  the  four 
diplomas  awarded  to  educational  institutions  in 
the  United  States  for  the  best  quality  of  educa 
tion  in  the  group  classed  as  superior. 

ENGLAND. — The  Royal  Naval  Academy  was 
first  established  at  Portsmouth  dock-yard  by  order 
from  the  admiralty  dated  March  13, 1729,  the  age 
of  admission  being  between  13  and  16  years.  The 
young  gentlemen  entered  the  naval  service  either 
by  nomination  from  the  admiralty  through  the 
Royal  Naval  Academy,  or  by  direct  nomination 
to  sea-going  ships  by  flag-officers  and  captains 
of  ships  in  commission.  In  1806  the  title  of  the 
establishment  was  changed  to  Royal  Naval  Col 
lege.  In  1816  the  college  was  united  to  the 
School  of  Naval  Architecture,  and  the  age  of 
admission  fixed  at  from  12£  to  14  years.  In  1821 
the  age  was  again  altered,  from  12J  to  13J  years, 
and  so  continued  until  the  college  was  closed,  in 
1837.  The  number  of  cadets  allowed  after  1806 
was  70,  mainly  selected  from  the  nobility  and 
gentry.  The  college  was  closed  owing  to  the  old 
method  of  appointing  midshipmen  directly  into 
the  navy  without  any  conditions  of  previous 
preparation  existing  at  the  same  time,  which, 
being  short  and  easy,  was  commonly  preferred. 
After  passing  an  easy  entrance  examination,  the 
course  of  instruction  at  the  college  was  not  much 
more  than  elementary,  and  extended  over  a  period 
of  two  years.  After  a  year's  sea-service  the  stu 
dent  was  eligible  to  be  rated  as  midshipman.  In 
the  year  1839  the  Royal  Naval  College  was  re 
opened  for  the  purpose  of  establishing  further 
means  of  scientific  education  for  a  certain  num 
ber  of  commissioned  officers,  who  were  allowed 
to  remain  at  the  college  for  one  year.  In  the 
beginning  of  1857 — the  experience  of  twenty 
years  since  the  abolition  of  the  old  naval  college 
as  a  seminary  for  boys  having  meanwhile  fully 
demonstrated  the  necessity  for  some  kind  of  pre 
liminary  training  for  cadets  on  their  first  entry 
into  the  service — the  admiralty  established  a  new 
system  of  instruction  on  board  a  training-ship, 
to  which  the  cadets  were  to  be  appointed  after 
passing  into  the  service  by  a  moderate  test  exam 
ination,  with  some  modification  of  detail  on  cer 
tain  points.  The  system  of  educational  training 
established  in  1857  still  continues  in  force.  In 
1868  a  sea-going  ship  was  established  supple 
mentary  to  the  stationary  one.  Under  the  regu 
lations  at  present  in  force  the  candidate  must  not 
be  under  12  nor  above  13  years  of  age.  The 
principle  of  limited  competition  has  also  been 
introduced.  Candidates  must  pass  a  strict  phys 
ical  examination,  and  afterwards  undergo  a  pre 
liminary  test  examination  in  reading,  writing, 
dictation,  French,  arithmetic  as  far  as  vulgar 
and  decimal  fractions,  and  Scripture  history. 
Those  who  successfully  pass  this  examination 
are  allowed  to  compete  in  a  further  examination 
in  arithmetic,  algebra  to  simple  equations,  Book 
I.  of  Euclid,  French,  Latin,  English  history, 
geography,  German,  Italian  or  Spanish,  and 


ACADEMIES 


16 


ACADEMIES 


drawing, — the  candidates  selecting  not  more 
than  three  of  these  subjects,  or  four,  if  drawing 
be  one.  Successful  competitors  are  then  appointed 
to  the  "  Britannia,"  at  Dartmouth,  as  naval 
cadets.  The  course  of  instruction  there  lasts 
two  years,  and  is  supplemented  by  a  year's  fur 
ther  training  on  board  a  special  sea-going  train 
ing-ship.  On  leaving  the  "  Britannia"  the  cadets 
are  classed  according  to  their  merits  in  study 
and  conduct.  Cadets  having  obtained  one  year's 
sea-time  on  leaving  the  training-ship,  are  rated 
as  midshipmen.  During  the  three  years  on  board 
the  training-ships  the  cadets  study  the  following 
subjects :  mathematics,  consisting  of  a  partial 
course  in  arithmetic,  algebra,  geometry,  and 
trigonometry,  with  a  short  course  in  steam,  ele 
mentary  surveying,  English,  French,  geography, 
history,  and  drawing.  After  completing  five 
years'  service,  including  the  time  on  board  the 
training-ships,  and  having  attained  the  age  of  19 
years,  they  are  eligible  to  pass  for  lieutenant. 
The  Koyal  Naval  College  at  Greenwich  was  re 
organized  and  opened  February  1,  1874,  for  the 
instruction  of  officers  of  all  branches  of  the  naval 
service,  including  captains  and  excluding  mid 
shipmen. 

FRANCE. — Students  are  admitted  to  the  Naval 
School  on  board  the  "  Borda,"  at  Brest,  once  in 
each  year,  by  competitive  examination.  Candi 
dates  of  respectable  parentage  are  eligible  for  ad 
mission,  provided  they  are  native  Frenchmen  or 
have  been  naturalized,  and  are  not  less  than  14  or 
more  than  17  years  of  age  on  the  1st  of  January 
of  the  year  in  which  they  compete.  Their  parents 
are  obliged  to  pay  the  equivalent  of  $140  a  year 
to  support  them  while  at  the  school.  The  exam 
inations  are  held  in  July  at  Paris  and  at  seven 
other  large  cities  in  France,  and  in  Corsica  and 
Algiers.  The  examination,  partly  written  and 
partly  oral,  is  on  the  following  subjects:  written 
— French  and  English  composition ;  numerical 
calculation  of  plane  trigonometry,  and  descrip 
tive  geometry  ;  oral — French  and  English,  gen 
eral  history,  geography,  arithmetic,  algebra,  ge 
ometry,  trigonometry,  and  descriptive  geometry. 
To  these  is  added  drawing  from  nature.  If  the 
candidate  pass  the  oral  examination,  he  under 
goes  a  further  examination,  more  searching  in  the 
same  subjects,  for  competition.  A  committee  in 
Paris  selects  the  prescribed  number  of  candidates 
in  order  of  merit.  Those  selected  join  the  train 
ing-ship  "  Borda"  on  October  1,  and  remain  there 
two  years.  The  subjects  of  instruction  are  liter 
ary,  scientific,  and  professional.  An  examination 
is  held  at  the  end  of  each  year,  and  those  that  fail 
to  pass  in  either  branch  of  instruction  are  dis 
missed.  At  the  end  of  two  years  those  who  pass 
successfully  are  sent  on  board  the  cruising-ship 
1  "Jean  Bart, ' '  where  the  course  is  strictly  practical. 
The  cruise  lasts  about  one  year,  and  on  their 
return  an  examination  is  held  in  the  following 
subjects  :  naval  architecture,  steam,  seamanship, 
naval  gunnery,  infantry  tactics,  navigation  and 
surveying,  naval  regulations,  literature,  English, 
drawing,  naval  book-keeping,  international  and 
maritime  law,  and  naval  hygiene,  which  finishes 
the  course.  There  are  also  a  certain  number  of 
students  who  pass  directly  from  thePolytechnique 
School  into  the  "Jean  Bart,"  and  during  their 
subsequent  service  they  are  in  no  way  distin 
guished  from  those  who  have  been  trained  in 
the  "  Borda."  The  "  Jean  Bart"  also  receives  a 


few  students  from  the  corps  of  naval  constructors, 
and  takes  them  to  sea. 

GERMANY. — The  officers'  corps  of  the  Imperial 
navy  is  made  up  from  young  men  that  enter  the 
service  as  cadets,  and  from  sailors  that  are  granted 
such  a  chance  for  advancement.  Applications  for 
admission  as  cadet  must  be  made  to  the  admiralty 
at  Berlin  during  the  months  of  August  and  Sep 
tember  of  the  year  preceding  the  examination  for 
admission.  The  application  must  be  accompanied 
by  a  number  of  papers  giving  a  detailed  account 
of  the  candidate's  family,  his  intellectual  training 
and  physical  condition.  The  examination  is  held 
every  year,  in  the  month  of  April,  before  an  ex 
amining  board  at  Kiel,  appointed  by  the  chief 
of  the  admiralty.  The  candidate  must  first  pass 
a  physical  examination,  and  not  be  more  than  17 
years  of  age,  except  a  graduate  of  a  high  school, 
who  must  not  be  more  than  19  years  of  age.  The 
examination  for  admission  is  in  the  following 
subjects  :  Latin,  grammar,  arithmetic,  geometry, 
trigonometry,  elements  of  physics,  geography, 
history,  French  and  English,  and  free-hand 
drawing.  If  the  candidate  has  a  certificate  of 
graduation  from  a  high  school,  or  a  school  of 
equal  rank,  he  is  freed  from  an  examination  if 
his  record  in  mathematics  be  good;  if  not,  he 
must  pass  an  examination  in  that  branch.  The 
results  of  this  examination  are  sent  to  the  chief 
of  admiralty,  who  decides  which  ones  shall  be 
admitted.  The  cadets  must  pay  their  own  ex 
penses.  The  cadets  selected  for  admission  are 
embarked  on  board  a  practice-ship.  They  cruise 
during  the  summer  and  return  to  the  station  in 
September.  Those  cadets  that  show  a  want  of 
aptitude  for  the  service  are  then  dismissed  by 
order  of  the  admiralty.  The  remaining  cadets 
receive  certificates  signed  by  the  commanding 
ofScer  and  other  officers  of  the  practice  ship,  and 
are  ordered  to  attend  the  cadets'  class  of  the 
naval  school  after  taking  the  oath  of  allegiance. 
The  instruction  in  the  cadets'  class  is  intended  to 
prepare  the  cadets  for  the  Naval  Cadets1  exami 
nation,  and  lasts  about  six  months.  This  ex 
amination  embraces  the  following  subjects :  navi 
gation,  seamanship,  artillery,  infantry  tactics, 
arithmetic,  trigonometry,  geometry,  chemistry, 
official  reports,  topography,  English  and  French. 
Those  failing  to  pass  are  either  turned  back  or 
dismissed.  Those  cadets  that  have  passed  are 
embarked  on  board  a  practice-ship,  and  sent  on 
a  cruise  for  two  years.  During  that  time  they 
receive  practical  training,  and  are  also  instructed 
in  those  branches  of  science  more  strictly  pro 
fessional.  At  the  end  of  the  cruise,  those  receiv 
ing  a  satisfactory  report  from  the  commander  of 
a  vessel  are  ordered  to  attend  the  first  officers' 
examination  at  Kiel  in  the  following  subjects : 
navigation,  seamanship,  naval  tactics,  artillery, 
marine  engines,  naval  architecture,  knowledge 
of  the  duties  of  officers,  French  and  English. 
Those  that  pass  the  examination  are  appointed 
second  lieutenants  without  commissions,  and  are 
made  to  attend  the  officers'  class  of  the  Naval 
Academy.  The  course  of  instruction  commences 
in  October  and  closes  the  following  August,  and 
is  intended  to  complete  the  theoretical  education, 
and  prepare  the  members  for  the  second  officers' 
examination,  which  takes  place  each  year,  in 
September,  at  Kiel,  and  in  the  following  sub 
jects  :  navigation,  infantry  tactics,  artillery, 
naval  architecture,  marine  engines,  fortification, 


ACADEMIES 


ACCOST 


drawing,  geometry,  trigonometry,  mechanics, 
and  physics.  Full  reports  of  the  examination 
are  submitted  to  the  admiralty,  the  relative 
standing  of  those  that  have  passed  finally  de 
termined,  and  commissions  as  second  lieutenant 
are  issued.  Sailors  are  admitted  on  the  recom 
mendation  of  their  superior  officers  after  a  ser 
vice  of  at  least  twelve  months  on  board  a  man- 
of-war,  and  must  not  be  over  20  years  of  age. 
The  regulations  for  admission  and  examinations 
are  the  same  for  sailors  as  for  those  persons  enter 
ing  from  civil  life. 

ITALY. — The  candidates  enter  at  Naples  on  the" 
15th  of  June  in  each  year  ;  they  must  be  of 
sound  body,  not  less  than  13  nor  over  17  years 
of  age,  and  must  give  security  that  their  expenses 
will  be  paid.  The  examination  for  admission  is 
competitive,  and  is  in  arithmetic,  elementary 
algebra,  geometry,  ancient  history,  grammar, 
French,  and  geography.  The  Royal  Naval 
School  is  composed  of  two  divisions, — the  first 
at  Naples,  and  the  second  at  Genoa.  The  course 
at  Naples  is  two  years,  and  comprises  the  follow 
ing  subjects :  algebra,  geometry,  trigonometry, 
descriptive  geometry,  navigation,  French  and 
English,  drawing,  calculus,  physics,  descriptive 
and  political  geography,  and  Italian  literature. 
The  last  two  years  of  the  course  are  passed  at 
Genoa,  and  the  following  subjects  taught:  me- 
chanicsj  astronomy,  hydrography,  history,  politi 
cal  geography,  Italian  literature,  French  and 
English,  theory  of  ships,  naval  construction, 
naval  tactics,  fortification,  artillery  and  infantry 
tactics,  torpedoes,  and  practical  exercises,  includ 
ing  fencing,  gymnastics,  swimming,  and  dancing. 
The  practice-cruises  are  made  each  year  from. 
June  to  November,  and  the  examinations  take 
place  before  the  cruise  begins.  Those  who  grad 
uate  are  recommended  for  nomination  to  the 
grade  of  midshipmen,  and  go  directly  into  active 
service. 

RUSSIA. — Those  who  are  desirous  of  entering 
the  naval  service  must  pass  into  the  Naval 
School  at  St.  Petersburg.  Candidates  eligible 
for  admission  must  be  sons  of  hereditary  noble 
men,  of  superior  civil  or  military  officers,  or  of 
hereditary  honorable  citizens.  The  age  of  can 
didates  must  not  be  under  15  nor  over  18  years. 
Those  candidates  who  may  wish  it  are  allowed, 
before  entering  the  school,  to  go  through  a  trial- 
cruise  to  test  their  aptitude  for  the  service.  If 
the  trial-cruise  be  satisfactory  the  candidate  must 
pass  a  physical  and  mental  examination.  The 
examination  is  held  yearly,  in  the  month  of  Sep 
tember,  embracing  the  following  subjects :  re 
ligion,  grammar,  geography,  history,  arithmetic, 
algebra,  geometry,  and  French.  The  course  of 
instruction  lasts  four  years,  at  the  expense  of 
the  government.  At  the  end  of  four  years  the 
students  are  examined  in  the  subjects  mentioned 
as  follows:  religion,  navigation  and  pilotage, 
astronomy,  seamanship,  naval  history,  naval 
tactics,  gunnery,  surveying,  steam,  theoretical 
and  practical  naval  architecture,  fortification, 
jurisprudence,  and  Russian  and  French  lan 
guages.  Having  passed  this  examination  the 
student  is  made  a  naval  cadet,  and  is  embarked 
on  board  a  training-ship  to  cruise  for  two  years, 
at  the  end  of  which  he  is  subjected  to  a  final  ex 
amination  in  practical  seamanship. 

SPAIN.— The  Naval  College  for  midshipmen 
was  created  by  royal  decree,  September  18,  1844> 
2 


in  order  that  young  men  who  desire  to  become 
naval  officers  may  learn,  theoretically  and  prac 
tically,  their  profession.  It  is  situated  in  San 
Carlos,  department  of  Cadiz.  The  personnel  is 
composed  of,  besides  the  commanding  officer  and 
staff,  11  professors  of  mathematics,  1  of  physics, 
and  10  for  drawing,  seamanship,  ship-building, 
English  and  French,  fencing,  gymnastics,  and 
dancing,  2  chaplains,  and  8  lieutenants,  who, 
besides  their  duties  as  officers,  give  military  in 
struction  to  the  cadets.  By  a  royal  decree  of 
February  20,  1864,  only  60  can  enter  yearly. 
The  candidate  must  be  between  13  and  16"  years 
of  age.  All  the  vacancies,  except  four,  are  filled 
by  competitive  examination  in  the  following  sub 
jects  :  religion,  reading,  writing,  grammar,  arith 
metic,  algebra,  geometry,  French  and  English, 
geography,  and  drawing.  By  the  last-mentioned 
decree  the  time  in  the  college  has  been  reduced 
from  two  and  a  half  years  to  one  year  and  a  half, 
and  the  students  study  the  following  subjects : 
trigonometry,  geometrical  analysis,  astronomy, 
navigation,  physics,  meteorology,  chemistry, 
gunnery,  French  and  English,  naval  tactics,  in 
fantry  tactics,  seamanship,  geography,  history 
(sacred,  profane,  and  naval),  religion  and  morals, 
drawing,  fencing,  gymnastics,  swimming,  and 
dancing. — F.  W.  Dickins,  Lieutenant- Commander 
UJS.N. 

Academite.  A  graduate  of  the  Royal  Naval 
Academy  at  Portsmouth,  England. 

Acairlphuill.     A  safe  anchorage. 

Acalephse.  A  class  of  marine  animals  of  low 
organization,  having  a  translucent  jelly-like 
structure,  and  frequently  possessing  the  property 
of  stinging;  as,  the  Portuguese  man-of-war 
(Physalia),  and  the  common  jelly-fish  (Medusa}. 

Acapulco.  A  seaport  of  Mexico,  on  the  Pa 
cific.  Lat.  16°  50'  N. ;  Ion.  99°  48'  W.  It  has 
a  magnificent  landlocked  harbor,  and  is  302 
miles  "S.S.W.  of  Mexico.  Pop.  5000. 

Acast.  An  old  word  for  lost  or  cast  away. 
Abox  ;  as,  the  head-yards  were  said  to  be  braced 
acast. 

Acater.  Purveyor  of  victuals,  whence  ca 
terer. 

Acatium.  A  word  used  by  the  Romans  for  a 
small  boat,  and  also  for  the  mainmast  of  a  ship. 

Acceleration.  The  increase  of  velocity  in  a 
moving  body.  A  planet  is  said  to  be  accelerated 
when  its  actual  diurnal  motion  exceeds  its  mean. 
In  the  fixed  stars  this  acceleration  is  the  mean 
time  by  which  they  anticipate  the  sun's  diurnal 
motion.  Acceleration  of  the  moon  is  the  increase 
of  her  mean  motion,  caused  by  a  slow  change  in 
the  eccentricity  of  the  terrestrial  orbit. 

Access.  Means  of  entry  or  approach.  Ac 
cessible,  approachable  by  land  or  sea. 

Acclivity.  The  upward  slope  of  an  inclined 
cliff. 

Accoil.     To  coil  together. 

Accommodations.  Fittings,  conveniences. 
Accommodation  ladder,  a  convenient  flight  ot 
steps  shipped  at  the  gangway.  When  shipped 
on  both  sides,  the  starboard  ladder  is  reserved  for 
the  use  of  commissioned  officers  and  their  visit 
ors. 

Accompany.     To  sail  together ;  to  convoy. 

Accon.  (Fr.)  A  flat-bottomed  Mediterranean 
boat  for  carrying  cargoes  over  shoals.  _ 

Accost.  To  hail ;  to  pass  within  hail ;  to  sail 
coastwise  ;  to  draw  near. 


ACCOUNT 


18 


ADJUSTMENT 


Account.  Going  upon  account,  a  phrase  for 
buccaneering. 

Accounts.  The  several  books  and  registers 
of  money,  stores,  clothing,  and  provisions.  See 
PAYMASTER. 

Accouplement.     A  timber  tie  or  brace. 

Accoutrements.  Equipments  of  soldiers  and 
marines. 

Accul.  An  old  term  for  the  end  of  a  deep 
bay ;  from  cul-de-sac. 

Accuse.     To  charge  with  an  offense. 

Accused.  The  designation  of  the  party  on 
trial  before  a  court-martial.  See  COURT-MAR 
TIAL. 

Achernar.  a  Eridani,  a  star  of  the  first 
magnitude  in  the  constellation  Eridanus,  called 
by  navigators  the  u  Spring  of  the  Kiver." 

Achromatic.  A  term  applied  to  optical  in 
struments  in  which  aberration  and  the  colors  de 
pendent  thereon  are  partially  corrected.  Achro 
matic  condenser,  a  lens  used  to  concentrate  the 
rays  of  light  on  an  object  in  a  microscope. 

Achronical.  An  old  term  signifying  the  rising 
of  a  heavenly  body  at  sunset,  or  its  setting  at 
sunrise. 

Acker.  An  eddying  ripple  on  the  surface  of 
flooded  waters.  A  tide  swelling  above  another 
tide.  See  EAGRE,  BORE. 

Ackmen,  or  Ack-pirates.  Fresh- water  thieves. 

A-cockbill.  A  yard  is  a-cockbill  when  by  acci 
dent  or  design  one  yard-arm  is  topped  up  more 
than  the  other.  (See  MOURNING.)  The  anchor  is 
a-cockbill  when  it  hangs  from  the  cat-head  by  the 
ring-stopper  ready  for  letting  go.  In  the  navy 
the  anchor  is  not  cockbilled  except  in  special 
cases. 

Acolyte.  The  smaller  component  of  a  double 
star. 

Acorn.  A  cone-shaped  piece  of  wood  attached 
to  the  vane. 

Acoustics.  The  science  of  sound.  The  acous 
tic  telegraph  is  one  which  makes  audible  instead 
of  visible  signals 

Acquit.  To  discharge  from  an  accusation  ;  to 
free  or  exonerate  from  blame  or  suspicion ;  to 
clear  from  imputation.  The  word  is  also  used  to 
express  personal  bearing  ;  as,  to  acquit  one's  self 
well. 

Acquittance.  A  release  or  discharge  in  writing 
for  a  sum  of  money,  or  duty,  which  ought  to  be 
paid,  or  done,  on  the  ship's  account. 

Acre.  A  city  and  seaport  of  Syria,  on  a  prom 
ontory  at  the  foot  of  Mt.  Carmel.  Lat.  32°  55' 
N.  ;  Ion.  35°  5'  E.  Pop.  4800.  The  Bay  of  Acre 
is  much  frequented  by  French,  Italian,  and  Aus 
trian  vessels. 

Acrostolium.  A  symbolical  ornament  on  the 
prows  of  ancient  vessels ;  the  origin  of  the  modern 
figure-head. 

Act.  Deed,  performance,  edict,  decree,  or  law. 
Overt  act,  an  open  act  done  in  pursuance  of  a 
criminal  design, — the  mere  design  not  being  pun 
ishable  without  such  act.  Act  of  God  compre 
hend?  all  accidents  arising  from  physical  causes. 
Act  of  Court,  the  decision  of  the  judge  on  the 
verdict  or  on  a  point  of  law.  Act  and  Intention 
must  be  united,  in  admiralty  law. 

Acting.  A  prefix  to  denote  that  a  rank  is  held 
temporarily. 

Action.  Exertion  of  power  or  force.  Double 
action  denotes  that  the  motor  acts  positively  in 
producing  the  backward  and  forward  movement. 


An  engagement ;  a  battle.  Clear  ship  for  action, 
to  prepare  for  battle  by  removing  everything  that 
obstructs  the  working  of  the  battery  or  hinders 
the  handling  of  the  ship ;  by  removing  all  fix 
tures  and  appliances,  not  needed  for  action,  but 
which  might  cause  the  enemy's  shot  to  create 
havoc  and  confusion  ;  by  removing  articles  liable 
to  injury  by  exposure  ;  and  by  providing  articles 
necessary  to  the  security  of  rigging  and  spars. 

Active.  Requiring  or  implying  action  or  ex 
ertion  ;  practical ;  operative, 

ACTIVE  LIST.  The  list  of  officers  liable  to  be 
called  upon  for  active  duty,  in  contradistinction 
to  the  Retired  List  (which  see). 

ACTIVE  SERVICE.  Duty  before  the  enemy,  or 
operations  in  his  presence.  Any  duty  under  the 
orders  of  the  Navy  Department. 

Actuaire.  (Fr.)  An  open  transport  pro 
pelled  by  oars  and  sails. 

Actuairole.  (Fr.)  A  small  galley  propelled 
by  oars. 

Acumba.  Oakum  ;  the  hards  or  coarse  parts 
of  flax  and  unplucked  wool. 

Acuna,  Christopher.  Jesuit  and  explorer,  b. 
Burgos,  1597,  d.  Lima  about  1675.  He  was  one 
of  the  early  explorers  of  the  river  Amazon,  and 
was  sent  to  report  the  incidents  of  the  expedition 
of  1639.  On  his  return  to  Spain  he  published  at 
Madrid,  in  1641,  "  Nuevo  Descubrimiento  del 
gran  Rio  de  las  Amazonas."  He  subsequently 
went  to  the  East  Indies,  returned  to  South  Amer 
ica,  and  died  on  the  way  from  Panama  to  Lima. 

Adamant.  The  loadstone  ;  the  magnet : — the 
sense  in  which  it  was  held  by  early  voyagers. 

Adapter.  A  ring  or  tube  to  adapt  or  fit  any 
accessory  apparatus  to  an  instrument. 

Addel,  or  Addle.     The  putrid  water  in  casks. 

Addice.  An  adze.  The  addled  eggs  of  sea- 
fowl. 

Addlings.     Accumulated  pay. 

Address.  Bearing.  To  consign  or  intrust  to 
another  as  an  agent. 

Adelaide,  Port,  six  miles  from  the  capital  of 
South  Australia.  Lat.  34°  49'  S.  ;  Ion.  138°  38' 
E.  It  is  a  free  port,  and  accessible  for  vessels 
drawing  18  feet  of  water. 

Adit.  An  air-hole  or  drift.  The  aperture  by 
which  a  mine  is  dug  and  charged.  The  aperture 
by  which  a  ship  in  ancient  times  was  entered. 

Adjourn.  To  put  off  to  another  day  ;  to  dis 
continue  a  while  ;  to  intermit  proceedings ;  as,  of 
a  court-martial,  a  board  of  examination,  etc. 
When  no  certain  day  is  fixed  to  which  the  ad 
journment  is  to  extend,  it  is  said  to  be  sine  die. 

Adjudication.  The  act  of  adjudging  prizes 
by  legal  decree.  Captors  are  compelled  to  sub 
mit  the  adjudication  of  their  prizes  to  a  compe 
tent  tribunal. 

Adjust.  To  set  the  frame  of  a  ship.  To  regu 
late  an  instrument  for  use.  To  adjust  the  com 
passes  is  to  ascertain  the  deviation  of  the  needle 
due  to  local  attraction. 

Adjustment,  in  marine  insurance,  is  the  as 
certaining  and  settling  of  the  amount  of  in 
demnity,  whether  of  average  or  salvage,  which 
the  insured  is  entitled  to  receive.  The  nature 
and  amount  of  damage  being  ascertained,  an  en 
dorsement  is  made  on  the  back  of  the  policy,  de 
claring  the  proportion  of  loss  falling  on  each  un 
derwriter  ;  and  when  this  endorsement  is  signed 
by  the  latter,  the  loss  is  said  to  have  been  ad 
justed.  After  an  adjustment  has  been  made,  it 


ADJUTANT 


19 


ADMINISTRATION 


is  usual  for  the  underwriter  at  once  to  pay  the 
loss.  As  a  question  of  law,  however,  it  does  not 
appear  how  far  the  adjustment  is  conclusive  and 
binding  on  the  underwriters.  In  the  opinion  of 
some  lawyers  the  adjustment  is  merely  presump 
tive  evidence  against  an  insurer,  and  it  is,  not 
withstanding,  open  to  the  underwriter  to  show 
facts  which,  if  proved,  would  have  the  effect  of 
relieving  him  from  liability. 

ADJUSTMENTS  OF  INSTRUMENTS.  All  nauti 
cal  instruments  are  liable  to  get  out  of  order, 
their  several  parts  not  retaining  their  relative 
positions,  owing  to  unequal  expansion,  violence, 
or  like  causes.  To  guard  before  observing  against 
resulting  errors,  there  are  methods  of  testing 
whether  the  instrument  is  in  order  in  the  several 
points  subject  to  be  affected  ;  and  the  instrument 
is  provided  with  means  of  adjustment,  chiefly  in 
the  form  of  screws  or  sliding  weights,  by  which 
it  may  be  restored  to  its  correct  state.  Adjust 
ing  screws  and  weights  ought  not  to  be  touched 
more  than  is  absolutely  necessary,  and  then  with 
great  care.  When  two  such  screws  work  oppo 
sitely  to  each  other,  one  must  not  be  tightened 
without  the  other  being  at  the  same  time  loosened. 
Sometimes,  instead  of  making  the  adjustment, 
the  error  may  be  acknowledged  and  allowed  for 
in  observing.  The  term  "  adjustments"  is  often 
loosely  applied  to  all  sources  of  incorrectness, 
and  means  of  obviating  their  effects,  in  using 
instruments.  These  are,  however,  properly  of 
three  distinct  kinds  :  imperfections  in  the  instru 
ment,  which  should  cause  its  rejection  ;  adjust 
ments  for  parts  of  the  instrument  liable  to  tem 
porary  derangement,  but  which  can  be  restored 
to  order  by  the  machinery  attached  ;  and  errors 
of  the  instrument,  which  are  acknowledged,  de 
termined  by  experiment,  and  allowed  for.  See 
COMPASS  and  SEXTANT. 

Adjutant.     See  MARINE  CORPS. 

Admeasurement.  The  calculation  of  the  pro 
portions  of  a  ship  according  to  assumed  rules. 

Administration,  Naval  (Lat.  ad,  "to,"  and 
ministro,  ministratum,  "to  serve,"  manage 
ment,  conduct  of  business),  relates  to  the  man 
agement  of  that  part  of  the  executive  branch 
of  the  government  which  includes  the  navy,  or 
military  marine.  The  Chief  Executive  is  gen 
erally  the  constitutional  or  hereditary  head  of 
the  navy.  James  I.,  of  England,  assumed  the 
title  of  Lord  High  Admiral  and  Lord  Gen 
eral;  in  other  words,  he  declared  himself  to 
be  the  commander-in-chief  of  the  army  and 
navy.  This  was  subsequently  confirmed  to  the 
reigning  sovereign  by  act  of  Parliament  (13 
Car.  II.,  c.  6).  In  the  United  States  the  Presi 
dent  is  the  Commander-in-Chief  of  the  Army 
and  Navy,  "  and  he  may  require  the  opinion  in 
writing  of  the  principal  officer  in  each  of  the 
executive  departments  upon  any  subject  relating 
to  the  duties  of  their  respective  offices."  (Con 
stitution  of  the  United  States,  Art.  II.,  Sec.  2.) 
One  of  these  "executive  departments"  is  styled, 
by  the  act  of  April  30,  1798,  which  creates  the 
office,  the  Department  of  the  Navy,  and  the 
"principal  officer"  the  Secretary  of  the  Navy, 
whose  duty  it  is  "  to  execute  such  orders  as  he 
shall  receive  from  the  President  of  the  United 
States  relative  to  the  procurement  of  naval  stores 
and  materials,  and  the  construction,  armament, 
equipment  of  vessels  of  war,  as  well  as  all  other 
matters  connected  with  the  naval  establishment 


of  the  United  States.  From  the  language  of  the 
act  it  will  be  seen  that  the  Secretary  of  the  Navy 
is,  in  all  matters  pertaining  to  his  branch  of  the 
public  service,  the  exponent  of  the  President ;  and 
his  acts  are  to  be  considered  the  acts  of  the  Presi 
dent,  and  have  full  force  and  effect  as  such.  The 
official  duties  of  the  heads  of  executive  depart 
ments,  however,  are  not  merely  ministerial  ;  they 
involve  the  exercise  of  judgment  and  discretion. 
(Decatur  v.  Paulding,  14  Pet.,  515.)  The  Secre 
tary  of  the  Navy  is  appointed  by  the  President, 
by  and  with  the  advice  and  consent  of  the  Senate, 
from  civil  life,  and  is  one  of  the  members  of  his 
Cabinet.  He  is  authorized  by  law  to  prescribe 
regulations,  not  inconsistent  with  law,  for  the 
government  of  his  department,  the  conduct  of 
its  officers  and  clerks,  the  distribution  and  per 
formance  of  its  business,  and  the  custody,  use, 
and  preservation  of  the  records,  papers,  and  prop 
erty  appertaining  to  it.  He  is  required  to  make 
an  annual  report  to  Congress  of  the  operations 
of  the  navy  for  the  preceding  year,  its  general 
condition,  etc.  The  business  of  the  Department 
is  distributed  among  eight  bureaus,  to  wit:  (1) 
Bureau  of  Yards  and  Docks,  (2)  Equipment 
and  Recruiting,  (3)  Navigation,  (4)  Ordnance, 
(5)  Construction  and  Repair,  (6)  Steam  Engi 
neering,  (7)  Provisions  and  Clothing,  (8)  Medi 
cine  and  Surgery.  The  chiefs  of  bureaus  are 
appointed  by  the  President,  by  and  with  the 
advice  and  consent  of  the  Senate.  All  the  duties 
of  the  bureaus  are  performed  under  the  authority 
of  the  Secretary  of  the  Navy,  and  "  their  orders 
are  considered  as  emanating  from  him  and  have 
full  force  and  effect  as  such"  (act  of  August  31, 
1842).  There  are  63  clerks,  draughtsmen,  etc., 
in  the  Department,  17  of  whom  belong  to  the 
Secretariat,  the  remainder  to  the  several  bureaus. 
The  chiefs  of  four  bureaus  (1,  2,  3,  and  4)  are 
selected  from  the  line-officers  not  below  the  rank 
of  commander.  During  the  time  of  holding 
office  they  have  the  relative  rank  of  commo 
dore,  if  below  that  grade.  The  chiefs  of  the 
other  bureaus  are  selected  from  the  several  corps 
which  they  represent,  and  while  holding  office 
have  the  relative  rank  of  commodore,  with  the 
title  respectively  of  surgeon-general,  paymaster- 
general,  engineer-in-chief,  and  chief  construc 
tor.  Chiefs  of  bureaus  hold  their  offices  for  the 
term  of  four  years.  Any  staff  officer  who  has 
performed  the  duty  of  a  chief  of  a  bureau  for  a 
full  term  is  exempt  thereafter  from  sea-duty,  ex 
cept  in  time  of  war,  and  retires  with  the  relative 
rank  of  commodore. 

It  will  be  perceived  from  the  foregoing  that 
the  Navy  Department,  and  consequently  the 
navy  itself,  is  without  a  professional  head.  The 
civil  branch  is  well  provided  for  in  the  constitu 
tional  commander-in-chief  and  his  constitutional 
adviser,  the  Secretary  of  the  Navy.  But  regard 
ing  the  navy  in  its  true  character  of  a  sea  army, 
there  is  no  professional  head  in  our  naval  admin 
istration  to  govern  its  purely  military  operations. 
This  is  a  great,  and,  in  time  of  war,  would  be 
likely  to  prove  a  fatal,  defect.  It  would  be  diffi 
cult,  indeed,  to  find  a  civilian  in  whom  were  com 
bined  the  political  training  essential  to  a  Cabinet 
officer  and  the  technical  knowledge  necessary  to 
an  intelligent  and  energetic  administration  of 
naval  affairs  even  in  times  of  profound  peace. 

The  history  of  our  naval  administration  is 
curious.  The  infant  navy  was  ushered  into  ex- 


ADMINISTRATION 


20 


ADMINISTRATION 


istence  by  spasmodic  resolutions  of  the  Conti 
nental  Congress.  On  the  5th  of  October,  1775,  a 
resolution  directed  the  fitting  out  of  two  armed 
schooners  to  cruise  for  a  vessel  known  to  have 
left  England  with  munitions  of  war  for  the 
enemy.  A  week  later  another  resolution  directed 
the  equipping  of  a  swift  vessel  of  10  guns,  and 
three  members  of  Congress  —  Messrs.  Deane, 
Langdon,  and  Gadsden — were  chosen  a  com 
mittee  to  superintend  this  "  naval  force."  Oc 
tober  20  four  members — Hopkins,  Hewes,  Lee, 
and  John  Adams — were  added,  when  it  was  re 
solved  that  "these  seven  be  a  committee  to  carry 
into  execution  with  all  possible  expedition  the 
resolutions  of  Congress  for  fitting  out  armed 
vessels."  The  committee  immediately  procured 
a  room  in  a  public-house  in  Philadelphia,  and 
agreed  to  meet  every  evening  at  6  o'clock  for  the 
dispatch  of  business.  January  25,  it  was  resolved 
that  the  direction  of  the  fleet  fitted  out  by  order 
of  Congress  be  left  to  the  Naval  Committee.  In 
subsequent  resolutions  this  committee  was  styled 
the  Marine  Committee,  and  was  empowered  to 
give  names  to  ships,  to  order  them  on  service, 
purchase  materials,  etc.  June  9,  1779,  it  was 
resolved  that  the  management  of  all  business  re 
lating  to  the  marine  of  the  United  States  be  vested 
in  commissioners.  October  28,  1779,  a  Board  of 
Admiralty  was  established  to  superintend  the 
naval  and  marine  affairs.  February  7,  1781,  the 
office  of  a  Secretary  of  Marine  was  created.  Au 
gust  20,  on  the  report  of  a  committee,  it  was  re 
solved  that  a  for  the  present  an  agent  of  marine  be 
appointed,"  who  should  absorb  all  the  duties  that 
had  devolved  upon  the  Board  of  Admiralty.  On 
the  termination  of  the  war  of  the  Revolution 
(1783)  the  navy  was  disbanded.  The  present 
government  went  into  operation  under  the  Con 
stitution  March  4, 1789,  and  on  the  7th  of  August 
following  an  act  was  passed  establishing  the^De- 
partment  of  War,  the  Secretary  of  which  was 
to  have  a  general  supervision  of  the  land  and 
naval  forces.  April  30,  1798,  the  act  was  passed 
creating  the  Department  of  the  Navy,  a  Secretary 
of  the  Navy,  a  principal  clerk  and  such  other 
clerks  as  he  (the  Secretary)  thought  necessary. 
The  act  of  February  7,  1815,  added  to  the  De 
partment  a  Board  of  Navy  Commissioners,  con 
sisting  of  three  officers  of  the  navy  not  below 
the  rank  of  post-captain.  The  act  provided  that 
"  the  board  so  constituted  should  be  attached  to 
the  office  of  the  Secretary,  and  under  his  super 
intendence  discharge  all  the  ministerial  duties  of 
that  office  relative  to  the  procurement  of  naval 
stores  and  materials,  and  the  construction,  arma 
ment,  equipment,  and  employment  of  vessels  of 
war,  as  well  as  other  matters  connected  with  the 
naval  establishment."  The  act  of  August  31, 
1842,  abolished  the  naval  commissioners  and 
substituted  five  bureaus,  since  increased,  by  act 
of  July  5,  1862,  to  eight.  By  act  of  July  31, 
1861,  the  office  of  Assistant  Secretary  of  the 
Navy  was  authorized,  the  exigencies  of  war 
showing  its  necessity.  The  office  was  abolished 
soon  after  the  war  (March  3,  1869). 

The  act  of  March  2,  1865,  created  the  office  of 
Solicitor  and  Judge-Advocate-General.  June 
22,  1870,  it  was  transferred  to  the  Department  of 
Justice,  as  Naval  Solicitor  (Sec.  249,  Revised 
Statutes).  For  that  important  factor  of  the  navy, 
the  Marine  Corps,  see  article  under  that  head. 

GREAT  BRITAIN.— Immediately  after  the  rev 


olution  of  1688  Parliament  passed  an  act  (2  Sess. 
William  and  Mary)  establishing  a  Board  of 
Admiralty ;  thus  giving  the  sanction  of  law  to 
the  practice  that  had  long  prevailed,  of  placing 
the  control  of  the  navy  in  the  hands  of  experi 
enced  officers.  By  this  act  it  was  "  declared  and 
enacted  that  all  and  singular  authorities,  juris 
dictions,  and  powers  which,  by  any  act  of  Par 
liament  or  otherwise,  have  been  and  are  lawfully 
vested  ...  in  the  Lord  High  Admiral  of  Eng 
land  for  the  time  being,  have  always  appertained 
to,  and  may  be  exercised  by,  the  Commissioners 
for  executing  the  office  of  High  Admiral  of  Eng 
land  for  the  time  being  according  to  their  com 
missions."  Two  years  later,  it  was  resolved  in 
the  House  of  Commons  that  "His  Majesty  be 
advised  to  constitute  a  commission  of  the  Ad 
miralty  of  such  persons  as  are  of  known  experi 
ence  in  maritime  aifairs ;  that  for  the  future  all 
orders  for  the  management  of  the  fleet  do  pass 
through  the  Admiralty  that  shall  be  so  con 
stituted." 

The  Admiralty  patent,  as  it  is  called,  places 
in  the  hands  of  "  Our  Commissioners  for  execut 
ing  the  office  of  Our  High  Admiral"  full  power 
to  administer  the  affairs  of  the  navy.  It  enjoins 
upon  all  persons  belonging  to  the  navy  to  observe 
all  such  orders  as  "  Our  said  Commissioners,  or 
any  two  or  more  of  them,  give,"  .  .  .  "  as  if  Our 
High  Admiral  had  given  it."  According  to  the 
patent,  all  the  members  are  equal,  with  co-ordi 
nate  powers,  and  with  joint  responsibility.  Ac 
cording  to  usage  the  responsibility  rests  almost 
entirely  with  the  First  Lord.  He  nominates  the 
other  members  "  at  his  pleasure."  He  is,  there 
fore,  practically  supreme  ;  if  opposed  by  the  other 
members  he  may  break  up  the  board.  Besides 
the  First  Lord,  who  is  a  cabinet  officer  appointed 
almost  invariably  from  civil  life  by  the  Prime 
Minister,  there  are  three  naval  members,  and 
one  other,  who  is  always  taken  from  among  the 
members  of  the  House  of  Commons.  The  board 
meets  every  week-day  at  noon,  except  Saturdays, 
and  two  lords  and  a  secretary  form  a  quorum  for 
business.  Certain  orders  may  be  signed  by  the 
secretary  of  the  board  alone,  and  are  regarded 
as  the  order  of  the  board  collectively ;  but  an 
order  that  authorizes  the  payment  of  money  re 
quires  the  signatures  of  two  lords.  The  secre 
taries  have  jointly  charge  of  the  Secretariat,  and 
the  First  Secretary  has  'important  duties  in  Par 
liament  in  connection  with  the  board.  See  AD 
MIRALTY. 

It  will  be  seen  from  the  foregoing  that  the 
First  Lord  has  general  control  of  the  navy  in  the 
name  of  his  sovereign,  to  whom  he  is  responsible 
for  its  management.  But  he  represents  the  civil 
power,  and  concerns  himself  more  immediately 
with  the  civil  affairs  of  the  navy.  Associated 
with  this  civil  office,  but  subordinate  to  it,  is  the 
military  branch  of  the  establishment.  This  is 
presided  over  by  professionals, — the  senior  Sea 
Lord  and  his  coadjutors,  the  other  Sea  Lords  and 
the  Naval  Secretary. 

No  form  of  naval  administration  can  hope  for 
entire  immunity  from  public  criticism ;  the  Board 
of  Admiralty  forms  no  exception  to  the  rule. 
The  slightest  mishap  in  the  navy  is  sufficient  to 
call  down  the  thunders  of  the  press  on  the  heads 
of  the  Lords  of  the  Admiralty.  Discussions  in 
Parliament  led  (March,  1861)  to  the  appoint 
ment  of  a  committee  "  to  inquire  into  the  con- 


ADMINISTRATION 


21 


ADMIRAL 


stitution  of  the  Board  of  Admiralty  and  the 
various  duties  devolving  thereon;"  also  "as  to 
the  general  effect  of  such  system  on  the  navy." 
No  material  change  took  place,  however,  till 
January  14, 1869,  when  Mr.  Hugh  C.  E.  Childers, 
then  First  Lord,  reorganized  the  board.  On  the 
19th  of  March,  1872,  the  order  of  1869  was  re 
scinded,  and  the  board  restored  very  much  to 
its  old  organization  and  as  it  now  stands.  See 
ADMIRALTY. 

FRANCE. — The  Minister  of  Marine  (Secretary 
of  the  Navy)  in  France  is  generally  selected  from 
the  list  of  admirals,  and  represents  both  the  civil 
and  military  power.  He  is  assisted  in  his  im 
mediate  office  by  a  staff  of  about  seven  officers, 
ranking  from  rear-admiral  to  lieutenant.  The 
chief  of  staff  is  a  rear-admiral  (chef  d'etat-major 
et  chef  du  cabinet).  Next  comes  a  Board  of  Ad 
miralty,  of  which  the  Minister  of  Marine  is  presi 
dent.  It  consists  of,  1,  a  vice-admiral,  who  is 
vice-president  of  the  board ;  2,  a  vice-admiral ;  3, 
a  general  of  marine  artillery  ;  4,  a  vice-admiral ; 
5,  a  vice-admiral ;  6,  a  rear-admiral ;  7,  a  director 
of  naval  construction;  8,  a  commissary-general. 
The  Secretariat  is  divided  into  two  bureaux,  each 
of  which  has  its  chief.  The  second  bureau  takes 
cognizance  of  the  "movements  of  the  fleet  and 
military  operations,"  and  is  presided  over  by  a 
naval  officer  of  rank.  Next  we  have  the  Navy 
Department  proper,  which  is  divided  into  five 
directions  (a  direction  corresponding  to  a  bureau 
in  our  Navy  Department),  each  direction  having 
two  or  more  bureaux ;  each  bureau  having  two  or 
more  sections.  Among  these  several  directions, 
bureaux,  and  sections  are  distributed  with  much 
precision  all  the  duties  of  an  extensive  and 
thorough  naval  administration.  The  Minister 
of  Marine  alone  is  responsible  to  the  chief  mag 
istrate  for  his  acts.  The  Board  of  Admiralty,  of 
which  he  is  president,  is  but  an  advisory  body, 
its  chief  and  only  important  duty  being  to  pre 
pare  the  annual  lists  of  officers  from  which  the 
selections  for  promotion  are  made.  It  has,  in 
fact,  but  little,  if  anything,  to  do  with  the  ad 
ministration  of  the  affairs  of  the  French  navy. 

It  may  be  said,  in  general,  that  under  a  lib 
eral  form  of  government,  like  that  of  the  United 
States  or  Great  Britain,  where  the  civil  power 
predominates,  the  head  of  the  navy  will  always 
be  a  civilian.  In  countries  where  the  military 
spirit  prevails  the  head  of  the  navy  will  always 
be  a  naval  officer  of  rank.  In  all  maritime 
countries  the  work  of  the  navy  department  must 
be  distributed  among  a  number  of  experts  and  a 
certain  clerical  force. 

AUSTRIA. — The  Minister  of  National  Defense 
presides  over  both  war  and  navy  departments. 
Under  his  general  supervision  a  vice-admiral 
administers  the  affairs  of  the  navy. 

DENMARK. — The  Minister  of  Marine  is  a  cab 
inet  officer  and  a  naval  officer  of  rank. 

GERMANY. — Has  a  Board  of  Admiralty,  with 
an  admiral  for  "  Inspector-General  of  the  Navy," 
and  a  commander-in-chief  of  all  the  ships  in 
commission. 

ITALY. — Has  a  Minister  of  Marine,  at  present 
a  rear-admiral,  assisted  in  his  duties  by  a  Board 
of  Admiralty. 

RUSSIA. — The  Minister  of  Marine  is  an  ad 
miral,  and  communicates  directly  with  the  sov 
ereign.  He  has  sole  charge  of  the  administra 
tive  department  of  the  navy,  while  the  executive 


branch  is  in  charge  of  the  High  Admiral  of  the 
fleet.  In  other  respects  the  organization  is  simi 
lar  to  that  of  the  French. 

SPAIN.— Has  a  Board  of  Admiralty. 

The  navy  departments  of  other  European  gov 
ernments  do  not  vary  in  any  important  point 
from  those  already  given.—  S.  B.  Luce,  Captain 
U.  S.  iv. 

Admiral.  Sir  Wm.  Monson,  writing  about 
1600,  says,  "There  have  been  often  disputes 
whether  the  title  of  Admiral  or  General  were 
more  proper  to  a  sea  commander ;  and  though  I 
dare  not  presume  to  conclude  of  either,  yet  I 
think  it  is  as  unproper  to  call  an  Admiral  General 
by  Sea  as  to  call  a  General  Admiral  by  Land, 
though  I  confess  their  authorities  are  like  in 
command  of  men's  persons,  yet  is  the  jurisdic 
tion  of  the  Admiral  by  sea  greater  than  the 
other,  in  that  he  ruleth  and  guideth  a  fleet  of 
ships,  which  are  of  more  importance  to  the  King 
and  State  than  the  lives  of  men  that  are  to  serve 
in  them." 

The  English  title  of  admiral, — in  French  and 
Danish,  amiral;  German,  ammiral ;  Dutch,  ad 
miral,  or  ammrael ;  Italian,  ammiraglio ;  Span 
ish,  almirante, — evidently  in  all  modern  lan 
guages  derived  from  the  same  source,  is  yet  of 
doubtful  etymology.  Most  of  the  old  writers 
trace  it  to  the  Arab  emir  or  amir,  a  prince  or 
ruler,  and  a  Greek  word  signifying  the  sea  ;  but 
Spelman,  who  condemns  this  "  Centaur"  deriva 
tion,  thinks  the  term  was  first  in  use  among  the 
Saracens,  and  from  thence  brought  to  England 
about  the  time  of  Richard  I.  or  Henry  III. ;  "  for 
I  find,"  he  says,  "  that  not  only  Amera  but  Al 
mirante  was  the  ordinary  title  of  the  Governors 
of  countries  through  all  the  territories  of  the 
Saracens,  even  from  Spain  when  they  possessed 
it,  unto  the  uttermost  parts  of  Lesser  Asia,  and 
Mahomet  was  so  called  as  king,  a  name  of  dig 
nity  and  estimation."  In  the  great  ship  or 
dromond  taken  by  Richard  I.  from  the  Saracens 
there  were  seven  admirals. 

The  Earl  of  Berkeley  is  said  to  be  the  only  in 
dividual  not  of  royal  blood  who  has  ever  won  the 
flag  of  Lord  High  Admiral  of  Great  Britain  at 
sea.  At  the  age  of  20,  then  known  as  Lord 
Dursley,  he  was  captain  of  the  "  Lichfield,"  60, 
his  second  command.  When  23  he  commanded 
the  "  Boyne,"  80.  At  27  he  was  vice-admiral  of 
the  blue,  and  the  next  year  vice-admiral  of  the 
red.  March  29,  1719,  at  the  age  of  38,  he  hoisted 
his  flag  on  the  "  Dorsetshire"  as  Lord  High  Ad 
miral,  being  actually  Vice-Admiral  of  England 
and  First  Lord  of  the  Admiralty. 

The  first  English  admiral  on  record  is  Richard 
de  Lacy,  to  whom,  1216-72,  Henry  III.  granted 
Maritimam  Angles.  Some,  however,  assert  that 
the  honor  belongs  to  Roger  de  Ley  burn,  who 
was  appointed  by  Edward  I.  Admirallus  Marifi 
Regis  A.D.  1297.  During  the  reign  of  Edward  I. 
there  were  three  admirals  in  contemporary  com 
mand  of  the  three  coasts  of  England,  one  having 
jurisdiction  from  the  mouth  of  the  river  Thames 
northward,  another  from  the  same  point  west 
ward,  and  another  of  the  west  coast,  including 
the  shores  of  Wales  and  Ireland. 

All  admirals  in  the  Royal  navy  were  wont 
anciently  to  carry  St.  George's  flag  at  the  head 
of  the  topmast,  but  on  the  accession  of  James  I. 
he  added  to  it  the  cross  of  St.  Andrew,  as  due  to 
Scotland.  The  Lord  High  Admiral  alone  was 


ADMIKAL 


22 


ADMIKAL 


permitted  to  wear  "  the  cross  of  the  arms  of  Eng 
land," — that  is,  the  standard  of  England  at  the 
main.  He  had  also  the  power  in  the  sixteenth 
century  to  permit  another  man  to  wear  the  bare 
English  flag  in  the  main-top  in  his  presence. 
Sir  Wm.  Monson  speaks  of  the  Rear-Admiral  as 
a  recent  invention,  and  says,  "  The  Vice- Admiral 
wears  his  flag  in  the  fore-top,  being  Vice- Ad 
miral,  so  he  is  to  wear  what  colored  flag  he 
pleases  in  the  main-top  as  Admiral  of  a  squadron. 
The  Rear- Admiral  wears  his  flag  in  the  mizzen, 
and  every  ship  besides  is  to  wear  a  streamer  of 
the  same  color  in  the  forehead  or  mizzen-yard  to 
be  distinguished  from  other  squadrons." 

The  Sicilians  or  Genoese  are  said  to  have  been 
the  first  who,  at  the  beginning  of  the  Crusades, 
conferred  the  rank  on  the  commander  of  a  squad 
ron  of  ships. 

"  St.  Louis"  introduced  the  title  into  France. 
The  rank  of  Admiral  was  formerly  equivalent  to 
that  of  a  Marshal  of  France,  and  a  decree  of 
Phillippe-le-Bel  ordains  tha't  "  each  wing  of  our 
army  must  be  commanded  by  a  Prince,  an  Ad 
miral,  or  a  Marshal."  It  also  constituted  the 
fourth  dignity  of  the  order  of  Malta.  The  ad 
mirals  of  France  possessed  such  great  preroga 
tives  that  Richelieu  suppressed  the  title,  and  in 
vested  himself  with  their  functions,  under  the 
name  of  "  Grand  Master,  Chief  and  Superin 
tendent-General  of  Navigation  and  Commerce." 
Louis  XIV.  revived  the  title  of  Grand  Admiral 
in  1669,  but  he  reserved  to  himself  the  nomina 
tion  of  the  officers  and  the  right  of  giving  orders 
direct  to  flag-officers.  Notwithstanding  these 
restrictions  the  privileges  attaching  to  this  post 
were  enormous,  comprising  the  nomination  of 
the  officers  belonging  to  the  naval  courts  of  jus 
tice,  the  delivery  of  passports,  permissions,  and 
furloughs,  the  countersigning  of  royal  decrees, 
and  the  receipt  of  a  tithe  of  all  prize-money  and 
fines  levied  in  admiralty  courts.  So  valuable 
were  these  privileges,  that  when  the  Due  de  Pen- 
thierre  abandoned  his  claims  to  them  in  1759,  he 
received  in  compensation  an  annual  grant  of 
about  $30,000,  which  was  regularly  paid  until 
the  revolution. 

The  first  "  Admiral  of  France"  was  Florent  de 
Varennes,  who,  appointed  by  St.  Louis,  accom 
panied  his  sovereign  in  the  expedition  to  Tunis  ; 
and  since  his  day  down  to  1791,  when  the  title 
was  abolished  by  the  National  Assembly,  it  was 
conferred  upon  59  different  persons. 

The  most  celebrated  of  these  naval  commanders 
were — 

Nicolas  Beluchetj  who  seized  Portsmouth,  Eng 
land,  in  1339 ; 

Jean  de  Vienne,  Seigneur  de  Clairveaux,  who 
was  killed  in  the  battle  of  Nicopolis  ; 

Gaspard,  Comte  de  Coligny,  a  victim  of  St.  Bar 
tholomew  ; 

Anne  de  Joyeusq,  a  devoted  adherent  of  Henry 
III.,  killed  at  the  battle  of  Contras  ; 

Francois  de  Coligny,  the  eldest  son  of  the  mur 
dered  admiral ; 

Charles  de  Gontaut,  Due  de  Biron,  the  trustiest 
counselor  of  Henry  IV.,  who  was  afterwards  be 
headed  for  high  treason  ;  and 

Francois  de  Vendome,  Due  of  Beaufort,  nick 
named  "Le  Roy  des  Halles,"  who,  appointed 
Grand  Master  of  Navigation,  was  killed  at  the 
siege  of  Candia. 

The  Comte  de  Vermendois  and  the  Comte  de 


Toulouse  were  also  appointed  "Admirals  of 
France,"  one  at  the  age  of  two,  and  the  other  at 
the  age  of  five,  years. 

Napoleon,  in  1805,  conferred  the  dignity  of 
"  Grand  Admiral"  on  Murat ;  but  the  post,  abol 
ished  at  the  revolution,  was  merely  honorary, 
and  as  such  was  held  by  the  Due  de  Angouleme 
after  the  Restoration.  The  title  of  "  Grand  Ad 
miral"  was  finally  suppressed  after  the  revolu 
tion  of  1830. 

The  French  have  now  the  titles  of  admiral, 
vice-admiral,  and  rear-admiral  in  their  navjr. 

On  the  establishment  of  the  Continental  navy, 
or  a  few  months  later,  viz.,  November  15,  1776, 
having  established  the  rank  and  command  of 
the  captains  the  month  previous,  Congress  re 
solved  that  an  "  admiral  should  rank  as  a  gen 
eral  ;  a  vice-admiral  as  a  lieutenant-general ;  a 
rear-admiral  as  a  major-general;"  evidently 
looking  to  the  addition  of  those  ranks  to  the 
navy.  The  prejudices  of  the  people,  however, 
prevented  the  establishment  of  such  high-sound 
ing  titles  (?),  and,  until  1862,  no  officers  were 
commissioned  in  the  United  States  navy  of  higher 
rank  than  captain,  except  in  1859,  when,  in  spe 
cial  compliment  to  his  services,  Charles  Stewart 
was  commissioned  as  "  Senior  Flag-Officer." 

The  act  of  July  16,  1862,  reorganizing  the 
navy,  was  the  first  to  recognize  the  necessity  of 
the  grade,  and  authorized  the  commissioning  of 
not  more  than  nine  rear-admirals  on  the  active 
list,  and  nine  on  the  retired  or  reserved  list,  the 
former  "to  be  selected,  during  the  war,  from 
those  commanders  who  have  distinguished  them 
selves,  or  shall  hereafter  eminently  distinguish 
themselves,  by  courage,  skill,  and  genius  in  their 
profession ;  Provided,  That  no  officer  shall  be 
promoted  to  this  grade  unless,  upon  recommen 
dation  of  the  President,  by  name,  he  has  received 
the  thanks  of  Congress  for  distinguished  ser 
vice.  During  times  of  peace  vacancies  to  this 
grade  shall  be  filled  by  regular  promotion  from 
the  list  of  commodores,  subject  to  examination 
as  to  mental,  moral,  physical,  and  professional 
qualifications."  "  The  three  senior  rear-admirals 
were  to  wear  a  square  blue  flag  at  the  mainmast- 
head,  the  next  three  at  the  foremast-head,  and 
all  others  at  the  mizzen."  Rear-admirals  to  have 
relative  rank  with  major-generals. 

The  same  law  authorized  nine  rear-admirals 
on  the  retired  list,  ranking  relatively  with  major- 
generals,  who  were  to  be  selected  by  the  Presi 
dent,  by  and  with  the  consent  of  the  Senate, 
"  from  those  captains  who  have  given  most  faith 
ful  service  to  the  country."  After  these  were 
commissioned,  promotion  to  rear-admiral  on  the 
retired  list  was  to  be  by  seniority,  subject  to  an 
advisory  board. 

Under  this  law  David  G.  Farragut,  Louis  M. 
Goldsborough,  Samuel  F.  Dupont,  and  Andrew 
H.  Foote  were  commissioned  July  16,  1862, 
Charles  H  Davis  and  John  A.  Dahlgren,  Febru 
ary  7,  1863,  David  D.  Porter,  July  4,  1863,  on 
the  active  list,  and  Charles  Stewart,  William  B. 
Shubrick,  Joseph  Smith,  George  W.  Stone, 
Francis  H.  Gregory,  Elias  F.  Lavallette,  S.  H. 
Stringham,  Samuel  L.  Breese,  Hiram  Paulding, 
George  C.  Read,  on  the  retired  list.  Rear- Ad 
miral  George  C.  Read  died  on  the  22d  of  August, 
1862,  the  first  rear-admiral  to  die  in  our  navy, 
and  Rear- Admiral  Lavallette  died  on  the  18th  of 
November  following.  Of  all  the  above-named 


ADMIRAL 


23 


ADOKNINGS 


rear-admirals,  in  1880  all  were  dead  excepting 
Rear-Admiral  David  D.  Porter,  then  the  admiral 
of  the  navy. 

Under  this  law,  as  senior  rear-admiral,  Far 
ragut  hoisted  his  plain  square  blue  flag  at  New 
Orleans,  on  the  mainmast-head  of  the  "  Hart 
ford."  He  received  his  commission  August  12, 
1862,  and  the  next  morning,  on  the  hoisting  of 
the  colors,  his  flag  was  run  up  for  the  first  time 
at  the  main,  when  it  was  saluted  by  the  whole 
squadron  ;  soon  after  which  the  flag-ship  "  Hart 
ford,"  accompanied  by  the  "  Brooklyn,"  pro 
ceeded  down  the  river,  the  remaining  ships  of 
the  squadron  dipping  their  ensigns  as  the  "  flag 
ship"  passed.  This  was  the  first  admiral's  flag 
hoisted  at  the  main  in  our  navy.  Subsequently 
the  law  was  amended,  and  Farragut,  as  a  rear- 
admiral,  retrograded  his  flag  to  the  mizzen, 
thence,  on  his  promotion  to  vice-admiral,  ad 
vanced  it  to  the  fore,  and  on  his  promotion  to 
admiral,  July  25,  1866,  raised  it  again  high  up 
on  the  main. 

On  the  21st  of  December,  1864,  the  grade  of 
vice-admiral  was  first  introduced  into  our  navy, 
and  Farragut  was  our  first  vice-admiral.  On 
his  promotion  to  a  full  "admiral,"  July,  1866, 
Rear- Admiral  David  D.  Porter  was  made  a  vice- 
admiral,  and  on  the  death  of  Farragut,  August, 
1870,  he  was  made  admiral  of  the  navy,  and 
Stephen  C.  Rowan  vice-admiral.  Under  existing 
laws,  on  the  death  of  the  present  admiral  and 
vice-admiral  those  grades  become  extinct  in  our 
navy,  and  rear-admiral  will  be  the  highest  rank. 

At  present  there  are  in  the  United  States  navy 
one  admiral,  one  vice-admiral,  and  eleven  rear- 
admirals  on  the  active  list,  and  forty-two  on  the 
retired  list,  who  have  been  retired  for  long  and 
faithful  service. 

An  admiral  may  command  a  fleet  or  fleets. 

A  vice-admiral  may  command  a  fleet,  or  a 
division  of  a  fleet  under  the  admiral ;  be  com- 
rnander-in-chief  of  a  squadron  ;  or  may  com 
mand  a  naval  station. 

A  rear-admiral  may  command  a  fleet  or  squad 
ron,  a  squadron  or  division  under  an  admiral  or 
vice-admiral ;  be  chief  of  staff  of  a  naval  force 
under  an  admiral  or  vice-admiral  ;  or  may  com 
mand  a  naval  station. — George  H.  Preble,  Rear- 
Admiral  U.S.N. 

Admiral.  The  epithet  of  admiral  was  for 
merly  applied  to  any  large  or  leading  ship,  with 
out  regard  to  flag,  and  is  still  used  in  the  whale- 
and  cod-fisheries.  The  first  vessel  to  arrive  in 
any  port  in  Newfoundland  retains  this  title 
during  the  season,  the  second  becomes  the  vice- 
admiral,  and  the  third  the  rear-admiral. 

Admiral.  A  shell  of  the  genus  Conus.  The 
varieties  are  designated  as  the  grand-admiral, 
the  vice-admiral,  the  orange-admiral,  and  the 
extra-  admiral. 

Admiralty.  ' '  The  Admiralty"  means  the  Lord 
High  Admiral  of  England,  or  the  commission 
ers  for  executing  his  office,  commonly  called  the 
Board  of  Admiralty.  It  dates  from  1512,  when 
Henry  VIII.  appointed  a  board  of  commission 
ers  to  examine  into  and  report  upon  the  state  of 
the  navy.  In  1660,  James,  Duke  of  York,  be 
came  the  first  Lord  High  Admiral.  On  his  ac 
cession  to  the  throne  (1685)  the  office  was  put 
in  commission.  On  the  accession  of  William 
and  Mary  (1689)  Parliament  passed  an  act  legal 
izing  and  rendering  permanent  the  board  of  ex 


perts  that  had  from  time  to  time  been  called 
upon  to  administer  the  affairs  of  the  navy.  The 
office  remained  in  commission  till  1702,  when 
George,  Prince  of  Denmark,  became  Lord  High 
Admiral.  The  office  was  again  in  commission 
from  1708  to  1827,  when  William,  Duke  of  Clar 
ence,  the  "  Sailor  Prince,"  became  Lord  High 
Admiral.  He  resigned  August  12,  1828.  Since 
then  the  office  has  been  in  commission,  and  will 
probably  remain  so,  till  the  present  Duke  of 
Edinburgh  is  appointed  to  fill  it. 

The  Board  of  Commissioners  is  thus  constituted, 
under  Orders  in  Council,  19th  March,  1872 : 

(1)  First  Lord  of  the  Admiralty,  First  Naval 
Lord,  Second  Naval  Lord,  Junior  Naval  Lord, 
Civil  Lord. 

(2)  The  Parliamentary  Secretary,  Permanent 
Secretary,  Naval  Secretary. 

(3)  The  Comptroller  of  the  Navy,  assisted  by  a 
Deputy  Comptroller,  and  Director  of  Dock- Yards. 

(4)  The  First  Lord  to  be  responsible  to  the 
Crown  and  to  Parliament  for  all  the  business 
of  the  Admiralty,  divided  as  follows :   (a)  The 
First  Naval  Lord,  Second  Naval  Lord,  and  Ju 
nior  Naval  Lord  to  be  responsible  to  the  First 
Lord  of  the  Admiralty  for  the  administration  of 
so  much  of  the  business  relating  to  the  personnel 
of  the  navy,  and  to  the  movement  and  condi 
tion  of  the  fleet,  as  shall  be  assigned  to  them 
from  time  to  time  by  the  First  Lord,     (b)  The 
Comptroller  to  be  responsible  to  the  First  Lord 
for  the  administration  of  so  much  of  the  business 
as  relates  to  the  materiel  of  the  navy,  the  Comp 
troller  to  have  the  right  to  attend  the  board,  and 
to  explain  his  views,  whenever  the  First  Lord 
shall  submit  to  the  board  for  their  opinion  de 
signs  for  ships,  or  any  other  matters  emanating 
from   the-  Comptroller's   department,      (c)   The 
Parliamentary  Secretary  to  be  responsible  to  the 
First  Lord  for  the  finance  of  the  department,  and 
for  so  much  of  the  other  business  of  the  Ad 
miralty  as  may  be  assigned  to  him.     (d)  The 
Civil  Lord,  the  Permanent  Secretary,  and  the 
Naval  Secretary  to  have  such  duties  as  shall  be 
assigned  to  them  by  the  First  Lord.     The  First 
Lord  is  nearly  always  appointed  from  civil  life. 

THE  ADMIRALTY,  the  Navy  Office,  Whitehall, 
London. — S.  B.  Luce,  Captain  U.S.N. 

Admiralty  Courts  (in  law).  The  Constitution 
declares  that  the  judicial  power  of  the  United 
States  shall  extend  ...  a  to  all  cases  of  admiralty 
and  marine  jurisdiction."  By  act  of  Congress  a 
district  court  of  the  United  States  is  empowered 
to  sit  as  an  admiralty  court  for  the  trial  of  all 
ordinary  causes  originating  on  the  high  seas,  or 
on  rivers,  ports,  or  harbors  communicating  with 
the  sea.  The  more  serious  cases  are  referred  to 
the  circuit  courts,  sitting  as  courts  of  admiralty. 

Admiralty  Droits.  The  revenue  arising  from 
enemies'  ships  detained  in  prospect  of  war  ;  from 
enemies'  ships  coming  into  port  in  ignorance 
of  hostilities  ;  from  ships  captured  by  non-com 
missioned  captors  ;  from  the  proceeds  of  wrecks 
and  goods  of  pirates. 

Admiralty  Midshipman.  (Eng.)  Formerly 
one  who,  having  served  his  time  and  passed 
his  examination,  was  appointed  to  a  ship  by  the 
admiralty,  in  contradistinction  to  those  who  were 
rated  by  the  captain. 

Adonis.     An  anguilliform  fish. 

Adornings.  The  ornamental  work  on  the 
quarter  and  stern  galleries, 


ADOWN 


24 


AFT 


Adown.  The  bawl  of  privateersmen  for  the 
crew  of  the  captured  vessel  to  go  below. 

Adreamt.     Dozing. 

Adrift.  Floating  at  random.  The  state  of  a 
vessel  or  boat  broken  from  her  moorings  and 
driven  to  and  fro  by  the  wind,  sea,  or  tide.  Also 
used  of  a  thing  that  has  broken  from  its  place ; 
as,  a  gun  from  the  ship's  side,  etc. 

Ad  Valorem.  In  its  application  to  custom 
duties  signifies  a  duty  or  tax  on  importations 
that  is  levied  with  reference  to  the  value  of  the 
goods. 

Advance.  An  amount  of  an  officer's  salary 
which  he  is  allowed  to  receive  in  advance  when 
ordered  on  sea-duty.  If  ordered  to  the  Asiatic 
Station  he  may  draw  three  months'  pay  in  ad 
vance,  and  on  other  sea-duty  two  months'  pay. 
The  advance  is  paid  by  navy  pay  agents,  on  presen 
tation  of  the  officer's  orders,  upon  which  the  pay 
agent  must  indorse  the  payment.  This  indorse 
ment  is  notice  to  the  paymaster  of  the  vessel  to 
which  the  officer  is  ordered,  and  it  is  his  duty  to 
deduct  the  advance  from  the  officer's  future  earn 
ings.  Officers  ordered  to  a  vessel  in  a  United  States 
port  are  entitled  to  receive  their  current  pay  up 
to  the  date  of  sailing,  without  regard  to  the  ad 
vance  received  from  the  pay  agent.  Officers  re 
ceiving  an  advance  are  required  to  give  notice 
thereof  in  writing  to  the  paymaster  of  the  vessel 
to  which  they  are  ordered.  Failure  to  do  so  will 
be  deemed  scandalous  conduct  and  a  violation 
of  general  orders. 

Advance.  To  move  forward.  Advance,  or 
vanguard,  is  that  portion  of  a  force  which  moves 
in  front  of  the  main  body.  Advance  list  is  the 
list  on  which  are  registered  the  names  of  those 
who  receive  advance  money.  Advance  note  is  a 
note  issued  by  owners  of  ships,  promising  to  pay 
a  specified  sum  to  a  seaman  within  a  specified 
number  of  days  after  he  has  sailed  on  a  voyage. 

Advancement.  Promotion  to  a  higher  rank 
or  grade. 

Advantage,  or  Vantage-ground,  is  that  which 
affords  the  greatest  facility  in  attack  or  defense. 

Adventure.  An  undertaking  involving  haz 
ard  ;  used  in  a  commercial  sense  to  signify  a  spec 
ulation  in  goods  sent  abroad  to  be  sold  or  bartered 
for  profit.  A  bill  of  adventure  is  one  signed  by 
the  merchant,  in  which  he  takes  the  chances  of 
the  voyage. 

Adversary.  A  term  applied  to  an  enemy,  but 
strictly  confined  to  an  opponent  in  single  combat. 

Adverse.  The  opposite  of  favorable ;  as,  an 
adverse  wind  or  tide. 

Advice.  Counsel ;  suggestion.  Advices,  in 
telligence  ;  news. 

Advice-boat.  A  vessel  to  carry  dispatches. 
They  were  first  used  in  1692,  previous  to  the  bat 
tle  of  La  Hogue. 

Advocate.  A  counselor ;  one  who  pleads  the 
cause  of  another.  See  JUDGE  ADVOCATE. 

Adze,  or  Addice.  A  tool  for  dubbing  flat  or 
circular  work.  It  is  much  used  in  the  East, 
where  it  takes  the  place  of  axe,  plane,  and 
chisel. 

IE,.  See  CLASSIFICATION  OF  MERCHANT  VES 
SELS. 

.ffiinautae.  Senators  of  Miletus,  who  held 
their  deliberations  on  board  ship. 

./Eratae.     Ancient  ships  with  brazen  prows. 

Aerator.  An  apparatus  for  aerating  water. 
Distilled  water  has  an  insipid  taste  unless  it  is 


subjected  to  the  action  of  the  air  before  being 
used.  The  same  effect  maybe  obtained  by  throw 
ing  calcareous  substances  into  water  confined  in 
an  air-tight  vessel.  An  apparatus  for  fumigating 
grain. 

Aerography.  The  description  of  the  atmos 
phere,  its  nature,  properties,  limits,  etc. 

Aerolites.  Solid  bodies  which  descend  to  the 
earth's  surface  from  beyond  the  atmosphere. 
They  are  composed  principally  of  iron  and  a 
small  percentage  of  nickel  and  cobalt. 

Aerolites,  meteors,  fire-balls,  and  shooting-stars 
are  classed  together  as  being  merely  varieties  of  the 
same  phenomenon.  There  is  but  little  doubt  that 
aerolites  are  bodies  revolving  about  the  sun  like 
the  planets,  and  are  encountered  by  the  earth  in 
its  annual  motion  around  the  sun.  The  comets, 
like  the  earth,  must  encounter  an  immense  num 
ber  of  these  bodies,  and  a  part  of  their  motion 
must  be  thereby  destroyed.  This  effect  may  be 
appreciable  in  the  case  of  periodic  comets,  though 
thus  far  it  is  inappreciable  in  the  case  of  the 
earth  and  the  other  planets. 

Aerology.  The  doctrine  of  air ;  generally 
applied  to  medical  discussions  respecting  its  salu 
brity. 

Aeromancy.  Formerly,  the  art  of  divining  by 
the  air.  In  modern  times  it  means  the  foretelling 
of  the  weather  by  experience  or  by  instruments. 

Aerometer.  An  instrument  for  making  cor 
rections  in  pneumatic  experiments. 

Aerometry.  The  science  of  measuring  the 
air,  its  power,  pressure,  and  properties. 

Aeronaut.     A  navigator  of  the  air. 

Aeronautics.     The  art  of  navigating  the  air. 

Aerostatics.  The  science  that  treats  of  the 
equilibrium  and  pressure  of  the  air  and  other 
gases. 

^Estuary.     See  ESTUARY. 

/Ewul.     A  basket  for  catching  fish. 

Afeard.     Afraid. 

Afer.     The  southwest  wind  of  the  Latins. 

Affair.  An  engagement  of  minor  importance. 
An  affair  of  honor,  a  duel. 

Affidavit.  A  written  statement  attested  by 
the  oath  of  the  person  making  it  and  subscribed 
by  him.  To  give  the  oath  legal  effect  it  must  be 
administered  by  a  person  thereunto  authorized 
by  law,  who  appends  his  certificate,  technically 
called  a  "jurat."  An  affidavit  differs  from  a 
deposition  in  being  ex  parte,  the  person  making 
it  not  being  subject  to  cross-examination. 

Affirm.  To  make  a  solemn  promise  to  tell  the 
truth  under  the  pains  and  penalties  of  perjury. 
To  confirm. 

Affirmative.  The  signal,  the  hoisting  of  which 
implies  assent. 

Affluent.  A  stream  flowing  directly  into 
another  stream ;  a  more  specific  term  than  tribu 
tary. 

Affreightment.  A  contract  for  the  letting  of 
a  vessel,  or  a  part  of  her,  for  freight.  See  CON 
TRACT  OF  AFFREIGHTMENT. 

Afloat.  Buoyed  up  and  supported  by  the 
water  ;  on  board  ship. 

Afore.     Farther  forward,  the  same  as  before. 

Afoul.    See  FOUL. 

Africa.     See  CONTINENTS. 

Aft.  Abbreviation  of  abaft.  Right  aft,  ex 
actly  astern.  To  haul  a  sheet  aft,  to  p'ull  the 
rope  attached  to  the  clew  more  towards  the  stern 
of  the  ship. 


AFT-CASTLE 


25 


AIK-FUNNEL 


Aft-castle.  In  ancient  days,  a  tower  erected 
aft,  on  the  upper  deck.  See  FORECASTLE. 

After.  Comparative  adjective  applied  to  any 
object  in  the  rear  part  of  a  vessel.  After-sails, 
-yards,  -braces,  -bowlines,  those  on  the  main-  and 
mizzen-masts.  After-body,  that  portion  of  the 
ship's  body  abaft  dead  flat.  After-clap,  a  subse 
quent  unexpected  event.  After-end^  the  rear 
end.  After-face,  the  rear  face. 

Afterguard.  The  men  who  are  stationed  on 
the  quarter-deck  and  poop  to  man  the  gear.  It 
is  generally  composed  of  landsmen,  and  they  are 
not  required  to  go  aloft  except  to  loose  and  furl 
the  mainsail. 

After-Hood.  The  aftermost  plank  in  a  strake, 
outside  or  inside. 

Afternoon-watch.  The  period  of  time  from 
noon  till  four  o'clock.  The  men  on  duty  during 
that  time. 

After-peak.  The  contracted  part  of  the  hold 
which  lies  in  the  vessel's  run ;  the  aftermost  por 
tion  of  the  hold. 

After-rake.     The  overhang  of  the  stern. 

After-timbers.  The  timbers  abaft  the  mid 
ship  section. 

Aftmost,  Aftermost.  The  objects  nearest  the 
stern. 

Aftward.     Towards  the  stern. 

Aga.     A  superior  Turkish  officer. 

Against  the  Sun.     See  WITH  THE  SUN. 

Agal-Agal.  One  of  the  sea  fuci.  It  derives 
its  name  from  Tanjong  Agal,  on  the  coast  of 
Borneo.  It  is  thought  the  material  for  edible 
birds '-nests  is  derived  from  this  fucus. 

Agare.  The  American  aloe  from  which  cord 
age  is  made. 

Age.  In  chronology,  a  period  of  a  hundred 
years. 

AGE  OF  THE  MOON.  The  time  elapsed  since 
the  last  conjunction. 

AGE  OF  THE  TIDE.  The  interval  between 
the  transit  of  the  moon  at  which  a  tide  originates 
and  the  appearance  of  the  tide  itself.  Called 
also  Retard  of  the  Tide. — See  TIDE. 

Agea.  The  horse-block  or  grating  on  ancient 
boats  from  which  the  captain  gave  his  orders. 

Agent.  One  intrusted  with  the  business  of 
another.  See  LLOYD'S  AGENTS. 

COMMERCIAL  AGENT,  a  United  States  consu 
lar  officer.  These  officers  are  peculiar  to  the 
United  States,  and  are  not  regarded  by  other 
powers  as  entitled  to  the  rank  and  privilege  of 
consuls. 

Agent,  Navy  Pay.  An  officer  of  the  pay 
corps  in  charge  of  a  navy  pay  office.  His  duties 
are  to  advertise  for  and  purchase  all  supplies  re 
quired  by  the  Navy  Department  and  its  bureaus 
for  the  use  of  every  branch  of  the  navy ;  to  pay 
mileage  and  traveling  expenses  of  officers  travel 
ing  under  orders ;  to  make  advances  to  officers 
ordered  to  sea ;  to  pay  allotments ;  to  furnish 
transportation  for  enlisted  men ;  to  pay  certifi 
cates  of  indebtedness  issued  by  the  Fourth  Audi 
tor  to  claimants,  and  to  act  as  a  general  disburs 
ing  agent  for  the  Navy  Department.  He  renders 
complete  quarterly  returns  to  the  Fourth  Auditor. 
Navy  pay  offices  are  established  in  Boston,  New 
York  City,  Philadelphia,  Baltimore,  Washington, 
Norfolk,  and  San  Francisco. 

Aggression.  The  first  act  in  provoking  hos 
tilities. 

Agon.    A  Chinese  cymbal.     See  GONG. 


Agreement.  (Eng.)  In  vessels  of  more  than 
eighty  tons  the  master  must  enter  into  an  agree 
ment  with  every  seaman  on  board,  and  that 
agreement  must  be  in  the  form  sanctioned  by  the 
Board  of  Trade. 

KUNNING  AGREEMENT  is  an  agreement  ex 
tending  over  several  voyages  when  they  are  less 
than  six  months  in  duration. 

Aground.  The  situation  of  a  ship  when  she 
touches  or  rests  on  the  bottom. 

Aguada.  The  Spanish  and  Portuguese  term 
for  a  watering-place. 

Ahead.  Farther  onward,  or  immediately  be 
fore  the  ship. 

AHEAD  OF  THE  BECKONING.  Beyond  the 
position  as  determined  by  logging. 

Ahold.  To  lay  a  ship  ahold  is  to  bring  her  to 
lie  as  close  to  the  wind  as  possible. 

Ahoo.     Awry,  aslant,  lopsided. 

Ahoy.  An  exclamation  used  in  hailing  a  ship ; 
as,  ship  ahoy  !  It  means  literally  stop. 

Ahull.  A  ship  under  bare  poles,  with  her 
helm  lashed  a-lee,  lying  nearly  broadside  on  to 
the  wind  and  sea. 

Aich's  Metal.     See  GUN-METAL. 

Aid.    Assistance. 

Aid.  (See  EXECUTIVE  OFFICER.)  An  officer 
not  above  the  rank  of  lieutenant  on  the  personal 
staff  of  the  commander-in-chief,  and  under  the 
immediate  direction  of  the  chief  of  staff  to  per 
form  such  duties  as  may  be  assigned  him,  includ 
ing  that  of  secretary. 

The  commanding  officer  of  a  vessel  is  em 
powered  to  detail  a  junior  officer  to  act  as  his 
personal  aid. 

There  is  attached  to  each  navy-yard  or  station 
an  officer  not  above  the  grade  of  commander, 
who  is  called  senior  aid  to  the  commander,  who 
acts  as  his  principal  aid  in  regard  to  the  duties 
of  the  yard. 

Aigre.  The  sudden  flowing  of  the  sea.  See 
BORE. 

Aiguade.     (Fr.)    Water  for  ship's  use. 

Aiguilletes.  (Fr.)  Tagged  points  or  cords 
worn  across  the  breast  on  some  uniforms. 

Ailettes.  Small  plates  of  metal  placed  on  the 
shoulders  on  mediaeval  armor,  the  prototype  of 
the  modern  epaulet. 

Aim.  The  pointing  of  a  weapon  at  the  target. 
An  order  to  point  the  weapon  at  the  object. 

Aim-frontlet.  (Obsolete.)  A  piece  of  wood 
hollowed  out  to  fit  the  muzzle  of  a  gun  so  as  to 
give  a  line  of  sight  parallel  with  the  axis  of  the 
bore. 

Air.  The  atmosphere;  the  fluid  which  we 
breathe. 

To  AIR.     To  dry ;  to  ventilate. 

Air-bladder.  A  peculiar  organ  in  some  kinds 
of  fishes  by  which  they  maintain  their  equi 
librium  in  the  water. 

Air-blast.  A  current  of  air  induced  by  a 
blower.  See  BLOWER. 

Air-casing.  A  sheet-iron  casing  around  the 
smoke-stack  to  protect  the  deck. 

Air-chamber.  A  cavity  containing  air  to  act 
as  a  spring  for  equalizing  the  flow  of  a  liquid  in 
a  hydraulic  machine.  See  ORDNANCE. 

Air  Engine.  An  engine  put  in  motion  by  hot 
air  instead  of  steam ;  a  caloric  engine. 

Air-funnel.  A  cavity  formed  by  the  omission 
of  a  timber  in  the  upper  works  to  admit  fresh 
air  into  a  ship's  hold  and  convey  the  foul  air  out. 


AIR-FURNACE 


26 


A-LEE 


Air-furnace.  A  furnace  with  a  natural  draft 
and  110  blast. 

Air-gun.  A  pneumatic  machine  for  propel 
ling  projectiles.  They  have  been  constructed  to 
carry  as  far  as  an  ordinary  musket. 

Air-hole.  A  cavity  in  a  casting  formed  by 
bubbles  in  the  molten  liquid.  A  vent-hole  in  a 
mold.  A  hole  in  the  ice.  A  draft-hole  in  a 
register.  A  small  hole  in  a  cask  to  admit  air 
when  the  faucet  is  turned  on. 

Airing  Stage.  A  platform  on  which  gun 
powder  is  aired  and  dried. 

Air-jacket.  A  garment  capable  of  being  in 
flated  and  used  as  a  life-preserver. 

Air-pipe.  Funnels  for  clearing  ships'  holds  of 
foul  air.  A  small  pipe  leading  from  the  hot  well 
outboard. 

Air-port.  A  scuttle  cut  in  the  bow,  stern,  or 
sides  of  a  ship  to  admit  air  and  light. 

Airs.     Light  breezes. 

Air-scuttle.  A  scuttle  cut  in  the  deck  or  grat 
ing  for  the  admission  of  air. 

Air-thermometer.  An  instrument  in  which 
the  contraction  and  expansion  of  the  air  meas 
ure  the  temperature. 

Air-tube.  A  small  tube  suspended  in  the 
coal-bunker  for  the  purpose  of  ascertaining  the 
temperature  of  the  coal,  as  a  precaution  against 
spontaneous  combustion. 

Air-valve.     See  VACUUM-VALVE. 

Akreyri.  A  town  of  Iceland,  on  the  Eyiafiord. 
Lat.  65°  40'  N. ;  Ion.  18°  W.  It  has  an  excellent 
harbor. 

Akyab.  A  town  and  seaport  of  British  Bur- 
mah,  in  Aracan,  on  the  E.  side  of  the  island  of 
Akyab.  It  has  an  excellent  harbor.  Pop.  15,281. 

Alamak.     7  Andromedte. 

Alamottie.  Mother  Gary's  chicken  ;  the  storm 
finch  ;  the  stormy  petrel. 

Aland.     An  old  word  for  ashore,  or  to  land. 

Alarcon,  Hernando  de.  A  Spanish  naviga 
tor  of  the  16th  century,  to  whom  we  owe  the 
first  precise  knowledge  of  California.  He  sailed 
May  9,  1540,  in  the  service  of  Spain,  missed  a 
junction  with  the  expedition  of  Coronado  on  the 
western  coast  of  America,  and,  returning  to  New 
Spain  in  1541,  drew  up  his  maps  and  observa 
tions.  His  discoveries,  and  those  of  Ulloa,  were 
so  complete  that  the  map  of  California  of  1541 
differs  little  from  that  made  in  our  own  day. 

Alarm.  Any  sound  or  information  intended 
to  give  notice  of  approaching  danger. 

FALSE  ALARM.  An  alarm  which  had  no 
foundation  in  fact,  being  given  through  misap 
prehension,  or  through  design,  in  order  to  exer 
cise  the  men  at  their  duties. 

Alarm-gauge.  A  contrivance  in  the  steam- 
engine  for  showing  when  the  pressure  of  steam 
is  too  high  or  the  water  in  the  boiler  too  low. 

Alarm-gun.     A  gun  fired  to  give  an  alarm. 

Alarmist.  One  who  habitually  excites  alarm  ; 
one  who  is  given  to  finding  causes  for  alarm. 

Alarms,  Marine.  Fog-bells,  trumpets,  horns, 
and  whistles  operated  by  the  waves,  winds,  tides, 
currents,  or  by  clock-work. 

Alarms,  Nautical.  Contrivances  on  board 
ship  to  indicate  a  leak  or  the  accumulation  of 
bilge-water. 

Albany-beef.     A  name  for  the  sturgeon. 

Albatross.  A  large  sea-bird  belonging  to  the 
genus  Diomeda. 

Alberton.    A  seaport  town  of  Prince  Edward 


Island.  The  port,  called  Cascumpeque,  or  Hol 
land  Harbor,  is  the  best  on  the  northern  side  of 
the  island.  Pop.  600. 

Albion.  A  name  for  England,  from  the  white 
ness  of  the  cliffs. 

Alburnum.  The  slab-cuts  of  timber  ;  the  sap- 
wood. 

Alcatraz.     The  pelican. 

Aldebaran.  A  star  of  the  first  magnitude, 
popularly  known  as  the  Bull's-eye.  It  is  the 
bright  star  in  the  group  of  five  called  the  Ifyades, 
and  is  conspicuous  by  its  ruddy  color.  See 
TAURUS. 

Alden,  James,  Rear-Admiral  U.S.N.  Born 
in  Maine.  Appointed  midshipman  from  same 
State,  April  1,  1828. 

Promoted  to  passed  midshipman,  June  14, 
1834  ;  navy-yard,  Boston,  1835  ;  exploring  expe 
dition  around  the  world,  1838-42. 

Commissioned  as  lieutenant,  February  25, 
1841 ;  naval  station,  Boston,  1843  ;  frigate  "  Con 
stitution''  around  the  world,  second  time,  1844- 
46;  while  attached  to  this  vessel,  commanded  a 
boat  expedition  and  cut  out  several  war  junks 
from  under  the  guns  of  the  fort  at  Zuron  Bay, 
Cochin-China;  home  squadron  during  Mexican 
war ;  present  at  the  capture  of  Vera  Cruz,  Tus- 
pan,  and  Tobasco ;  naval  station,  Boston,  1847; 
coast  survey,  1848-60 ;  made  a  reconnoissance  of 
all  the  West  coast.  In  the  winter  of  1855-56, 
during  the  Indian  war  in  Puget  Sound,  volun 
teered  with  the  surveying  steamer  "  Active"  to 
co-operate  with  the  army,  and  rendered  important 
aid  in  bringing  the  war  to  a  close ;  by  his  timely 
arrival  in  the  spring  of  the  same  year  at  San 
Juan  Island,  prevented  a  collision  between  the 
British  naval  forces  and  the  United  States  troops ; 
assisted  in  landing  troops  enough  to  hold  the 
island  in  dispute  against  the  threatened  attack 
of  the  British. 

Commissioned  as  commander,  September  14, 
1855;  commanding  the  steamer  "South  Caro 
lina"  at  the  commencement  of  the  rebellion, 
May,  1861;  reinforced  Fort  Pickens,  while  block 
ading  Galveston,  Texas ;  had  a  fight  with  the 
batteries  in  the  rear  of  the  city  ;  while  there, 
captured  thirteen  schooners  laden  with  merchan 
dise  ;  commanded  sloop  "  Richmond"  at  the 
passage  of  Forts  Jackson  and  St.  Philip  and  the 
engagement  with  Chalmette  batteries  and  de 
fenses  of  New  Orleans ;  passage  of  Vicksburg 
batteries  twice  ;  Port  Hudson,  1862-63. 

Commissioned  as  captain,  January  2,  1863; 
commanded  steam-sloop  "  Brooklyn"  in  the 
action  with  Forts  Morgan  and  Gaines  and  the 
rebel  gunboats  in  Mobile  Bay ;  commanded  two 
attacks  on  Fort  Fisher.  Capt.  Alden  took  a 
prominent  part  in  all  the  great  naval  battles  of 
the  war,  and  was  handsomely  mentioned  in  the 
official  reports. 

Commissioned  as  commodore,  July  25,  1866 ; 
commanding  steam-sloop  "Susquehanna,"  spe 
cial  service,  1867 ;  commanding  steam-frigate 
"Minnesota,"  special  service,  1867-68;  com 
mandant  navy-yard,  Mare  Island,  California, 
1868-69;  Chief  of  Bureau  of  Navigation  and 
Detail,  Navy  Department,  1869-71  ;  promoted 
to  rear-admiral,  1871 ;  commanding  European 
Squadron,  1872  ;  retired,  1873 ;  died,  1877. 

A-lee.  The  contrary  of  a-weather.  The  po 
sition  of  the  helm  when  the  tiller  is  put  over  to 
the  lee  side  of  the  ship. 


ALEKT 


ALIEN 


HELM'S  A-LEE.  The  order  to  let  go  the  head- 
sheets  when  the  helm  is  down. 

Alert.  Watchful ;  vigilant ;  on  the  look-out, 
and  ready  for  any  emergency. 

Alewife.     A  fish  of  the  herring  kind. 

Alexandria.  A  celebrated  city  and  seaport  of 
Egypt,  near  the  westernmost  branch  of  the  Nile, 
on  the  Mediterranean,  112  miles  N.W.  of  Cairo. 
Alexandria  has  a  large  naval  arsenal,  naval  and 
military  hospitals.  The  city  has  an  excellent 
new  artificial  harbor,  formed  by  a  breakwater, 
mole,  and  quays.  It  has  regular  steam  commu 
nication  with  all  the  great  Mediterranean  ports, 
and  is  the  great  emporium  of  Egypt.  Pop. 
220,000. 

Alexandria.  A  city  and  port  of  entry  in  Vir 
ginia,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Potomac,  7  miles 
below  Washington.  The  river  here  is  a  mile 
wide,  and  forms  a  commodious  harbor  sufficiently 
deep  for  the  largest  ships.  Pop.  14,000. 

Alexiacus.     An  appellation  of  Neptune. 

Alfondiza.     The  custom-house  at  Lisbon. 

Alga.     A  species  of  millepora. 

Algae.  Flowerless,  cryptogamic  plants,  cel 
lular,  found  chiefly  as  sea- weeds,  but  also  in 
rivers,  marshes,  springs,  hot  and  cold,  and  moist 
places  everywhere.  About  2000  species  are  known 
and  have  been  described,  and  among  these  there 
is  a  great  variety  of  forms.  Some  are  attached 
to  rocks,  and  others  are  entirely  free.  None  of 
them  have  proper  roots,  but  merely  processes  for 
their  attachment  to  the  surfaces  on  which  they 
are  fixed.  They  derive  their  sustenance  exclu 
sively,  it  would  seem,  from  the  medium  sur 
rounding  them,  in  which  respect,  as  well  as  in 
their  composition,  they  differ  from  fungi.  Their 
substance  consists  chiefly  of  vegetable  gelatine, 
soluble  in  boiling  water ;  the  harder  parts  of 
their  fronds  are  sometimes  leathery,  or  horny,  or 
cartilaginous,  but  never  really  ligneous.  They 
are  composed  entirely  of  cells,  some  consisting 
of  one  cell  only ;  the  composite  ones  are  easily 
separable,  and  the  individual  cells  are  generally 
capable  of  independent  existence,  as  in  the  case 
of  the  proto-coccus,  or  red  snow  plant.  The 
spores  and  fronds  of  algae  are  frequently  of  the 
same  color,  the  most  common  colors  being  brown, 
or  orange-brown,  rose  color  approaching  red,  or 
green.  Algae  are  multiplied  by  division  of  cells 
and  by  spores.  Fertilization  is  effected  by  con 
jugation  or  union  of  cells,  the  contents  of  one 
passing  into  another  and  giving  rise  to  germi 
nating  spores.  This  is  seen  in  the  confervse 
of  stagnant  ponds.  Other  algae  are  fertilized 
by  moving  filaments  or  spermatozoids.  Others 
contain  a  rudimentary  cell  which,  by  contact 
with  spermatozoids,  becomes  a  spore  and  then  a 
new  plant.  There  are  also  zoospores  which 
move  about  in  the  water,  the  cells  ultimately 
bursting  and  scattering  them,  and  the  cilia  by 
which  they  moved  disappearing  as  the  spores  be 
come  fixed.  Many  of  the  algae  supply  nutritious 
food,  others  are  of  value  as  yielding  barilla,  an 
impure  carbonate  of  soda  largely  used  in  manu 
facturing,  and  all  are  useful  as  manure.  Some 
species  are  of  immense  length  and  size,  such  as 
Macrocystis  pyrifera,  Lessonia  fuscescens,  and 
D'lnvillea  utilis,  which  are  found  hundreds 
of  feet  long  and  as  thick  as  the  human  body. 
More  frequently,  however,  they  are  small,  vary 
ing  from  a  few  inches  to  several  feet  in  length, 
while  some  species  are  visible  only  through  the 


microscope.  The  distribution  of  algse  as  to 
depth  varies;  their  actual  depth  is  still  a  dis 
puted  point  with  naturalists.  It  is  impossible  in 
the  present  state  of  knowledge  to  estimate  their 
extreme  limit,  but  vegetation,  as  usually  under 
stood,  is  practically  limited  to  depths  under  100 
fathoms.  Very  few  of  the  higher  algse  live, 
even  occasionally,  on  the  surface  of  the  sea ;  a 
notable  exception  is  the  gulf-weed,  so  called 
(Sargassumbacciferum),  which  see. 

Algeciras.  A  seaport  town  of  Spain,  on  the 
W.  side  of  the  Bay  of  Gibraltar,  opposite  to  and 
6  miles  W.  of  Gibraltar.  Pop.  14,000. 

Algenib.     y  Pegasi. 

Algere.  A  spear  used  by  fishermen  in  olden 
times. 

Algiers.  A  city  of  North  Africa,  on  the  W. 
side  of  a  bay  of  its  own  name.  Lat.  36°  47'  3X/ 
N. ;  Ion.  3°  4'  5"  E.  The  harbor  has  a  mole 
580  feet  in  length  by  140  in  width,  extending 
from  the  mainland  to  an  inlet,  on  which  are  a 
strong  castle  with  batteries  and  a  light-house. 
Pop.  54,000. 

Algol.     A  variable  star  in  Perseus. 

Algorab.  a  Corvi,  but  its  brightness  of  late  is 
rivalled  by  ft  Corvi. 

Alibi.  The  Latin  word  meaning  elsewhere. 
Before  courts-martial,  as  well  as  in  those  of  civil 
jurisdiction,  when  an  accused  person  proves  that 
at  the  time  of  the  commission  of  the  alleged  of 
fense  he  was  somewhere  else  than  at  the  scene 
of  the  offending,  he  is  said  to  have  proven  an 
alibi. 

Alicante.  A  city  and  seaport  of  Spain,  lo 
cated  at  the  head  of  an  extensive  bay.  Lat. 
38°  27'  1"  N. ;  Ion.  0°  26'  W.  The  harbor  is 
onl}7  a  roadstead  in  a  deep  bay,  small  vessels 
alone  being  able  to  approach  the  quay.  Pop. 
30,000. 

Alidade.  The  movable  arm  of  an  instrument 
fitted  with  sights  or  a  telescope. 

Alien.  (Lat.  alienus,  belonging  to  another, 
foreign.)  In  England,  by  the  common  law,  an 
alien  was  one  born  out  of  the  king's  dominions  or 
allegiance.  The  only  exceptions  to  this  rule 
were  such  children  of  the  king  as  might  be  born 
abroad,  and  the  children  of  his  ambassadors  so 
born.  By  several  statutes,  to  wit :  25  Edw. 
III.,  passed  in  1350;  29  Charles  II.,  1676;  7 
Anne,  1708;  10  Anne,  1711;  4  Geo.  II.,  1731; 
13  Geo.  III.,  1773  ;  7  and  8  Viet.,  1844,  the  com 
mon  law  rule  has  been  altered,  so  that  now  all 
children  born  out  of  the  king's  allegiance  whose 
fathers  (or  grandfathers  by  the  father's  side)  or 
whose  mothers  were  natural-born  subjects,  are 
deemed  to  be  natural-born  subjects  themselves, 
unless  their  said  ancestors  were  attainted  or 
banished  beyond  sea  for  high  treason,  or  were  at 
the  birth  of  such  children  in  the  service  of  a 
prince  at  enmity  with  Great  Britain. 

In  this  country  an  alien  is  one  born  out  of  the 
limits  and  jurisdiction  of  the  United  States.  The 
children  of  fathers,  however,  who  at  the  time  of 
such  children's  birth  were  citizens  of  the  United 
States,  and  had  resided  in  the  United  States,  are, 
notwithstanding  the  fact  of  being  born  abroad, 
citizens.  An  alien  becomes  a  citizen  by  natural 
ization  (which  see).  In  time  of  war  a  valid  con 
tract  cannot  be  made  between  a  citizen  and  an 
alien  enemy,  nor  can  such  a  contract  be  enforced 
after  peace  has  been  declared  During  a  war  an 
alien  enemy  cannot  prosecute  an  action  of  any 


ALIGNMENT 


28 


ALMAFADAS 


kind  in  the  courts  of  the  United  States  ;  his  right 
of  action,  however,  revives  on  the  declaration  of 
peace.  See  INTERNATIONAL  LAW. 

Alignment.  An  imaginary  line  to  regulate 
the  formation  of  a  squadron. 

Alioth.     The  star  e  Ursce  Majoris. 

All.     The  whole  ;  quite. 

ALL  AGOG.     In  a  flurry  of  excitement. 

ALL  AHOO.     Confused  ;  awry  ;  aslant. 

ALL-A-TAUNT-O.  Fully  rigged  with  masts 
an-end,  yards  crossed,  and  rigging  rove. 

ALL  HANDS.     The  whole  ship's  company. 

ALL  HANDS!  The  boatswain's  summons  for 
the  whole  crew,  in  distinction  from  the  watch. 

ALL  KEADY  FORWARD,  ALL  KEADY  THE 
MAIN,  etc.  The  notice  that  a  particular  part 
of  the  ship  is  ready  for  the  next  order. . 

ALL  STANDING.  Fully  equipped.  To  be 
brought  up  all  standing  is  to  be  suddenly  stopped 
without  any  preparation. 

ALL'S  WELL.  The  sentry's  call  as  each  bell  is 
struck,  from  tattoo  to  reveille. 

ALL  TO  PIECES.     Out-and-out ;  excessively. 

ALL  WEATHERS.     All  times  and  all  seasons. 

ALL  IN  THE  WIND.     The  sails  shivering. 

ALL  OF  A  HEAP.     Dumfounded;  confused. 

STERN  ALL.  The  shout  of  the  harpooner 
when  the  fish  is  struck. 

HAUL  or  ALL.  To  swing  all  the  yards  at 
the  same  time. 

ALL  UP  AND  AFT.  The  report  of  the  officer 
of  the  deck  when  the  oificers  and  men  are  assem 
bled  on  the  quarter-deck  ready  for  muster. 

Allan.  A  piece  of  land  nearly  surrounded  by 
water. 

Allege.     (Fr.)     A  ballast-boat. 

Allegiance.  The  tie  which  binds  the  citizen 
to  his  sovereign  or  country.  Its  full  considera 
tion  involves  an  examination  of  the  right  of  a 
citizen  to  expatriate  himself,  a  matter  about 
which  there  is  a  conflict  of  theories.  The  com 
mon  law  of  England  denies  the  right  of  the 
subject  to  throw  off  his  allegiance  to  the  country 
of  his  birth,  and  European  nations  generally 
have  taken  the  same  position,  while  in  the 
United  States  we  require  of  persons  seeking 
naturalization  the  renunciation  of  their  former 
allegiance.  The  inherent  difficulties  of  the  sub 
ject  make  it  improbable  that  any  solution  will 
ever  be  attained  by  legislative  action,  but  it  may 
be  assumed  that  the  sense  of  humanity  of  en 
lightened  nations  at  this  day  will  prevent  being 
treated  as  criminals,  persons  who,  by  the  silent 
acquiescence,  and,  therefore,  the  presumed  con 
sent  ,of  the  country  of  their  birth,  have  removed 
to  other  countries  and  assumed  a  new  allegiance, 
even  if  they  should  be  taken  in  arms  against 
their  native  country.  Many  of  the  questions 
growing  out  of  the  subject  have  been  disposed 
of  by  treaties  between  the  United  States  and 
foreign  nations.  See  NATURALIZATION. 

Alley.  A  passage-way  between  the  tiers  of 
tanks  in  a  magazine.  (See  MAGAZINE.)  A 
passage-way  affording  means  of  access  to  the 
propeller-shaft. 

Alliance.  A  league  between  two  or  more 
friendly  powers,  either  offensive  and  defensive, 
or  defensive  only. 

Alligator.     The  American  crocodile. 

Alligator  Water.  The  muddy,  brackish  water 
near  the  mouth  of  tropical  rivers. 

Allision.    Synonymous  with  collision,  but  is 


sometimes  used  to  mark  a  distinction  between 
one  vessel  running  into  another,  and  two  vessels 
striking  each  the  other. 

Allotment.  That  part  of  the  pay  of  a  person 
on  duty  in  a  United  States  vessel  which  is  paid 
during  his  absence  to  some  person  on  shore.  Al 
lotments  may  be  granted  by  any  officer,  or, 
with  the  approval  of  the  commanding  officer,  by 
any  man  or  petty  officer  in  a  vessel  in  commis 
sion.  They  are  paid  by  navy  pay  agents  to  the 
allottees  on  the  last  day  of  every  month,  and  the 
paymaster  of  the  vessel  at  the  same  time  deducts 
the  amount  of  the  allotment  from  the  allottor's 
pay.  The  allottee  must  be  a  member  of  the 
allottor's  family,  or  some  person  who  receives 
the  money  for  the  benefit  of  said  family.  Allot 
ments  cannot  exceed  one-half  the  allottor's 
monthly  pay.  It  is  the  duty  of  the  paymaster 
having  charge  of  the  allottor's  account  to  deduct 
as  much  from  his  pay  as  is  paid  on  the  allotment, 
and,  in  case  of  death,  desertion,  or  discharge  of 
the  allottor,  to  give  notice  to  the  navy  pay  agent 
to  cease  payments  to  the  allottee.  The  Fourth 
Auditor  keeps  a  register  of  all  allotments,  the 
amounts  paid  to  the  allottees,  and  the  amounts 
checked  from  the  pay  of  the  allottors.  In  case 
more  is  deducted  from  the  pay  of  an  allottor 
than  is  paid  to  the  allottee,  the  difference  will  be 
paid  to  the  former  on  application  to  the  Fourth 
Auditor. 

Allowance.  Reimbursement  of  incidental  ex 
penses  or  losses  incurred  in  the  performance  of 
duty ;  as,  traveling  allowance,  allowance  to  pay 
masters  for  loss  on  clothing,  small  stores,  etc. 
A  gratuity  or  bounty  ;  as,  allowance  of  additional 
pay  on  re-enlistment.  A  commutation  ;  as,  allow 
ance  for  the  subsistence  of  pilots  in  officers' 
messes.  A  ration  or  fixed  quantity  of  food.  It 
is  double,  full,  two-thirds,  half,  or  short,  accord 
ing  to  circumstances.  (Commercial.}  A  cus 
tomary  deduction  from  the  gross  weight  of  goods, 
varying  in  different  countries. 

Alloy.  A  combination  of  metals  by  fusion. 
The  term  is  also  applied  to  the  metal  that  is 
mixed  with  gold  or  silver.  The  properties  of 
the  alloy  are  very  different  from  the  mean  of 
the  properties  of  the  constituents,  the  alloy  being 
harder,  more  tenacious,  less  ductile,  fusing  at  a 
lower  temperature,  and  more  easily  oxidized. 
Its  density  may  be  either  greater  or  less  than 
this  mean,  and  its  power  of  conducting  electricity 
is  less.  If  mercury  enter  into  a  combination,  it 
is  known  as  an  amalgam. 

Alluvion,  or  Alluvium.  A  deposit  of  earth, 
gravel,  etc.,  along  shores  or  banks,  caused  by 
the  washing  of  the  water,  or  by  the  precipitation 
of  substances  held  in  solution. "  Sea  alluvions  dif 
fer  from  those  of  rivers  in  that  they  form  a  slope 
toward  the  land. 

Ally.  A  confederate.  A  prince  or  state  united 
to  another  by  treaty.  See  ALLIANCE. 

Almacantars.  Circles  parallel  to  the  horizon, 
and  passing  through  every  meridian. 

ALMACANTARS  STAFF.  An  old  instrument  of 
15°  of  arc  to  observe  the  amplitude. 

Almady.  A  canoe  made  of  bark,  used  by  the 
natives  of  Africa  for  war  purposes.  The  name 
is  also  applied  to  a  boat  in  use  at  Calcutta,  often 
measuring  from  80  to  100  feet  in  length,  and 
generally  from  6  to  7  feet  in  breadth. 

Almafadas.  Large  dunnage  cut  on  the  coast 
of  Portugal. 


ALMANAC 


29 


ALMY 


Almanac.  A  calendar  of  the  days  and  months 
of  the  year,  to  which  is  generally  added  a  record 
of  the  feast-days  and  celestial  phenomena. 

Almanac,  The  Nautical.  As  the  astronomi 
cal  ephemeris  had  its  origin  in  the  necessity  for 
easy  and  accurate  prediction  of  the  phenomena 
and  configurations  of  the  heavenly  bodies,  so  the 
nautical  almanac  originated  in  connection  with 
the  necessity  for  safe  and  speedy  navigation. 
So  soon  as  out  of  sight  of  land  the  navigator  has 
but  one  sure  means  of  information  as  to  his  posi 
tion  at  sea ;  his  compass  gives  him  only  the  di 
rection  in  which  his  ship  lies  or  is  sailing ;  he 
must  rely  upon  the  heavens  alone  for  the  precise 
determination  of  his  position ;  and  the  problem 
of  longitude  and  latitude  is  capable  of  solution 
only  in  connection  with  some  prediction  (a  suit 
able  period  in  advance)  of  the  absolute  positions 
of  the  bodies  observed  at  the  time  when  the  ob 
servations  are  made  upon  them.  This  annual 
volume  of  such  predictions  of  the  positions  of 
the  heavenly  bodies  as  are  necessary  in  the  navi 
gation  of  ships  constitutes  the  nautical  almanac. 
In  general,  these  predictions  are  given  for  equi 
distant  intervals  of  time,  so  that  by  interpolation 
the  position  of  a  single  body,  or  the  relative  posi 
tion  of  two  bodies,  may  be  readily  computed  for 
any  intermediate  epoch.  Long  before  the  pub 
lication  of  the  first  nautical  almanac,  books  of 
predictions,  known  as  ephemerides,  had  been 
issued  from  time  to  time,  at  irregular  intervals, 
mostly  for  the  convenience  of  astronomers.  It 
required  simply  a  regulation  and  extension  of 
the  idea  of  these  volumes  to  make  up  a  nautical 
almanac.  The  nautical  almanac  proper  had  its 
origin  with  the  English  nation  about  the  middle 
of  the  18th  century.  It  owes  its  existence  to  a 
memorial  presented  to  the  Commissioners  of 
Longitude,  on  February  9,  1765,  by  Dr.  Maske- 
lyne,  in  which,  after  stating  many  facts  and  ex 
periments  to  prove  the  utility  of  the  lunar  method 
of  obtaining  the  longitude  at  sea,  he  concludes, 
that  "nothing  is  wanting  to  make  this  method 
generally  practicable  at  Sea  but  a  Nautical 
Ephemeris."  Dr.  Maskelyne  proposed  the  con 
struction  of  such  a  "Nautical  Ephemeris"  from 
the  "  New  and  Correct  Tables  of  the  Motions  of 
the  Sun  and  Moon,"  by  Tobias  Mayer.  The 
first  volume  issued  was  that  for  the  year  1767. 
Gradually  additions  were  made  to  the  nautical 
almanac,  and  improvements  introduced,  mostly, 
however,  in  the  direction  of  such  predictions  and 
ephemerides  as  were  of  more  service  to  the  as 
tronomer  than  to  the  navigator,  and  the  volume 
assumed  the  name  of  "  The  Nautical  Almanac 
and  Astronomical  Ephemeris,"  which  title  it  re 
tains  to  the  present  day.  The  most  important 
era  in  the  history  of  the  nautical  almanac  is 
marked  by  the  "  Report  of  the  Committee  of 
the  Astronomical  Society  of  London  relative  to 
the  Improvement  of  the  Nautical  Almanac," 
adopted  November  19,  1830.  One  very  great 
improvement  consisted  in  the  abolition  of  the 
use  of  apparent  time  in  all  the  computations  of 
the  nautical  almanac,  and  the  substitution  of 
mean  time  therefor.  (See  EPHEMERIS,  THE 
ASTRONOMICAL.)  The  entire  almanac  was  re 
modeled  by  this  committee ;  and  the  new  ar 
rangement  of  the  several  ephemerides  therein 
contained  has  formed  the  basis  of  all  subsequent 
nautical  almanacs,  and  has  remained  unchanged 
in  the  "  British  Nautical  Almanac"  up  to  the 


latest  volume, — that  for  the  year  1883.  "  The 
American  Nautical  Almanac"  had  its  origin 
nearly  a  century  after  the  "  British  Nautical 
Almanac."  On  March  3,  1849,  an  act  of  Con 
gress  was  approved  providing  for  the  prepara 
tion  of  such  a  work.  The  preparation  of  the 
first  volume — that  for  the  year  1855 — was  begun 
in  the  latter  part  of  1849,  and  the  series  of  vol 
umes  is  unbroken  down  to  the  present  time,  the 
volume  for  1883  having  just  been  issued.  By 
act  of  Congress,  "  The  meridian  of  the  observa 
tory  at  Washington  shall  be  adopted  and  used 
as  the  American  meridian  for  astronomical  pur 
poses,  and  the  meridian  of  Greenwich  shall  be 
adopted  for  all  nautical  purposes."  This  law 
was  the  occasion  of  the  subdivision  of  "The 
American  Ephemeris  and  Nautical  Almanac" 
into  two  distinct  parts,  and  the  publication  of 
,two  separate  volumes.  Part  the  first  is  sub 
stantially  identical  with  that  portion  of  the 
"British  Nautical  Almanac"  intended  for  the 
special  use  of  navigators,  and  is  likewise  com 
puted  for  the  meridian  of  Greenwich.  This  part 
contains  all  the  data  necessary  in  the  navigation . 
of  ships,  and  is  published  three  years  in  advance 
of  the  year  for  which  it  is  computed.  "  The  Amer 
ican  Nautical  Almanac"  likewise  contains  ac 
counts  of  the  transits  of  Mercury  and  Venus,  and 
of  eclipses  of  the  sun  and  moon,  with  engraved 
diagrams  of  the  solar  eclipses.  Each  volume 
contains  also  an  article  on  the  arrangement  and 
use  of  the  various  ephemerides,  and  a  selection 
of  subsidiarv  tables,  of  frequent  use  to  the  navi 
gator.—  D.  P.  Tod. 

Almath.  The  star  in  Aries  whence  the  first 
mansion  of  the  moon  takes  its  name. 

Almeria.  A  city  and  port  of  Spain,  in  An 
dalusia,  on  the  Mediterranean,  104  miles  E.  of 
Malaga.  In  the  bay  there  is  a  good  anchorage, 
in  12  and  14  fathoms.  Pop.  30,000. 

Almirante.     (Sp.)     Admiral. 

Almury.     The  upright  part  of  an  astrolabe. 

Almy,  John  J.,  Rear-Admiral  U.S.N.  Born 
in  Rhode  Island  in  the  year  1815.  Appointed 
from  that  state  as  midshipman,  February  2, 1829 ; 
attached  to  the  "  Concord,"  Mediterranean,  1830- 
32;  "Ontario,"  coast  of  Brazil,  1833-34;  pro 
moted  to  passed  midshipman  July  3,  1835;  re 
ceiving-ship  at  New  York,  1836-37;  "  Cyane," 
Mediterranean,  1838-41. 

Commissioned  as  lieutenant,  March  8,  1841  ; 
brig  "Bainbridge,"  West  Indies,  1842;  frigate 
"/Macedonian,"  coast  of  Africa,  1843-45;  line- 
of-battle  ship  "Ohio,"  Gulf  of  Mexico  and  Pa 
cific  Ocean  during  the  Mexican  war  and  after  the 
war,  1846-50;  participated  in  the  siege  and  cap 
ture  of  Vera  Cruz  and  the  capture  of  Tuspan ; 
latter  part  of  the  war — 1848 — on  the  Pacific 
coast,  and  commanded  one  of  the  forts  at  Ma- 
zatlan  during  the  naval  occupation  of  that  place; 
coast  survey  in  1851-56,  on  the  survey  of  Chesa 
peake  Bay  and  the  sea-coast  of  Virginia  and 
North  Carolina  ;  commanding  "  Fulton,"  on  the 
coast  of  Central  America,  in  1857,  when  General 
Walker  and  his  filibustering  party  surrendered 
to  Rear-Admiral  Paulding,  on  board  of  that  ves 
sel,  at  Nicaragua.  Commanded  the  "  Fulton" 
in  the  expedition  to  Paraguay  in  1858-59  ;  at 
navy^yard,  New  York,  1860-61. 

Commissioned  as  commander,  April  24,  1861  ; 
commanded  "  South  Carolina,"  South  Atlantic 
Squadron,  1862-63 ;  "Connecticut,"  North  At- 


ALNUS 


30 


ALTITUDE 


lantic  Squadron,  1864 ;  "  Juniata,"  South  Atlan 
tic  Squadron,  1865. 

While  in  command  of  the  "Connecticut," 
captured  and  sent  in  four  noted  blockade-running 
steamers  with  valuable  cargoes  ;  ran  ashore  and 
destroyed  four  others. 

Commissioned  as  captain,  March  3, 1865  ;  com 
manded  "  Juniata"  in  a  cruise  to  the  South  At 
lantic  (coast  of  Brazil  and  south  coast  of  Africa), 
1865-67.  While  on  the  coast  of  Brazil  rescued 
the  Brazilian  brig  "  Americo"  and  crew  from 
shipwreck,  attended  with  great  danger,  for  which 
service  received  the  thanks  of  His  Imperial  Ma 
jesty  the  Emperor  of  Brazil.  Ordnance  duty  at 
the  navy-yard,  New  York,  1868-69. 

Commissioned  as  commodore,  December  30, 
1869 ;  chief  signal-officer  of  the  navy  at  Wash 
ington,  1870-72. 

Commissioned  as  rear-admiral,  August  24, 
1873,  and  the  following  month  took  command 
of  the  United  States  naval  forces  in  the  Pacific 
Ocean.  While  at  Panama,  in  October,  1873,  a 
serious  and  violent  revolution  broke  out,  charac 
teristic  of  that  country,  which  continued  for 
three  weeks.  The  city  of  Panama  and  the 
Panama  Railroad  were  in  imminent  danger  of 
being  destroyed.  A  force  of  seamen  and  marines 
numbering  200,  under  competent  officers,  was 
landed  from  the  ships  and  kept  on  shore  until  the 
revolution  terminated,  affording  efficient  pro 
tection  to  the  railroad,  to  American  and  to 
European  interests.  Two  United  States  ves 
sels,  the  flag-ship  "  Pensacola"  and  the  "  Be- 
nicia,"  were  the  only  men-of-war  in  port.  Pas 
sengers,  freight,  and  specie  continually  passed 
over  the  road  in  safety  and  without  interruption. 

For  these  services  Rear- Admiral  Almy  received 
the  thanks  of  the  Panama  Railroad  Company, 
the  Pacific  Mail  Steamship  Company,  and  of  all 
the  consuls  and  the  foreign  merchants  at  Pa 
nama. 

Was  in  command  of  the  United  States  naval 
forces  in  the  Pacific  for  two  years  and  ten  months. 

Has  performed  altogether  twenty-seven  years 
and  ten  months'  sea  service  ;  shore,  or  other  duty, 
fourteen  years  and  eight  months. 

In  April,  1877,  was  retired,  having  reached 
the  age  prescribed  by  law  for  retirement. 

Alnus  Caver.  Early  English  transports,  so 
called  from  the  wood  of  which  they  were  made. 

Aloft.  Overhead  ;  on  high  ;  anywhere  about 
the  upper  masts,  yards,  or  rigging.  See  ALOW. 

LAY  ALOFT  !  "The  command  to  the  men  to 
run  up  to  their  stations. 

ALOFT  THERE  !  The  hail  to  men  on  the  yards 
and  in  the  rigging. 

ALOFT  is  used  in  a  figurative  sense  for  heaven. 

Alonde.     An  old  word  for  ashore ;  on  land. 

Along.     Lengthwise. 

ALONG  OF.     With. 

LYING  ALONG.  Heeling  over  to  leeward  under 
a  press  of  sail  with  a  beam  wind. 

LYING  ALONG  THE  LAND.    Skirting  the  shore. 

Alongshore.  A  nautical  phrase  signifying 
along  the  coast,  or  a  course  which  is  in  sight  of 
the  shore.  See  'LONGSHORE. 

Alongst.  In  the  middle  of  the  stream,  moored 
head  and  stern. 

Aloof.     At  a  distance. 

Alow.  Below.  All  sail  alow  and  aloft  is  all 
plain  sail  and  stun'-sails. 

Alphabet  Telegraph.     An  apparatus  which 


marks  symbols  on  paper,  in  contradistinction  to 
those  whose  signals  are  made  by  a  needle,  mirror, 
or  sound. 

Alphard.     The  star  a  Hydros. 

Alpheratz.     a  Andromedce. 

Altair.     a  Aquilce. 

Altar.     A  step  of  a  dry-dock. 

Alternate.     To  happen  or  act  by  turns. 

ALTERNATING  WINDS.  Blow  for  a  time  in 
one  direction,  and  suddenly,  from  an  alteration 
of  the  temperature,  change  and  blow  in  the  op 
posite  directions.  See  MONSOON  and  BREEZE. 

Altiscope.  An  instrument  which  enables  an 
observer  to  look  over  an  intervening  object. 
This  instrument  has  been  applied,  not  very  suc 
cessfully,  to  pointing  guns,  the  observer  being  on 
the  deck  below. 

Altitude.  Height.  Angular  distance  of  a 
heavenly  body  above  the  horizon  measured  on  a 
great  circle. 

ALTITUDE,  CIRCLES  OF.  Great  circles  of  the 
celestial  concave  perpendicular  to  the  horizon, 
and  so  called  because  "altitudes"  are  measured  on 
them.  They  all  pass  through  the  poles  of  the 
horizon,  of  which  the  superior  is  the  "vertex" 
of  the  visible  heavens,  and  hence  they  are  also 
called  "  Vertical  Circles,"  or  simply  "  Verticals." 
In  a  polar  system  of  horizon  co-ordinates  they 
are  termed  "  Circles  of  Azimuth"  as  marking  out 
all  points  that  have  the  same  "azimuth." 

ALTITUDE,  CIRCLES  OF  EQUAL.  Circles  on  the 
earth's  surface,  from  every  point  of  each  of  which 
a  given  heavenly  body  is  observed  to  have  the 
same  altitude  at  any  given  time.  The  circle  of 
equal  altitude  is  a  great  circle  of  the  sphere  when 
the  body  is  in  the  horizon,  or  its  altitude  0 ;  the 
circle  is  reduced  to  a  point  when  the  body  is  in 
the  zenith,  or  its  altitude  90°  ;  and  between  these 
two  limits  the  parallels  are  small  circles  whose 
radii  correspond  to  the  complements  of  the  alti 
tude.  A  small  arc  of  a  circle  of  equal  altitude, 
when  projected  on  a  Mercator's  chart,  will  be 
approximately  a  straight  line,  especially  if  the  al 
titude  of  the  body  be  low.  Such  a  line  is  called 
"A  Line  of  Equal  Altitude."  The  determina 
tion  of  one  or  two  such  lines  intersecting  each 
other  forms  the  basis  of  what  is  called  "  Sum- 
ner's  Method"  of  finding  a  ship's  position  at  sea. 

ALTITUDE,  CORRECTION  IN.  The  total  correc 
tion  to  be  applied  to  the  apparent  altitude  to  de 
duce  the  true  altitude.  In  the  case  of  the  stars, 
it  is  due  solely  to  refraction,  but  for  appreciably 
near  bodies  to  the  combined  effects  of  refraction 
and  parallax. 

ALTITUDE,  A  DOUBLE.  Two  altitudes  taken 
for  the  solution  of  the  same  problem.  The  ordi 
nary  problems  for  which  the  method  furnishes  the 
data  are  finding  the  latitude,  and  rating  a  chro 
nometer.  These  altitudes  may  1  e  of  the  same 
body,  taken  at  different  times,  either  both  on  the 
same  side  or  on  opposite  sides  of  the  meridian ; 
or  of  different  bodies  similarly  situated  jobserved 
at  the  same  time ;  or,  lastly,  of  different  bodies 
similarly  situated  observed  at  different  times. 

ALTITUDE,  MERIDIAN.  The  altitude  of  a  ce 
lestial  body  when  on  the  meridian.  In  the  case 
of  a  circumpolar  star,  whose  whole  diurnal  circle 
is  completed  above  the  horizon,  the  body  comes  to 
the  meridian  twice,  when  its  altitudes  are  spoken 
of  respectively  as  "the  Meridian  Altitude  below 
the  Pole,"  and  "  the  Meridian  Altitude  above  the 
Pole"  ;  the  former  is  the  lowest  altitude  the  body 


ALTITUDE 


31 


AMMEN 


has  in  its  revolution,  the  latter  the  highest. 
The  meridian  altitude  is  easily  observed  at  sea 
with  a  sextant,  and  furnishes  the  simplest  and 
most  satisfactory  method  of  determining  the 
latitude,  the  declination  of  the  body  only  being 
required  in  addition. 

ALTITUDE,  MOTION  IN.  An  instrument  is  said 
to  move  "  in  altitude"  when  it  is  turned  on  a 
horizontal  axis  ;  in  contradistinction,  it  is  said  to 
move  "in  azimuth"  when  it  is  turned  on  a  ver 
tical  axis.  An  azimuth  and  altitude  instrument 
admits  of  both  motions. 

ALTITUDE,  OBSERVED,  APPARENT,  AND 
TRUE.  The  altitudes  of  heavenly  bodies  are  ob 
served  from  the  deck  of  a  ship  at  sea  with  the  sex 
tant.  Such  an  altitude  is  called  the  "  Observed 
Altitude."  There  are  certain  instrumental  and 
circumstantial  sources  of  error  by  which  this  is 
affected :  the  sextant  (supposed  otherwise  to  be 
in  adjustment)  may  have  an  index  error;  the 
eye  of  the  observer  being  elevated  above  the  sur 
face  of  the  sea,  the  horizon  will  appear  to  be  de 
pressed,  and  the  consequent  altitude  in  reality 
too  great ;  and  one  of  the  limbs  of  the  body  may 
be  observed  instead  of  its  centre.  When  the 
corrections  for  these  errors  and  method  of  ob 
serving  are  applied — the  "index  correction," 
"correction  for  dip,"  and  "semi-diameter" — 
the  observed  is  reduced  to  the  "  Apparent  Alti 
tude."  But  again,  for  the  sake  of  comparison 
and  computation,  all  observations  must  be  trans 
formed  into  what  they  would  have  been  had  the 
bodies  been  viewed  through  a  uniform  medium, 
and  from  one  common  centre, — the  centre  of  the 
earth.  The  altitude  supposed  to  be  so  taken  is 
called  the  "  True  Altitude"  ;  it  may  be  deduced 
from  the  apparent  altitude  by  applying  the  cor 
rections  called  "correction  for  refraction"  and 
"correction  for  parallax."  "  Correction  for  re 
fraction"  :  when  a  body  is  viewed  through  the 
atmosphere,  refraction  will  cause  the  apparent 
to  be  greater  than  the  true  altitude ;  hence  the 
correction  for  refraction  is  subtractive  in  finding 
the  true  from  the  apparent  altitude.  "  Correc 
tion  for  parallax"  :  the  position  of  the  observer 
on  the  surface,  especially  for  near  bodies,  will 
cause  the  apparent  to  be  less  than  the  true  alti 
tude  ;  hence  the  correction  for  parallax  is  addi 
tive  in  finding  the  true  from  the  apparent  al 
titude. 

ALTITUDE,  PARALLELS  OF.  Lesser  circles  of 
the  celestial  sphere  parallel  to  the  horizon.  They 
mark  all  the  points  of  the  heavens  which  have 
the  same  altitude.  The  Arabic  term  for  this 
system  was  "Almacantars.'" 

ALTITUDE,  REDUCTION  OF,  TO  ANOTHER 
PLACE  OF  OBSERVATION.  See  RUN. 

ALTITUDES,  CIRCUMMERIDIAN.  When  the 
body  is  near  the  meridian,  and  altitudes  are  ob 
served  with  a  view  of  solving  problems  by  first 
finding  from  these  the  meridian  altitude,  such 
altitudes  are  conveniently  distinguished  as  Cir- 
cummeridian  Altitudes. 

ALTITUDES,  EQUAL.  Double  altitudes  of  the 
sun,  when  at  the  same  altitude  in  the  forenoon 
and  afternoon. 

ALTITUDES,  EQUATION  OF  EQUAL.  In  equal 
altitudes  of  the  sun,  its  declination  changes 
slightly  in  the  interval  between  the  forenoon  and 
afternoon  observation,  and  therefore  the  hour- 
angles  corresponding  to  the  two  altitudes  are  not 
exactly  equal.  Hence  half  the  interval  added 


to  the  time  of  the  first  observation  requires  a  cor 
rection  in  order  to  give  the  time  shown  by  chro 
nometer  when  the  sun  is  on  the  meridian.  This 
correction  is  called  "  The  Equation  of  Equal 
Altitudes."  It  is  given  in  tables. 

ALTITUDES,  SIMULTANEOUS.  Double  alti 
tudes  of  different  bodies  taken  at  the  same  time. 

Altometer.     The  theodolite. 

Altona.  A  city  and  free  port  of  Prussia,  in 
Holstein,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Elbe,  a  little 
below  Hamburg.  It  is  accessible  to  sea-going 
vessels,  and  has  a  large  trade.  Pop.  90,000. 

Aluffe,  or  Aloof.     A  very  old  form  for  luff. 

Alveus.  An  ancient  boat  made  of  a  single 
trunk ;  a  dug-out. 

Amadas  (or  Amidas),  Philip,  b.  Hull,  1550; 
d.  England,  1618.  A  commander  of  one  of  the 
vessels  sent  out  by  Sir  Walter  Raleigh,  with 
Barlow,  to  take  possession  of  lands  on  the  east 
ern  shore  of  America.  He  discovered  Ocracoke 
Inlet,  and  landed  on  Wocoken  Island,  in  Flor 
ida,  subsequently  exploring  Pamlico  and  Albe- 
marle  Sounds  arid  Roanoke  Island.  The  title  of 
admiral  was  conferred  upon  him,  and  he  was 
united  with  Lane  in  the  settlement  of  North 
Carolina,  afterwards  called  Virginia. 

Amain.  With  force  or  vigor  ;  all  at  once ;  as, 
lower  amain.  An  old  word  for  yield.  The  low 
ering  of  the  topsail  was  called  striking  amain, 
and  it  was  demanded  by  the  wave  amain,  or  the 
brandishing  of  a  sword. 

Amain.  A  city  and  seaport  of  Italy,  in  the 
Gulf  of  Salerno,  and  23  miles  S.E.  of  Naples. 
Lat.  40°  38'  N. ;  Ion.  14°  37'  10"  E.  A  naval 
school  is  located  at  Amalfi.  Pop.  6500. 

Amalgam.  A  compound  of  mercury  with 
another  metal.  See  ALLOY. 

Amalphitan  Code.  The  oldest  code  of  modern 
sea  laws,  compiled  during  the  first  Crusade  by 
the  people  of  Amalfi,  in  Italy. 

Amaye.     Sea-marks  on  the  French  coast. 

Ambassador.  A  diplomatic  officer  of  the 
highest  rank.  A  practical  joke,  in  which  the 
victim  is  unmercifully  ducked. 

Amber.  A  hard,  resinous,  vegetable  sub 
stance,  generally  of  a  bright  yellow  color,  and 
translucent. 

Ambergris.  A  fragrant  substance,  the  origin 
of  which  was  long  a  matter  of  dispute.  It  is 
now  known  to  be  a  morbid  product  developed  in 
the  intestines  of  the  sperm  whale.  It  is  of  a 
grayish  color,  very  light,  and  fusible,  and  is  used 
as  a  perfume  and  as  a  cordial. 

Amelioration.  An  allowance  made  to  the 
neutral  purchaser,  on  reclaiming  a  ship  improp 
erly  condemned,  for  the  repairs  she  has  under 
gone  at  his  expense. 

America.     See  CONTINENTS. 

Americus  Vespucci.     See  VESPUCCI. 

Amidships.  The  middle  part  of  a  ship, 
whether  in  regard  to  her  length  or  breadth,  but 
more  generally  applied  to  the  axis  or  fore-and- 
aft  line. 

Ammen,  Daniel,  Rear-AdmiralU.S.N.  Born 
in  Ohio,  May  15,  1820.  Appointed  midshipman, 
July  7,  1836;  attached  to  the  Exploring  Expedi 
tion,  1837-38  ;  sloop  "  Levant"  and  "  Vandalia," 
in  the  West  Indies,  1838-39;  sloop  "Preble," 
on  the  coast  of  Labrador  and  in  the  Mediterra 
nean,  1840-41 ;  returned  to  the  United  States  on 
board  ship-of-the-line  "Ohio,"  1841,  and  to 
Naval  School ;  passed  examination,  June,  1842, 


AMMUNITION 


32 


AMPLITUDE 


and  received  warrant  of  passed  midshipman ; 
store-ship  "  Lexington,"  as  navigator,  1843-44, 
to  the  Mediterranean;  sloop  "Vincennes,"  as 
navigator,  East  India  Squadron,  1845-47 ;  coast 
survey, 1848-49. 

Commissioned  as  lieutenant,  November  4, 
1849;  frigate  "St.  Lawrence,"  Mediterranean 
Squadron,  1850;  coast  survey,  1851  ;  attached 
to  a  commission  for  selecting  a  naval  station  in 
the  Bay  of  San  Francisco,  Cal.,  1852;  scientific 
expedition  of  steamer  "Water  Witch,"  Para- 

§uay  Kiver,  1853-54 ;  brig  "  Bainbridge,"  Brazil 
quadron,  1854-55;  Naval  Observatory,  Wash 
ington,  1856-57;  steam-sloop  "Saranac,"  Pa 
cific  Squadron,  1858;  steam-frigate  "  Merrimac," 
Pacific  Squadron,  1859-60;  steam-frigate  "  Ro- 
anoke,"  as  executive-officer,  North  Atlantic 
Blockading  Squadron,  1861 ;  commanding  "  Sen 
eca,"  South  Atlantic  Blockading  Squadron, 
1861-62,  at  battle  of  Port  Royal,  November  7, 
1861 ;  the  day  following  hoisted  our  flag  over 
Fort  Beauregard,  and  made  formal  delivery  to 
the  army,  by  order  of  Rear-Admiral  Du  Pont ; 
Tybee  Island,  December,  1861 ;  commanded 
forces  entering  by  way  of  Whale  Branch  in 
attack  on  Port  Royal  Ferry,  January  1,  1862; 
engaged  in  the  operations  against  Fernandina 
through  St.  Andrew's  Sound  and  in  St.  John's 
River. 

Promoted  to  commander,  February  21,  1863; 
commanding  monitor  "Patapsco,"  South  At 
lantic  Blockading  Squadron,  against  Fort  McAl 
lister,  March,  1863,  and  in  the  attack  on  Fort 
Sumter,  April  7,  1863  ;  had  charge  of  a  draft  of 
220  seamen  on  board  of  the  California  passenger 
steamer  "  Ocean  Queen,  "May,  1864,  bound  to  As- 
pi  n  wall  ;  two  days  after  leaving  New  York  sup 
pressed  an  open  and  organized  mutiny,  with  the 
assistance  of  Boatswain  Thomas  G.  Bell,  who 
was  the  only  aid  assigned,  receiving  in  doing  so 
the  excellent  co-operation  of  Captain  Tinkle- 
paugh, — who  commanded  the  "Ocean  Queen," — 
his  officers,  and  several  of  the  passengers  ;  com 
manding  steam-sloop  "Mohican,"  North  At 
lantic  Blockading  Squadron,  1864-65;  in  the 
bombardment  of  Fort  Fisher,  December,  1864, 
and  again  when  it  was  carried  by  assault  by  the 
army,  January,  1865 ;  commanding  ironclad 
"Miantonomah,"  special  service,  1866. 

Commissioned  as  captain,  July  25,  1866 ;  spe 
cial  duty,  Hartford,  Conn.,  1866-67;  command 
ing  flag-ship  "  Piscataqua,"  Asiatic  Squadron, 
1867-68;  Chief  of  Bureau  of  Yards  and  Docks, 
1869-71. 

Commissioned  as  commodore,  1872.  Chief  of 
Bureau  of  Navigation,  1871-78.  Commissioned 
as  rear-admiral.  1877  ;  retired  at  his  own  re 
quest,  1878.  July,  1878,  appointed  chairman  of 
a  board  for  the  re-location  of  the  Naval  Obser 
vatory.  April,  1879,  ordered  to  attend  the  con 
vocation  at  Paris,  France,  known  as  the  Inter- 
oceanic  Ship-Canal  Congress.  Had  constructed 
on  his  design  a  cask  "  balsa,"  or  life-boat,  which 
is  now  at  the  navy-yard,  Portsmouth,  N.  H.,  at 
which  place  are  built  life-boats  on  this  design  for 
all  of  our  vessels  of  war.  Total  sea-service  21 
years  and  1  month ;  other  duty,  17  years  and  3 
months. 

Ammunition.  In  early  times  this  word  sig 
nified  every  description  of  warlike  stores  and 
provisions  for  attack  or  defense. 

In  modern  usage  its  signification  is  limited  to 


articles  in  use  for  charging  fire-arms  and  ord 
nance  of  all  kinds. 

FIXED  AMMUNITION.  For  guns  of  small 
calibre  the  charge  and  projectile  are  united  for 
convenient  transportation  and  rapidity  in  load 
ing. 

AMMUNITION  BOXES.  The  boxes  carried  on 
the  carriage  of  howitzers. 

AMMUNITION  CHESTS.  Chests  stowed  in  the 
tops  for  the  convenience  of  the  riflemen  stationed 
there  in  action. 

AMMUNITION-WIFE.  A  woman  of  doubtful 
character. 

Amnesty.  An  act  of  oblivion  or  general  par 
don  for  all  acts  committed  in  time  of  war,  or  the 
proclamation  of  such  pardon. 

Amok.  Slaughter.  The  practice,  of  Malays 
under  the  influence  of  bang,  of  running  about 
the  streets,  attacking  anybody  and  everybody. 

To  RUN  A-MUCK.  To  make  an  indiscriminate 
assault. 

Amorce.     (Fr.}     Priming  powder. 

Amoy.  A  seaport  town  of  China,  on  an  island 
of  the  same  name.  Lat.  24°  10'  3"  N. ;  Ion. 
118°  IS'  5"  E. ;  nearly  opposite  to  the  centre  of 
the  island  of  Formosa.  The  population,  mostly 
employed  in  the  coasting  trade,  is  about  300,000. 

Amperes.  An  ancient  vessel  in  which  the 
rowers  pulled  two  oars  each. 

Amphibia.  A  class  of  animals  which  can  live 
either  in  the  water  or  on  the  land. 

Amphiprorae.  Ancient  vessels,  both  ends  of 
which  were  prow-shaped,  so  that  in  narrow  chan 
nels  they  need  not  turn ;  the  prototypes  of  the 
double-enders. 

Amphiscii.  The  inhabitants  of  the  torrid 
zone  are  thus  denominated  from  their  shadow 
being  turned  one  part  of  the  year  to  the  north 
and  the  other  to  the  south. 

Amplitude.  The  angular  distance  of  a  heav 
enly  body  in  the  horizon  from  the  east  or  west 
point.  The  magnetic  amplitude  is  the  angular 
distance  of  the  body  from  the  east  or  west  point 
as  indicated  by  the  compass.  The  difference  be 
tween  the  true  and  the  magnetic  amplitude  is  the 
variation  of  the  compass. 

At  a  given  latitude  the  amplitude  depends  on 
the  declination  of  the  object.  Amplitude  is 
sometimes  used  to  denote  the  horizontal  distance 
to  which  a  projectile  is  expelled  from  a  gun,  or 
what  is  more  frequently  called  the  range. 

AMPLITUDE,  OBSERVATION  OF.  The  usual 
instructions  for  taking  amplitudes  are  laid  down 
with  the  view  that  the  body  shall  be  observed  at 
the  moment  when  its  centre  is  really  in  the  ra 
tional  horizon.  Thus  the  bearing  of  the  sun  is 
directed  to  be  taken  when  its  lower  limb  appears 
half-way  between  the  horizon  and  its  centre  ;  the 
bearing  of  a  star  is  to  be  taken  at  an  altitude  of 
34' :  the  amplitude  of  the  moon  cannot  be  thus 
directly  observed  with  accuracy,  especially  in 
high  latitudes,  by  reason  of  her  great  depression 
by  parallax,  but  may  be  found  approximately  by 
observing  her  bearing  when  her  upper  limb  is  in 
the  horizon.  In  all  cases,  however,  the  better 
plan  is  to  obtain  by  observation  the  bearing  when 
the  centre  of  the  body  appears  on  the  horizon, 
and  apply  the  necessary  corrections  (for  dip,  re 
fraction,  and  parallax)  taken  from  a  table.  For 
the  sun,  when  rising,  observe  the  bearing  of  the 
upper  limb  as  it  appears  on  the  horizon,  and 
continue  to  take  the  bearings  of  the  centre,  hi- 


AMPOTIS 


33 


ANCHOR 


seating  the  sun's  disk  by  keeping  the  upright 
wire  on  the  upper  limb  until  the  lower  limb  ap 
pears.  Read  off  each  bearing.  At  sunset,  when 
the  lower  limb  touches  the  horizon,  proceed  in 
like  manner  until  the  upper  limb  disappears. 
The  mean  of  the  readings,  reckoning  from  the 
east  or  west  point,  is  the  observed  amplitude. 
When  practicable,  the  moon  may  be  observed  in 
the  same  way.  In  the  case  of  the  sun  and  stars, 
a  table  (with  latitude  and  declination  for  argu 
ments)  gives  the  necessary  correction  for  refrac 
tion,  to  which  the  requisit^  dip  is  added.  The 
same  table  applied  in  the  contrary  way  gives  the 
correction  for  the  moon,  which  is  the  excess  of 
the  effect  of  parallax  over  the  combined  effects 
of  refraction  and  dip.  The  amplitude  of  a  star 
should  be  observed  at  setting,  to  admit  of  the 
body  being  easily  identified. 

Ampotis.     The  running  out  of  the  sea. 

Amsterdam.  An  important  commercial  city, 
one  of  the  capitals  of  the  Netherlands,  at  the 
former  confluence  of  the  Amstel  with  the  Y,  a 
lake-like  river,  now  mostly  drained,  but  a  small 
part  remains  and  serves  as  a  port  for  the  city.  It 
has  a'  new  artificial  harbor  on  the  North  Sea, 
with  which  it  is  connected  by  a  ship  canal  15 
miles  long.  Pop.  300,000. 

Amulet.  A  charm  worn  by  superstitious  peo 
ple  as  a  preservative  against  disease  or  disaster. 

Amusette.  A  shoulder-gun  fitted  with  a 
swivel,  carrying  a  ball  weighing  from  half  a 
pound  to  two  pounds. 

Anabus.  A  bony  fish  that  has  the  power  of 
living  long  out  of  water  and  moving  considerable 
distances  on  land. 

Anadromous.  A  term  applied  to  migratory 
fishes. 

Analemma.  An  orthographic  projection  of 
the  sphere  on  the  plane  of  the  meridian.  An  in 
strument  of  brass  or  wood  on  which  this  projec 
tion  is  made.  An  old  form  of  sun-dial. 

Anan.  An  old  word  for ' '  What  did  you  say  ? ' ' 
Also  a  corruption  of  anon. 

Anas.  A  genus  of  water-birds  of  the  order 
Natatores,  now  restricted  to  the  typical  ducks. 

Anaumachion.  Among  the  ancients  the  crime 
of  refusing  to  serve  in  the  fleet,  the  punishment 
for  which  was  infamy. 

Anchiromachus.  A  boat  of  the  middle  ages 
for  transporting  anchors  and  naval  stores. 

Anchor.  A  heavy  iron  instrument  for  re 
taining  a  ship  in  her  place.  It  is  attached  to  the 
ship  by  a  rope  or  chain,  and  is  thrown  overboard 
from  the  bows. 

The  earlier  anchors  were  made  of  wood  with 
an  arm,  and  later  two  arms.  Stones  were  at 
tached  to  give  weight  to  sink  and  greater  holding 
power.  With  all  the  improvements  of  modern 
times,  the  anchors  now  in  use  have  undergone 
but  little  change  of  form. 

After  the  wooden  anchor  followed  the  iron 
anchor  with  a  wooden  stock.  At  the  present  day 
all  navy  anchors  are  fitted  with  iron  stocks. 

Anchors  are  solid  when  the  shank  and  arms 
are  welded  together.  In  most  patent  anchors  the 
arms  are  movable  and  capable  of  being  separated 
from  the  shank. 

The  solid  or  common  anchor  consists  of  the 
shank,  the  ring  (shackle,  or  Jew's-harp),  the 
arms,  and  the  stock. 

The  shank  is  the  main  body  of  the  anchor. 
The  ring  is  bolted  to  the  upper  end  and  the  arms 
3 


are  welded  to  the  other.  The  crown  is  the  heavy 
end  of  the  shank  to  which  the  arms  are  welded. 
It  is  the  part  which  first  strikes  the  ground  when 
the  anchor  is  let  go  perpendicularly. 

The  stock  is  the  iron  beam  at  right  angles  to 
the  shank.  It  has  a  shoulder  near  its  middle 
part,  and  when  this  shoulder  is  snug  up  against 
the  shank  it  is  keyed  on  the  other  side.  The  end 
opposite  to  the  shoulder  is  bent  for  convenience 
in  stowage. 

On  the  ends  of  the  stock  are  cast-iron  balls,  the 
one  on  the  bent  end  being  movable  and  the  other 
riveted. 

The  arm  consists  of  the  palm  (or  fluke),  the 
bill  (point,  or  pee),  and  the  blade.  The  palm  is 
shaped  much  like  a  shield,  and  is  welded  and 
riveted  to  the  blade.  The  bill  is  the  part  of  the 
arm  which  projects  beyond  the  palm.  The  ring 
is  that  part  of  the  anchor  to  which  the  cable  is 
bent. 

The  essential  properties  of  an  anchor  are 
strength,  holding,  quick-holding,  canting ,  facility 
of  sweeping,  of  stowing,  and  of  transport  in  boats, 
exemption  from  fouling,  and  quick-tripping.  Of 
these  the  most  important  are  strength,  holding, 
and  quick-holding. 

These  qualities  depend  upon  the  weight  of 
metal,  size  and  shape  of  the  cross-section  of 
arms  and  shank,  length  of  arms,  shank,  and 
stock,  angle  at  which  the  arms  are  set  on,  size 
and  shape  of  palm,  finish  of  the  bill,  curvature 
of  the  arm,  quality  of  the  material,  and  the 
workmanship. 

The  development  of  one  of  these  qualities  to 
an  extreme  degree  may  involve  the  sacrifice  of 
another.  For  instance,  the  Trotman  anchor  is 
notably  exempt  from  fouling,  as  the  upper  fluke 
lies  down  against  the  shank,  but  this  peculiarity 
renders  it  almost  impossible  to  pick  it  up  by 
sweeping  for  it.  An  anchor  that  holds  well  does 
not  trip  quickly.  The  holding  power  of  an  an 
chor  depends  a  great  deal  on  the  length  of  the 
arm  ;  but  a  long  arm  is  an  element  of  weakness. 
So  there  is  much  to  be  considered  in  the  form 
and  dimensions  of  anchors,  and  it  has  required 
a  great  many  experiments  to  determine  them. 
The  American  Anchor,  designed  by  Mr.  James 
Brown,  master-smith  at  the  Washington  Navy- 
Yard,  fulfills  all  required  conditions. 

Anchors  for  the  navy  are  forged  under  the 
steam-hammer  from  scrap-iron,  and  are  gotten 
out  in  five  parts,  viz.:  the  shank,  two  arms, 
stock,  and  shackle  (or  ring). 

The  scrap-iron  is  first  hammered  into  blooms, 
the  most  convenient  size  being  36  inches  long, 
10  inches  wide,  and  4  inches  thick.  The  blooms 
being  in  readiness,  the  parts  of  the  anchor  are 
forged  and  put  together  in  the  following  order  : 

The  shank.  The  blooms  are  piled  on  the  end 
of  a  porter  bar,  heated  and  welded  under  a  steam- 
hammer  until  the  mass  of  iron  on  the  end  of  the 
bar  is  of  sufficient  size  to  make  the  shank.  The 
building-up  process  begins  at  the  crown,  and  the 
mass  is  gradually  drawn  out  towards  the  ring 
end,  and  swaged  smooth  under  the  hammer.  The 
holes  are  punched  for  the  ring  and  stock,  and  the 
shank  is  then  cut  off  from  the  bar. 

The  two  arms  are  forged  separately,  also  the 
two  palms.  The  palms  are  welded  on  to  the 
arms  and  riveted,  and  the  bill  is  drawn  out  and 
finished  up.  The  shank  is  then  heated  at  the 
crown  end,  scarfed  on  one  side,  and  the  arm  welded 


ANCHOR 


34 


ANCHOR 


on  ;  then  scarfed  on  the  other  side  and  the  second 
arm  welded  on.  The  arms  are  welded  on  straight, 
and  afterwards  heated  and  bent  to  the  proper 
angle. 

The  stock  is  forged  from  blooms  in  the  same 
manner  as  the  shank.  The  ring  is  forged  straight, 
and  afterwards  heated  and  bent  to  the  proper 
shape  and  a  bolt  fitted  to  the  eyes. 

The  process  of  annealing  anchors  has  now 
generally  gone  out  of  use. 

The  following  are  the  proportions  of  a  6000- 
pound  anchor : 

Shank. — Length,  13  feet  8  inches ;  cross-section 
at  the  largest  part  where  the  arms  are  welded  on, 
10J-  by  8£  inches  ;  cross-section  at  the  stock,  8£  by 
7  inches,  the  greatest  dimension  being  in  the 
plane  of  the  arms. 

Stock. — The  length  is  equal  to  the  length  of 
the  shank  over  all,  and  in  diameter  it  is  about 
two-thirds  the  smallest  width  of  the  shank  meas 
ured  in  the  plane  of  the  arms. 

The  length  of  the  arm  is  nearly  one-third  the 
length  of  the  shank,  and  in  bending  them  an 
equilateral  triangle  is  formed  with  the  length  of 
the  arm  for  one  side,  the  same  distance  laid  off 
on  the  shank  from  the  crotch  for  the  second  side, 
and  the  distance  from  the  end  of  this  line  to  the 
bill  completes  the  triangle. 

In  forging  anchors  a  great  deal  is  done  by  eye 
for  shape  and  proportions.  The  crown  and  throat 
are  rounded  off,  and  the  shank  has  eight  faces, 
with  a  straight  taper  from  the  crotch  to  the 
stock.  The  weight  of  an  anchor  is  inclusive  of 
the  ring  and  exclusive  of  the  stock,  which  is 
about  one-fourth  the  weight  of  the  anchor. — 
C.  T.  Hutchins,  Lieutenant  U.S.N. 

PATENT  ANCHORS.  Many  designs  have  been 
submitted,  the  most  prominent  of  which  are 
mentioned  below.  The  oxidation  of  the  movable 
parts  of  portable  anchors  is  the  great  source  of 
failure,  as  they  require  constant  care  and  atten 
tion  to  keep  them  in  working  order. 

Isaac's  Anchor  has  a  bar  of  iron  from  each 
end  of  the  stock  to  the  middle  of  the  shank,  and 
the  palms  are  connected  by  a  flat  elliptical  bar  of 
iron.  It  has  great  strength,  and  is  notably  ex 
empt  from  fouling,  but  is  deficient  in  other  re 
spects. 

Latham's  Anchor  has  an  arm  provided  with 
three  flukes,  and  the  shank  is  made  of  two  pieces, 
which  separate  at  the  crown  end  to  allow  the 
midship  fluke  to  pass.  When  the  three  flukes 
enter  the  ground,  the  flange  on  the  crown-piece 
takes  on  the  shank  and  the  arms  are  held  rigid. 
No  stock  is  required. 

Marshall's  Anchor.  The  arms  are  straight 
and  move  independently  on  a  pivot,  which  passes 
through  the  crown.  The  arms  are  fitted  with 
projections,  which  assist  the  flukes  to  enter  the 
ground. 

Martin's  Anchor  is  supplied  to  the  turret-ships 
of  the  British  navy.  The  anchor  is  very  com 
pact,  and  for  that  reason  is  especially  recom 
mended  to  rams  and  turret-ships,  as  it  does  not 
impede  the  fire  nor  project  from  the  bows. 

Morgan's  Anchor  has  a  curved  bar  of  iron, 
which  passes  through  a  slot  in  the  shank  and 
connects  the  two  arms  to  each  other.  The  arms 
are  separately  pivoted  to  the  shank.  When  one 
fluke  enters  the  ground  the  other  is  drawn  down 
against  the  shank,  the  connecting  bar  serving  to 
strengthen  the  arms. 


Porter's  Anchor  is  the  same  in  principle  as 
Trotman's,  which  see. 

Rodger's  Anchor  has  a  shank  with  a  wooden 
core,  the  object  being  to  give  greater  strength 
with  a  given  weight  of  metal.  He  also  designed 
the  pick-ax  anchor,  an  anchor  without  palms. 

Trotman's  Anchor.  The  oscillatory  system  is 
the  principal  feature  of  this  anchor.  The  arms 
are  in  one  piece  and  work  in  a  slot  in  the  shank. 
When  one  fluke  enters  the  ground  the  other  is 
drawn  down  against  the  shank.  The  backs  of  the 
arms  are  fitted  with  horns  to  assist  the  flukes  to 
enter  the  ground.  It  is  one  of  the  best  of  the 


patent  anchors. 

The    BOWER-ANCHORS    are  so  named 


from 


their  being  carried  on  the  bows.  In  early  days 
they  were  of  different  sizes ;  the  larger  one, 
called  the  best  bower,  was  carried  on  the  star 
board  bow,  the  other  was  known  as  the  small 
bower.  These  designations  are  yet  retained, 
though  the  anchors  are  now  of  equal  size. 

The  WAIST-  or  SHEET-ANCHORS  are  equal  in 
weight  to  the  bower-anchors,  and  are  carried  on 
the  side,  abaft  the  fore-rigging.  They  are  se 
cured  with  the  stock  perpendicular,  and  the  shank 
resting  on  two  shores. 

The  SPARE-ANCHOR,  when  no  sheets  are  car 
ried,  is  of  the  same  size  as  a  bower-anchor,  and 
is  stowed  inboard. 

The  STREAM- ANCHOR  is  one-fourth  the  weight 
of  the  bower-anchor,  and  is  carried  inboard. 

KEDGES  are  small  anchors,  from  one-sixth  to 
one-fourteenth  the  weight  of  the  bower.  They 
are  stowed  in  the  chains. 

BOAT-ANCHORS  are  small  anchors  supplied  for 
the  use  of  the  boats.  They  are  stowed  in  the 
hold  of  the  ship  until  needed  for  service. 

With  reference  to  their  position  anchors  are 
termed  flood,  ebb,  weather,  lee,  sea,  or  shore 
a,nchors. 

To  SHOE  AN  ANCHOR.  To  fit  triangular 
pieces  of  wood  to  the  palms  to  give  greater  hold 
ing  power. 

To  COCKBILL  THE  ANCHOR.  To  ease  off  the 
shank-painter,  and  hang  the  anchor  by  the  ring- 
stopper. 

To  LET  Go  THE  ANCHOR.  To  release  it  from 
the  cat-head  that  it  may  fall  to  the  bottom  and 
hold  the  ship. 

To  DRAG  THE  ANCHOR.  To  trail  it  over  the 
bottom  by  force  of  the  wind  or  current. 

To  BACK  THE  ANCHOR.  To  increase  the  hold 
ing  power  of  an  anchor  by  planting  a  smaller 
one  ahead  of  it,  and  connecting  the  two  with  a 
chain.  The  holding  power  of  an  anchor  may  be 
increased  by  attaching  a  weight  to  the  bight  of 
the  chain,  thus  bringing  the  strain  lower  down, 
and  causing  the  fluke  to  bite  harder. 

To  TRIP  THE  ANCHOR.  To  heave  it  clear  of 
the  bottom. 

To  SIGHT  THE  ANCHOR.  To  heave  it  up  to 
the  surface  of  the  water. 

To  WEIGH  AN  ANCHOR.  To  heave  it  up  to 
the  bows. 

To  CAT  THE  ANCHOR.  To  hoist  it  up  to  the 
cat-head  and  pass  the  ring-stopper. 

To  FISH  THE  ANCHOR.  To  hoist  the  flukes 
up  to  the  bill-board  and  pass  the  shank-painter. 

To  STOW  AN  ANCHOR.  To  secure  it  in  its 
proper  place. 

To  TRANSPORT  AN  ANCHOR.  To  shift  it  from 
one  position  to  another  in  the  ship. 


ANCHOK 


35 


ANCHORING 


To  SECURE  THE  ANCHOR  FOR  SEA.  To  ring 
it  up  close  to  the  cat-head,  and  get  the  inner  fluke 
inboard,  and  pass  extra  lashings. 

To  GET  THE  ANCHOR  OFF  THE  Bows.  To 
take  off  the  extra  lashings,  and  heave  the  inner 
fluke  up  and  outboard,  so  it  will  slip  off  the  bill 
board  when  the  shank-painter  is  let  go. 

To  SWEEP,  DRAG,  OR  CREEP  FOR  AN  ANCHOR. 
To  endeavor  to  pick  up  an  anchor  or  the  chain 
by  trailing  for  it  with  a  grapnel  or  the  bight  of 
a  rope. 

FOUL-ANCHOR.  The  ^condition  of  an  anchor 
when  the  chain  has  taken  a  turn  around  the 
flukes,  shank,  or  stock,  or  when  the  anchor  has 
caught  into  some  other  anchor,  chain,  or  wreck. 

The  anchor  is  aweigh  or  atrip  the  moment  it  is 
disengaged  from  the  ground.  It  is  apeak  when 
the  chain  is  up-and-down.  It  comes  home  when 
it  is  trailed  over  the  bottom  as  the  ship  drifts. 

Anchor,  Drag-,  or  Floating-.  See  SEA-AN 
CHOR. 

Anchor,  Jury.  A  temporary  anchor  con 
structed  to  supply  the  place  of  one  which  has 
been  lost.  Ships  are  sometimes  obliged  to  resort 
to  their  guns,  boilers,  and  other  heavy  articles. 

Anchor,  Mushroom.  Has  a  head  shaped  like 
a  bowl,  and  no  stock  is  required.  It  is  used  for 
moorings. 

Anchor,  Screw.  Large  screws  with  broad 
flanges,  used  for  moorings  and  to  shoe  piles. 

Anchor,  Sea.  A  species  of  raft  or  drag  formed 
of  spars  and  canvas  to  keep  a  ship's  head  to  the 
wind  and  to  decrease  her  drift.  It  is  attached  to 
the  ship  by  a  hawser,  and  is  generally  fitted  with 
a  buoy  and  an  anchor. 

Anchorage.  A  duty  levied  upon  vessels  upon 
coming  to  a  port  for  the  use  of  its  advantages. 
The  set  of  anchors  belonging  to  a  ship.  A  place 
suitable  for  anchoring.  It  is  marked  on  charts 
by  an  anchor,  and  is  described  according  to  its 
attributes  as  good,  snug,  open,  or  exposed. 

Anchor-ball.  A  pyrotechnical  combustible 
attached  to  a  grapnel. 

Anchor-bar.  A  large  handspike  to  pry  the 
anchor  off  the  bill-board. 

Anchor-chock.  Pieces  let  into  an  anchor- 
stock.  Pieces  of  wood  or  iron  upon  which  an 
anchor  rests  when  it  is  stowed. 

Anchor-hold.  The  fastness  of  the  flukes  in 
the  ground. 

Anchor-hoops.  Heavy  iron  hoops  binding  a 
wooden  stock  to  the  shank  and  over  the  nuts  of 
the  anchor. 

Anchor-ice.  The  ice  which  forms  on  and  in- 
crustates  the  beds  of  lakes  and  rivers. 

Anchoring,  (p.  pr.  of  v.  t.  TO  ANCHOR.)  (Lat. 
ancora,  anchor.)  The  mano3uvre  by  which  a 
•vessel  is  brought  to  anchor,  i.e.  brought  to  a 
state  of  temporary  rest  and  security  by  means  of 
an  anchor  let  go  from  the  vessel. 

The  anchor,  attaching  itself  to  the  bottom,  is 
enabled  by  means  of  the  intervening  cable  to 
hold  the  vessel  in  7 "ace.  A  vessel  may  be  brought 
to  anchor  under  a  great  variety  of  conditions  of 
wind,  tide,  and  sea. 

The  peculiar  nature  of  th'e  anchorage  itself,  and 
the  number  of  vessels  occupying  it,  must  also  be 
considered.  For  the  minor  details  of  all  that 
precede,  accompany,  and  follow  this  manoeuvre, 
the  reader  is  referred  to  works  on  Seamanship. 
The  principal  points  to  be  observed  are,  First, 
that  on  approaching  the  anchorage  both  bower 


anchors  (see  ANCHOR)  and  their  cables  should  be 
in  readiness  for  use,  always  having  the  second 
anchor  ready  to  let  go  in  case  the  first,  from  any 
cause,  should  fail.  Second,  that  the  vessel  should 
be  head  to  tide,  or  nearly  so,  when  the  anchor  is 
let  go.  Third,  on  approaching  the  anchorage, 
under  favorable  circumstances,  the  speed  of  the 
vessel  should  be  gradually  reduced,  then  stopped, 
and  finally  a  stern-board  be  given  her,  either  by 
the  action  of  the  wind  or  tide,  or  by  the  use  of 
sails  or  engine.  The  moment  of  starting  astern 
is  that  for  letting  go  the  anchor.  Fourth,  that 
the  vessel  should  have  sufficient  stern-board  to* 
lay  her  cable  out  clear  and  straight  from  the  an 
chor.  Fifth,  that  the  stern-board  should  not  be 
so  great  as  to  endanger  running  out  too  much 
cable,  or  of  parting  in  attempting  to  check  it. 
Sixth,  that  when  the  cable  is  finally  secured  there 
should  be  a  good  scope  out.  Seventh,  that  when 
anchored  the  vessel  should  be  in  a  good  berth. 

It  is  generally  conceded  that  a  vessel  should 
never  ride  to  a  shorter  scope  of  cable  than  six 
times  the  depth  of  water.  That  is  to  say,  if  an 
chored  in  ten  fathoms  of  water  she  should  not 
have  out  less  than  sixty  fathoms  of  cable  for  or 
dinary  security.  In  general,  there  are  three  dif 
ferent  classes  of  vessels  +hat  may  be  treated  of 
under  this  head :  the  square-rigged  sailing-ves 
sel,  the  fore-and-after,  and  the  steamer.  To 
bring  one  of  the  former  into  a  crowded  harbor, 
to  pick  out  a  good  berth  and  come  to  anchor  in 
a  proper  manner,  calls  forth  all  the  skill  and 
judgment  of  a  practical  seaman,  and  an  amount 
of  knowledge  which  can  be  obtained  only  by  long 
and  varied  experience. 

With  a  schooner  we  have,  ordinarily,  only  to 
haul  down  the  head-sails,  luif  up  into  the  wind, 
and  when  the  headway  is  lost  and  she  begins  to 
go  astern,  to  drop  the  anchor,  and  then  to  pay 
out  the  necessary  scope  as  she  takes  it.  Or  beat 
ing  in  with  a  strong  windward  tide  (see  TIDES), 
we  should  reverse  the  operation ;  lower  the  fore 
and  mainsails,  wear  around  under  the  jib,  and, 
when  head  to  tide,  let  go  the  anchor. 

With  a  steamer  the  operation  is  still  more 
simple.  Steering  directly  for  her  berth,  the  en 
gines  are  first "  slowed,"  then  stopped,  and  finally 
backed,  if  necessary ;  when  the  headway  ceases 
the  anchor  is  let  go  and  the  cable  paid  out  as  she 
takes  it.  If  she  had  been  steaming  in  against 
the  tide  she  will,  on  stopping  the  engines,  soon 
go  astern  and  take  her  cable.  If  she  has  the 
tide  with  her,  as  soon  as  the  anchor  touches  the 
bottom  she  will  begin  to  swing  to  the  tide. 
When  head-to,  pay  out  to  the  necessary  scope. 

ANCHORING  BY  THE  STERN  is  to  have  the  cable 
brought  in  through  a  stern-chock,  so  that  when 
the  anchor  is  let  go  from  the  bow  the  vessel  will 
ride  by  the  stern. 

ANCHORING  WITH  A  SPRING  :  to  attach  a  hawser 
to  the  ring  of  the  anchor  before  letting  go,  so 
that  when  the  anchor  is  down  and  an  equal  strain 
brought  upon  the  cable  and  the  hawser,  the  ves 
sel  will  ride  to  a  bridle,  presenting  her  broadside 
to  the  wind  or  tide  as  either  may  prevail.  The 
vessel's  head  may  be  then  made  to  change  direc 
tion  by  shortening  in,  or  veering  on  the  cable  or 
hawser,  as  desired. 

The  two  last  manoeuvres  are  practiced  in  war : 

the   former   when    it   is    undesirable    to  swing 

|  around,  as  when  anchoring  in  the  ordinary  way  ; 

!  the  latter  when  it  is  desired  to  change  the  ship's 


ANCHOR-LINING 


36 


ANNULAR 


head  in  certain  directions  so  as  to  bring  the  bat 
teries  to  bear  on  the  enemy. 

Anchoring  in  very  deep  water  (as  a  temporary 
expedient)  may  be  done  by  means  of  the  stream- 
anchor  (see  ANCHOR)  and  a  hawser. — S.  B.  Luce, 
Captain  U.S.N. 

Anchor-lining.  Short  pieces  of  plank  fast 
ened  to  the  ship's  side,  under  the  fore-channels, 
to  prevent  the  anchor  from  bruising  the  side 

Anchor-ring.  The  ring  to  which  the  cable 
is  bent.  Now  generally  a  shackle,  or  Jew's- 
harp. 

Anchor-seat.     An  old  term  for  the  prow. 

Anchor-shackle.  The  shackle  in  the  end 
of  the  shank.  The  ring. 

Anchorsmith.     A  forger  of  anchors. 

Anchor-stock.  A  beam  of  wood  or  iron, 
secured  to  the  shank  at  right  angles  to  the  flukes. 

Anchor-stock-fashion.  The  method  of 
placing  the  butt  of  one  plank  nearly  over  the 
middle  of  another;  the  planks  being  broadest  in 
the  middle  and  tapering  to  the  ends  resemble  an 
anchor-stock. 

Anchor-stocking.  A  method  of  securing 
and  working  planks  with  tapered  butts. 

Anchor-watch.  A  small  number  of  men 
kept  on  duty  at  night,  while  the  ship  is  in  port, 
to  be  in  readiness  to  do  any  duty  that  may  be  re 
quired,  especially  to  let  go  an  anchor,  veer  cable, 
hoist  head-sails,  set  spanker,  or  to  man  a  boat. 

Anchovy.  A  fish  of  the  family  Clupiedce, 
caught  in  large  numbers  in  the  Mediterranean, 
and  pickled  for  exportation. 

Ancon.     The  angle  of  a  knee-timber. 

ANCON.     (Sp.)     Harbor,  bay,  anchorage. 

Anderson,  Culjohn.  A  Swede.  He  made 
two  journeys  into  the  interior  of  Africa  in  ex 
ploration  of  the  source  of  the  Niger.  He  reached 
Lake  Ngami,  in  the  S.W.  of  the  continent,  and 
published  a  work  on  the  Okevengo  River. 

Andromeda.  A  northern  constellation  be 
hind  Pegasus,  Cassiopeia,  and  Perseus,  repre 
senting  the  figure  of  a  woman  chained,  a  An- 
dromedce,  Alpheratz. 

Anemometer.  An  instrument  for  measuring 
the  force  and  velocity  of  the  wind.  They  are  of 
various  forms,  and  indicate  the  force  directly,  as 
against  a  plate  compressing  a  spring,  or  the  ve 
locity,  as  by  a  revolution  of  a  wheel  carrying 
vanes  or  hemispherical  cups.  They  are  often 
self-registering. 

Anemoscope.  A  vane-index  with  pointers  to 
show  the  change  of  the  wind  without  referring 
to  the  vane. 

An-end.  The  position  of  a  spar  when  erected 
perpendicularly.  The  topmasts  are  an-end  when 
they  are  fidded. 

To  STRIKE  A  PLANK  AN-END  is  to  drive  it  in 
the  direction  of  its  length. 

Anent,  or  Anenst.   Opposite  to  ;  over  against. 

Aneroid  Barometer.     See  BAROMETER. 

Angel-fish.  The  Squatina  angelus,  of  the 
shark  family.  It  is  six  or  eight  feet  long,  with 
a  rough  back  and  smooth  white  belly. 

Angel-head.  The  barb  of  an  arrow;  prob 
ably  angle-head. 

Angel-shot.  A  projectile  composed  of  two 
hollow  half  balls  connected  by  a  chain,  which  is 
inclosed  in  their  cavity  when  they  are  brought 
together  ;  a  kind  of  chain-shot. 

Angil.  An  old  term  for  a  fishing-hook,  and 
also  for  the  red  worm  used  for  bait. 


Angle.  A  corner.  The  difference  in  direc 
tion  of  two  lines  in  the  same  plane,  proceeding 
from  the  same  point. 

A  SPHERICAL  ANGLE  is  formed  by  the  inter 
section  of  two  great  circles.  It  is  the  inclina 
tion  of  the  planes  of  these  circles  to  each  other. 

A  SOLID  ANGLE  is  formed  by  the  meeting  of 
three  planes  at  one  point.  See  ELEVATION,  FIRE, 
SIGHT,  MAST-HEAD,  LEEWAY. 

Angon.     A  half-pike  or  javelin. 

Angosiade.  An  astronomical  falsehood ;  a 
term  originating  from  the  pretended  observations 
of  D'Angos  at  Malta. 

Angra.     (Sp.)     Bay  or  inlet. 

Anguilliform.  Having  the  appearance  of 
eels. 

Angular  Crab.  An  ugly  long-armed  crusta 
cean,  with  eyes  on  remarkably  long  stalks. 

Anilla.     A  commercial  term  for  indigo. 

Animal  Flowers.  Actiniae,  or  sea-anemones 
and  similar  animals  project  a  circle  of  tentacula 
resembling  flowers.  They  were  formerly  all 
classed  under  Zoophytes. 

Animate.     To  give  power  or  encouragement. 

To  ANIMATE  A  NEEDLE.     To  magnetize  it. 

To  ANIMATE  A  BATTERY.  To  put  the  guns 
in  position. 

Anker.  A  Dutch  measure  containing  ten 
wine  gallons. 

ANKER-FISH.     A  kind  of  cuttle-fish. 

Ankle-bone.  A  sailor's  name  for  the  craw 
fish. 

Anna.  In  the  East  Indies,  the  16th  part  of  a 
rupee,  about  three  cents  in  United  States  cur 
rency. 

Annapolis.  A  city  and  port  of  entry  in  Mary 
land,  on  the  S.W.  bank  of  the  Severn  River,  3 
miles  from  its  entrance  into  the  Chesapeake  Bay, 
30  S.  by  E.  from  Baltimore.  Lat.  38°  58'  50" 
N. ;  Ion.  76°  30'  W.  The  United  States  Naval 
Academy  is  here  located.  Pop.  about  6000. 

Annealing.  There  are  many  substances  which , 
when  rapidly  cooled  after  having  been  heated, 
become  exceedingly  brittle;  this  result  may  be 
prevented  by  very  slow  cooling,  which  process 
is  termed  annealing.  By  this  process  the  sub 
stance  is  rendered  softer  and  less  brittle,  but  its 
elasticity  is  impaired. 

Annet.     A  kind  of  gull. 

Annex.  A  term  used  on  the  Mississippi  and 
other  Western  rivers  to  indicate  the  pilot-house 
of  steamboats,  called  also  "  Texas."  The  term 
is  said  to  have  originated  about  the  time  of  the 
annexation  of  Texas  to  the  United  States. 

Annihilator,  Fire.     See  FIRE-EXTINGUISHER. 

Anniversary  Winds.  Those  which  blow  con 
stantly  at  a  certain  season  of  the  year ;  as,  mon 
soon  and  etesian  winds. 

Annotinae.  The  ancient  Roman  provision 
vessels. 

Annual.     Yearly. 

ANNUAL  ACCOUNTS.  The  ship's  books  and 
papers  for  the  year. 

ANNUAL  VARIATION.  The  yearly  change  in 
the  variation  of  the  compass.  The  change  pro 
duced  in  the  right  ascension  or  declination  of  a 
star  by  the  precession  of  the  equinoxes  and  the 
proper  motion  of  the  star  taken  together. 

Annul.     To  revoke  ;  to  rescind. 

Annular.     Resembling  a  ring. 

AN  ANNULAR  ECLIPSE  takes  place  when  the 
apparent  diameter  of  the  moon  is  less  than  that  of 


ANNULLING 


37 


APEX 


the  sun,  and  a  ring  of  light  surrounds  the  moon 
while  central. 

ANNULAR  SCUPPER.  A  scupper  in  which  the 
hole  may  be  enlarged  or  diminished  by  a  movable 
concentric  ring. 

Annulling  Signal.  A  signal  which  denotes 
that  the  previous  signal  is  void. 

Annulus  Astronomicus.  A  ring  of  brass  used 
formerly  in  navigation. 

Anode.  The  positive  pole  of  an  electric  bat 
tery  ;  or,  more  strictly,  the  path  by  which  the 
current  passes  out  and  enters  the  electrolyte  on 
its  way  to  the  other  pole ;  opposed  to  cathode. 

Anomalistic  Revolution  or  Period.  The  pe 
riod  during  which  a  planet  makes  a  complete 
revolution  from  any  point  in  its  orbit  back  again. 

ANOMALISTIC  YEAR,  or  PERIODICAL  YEAR. 
The  time  in  which  the  earth  makes  its  anoma 
listic  revolution,  which  is  longer  than  the  tropi 
cal  year  on  account  of  the  precession  of  the  equi 
noxes. 

Anomaly.     Deviation  from  established  rules. 

Anomoural.  Irregular  in  the  character  of 
the  tail  or  abdomen ;  as,  the  anomoural  crus 
taceans,  a  group  between  the  crabs  and  the 
shrimps. 

Anon.  Quickly ;  immediately.  At  another 
time. 

Anonymous  Partnerships.  Those  not  carried 
on  under  a  special  name,  and  the  particulars  of 
which  are  known  only  to  the  parties  themselves. 

Ansae.  The  handles  of  old  ordnance.  The 
projections  of  Saturn's  rings  in  certain  situations. 

Anser.  A  Linnaean  order  of  natatorial  birds 
swimming  by  means  of  web-feet,  as  the  duck,  or 
of  lobe-feet,  as  the  grebe. 

Anson,  George,  Lord.  An  English  admiral ; 
born  in  Staffordshire,  England,  in  1697  ;  entered 
the  navy  at  an  early  age,  and  in  1724  was  made 
post-captain.  He  was  soon  ordered  to  the  Caro 
lina  station,  where  he  purchased  land  and  built 
a  town  called  after  his  own  name.  He  was  sub 
sequently  appointed  to  the  command  of  the  South 
Sea  Expedition  which  sailed  from  England  in 
1740.  After  his  return,  in  1744,  he  was  succes 
sively  created  rear-admiral  of  the  blue,  commis 
sioner  of  the  admiralty,  and  vice-admiral.  In 
1747  he  commanded  the  Channel  Fleet,  and  cap 
tured  six  French  ships  of  war.  As  a  reward  for 
this  brilliant  exploit  he  was  created  a  peer,  with 
the  title  of  Lord  Anson,  Baron  of  Soberton.  He 
was  First  Commissioner  of  the  Admiralty  from 
1751  to  1756.  In  1757  Anson  was  made  ad 
miral,  and  in  the  same  year  was  placed  at  the 
head  of  the  admiralty.  Died  in  1762.  No  book 
in  the  English  language  possesses  a  greater 
charm  for  youth  and  the  lover  of  adventure  than 
"  Anson's  Voyage." 

Answer.  To  reply.  To  suit ;  as,  this  boat  will 
not  answer. 

ANSWER  THE  HELM.  A  ship  is  said  to  an 
swer  the  helm  when  she  obeys  it  readily. 

Answering  Pennant.  A  pennant  which  is 
hoisted  to  indicate  that  a  signal  has  been  read 
and  understood. 

Antarctic.  Eelating  to  the  South  Pole  or  to 
the  region  near  it. 

ANTARCTIC  CIRCLE.  A  parallel  23°  28'  from 
the  South  Pole. 

ANTARCTIC  POLE.     The  South  Pole. 

ANTARCTIC  OCEAN.  The  portion  of  the  ocean 
included  within  the  Antarctic  Circle. 


Antares.  A  star  of  the  first  magnitude,  popu 
larly  known  as  the  Scorpion's  heart  (a  Scorpionis). 

Antecians.  Those  inhabitants  of  the  earth 
who  live  on  the  same  meridian,  but  in  opposite 
hemispheres. 

Antelucan.     Before  daybreak. 

Ante-meridian.     Before  noon. 

Anthelion.  A  luminous  appearance  on  a  cloud, 
over  against  or  opposite  to  the  sun.  It  consists 
of  a  circular  ring  or  rings  around  the  shadow 
of  the  spectator's  own  head  as  projected  on  a 
cloud  or  on  some  opposite  fog-bank. 

Anthracite.    See  COAL. 

Anticthones.  Inhabitants  of  countries  di 
ametrically  opposite  to  each  other. 

Anti-friction  Composition.     See  FRICTION. 

Anti-friction  Metals.     See  FRICTION. 

Anti-gallicians.  Extra  backstays  sometimes 
used  by  merchant  vessels  running  before  the 
trades. 

Anti-guggler.  A  straw  or  tube  introduced 
into  a  bottle  or  cask  to  suck  out  the  contents. 

Anti-parallels.  Lines  which  make  equal 
angles  with  two  other  lines  but  contrary  ways. 

Antipathes.  A  kind  of  coral  having  a  black, 
horny  stem. 

Antipodes.  The  inhabitants  of  the  earth  di 
ametrically  opposite  to  each  other.  The  term  is 
now  applied  to  the  countries  which  are  at  the 
opposite  ends  of  any  diameter  of  the  earth. 

Antiscii.  The  people  who  dwell  in  opposite 
hemispheres,  and  whose  shadows  at  noon  fall  in 
contrary  directions. 

Antiscorbutic.  Opposed  to,  or  counteracting 
scurvy.  See  SCURVY. 

Antiseptic.  Opposed  to,  or  counteracting 
putrefaction,  or  tendency  to  putrefaction,  in  the 
system. 

Antlia.  A  constellation  known  as  the  Air- 
Pump. 

Antwerp.  A  city  of  Belgium,  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Scheldt.  Lat.  51°  IS'  2'  N. ;  Ion. 
4°  24'  2"  E.  It  is  strongly  fortified,  the  walls 
and  other  defenses  completely  incompassing  the 
city  on  the  land-side,  having  more  than  12  miles 
of  solid  ramparts.  Of  the  stocks,  dock-yard,  and 
basins,  constructed  by  Napoleon  at  an  expense 
of  $10,000,000,  the  last  only  remain.  The  har 
bor  is  one  of  the  finest  in  the  world ;  it  admits 
vessels  of  any  size,  and  can  easily  hold  1000. 
Pop.  150,000. 

Anvil.  The  massive  block  of  iron  on  which 
shipsmiths  hammer  forge-work.  A  streamer  at 
the  end  of  a  lance. 

Any  Port  in  a  Storm.  A  phrase  signifying 
contentment  with  one's  lot.  The  best  practicable 
way  out  of  a  difficulty. 

Ape,  or  Sea-Ape.  The  long-tailed  shark.  An 
active  American  seal. 

Apeak.  Near  the  perpendicular.  An  anchor 
is  apeak  when  the  chain  is  up-and-down.  The 
oars  are  apeak  when  the  blades  are  thrown  for 
ward  and  the  crew  is  waiting  for  the  order  to 
"  give  way"  in  racing.  With  an  awning  spread 
in  a  boat  it  is  impossible  to  "  up  oars."  When 
they  are  raised  as  high  as  the  awning  permits 
they  are  said  to  be  apeak. 

Apertse.  Ancient  deep-waisted  ships  with 
high-decked  forecastle  and  poop. 

Aperture.  The  clear  diameter  of  the  object- 
glass  of  optical  instruments. 

Apex.     The  summit  or  vertex. 


APHELION 


38 


AQUAKIUS 


Aphelion.  The  point  in  a  planet's  orbit  which 
is  at  the  greatest  distance  from  the  sun. 

Aphelian.     Castor,     a  Geminorum. 

Aphracti.     Ancient  vessels  with  open  waists. 

Aplanatic.  Having  two  or  more  lenses  of 
different  curvatures  so  combined  that  their  re 
spective  aberrations  neutralize  each  other,  and 
the  resulting  compound  lens  is  free  from  spheri 
cal  aberration. 

Aplets.     Nets  for  the  herring  fishery. 

Aplustre.  An  old  word  for  the  ornament  at 
the  bow  and  for  the  ensign  at  the  stern. 

Aplysia.  A  sea-hare  of  the  genus  of  mol- 
lusks  of  the  order  Tectibranchiata,  Some  of  the 
species  have  the  power  of  throwing  out  a  deep 
purple  liquor,  which  colors  the  water  for  a  con 
siderable  distance  and  serves  to  conceal  the  ani 
mal. 

Apobathrse.  Ancient  gang-boards  from  the 
ship  to  the  wharf. 

Apogee.  That  point  of  the  moon's  orbit  which 
is  at  the  greatest  distance  from  the  earth.  For 
merly,  on  the  supposition  that  the  earth  was  the 
centre  of  the  system,  this  name  was  given  to  the 
point  in  the  orbit  of  the  sun,  or  of  a  planet,  which 
was  at  the  greatest  distance  from  the  earth. 

A-poise.     Balanced  ;  properly  trimmed. 

Apostle.  A  knight-head  or  bollard  timber. 
A  paper  sent  up  on  appeals  in  the  admiralty 
courts. 

Apothecary.  The  chief  assistant  of  the  medi 
cal  officer.  He  is  appointed  by  the  surgeon  for 
the  cruise.  Familiarly  known  as  u  Pills." 

Appalachicola.  A  port  of  entry  of  Florida, 
on  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Ap 
palachicola  Eiver.  Pop.  1200. 

Apparatus.  Ammunition  and  equipage  for 
war. 

Apparel.  In  marine  insurance,  the  furniture 
of  a  ship ;  as,  masts,  sails,  ground-tackle,  guns, 
etc.  It  is  a  more  comprehensive  term  than  ap 
paratus. 

Appareled.     Fully  equipped. 

Apparent.  (Lat.  apparere^  to  appear.)  An  ad 
jective  indicating  that  which  appears  to  the 
senses — phenomenal. 

11  Apparent"  is  sometimes  equivalent  to  true  or 
real,  when  contrasted  with  fictitious  or  imaginary. 
Thus  the  "  apparent  sun"  is  the  true  sun  we  see, 
as  opposed  to  the  imaginary  u  mean  sun"  ;  "  ap 
parent  time"  is  reckoned  by  the  hour-angles  of 
the  same  sensible  body  opposed  to  "  mean  time," 
which  is  defined  by  the  movement  of  the  fictitious 
mean  sun;  "apparent  noon"  is  when  the  true 
sun  is  on  the  meridian,  and  is  distinguished  from 
the  "  mean  noon,"  which  is  marked  by  the  transit 
of  the  mean  sun. 

"  Apparent"  is  sometimes  used  as  a  qualifica 
tion,  distinguishing  on  the  one  hand  from  ob 
served,  and  on  the  other  from  true.  It  is  in  this 
sense  applied  to  elements  corrected  for  instru 
mental  and  circumstantial  sources  of  error,  but 
not  yet  reduced  to  the  common  standard  for  com 
parison  and  computation.  We  thus  have  the 
"  apparent  altitude"  of  a  heavenly  body,  and  the 
"  apparent  distance"  of  two  heavenly  bodies, 
distinguished  on  the  one  hand  from  the  "ob 
served,"  and  on  the  other  from  the  "  true"  alti 
tude  and  distance.  So  also  there  is  the  "  appa 
rent  place"  of  a  heavenly  body  in  the  celestial 
concave,  and  the  "  true  place." 

"  Apparent"  is  sometimes  opposed  to  proper,  to 


distinguish  the  phenomenal  diurnal  motion  of 
the  heavenly  bodies  resulting  from  the  earth's 
rotation  on  her  axis,  from  that  which  is  due  to 
the  annual  revolution  of  the  earth  in  her  orbit, 
and  to  the  motion  of  each  body  in  its  orbit. 

Apparition.  The  first  appearance  of  a  star 
after  occultation. 

CIRCLE  OF  PERPETUAL  APPARITION.  A 
circle  whose  distance  from  the  elevated  pole  is 
equal  to  the  latitude  of  the  place  of  observation. 
Within  this  circle  the  stars  never  set. 

Appearance.  The  first  making  of  a  land-fall ; 
formerly  astronomically  used  for  phenomenon 
and  phase. 

Appendages.  The  valves,  gauges,  etc.,  of  a 
boiler.  The  comparatively  small  portions  out 
side  the  main  body  of  the  ship ;  as  the  keel, 
rudder,  etc.  Their  volume  is  computed  sepa 
rately  and  added  to  the  main  calculation  to  de 
termine  the  displacement  of  a  ship. 

Apple-pie-order.  In  excellent  condition ;  neat 
and  trim. 

Appoint.    To  assign  or  designate  by  authority. 

APPOINTED  OFFICERS  are  petty  officers  shipped 
for  the  cruise  for  special  service,  and  not  entitled 
to  continuous-service  certificates ;  as,  master-at- 
arms,  yeomen,  etc. 

An  acting  appointment  may  be  issued  by  the 
commander-in-chief  when  a  permanent  vacancy 
occurs  which  cannot  be  filled  from  the  super 
numerary  officers  of  other  ships.  This  appoint 
ment  must  be  in  writing,  and  subject  to  revoca 
tion  by  himself,  his  successor,  and  the  Secretary 
of  the  Navy.  An  officer  holding  an  acting  ap 
pointment  wears  the  uniform  of  the  grade  to 
which  he  is  appointed,  and  annexes  his  acting 
rank  to  his  official  signature. 

Appointments.  The  various  details  consti 
tuting  the  equipment  of  a  vessel,  or  the  accoutre 
ments  of  an  officer  or  enlisted  man. 

Apportionment.  The  act  of  apportioning  ;  a 
dividing  into  just  proportions  or  shares  ;  as,  in 
the  distribution  of  prize-money. 

Appraisement.     A  valuation.     A  law  instru 


ment  taken  out  by  the  captors  of  a  vessel. 

To 
to  punishment. 


Apprehend.     To  seize  a  person  with  a  view 


Apprentice.     See  NAVAL  APPRENTICE. 

Appropriation.  A  sum  of  money  set  apart  by 
Congress  for  a  particular  purpose. 

Approve.     To  sanction  officially. 

Appulse.  The  near  approach  of  one  heavenly 
body  to  another,  so  as  to  form  an  apparent  con 
tact. 

Apron.  A  timber  conforming  to  the  shape  of 
the  stem,  and  fixed  in  the  concave  part  of  it,  ex 
tending  from  the  head  to  some  distance  below 
the  scarf,  joining  the  upper  and  lower  stem- 
pieces. 

APRON  OF  A  DOCK.  The  platform  on  which 
the  sill  is  fastened  down. 

APRON  OF  A  GUN.  The  metal  cover  for  the 
lock  and  vent. 

Apsides,  Line  of.  The  right  line  joining  the 
aphelion  and  perihelion  points  of  the  orbit  of  a 
planet.  The  term  is  also  applied  to  the  line 
joining  the  perigee  and  apogee  of  the  moon. 

Apsis.     Each  extremity  of  the  line  of  apsides. 

Apus.  A  constellation  known  as  the  Bird  of 
Paradise. 

Aquarius.  The  W^ater-carrier,  the  eleventh 
sign  in  the  zodiac,  which  the  sun  enters  about 


AQUATIC 


39 


ARIES 


the  21st  of  January ;  so  called  from  the  rains 
which  prevail  at  that  season  in  Italy  and  the 
East. 

Aquatic.    Inhabiting  or  relating  to  the  water. 

Aquatites.  The  law-term  for  everything 
living  in  the  water. 

Aque.  Wall-sided,  flat-floored  boats,  which 
navigate  the  Rhine. 

Aqueduct.  A  conduit  or  canal  built  for  the 
conveyance  of  water. 

Aquila.  The  Eagle  ;  a  constellation  in  which 
is  a  very  bright  star  (Altair]  much  used  by  nav 
igators  in  taking  observations. 

Aquilon.     The  northeast  wind. 

Ara.  The  Altar ;  a  southern  constellation, 
containing  nine  stars. 

Aramech.  The  Arabic  name  for  the  star 
Arcturus. 

Arbalist.  An  engine  to  throw  stones,  or  the 
cross-bow  used  for  darts  and  arrows.  Formerly 
arbalisters  formed  part  of  the  naval  force. 

Arbiter.  The  judge  to  whom  a  matter  is  re 
ferred  for  adjustment. 

Arbitrage.  The  referring  of  commercial  dis 
putes  to  two  or  more  disinterested  persons. 

Arbitration.  The  settlement  of  disputes  out 
of  court. 

Arbor.     A  spindle  or  axis. 

Arby.     The  thrift,  or  sea-lavender. 

Arc.     A  part  of  a  circle. 

DIURNAL  ARC.  That  part  of  a  circle,  paral 
lel  to  the  equator,  which  a  heavenly  body  de 
scribes  from  its  rising  to  its  setting.  The  noc 
turnal  arc  is  the  arc  described  by  the  body  from 
its  setting  to  its  rising. 

THE  ARC  OF  DIRECTION  OR  PROGRESSION  is 
the  arc  which  a  planet  appears  to  describe  when 
its  motion  is  direct  in  the  order  of  the  signs. 

ARC  OF  VISION.  The  sun's  depth  below  the 
horizon  when  the  stars  begin  to  appear. 

Archangel.  A  town  of  Russia,  on  the  Dwina, 
20  miles  from  its  embouchure  in  the  Bay  of 
Archangel.  Lat.  64°  32'  N. ;  Ion.  40°  33'  E. 
This  is  one  of  the  oldest  ports  in  Russia,  having 
been  founded  in  1584,  and  was  long  the  only 
one.  Pop.  20,000. 

Arch-board.  The  part  of  the  stern  over  the 
counter,  immediately  under  the  knuckle  of  the 
stern-timbers. 

Arched  Squall.     See  SQUALL. 

Archel,  Archil,  or  Orchil.  A  lichen  found 
on  the  rocks  of  the  Canary  and  Cape  de  Verde 
Islands.  Litmus  is  obtained  from  it. 

Arches.  A  term  among  seamen  for  the  Arch 
ipelago.  See  GALLEY-ARCH  KS. 

Archi-gubernus.  The  commander  of  the  im 
perial  ship  in  olden  times. 

Archimedes'  Screw.  An  ingenious  spiral 
pump  invented  by  Archimedes  B.C.  260.  It  is 
also  used  for  removing  grain  from  a  lower  to  a 
higher  level.  The  name  is  applied  also  to  the 
screw-propeller. 

Arching.  The  drooping  of  the  extremities  of 
a  vessel.  See  HOGGING. 

Archipelago.  Originally  the  ^Egean  Sea.  A 
body  of  water  interspersed  with  many  islands. 

Architecture.     See  NAVAL  ARCHITECTURE. 

Archives.  Public  records  and  papers,  which 
are  preserved  as  evidence  of  facts. 

Arch  of  the  Cove.  An  elliptical  moulding 
sprung  over  the  cove  of  the  ship,  at  the  lower 
part  of  the  taffrail. 


Arctic.  Northern,  or  lying  under  Arktos,  the 
Bear. 

AKCTIC  POLE.     The  north  pole  of  the  globe. 

ARCTIC  OCEAN.  The  expanse  of  water  within 
the  Arctic  Circle. 

ARCTIC  CIRCLE.  A  parallel  distant  23°  28' 
from  the  north  pole.  It  divides  the  north  frigid 
from  the  north  temperate  zone. 

Arcturus.  A  star  of  the  first  magnitude  close 
to  the  knee  of  Bootes,  a  Bootis. 

Ardent.  Said  of  a  ship  when  she  has  a  tend 
ency  to  come  to  the  wind,  and  keeps  a  strain  on 
the  weather  tiller-rope. 

Ardent  Spirits.  Distilled  liquors.  They  are 
not  permitted  to  be  on  board  a  man-of-war  ex 
cept  as  medicinal  stores. 

Arenaceous.  Brittle;  sandy;  partaking  of 
the  qualities  of  sand. 

Arenal.  In  meteorology,  applied  to  a  cloud 
of  dust  so  thick  as  to  prevent  seeing  a  stone's- 
throw  off,  common  in  South  America,  being 
raised  by  the  wind  from  adjoining  shores. 

Arenation.  The  burying  of  scorbutic  patients 
up  to  their  neck  in  sand ;  spreading  hot  sand 
over  a  diseased  person. 

Arendal.  A  seaport  town  of  Norway,  36  miles 
N.E.  of  Christiansand,  on  the  Skager-Rack,  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Nid-Elv.  It  has  a  custom 
house  and  yards  for  ship-building.  Pop.  5800. 

Areometer.  An  instrument  for  measuring  the 
specific  gravity  of  fluids  ;  a  hydrometer. 

Argin.     An  old  word  for  embankment. 

Argo.  The  name  of  the  ship  which  carried 
Jason  and  his  companions  on  their  romantic  ex 
pedition  to  Colchis  in  quest  of  the  golden  fleece. 

Argol.  The  lees  of  wine  adhering  to  the  cask  ; 
supertartrate  of  potassa. 

Argonauta.  The  paper-nautilus.  The  sail 
which  it  spreads  is  a  modified  arm,  which  invests 
the  outer  surface  of  the  shell. 

Argonauts.  The  company  that  sailed  in  the 
"Argo."  A  geographical  society  instituted  at 
Venice,  to  which  we  are  indebted  for  the  charts 
and  maps  of  Coronelli.  In  the  United  States, 
the  men  who  first  emigrated  to  California  on  the 
discovery  of  gold  in  1849  are  sometimes  styled 
Argonauts. 

Argo  Navis.  The  constellation  of  the  Ship, 
containing  9  clusters,  3  nebulae,  540  single  and 
13  double  stars,  of  which  64  are  visible. 

Argosy.  A  ship  of  great  burden,  particularly 
of  the  Levant. 

Argozin,  or  Argnesys.  The  person  who  at 
tended  to  the  shackles  of  the  galley-slaves. 

Argument.  (Lat.  argumentum,  a  reason.)  In 
astronomical  tables  the  argument  is  that  quan 
tity  upon  which  the  tabulated  one  depends,  and 
with  which,  therefore,  the  table  is  "entered.'' 
Thus,  in  a  table  of  correction  for  refraction,  the 
altitude  is  the  argument.  When  the  element 
tabulated  depends  upon  two  given  ones,  then 
there  are  two  arguments  with  which  to  enter  the 
table,— one  at  the  side,  the  other  at  the  top. 
Thus,  for  the  correction  for  the  moon's  altitude, 
the  arguments  of  the  principal  table  are  the  ap 
parent  altitude  and  the  minutes  of  the  moon's 
horizontal  parallax. 

Argus-shell.  A  species  of  shell  beautifully 
variegated  with  spots,  resembling  in  some  meas 
ure  those  in  a  peacock's  tail. 

Aries,  the  Constellation  of.  (Lat.  Aries,  Ari- 
etis,  ' '  The  Ram. ' ')  The  first  constellation  of  the 


AEIES 


40 


AEMOR 


Ancient  zodiac,  marking  the  period  for  the  com 
memoration  of  the  mythical  golden  fleece.  The 
only  two  stars  in  it  of  any  note  are  a  and  (3  near 
together  in  the  horns,  a  being  the  more  north 
erly. 

ARIES,  THE  SIGN  OF.  The  division  of  the 
ecliptic,  including  the  first  30°  of  longitude,  reck 
oning  from  the  first  point  of  Aries.  This  origin, 
owing  to  the  precession  of  the  equinoxes,  is  at 
present  in  the  constellation  Pisces.  Symbol  7. 

ARIES,  FIRST  POINT  OF.  The  "Vernal  Equi 
noctial  Point,"  one  of  the  points  where  the  eclip 
tic  crosses  the  equinoctial,  so  called  as  being  the 
commencement  of  the  sign  Aries.  See  EQUI 
NOCTIAL  POINTS. 

Aries.     A  battering-ram.     (Roman  Antiq.) 

Aris.  Sharp  corners  of  stones  in  piers  and 
docks. 

Aris-pieces.  Those  parts  of  a  made  mast 
which  are  under  the  hoops. 

Ark.  Noah's  vessel.  It  was  300  cubits  in 
length,  50  in  breadth,  and  30  in  height,  and  it 
was  payed  over  with  bitumen.  A  comparison 
of  its  proportions  with  those  of  the  "  Great  East 
ern"  shows  a  considerable  similarity.  Reckon- 
ing  the  cubit  at  21  inches,  the  length  of  the  ark 
would  be  525  feet,  breadth  87  feet  6  inches, 
height  52  feet  6  inches,  the  "  Great  Eastern"  being 
in  length  680  feet,  breadth  83,  depth  58.  It  is 
mentioned  by  German  commentators  that  Peter 
Jansen,  in  1609,  built  a  vessel  of  the  same  pro 
portions  as  the  ark,  though  smaller,  viz. :  length 
120,  width  20,  depth  12  feet.  It  was  found  most 
convenient  for  stowage,  containing  one-third  more 
freight  than  ordinary  vessels  of  the  same  ton 
nage,  though  it  was  unsuited  for  making  way 
quickly  through  the  water. 

ARK.     A  mare's-tail  cloud.     A  flat-boat. 

Arm.  A  weapon.  An  inlet  of  the  sea.  The 
end  of  a  yard,  beam,  bracket,  or  axle.  A  branch 
of  the  military  service.  One  of  the  wings  of 
angle-iron.  The  part  of  an  anchor  to  which  the 
flukes  are  attached.  An  index-hand  or  pointer. 

To  ARMS  !     A  summons  to  war  or  battle. 

UNDER  ARMS.     Armed  and  ready  for  fighting. 

To  BE  IN  ARMS.     To  be  in  a  state  of  hostility. 

STAND  OF  ARMS.  A  complete  set  for  one  sol 
dier,  with  equipments ;  frequently  the  rifle  and 
bayonet  alone. 

Arm.  To  fit,  furnish,  and  provide  for  war. 
To  wind  rope-yarns  around  about  a  cross  bar 
shot  to  facilitate  ramming  it  home.  To  put  tal 
low  in  the  cavity  at  the  bottom  of  a  lead  to  bring 
up  specimens  of  the  bottom. 

ARM  AND  AWAY  !  The  order  for  armed  boats 
to  prepare  for  service. 

Armada,  The  Invincible.  The  famous  Span 
ish  armament  so  called  consisted  of  150  ships, 
2650  great  guns,  20,000  soldiers,  8000  sailors,  and 
2000  volunteers,  under  the  Duke  of  Medina  Si- 
donia.  It  arrived  in  the  Channel,  July  19,  1588, 
and  was  defeated  the  next  day  by  Drake  and 
Howard.  Ten  fire-ships  having  been  sent  into 
the  enemy's  fleet,  they  cut  their  cables,  put  to 
sea,  and  endeavored  to  return  to  their  rendezvous 
between  Calais  and  Gravelines ;  the  English  fell 
upon  them,  took  many  ships,  and  Admiral  How 
ard  maintained  a  running  fight  from  the  21st  of 
July  to  the  27th,  obliging  the  shattered  fleet  to 
bear  away  for  Scotland  and  Ireland,  where  a 
storm  dispersed  them,  and  the  remainder  of  the 
armament  returned  by  the  North  Sea  to  Spain. 


The  Spaniards  lost  fifteen  capital  ships  in  the 
engagement,  and  5000  men  ;  seventeen  ships  were 
lost  or  taken  on  the  coast  of  Ireland,  and  up 
wards  of  5000  men  were  drowned,  killed,  or  taken 
prisoners.  The  English  lost  but  one  ship. 

Armadilla.  A  squadron  of  guarda-costas  which 
formerly  cruised  on  the  coast  of  South  America 
to  prevent  smuggling.  ' 

Armador.     A  Spanish  privateer. 

Armament.  A  term  expressing  collectively 
all  the  great  guns  and  small-arms,  with  their 
equipments,  but  generally  applied  to  the  great 
guns  only. 

Armamenta.  The  rigging,  tackling,  and  all 
necessary  furniture  of  an  ancient  ship. 

Armatae.  Ancient  ships  fitted  with  sails  and 
oars,  but  which  fought  under  oars  only. 

Armature.  A  piece  of  soft  metal  connecting 
the  poles  of  a  magnet.  It  serves  to  prevent  the 
dissipation  of  the  magnetic  force. 

Arm-chest.  A  portable  locker  to  afford  a 
ready  supply  of  arms  and  accoutrements. 

Armed.  Supplied  with  weapons ;  fitted  and 
furnished  for  war. 

Armed-in-flute.  Partially  armed,  a  part  of 
the  battery  having  been  removed  and  the  effec 
tive  armament  thus  reduced  below  that  which 
the  vessel  rates. 

Armed-mast.  A  mast  made  of  more  than 
one  tree. 

Armed  Neutrality.     See  NEUTRALITY. 

Armed-ship.  A  vessel  fitted  out  by  private 
parties  to  cruise  against  an  enemy's  commerce. 
She  is  furnished  with  a  letter-of-marque. 

Armed-stem.  A  prow  strengthened  by  armor. 

Arming.     The  tallow  used  to  arm  the*  lead. 

Armings.  Red  dress  cloths,  formerly  hung 
outside  the  upper-works  on  holidays.  A  kind  of 
boarding-netting. 

Armipotent.     Powerful  in  war. 

Armistice.  A  cessation  of  arms  for  a  short 
time  by  convention ;  a  truce. 

Armlet.     A  small  arm  of  the  sea. 

Armogan.  An  old  term  for  good  season  or 
opportunity  for  navigation,  which  if  neglected 
rendered  valid  a  claim  for  demurrage.  A  Med 
iterranean  term  for  fine  weather. 

Armor.  The  term,  as  now  generally  accepted, 
refers  to  metallic  protection  against  the  fire  of 
artillery,  whether  applied  to  ships  or  forts.  The 
metal  of  which  armor  has  been  heretofore  com 
posed  was  iron;  but  the  development  in  the 
power  of  artillery  has  rendered  it  necessary  to 
seek  other  metals  which  would  be  able  to  offer  a 
more  effective  resistance  to  the  impact  of  heavy 
shot  with  high  velocities.  Steel  has  been  much  ex 
perimented  with,  and  has  been  partially  adopted, 
and  later  experiments  lead  to  the  supposition 
that  a  combination  of  iron  and  steel,  called 
"  compound  armor,"  will  ultimately  be  in  gen 
eral  use.  A  description  of  this  combination  of 
metals  will  be  found  under  its  proper  heading. 
The  thickness  of  armor  must  of  course  depend 
upon  the  service  on  which  a  ship  is  to  be  em 
ployed  and  upon  her  floating  capacity ;  and,  in 
case  of  forts,  upon  the  depth  of  water  in  the 
approaching  channels,  which  will  determine  the 
character  of  vessel  that  is  likely  to  be  able  to 
approach  within  range  ;  but  interesting  questions 
have  arisen  as  to  the  manner  in  which  armor 
should  be  applied,  whether  it  should  be  left  alto 
gether  unsupported,  or  whether  partially  sup- 


ARMOR 


41 


ARMOR 


FIG.  1. 


ported,  or  whether  assisted  by  direct  support 
from  the  structure  to  which  it  is  attached,  or 
whether  elastic  or  solid  backing  is  the  most  ad 
vantageous.  We  will  review  some  of  these  cases 
which  have  constituted  the  points  of  discussion 
on  armor. 

Fig.  1  represents  the  armor-plate  as  applied  to 
the  "Warrior,"  the  first  regular  ironclad  vessel 
of  modern  times.  In  this  case  the  armor  is  4£ 
inches  thick,  with  a  wood  backing  of  18  inches 
and  a  skin-plating  of  £  inch.  The  object  of  the 
iron  plate  is  to  offer  a  strong  ob 
stacle  to  the  blow  of  the  projectile, 
expending,  unaided,  its  whole 
power  of  resistance  in  the  effort. 
So  much  of  the  energy  of  the 
projectile  as  can  be  absorbed  by 
the  strength  of  the  plate  neutra 
lizes  that  amount  of  the  damage 
that  might  have  been  done  to  the 
vessel,  and  if  the  plate  is  des 
troyed  it  has  done  its  duty  in  af 
fording  this  much  protection. 
The  wood  backing  acts  as  a  cushion  to  save  the 
hull  of  the  vessel  from  receiving  any  damage 
from  the  shock  of  the  impact.  This  is  the 
most  simple  means  of  applying  armor.  It  is, 
in  the  words  of  an  eminent  constructor,  "  a  good 
thickness  of  wood  with  a  patch  of  iron  on  the 
outside,"  which  he  declared  to  be  "the  best 
armor  in  the  world  for  ships." 

An  improvement  on  this  plan  of  applying 
armor  was  suggested  by  Mr.  Chalmers,  of  Eng 
land,  who,  observing  the  easy  manner  in  which 
the  wood  backing  yielded  to  the  force  of  impact, 
conceived  the  idea  of  reinforcing  it  so  as  to  pre 
vent  it  from  being  so  readily  deranged.  His 
idea  was  that,  as  the  force  of  impact  was  con 
fined  to  one  point,  and  as  the  wood  backing  nat 
urally  yielded  in  all  directions  to  the  pressure 
applied,  an  increased  element  of  support  could 
be  supplied  to  the  wood  backing  if  this  tendency 
could  be  controlled.  Accordingly,  he  proposed 
that  thin  plates  of  iron  should  be  sandwiched  in, 
horizontally,  between  the  layers  of  wood  back 
ing,  so  as  to  control  in  a  measure  the  yielding 
of  the  wood  in  a  vertical  direction.  These  plates 
of  iron  were  loosely  disposed  between  the  layers 
of  wood,  being  attached  neither  to  the  skin- 
plating  nor  to  the  armor.  On  this  principle  there 
was  constructed  in  England  a  Chalmers  target, 
which  was  fired  at  with  very  good  results  favor 
ing  the  idea,  but  it  was  never  officially  adopted 
by  the  English  government.  Fig.  2  represents 
the  "  Warrior"  armor  with  the  Chalmers  plates, 
as  proposed  by  the  inventor. 

About  the  time  of  the  experiments  with  the 
Chalmers  target,  the  chief  con 
structor  of  the  English  admi 
ralty  introduced  into  the  con 
struction  of  vessels,  intended 
for  ironclads,  a  horizontal  iron 
girder  on  the  outside  of  the 
hulls,  which  was  riveted  to  the 
side  by  angle-irons,  and  which 
gave  much  additional  rigidity 
to  the  hull.  Fig.  3  represents 
the  armor  of  the  "  Bellero 
phon,"  in  which  the  horizontal 
girder  was  introduced. 

In  comparing  Figs.  2  and  3,  it  will  be  seen 
that  the  object  of  the  horizontal  plate  of  the 


FIG.  2. 


Chalmers  target  is  achieved  in  the  backing  of  the 
armor  of  the  "  Bellerophon,"  but  with  a  differ 
ence.  In  both  instances  the  horizontal  disposi 
tion  of  the  iron  plate  between  the  layers  of  the 
wood  backing  satisfies  the  demand  made  by  Mr. 
Chalmers  for  the  support  of  the  wood  backing, 
but  the  proposition  of  Mr.  Chalmers  went  no 
farther  than  this.  His  idea  was  simply  to  rein 
force  the  backing  so  as  to  enable  it  to  afford  a 
more  decided  support  to  the  armor;  the  object 
was  to  prevent  the  derangement  of  the  wood 
backing,  consequent  upon  impact  at  one  point, 
by  obstructing  the  vertical  yielding  of  the  wood 
away  from  the  point  of  pressure.  This  effort 
was  confined  solely  to  the  backing.  But,  in  the 
"  Bellerophon"  armor,  it  will  be  seen  that  the 
horizontal  girder,  which  does  the  work  of  the 
Chalmers  plate  between  the  layers  of  the  wood 
backing,  is  connected  with  the  hull  of  the  vessel, 
and  forms  a  part  of  the  structure.  This  involves 
another  and  a  very  important  consideration,  for 
the  shock  of  impact  is  thus  carried  to  the  hull 
of  the  vessel,  and  the  consideration  of  the  sub 
ject  presents  a  very  different  aspect.  A  "  thick 
ness  of  wood  with  a  patch  of  iron  on  the  out 
side,"  bolted  to  a  ship's  side,  is  simply  an  inde 
pendent  attachment,  and  if  the  armor  is  shattered 
by  the  projectile,  and  the  backing  is  pierced,  all 
the  independent  work  that  can  be  done  by  this 
covering  has  been  performed ;  but  if  the  inner 
face  of  the  armor  rests  against  the  edge  of  a  hori 
zontal  iron  plate  or  girder  which  is  connected  to 
the  hull,  this  plate  acts  as  a  strut  behind  a  target, 
and  in  supporting  the  armor  it 
receives  the  force  of  the  blow, 
which  it  communicates  to  the 
hull.  A  point  made  in  defense 
of  the  use  of  the  girder  as  a  sup 
port  to  the  armor  is,  that  the 
force  of  the  shock  is  not  commu 
nicated  to  one  point  alone  of  the 
frame  of  the  hull,  but  is  dissem 
inated  along  an  extensive  por 
tion  of  the  vessel  on  each  side  of 
the  point  of  impact. 

Mr.  John  Hughes,  of  the  late  Millwall  Iron- 
Works,  on  the  Thames,  England,  developed  the 
idea  of  support  to  the  armor-plate  by  the  intro 
duction  of  a  hollow  stringer,  which  bears  his 
name,  which  was  most  successfully  applied  in 
the  celebrated  Millwall  shield, — a  target  which 
was  fired  at  at  Shoeburyness  in  1868.  The  Mill- 
wall  shield  exhibited  very  superior  power  of  re 
sistance  to  all  other  targets  that  were  experi 
mented  on  at  that  time.  The  experiments  of 
that  year  were  made  particularly  interesting 
from  the  fact  that  a  Rodman  15-inch  gun  was 
one  of  those  that  were  used  in  the  firing,  and 
the  inferiority  of  the  gun  in  capacity  to  pene 
trate  armor  was  made  clearly  perceptible.  Fig. 
4  represents  the  Hughes  hollow  girder  or  stringer, 
which  is  placed  horizontally  and  riveted  to  the 
side  of  the  vessel. 

The  hollow  portion  of  the  stringer  is  filled  in 
with  oak. 

On  the  closing  of  the  Millwall  works,  Mr. 
Hughes  undertook  the  establishment  of  large 
iron-works  in  Russia,  under  the  patronage  of 
the  government,  and  his  hollow  stringers  were 
adopted  by  that  government  and  were  applied 
to  the  turreted  vessel  called  the  "  Hercules" 
that  was  building  in  St.  Petersburg  in  1871. 


FJG.  3. 


ARMOR 


42 


ARMOR 


The  name  of  this  vessel  was  afterwards  changed 
to  "Peter  the  Great."  The  hollow  stringers, 
as  applied  to  this  vessel,  were  estimated  to 
be  equal  to  two  inches  of  iron  in  increasing 
her  defensive  capacity.  An  objection  has  been 
made  to  the  use  of  the  Hughes  hollow  stringer 
on  the  ground  that  it  gave  too  much  solidity 
to  the  backing,  thereby  neutralizing  the  advan 
tage  that  was  supposed  to  rest  in  the  elasticity 
afforded  by  the  wood  cushion  ;  but  the  Russian 
authorities"  assert  that,  under  the  violence  of 
the  impact  of  a  heavy  projectile,  there  is  a  de- 

JUT. 

FIG.  4. 

cided  amount  of  elasticity  developed  in  the 
stringer  itself,  which  is  quite  sufficient  to  refute 
the  charge  that  the  whole  structure  is  rendered 
rigid  by  the  use  of  this  device.  In  the  case  of 
the  "Peter  the  Great,"  the  Hughes  stringers 
were  not  placed  in  positive  contact  with  the 
armor-plate,  but  were  provided  with  a  cushion 
of  lignum-vitse,  about  two  inches  thick,  which 
intervened  between  the  outer  face  of  the  stringer 
and  the  inner  side  of  the  plate  ;  this  was  consid 
ered  as  a  refinement  in  the  details  of  applying 
the  stringer,  which  answered  all  objections  to 
its  use. 

Fig.  5  represents  a  method  of  reinforcing  the 
backing  for  armor  which  was  adopted  for  the 
"Colossus"  and  her  class  of  monitors  for  the 
United  States  navy,  but  the  idea  has  not  pro 
gressed  beyond  its  conception. 

At  the  present  time  the  Chalmers  horizontal 
plate,  as  applied  by  the  English  admiralty,  con 
nected  by  an  angle-iron  to  the  hull  and  encir 
cling  the  vessel,  may  be  considered  as  the  most 
generally  adopted  plan  of  reinforcing  the  armor 
of  ironclad  ships. 

In  the  case  of  forts,  the  general  plan  is  to  plate 
with   iron   the    stone-works 
already  constructed,  and,  at 
Spithead,  for  example,  the 
same  plan  is  carried  out  with 
new  fortifications  ;  but  a  no 
table  exception  is  made  to 
this  rule  by  the  Russians  in 
the  new  works  which  they 
have  established  for  the  de 
fense  of  St.  Petersburg   at 
Cronstadt.      A    description 
of  the  different  systems  of 
armor  used  in  these  defenses  will  be  the  best  cita 
tion  that  can  be  made  of  such  plans  for  defense 
as  have  been  considered  worthy  of  being  adopted. 
On  the  south  side  of  the  channel  the  defenses 
consist  entirely  of  turrets,  constructed   on   the 
English  plan  of  rotation  as  used  in  the  English 
turreted  ironclads.     The  outside  plating  of  these 
turrets  is  12  and  14  inches  thick,  and  the  hollow 
stringers  of  Hughes  constitute  the  backing. 

On  the  northern  side  of  the  channel  there  are 
erected  five  casemated  batteries,  the  armor  of 
each  differing  from  that  of  all  the  others. 


FIG.  5. 


Fig.  6  represents  the  system  adopted  for  the 
first  one  of  these  batteries.  It  consists  of  a  9- 
inch  iron  plate,  backed  by  12  inches  of  teak,  rest 
ing  against  a  1-inch  plate  of  iron,  which  is  sup, 


_J 


FIG.  7. 


FIG.  6. 

ported  by  horizontal  girders  of  iron,  12  inches 
wide,  riveted  to  an  inner  1-inch  skin,  all  of 
which  is  backed  by  struts,  which  serve  to  divide 
the  interior  space  in  the  battery  allotted  to  the 
service  of  each. 

Fig.  7  represents  the 
armor  of  the  second  bat 
tery,  which  is  constructed 
on  the  same  plan  as  that 
of  the  first  battery,  with 
the  exception  of  the  gird 
ers  and  the  inner  skin, 
the  1-inch  plate  behind 
the  wood  backing  form 
ing  the  inner  skin.  In 
this  plan  the  wood  back 
ing  is  increased  to  18 
inches  thickness. 

Fig.  8  represents  the  armor  of  the  third  bat 
tery,  which  is  called  the  Lancaster  armor.     The 
edges  of  the  plates  are  tongued 
and  grooved,  and   are   built  up 
one  upon  the  other.     A  part  of 
each  plate  has  a  thickness  of  14 
inches,  while    the    rest    of    the 
same   plate    is    8    inches   thick. 
The   inner  side    of    this    armor 
presents  a  surface  of  horizontal 
ribs,    the    exterior     surface     is 
smooth,   the    inequality  of    the 
thickness    of   each   plate    being 
confined  to  the  inner  side.     The 
armor   is   supported    behind   by 
iron    uprights,   having  on    one 
surface  projecting  squares,  which 
enter  into  the  recesses  between  the  ribs  of  the 
plates.     These  uprights  are  separated  by  inter 
vals  of  2  or  3  feet.     The  whole  is   backed   by 
struts. 

Fig.  9  represents  the  fourth 
battery  with  its  armor.  This 
battery  is  built  of  granite  blocks 
of  Finland  stone,  10  feet  thick. 
This  is  covered  by  2  inches  of 
teak,  on  which  is  placed  the 
armor,  consisting  of  plates  9 
inches  in  thickness.  This  con 
struction  not  requiring  the  sup 
port  of  struts,  the  battery  is 
quite  open  from  one  end  to  the 
other,  which  gives  the  beautiful 
stone  an  opportunity  of  showing  to  advantage. 

Fig.  10  represents  the  fifth  battery,  which  has 
9  inches  of  armor  on  the  exterior.  Behind  this 
there  are  placed  uprights  of  iron  6  inches  square 


FIG.  8. 


AKMOK 


43 


ARRAY 


placed  G  inches  apart,  the  intervals  being  filled 
with  wood.  Behind  this  is  a  wood  backing  con 
sisting  of  12  inches  of  teak.  Behind  this  arc 
placed  the  hollow  stringers  of  Hughes  tilled  in 
with  wood.  These  stringers  are  JO  inches  in 
width,  the  thickness 
at  the  outer  rectan 
gular  face  is  l£  inch, 
and  the  spread  of  the 
angle-irons  forming 
their  base  is  12  in 
ches.  The  stringers 
are  thus  12  inches 
apart.  These  are  riv 
eted  by  their  angle- 
iron  base  to  the  inner 
skin  of  1-inch  iron. 

In  this  combination  of  systems  the  Russian 
authorities  have  adopted  each  in  its  complete 
ness.  Each  invention  has  been  taken  as  a  whole, 
and  the  result  is  a  combination  of  many  systems 
without  a  complication  of  different  ideas. 

Propositions  have  been  made  to  increase  the 
elasticity  of  the  backing  by  the  introduction  of 
hardened  rubber,  etc.,  but  these  plans  have  been 
found  rather  to  assist  than  to  impede  the  pene 
tration  of  projectiles. — E.  Simpson,  Commodore 
U.S.N. 

Armor,  Compound.  Wrought  iron  and  steel 
have,  each,  advantages  and  disadvantages  as 
material  for  armor  for  vessels  of  war.  Wrought 
iron  is  tenacious,  but  does  not  offer  sufficient  re 
sistance  to  the  punching  power  of  the  projectile, 
whereas  steel  offers  great  resistance  to  the  punch 
ing  power,  but  is  comparatively  easily  crumbled 
or  shattered  by  a  succession  of  blows. 

COMPOUND  ARMOR  is  the  result  of  an  effort  to 
combine  the  good  qualities  of  the  two  metals  by 
facing  the  iron  armor  with  steel  plates.  The 
steel  prevents  the  penetration  of  the  shot,  and 
the  iron  backing  by  its  great  tenacity  prevents 
the  destruction  of  the  steel  by  shattering. 

The  plates  are  welded  together  in  the  following 
manner :  The  iron  plate,  raised  to  a  red  heat,  is 
placed  in  a  form,  and  over  it  is  poured  molten 
steel.  The  temperature  of  the  molten  steel  being 
higher  than  the  fusing-point  of  iron,  the  surface 
of  the  iron  plate  becomes  partially  fused,  and  a 
complete  union  of  the  two  metals  is  obtained. 

By  this  process  the  weld  is  not  confined  to  a 
simple  line  as  in  an  ordinary  weld,  but  a  third 
metal  or  semi-steel  is  formed,  varying  in  thick 
ness  from  \  to  f  of  an  inch.  By  the  formation 
of  this  anomalous  steel  the  two  metals  are  joined 
together  inseparably,  or,  in  other  words,  the  iron 
has  run  into  the  steel,  and  steel  into  the  iron. 
Experiments  to  tear  the  two  asunder  have  re 
sulted  in  the  tearing  of  the  iron  while  the  weld 
remained  intact. 

The  compound  armor-plates  thus  obtained  may 
be  rolled  to  any  thickness. 

By  the  invention  of  compound  armor  it  would 
seem  that  the  defense  is  once  more  placed  on  an 
equality  with  the  attack. — H.  T.  Stockton,  Lieu 
tenant  U.S.N. 

Armor,  Submarine.  The  water-tight  dress  of 
a  diver.  See  DIVING. 

Armorer.  A  petty  officer  whose  duty  it  is  to 
keep  the  small-arms  in  condition  for  service. 
Formerly  he  was  the  blacksmith  of  the  ship. 

Armorer's  Mate.  The  assistant  of  the  ar 
morer. 


Armoric.  The  language  of  Brittany,  Corn 
wall,  and  Wales.  The  original  signification  was 
maritime. 

Armory.  A  place  reserved  for  the  storage  of 
small-arms. 

Arm-rack.  A  frame,  generally  vertical,  for 
holding  small-arms. 

Arms.  Weapons  of  offense  and  defense. 
Arms  and  weapons  both  signify  instruments  of 
offense  and  defense,  but  we  say  fire-arms,  never 
fire-weapons.  Cannons,  muskets,  pistols,  are 
fire-arms;  bows  and  arrows,  clubs,  stones,  are 
weapons.  Instruments  made  on  purpose  to  fight 
witn  are  called  arms,  or  weapons  ;  such  as  are 
accidentally  employed  to  fight  with,  weapons. 
(Mech.)  The  two  parts  of  a  balance  or  other 
lever  on  opposite  sides  of  the  fulcrum. 

Armstrong,  James,  Commodore  U.S.N.  Born 
Shelby ville,  Ky.,  January  17,  1794,  died  Charles- 
town,  Mass.,  August  27,  1868.  Midshipman, 
November  15,  1809;  lieutenant,  April  27,  1816; 
commander,  March  3,  1825;  captain,  September 
8,  1841 ;  commodore,  July  16,  1866.  Captured 
in  the  "Frolic"  in  1814  by  the  British  frigate 
"Orpheus,"  and  kept  a  prisoner  until  March, 
1815.  Commanded  the  East  India  Squadron 
1855-58,  and  in  1857  attacked  and  captured  the 
Barrier  forts  in  the  Canton  River.  Compelled 
by  a  large  rebel  force  to  surrender  the  Pensacola 
navy-yard,  January  12,  1801. 

Armstrong,  Sir  William  George.  Noted  for 
various  mechanical  inventions,  and  particularly 
that  of  a  gun  of  extraordinary  power  and  pre 
cision.  Born  at  Newcastle,  England,  in  1810, 
was  articled  to  Mr.  Armourer  Donkin,  an  emi 
nent  solicitor  in  Newcastle,  who,  at  the  expira 
tion  of  his  time,  made  him  a  partner.  About 
1838,  observing  one  day  a  little  stream  descend 
ing  along  a  height  near  Newcastle  and  driving 
but  a  single  mill,  he  thought  to  how  much  more 
purpose  it  might  be  applied  hydraulically,  and 
thus  was  led  into  a  course  of  experimenting 
which  resulted  in  his  producing  a  much  improved 
hydraulic  engine.  In  1845  he  invented  a  hy 
draulic  crane,  which  has  proved  to  be  of  eminent 
utility  in  raising  weights  in  harbors.  Soon  after 
the  invention  of  the  gun  which  bears  his  name 
an  office  was  created  for  him,  that  of  Chief  En 
gineer  of  Rifled  Ordnance.  For  description  of 
Armstrong  gun,  see  ORDNANCE. 

Army.  An  armed  force  under  regular  mili 
tary  organization  employed  for  national  offense 
or  defense.  An  army  may  comprise  the  whole 
military  force  employed  by  a  state,  or  only  a  por 
tion  under  a  particular  commander.  A  fleet  is 
sometimes  called  a  naval  army. 

Armye.     An  early  name  for  a  fleet. 

Arnot.     A  shrimp. 

Arquebuse.  A  sort  of  hand-gun  ;  an  old  spe 
cies  of  fire-arm  resembling  a  musket,  and  sup 
ported  upon  a  forked  rest  when  in  use. 

Arrack.  A  spirituous  liquor  manufactured  in 
the  East  Indies  from  various  substances,  but 
chiefly  from  fermented  rice  arid  the  sap  of  the 
cocoa  palm. 

Arraign.  To  call,  or  set  as  a  prisoner,  at  the 
bar  of  the  court  to  answer  to  the  matter  charged 
in  an  indictment  or  complaint. 

Array.  The  order  of  battle.  The  whole  body 
of  officers  constituting  a  court-martial. 

To  ARRAY.  To  equip ;  to  arm  for  battle ;  to 
arrange  in  order  of  battle. 


ARREARS 


44 


ARTICLES 


Arrears.  That  which  is  behind  in  payment, 
but  supposes  a  part  already  paid. 

Arrest.  To  suspend  from  duty,  and  restrain 
from  liberty,  preparatory  to  a  court-martial. 

Arrow.  A  slender  shaft  to  be  shot  from  a 
bow.  It  is  generally  armed  at  one  end  and 
feathered  at  the  other,  though  the  natives  of 
Africa  frequently  feather  the  barbed  end. 

Arsenal.  A  manufactory  or  depository  for 
arms  and  all  military  equipments. 

Artemon.     The  mainsail  of  ancient  ships. 

Articles.  The  express  stipulations  to  which  a 
seaman  binds  himself  when  he  joins  a  merchant 
ship. 

Articles  for  the  Government  of  the  United 
States  Navy.  The  Navy  of  the  United  States 
shall  be  governed  by  the  following  Articles  : 

Article  1.  The  commanders  of  all  fleets,  squad 
rons,  naval  stations,  and  vessels  belonging  to  the 
navy  are  required  to  show  in  themselves  a  good 
example  of  virtue,  honor,  patriotism,  and  subor 
dination  ;  to  be  vigilant  in  inspecting  the  con 
duct  of  all  persons  who  are  placed  under  their 
command ;  to  guard  against  and  suppress  all 
dissolute  and  immoral  practices,  and  to  correct, 
according  to  the  laws  and  regulations  of  the 
navy,  all  persons  who  are  guilty  of  them  ;  and 
any  such  commander  who  offends  against  this 
article  shall  be  punished  as  a  court-martial  may 
direct. 

Article  2.  The  commanders  of  vessels  and 
naval  stations  to  which  chaplains  are  attached 
shall  cause  divine  service  to  be  performed  on 
Sunday,  whenever  the  weather  and  other  circum 
stances  allow  it  to  be  done ;  and  it  is  earnestly 
recommended  to  all  officers,  seamen,  and  others 
in  the  naval  service  diligently  to  attend  at  every 
performance  of  the  worship  of  Almighty  God. 

Article  3.  Any  irreverent  or  unbecoming  be 
havior  during  divine  service  shall  be  punished  as 
a  general  or  summary  court-martial  may  direct. 

Article  4.  The  punishment  of  death,  or  such 
other  punishment  as  a  court-martial  may  ad 
judge,  may  be  inflicted  on  any  person  in  the 
naval  service — 

1.  Who  makes,  or  attempts  to  make,  or  unites 
with    any  mutiny  or    mutinous   assembly,  or, 
being  witness  to  or  present  at  any  mutiny,  does 
not  do  his  utmost  to  suppress  it ;  or,  knowing  of 
any  mutinous  assembly  or  of  any  intended  mu 
tiny,  does   not   immediately    communicate    his 
knowledge  to  his  superior  or  commanding  officer ; 

2.  Or  disobeys  the  lawful  orders  of  his  superior 
officer ; 

3.  Or  strikes  orassaults,  or  attempts  or  threatens 
to  strike  or  assault  his  superior  officer  while  in 
the  execution  of  the  duties  of  his  office ; 

4.  Or  gives  any  intelligence  to,  or  holds  or 
entertains  any  intercourse  with,  an   enemy  or 
rebel,   without   leave   from   the   President,    the 
Secretary  of  the  Navy,  the  commander-iii-chief 
of  the  fleet,  the  commander  of  the  squadron,  or, 
in  case  of  a  vessel  acting  singly,  from  his  com 
manding  officer ; 

5.  Or  receives  any  message  or  letter  from  an 
enemy  or  rebel,  or,  being  aware  of  the  unlawful 
reception  of  such  message  or  letter,  fails  to  take 
the  earliest  opportunity  to  inform  his  superior  or 
commanding  officer  thereof; 

6.  Or,  in  time  of  war,  deserts  or  entices  others 
to  desert ; 

7.  Or,  in  time  of  war,  deserts  or  betrays  his 


trust,  or  entices  or  aids  others  to  desert  or  betray 
their  trust ; 

8.  Or  sleeps  upon  his  watch  ; 

9.  Or  leaves  his  station  before  being  regularly 
relieved ; 

10.  Or   intentionally  or  willfully  suffers  any 
vessel  of  the  navy  to  be  stranded,  or  run  upon 
rocks  or  shoals,  or  improperly  hazarded ;  or  ma 
liciously  or  willfully  injures  any  vessel  of  the 
navy,  or  any  part  of  her  tackle,  armament,  or 
equipment,  whereby  the  safety  of  the  vessel  is 
hazarded  or  the  lives  of  the  crew  exposed  to 
danger ; 

11.  Or  unlawfully  sets  on  fire,  or  otherwise  un 
lawfully  destroys,  any  public  property  not  at  the 
time  in  possession  of  an  enemy,  pirate,  or  rebel ; 

12.  Or  strikes  or  attempts  to  strike  the  flag  to 
an  enemy  or  rebel,  without  proper  authority,  or, 
when  engaged  in  battle,  treacherously  yields  or 
pusillanimously  cries  for  quarter  ; 

13.  Or,  in  time  of  battle,  displays  cowardice, 
negligence,  or  disaffection,   or  withdraws  from 
or  keeps  out  of  danger  to  which  he  should  ex 
pose  himself; 

14.  Or,  in  time  of  battle,  deserts  his  duty  or 
station,  or  entices  others  to  do  so  ; 

15.  Or  does  not  properly  observe  the  orders  of 
his  commanding  officer,  and  use  his  utmost  exer 
tions  to  carry  them  into  execution,  when  ordered 
to  prepare  for  or  join  in,  or  when  actually  en 
gaged,  in  battle,  or  while  in  sight  of  an  enemy  ; 

16.  Or,  being  in  command  of  a  fleet,  squadron, 
or  vessel  acting  singly,  neglects,  when  an  en 
gagement  is  probable,  or  when  an  armed  vessel 
of  an  enemy  or  rebel  is  in  sight,  to  prepare  and 
clear  his  ship  or  ships  for  action  ; 

17.  Or  does  not,  upon  signal  for  battle,  use  his 
utmost  exei'tions  to  join  in  battle  ; 

18.  Or  fails  to  encourage,  in  his  own  person, 
his  inferior    officers    and    men   to  fight    coura- 


19.  Or  does  not  do  his  utmost  to  overtake  and 
capture  or  destroy  any  vessel  which  it  is  his  duty 
to  encounter ; 

20.  Or  does  not  afford  all  practicable  relief  and 
assistance  to  vessels   belonging   to   the   United 
States  or  their  allies  when  engaged  in  battle. 

Article  5.  All  persons  who,  in  time  of  war,  or 
of  rebellion  against  the  supreme  authority  of  the 
United  States,  come  or  are  found  in  the  capacity 
of  spies,  or  who  bring  or  deliver  any  seducing 
letter  or  message  from  an  enemy  or  rebel,  or  en 
deavor  to  corrupt  any  person  in  the  navy  to  be 
tray  his  trust,  shall  suffer  death,  or  such  other 
punishment  as  a  court-martial  may  adjudge. 

Article  6.  If  any  person  belonging  to  any  pub 
lic  vessel  of  the  United  States  commits  the  crime 
of  murder  without  the  territorial  jurisdiction 
thereof,  he  may  be  tried  by  court-martial  and 
punished  with  death. 

Article  7.  A  naval  court-martial  may  adjudge 
the  punishment  of  imprisonment  for  life,  or  for  a 
stated  term,  at  hard  labor,  in  any  case  where  it 
is  authorized  to  adjudge  the  punishment  of 
death  ;  and  such  sentences  of  imprisonment  and 
hard  labor  may  be  carried  into  execution  in  any 
prison  or  penitentiary  under  the  control  of  the 
United  States,  or  which  the  United  States  may 
be  allowed,  by  the  legislature  of  any  State,  to 
use ;  and  persons  so  imprisoned  in  the  prison  or 
penitentiary  of  any  State  or  Territory  shall  be 
subject,  in  all  respects,  to  the  same  discipline 


ARTICLES 


45 


AKTICLES 


and  treatment  as  convicts  sentenced  by  the  courts 
of  the  State  or  Territory  in  which  the  same  may 
be  situated. 

Article  8.  Such  punishment  as  a  court-martial 
may  adjudge  may  be  inflicted  on  any  person  in 
the  navy — 

1.  Who  is  guilty  of  profane  swearing,  false 
hood,  drunkenness,  gambling,  fraud,  theft,  or 
any  other  scandalous  conduct  tending  to  the  de 
struction  of  good  morals ; 

2.  Or  is  guilty  of  cruelty  toward,  or  oppression 
or   maltreatment  of,  any  person   subject  to  his 
orders  ; 

3.  Or  quarrels  with,  strikes,  or  assaults,  or  uses 
provoking   or  reproachful   words,   gestures,   or 
menaces  toward,  any  person  in  the  navy ; 

4.  Or  endeavors  to  foment  quarrels  between 
other  persons  in  the  navy  ; 

5.  Or  sends  or  accepts  a  challenge  to  fight  a 
duel  or  acts  as  a  second  in  a  duel ; 

6.  Or  treats  his  superior  officer  with  contempt, 
or  is  disrespectful  to  him  in  language  or  deport 
ment,  while  in  the  execution  of  his  office  ; 

7.  Or  joins  in  or  abets   any  combination  to 
weaken  the  lawful  authority  of,  or  lessen  the  re 
spect  due  to,  his  commanding  officer  ; 

8.  Or  utters  any  seditious  or  mutinous  words  ; 

9.  Or  is  negligent  or  careless  in  obeying  orders, 
or   culpably  inefficient  in  the  performance  of 
duty; 

10.  Or  does  not  use  his  best  exertions  to  pre 
vent  the  unlawful  destruction  of  public  property 
by  others ; 

11.  Or,  through  inattention  or  negligence,  suf 
fers  any  vessel  of  the  navy  to  be  stranded,  or  run 
upon  a  rock  or  shoal,  or  hazarded ; 

12.  Qr,  when  attached  to  any  vessel  appointed 
as  convoy  to  any  merchant  or  other  vessels,  fails 
diligently  to  perform  his  duty,  or  demands  or 
exacts  any  compensation  for  his  services,  or  mal 
treats  the  officers  or  crews  of  such  merchant  or 
other  vessels ; 

13.  Or  takes,  receives,  or  permits  to  be  re 
ceived,  on  board  the  vessel  to  which  he  is  at 
tached,  any  goods  or  merchandise,  for  freight, 
sale,   or   traffic,  except  gold,   silver,   or  jewels, 
for  freight  or  safe-keeping ;  or  demands  or  re 
ceives  any  compensation  for  the  receipt  or  trans 
portation  of  any  other  article  than  gold,  silver, 
or  jewels,  without  authority  from  the  President 
or  Secretary  of  the  Navy ; 

14.  Or  knowingly  makes  or  signs,  or  aids,  abets, 
directs,  or  procures  the  making  or  signing  of, 
any  false  muster ; 

15.  Or  wastes  any  ammunition,  provisions,  or 
other  public  property  ;  or,  having  power  to  pre 
vent  it,  knowingly  permits  such  waste ; 

16.  Or,  when  on  shore,  plunders,  abuses,  or 
maltreats  any  inhabitant,  or  injures  his  property 
in  any  way ; 

17.  Or  refuses,  or  fails  to  use,  his  utmost  exer 
tions  to  detect,  apprehend,  and  bring  to  punish 
ment  all  offenders,  or  to  aid  all  persons  appointed 
for  that  purpose ; 

18.  Or,  when  rated  or  acting  as   master-at- 
arms,  refuses  to  receive  such  prisoners  as  may  be 
committed  to  his  charge,    or,  having   received 
them,  suffers  them  to  escape,  or  dismisses  them 
without  orders  from  the  proper  authority  ; 

19.  Or  is  absent  from  his  station  or  duty  with 
out  leave,  or  after  his  leave  has  expired ; 

20.  Or  violates  or  refuses  obedience  to  any  law 


ful  general  order  or  regulation  issued  by  the 
Secretary  of  the  Navy  ; 

21.  Or,  in  time  of  peace,  deserts,  or  attempts  to 
desert,  or  aids  and  entices  others  to  desert ; 

22.  Or  receives  or  entertains  any  deserter  from 
any  other  vessel  of  the  navy,  knowing  him  to  be 
such,  and  does  not,  with  all  convenient  speed, 
give  notice  of  such  deserter  to  the  commander  of 
the  vessel  to  which  he  belongs,  or  to  the  com- 
mander-in-chief,   or  to  the  commander   of  the 
squadron. 

Article  9.  Any  officer  who  absents  himself 
from  his  command  without  leave  may,  by  the 
sentence  of  a  court-martial,  be  reduced  to  the 
rating  of  an  ordinary  seaman. 

Article  10.  Any  commissioned  officer  of  the 
navy  or  marine  corps  who,  having  tendered  his 
resignation,  quits  his  post  or  proper  duties  with 
out  leave,  and  with  intent  to  remain  permanently 
absent  therefrom,  prior  to  due  notice  of  the  ac 
ceptance  of  such  resignation,  shall  be  deemed 
and  punished  as  a  deserter. 

Article  11.  No  person  in  the  naval  service 
shall  procure  stores  or  other  articles  or  supplies 
for,  and  dispose  thereof  to,  the  officers  or  enlisted 
men  on  vessels  of  the  navy,  or  at  navy-yards  or 
naval  stations,  for  his  own  account  or  benefit. 

Article  12.  No  person  connected  with  the 
navy  shall,  under  any  pretense,  import  in  a  pub 
lic  vessel  any  article  which  is  liable  to  the  pay 
ment  of  duty. 

Article  13.  Distilled  spirits  shall  be  admitted 
on  board  of  vessels  of  war  only  upon  the  order 
and  under  the  control  of  the  medical  officers  of 
such  vessels,  and  to  be  used  only  for  medical 
purposes. 

Article  14.  Tine  and  imprisonment,  or  such 
other  punishment  as  a  court-martial  may  ad 
judge,  shall  be  inflicted  upon  any  person  in  the 
naval  service  of  the  United  States — 

Who  presents  or  causes  to  be  presented  to  any 
person  in  the  civil,  military,  or  naval  service 
thereof,  for  approval  or  payment,  any  .claim 
against  the  United  States  or  any  officer  thereof, 
knowing  such  claim  to  be  false  or  fraudulent ;  or 

Who  enters  into  any  agreement  or  conspiracy 
to  defraud  the  United  States  by  obtaining,  or 
aiding  others  to  obtain,  the  allowance  or  pay 
ment  of  any  false  or  fraudulent  claim ;  or 

Who,  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining,  or  aiding 
others  to  obtain,  the  approval,  allowance,  or  pay 
ment  of  any  claim  against  the  United  States,  or 
against  any  officer  thereof,  makes  or  uses,  or  pro 
cures  or  advises  the  making  or  use  of,  any  writ 
ing  or  other  paper,  knowing  the  same  to  con 
tain  any  false  or  fraudulent  statement ;  or 

Who,  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining,  or  aiding 
others  to  obtain,  the  approval,  allowance,  or 
payment  of  any  claim  against  the  United  States 
or  any  officer  thereof,  makes  or  procures  or  ad 
vises  the  making  of  any  oath  to  any  fact,  or  to 
any  writing  or  other  paper,  knowing  such  oath 
to  be  false  ;  or 

Who,  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining,  or  aiding 
others  to  obtain,  the  approval,  allowance,  or  pay 
ment  of  any  claim  against  the  United  States  or 
any  officer  thereof,  forges  or  counterfeits,  or 
procures  or  advises  the  forging  or  counterfeiting 
of  any  signature  upon  any  writing  or  other  paper, 
or  uses  or  procures  or  advises  the  use  of  any  such 
signature,  knowing  the  same  to  be  forged  or 
counterfeited ;  or 


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Who,  having  charge,  possession,  custody,  or 
control  of  any  money  or  other  property  of  the 
United  States,  furnished  or  intended  for  the 
naval  service  thereof,  knowingly  delivers,  or 
causes  to  be  delivered,  to  any  person  having  au 
thority  to  receive  the  same,  any  amount  thereof 
less  than  that  for  which  he  receives  a  certificate 
or  receipt ;  or 

Who,  being  authorized  to  make  or  deliver  any 
paper  certifying  the  receipt  of  any  money  or 
other  property  of  the  United  States,  furnished 
or  intended  for  the  naval  service  thereof,  makes 
or  delivers  to  any  person  such  writing,  without 
having  full  knowledge  of  the  truth  of  the  state 
ment  therein  contained,  and  with  intent  to  de 
fraud  the  United  States  ;  or 

Who  steals,  embezzles,  knowingly  and  will 
fully  misappropriates,  applies  to  his  own  use  or 
benefit,  or  wrongfully  and  knowingly  sells  or 
disposes  of  any  ordnance,  arms,  equipments, 
ammunition,  clothing,  subsistence  stores,  money, 
or  other  property  of  the  United  States,  furnished 
or  intended  for  the  military  or  naval  service 
thereof;  or 

Who  knowingly  purchases,  or  receives  in 
pledge  for  any  obligation  or  indebtedness,  from 
any  other  person  who  is  a  part  of,  or  employed  in, 
said  service,  any  ordnance,  arms,  equipments, 
ammunition,  clothing,  subsistence  stores,  or  other 
property  of  the  United  States,  such  other  person 
not  having  lawful  right  to  sell  or  pledge  the 
same ;  or 

Who  executes,  attempts,  or  countenances  any 
other  fraud  against  the  United  States. 

And  if  any  person,  being  guilty  of  any  of  the 
offenses  described  in  this  article  while  in  the 
naval  service,  receives  his  discharge,  or  is  dis 
missed  from  the  service,  he  shall  continue  to  be 
liable  to  be  arrested  and  held  for  trial  and  sen 
tence  by  a  court-martial,  in  the  same  manner 
and  to  the  same  extent  as  if  he  had  not  received 
such  discharge  nor  been  dismissed. 

Article  15.  The  commanding  officer  of  every 
vessel  in  the  navy  entitled  to  or  claiming  an 
award  of  prize-money,  shall,  as  soon  as  may  be 
practicable  after  the  capture,  transmit  to  the 
Navy  Department  a  complete  list  of  the  officers 
and  men  of  his  vessel  entitled  to  share,  stating 
therein  the  quality  of  each  person  rating ;  and 
every  commanding  officer  who  offends  against 
this  article  shall  be  punished  as  a  court-martial 
may  direct. 

Article  16.  No  person  in  the  navy  shall  take 
out  of  a  prize,  or  vessel  seized  as  a  prize,  any 
money,  plate,  goods,  or  any  part  of  her  equip 
ment,  unless  it  be  for  the  better  preservation 
thereof,  or  unless  such  articles  are  absolutely 
needed  for  the  use  of  any  of  the  vessels  or  armed 
forces  of  the  United  States,  before  the  same  are 
adjudged  lawful  prize  by  a  competent  court ;  but 
the  whole,  without  fraud,  concealment,  or  em 
bezzlement,  shall  be  brought  in,  in  order  that 
judgment  may  be  passed  thereon;  and  every 
person  who  offends  against  this  article  shall  be 
punished  as  a  court-martial  may  direct. 

Article  17.  If  any  person  in  the  navy  strips 
off  the  clothes  of,  or  pillages,  or  in  any  manner 
maltreats  any  person  taken  on  board  a  prize,  he 
shall  suffer  such  punishment  as  a  court-martial 
may  adjudge. 

Article  18.  If  any  officer  or  person  in  the 
naval  service  employs  any  of  the  forces  under 


his  command  for  the  purpose  of  returning  any 
fugitive  from  service  or  labor,  he  shall  be  dis 
missed  from  the  service. 

Article  19.  Any  officer  who  knowingly  en 
lists  into  the  naval  service  any  deserter  from  the 
naval  or  military  service  of  the  United  States, 
or  any  insane  or  intoxicated  person,  or  any  minor 
between  the  ages  of  16  and  18  years  without  the 
consent  of  his  parents  or  guardian,  or  any  minor 
under  the  age  of  16  years,  shall  be  dishonorably 
dismissed  from  the  service  of  the  United  States. 

Article  20.  Every  commanding  officer  of  a 
vessel  in  the  navy  shall  obey  the  following  rules : 

1.  Whenever  a  man  enters  on  board,  the  com 
manding  officer  shall  cause  an  accurate  entry  to 
be  made  in  the  ship's  books,  showing  his  name, 
the  date,  place,  and  term  of  his  enlistment,  the 

Cce  or  vessel  from  which  he  was  received  on 
rd,  his  rating,  his  descriptive  list,  his   age, 
place  of   birth,  and  citizenship,  with   such  re 
marks  as  may  be  necessary. 

2.  He  shall,  before   sailing,  transmit   to   the 
Secretary  of  the   Navy  a  complete  list   of  the 
rated  men  under  his  command,  showing  the  par 
ticulars  set  forth  in  rule  one,  and  a  list  of  offi 
cers  and  passengers,  showing  the  date  of  their 
entering.     And  "he  shall  cause  similar  lists  to  be 
made  out  on  the  first  day  of  every  third  month 
and  transmitted  to  the  Secretary  of  the  Navy  as 
opportunities  occur,  accounting  therein  for  any 
casualty  which  may  have  happened  since  the  last 
list. 

3.  He  shall  cause  to  be  accurately  minuted  on 
the  ship's  books  the  names  of  any  persons  dying 
or  deserting,  and  the  times  at  which  such  death 
or  desertion  occurs. 

4.  In  case  of  the  death  of  any  officer,  man, 
or  passenger  on  said   vessel,  he  shall  take  care 
that  the  paymaster  secures  all  the  property  of  the 
deceased,  for  the  benefit  of  his  legal  representa 
tives. 

5.  He  shall  not  receive   on  board   any  man 
transferred  from  any  other  vessel  or  station  to 
him,  unless  such  man  is  furnished  with  an  ac 
count,  signed  by  the  captain  and  paymaster  of 
the  vessel  or  station  from  which  he  came,  speci 
fying  the  date  of  his  entry  on  said  vessel  or  at 
said'station,  the  period  and  term  of  his  service, 
the  sums  paid  him,  the  balance   due  him,  the 
quality  in  which  he  was  rated,  and  his  descrip 
tive  list. 

6.  He  shall,  whenever  officers  or  men  are  sent 
from  his  ship,  for  whatever  cause,  take  care  that 
each  man  is  furnished  with  a  complete  statement 
of  his  account,  specifying  the  date  of  his  enlist 
ment,  the  period  and  term  of  his  service,  and  his 
descriptive  list.     Said  account  shall  be  signed  by 
the  commanding  officer  and  paymaster. 

7.  He  shall  cause  frequent  'inspections  to  be 
made  into  the  condition  of  the  provisions  on  his 
ship,  and  use  every  precaution  for  their  preserva 
tion. 

8.  He  shall  frequently  consult  with  the  sur 
geon  in  regard  to  the  sanitary  condition  of  his 
crew,  and  shall  use  all  proper  means  to  preserve 
their  health.     And  he  shall  cause  a  convenient 
place  to  be  set  apart  for  sick  or  disabled  men,  to 
which  he  shall  have  them  removed,  with  their 
hammocks  and  bedding,  when   the  surgeon  so 
advises,  and  shall  direct  that  some  of  the  crew 
attend  them  and  keep  the  place  clean. 

9.  He  shall   attend   in   person,  or   appoint   a 


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proper  officer  to  attend,  when  his  crew  is  finally 
paid  off,  to  see  that  justice  is  done  to  the  men 
and  to  the  United  States  in  the  settlement  of  the 
accounts. 

10.  He  shall  cause  the  articles  for  the  govern 
ment  of  the  navy  to  be  hung  up  in  some  public 
part  of  the  ship,  and  read  once  a  month  to  his 
ship's  company. 

Every  commanding  officer  who  offends  against 
the  provisions  of  this  article  shall  be  punished  as 
a  court-martial  may  direct. 

Article  21.  When  the  crew  of  any  vessel  of 
the  United  States  are  separated  from  their  vessel 
by  means  of  her  wreck,  loss,  or  destruction,  all 
the  command  and  authority  given  to. the  officers 
of  such  vessel  shall  remain  in  full  force  until 
such  ship's  company  shall  be  regularly  dis 
charged  from  or  ordered  again  into  service,  or 
until  a  court-martial  or  court  of  inquiry  shall  be 
held  to  inquire  into  the  loss  of  said  vessel.  And 
if  any  officer  or  man,  after  such  wreck,  loss,  or 
destruction,  acts  contrary  to  the  discipline  of  the 
navy,  he  shall  be  punished  as  a  court-martial 
may  direct. 

Article  22.  All  offenses  committed  by  persons 
belonging  to  the  navy  which  are  not  specified  in 
the  foregoing  articles  shall  be  punished  as  a 
court-martial  may  direct. 

Article  23.  All  offenses  committed  by  persons 
belonging  to  the  navy  while  on  shore  shall  be 
punished  in  the  same  manner  as  if  they  had  been 
committed  at  sea. 

Article  24.  No  commander  of  a  vessel  shall 
inflict  upon  a  commissioned  or  warrant  officer 
any  other  punishment  than  private  reprimand, 
suspension  from  duty,  arrest,  or  confinement, 
and  such  suspension,  arrest,  or  confinement  shall 
not  continue  longer  than  ten  days,  unless  a  fur 
ther  period  is  necessary  to  bring  the  offender  to 
trial  by  a  court-martial ;  nor  shall  he  inflict,  or 
cause  to  be  inflicted,  upon  any  petty  officer,  or 
person  of  inferior  rating,  or  marine,  for  a  single 
offense,  or  at  any  one  time,  any  other  than  one 
of  the  following  punishments,  namely  : 

1.  Eeduction   of  any   rating    established    by 
himself. 

2.  Confinement,  with  or  without  irons,  single 
or  double,  not  exceeding  ten  days,  unless  further 
confinement  be  necessary,  in  the  case  of  a  pris 
oner  to  be  tried  by  court-martial. 

3.  Solitary  confinement,  on  bread  and  water, 
not  exceeding  five  days. 

4.  Solitary  confinement  not  exceeding  seven 
days. 

5.  Deprivation  of  liberty  on  shore. 

6.  Extra  duties. 

No  other  punishment  shall  be  permitted  on 
board  of  vessels  belonging  to  the  navy,  except 
by  sentence  of  a  general  or  summary  court- 
martial.  All  punishments  inflicted  by  the  com 
mander,  or  by  his  order,  except  reprimands,  shall 
be  fully  entered  upon  the  ship's  log. 

Article  25.  No  officer  who  may  command  by 
accident,  or  in  the  absence  of  the  commanding 
officer,  except  when  such  commanding  officer  is 
absent  for  a  time  by  leave,  shall  inflict  any  other 
punishment  than  confinement. 

Article  26.  Summary  courts-martial  may  be 
ordered  upon  petty  officers  and  persons  of  in 
ferior  ratings  by  the  commander  of  any  vessel, 
or  by  the  commandant  of  any  navy-yard,  naval 
station,  or  marine  barracks  to  which  they  be 


long,  for  the  trial  of  offenses  which  such  officer 
may  deem  deserving  of  greater  punishment  than 
such  commander  or  commandant  is  authorized 
to  inflict,  but  not  sufficient  to  require  trial  by  a 
general  court-martial. 

Article  27.  A  summary  court-martial  shall 
consist  of  three  officers  not  below  the  rank  of 
ensign,  as  members,  and  of  a  recorder.  The 
commander  of  a  ship  may  order  any  officer  under 
his  command  to  act  as  such  recorder. 

Article  28.  Before  proceeding  to  trial  the  mem 
bers  of  a  summary  court-martial  shall  take  the  fol 
lowing  oath  or  affirmation,  which  shall  be  admin 
istered  by  the  recorder:  "I,  A  B,  do  swear  (or 
affirm)  that  I  will  well  and  truly  try,  without 
prejudice  or  partiality,  the  case  now  depending, 
according  to  the  evidence  which  shall  be  adduced, 
the  laws  for  the  government  of  the  navy,  and 
my  own  conscience."  After  which  the  recorder 
of  the  court  shall  take  the  following  oath  or  af 
firmation,  which  shall  be  administered  by  the 
senior  member  of  the  court :  "  I,  A  B,  do  swear 
(or  affirm)  that  I  will  keep  a  true  record  of  the 
evidence  which  shall  be  given  before  this  court 
and  of  the  proceedings  thereof." 

Article  29.  All  testimony  before  a  summary 
court-martial  shall  be  given  orally,  upon  oath 
or  affirmation,  administered  by  the  senior  mem 
ber  of  the  court. 

Article  30.  Summary  courts-martial  may  sen 
tence  petty  officers  and  persons  of  inferior  ratings 
to  any  one  of  the  followingpunishments,  namely : 

1.  Discharge  from  the  service  with  bad-con 
duct  discharge;  but  the  sentence  shall  not  be 
carried  into  effect  in  a  foreign  country  ; 

2.  Solitary  confinement,  not  exceeding  thirty 
days,  in  irons,  single  or  double,  on  bread  and 
water,  or  on  diminished  rations  ; 

3.  Solitary  confinement,   in   irons,   single  or 
double,  not  exceeding  thirty  days  ; 

4.  Solitary  confinement  not  exceeding  thirty 
days ; 

5.  Confinement  not  exceeding  two  months  ; 

6.  Reduction  to  next  inferior  rating  ; 

7.  Deprivation  of  liberty  on  shore  on  foreign 
station ; 

8.  Extra  police  duties,  and  loss  of  pay,  not  to 
exceed  three  months,  may  be  added  to  any  of  the 
above-mentioned  punishments. 

Article  31.  A  summary  court-martial  may 
disrate  any  rated  person  for  incompetency. 

Article  32.  No  sentence  of  a  summary  court- 
martial  shall  be  carried  into  execution  until  the 
proceedings  and  sentence  have  been  approved  by 
the  officer  ordering  the  court  and  by  the  corn- 
man  der-in-chief,  or,  in  his  absence,  by  the  senior 
officer  present.  And  no  sentence  of  such  court 
which  involves  loss  of  pay  shall  be  carried  into 
execution  until  the  proceedings  arid  sentence 
have  been  approved  by  the  Secretary  of  the 
Navy. 

Article  33.  The  officer  ordering  a  summary 
court-martial  shall  have  power  to  remit,  in  part, 
or  altogether,  but  not  to  commute,  the  sentence 
of  the  court.  And  it  shall  be  his  duty  either  to 
remit  any  part  or  the  whole  of  any  sentence  the 
execution  of  which  would,  in  the  opinion  of  the 
surgeon  or  senior  medical  officer  on  board,  given 
in  writing,  produce  serious  injury  to  the  health 
of  the  person  sentenced ;  or  to  submit  the  case 
again,  without  delay,  to  the  same  or  to  another 
summary  court-martial,  which  shall  have  power, 


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48 


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upon  the  testimony  already  taken,  to  remit  the 
former  punishment,  and  to  assign  some  other  of 
the  authorized  punishments  in  the  place  thereof. 

Article  34.  The  proceedings  of  summary 
courts-martial  shall  be  conducted  with  as  much 
conciseness  and  precision  as  may  be  consistent 
with  the  ends  of  justice,  and  under  such  forms 
and  rules  as  may  be  prescribed  by  the  Secretary 
of  the  Navy,  with  the  approval  of  the  President ; 
and  all  such  proceedings  shall  be  transmitted,  in 
the  usual  mode,  to  the  Navy  Department. 

Article  35.  Any  punishment  which  a  sum 
mary  court-martial  is  authorized  to  inflict  may 
be  inflicted  by  a  general  court-martial. 

Article  36.  No  oflicer  shall  be  dismissed  from 
the  naval  service  except  by  the  order  of  the  Pres 
ident  or  by  sentence  of  a  general  court-martial ; 
and  in  time  of  peace  no  officer  shall  be  dismissed 
except  in  pursuance  of  the  sentence  of  a  general 
court-martial  or  in  mitigation  thereof 

Article  37.  When  any  officer,  dismissed  by  or 
der  of  the  President  since  3d  March,  1865,  makes, 
in  writing,  an  application  for  trial,  setting  forth, 
under  oath,  that  he  has  been  wrongfully  dis 
missed,  the  President  shall,  as  soon  as  the  neces 
sities  of  the  service  may  permit,  convene  a  court- 
martial  to  try  such  officer  on  the  charges  on 
which  he  shall  have  been  dismissed.  And  if 
such  court-martial  shall  not  be  convened  within 
six  months  from  the  presentation  of  such  appli 
cation  for  trial,  or  if  such  court,  being  convened, 
shall  not  award  dismissal  or  death  as  the  punish 
ment  of  such  officer,  the  order  of  dismissal  by 
the  President  shall  be  void. 

Article  38.  General  courts-martial  may  be  con 
vened  by  the  President,  the  Secretary  of  the 
Navy,  or  the  commander-in-chief  of  a  fleet  or 
squadron  ;  but  no  commander  of  a  fleet  or  squad 
ron  in  the  waters  of  the  United  States  shall  con 
vene  such  court  without  express  authority  from 
the  President. 

Article  39.  A  general  court-martial  shall  con 
sist  of  not  more  than  thirteen  nor  less  than  five 
commissioned  officers  as  members  ;  and  as  many 
officers,  not  exceeding  thirteen,  as  can  be  con 
vened  without  injury  to  the  service,  shall  be 
summoned  on  every  such  court.  But  in  no  case, 
where  it  can  be  avoided  without  injury  to  the 
service,  shall  more  than  one-half,  exclusive  of 
the  president,  be  junior  to  the  officer  to  be  tried. 
The  senior  officer  shall  always  preside,  and  the 
others  shall  take  place  according  to  their  rank. 

Article  40.  The  president  of  the  general  court- 
martial  shall  administer  the  following  oath  or 
affirmation  to  the  judge-advocate  or  person  offi 
ciating  as  such : 

"  I,  A  B,  do  swear  (or  affirm)  that  I  will  keep 
a  true  record  of  the  evidence  given  to  and  the 
proceedings  of  this  court ;  that  I  will  not  divulge 
or  by  any  means  disclose  the  sentence  of  the 
court  until  it  shall  have  been  approved  by  the 
proper  authority  ;  and  that  I  will  not  at  any  time 
divulge  or  disclose  the  vote  or  opinion  of  any 
particular  member  of  the  court,  unless  required 
so  to  do  before  a  court  of  justice  in  due  course  of 
law." 

This  oath  or  affirmation  being  duly  adminis 
tered,  each  member  of  the  court,  before  proceed 
ing  to  trial,  shall  take  the  following  oath  or  af 
firmation,  which  shall  be  administered  by  the 
judge-advocate  or  person  officiating  as  such  : 

u  I,  A  B,  do  swear  (or  affirm)  that  I  will  truly 


try,  without  prejudice  or  partiality,  the  case  now 
depending,  according  to  the  evidence  which  shall 
come  before  the  court,  the  rules  for  the  govern 
ment  of  the  navy,  and  my  own  conscience  ;  that 
I  will  not  by  any  means  divulge  or  disclose  the 
sentence  of  the  court  until  it  shall  have  been  ap 
proved  by  the  proper  authority  ;  and  that  I  will 
not  at  anytime  divulge  or  disclose  the.  vote  or 
opinion  of  any  particular  member  of  the  court, 
unless  required  so  to  do  before  a  court  of  justice 
in  due  course  of  law." 

Article  41.  An  oath  or  affirmation  in  the  fol 
lowing  form  shall  be  administered  to  all  wit 
nesses,  before  any  court-martial,  by  the  president 
thereof: 

u  You  do  solemnly  swear  (or  affirm)  that  the 
evidence  you  shall  give  in  tne  case  now  before 
this  court  shall  be  the  truth,  the  whole  truth,  and 
nothing  but  the  truth,  and  that  you  will  state 
everything  within  your  knowledge  in  relation  to 
the  charges  :  so  help  you  God  ;  (or,  '  this  you  do 
under  the  pains  and  penalties  of  perjury.')" 

Article  42.  "Whenever  any  person  refuses  to 
give  his  evidence  or  to  give  it  in  the  manner  pro 
vided  by  these  articles,  or  prevaricates,  or  be 
haves  with  Contempt  to  the  court,  it  shall  be 
lawful  for  the  court  to  imprison  him  for  any  time 
not  exceeding  two  months. 

Article  43.  The  person  accused  shall  be  fur 
nished  with  a  true  copy  of  the  charges,  with  the 
specifications,  at  the  time  he  is  put  under  arrest ; 
and  no  other  charges  than  those  so  furnished 
shall  be  urged  against  him  at  the  trial,  unless  it 
shall  appear  to  the  court  that  intelligence  of  such 
other  charge  had  not  reached  the  officer  ordering 
the  court  when  the  accused  was  put  under  ar 
rest,  or  that  some  witness  material  to  the  support 
of  such  charge  was  at  that  time  absent  and  can 
be  produced  at  the  trial ;  in  which  case  reason 
able  time  shall  be  given  to  the  accused  to  make 
his  defense  against  such  new  charge. 

Article  44.  Every  officer  who  is  arrested  for 
trial  shall  deliver  up  his  sword  to  his  command 
ing  officer,  and  confine  himself  to  the  limits  as 
signed  him,  on  pain  of  dismissal  from  the  ser 
vice. 

Article  45.  "When  the  proceedings  of  any 
general  court-martial  have  commenced,  they 
shall  not  be  suspended  or  delayed  on  account  of 
the  absence  of  any  of  the  members,  provided 
five  or  more  are  assembled  ;  but  the  court  is  en 
joined  to  sit  from  day  to  day,  Sundays  excepted, 
until  sentence  is  given,  unless  temporarily  ad 
journed  by  the  authority  which  convened  it. 

Article  46.  No  member  of  a  general  court- 
martial  shall,  after  the  proceedings  are  begun, 
absent  himself  therefrom,  except  in  case  of  sick 
ness,  or  of  an  order  to  go  on  duty  from  a  superior 
officer,  on  pain  of  being  cashiered. 

Article  47.  Whenever  any  member  of  a  court- 
martial,  from  any  legal  cause,  is  absent  from 
the  court  after  the  commencement  of  a  case,  all 
the  witnesses  who  have  been  examined  during 
his  absence  must,  when  he  is  ready  to  resume  his 
seat,  be  recalled  by  the  court,  and  the  recorded 
testimony  of  each  witness  so  examined  must  be 
read  over  to  him,  and  such  witness  must  ac 
knowledge  the  same  to  be  correct,  and  be  subject 
to  such  further  examination  as  the  said  member 
may  require.  Without  a  compliance  with  this 
rule,  and  an  entry  thereof  upon  the  record,  a 
member  who  shall  have  been  absent  during  the 


ARTICLES 


49 


ARTIFICIAL 


examination  of  a  witness  shall  not  be  allowed  to 
sit  again  in  that  particular  case. 

Article  48.  Whenever  a  court-martial  sen 
tences  an  officer  to  be  suspended,  it  may  suspend 
his  pay  and  emoluments  for  the  whole  or  any 
part  of  the  time  of  his  suspension. 

Article  49.  In  no  case  shall  punishment  by 
flogging,  or  by  branding,  marking,  or  tattooing 
on  the  body  be  adjudged  by  any  court-martial 
or  be  inflicted  upon  any  person  in  the  navy. 

Article  50.  No  person  shall  be  sentenced  by  a 
court-martial  to  suffer  death,  except  by  the  con 
currence  of  two-thirds  of  the  members  present, 
and  in  the  cases  where  such  punishment  is  ex 
pressly  provided  in  these  articles.  All  other 
sentences  may  be  determined  by  a  majority  of 
votes. 

Article  51.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  a  court- 
martial,  in  all  cases  of  conviction,  to  adjudge  a 
punishment  adequate  to  the  nature  of  the  offense ; 
but  the  members  thereof  may  recommend  the 
person  convicted  as  deserving  of  clemency,  and 
state  on  the  record  their  reasons  for  so  doing. 

Article  52.  The  judgment  of  every  court-mar 
tial  shall  be  authenticated  by  the  signature  of  the 
president,  and  of  every  member  who  may  be 
present  when  said  judgment  is  pronounced,  and 
also  of  the  judge-advocate. 

Article  53.  No  sentence  of  a  court-martial, 
extending  to  the  loss  of  life  or  to  the  dismissal 
of  a  commissioned  or  warrant  officer,  shall  be 
carried  into  execution  until  confirmed  by  the 
President.  All  other  sentences  of  general  court- 
martial  may  be  carried  into  execution  on  con 
firmation  of  the  commander  of  the  fleet  or  officer 
ordering  the  court. 

Article  54.  Every  officer  who  is  authorized  to 
convene  a  general  court-martial  shall  have  power, 
on  revision  of  its  proceedings,  to  remit  or  miti 
gate,  but  not  to  commute,  the  sentence  of  any 
such  court  which  he  is  authorized  to  approve  and 
confirm. 

Article  55.  Courts  of  inquiry  may  be  ordered 
by  the  President,  the  Secretary  of  the  Navy,  or 
the  commander  of  a  fleet  or  squadron. 

Article  56.  A  court  of  inquiry  shall  consist  of 
not  more  than  three  commissioned  officers  as 
members,  and  of  a  judge-advocate,  or  person 
officiating  as  such. 

Article  57.  Courts  of  inquiry  shall  have  power 
to  summon  witnesses,  administer  oaths,  and  pun 
ish  contempts  in  the  same  manner  as  courts- 
martial  ;  but  they  shall  only  state  facts,  and 
shall  not  give  their  opinion,  unless  expressly  re 
quired  so  to  do  in  the  order  for  convening. 

Article  58.  The  judge-advocate,  or  person 
officiating  as  such,  shalfadminister  to  the  mem 
bers  the  following  oath  or  affirmation  :  "  You  do 
swear  (or  affirm)  well  and  truly  to  examine  and 
inquire,  according  to  the  evidence,  into  the  mat 
ter  now  before  you,  without  partiality."  After 
which  the  president  shall  administer  to  the  judge- 
advocate,  or  person  officiating  as  such,  the  fol 
lowing  oath  or  affirmation  :  u  You  do  swear  (or 
affirm)  truly  to  record  the  proceedings  of  this 
court,  and  the  evidence  to  be  given  in  the  case 
in  hearing." 

Article  59.  The  party  whose  conduct  shall  be 
the  subject  of  inquiry,  or  his  attorney,  shall  have 
the  right  to  cross-examine  all  the  witnesses. 

Article  60.  The  proceedings  of  courts  of  in 
quiry  shall  be  authenticated  by  the  signature  of 


the  president  of  the  court  and  of  the  judge-ad 
vocate,  and  shall,  in  all  cases  not  capital,  nor  ex 
tending  to  the  dismissal  of  a  commissioned  or 
warrant  officer,  be  evidence  before  a  court-mar 
tial,  provided  oral  testimony  cannot  be  obtained. 

Artificer.  One  who  works  by  hand  in  wood 
or  metal. 

Artificial.     Made  by  art ;  not  genuine. 

ARTIFICIAL  GLOBE.  A  spherical  representa 
tion  of  the  earth  or  the  heavens. 

ARTIFICIAL  SINES,  TANGENTS,  ETC.  The 
logarithms  of  the  natural  sines,  tangents,  etc. 

ARTIFICIAL  NUMBERS.     Logarithms. 

ARTIFICIAL  LINES.  Lines  on  a  sector  or 
scale,  so  contrived  as  to  represent  logarithmic 
signs  and  tangents,  which,  by  the  help  of  the 
line  of  numbers,  solve,  with  tolerable  exactness, 
problems  in  trigonometry  and  navigation. 

ARTIFICIAL  EYE.  An  eye  worked  in  the 
end  of  a  rope.  It  is  neater  but  not  so  strong  as 
a  spliced  eye. 

Artificial  Horizon.  A  reflector  whose  surface 
is  perfectly  horizontal,  used  for  observing  alti 
tudes.  Artificial  horizons  are  of  two  kinds, — 
those  for  use  on  shore,  and  those  for  use  on  board 
ship. 

The  most  usual  form  of  the  shore  artificial 
horizon  is  a  rectangular  trough  of  quicksilver  or 
other  fluid.  Quicksilver  is  the  fluid  most  conve 
nient  and  the  best  adapted  for  obtaining  a  surface 
which  shall  quickly  subside  after  being  disturbed. 
No  altitude  can  be  observed  which  is  greater 
than  half  the  range  of  the  instrument ;  thus, 
with  a  sextant  no  altitude  above  60°  can  be  ob 
served.  For  altitudes  less  than  15°  the  observa 
tion  is  generally  impracticable.  One  advantage 
of  the  artificial  horizon  is,  that  when  the  angle 
shown  by  the  instrument  is  halved  to  obtain  the 
angle  of  elevation,  all  errors  of  observation  are 
halved  at  the  same  time.  There  is  no  correction 
for  "dip."  The  instrument  used  for  observing 
is  sometimes  fixed  upon  a  small  pillar.  In  this 
artificial  horizon  an  essential  condition  is  the 
parallelism  of  the  faces  of  plate-glass  forming 
the  roof.  The  effects  of  refraction  may  be  prac 
tically  eliminated  by  these  plates  being  made 
circular  disks  which  admit  of  being  turned  in 
their  own  plane.  One  set  of  observations  hav 
ing  been  taken,  the  plates  are  turned  through 
180°  and  a  new  set  taken,  the  two  being  used  in 
combination ;  or  with  a  common  roof  the  error 
may  be  practically  eliminated  by  reversing  it.  A 
small  mirror  of  polished  metal  or  of  darkened 
plate-glass  is  sometimes  used  as  an  artificial 
horizon,  its  horizontally  being  ascertained  by 
means  of  a  spirit-level  placed  upon  it,  and  the 
adjustment  effected  by  means  of  screws  which 
form  its  stand.  Such  an  instrument,  though 
convenient  and  portable,  does  not  give  satis 
factory  results. 

At  sea  the  celestial  bodies  are  sometimes  dis 
tinctly  visible  when  the  horizon  is  enveloped  in 
mist ;  the  sea-horizon  is  often  disturbed  by  haze 
or  fog,  and  by  moonlight  is  often  uncertain. 
Hence  the  attempts  to  invent  an  artificial  horizon 
adapted  for  use  on  board  ship.  Mr.  Serson  sug 
gested  to  apply  the  principle  upon  which  a  top, 
when  spinning,  tends  to  preserve  a  vertical 
position.  A  pivot  carrying  a  mirror  thus  ro 
tating  would  theoretically  give  the  horizontal 
reflector  required  ;  but  it  failed  in  practice.  Ad 
miral  Beechey's  contrivance  is  more  successful. 


ARTILLERY 


50 


ASTRONOMY 


The  telescope  of  the  sextant  is  fitted  with  a  bal 
ance  carrying  a  glass  vane,  one  half  of  which  is 
colored  blue  to  represent  the  sea-horizon,  and  to 
which  the  celestial  object  is  brought  down.  The 
amount  of  oscillation  above  and  below  the  level 
is  indicated  by  divisions  on  the  glass,  the  values 
of  which  are  determined  by  the  maker.  Other 
constructions,  where  the  horizon  is  attached  to 
the  sextant,  have  been  tried  with  more  or  less 
success. 

Artillery.  Formerly  synonymous  with  arch 
ery,  but  now  comprehends  everything  relating 
to  guns  and  to  the  service  of  guns. 

Arx.     A  fort  or  castle. 

Ascii.  The  inhabitants  of  the  torrid  zone, 
who,  being  twice  a  year  under  a  vertical  sun, 
have  no  shadow. 

Ashes.  The  earthy  part  of  combustible  sub 
stances  remaining  after  combustion. 

ASH-PIT.  The  space  underneath  the  grate- 
bars. 

ASH-CHUTE.  A  receptacle  into  which  ashes 
are  dumped  to  be  conve}Ted  overboard. 

ASH-WHIP.  A  whip  for  hoisting  ashes  out  of 
the  fire-room. 

Ashlar.  Blocks  of  stone  masonry  fronting 
docks  and  piers. 

Ashore.  On  land, — opposed  to  aboard ;  when 
applied  to  a  ship,  means  that  she  is  aground. 

Asia.     See  CONTINENTS. 

Asiento.  A  contract  between  the  king  of 
Spain  and  other  powers,  for  furnishing  the  Span 
ish  dominions  in  America  with  negro  slaves.  It 
began  in  1689,  and  was  vested  in  the  South  Sea 
Company  in  1713.  By  the  treaty  of  Utrecht  it 
was  transferred  to  the  English,  who  were  to  fur 
nish  4800  negroes  annually  to  Spanish  America. 
This  contract  was  given  up  to  Spain  at  the  peace 
in  1748. 

Askew.     Awry ;  aslant. 

Aslant.     Obliquely. 

SAILING  ASLANT.     Beating  to  windward. 

Asleep.  A  sail  filled  with  just  enough  wind 
for  swelling  or  bellying  out  is  said  to  be  asleep. 

Aspect.  The  general  appearance  of  the  land 
from  seaward. 

Aspic.  An  ancient  12-pounder  about  11  feet 
long. 

Aspinwall.  A  seaport  of  the  United  States 
of  Columbia,  on  the  Atlantic  side  of  the  Isthmus 
of  Panama.  The  harbor  has  a  depth  of  water 
sufficient  for  the  largest  ships,  and  is  very  spa 
cious.  Pop.  2500. 

Aspirant  de  Marine.     (Fr.)     Midshipman. 

Assail.  To  attack  with  violence  or  in  a  hos 
tile  manner. 

Assault.  A  hostile  attack.  An  effort  to  gain 
possession  of  a  fortification  by  main  force. 

Assegai.  A  spear,  or  javelin  used  by  the 
Zulus. 

Asseguay.     A  dagger  used  in  the  Levant. 

Assembly.  A  beat  of  the  drum  or  call  on  the 
bugle,  as  a  signal  to  troops  to  assemble. 

Assilag.  A  name  given  in  the  Hebrides  to  a 
small  bird  with  a  black  bill.  The  stormy  petrel. 

Assistant.  See  SURGEON,  PAYMASTER,  EN 
GINEER. 

Assurance.  Insurance.  A  con-tract  to  pay 
a  certain  sum  on  the  occasion  of  a  certain  event ; 
as,  loss  or  death. 

Assurgent.  A  heraldic  term  for  a  man  or 
beast  rising  out  of  the  sea. 


A-starboard.  The  situation  of  the  helm  when 
the  tiller  is  borne  over  to  the  starboard  side  of 
the  ship. 

HARD  A-STARBOARD.  The  order  to  put  the 
helm  over  to  the  extreme  limit. 

Astatic  Needle.     See  NEEDLE. 

A-stay.  The  anchor  is  said  to  be  a-stay  when 
the  cable  forms  an  acute  angle  with  the  surface 
of  the  water.  A  long  stay  signifies  that  the  cable 
forms  a  line  parallel  with  the  main-stay,  and  a 
short  stay  means  that  it  is  parallel  with  the  fore- 
stay. 

Asteria.  A  genus  of  radiated  marine  ani 
mals  ;  the  star-fish. 

Asterism.     A  constellation  ;  a  group  of  stars. 

Astern.  Any  distance  behind,  a  vessel  in  the 
direction  of  the  stern. 

To  DROP  ASTERN.     To  be  left  behind. 

To  BE  ASTERN  OF  THE  RECKONING.  To  be 
behind  the  position  determined  by  logging. 

Asteioid.  The  name  which  Herschel  proposed 
to  give  the  minor  planets  which  have  been  dis 
covered  between  the  orbits  of  Mars  and  Jupiter. 
The  first  one  was  discovered  in  1801,  but  since 
that  time  over  80  have  been  added  to  the  number. 
The  largest  one  is  but  300  miles  in  diameter. 
They  closely  resemble  small  stars,  and  can  only 
be  distinguished  from  them  by  their  motion. 

Astragal.     Mouldings  on  old  cannon. 

Astral.     Relating  to  the  stars. 

Astrolabe.     The  armillary  sphere. 

A  sea-astrolabe  is  a  brass  ring  with  a  mov 
able  arm,  for  observing  altitudes  of  stars  and 
planets. 

Astrology.  Formerly  synonymous  with  as 
tronomy  ;  subsequently,  the  art  of  foretelling 
events  by  the  positions  and  aspects  of  the  stars. 
Judicial  astrology  was  invented  by  the  Chal- 
dseans,  and  hence  was  transmitted  to  the  Egyp 
tians,  Greeks,  and  Romans.  It  was  much  in 
vogue  in  France  in  the  time  of  Catherine  de 
Medicis,  1533.  The  early  history  of  astrology 
in  England  is  very  little  known  :  Bede  was  ad 
dicted  to  it,  700 ;  and  so  was  Roger  Bacon,  1260. 
Cecil,  Lord  Burlcigh,  calculated  the  nativity  of 
Elizabeth ;  and  she,  and  all  the  European  princes, 
were  the  humble  servants  of  Dee,  the  astrologer 
and  conjurer.  But  the  period  of  the  Stuarts  was 
the  acme  of  astrology  in  England.  Sir  Walter 
Scott  has  made  ample  use  of  Sir  William  Lilly, 
the  noted  astrologer,  in  his  tales  of  this  period  ; 
and  it  is  certain  that  Lilly  was  consulted  by 
Charles  I.  respecting  his  projected  escape  from 
Carisbrook  Castle  in"  1647. 

Astronomical  Clock.  A  pendulum  clock 
regulated  to  sidereal  time.  The  error  is  its  dif 
ference  from  sidereal  time,  and  the  rate  is  the 
daily  change  of  error. 

The  Astronomical  Day  begins  at  noon,  and  the 
hours  are  numbered  from  one  to  twenty-four. 

Astronomicals.     Sexagesimal  fractions. 

Astronomy.  (Gr.  aster,  a  star,  any  luminary 
body;  nomos,  a  law.)  The  science  which  treats 
of  the  heavenly  bodies.  It  is  generally  divided 
into  Spherical  Astronomy,  which  treats  of  the 
appearances,  magnitudes,  motions,  and  distances 
of  the  heavenly  bodies  ;  and  Physical  Astronomy , 
which  applies  the  principles  of  mechanics  to  ex 
plain  the  motions  of  the  heavenly  bodies  and 
the  laws  by  which  they  are  governed.  That 
portion  of  spherical  astronomy  which  is  applied 
to  purposes  of  navigation  is  called  Nautical 


ASTRONOMY 


51 


ASYLUM 


Astronomy.  See  SUN,  PLANETS,  ASTEROID, 
STARS,  COMETS,  ECLIPSES,  etc. 

The  earliest  astronomical  observations  were 
made  at  Babylon,  it  is  said,  about  2234  B.C.  The 
study  was  much  advanced  in  Chaldaea  under 
Nabonassar ;  was  known  to  the  Chinese  about 
1100  B.C.,  some  say  centuries  before. 

Lunar  eclipses  observed  at  Babylon,  and  re 
corded  by  Ptolemy,  about 720  B.C. 

Spherical  form  of  the  earth  and  the  true  cause 
of  lunar  eclipses  taught  by  Thales,  about  600  B.C. 

Further  discoveries  by  Pythagoras,  who  taught 
the  doctrine  of  celestial  motions  and  believed 
in  the  plurality  of  habitable  worlds,  died  about 
470  B.C. 

Meton  introduces   the  lunar-solar  cycle,  433 

B.C. 

Treatises  of  Aristotle  "  concerning  the  heav 
ens,"  and  of  Autolycus  "on  the  motion  of  the 
sphere"  (earliest  extant  works  on  astronomy), 
about  350  B.C. 

Aratus  writes  a  poem  on  astronomy  about  281 
B.C. 

Archimedes  observes  solstices,  etc.,  about  212 

B.C. 

Hipparchus,  greatest  of  Greek  astronomers, 
determines  mean  motion  of  sun  and  moon ;  dis 
covers  precession  of  equinoxes,  etc.,  about  160-125 
B.C. 

The  precession  of  the  equinoxes  confirmed,  and 
the  places  and  distances  of  the  planets  discovered 
by  Ptolemy,  139-161  A.D. 

Astronomy  and  geography  cultivated  by  the 
Arabs  about  760  A.D.  ;  brought  into  Europe  about 
1200  A.D. 

Clocks  first  used  in  astronomy  about  1500  A.D. 

True  doctrine  of  the  motions  of  the  planetary 
bodies  revived  by  Copernicus,  founder  of  modern 
astronomy;  his  "Revolution  of  the  Heavenly 
Bodies"  published  1543  A.D. 

Astronomy  advanced  by  Tycho  Brahe,  who  yet 
adheres  to  the  Ptolemaic  system,  about  1582  A.D. 

True  laws  of  the  planetary  motions  announced 
by  Kepler  ;  1st  and  2d,  1609  A.D  ;  3d,  1618  A.D. 

Galileo  constructs  a  telescope,  1609 ;  and  dis 
covers  Jupiter's  satellites,  etc.,  8th  January, 
1610  A.D. 

Various  forms  of  telescopes  and  other  instru 
ments  used  in  astronomy  invented,  1608-40  A.D. 

Cartesian  system  published  by  Des  Cartes, 
1637  A.D. 

The  transit  of  Venus  over  the  sun's  disk  first 
observed  by  Horrocks,  24th  November,  1639  A.D 

Cassini  draws  his  meridian  line  after  Dante, 
1655  A.D. 

The  aberration  of  the  light  of  the  fixed  stars 
discovered  by  Horrebow,  1659  A.D. 

Huyghens  completes  the  discovery  of  Saturn's 
ring,  1654  A.D. 

Gregory  invents  a  reflecting  telescope,  1663  A.D. 

Charts  of  the  moon  constructed  by  Scheiner, 
Langrenus,  Hevelius,  Riccioli,  etc.,  about  1670 

A.D. 

Discoveries  of  Romer  on  the  velocity  of  light, 
and  his  observation  of  Jupiter's  satellites,  1675 

A.D. 

Motion  of  the  sun  round  its  own  axis  proved 
by  Halley,  1676  A.D. 

Newton's  "  Principia"  published,  and  the  sys 
tem  as  now  taught  demonstrated,  1687  A.D. 

Catalogue  of  the  stars  made  by  Flamsteed, 
1688  A.D. 


Cassini's  chart  of  the  full  moon  executed,  1692 
A.D. 

Satellites  of  Saturn,  etc.,  discovered  by  Cassini, 
1701  A.D. 

Halley  predicts  the  return  of  the  comet  (of 
1759),  1705  A.D. 

Flarnsteed's  "  Historia  Ccelestis"  published, 
1725  A.D. 

Aberration  of  the  light  of  the  stars  discovered 
and  explained  by  Dr.  Bradley,  1727  A.D. 

John  Harrison  produces  chronometers  for  de 
termining  the  longitude,  1735  etseq.,  and  obtains 
the  reward,  1764  A.D. 

Celestial  inequalities  found  by  La  Grange,  1780 

A.D. 

Uranus  and  satellites  discovered  by  Herschel, 
13th  March,  1781  A.D. 

"  Mecanique  celeste,"  by  La  Place,  published 
1796  A.D. 

Beer  and  Madler's  map  of  the  moon  published, 
1834  A.D. 

Lord  Rosse's  telescope  constructed,  1828-45  A.D. 

The  planet  Neptune  discovered,  23d  Septem 
ber,  1846  A.D. 

Bond  photographs  the  moon,  1851  A.D. 

Hansen's  table  of  the  moon  published  at  ex 
pense  of  the  British  government,  1857  A.D. 

Spectrum  analysis  applied  in  astronomy,  1861 

A.D. 

Astrum,  or  Astron.  Sirius,  the  Dog-star.  A 
cluster  of  stars. 

Aswim.     Afloat. 

Asylum.     A  place  of  refuge. 

Asylum,  Naval,  of  the  United  States.  This 
important  and  interesting  institution  has  been  in 
existence  about  half  a  century,  and  is  situated 
upon  the  banks  of  the  Schuylkill,  within  the 
limits  of  the  city  of  Philadelphia,  and  in  the  old 
district  of  Passyunk. 

The  property  upon  which  the  institution  is 
situated  comprises  an  irregular  plat  of  about  23 
acres,  bounded  by  the  Gray's  Ferry  Road,  Bain- 
bridge  Street,  Southerland  Avenue  (running 
parallel  with  the  Schuylkill  River),  and  a  wall 
running  thence  eastward  to  meet  the  Gray's 
Ferry  Road  again. 

Originally  a  part  of  a  tract  of  150  acres,  ex 
tending  from  the  Schuylkill  to  Long  Lane,  it 
was,  long  previous  to  the  Revolution,  the  site  of 
a  handsome  country-seat,  belonging  to  the  Pem- 
berton  family,  it  having  been  purchased  from 
the  Penns  in'l735. 

The  place,  which  was  known  as  "  Plantation," 
was  then  quite  remote  from  the  built-up  parts  of 
the  town,  and,  in  spite  of  its  name,  appears  never 
to  have  been  a  farm,  but  to  have  been  taken  up 
with  lawns,  shrubberies,  and  gardens.  The  house 
was  of  brick  ;  large,  square,  roomy,  and  comfort 
able.  This  mansion  was  afterwards,  and  previ 
ous  to  the  erection  of  the  present  large  building, 
the  naval  asylum  and  hospital.  Two  brick  tene 
ment  or  servants'  houses  stood  to  the  north  of  the 
mansion,  and  were  also  used  until  superseded  by 
the  present  building.  "When  demolished,  their 
debris  was  used  by  Commodore  Biddle  to  metal 
the  roads  and  walks  which  now  exist. 

"Plantation"  was  a  favorite  residence  for 
some  of  the  British  officers  during  their  occupa 
tion  of  Philadelphia,  and  there  is  frequent  men 
tion  of  it  in  contemporary  journals  and  corre 
spondence.  Soldiers  were  flogged,  and  one  or 
two  hung  for  depredations  upon  the  gardens  and 


ASYLUM 


ASYLUM 


smoke-houses,  and  Mrs.  Pemberton,  whose  hus 
band  was  absent,  extorted  an  ample  apology 
from  a  certain  Lord  Murray,  who  had  treated 
the  tenants  with  "barbarious  and  unbecoming 
behavior,  very  unworthy  of  a  British  nobleman 
and  officer,  after  being  previously  shown  General 
Howe's  protection  posted  up  in  the  house."  For 
some  time  previous  to  the  evacuation  the  house 
was  occupied  by  General  Pattison,  the  com 
mander  of  the  Koyal  Artillery. 

From  the  Pembertons  the  place  passed  to  the 
Abbots,  and  was  purchased  from  that  family  by 
the  government. 

On  May  26,  1826,  Surgeon  Thomas  Harris,  of 
the  navy,  was  authorized  by  the  Hon.  Samuel 
L.  Southard,  Secretary  of  the  Navy,  to  purchase 
"  the  Abbot  lot,  of  about  23  acres,  for  $16,000." 
From  the  accounts  it  appears  that  $17,000  was 
ultimately  paid,  however, — a  very  small  sum 
compared  with  the  value  of  the  land  at  this  day. 

As  soon  as  it  was  established  that  we  were  to 
have  a  permanent  naval  force,  it  became  neces 
sary  to  make  provision  for  the  sick,  wounded, 
and  disabled.  In  1798  an  act  of  Congress  pro 
vided  that  20  cents  a  month  should  be  deducted 
from  the  pay  of  all  seamen  of  the  merchant 
marine  for  the  relief  of  the  sick  and  disabled, 
the  money  to  be  in  charge  of  the  Secretary  of  the 
Treasury.  And  in  the  next  year — 1799 — its  bene 
fits  were  extended  to  the  "officers,  seamen,  and 
marines  of  the  navy,  who  were  to  receive  the 
same  relief  as  the  sick  and  disabled  seamen  of  the 
merchant  service." 

Under  the  working  of  this  law  naval  seamen 
were  sent  to  civil  hospitals,  where  their  officers 
lost  control  of  them,  and  they  disappeared.  Nor 
did  it  seem  proper  that  officers,  seamen,  and 
marines  of  a  military  service  should,  as  an  after 
thought,  be  foisted  upon  the  Treasury  Depart 
ment.  It  was  evidently  necessary  for  the  navy 
to  have  a  hospital  department  of  its  own,  in 
charge  of  its  own  medical  officers,  who,  from 
being  identified  with  the  service,  could  sympa 
thize  with  and  understand  the  virtues  and  fail 
ings  of  the  seamen.  Accordingly,  in  1810,  an 
act  of  Congress  appointed  the  Secretaries  of  War, 
the  Navy,  and  the  Treasury  a  "  Board  of  Com 
missioners  of  Naval  Hospitals,"  and  the  fund 
derived  from  monthly  assessments  upon  all  per 
sons  in  the  naval  service  was  turned  over  to  them, 
to  constitute  a  "Naval  Hospital  Fund,"  and 
$50,000  from  the  unexpended  balance  of  the  "Ma 
rine  Hospital  Fund"  was  placed  by  the  same  act 
in  their  hands,  this  being  the  estimated  share  of 
the  amount  which  had  accrued  since  the  acts  of 
1798-99. 

From  this  act  of  1810  dates  the  origin  of  the 
Naval  Asylum,  as  well  as  of  all  the  rest  of  our 
naval  hospitals. 

Mr.  Paul  Hamilton,  then  Secretary  of  the 
Navy,  addressed  a  letter  to  the  House  Committee 
on  the  Naval  Establishment  warmly  supporting 
naval  hospitals  as  places  of  relief  and  main 
tenance,  not  only  for  the  sick  of  the  service,  but 
for  the  disabled  and  infirm  who  should  prefer  it 
to  a  pension.  He  even  recommended  that  the 
widows  and  children  of  seamen  killed  in  action 
should  be  supported  in  such  institutions,  the 
boys  to  be  brought  up  for  the  naval  service.  He 
also  recommends  that  the  midshipmen  should  be 
sent  to  these  hospitals  for  a  period  of  instruction 
in  navigation  and  general  learning. 


On  February  26,  1811,  the  commissioners  of 
naval  hospitals  were  authorized  to  acquire  sites, 
and  to  buy  or  build  hospitals,  and  this  same  act 
requires  one  of  these  establishments  to  provide 
a  permanent  "asylum"  for  "  decrepid  and  dis 
abled  naval  officers,  seamen,  and  marines." 

"Asylum"  is  thus  used  in  the  first  law  upon 
the  subject.  It  seems  an  unfortunate  term,  al 
though  truly  expressing  the  intent  of  the  charity. 

In  the  year  1826,  as  has  been  said,  Dr.  Harris 
bought  the  asylum  property,  and  the  hospital  at 
the  navy-yard,  on  the  Delaware,  was  abandoned, 
and  the  Pemberton  mansion  used  instead  ;  and 
continued  in  use  until  18;?3,  when  the  present 
asylum  building,  was  sufficiently  finished  for 
occupation. 

In  the  records  of  the  hospital  from  1826  to 
1833  appear  the  names,  as  patients,  of  Farra- 
gut,  Bainbridge,  Twiggs,  Hull,  Levy,  Izard, 
Newell,  Ogden,  Howard,  P.  Voorhees,  Engle, 
Mercer,  and  other  well-known  officers. 

The  government  selected  the  Philadelphia 
Hospital  as  the  one  which  was  to  be  the  "asy 
lum"  directed  by  the  act  of  1811  ;  and  from  the 
correspondence,  it  is  clear  that  Dr.  Harris  is  re 
sponsible  for  the  selection  of  the  site  upon  the 
Gray's  Ferry  Koad,  it  being  already  in  possession 
and  occupied  for  hospital  purposes.  He  was  de 
tailed  by  the  Secretary  of  the  Navy  to  superin 
tend  the  construction,  receiving  a  certain  sum, 
over  and  above  his  pay,  therefor.  Mr.  Strick 
land,  the  architect,  was  associated  with  him  in 
the  superintendence. 

In  1832  the  asylum  building  was  under  roof; 
and  up  to  this  time  the  expense  had  been  wholly 
borne  by  the  "Naval  Hospital  Fund,"  which 
had  become  so  drained  that,  in  July  of  that  year, 
a  bill  passed  Congress  appropriating  $27,300  for 
"  completing  the  navy  asylum  at  Philadelphia," 
and  $6600  for  "  fixtures,  furniture,  and  appara 
tus."  During  the  time  the  asylum  was  being 
built  the  naval  hospitals  at  Chelsea,  Brooklyn, 
Norfolk,  and  Pensacola  were  going  up,  under 
regular  annual  appropriations. 

In  this  same  year — 1832 — there  was  a  transfer, 
by  act  of  Congress,  of  all  powers  of  commissioners 
of  hpspitals  to  the  Secretary  of  the  Navy.  They 
were  directed  to  turn  over  to  him  all  cash  and  evi 
dences  of  value  previously  held  by  them  jointly 
for  "the  payment  of  navy  and  privateer  pen 
sions,  and  for  expenditures  on  account  of  naval 
hospitals."  The  Secretary  of  the  Navy  wus 
henceforth  to  keep  this  fund  as  sole  commissioner, 
reporting  annually  to  Congress,  as  he  does  to 
this  day. 

The  asylum  building,  though  by  no  means 
completed  internally,  was  occupied  toward  the 
close  of  1833.  From  that  time  until  1842  an 
aggregate  of  $93,000  was  appropriated  for  the 
building,  grounds,  etc. 

According  to  the  report  of  the  architect,  the 
building  cost  $195,000,  and  adding  the  cost  of 
the  land  brings  the  total  to  $212,600,  of  which 
four-ninths  came  from  appropriations,  and  the 
rest  from  the  hospital  fund. 

The  building  faces  nearly  east,  and  is  con 
structed  of  a  grayish-white  marble,  with  a  gran 
ite  basement.  It  is  380  feet  in  length,  and  con 
sists  of  a  central  building,  with  a  high,  broad 
flight  of  marble  steps,  and  imposing  abutments, 
and  a  marble  colonnade  and  pediment,  in  the 
bastard  classic  style,  which  was  the  fashion  at 


ASYLUM 


53 


ATLAS 


the  period  of  its  erection,  and  which  has  fastened 
upon  the  country  numbers  of  solid  and  costly 
buildings,  utterly  unsuited  to  our  climate,  and 
unsightly  from  lack  of  fitness. 

The  wings  are  symmetrical,  and  terminate  in 
pavilions,  or  transverse  buildings  at  each  end. 
These  wings  are  supplied  with  broad  covered 
verandas  on  each  of  the  two  main  floors,  which 
are  admirably  adapted  to  their  purpose,  and,  of 
course,  entirely  out  of  keeping  with  the  classic 
central  structure. 

A  fine  attic  and  basement  complete  the  build 
ing,  which  is  most  thoroughly  and  substantially 
constructed  in  every  part.  The  marble  stair 
cases  of  the  interior  are  especially  noticeable 
from  their  ingenious  construction  and  economy 
of  space.  The  ceilings  of  two  floors  are  vaulted 
in  solid  masonry,  and  there  is  a  remarkably  fine, 
lofty  domed  apartment,  used  as  a  muster-room 
and  chapel. 

The  beneficiaries,  as  they  are  called,  have  each 
a  small  room,  and  the  use  of  several  reading- 
and  smoking-rooms  in  the  pavilions,  beside  which 
there  are  quarters  for  officers  and  employes. 

When  the  asylum  was  first  occupied  four  bene 
ficiaries  were  transferred  to  it  from  the  old  build 
ing,  as  were  the  sick  of  the  station. 

The  whole  of  the  interior  was  not  finished 
until  1848,  when  the  increase  in  the  number  of 
inmates  rendered  it  necessary.  For  many  years 
— from  1840  to  the  close  of  the  civil  war — the 
second  floor  of  the  south  wing  and  the  rooms  in 
the  pavilion  were  used  as  the  hospital  proper. 
During  the  war  much  of  the  attic  was  also  so 
used.  For  many  years  the  beneficiaries  were 
supported  in  the  same  way,  and  from  the  same 
fund  as  patients  in  hospital.  In  1842  their  num 
ber  was  42,  and  in  1858  there  were  considerably 
over  100 ;  and  in  the  latter  year  the  hospital 
fund  was  relieved  by  an  appropriation  "  for  sup 
port  of  beneficiaries,  $26,392;"  and  ever  since  a 
separate  and  specific  annual  appropriation  has 
been  made  for  the  same  purpose.  The  annual 
appropriation,  from  the  naval  pension  fund,  is 
now  about  $60,000. 

The  first  "  Governor"  of  the  Naval  Asylum 
was  Commodore  James  Biddle,  who  was  ap 
pointed  by  Secretary  J.  K.  Paulding,  upon  com 
plaint  and  scandal  resulting  from  the  adminis 
tration  of  an  old  lieutenant  who  had  charge  of 
the  beneficiaries  as  "  superintendent."  The  Sec 
retary  proposed  to  the  commodore  to  take  charge, 
with  the  title  of  "  Governor,"  as  adding  dignity 
to  the  position.  His  appointment  was  dated 
August  1,  1838,  and  he  remained  until  1842, 
when  he  was  relieved  upon  his  own  application. 
During  his  service  the  classes  of  midshipmen 
preparing  for  examination  were  placed  at  the 
asylum,  with  one  or  two  professors  to  instruct 
them, — a  partial  fulfillment  of  Mr.  Paul  Hamil 
ton's  idea.  They  at  first  had  the  basement 
rooms  at  the  north  end,  which  were  truly  re 
ported  as  being  "damp,  cold,  cheerless,  and  un 
healthy."  Afterwards,  through  the  energetic 
remonstrances  of  Lieutenant  Foote,  they  were 
placed  on  the  floor  above.  Here  they  remained 
until  the  Naval  Academy  at  Annapolis  was 
founded,  in  1845. 

About  1842,  during  the  administration  of  Sec 
retary  Upshur,  a  division  of  the  building  into 
two  parts  was  effected  by  a  lath-and-plaster  par 
tition,  one  part  being  hospital  and  the  other 


asylum.  The  partition  ran  through  the  centre 
of  the  hall,  and  the  wings  being  precisely  alike, 
afforded  equal  conveniences.  This  arrangement 
did  not  continue  long,  however. 

During  the  late  war  the  necessity  for  a  separate 
naval  hospital  became  evident,  and  a  large  and 
commodious  building  for  that  purpose  was  erected 
upon  a  portion  of  the  grounds  nearer  the  river. 

During  the  early  years  of  the  asylum  those 
who  died  there  were  buried  to  the  north  of  the 
asylum,  but  the  cutting  of  a  street  led  to  the 
bodies  being  removed  to  ground  to  the  west. 
When  the  hospital  was  built  it  was  found  neces 
sary  to  remove  the  bodies  again,  and  they  were 
transferred  to  a  lot  belonging  to  the  government 
in  Mount  Moriah  Cemetery,  where  all  inter 
ments  now  take  place. 

At  the  Naval  Asylum  hundreds  of  old  men 
who  have  deserved  well  of  their  country  have 
passed  their  declining  years  in  tranquillity  and 
comfort,  not  unfrequently  attaining  a  great  age. 
The  present  number  of  beneficiaries  ranges  from 
130  to  150,  and  they  die  about  as  fast  as  new 
ones  come  in.  Under  the  regulations  no  one  is 
eligible  for  the  asylum  who  has  not  passed  at 
least  twenty  years  in  the  naval  service,  but  ex 
ceptions  are  made  in  cases  of  serious  disability 
in  the  line  of  duty. 

Upon  entering  the  asylum  a  beneficiary  has 
to  give  up  to  the  hospital  fund  any  pension  of 
which  he  may  be  in  receipt.  Each  one  has  a 
separate  room,  and  is  furnished  with  three  whole 
some  meals  a  day,  a  good  allowance  of  clothing, 
free  washing,  and  one  dollar  and  one  pound  and 
a  half  of  tobacco  per  month. 

There  is  a  good  library  for  the  use  of  the  in 
mates,  and  pleasant  reading-  and  smoking- 
rooms,  with  open  fires,  and  tables  covered  with 
newspapers  and  periodicals.  No  restraint  is 
placed  upon  their  movements,  within  reasonable 
hours,  so  long  as  their  conduct  is  marked  with 
propriety,  and  the  usual  punishment  for  miscon 
duct  is  confinement  to  the  grounds  for  a  few 
days. — E.  Shippen. 

Asymtote.  A  line  which  continually  ap 
proaches  a  curve  but  never  meets  it. 

Atabal.    A  Moorish  drum. 

Atagan.    See  YATAGAN. 

A-taunt-o,  or  All  A-taunt-o.  Every  mast 
an-end  and  fully  rigged. 

Ategar.     An  old  English  hand-dart. 

Atherine.  A  silvery  fish  used  in  the  manu 
facture  of  artificial  pearls.  It  is  also  called  ar 
gentine. 

Athwart.  Transversely;  at  right  angles  to 
the  keel ;  across  the  line  of  the  ship's  course. 

ATHWAKT  HAWSE.  A  vessel,  boat,  or  float 
ing  timber  drifted  across  the  stem. 

ATHWART-SHIPS.  From  side  to  side ;  in  oppo 
sition  to  fore-and-aft. 

ATHWART  THE  TIDE.     Across  the  tide. 

Atlantic.  The  ocean  which  separates  the  New 
World  from  Europe  and  Africa,  so  named  from 
the  Atlas  Mountains,  in  Africa.  See  OCEANS. 

Atlantides.  The  daughter  of  Atlas  ;  a  name 
of  the  Pleiades. 

Atlas.  A  book  of  maps  or  charts,  so  called 
from  the  character  of  that  name  in  ancient  myth 
ology,  represented  as  carrying  the  world  on  his 
back.  The  name  was  first  applied  to  maps  by 
Mercator,  the  famous  geographer,  in  the  16th 
century. 


ATMOSPHERE 


54 


AURORA 


Atmosphere  is  the  name  applied  to  the  gaseous 
fluid  which  surrounds  the  earth.  It  exhibits,  in 
common  with  all  fluid  bodies,  the  usual  charac 
teristics  of  hydrostatic  pressure,  but  its  internal 
condition  differs  from  that  of  a  liquid,  inasmuch 
as  its  particles  repel  each  other,  and  can  only  be 
held  in  proximity  by  external  force.  From  this 
circumstance  it  follows  that  the  volume  of  any 
portion  of  air  varies  much  more  under  the  influ 
ence  of  external  pressure  than  that  of  an  equal 
volume  of  water  ;  hence  the  stratum  of  air  near 
est  the  earth  is  denser  than  strata  in  the  upper 
regions,  where,  from  their  being  subjected  to 
the  weight  of  a  smaller  mass  of  superincumbent 
air,  the  repulsive  force  of  the  particles  has  freer 
play. 

Chemical  Composition  of  the  Atmosphere. 
Volumes.        Grains. 

Nitrogen 79.02  76.84 

Oxygen 20.94  23.10 

Carbonic  acid 0.04  0.06 

100.00  100.00 

Besides  the  substances  just  named  other  gas 
eous  matters  occur,  but  in  quantities  so  small  as 
not  sensibly  to  increase  the  bulk  of  the  at 
mosphere. 

Posidonius  first  calculated  the  height  of  the 
atmosphere,  stating  it  to  be  800  stadia,  nearly 
agreeing  with  our  modern  ideas,  about  79  B.C. 
Its  weight  was  determined  by  Galileo  and  Torri- 
celli,  about  1643;  its  density  and  elasticity  by 
Boyle;  and  its  relation  to  light  and  sound  by 
Hooke,  Newton,  and  Derham.  The  composition 
of  the  atmosphere  was  ascertained  by  Hales, 
Black,  Priestley,  Scheele,  Lavoisier,  and  Caven 
dish  ;  and  its  laws  of  refraction  were  investigated 
by  Dr.  Bradley,  1737. 

Atolls.  An  East  Indian  name  for  the  coral 
formations  known  as  lagoon-islands. 

Atomizer.  An  instrument  to  reduce  a  liquid 
to  a  spray. 

Atrie.     To  bring-to  in  a  gale. 

A-trip.  The  anchor  is  a-trip  when  it  is  just 
hove  clear  of  the  ground.  Sails  are  a-trip  when 
they  are  sheeted  home,  hoisted  taut  up,  and 
ready  for  trimming.  Yards  are  a-trip  when 
they  are  hoisted  up  and  ready  to  be  swayed 
across.  A  mast  is  a-trip  when  the  fid  is  out 
ready  for  lowering. 

Attached.  Belonging  to.  An  officer  is  said 
to  be  attached  to  any  ship  or  station  to  which  he 
is  ordered  for  duty. 

Attack.  To  fall  upon  with  hostile  intent ;  to 
assail. 

Atterage.     (Fr.)     A  land-fall. 

Attested.     Legally  certified. 

Attile.  An  old  law  term  for  the  furniture  of 
a  ship. 

Attraction.  The  principle  'by  which  bodies 
mutually  tend  toward  each  other,  distinguished 
into  the  attraction  of  gravitation,  of  cohesion, 
and  capillary,  magnetic,  and  electrical  attraction. 

Atween,  or  'Tween.     Between. 

Atwixt,  or  'Twixt.     Betwixt. 

Auckland.  A  town  of  New  Zealand,  on  the 
"Waitamata  Inlet.  Lat.  36°  50'  S. ;  Ion.  174° 
50'  E.  It  has  two  fine  harbors.  Auckland  is 
the  third  port  in  the  colony  in  the  value  of  ex 
ports  and  imports.  Pop.  12,000. 

Audit.     To  settle  or  adjust  an  account. 


Auditor,  Fourth.  Chief  of  a  bureau  of  the 
Treasury  Department,  established  in  1817.  Pre 
viously  an  accounting  clerk  in  the  Navy  Depart 
ment.  The  Auditor's  office  receives  the  accounts 
of  all  paymasters  of  United  States  vessels,  navy- 
yards,  and  navy  pay  offices,  of  navy  pension 
agents,  paymasters,  and  quartermasters  of  the 
marine  corps,  and  other  disbursing  agents  for 
the  Navy  Department,  and  passes  upon  the  cor 
rectness  and  legality  of  their  receipts  and  expen 
ditures.  '  All  claims  for  pay,  bounty,  prize- 
money,  traveling  expenses,  or  other  compensation 
for  services  in  the  navy  and  marine  corps  should 
be  made  to  this  office.  All  allowances  by  the 
Fourth  Auditor  are  subject  to  revision  by  the 
Second  Comptroller.  An  appeal  may  be  taken 
to  the  Comptroller  from  an  adverse  decision  of 
the  Auditor,  and  the  decision  of  the  former  is 
final,  except  with  Congress  and  the  United  States 
courts.  The  Auditor  is  the  custodian  of  all  pay- 
and  muster-rolls  of  officers,  men,  and  mechanics 
on  board  ship  or  at  navy-yards,  from  which  the 
state  of  their  accounts  can  be  readily  ascertained. 
He  also  preserves  all  vouchers  for  expenditures 
of  money  and  stores  ;  the  papers  in  claims  of  all 
characters ;  and  the  original  or  copies  of  all  let 
ters  received  or  written.  Records  are  kept  of  all 
accounts  rendered  to  the  office,  and  the  amounts 
allowed  and  disallowed  thereon  ;  of  all  claims  re 
ceived,  and  the  disposition  thereof ;  of  all  moneys 
drawn  from  or  refunded  to  the  Treasury  by  navy 
disbursing  officers  ;  of  all  transfers  of  money, 
clothing,  and  small-stores  between  pay  officers  ; 
of  the  amount  of  money  appropriated  for  each 
specific  naval  purpose  and  the  expenditures  there  • 
from;  of  prizes  captured,  the  participants  in  the 
capture,  and  the  amounts  distributed  to  claim 
ants,  and  remaining  unclaimed ;  of  all  allot 
ments  of  pay,  amount  paid  to  each  allottee,  and 
amount  deducted  from  the  pay  of  each  allottee ; 
and  other  records  of  the  transactions  of  the  office. 
It  is  the  duty  of  the  Auditor  to  prepare  the  ac 
counts  of  delinquent  pay  officers  for  suit  on  their 
official  bonds,  and  transmit  the  same  to  the 
Solicitor  of  the  Treasury.  The  Auditor  has  no 
power  to  compromise  claims  of  the  United  States 
against  its  debtors.  The  office  consists  of  the 
Auditor,  Deputy  Auditor,  and  about  40  clerks, 
and  is  organized  in  divisions,  as  follows :  pay 
masters'  accounts,  prize-money,  general  claims, 
navy  pay  accounts,  bookkeeper's,  records,  and 
navy  pensions. 

Auges.     Apsides. 

Auget.  A  tube  filled  with  powder  for  firing  a 
mine. 

Augmentation  of  the  Moon's  Diameter.  The 
increase  in  apparent  diameter,  due  to  an  increase 
of  elevation. 

Auk.     A  sea-bird  of  the  Alca  family. 

Aulin.  An  Arctic  gull  (Cata-ract.es  parasiti- 
cus).  It  is  called  dirty  aulin  by  the  northern 
boatmen. 

Aumbrey.  An  old  term  for  a  bread  and 
cheese  locker. 

Aume.  A  Dutch  measure  for  wine,  contain 
ing  40  English  gallons. 

Auriga.  A  northern  constellation,  popularly 
known  as  the  "Wagoner."  a  Aurigce,  Capella. 

Aurora.  The  goddess  of  morning.  The  faint 
light  which  precedes  the  rising  of  the  sun. 

AURORA  BOREALIS.  The  northern  lights.  A 
luminous  meteoric  phenomenon,  supposed  to  be 


ATJSTEK 


55 


AWNING 


of  electrical  origin.  This  species  of  light  usually 
appears  in  streams,  ascending  toward  the  zenith 
from  a  dusky  bank,  a  few  degrees  above  the  north 
ern  horizon.  Sometimes  it  assumes  a  wavy  ap 
pearance,  arid  is  then  called  the  merry -dancers, 
The  streams  assume  a  variety  of  colors,  from 
pale  yellow  to  blood-red. 

AURORA  AUSTRALIS.     The  southern^  lights. 

Auster.     The  south  wind  of  the  ancients. 

Austral.     Relating  to  the  south. 

Australia.     See  CONTINENTS. 

Austral  Signs.     The  last  six  of  the  zodiac. 

Austrian  Navy.  The  geographical  position 
of  this  immense  empire  renders  it  next  to  impos 
sible  that  it  should  either  possess  or  require  a 
large  navy.  When  the  territory  extended  over 
Lombardo-Venetia,  the  ports  of  Venice  and 
Trieste  were  commanded  by  Austria,  and  the 
trade  there  carried  on  needed  the  protection  of 
ships  of  war.  But  that  extensive  portion  of  the 
empire  which  was  assigned  to  Austria  by  the 
treaty  of  Vienna,  in  the  year  1815,  was  wrested 
from  her  in  the  year  1859,  when  France  united 
with  Sardinia  to  achieve  the  independence  and 
unification  of  Italy  under  one  monarch.  Con 
sequently  her  maritime  pqssessions  have  dwin 
dled  to  the  Danube  and  the  ports  in  Dalmatia, 
etc.,  and  as  the  former  has  but  one  outlet  to  the 
Black  Sea,  which  does  not  admit  of  vessels  draw 
ing  many  feet  of  water,  Austria  needs  not  many 
ships  of  war  to  protect  her  commerce.  At  the 
present  moment,  therefore,  she  possesses  but  47 
steamers  and  17  ships  of  war,  and  as  their  united 
burden  is  only  93,270  tons,  and  they  altogether 
mount  no  more  than  365  guns,  it  may  be  con 
ceived  that  they  are  for  the  greater  part  very 
small  vessels.  The  entire  annual  cost  of  the 
navy  and  the  establishments  connected  with  it  is 
rather  above  ten  millions  of  florins.  The  trade 
which  the  navy  shelters  is  limited  to  35  ports  in 
the  Littoral  provinces,  54  in  Dalmatia,  and  11  in 
Croatia. 

Autan.     Gusts  of  wind  from  the  south 

Automatic  Fire.  An  explosive  mixture  of 
the  Greeks,  compounded  of  equal  parts  of  sul 
phur,  saltpetre,  and  sulphide  of  antimony  finely 
pulverized  and  mixed  into  a  paste  with  equal 
parts  of  the  juice  of  black  sycamore  and  liquid 
asphaltum,  a  little  quicklime  being  added.  The 
rays  of  the  sun  would  set  it  on  fire. 

Autumn.  The  fall :  the  months  of  September, 
October,  and  November. 

AUTUMNAL  EQUINOX.  The  time  when  the 
sun  crosses  the  equator,  moving  south. 

AUTUMNAL  POINT.  That  point  on  the  ecliptic 
whence  the  sun  descends  southward. 

AUTUMNAL  SIGNS.  Libra,  Scorpio,  and  Sa 
gittarius. 

Auxiliary  Screw.  A  screw  with  which  a  full- 
rigged  vessel  is  sometimes  supplied,  to  be  used  in 
calms,  working  to  windward,  entering  port,  etc. 

Avast.     Stop  ;  cease.    From  the  Italian  basta. 

Avenue.     The  inlet  into  a  port. 

Average.  A  rule  was  established  by  the  Rho- 
dian  law,  and  has  prevailed  in  every  maritime 
nation,  that  where  a  loss  has  been  sustained  or 
an  expense  incurred,  for  the  general  safety  of  the 
ship  and  cargo,  a  contribution  should  be  made, 
in  proportion  to  their  respective  interests,  by  the 
owners  of  the  ship,  freight,  and  goods  on  board ; 
or,  in  modern  times,  by  the  insurer  of  these.  To 
this  contribution  the  name  of  general  average  is 


given.  Personal  property  of  the  passengers,  not 
carried  for  the  purpose  of  traffic,  is  not  liable  for 
any  share  in  this  contribution.  See  JETTISON. 

PARTICULAR  AVERAGE.  The  loss  of  an  an 
chor,  the  leakage  of  a  cask,  the  washing  over 
board  of  goods,  etc.,  where  the  common  safety 
was  not  in  question,  and  where  there  is,  conse 
quently,  no  contribution. 

PETTY  AVERAGES  are  pilotage,  anchorage 
duty,  etc.  If  these  occur  in  the  ordinary  course 
of  the  voyage  they  are  not  loss,  but  simply  a  part 
of  the  expenses  necessarily  incurred.  But  if 
they  have  occurred  under  extraordinary  circum 
stances,  and  for  the  purpose  of  avoiding  imme 
diate  danger,  they  are  a  loss,  which  is  included  in 
the  general  average,  and  covered  by  the  contribu 
tion. 

AVERAGE  BOND  is  a  deed  which  parties  liable 
to  a  general  average  are  in  the  habit  of  execut 
ing,  by  which  they  empower  an  arbiter  to  value 
the  property  lost,  and  fix  the  proportion  which 
shall  be  borne  by  each  proprietor. 

AVERAGE  ADJUSTER.  A  qualified  person  to 
adjust  the  loss,  damage,  and  expense  in  conse 
quence  of  an  accident  or  misfortune. 

AVERAGE  AGREEMENT.  A  written  document 
signed  by  the  consignees  of  a  cargo,  binding 
themselves  to  pay  a  certain  proportion  of  gen 
eral  average  that  may  arise  against  them. 

Avviso.     An  Italian  advice-boat. 

Awaft,  or  Awhef  t.  The  displaying  of  a  stopped 
flag. 

Await,  Lying  in.  In  ambush  for  the  purpose 
of  cutting  off  passing  vessels. 

Award.  A  judgment  by  arbitrators  in  mari 
time  cases. 

A-wash.    At  the  surface  of  the  water. 

Away  Off.     At  a  distance,  but  in  sight. 

AWAY  SHE  GOES!  The  cry  when  a  vessel 
starts  on  the  ways  in  launching.  An  order  to 
walk  away  briskly  with  a  tackle. 

AWAY  THERE  !  The  call  for  a  boat's  crew  to 
man  their  boat;  as,  away  there,  launches! 

AWAY  WITH  IT  !  An  order  to  walk  away 
briskly  with  a  tackle. 

A-weather.  The  position  of  the  helm  when 
the  tiller  is  borne  over  to  the  weather  side. 
When  it  is  put  over  to  the  extreme  limit  it  is 
hard  a-weather. 

Aweigh.  The  position  of  the  anchor  just  after 
breaking  ground. 

Awkward  Squad.  A  squad  of  raw  recruits, 
or  of  men  detailed  for  extra  drill  on  account  of 
their  stupidity. 

Awning.  A  canvas  covering  spread  over  the 
deck  of  a  vessel  to  protect  the  crew  from  the  sun 
and  weather.  The  forecastle  awning  extends 
from  the  foremast  forward.  The  main-deck 
awning  is  spread  between  the  foremast  and  the 
mainmast.  The  quarter-deck  awning  is  spread 
between  the  main-  and  mizzen-masts,  and  the 
poop  awning  extends  from  the  mizzen-mast  aft. 

The  back-bone  is  a  rope  stitched  to  the  middle 
of  the  awning.  It  runs  fore-and-aft,  has  a 
thimble  in  one  end,  and  to  the  other  is  hooked 
the  fore-and-aft  tackle.  The  awning  is  hauled 
out  at  the  corners  by  earings,  and  at  the  sides  by 
stops  and  bull-earings. 

The  ridge-rope  is  a  rope  fore-and-aft  the  ship  on 
both  sides,  forming  a  straight  line  from  stem  to 
,  stern,  and  is  supported  by  the  rigging  and  by 
I  wooden  or  iron  supports  called  stanchions. 


AX 


56 


AZUMBAL 


The  sharks-mouth  is  an  opening  to  accommo 
date  the  masts  and  stays  abaft,  and  the  dog-s-ear 
is  one  of  the  irregularly-shaped  corners  thus 
formed.  The  euphroe  is  a  block  of  wood  through 
which  is  rove  a  combination  of  small  lines  called 
a  crowfoot.  To  this  is  hooked  the  crowfoot-hal 
liards. 

The  lacing  is  the  line  which  draws  together 
the  ends  of  adjoining  awnings. 

AWNING-  or  SIDE-CURTAINS  are  strips  of  can 
vas  set  between  the  ridge-rope  and  the  rail. 

To  GET  THE  AWNING  ON  A  STRETCH.  To 
haul  it  taut  between  the  masts. 

To  SPREAD  AN  AWNING.  To  suspend  it  paral 
lel  with  the  deck  by  means  of  the  fore-and-aft 
tackle,  earings,  and  side-stops. 

To  HOUSE  AN  AWNING.  To  bring  the  edges 
close  down  to  a  housing-line  near  the  deck,  thus 
giving  the  canvas  a  greater  angle  and  causing  it 
to  shed  the  water. 

To  TRICE  UP  AN  AWNING.  To  hook  whips 
to  the  earings  and  edges  and  hoist  it  up  to  dry. 
The  whips  are  sometimes  hooked  to  the  back 
bone. 

To  FURL  AN  AWNING.  To  roll  it  up  and  pass 
stops  around  it. 

Ax.     A  tool  for  chopping  wood. 
.  BROAD-AX,  a  carpenter's  tool.     It  has  a  wider 
and  thinner  blade  and  a  shorter  handle  than  the 
ordinary  ax. 

BATTLE-AX.  The  ancient  weapon  had,  some 
times,  a  double  edge.  The  tool  by  this  name 
now  in  use  is  simply  a  hatchet. 

Axis.  A  straight  line  passing  through  a  body 
upon  which  it  revolves,  or  may  be  supposed  to 
revolve. 

Axis  OF  THE  EARTH.  That  diameter  upon 
which  the  earth  rotates  diurnally  from  west  to 
east.  In  consequence  of  this  rotation  the  earth 
has  assumed  its  present  form, — an  oblate  sphe 
roid,  being  compressed  at  the  extremities  of  the 
axis  (the  poles),  and  bulging  in  the  regions  most 
remote  from  thein(the  equatorial).  With  refer 
ence  to  its  extremities,  the  axis  is  called  the 
' '  Polar  Diameter. ' ' 

Axis  OF  THE  HEAVENS.  That  diameter  about 
which  the  celestial  concave  appears  to  revolve 
diurnally  from  east  to  west.  It  passes  through 
the  observer's  place";  and  is  parallel  to  the  axis 
of  the  earth,  with  which  it  is  generally  consid 
ered  coincident. 

Axle.  The  cross-piece  of  a  gun-carriage,  on 
the  extremities  of  which  the  trucks  revolve,  which 
extremities  are  called  the  arms  of  the  axle. 


Aye.  Yes.  Aye-aye,  the  response  of  com 
missioned  officers,  not  commanding  or  flag- 
officers,  to  the  hail  of  the  sentry.  Aye-aye,  sir, 
the  usual  response  to  denote  that  an  order  is  un 
derstood  and  will  be  obeyed. 

Aylet.     The  sea-swallow. 

Ayont.     Beyond. 

Ayr.  An  open  sea-beach.  A  bank  of  sand. 
The  mediaeval  term  for  oar. 

Ayt.     See  EYGHT. 

Azimuth.  The  arc  of  the  horizon  intercepted 
between  the  meridian  of  the  place  and  a  vertical 
circle  passing  through  the  centre  of  any  body 
The  magnetic  azimuth  is  the  arc  of  the  horizon 
intercepted  between  the  vertical  circle  and  the 
magnetic  meridian.  The  difference  between  the 
true  and  the  magnetic  azimuth  is  the  variation  of 
the  compass. 

AZIMUTH  CIRCLE,  a  vertical  circle,  or  great 
circle  passing  through  the  zenith  and  nadir. 

AZIMUTH  AND  ALTITUDE.  The  horizon  co-or 
dinates  for  defining  points  of  the  celestial  con 
cave  in  its  diurnal  revolution  relatively  to  the 
position  of  an  observer  on  the  earth's  surface. 

AZIMUTH  AND  ALTITUDE  INSTRUMENT.  An 
instrument  for  taking  azimuths  and  altitudes  si 
multaneously.  The  telescope  by  which  the  ob 
servations  are  made  is  capable  of  motion  in  two 
planes  at  right  angles  to  each  other,  and  the 
amount  of  its  angular  motion  in  each  is  measured 
in  two  circles  co-ordinate  to  each  other,  whose 
planes  are  parallel  to  those  in  which  the  tele 
scope  moves.  In  the  azimuth  and  altitude  in 
strument  one  of  these  planes  is  horizontal,  the 
other  vertical. 

AZIMUTH,  MOTION  IN.  An  instrument  is  said 
to  move  "in  azimuth"  when  it  is  turned  on  a 
vertical  axis ;  in  contradistinction,  it  is  said  to 
move  "  in  altitude"  when  it  is  turned  on  a  hori 
zontal  axis.  An  azimuth  and  altitude  instru 
ment  admits  of  both  motions. 

AZIMUTH  COMPASS.  A  compass  specially 
adapted  for  observing  bearings. 

AZIMUTH  DIAGRAM,  GODFRAY'S.  A  diagram 
by  means  of  which  the  true  azimuth  can  be 
rapidly  and  simply  obtained  without  calculation, 
the  data  being  the  latitude,  the  sun's  declination, 
and  the  apparent  time.  The  scale  on  which  it  is 
constructed  gives  the  result  to  within  one-eighth 
of  a  degree. 

Azogue.  Quicksilver.  A  Spanish  ship  fitted 
expressly  to  carry  quicksilver. 

Azumbal.  A  Spanish  wine  measure,  eight  of 
which  make  an  arroba. 


B 


BACK-LASH 


B. 


B.  Abbreviation  for  before  in  the  U.  S. 
General  Service  Code  of  Signals.  In  the  log  b 
denotes  blue  sky. 

Baard.     A  mediaeval  transport. 

Baas.     A  Dutch  skipper. 

Babbing.     A  method  of  catching  crabs. 

Babbitt  Metal.  A  soft  alloy  of  copper,  zinc, 
and  tin,  used  for  the  bearing  of  journals  to  di 
minish  friction. 

Bac.  A  French  ferry-boat.  A  punt  used  by 
shipwrights  for  carrying  tar,  pitch,  etc. 

A  broad  flat  boat  for  transporting  carriages, 
cattle,  etc.,  over  streams  by  means  of  a  rope 
stretched  across. 

Bacallao  (Sp.).  Newfoundland  and  adjacent 
islands.  The  name  is  also  applied  to  the  codfish 
salted  in  Newfoundland. 

Bache,  Alexander  Dallas,  LL.D.,  A.A.S., 
physicist,  born  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  July  19,  1806  ; 
died  Newport,  R,  I.,  February  17,  1867.  West 
Point,  1825.  He  was  a  great-grandson  of  Dr. 
Franklin,  and  his  mother  was  ^,he  daughter  of 
A.  J.  Dallas.  He  was  a  lieutenant  of  engineers 
until  his  resignation,  in  1829.  Engaged  in  con 
structing  Fort  Adams  and  other  works  at  the  en 
trance  of  Narragansett  Bay.  From  1827  to  1832 
he  was  professor  of  mathematics  in  the  University 
of  Pennsylvania,  and  then  took  charge  of  the 
organization  of  Girard  College,  spending  some 
time,  in  1836,  inspecting  the  great  schools  of 
Europe,  publishing,  upon  his  return,  a  valuable 
report  on  the  subject.  In  1839  he  resigned  his 
connection  with  this  college,  and  became,  in  1841, 
principal  of  the  Philadelphia  High  School.  In 
1843  he  was  appointed  superintendent  of  the  U.  S. 
Coast  Survey.  Its  valuable  contributions  to 
geodetic  and  physical  science  are  found  in  the 
annual  reports  of  the  survey,  and  in  the  proceed 
ings  of  the  Association  for  the  Advancement  of 
Science.  He  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the 
American  Association  for  the  Promotion  of  Sci 
ence,  took  a  prominent  part  in  founding  the 
American  Academy  of  Science,  was  made  presi 
dent  of  the  American  Philosophical  Society  in 
1855,  and  was  an  active  and  efficient  member  of 
the  United  States  Sanitary  Commission  through 
out  the  war  of  the  Kebellion.  The  degree  of 
LL.D.  was  conferred  on  him  by  the  University 
of  New  York  in  1836,  by  the  University  of  Penn 
sylvania  in  1837,  and  by  Harvard  University  in 
1851.  He  was  made  a  regent  of  the  Smithsonian 
Institution  in  August,  1846.  In  1833  he  edited 
Brewster's  "  Optics,"  with  notes.  He  published 
"  Observations"  at  the  observatory  of  Girard  Col 
lege,  1840-45,  3  vols.  8vo,  "  Report  of  Experi 
ments  to  Navigate  the  Chesapeake  and  Delaware 
Canal  by  Steam,"  Philadelphia,  1834,  and  con 
tributed  many  valuable  papers  to  the  scientific 
journals  of  the  day. 

Back,  Sir  George,  born  at  Stockport,  England, 
November  6,  1796.  In  the  year  1819  this  British 


naval  officer  accompanied  Sir  John  Franklin  on 
his  first  Arctic  voyage.  Fourteen  j-ears  later  he 
was  sent  out  on  an  expedition  in  search  of  Cap 
tain  Boss,  an  Arctic  navigator,  and  published  an 
interesting  account  of  his  voyage.  In  1839  he 
was  knighted,  and  in  1867  he  became  an  admiral. 

Back.  The  outside  or  convex  part  of  compass- 
timber.  The  outermost  board  of  a  sawn  tree. 

BACK  OF  A  SHIP..  A  figurative  term  for  the 
keel  and  kelson.  See  BROKEN-BACKED. 

BACK  OF  THE  POST.  An  additional  timber 
bolted  to  the  after  part  of  the  stern-post. 

To  BACK  AN  ANCHOR.     See  ANCHOR. 

To  BACK  A  SHIP  AT  ANCHOR.  To  keep  the 
chain  taut  by  hoisting  the  mizzen-topsail.  If 
the  wind  falls  she  should  be  hove  a-peak. 

To  BACK  A  SAIL.  To  lay  the  yard  so  that 
the  wind  acts  on  the  forward  surface,  and  thus 
check  or  stop  the  headway. 

To  BACK  WATER.  To  row  in  a  direction 
contrary  to  the  usual  mode,  so  as  to  give  a  boat 
stern  way. 

To  BACK  THE  PORT  OR  STARBOARD  OARS. 
To  back  on  one  side  and  give  way  on  the  other, 
so  as  to  round  quickly. 

To  BACK  A  ROPE  OR  CHAIN.  To  put  on  a 
preventer. 

To  BACK  THE  WORMING.  To  fill  the  holidays 
between  the  worming  and  the  rope,  so  as  to  give 
a  smooth  surface  for  the  service. 

The  wind  is  said  to  back  when  it  changes  di 
rection  against  the  sun. 

To  BACK  AND  FILL.  A  method  of  working 
to  windward  with  a  weather  tide  in  a  narrow 
channel.  The  main  object  is  to  keep  the  ship  in 
mid-channel  broadside  on  to  the  current.  The 
yards  are  counterbraced,  or  the  sails  are  kept 
shivering.  The  ship  is  kept  well  under  control 
by  bracing  the  yards  and  giving  her  the  jib  and 
spanker  as  circumstances  demand.  To  attempt 
this  manoeuvre  a  correct  knowledge  of  the 
strength  and  set  of  the  currents  and  the  depth 
of  the  water  is  required. 

BACK  HER  !  The  order  to  reverse  the  engine 
and  give  the  vessel  sternway. 

Back-board.  A  board  across  the  stern-sheets 
of  a  boat  to  form  the  coxswain's  box,  and  also  to 
support  the  backs  of  the  passengers. 

Back-bone.  The  fore-and-aft  rope  stitched 
to  the  midship  part  of  an  awning. 

Backer.  A  broad  piece  of  sennit  nailed  around 
the  yard  inside  of  the  sheave.  It  is  fitted  with 
an  eye  or  a  thimble,  and  the  head-earing  is  rove 
through  it. 

Back-frame.  The  vertical  wheel  which  turns 
the  whirlers  of  a  rope-winch. 

Backing.  The  timber  behind  the  armor-plates 
of  a  ship.  See  ARMOR. 

Back-lash.  The  reaction  or  striking  back  of 
the  moving  parts  of  machinery  when  the  power 
is  not  uniform  or  the  load  is  variable. 


BACK-O'-BEYOND 


58 


BAGPIPE 


Back-o'-beyond.  Said  of  a  great  unknown 
distance. 

Back-observation.  A  name  applied  to  an 
observation  in  which  the  greatest  distance  of  the 
heavenly  body  from  the  horizon  is  measured.  It 
is  so  called  because  the  back  of  the  observer  is 
turned  to  the  object  when  its  altitude  is  taken. 

Back-pressure.  The  resistance  of  the  atmos 
phere  or  waste  steam  to  the  piston. 

Back-rope.  A  rope  which  fits  over  the  dol 
phin-striker  with  a  cuckold's  neck  and  sets  up  to 
the  bows  on  each  side.  See  GOB-LINE. 

Back-sight.     The  breech-sight  of  fire-arms. 

Back-staff.  An  old  navigating  instrument 
invented  in  1590;  so  named  because  the  back  of 
the  observer  was  turned  to  the  heavenly  body 
when  its  altitude  was  measured.  See  BACK-OB 
SERVATION. 

Backstays.  Ropes  which  extend  from  all 
mast-heads— except  the  lower — to  the  ship's  side 
or  channels. 

STANDING  BACKSTAYS  set  up  well  aft  and 
support  the  masts  when  the  wind  is  abaft  the 
beam. 

BREAST-BACKSTAYS  set  up  in  the  channels  and 
support  the  masts  when  on  the  wind.  They  are 
not  now  in  use. 

BEAR  ABAFT  THE  BREAST-BACKSTAYS!  An 
order  to  come  up  the  breast-backstays  and  bear 
them  abaft,  in  order  that  the  yards  may  be  braced 
sharp  up. 

PREVENTER-BACKSTAYS.  Additional  supports 
to  assist  the  backstays  when  carrying  on. 

TRAVELING-BACKSTAYS  are  fitted  with  a  trav 
eler,  which  moves  up  and  down  with  the  topsail- 
yard.  The  support  is  thus  kept  where  it  is  most 
needed.  They  are  not  now  in  use. 

To  BACKSTAY  A  YARD.  To  brace  it  up  as  far 
as  the  backstays  will  permit. 

Backstay-plates.  Plates  to  which  the  back 
stays  set  up. 

Backstay-stools.  Small  detached  channels 
fixed  abaft  the  principal  ones,  to  which  the  stand 
ing  backstays  set  up.  They  are  introduced  in 
preference  to  extending  the  channels. 

Back-strapped.  A  ship  with  a  wind  fair,  but 
so  light  as  not  to  enable  her  to  stem  the  current, 
is  said  to  be  back  strapped. 

Back-sweep.  That  which  forms  the  hollow 
of  the  top-timber  of  a  frame. 

Back- wash.     See  WASH. 

Back-water.  Water  thrown  back  by  the  turn 
ing  of  a  paddle-wheel  or  propeller.  Water  held 
by  a  dam  or  reservoir.  The  smooth  water  free 
from  current  in  a  small  stream  which  runs  into 
a  large  stream.  It  is  caused  by  the  rising  of  the 
water  in  the  main  stream. 

Baculite.  A  genus  of  fossil  shells  of  a  straight 
form,  a  little  conical,  and  in  their  cellular  struc 
ture  resembling  the  ammonites. 

Badderlock.  The  Fucus  esculentus,  a  kind 
of  edible  sea-weed. 

Badge,  Good-conduct.  Any  enlisted  man 
holding  a  continuous-service  certificate,  who  is 
distinguished  for  obedience  and  sobriety,  and  is 
proficient  in  seamanship  and  gunnery,  shall  re 
ceive,  upon  the  expiration  of  his  enlistment, 
a  good-conduct  badge ;  after  he  has  received 
three  such  badges,  under  three  consecutive  re- 
enlistments,  within  three  months  from  the  dates 
of  his  discharge,  he  shall,  if  qualified,  be  enlisted 
as  a  petty  officer,  and  hold  a  petty  officer's  rating 


during  subsequent  continuous  re-enlistments ; 
and  shall  not  be  reduced  to  a  lower  rating  except 
by  sentence  of  a  court-martial. 

Badge,  Quarter.  False  quarter-galleries.  A 
carved  ornament  on  a  vessel's  quarter,  contain 
ing  a  window  or  a  representation  of  one. 

Badger.     To  worry  ;  to  nag. 

Badger-bag.  The  burlesque  Neptune,  who 
boards  the  ship  on  crossing  the  line. 

Badger  Whiskers.  In  1841,  Hon.  George  E. 
Badger,  Secretary  of  the  Navy,  issued  a  general 
order  regulating  the  uniform  of  the  navy,  in 
which  was  a  clause  requiring  that  no  part  of  the 
beard  should  be  worn  long  except  the  whiskers, 
and  that  they  should  not  descend  more  than  one 
inch  below  the  tips  of  the  ears,  and  thence  in  a 
line  with  the  corners  of  the  mouth.  These  were 
nicknamed  "  Badger  Whiskers."  Fashion,  how 
ever,  proved  more  powerful  than  the  regulation, 
and  the  order  was  never  fully  enforced. 

Baessy.  The  old  name  of  a  gun,  afterwards 
called  base. 

Baffin,  Wm.,  born  in  1584.  Engaged  with  Jas. 
Hall  in  Arctic  investigations  begun  in  1612; 
this  navigator  discovered  the  gulf  which  commu 
nicates  with  the  North  Atlantic  Ocean  by  Davis' 
Strait,  and  he  earned  immortality  by  giving  the 

fulf  the  name  of  Baffin's  Bay,  in  1016 ;  was 
illed  at  the  siege  of  Ormuz,  May  23,  1622. 

Baffling.  A  light  breeze,  which  is  continually 
hauling  and  veering,  is  said  to  be  baffling. 

Bag.  A  pouch  or  sack  to  hold  or  convey  any 
thing.  The  bag  in  which  the  sailor's  clothing  is 
stowed  is  made  of  canvas  painted  black,  with  the 
owner's  name  and  ship's  number  plainly  sten 
ciled  thereon. 

WHAT  is  THE  NUMBER  OF  YOUR  BAG  ? 
Jack's  facetious  inquiry  addressed  to  a  comrade 
starting  out  on  perilous  duty  from  which  he 
may  never  return.  The  saying  originated  from 
the'habit  seamen  formerly  had  of  going  through 
a  dead  comrade's  bag  before  his  effects"  could  be 
sold  at  auction. 

DITTY-BAG.  A  small  bag  to  hold  sewing- 
gear,  shaving-tackle,  etc. 

MONK-BAG.  A  small  purse,  which  sailors 
wear  strung  around  their  neck,  to  contain  their 
valuables.  So  named  from  the  habit  monkeys 
have  of  stowing  away  food  in  their  cheeks. 

BAG  AND  BAGGAGE.  The  whole  movable 
property. 

BAG  "OF  THE  HEAD-RAILS.  The  lowest  part 
or  sweep  of  the  head-rails. 

To  BAG  ON  A  BOWLINE.  To  be  leewardly. 
A  sail  is  said  to  bag  when,  the  leeches  being 
taut,  there  is  a  great  deal  of  slack  canvas  in  the 
sail.  Formerly  sails  were  so  cut  intentionally, 
the  idea  being  that  they  would  catch  more  wind. 
Sails  are  now  cut  so  as  to  set  as  flat  as  possible. 

Bagala.  A  two-masted  Arab  boat,  used  both 
for  commerce  and  for  piracy.  They  are  from  50 
to  300  tons  burden,  and  sail  with  great  rapidity. 

Baggety.  The  lump  or  sea-owl  (Cyclopterus 
turn  pus). 

Baggonet.  An  old  term  for  bayonet,  and  not 
a  vulgarism. 

Baghela.  A  Muscat  one-masted  vessel,  200  to 
300  tons  burden. 

Bag-net.     A  fishing-net  shaped  like  a  bag. 

Bagnio.  A  barrack  for  galley-slaves  and 
convicts. 

Bagpipe.     To  bagpipe  the  mizzen  is  to  lay  it 


BAG-KEEF 


59 


BAINBRIDGE 


aback  by  bringing  the  sheet  to  the  mizzen 
rigging. 

Bag-reef.  The  lower  reef  of  fore-and-aft 
sails  ;  the  upper  reef  of  topsails. 

Bagrel.     A  minnow  or  baggie. 

Baguio.  A  rare  but  very  violent  wind  among 
the  Philippine  Islands. 

Bahar.  A  weight  used  in  the  East  Indies, 
varying  considerably  in  different  localities,  ran 
ging  from  223  to  625  pounds. 

Bahia.  A  city  and  seaport  of  Brazil,  situated 
in  an  elevated  position  on  the  strip  of  land  form 
ing  the  E.  side  of  the  entrance  to  All-Saints  Bay, 
immediately  within  Cape  San  Antonio,  on  which 
is  a  revolving  light  140  feet  above  sea-level ;  in  lat. 
13°  0'  42"  S.,  Ion.  38°  31'  42"  W.  It  is  800  miles 
N.N.E.  of  Kio  de  Janeiro. 

The  harbor  is  one  of  the  best  in  America,  and 
is  suitable  for  vessels  of  any  size.  The  commerce 
consists  chiefly  in  the  export  of  sugar,  cotton,  to 
bacco,  coffee,  etc.  The  whale-fisheries  of  this  city 
were  once  the  greatest  in  the  world,  and  large 
numbers  of  whales  are  still  caught  in  the  neigh 
boring  waters.  Pop.  140,000. 

Baidar.  An  Arctic  canoe  used  for  pursuing 
otters  and  even  whales.  It  consists  of  a  frame 
18  to  25  feet  long,  covered  with  hides,  and  is 
impelled  by  6  to  12  paddles. 

Baikie.  A  name  for  the  Larus  marinus,  or 
black-backed  gull. 

Bail.  A  surety.  The  cargo  of  a  captured  or 
detained  vessel  is  not  allowed  to  be  taken  on  bail 
before  adjudication  except  by  mutual  consent. 
To  lade  water  out  of  a  ship  or  boat  with  buckets 
(which  were  of  old  called  bayles),  cans,  or  the 
like. 

Bail-bond.  The  obligation  entered  into  by 
sureties.  In  prize  matters  the  bail-bond  is  not 
a  mere  personal  security  given  to  the  individual 
captors,  but  an  assurance  to  abide  by  the  adjudi 
cation  of  the  court. 

Bailey,  Theodorus,  Rear-Admiral  U.S.N. 
Born  in  New  York,  and  appointed  midshipman 
from  that  State,  January  1, 1818.  Commissioned 
as  lieutenant,  March  3,  1827 ;  receiving-ship,  at 
New  York,  1829;  sloop  "  Vincennes/'  Pacific 
Squadron,  1834-36;  special  duty,  1837;  navy- 
yard,  New  York,  1840;  frigate  "Constellation," 
East  India  Squadron,  1843;  rendezvous,  New 
York,  1846;  commanding  store-ship  "Lexing 
ton,"  1847-48.  While  in  command  of  the  store- 
ship  "Lexington,"  during  the  Mexican  war, 
rendered  eificient  and  valuable  aid  to  the  com 
mander  of  the  Pacific  Squadron  by  his  energy, 
enterprise,  and  gallantry  in  fitting  out  and  lead 
ing  numerous  expeditions  against  the  enemy. 

Commissioned  as  commander,  March  6,  1849 ; 
commissioned  as  captain,  December  15,  1855 ; 
commanding  sloop-of-war  "St.  Mary's,"  1856- 
57;  commanded  frigate  "Colorado,"  Western 
Gulf  Blockading  Squadron,  1861-62. 

Captain  Bailey  was  Farragut's  second  in  com 
mand  in  the  battle  at  New  Orleans,  and  led  the 
attack  and  passage  of  the  forts.  He  was  officially 
commended  by  Admiral  Farragut  for  his  bravery 
and  ability,  and  further  complimented  by  being 
sent  to  Washington  as  the  bearer  of  dispatches, 
announcing  the  victory.  Commissioned  as  com 
modore,  July  16,  1862. 

Commodore  Bailey,  although  his  health  was 
seriously  impaired,  asked  for  active  duty,  and  in 
the  fall  of  1862  was  ordered  to  command  the 


Eastern  Gulf  Blockading  Squadron,  where  he 
displayed  great  energy  and  perseverance  in  his 
successful  attempt  to  break  up  blockade-running 
on  the  Florida  coast.  Commandant  Portsmouth 
navy-yard,  1865-67. 

Commissioned  as  rear-admiral,  July  25,  1866. 
On  special  duty  at  Washington,  D.  C.,  1867-70 
Died  1876. 

Bails.  The  frame  which  supports  the  canopy 
spread  over  the  stern-sheets  of  a  boat. 

Bainbridge,  William,  Commodore  U.S.N. 
Born  in  Princeton,  N.  J.,  May  7,  1774;  was  the 
son  of  Dr.  Absalom  Bainbridge,  a  leading  phy 
sician  of  New  York.  His  maternal  grandfather 
was  John  Taylor,  Lord  High  Commissioner  of 
New  Jersey  under  the  crown.  Bainbridge  made 
his  first  cruise  in  the  frigate  "Alliance,"  then 
sold  out  of  the  navy  and  engaged  in  the  India 
trade.  When  18,  he  sailed  as  first  mate  of  a  ves 
sel,  and  when  19,  was  made  her  commander. 
Appointed  a  lieutenant-commandant  in  the  navy 
in  1798,  and  given  command  of  the  "  Retalia- 
tion,"  14.  Captured  off  Guadaloupe  by  the 
French  frigates  "  Insurgente"  and  "  Le  Volon- 
tier."  Promoted  to  master  commandant  and 
given  command  of  the  "Norfolk,"  18.  Cap 
tured  several  French  privateers.  Promoted  to 
captain  in  1800,  when  26  years  old.  Took  the 
"George  Washington,"  28,  to  Constantinople 
with  tribute-money  from  the  Dey  of  Algiers, 
and  was  the  first  to  show  our  flag  in  Turkey. 
Commanded  next  the  "  Essex,"  32,  in  the  Medi* 
terranean.  Next  took  command  of  the  "  Phila 
delphia,"  38,  joining  the  squadron  of  Commodore 
Preble.  Captured  "the  Moorish  pirate  "  Mesh- 
boha,"  22.  While  blockading  Tripoli  harbor, 
October  31,  1803,  the  "Philadelphia"  grounded 
on  a  reef  not  laid  down  in  the  chart,  and  the 
•vessel  was  captured  by  the  Tripolitans,  her  com 
mander,  officers,  and  crew  suffering  imprison 
ment  until  the  end  of  the  Tripolitan  war, — June, 
1805.  Made  several  cruises  in  the  merchant  ser 
vice  during  the  peace  that  followed.  In  Decem 
ber,  1808,  hoisted  his  broad-pennant  in  the 
"President,"  44,  remaining  in  her  until  May, 
1810.  Sailed  again  in  the  merchant  service  until 
1812,  when  war  with  England  became  imminent. 
It  was  the  temper  of  the  government  to  lay  up 
our  navy  during  this  war,  but  by  the  earnest 
protest  of  Bainbridge  and  Stewart  this  terrible 
blunder  was  avoided.  Commanded  the  Charles- 
town  navy-yard  until  the  declaration  of  war, — 
June  18/1812.  He  relieved  Hull  in  command 
of  the  "Constitution,"  44,  September  15,  1812. 
Ran  down  the  coast  of  Brazil,  and  when  in  lat. 
13°  Q/  S.  and  Ion.  31°  W.,  she  fell  in  with  and 
captured  the  English  frigate  "Java,"  38.  The 
"  Constitution"  went  into  action  and  came  out 
with  royal  yards  across,  and  without  losing  a 
spar.  The  "Java"  was  reduced  to  a  mastless 
wreck,  too  much  injured  to  be  taken  into  port. 
The  "  Constitution"  had  9  killedand  25  wounded. 
Bainbridge  was  seriously  shot  with  a  musket- 
ball,  and^hurt  by  a  splinter  from  the  wheel.  The 
"  Java"  had  124  killed  and  wounded.  Her  cap 
tain — Lambert — was  fatally  injured.  Among 
the  prisoners  taken  was  Lieutenant-General 
Hislop,  bound  to  Bombay  as  governor.  Men  and 
officers  were  released  on  parole  at  San  Salvador. 
Reached  Boston  February  27,  1813,  Bainbridge 
relinquishing  her  command.  For  this  action  he 
received  a  gold  medal  from  Congress.  Com- 


BAIT  60 

.- 

manded  the  Charlestown  navy-yard  until  the 
end  of  the  war.  Commanded  the  Mediterranean 
Squadron  in  1815,  his  flag-ship  being  the  "  In 
dependence,"  74,  and  again  in  1819,  his  flag-ship 
in  this  instance  being  the  "  Columbus,"  80.  Re 
turned  home  in  1821,  and  was  made  a  navy  com 
missioner.  Commanded  the  Philadelphia  navy- 
yard.  Died  in  Philadelphia,  July  28,  1833, 
aged  59  years  and  3  months.  He  married  Susan 
Heyliger,  granddaughter  of  Captain-General 
Heyliger,  governor  of  the  Dutch  West  Indies. 
His  youngest  daughter  married  Rear-Admiral 
Henry  Kuhn  Hoff,  of  the  navy,  and  his  grand 
son,  William  Bainbridge  Hoff,  is  still  in  the 
service. —  Wm.  Bainbridge  Hoff,  Lieutenant- Com 
mander  U.S.N. 

Bait.     The  charge  of  a  hook  to  allure  fish. 

Baitland.  An  old  word  used  to  signify  a  port 
where  refreshments  could  be  procured. 

Bala-chong.  A  kind  of  cake  formed  of  small 
fishes  pounded  up  with  salt  and  spices  and  then 
dried.  It  is  much  esteemed  in  China  as  a  condi 
ment  for  rice,  etc. 

Balsena.  The  zoological  name  for  the  right 
•whale. 

Balaklava.  A  town  of  Russia,  in  the  Crimea, 
on  the  Black  Sea.  Lat.  44°  29'  N. ;  Ion.  33°  34' 
40/x  E.  It  has  an  excellent  port.  Pop.  742. 

Balance.  To  contract  a  sail  into  a  narrower 
compass ; — this  is  peculiar  to  the  mizzen  of  a  ship, 
and  to  the  mainsail  of  those  vessels  wherein  it  is 
extended  by  a  boom.  The  operation  of  bal 
ancing  the  mizzen  is  performed  by  lowering  the 
yard  or  gaff  a  little,  then  rolling  up  a  small  por 
tion  of  the  sail  at  the  peak  or  upper  corner,  and 
lashing  it  about  one-fifth  down  towards  the  mast. 
A  boom  mainsail  is  balanced  by  rolling  up  a 
portion  of  the  clew,  or  lower  aftermost  corner, 
and  fastening  it  strongly  to  the  boom. 

Balance-fish.  The  hammer  -  headed  shark 
(which  see). 

Balance-frames.  Those  frames  or  bends  of 
timber,  of  an  equal  capacity  or  area,  which  are 
equally  distant  from  the  ship's  centre  of  grav 
ity. 

Balance  of  Power.  An  expression  used  in 
diplomacy  for  that  state  of  matters  in  which  no 
one  of  the  European  states  is  permitted  to  have 
such  a  preponderance  as  to  endanger  the  inde 
pendence  of  the  others. 

Balance  of  Trade.  The  term  commonly  used 
to  express  the  difference  between  the  value  of  the 
exports  from,  and  the  imports  into,  a  county. 
The  balance  is  said  to  be  favorable  when  the 
value  of  the  exports  exceeds  that  of  the  imports, 
and  unfavorable  when  the  value  of  the  imports 
exceeds  that  of  the  exports. 

Balance-reef.  To  balance-reef  a  sail  is  to  re 
duce  it  to  its  last  reef,  generally  applied  to  fore- 
and-aft  sails. 

Balance-reef-band.  A  reef-band  that  crosses 
a  spanker  or  trysail  from  the  head-earing  to  the 
tack  diagonally,  making  it  nearly  triangular,  and 
is  used  to  contract  it  in  very  blowing  weather. 
A  balance-reef-band  is  generally  placed  in  all 
gaff-sails  ;  the  band  runs  from  the  throat  to  the 
clew,  so  that  it  may  be  reefed  either  way, — by 
lacing  the  foot  or  lower  half;  or  by  lacing  the 
gaff  dropped  to  the  band :  the  latter  is  only  done 
in  the  worst  weather. 

Balance,  Steam.  The  ordinary  safety-valve 
(which  see). 


BALCH 

Balancing-point.  A  familiar  term  for  centre 
of  gravity. 

Balandra.  A  Spanish  pleasure-boat.  A 
lighter,  a  species  of  schooner. 

Balanus.     The  acorn-shell.    A  sessile  cirriped. 

Balcar,  or  Balcor.     See  BALKAR. 

Balch,  George  B.,  Rear-Admiral  U.S.N. 
Born  in  Tennessee,  January  3,  1821.  Appointed 
from  Alabama,  December  30,  1837  ;  attached  to 
sloop  "Cyane,"  Pacific  Squadron,  1840;  Naval 
School,  Philadelphia,  1843. 

Promoted  to  passed  midshipman,  June  29, 
1843;  special  duty,  1845;  in  war  with  Mexico, 
November  1,  1846,  engaged  in  first  attack  on 
Alvarado  by  squadron  under  Commodore  Con 
nor  ;  engaged  in  active  operations  from  Ma}', 
1846,  to'surrender  of  Vera  Cruz,  March,  1847; 
in  Mosquito  Fleet,  under  Commodore  Tatnall, 
covered  the  landing  of  the  army  under  General 
Scott,  March  9,  1847 ;  at  the  time  acting  master 
of  the  "Falcon"  ;  March,  1847,  engaged  in  the 
joint  bombardment  of  Vera  Cruz  with  the  army, 
and  was  present  at  the  surrender  of  that  city  and 
the  Castle  of  San  Juan  d'Ulloa  to  the  military 
and  naval  forces;  steamer  "Princeton,"  Medi 
terranean  Squadron,  1847-48 ;  Naval  Observa 
tory,  Washington,  1849-50. 

Commissioned  as  lieutenant,  August  16,1850; 
sloop  "Plymouth,"  Pacific  Squadron,  1851-54; 
while  in  the  "  Plymouth,"  Lieutenant  Balch,  in 
command  of  the  advance  post  at  Shanghai, 
China,  was  wounded  in  the  hip  in  a  fight  be 
tween  the  rebels  and  Imperialists  ;  nav}7-yard, 
Washington,  1855-57;  sloop  "Jamestown," 
Home  Squadron,  1857-58;  sloop  "St.  Mary's," 
Pacific  Squadron,  1858-59;  frigate  "Sabine," 
1860;  while  in  the  "  Sabine,"  fell  in  with  the 
transport  "Governor"  and  rescued  nearly  400 
marines,  under  Lieutenant-Colonel  Reynolds, 
the  transport  sinking  under  the  "  Sabine's"  stern, 
November  24,  1861  ;  in  command  of  steamer 
"  Pocahontas,"  South  Atlantic  Squadron,  1861- 
62;  volunteered  for  command  of  boats  in  taking 
possession  of  Tybee  Island,  December  26,  1861. 

Commissioned  as  commander,  July  16,  1862 ; 
engaged  rebel  battery  at  Stono,  South  Carolina; 
in  August,  1862,  ascended  Black  River  the  dis 
tance  of  seventy-five  miles,  and  drove  rebel  bat 
tery  from  earth-works,  and  engaged  rebel  infantry 
on  the  bluffs  ;  commanding  steamer  "  Pawnee," 
South  Atlantic  Blockading  Squadron,  1863-65; 
July  16,  1863,  was  attacked  by  two  batteries,  the 
rebels  making  a  simultaneous  attack  on  General 
Terry's  forces.  They  were  repulsed,  and  Com 
mander  Balch  was  informed  by  General  Terry 
that  he  had  saved  his  command.  The  "  Paw 
nee"  was  struck  forty-six  times.  On  December 
25,  1863,  the  "  Marblehead"  was  opened  on  by 
rebel  batteries  ;  the  "  Pawnee"  took  an  enfilading 
position  in  the  Keowah  River,  and  demoralized 
the  enemy  and  caused  him  to  retreat ;  afterward 
captured  two  rebel  guns.  While  in  command 
of  the  "Pawnee,"  Commander  Balch  engaged 
in  the  combined  operations  of  the  naval  forces 
under  Rear-Admiral  Dahlgren,  and  the  army 
under  General  Foster,  in  Stono  River,  South 
Carolinar  from  July  3  to  11,  1864,  and  particu 
larly  in  the  bombardment  of  Battery  Pringle,  on 
James  Island,  South  Carolina.  On  February  9, 
1865,  having  with  him  the  "  Sonoma"  and  "  Daf 
fodil,"  he  ascended  the  Togoda  Creek,  North 
Edisto,  South  Carolina,  and  engaged  three  rebel 


BALCONY 


61 


BALLAST 


batteries  of  eleven  or  twelve  guns,  driving  the 
rebels  from  their  earth- works.  The  u  Pawnee" 
was  hit  ten  times,  the  "Sonoma"  twice,  and 
the  "  Daffodil"  twice  ;  navy-yard,  Washington, 
1866-68. 

Commissioned  as  captain,  July  25,  1866 ; 
commanding  flag-ship  "Albany,"  N^  Atlantic 
Squadron,  1868-69;  navigation  duty,  Washing 
ton,  1870-71 ;  navy-yard,  Washington,  1872. 

Commissioned  as  commodore,  August  13, 
1872 ;  Governor  Naval  Asylum,  Philadelphia, 
1873-76  ;  member  Light-House  Board,  1877-78.; 
promoted  to  rear-admiral,  1878 ;  superintendent 
of  Naval  Academy,  1879-80. 

Balcony.  The  projecting  open  galleries  of 
old  line-of-battle  ships'  sterns. 

Baldrick.  A  leathern  girdle  or  sword-belt. 
Also  the  zodiac. 

Baldwin,  Charles  H.,  Commodore  U.S.N. 
Born  in  New  York,  September  3,  1822.  Ap 
pointed  from  New  York,  April  24,  1839;  at 
tached  to  frigate  "  Brandywine,"  Mediterranean 
Squadron,  1839-40;  sloop  "Fairfield,"  Mediter 
ranean  Squadron,  1840-43;  sloop  "Vandalia," 
1843-44;  Naval  School,  Philadelphia,  1844-45. 

Promoted  to  passed  midshipman,  July  2, 
1845;  frigate  "Congress,"  Pacific  Squadron, 
1845-49 ;  war  with  Mexico ;  operations  in  the 
neighborhood  of  Mazatlan  during  the  time  that 
place  was  in  possession  of  the  United  States  naval 
forces,  from  November,  1847,  to  June,  1848  ;  two 
engagements  with  the  enemy. 

Commissioned  as  lieutenant,  November,  1853; 
resigned,  February  28,  1854  ;  re-entered  the  ser 
vice  as  lieutenant,  1861 ;  commanded  steamer 
"  Clifton"  at  the  passage  of  Forts  Jackson  and 
St.  Philip,  and  capture  of  New  Orleans,  also  at 
first  attack  on  Vicksburg,  1862. 

Commissioned  as  commander,  November  18, 
1862;  commanding  steamer  "  Vanderbilt" ; 
special  service,  1863-64 ;  ordnance  duty,  Mare 
Island  navy-yard,  California,  1864-67 ;  fleet- 
captain,  North  Pacific  Squadron,  1868-69. 

Commissioned  as  captain,  1869  ;  Inspector  of 
Ordnance,  Mare  Island,  California,  1869-71 ; 
commanding  "  Colorado,"  Asiatic  Squadron, 
1871-73;  commanding  naval  rendezvous,  San 
Francisco,  1873. 

Commissioned  as  commodore,  August  8, 1876  ; 
member  Board  of  Examiners,  1876-79. 

Bale.     A  pack  or  bundle. 

BALE-GOODS.  Goods  or  merchandise  done  up 
in  bales. 

Baleen.  The  scientific  term  for  the  whale 
bone  of  commerce,  derived  from  balcena,  a 
whale.  It  consists  of  a  series  of  long  horny 
plates  growing  from  each  side  of  the  palate  in 
place  of  teeth.  These  plates  are  10  to  15  feet  in 
length,  and  about  a  foot  in  width  at  the  base. 

Bale-fire.     A  beacon-fire. 

Balenot.  A  porpoise  or  small  whale,  which 
frequents  the  river  St.  Lawrence. 

Balestilha.  The  cross-staff  of  the  early  Por 
tuguese  navigators. 

Balinger,  or  Balangha.  A  kind  of  small 
sloop  or  barge ;  small  vessels  of  war,  formerly 
without  forecastles.  A  trading-boat  of  the  Phil 
ippines  and  Moluccas. 

Balistes.  A  genus  of  ganoid  fishes,  charac 
terized  by  their  solid  coat  of  mail  extending  over 
the  head  as  well  as  the  body.  Commonly  called 
trigger-fish. 


Balit.  A  one-masted  vessel  of  Muscat,  from 
100  to  200  tons  burden. 

Balize  is  on  the  Bay  of  Honduras,  at  the 
mouth  of  the  river  Balize.  Lat.  17°  29'  18" 
N.  ;  Ion.  88°  12'  W.  The  anchorage  is  safe  and 
the  harbor  spacious.  The  chief  trade  is  in  ma 
hogany.  Exports  and  imports  about  $1,000,000 
per  annum.  Pop.  4000. 

Balk.  Young  trees  felled  and  squared.  A 
beam  of  timber  used  for  temporary  purposes,  and 
under  eight  inches  square.  Timbers,  squared,  of 
any  size,  intended  for  planks,  or,  when  very 
large,  for  booms  or  rafts. 

Balkar.  A  man  placed  on  an  eminence  to 
watch  the  movements  of  shoals  of  fish.  In 
early  statutes  he  is  called  balcor. 

Ball.  A  round  body  or  globe.  A  solid  shot 
or  bullet  discharged  from  a  cannon  or  other 
gun.  Formerly  the  word  ball  in  its  military 
sense  sufficiently  described  the  projectiles  of  fire 
arms,  as  nothing  but  round  solid  substances,  such 
as  stone,  iron,  or  lead,  were  so  employed.  With 
the  introduction  of  the  mortar,  however,  which 
was  probably  not  long  after  the  invention  of  can 
non,  irregularly-shaped  pieces  of  stone  or  metal 
came  to  be  used,  and  at  the  siege  of  Naples  by 
Charles  VIII. ,  in  1435,  we  first  hear  of  shells  or 
hollow  shot  being  used.  The  word,  therefore,  as 
applied  to  the  projectiles  of  fire-arms  is  not  now 
inclusive  of  all  the  projectiles  used,  but  only  of  a 
class.  See  BULLET,  SHELL,  SHOT. 

Ball,  with  a  prefix  more  or  less  descriptive  of 
its  purposes,  such  as  fire-ball,  stink-ball,  etc. 
(for  which  see  separate  headings),  denotes  pyro- 
technical  compositions,  or  missiles  filled  with 
mal-odorous  matter. 

BALL  AND  SOCKET.  A  joint,  of  which  the 
inner  part  is  formed  like  a  ball  and  the  outer 
part  is  a  hollow  socket,  inclosing  the  greater 
portion  of  the  ball,  and  fitting  close  upon  it,  but 
allowing  freedom  of  motion  in  every  direction. 

To  BALL  OFF.  To  wind  up  into  a  ball ;  as, 
rope-yarns. 

Ballahou.  A  fast-sailing  schooner,  common 
in  Bermuda  and  the  West  Indies.  The  foremast 
rakes  forward  and  the  mainmast  aft ;  hence  the 
term  ballahou  is  sometimes  applied  to  men-of- 
war  in  which  the  masts  are  not  kept  properly 
stayed,  or  which  are  slovenly  in  other  respects. 

Ballarag.     See  BULLYRA'G. 

Ballast.  A  heavy  substance  employed  to  give 
a  ship  sufficient  hold  on  the  water  to  give  her 
stability.  The  amount  of  ballast  depends  not 
only  on  the  ship's  size  and  cargo,  but  also  on 
her  build.  It  is  not  merely  the  weight  of  ballast 
which  the  mariner  has  to  consider ;  he  is  re 
quired  to  take  into  account  its  distribution. 
To  ballast  a  ship  is  the  act  of  disposing  the  bal 
last  so  that  the  ship  will  maintain  her  proper 
equilibrium,  and  be  neither  too  stiff  nor  too 
crank.  If  she  be  too  stiff  she  will  sail  sluggishly, 
and  her  masts  will  be  endangered  by  her  violent 
rolling.  If  she  be  too  crank  she  will  be  unable 
to  carry  sail  without  the  danger  of  capsizing. 
Stiffness  is  occasioned  by  stowing  the  ballast  well 
down,  which  brings  the  centre  of  gravity  very 
near  the  keel.  Crankness,  on  the  other  hand,  is 
occasioned  by  raising  the  centre  of  gravity  too 

The  object,  therefore,  is  to  so  place  the  ballast, 
neither  too  high  nor  too  low,  neither  too  near 
the  head  nor  too  far  aft,  that  the  ship  may  be 


BALL AST AGE 


BALTHEUS 


brought  down  so  that  the  surface  of  the  water 
will  be  brought  nearly  to  the  extreme  breadth 
amidships. 

The  cargo  and  ballast  are  considered  together, 
the  quantity  and  distribution  of  the  latter  being 
made  dependent  upon  the  former.  In  a  man-of- 
war  the  ballast  is  permanent,  and  is  made  sub 
servient  to  the  guns  and  other  top-weights  she  is 
required  to  carry.  The  substances  used  as  bal 
last  are  various,  chiefly  iron,  stone,  gravel,  sand, 
mud,  and  water. 

A  ship  is  said  to  be  in  ballast  when  she  carries 
no  weight  except  the  ballast,  crew,  passengers, 
provisions  for,  and  baggage  of,  crew  and  pas 
sengers. 

To  LOSE  ONE'S  BALLAST  is  to  become  top- 
heavy  from  conceit. 

To  HEAVE  or  SHOOT  BALLAST  is  to  dump 
mud  or  gravel  ballast  overboard.  In  order  to 
prevent  the  filling  up  of  harbors  and  channels 
certain  regulations  have  been  made  at  most 
maritime  places  for  the  disposal  of  ballast.  The 
ballast  is  said  to  shift  when  from  violent  rolling 
it  is  removed  from  its  original  position. 

BAG-WATER  BALLAST  is  contained  in  water 
proof  bags  laid  upon  the  floor  of  a  vessel,  and  tilled 
or  emptied  by  means  of  a  pump  and  hose. 

BOTTOM-WATER  BALLAST  is  confined  beneath 
a  false  bottom  in  the  vessel. 

HOLD- WATER  BALLAST  is  contained  in  a  large 
receptacle,  which  may  be  filled  with  cargo  when 
the  ship  is  not  in  ballast. 

PIG-IRON  BALLAST  is  supplied  to  men-of-war. 
It  has  the  great  advantage  of  taking  up  but  little 
space. 

SHINGLE  BALLAST  is  composed  of  coarse 
gravel. 

TANK-WATER  BALLAST  is  contained  in  two 
fore-and-aft  tanks,  which  can  be  easily  filled  and 
emptied  by  means  of  a  pump. 

Ballastage.  A  duty  paid  for  taking  up 
ballast  from  a  port. 

Ballast-basket.  A  basket  made  of  osier  for 
the  measure  and  transport  of  ballast. 

Ballast-lighter.  A  large  flat-floored  barge, 
for  heaving  up  and  carrying  ballast. 

Ballast-mark.  The  horizontal  line  described 
by  the  surface  of  the  water  on  the  body  of  a  ship, 
when  she  is  immersed  with  her  usual  weight  of 
ballast  on  board. 

Ballast-master.  A  person  appointed  to  see 
the  port-regulations  in  respect  to  ballast  carried 
out. 

Ballast-ports.  Square  holes  cut  in  the  sides 
of  merchantmen  for  taking  in  ballast. 

Ballast-trim.     Trim  when  in  ballast. 

Ballatoon.  A  sort  of  long  heavy  luggage- 
vessel  of  upwards  of  a  hundred  tons,  employed  on 
the  river  between  Moscow  and  the  Caspian  Sea. 

Ball-cartridge.     See  CARTRIDGE. 

Ball-clay.  Stiff  clay  brought  up  by  the  flukes 
of  the  anchor. 

Ballistic  Pendulum.  An  instrument  invented 
by  Robins  for  measuring  the  force  or  velocity  of 
cannon-  and  musket-balls.  To  one  extremity  of 
an  iron  bar  was  fixed  a  heavy  cubical  block  of 
wood,  lined  at  the  back  with  iron.  A  transverse 
bar  of  iron  at  the  other  extremity  of  the  first 
bar  served  as  an  axis  of  suspension,  in  which  the 
pendulum  swung  freely,  backwards  and  forwards. 
In  order  to  measure  the  extent  of  the  vibration 
which  the  pendulum  made  after  receiving  the 


impact  of  the  projectile,  a  ribbon  was  attached 
to  the  lower  end  of  the  pendulum,  passing  loosely 
through  an  orifice  in  a  horizontal  bar  in  the 
frame-work  ;  when  the  pendulum  was  raised  it 
drew  the  ribbon  along  with  it,  and  the  quantity 
which  thus  passed  through  the  orifice  measured 
the  chord  of  the  arc  of  vibration.  The  instru 
ment  now  used  consists  of  a  case  or  mortar  of 
cast  iron,  partly  filled  with  sand-bags  or  block- 
lead,  suspended  by  wrought-iron  bars  from  an 
axis  working  on  knife-edges  on  V-supports,  and 
the  arc  of  vibration  is  measured  on  a  copper  arc 
by  an  index  carrying  a  vernier.  If  such  a  pen 
dulum,  when  at  rest,  be  struck  by  a  body  of  a 
known  weight,  and  the  vibration  which  the  pen 
dulum  makes  after  the  blow  be  known,  the  ve 
locity  of  the  striking  body  may  thence  be  deter 
mined.  The  quantity  of  motion  of  the  projectile 
before  impact  is  equal  to  that  of  the  pendulum 
and  projectile  after  impact.  See  ELECTRO-BAL 
LISTICS,  GUN  PENDULUM. 

Ballistics.  The  art  or  science  of  throwing 
weapons  by  means  of  engines. 

Balloen.  A  Siamese  state-galley  built  to 
imitate  a  sea-monster,  and  pulling  seventy  to 
a  hundred  oars  of  a  side. 

Ballon.  A  brigantine-rigged  vessel  used  in 
Siam,  and  made  of  a  single  tree. 

Balloon.  A  bag  of  silk  or  other  fabric  filled 
with  gas  specifically  lighter  than  the  atmos 
phere,  and  hence  deriving  a  tendency  to  ascend. 

Balloon-fish.  A  fish  of  the  genus  Diodon, 
having  the  power  of  inflating  its  body  until  it 
becomes  almost  globular. 

Balloon -jib.     See  JIB. 

Ballot.  To  bound  from  side  to  side;  as,  a 
shot  in  the  bore  of  a  gun. 

Ballow.     Deep  water  inside  a  shoal  or  bar. 

Bally.  A  Teutonic  word  for  inclosure,  now 
prefixed  to  many  seaports  in  Ireland,  as  Bally- 
castle,  Ballyhaven,  etc. 

Balsa  (Sp.).  1.  A  pool;  a  lake.  2.  A  raft, 
or  float,  for  conveying  goods  or  persons  across  a 
river.  It  seems  probable  that  the  original  sig 
nification  of  a  pool  or  lake  was  converted  into 
the  means  employed  to  cross  lakes  or  rivers.  On 
the  west  coast  of  South  America  balsas  are  made 
of  bullocks'  hides  sewn  together  over  a  frame 
work  in  two  cylinders  joined  together,  not  un 
like  in  form  to  the  jaw-bone  of  a  horse.  An 
other  kind  of  balsa  is  made  of  several  pieces  of 
an  extremely  light  wood,  sharpened  at  the  ends 
and  lashed  together,  with  transverse  slats  to  hold 
them  singly  in  position.  Both  these  means  were 
employed  centuries  ago  for  landing  in  the  surf. 
The  same  primitive  arrangement  of  the  second 
kind,  using  a  sail,  is  the  fishing-boat  met  far  out 
of  sight  of  land  on  the  coast  of  Brazil.  The 
general  acceptation  of  the  word  on  this  con 
tinent  is  either  two  or  more  inflated  bags  of 
india-rubber,  or  long  casks  of  metal  or  wood 
secured  together  in "  pairs,  held  some  distance 
apart  by  a  frame-work,  or  logs  of  light  wood 
held  together  as  before  described,  usually  em 
ployed  where  the  eurf  is  heavy.  3.  Any  form 
of  flotation  capable  of  propulsion  not  designed 
for  temporary  use,  differing  from  a  raft  in  that 
the  latter  is  a  mere  temporary  expedient.  See 
LIFE-BOATS  and  LIFP>RAFTS. — Daniel  Ammen, 
Rear- Admiral  U.S.N. 

Baltheus  Orionis.  The  three  bright  stars 
constituting  Orion's  Belt. 


BALTIMOKE 


63 


BANKSAL 


Baltimore,  a  city  and  port  of  entry  of  Mary 
land,  is  on  the  estuary  of  the  Patapsco  River,  12 
miles  from  its  entrance  into  Chesapeake  Bay, 
and  250  miles  by  ship-channel  from  the  sea. 
Lat.  39°  17'  N. ;  Ion.  76°  37/  W.  The  harbor 
is  spacious  and  secure.  The  facilities  for  the 
transfer  of  freight  from  the  railways  to  the  ship 
ping  are  excellent,  and  in  recent  years  Che  city 
has  become  one  of  the  leading  places  of  export 
in  the  United  States.  Steamship  lines  connect 
it  with  Liverpool,  Bremen,  and  the  principal 
domestic  ports.  Pop.  330,000. 

Balusters.  The  ornamental  pillars  of  the 
balconies  or  galleries  of  ships. 

Bamba.  A  commercial  shell  of  value  on  the 
Gold  Coast  of  Africa. 

Bamboo.  A  plant  of  the  family  of  grasses, 
and  genus  Bambusa,  growing  in  tropical  coun 
tries.  Bamboo  arundlnacea  has  a  round,  straight, 
hollow,  woody,  jointed  stem  ;  it  grows  to  the 
height  of  forty  feet  and  upward.  Old  stalks  are 
five  or  six  inches  in  diameter,  and  are  so  hard 
and  durable  that  they  are  used  in  the  manufac 
ture  of  agricultural  implements,  and  in  building 
houses  and  ships.  Bamboo  is  in  general  use  in 
China  for  masts  of'junks,  hence  the  pidgin-Eng 
lish  expressions,  "two  piecee  bamboo"  and 
"  three  piecee  bamboo"  for  brig-rigged  and  full- 
rigged  vessels. 

Bamboozle.  To  deceive ;  to  play  low  tricks 
upon.  To  decoy  the  enemy  by  hoisting  false 
colors. 

Banana.  A  species  of  the  genus  Musa  and 
its  fruit. 

Band.  An  iron  hoop  around  a  mast  or  yard. 
A  company  of  musicians  allowed  to  a  ship  or 
navy-yard.  See  REEF-BAND,  ROBAND. 

BANDSMAN.     A  member  of  the  band. 

MASTER  OF  THE  BAND.  The  leader  of  the 
band. 

Bandage.  A  fillet,  roller,  or  swath  used  in 
dressing  wounds. 

Bandala.  The  fibre  from  which  the  Manilla 
white  rope  is  made.  It  is  an  outer  layer  of  the 
abaca,  a  variety  of  the  plantain.  See  ROPE. 

Bandaleer,  or  Bandoleer.  A  large  leathern 
belt  thrown  over  the  right  shoulder  and  dangling 
under  the  left  arm,  worn  by  ancient  musketeers 
for  sustaining  their  musket.  A  small  leather 
case,  of  which  every  musketeer  wore  twelve,  sus 
pended  by  a  belt. 

Banded-drum.     See  GRUNTER. 

Banderole.  A  small  streamer  or  banner  car 
ried  at  the  mast-head  of  a  vessel,  or  at  the  end  of 
a  pike  or  lance. 

Band-fish,  or  Ribbon-fish.  A  popular  name 
of  the  Gymnetrus  genus. 

Bandle.     An  Irish  measure  of  two  feet. 

Bang.  An  astringent  and  narcotic  drug  made 
from  the  large  leaves  and  capsules  of  the  wild 
hemp  (Cannabis  Indica}.  A  mixture  of  opium, 
hemp-leaves,  and  tobacco,  of  an  intoxicating 
quality,  chewed  and  smoked  by  the  Malays  and 
other  people  in  the  East. 

Bange.     Light,  fine  rain. 

Bangkok,  capital  of  Siam,  on  the  Menam,  20 
miles  from  its  mouth.  Lat.  13°  38'  N. ;  Ion.  100° 
34'  E.  Steamers  ply  hence  to  Singapore  and 
Hong  Kong.  Value  of  exports  in  1877,  $8,200,000; 
of  imports,  $7,500,000.  Vessels  of  250  tons  come 
up  to  the  town.  Pop.  500,000. 

Bangles.     The  hoops  of  a  spar.     The  rings  on 


the  wrists  and  ankles  of  Oriental  people,  chiefly 
worn  by  females. 

Bangor.  A  city  and  port  of  entry  in  Maine, 
on  the  right  bank  of  the  Penobscot  River,  about 
60  miles  from  the  ocean.  Lat.  44°  48'  N. ;  Ion. 
68°  47'  W.  It  is  the  head  of  navigation  on  the 
Penobscot  River,  which  traverses  extensive  forests 
of  pine,  cedar,  etc.  The  average  quantity  of 
lumber  shipped  annually  from  Bangor  is  about 
200,000,000  feet.  Pop.  about  23,000. 

Banian.     A  sailor's  colored  frock. 

Banian-,  or  Banyan- days.  A  cant  term  among 
sailors  to  denote  those  days  on  which  meat  does 
not  form  a  part  of  the  ration.  The  term  is  de 
rived  from  a  religious  sect  in  the  East  who  never 
eat  flesh. 

Banian-,  or  Banyan-tree.  The  India  fig-tree 
(Ficus  Indica).  The  tendrils  from  the  branches 
take  root  on  reaching  the  ground,  and  form  new 
stocks,  till  they  cover  a  space  of  an  acre  or  more. 
Religious  rites,  from  which  women  are  excluded, 
are  there  performed. 

Banjo.  The  brass  frame  in  which  a  screw- 
propeller  is  hung. 

Bank.  The  border  or  margin  of  a  river  or 
lake.  A  shoal  composed  of  sand,  mud,  or  gravel. 
A  seat  or  bench  for  rowers  in  a  galley.  The  ,com- 
mon  galleys  had  25  banks  on  each  side,  with  one 
oar  to  each  bank,  and  four  men  to  each  oar.  The 
galeasses  had  32  banks  on  a  side,  and  six  or  seven 
rowers  to  each  bank.  See  GALLEY. 

To  DOUBLE-BANK  AN  OAR  is  to  set  two  men 
to  pulling  one  oar. 

A  SINGLE-BANKED  BOAT  is  one  in  which  a 
thwart  is  occupied  by  one  man. 

A  DOUBLE-BANKED  BOAT  is  one  in  which  two 
rowers  sit  on  the  same  thwart. 

Banka.  A  canoe  of  the  Philippines  consisting 
of  a  single  piece. 

Banker.  A  vessel  engaged  in  the  cod-fishery 
on  the  banks  of  Newfoundland. 

Bankerk,  Joseph  van  Trappen.  A  Dutch 
admiral,  born  at  Flushing  about  1590;  fought  in 
the  battle  of  Dunkirk,  and  defeated  the  Portu 
guese  fleet  near  Brazil  in  1647.  Died  on  his 
voyage  home  the  same  year. 

Bank  Fires.  To  allow  the  fires  in  the  furnace 
to  burn  down  low,  and  then  cut  off  the  supply 
of  oxygen  by  covering  the  fires  with  ashes  and 
closing  the  doors  of  the  furnace  and  ash-pit.  By 
this  means  fuel  will  be  saved,  and  in  an  emer 
gency  fires  can  be  spread  and  steam  generated 
with  great  rapidity. 

Bank-harbor.  A  harbor  protected  from  the 
violence  of  the  sea  by  banks  of  sand,  mud,  or 
gravel. 

Bankhead,  John  Pine,  Captain  U.S. N.  Born 
in  South  Carolina,  August  3,  1821.  Entered  as  a 
midshipman  August  6,  1838,  became  a  passed 
midshipman  in  1844,  a  lieutenant  in  1852,  a  com 
mander  in  1862,  and  a  captain  in  1866.  Died 
at  Aden,  Arabia,  April  27,  1869.  In  command 
of  the  gunboat  "Pembina,"  November  7,  1861, 
at  the  battle  of  Port  Royal,  and  subsequent 
operations  on  the  coast  of  South  Carolina.  In 
command  of  the  original  ""Monitor"  when  she 
foundered  off  Cape  Hatteras,  December  31,  1863. 

Bank-hook.  A  large  fish-hook  laid  baited  in 
running  water  with  line  attached  to  the  bank. 

Banking.  A  general  term  applied  to  fishing 
on  the  great  bank  of  Newfoundland. 

Banksal,  or  Banksaul,  and  in  Calcutta  spelled 


BANNAG 


64 


BARK 


bankshall.  A  shop,  office,  or  other  place,  for 
transacting  business.  A  square  inclosure  at  the 
pearl-fishery.  A  beach  store-house  wherein  ships 
deposit  their  rigging  and  furniture  while  under 
going  repair.  A  place  where  small  commercial 
courts  and  arbitrations  are  held. 

Bannag.  A  name  for  a  white  trout ;  a  sea- 
trout. 

Bannak-fluke.  A  name  of  the  turbot,  as  dis 
tinguished  from  the  halibut. 

Banner.  A  small  square  flag  edged  with  fringe. 

Bannerol.     A  little  banner  or  streamer. 

Bannock.  A  name  given  to  a  certain  hard 
ship-biscuit. 

Banstickle.  A  diminutive  fish,  called  also 
the  three-spined  stickle-back  (Gasterosteus  acu- 
leatus). 

Baptism.  A  ceremony  practiced  on  sailors 
and  passengers  on  their  first  crossing  the  equator  : 
a  riotous  and  ludicrous  custom,  which  from  the 
violence  of  its  ducking,  shaving,  and  other  prac 
tical  jokes,  is  becoming  annually  less  in  vogue. 
It  is  esteemed  a  usurpation  of  privilege  to  bap 
tize  on  crossing  the  tropics. 

Bar.  A  boom  formed  of  huge  trees,  or  spars 
lashed  together,  moored  transversely  across  a 
port,  to  prevent  entrance  or  egress.  The  short 
bits  of  bar-iron,  about  half  a  pound  each,  used  as 
the  medium  of  traffic  on  the  Negro  coast.  An 
accumulated  shoal  or  bank  of  sand,  shingle, 
gravel,  or  other  uliginous  substances,  thrown  up 
by  the  sea  to  the  mouth  of  a  river  or  harbor. 
The  shore  on  which  the  deposition  of  sediment 
is  taking  place  will  be  flat,  whilst  the  opposite 
one  is  steep.  It  is  along  the  side  of  the  latter  that 
the  deepest  channel  of  the  river  lies  ;  and  in  the 
line  of  this  channel,  but  without  the  points  that 
form  the  mouth  of  the  river,  will  be  the  bar.  If 
both  the  shores  are  of  the  same  nature,  which 
seldom  happens,  the  bar  will  lie  opposite  the 
middle  of  the  channel.  Rivers  in  general  have 
what  may  be  deemed  a  bar,  although  it  may  not 
rise  high  enough  to  impede  the  navigation, — for 
the  increased  deposition  that  takes  place  when 
the  current  slackens  must  necessarily  form  a 
bank.  Bars  of  small  rivers  may  be  deepened  by 
means  of  stockades  to  confine  the  river  cur 
rent,  and  prolong  it  beyond  the  natural  points 
of  the  river's  mouth  ;  they  operate  to  remove  the 
place  of  deposition  farther  out,  and  into  deeper 
water.  Bars,  however,  act  as  breakwaters  in 
most  instances,  and  consequently  secure  smooth 
water  within  them.  The  deposit  in  all  curvilin 
ear  or  serpentine  rivers  will  always  be  found  at 
the  point  opposite  to  the  curve  into  which  the 
ebb  strikes  and  rebounds,  deepening  the  hollow 
and  depositing  on  the  tongue.  Therefore  if  it 
be  deemed  advisable  to  change  the  position  of  a 
bar,  it  may  in  some  cases  be  aided  by  works 
projected  on  the  last  curve  seaward.  By  such 
means  a  parallel  canal  may  be  formed  which  will 
admit  vessels  under  the  cover  of  the  bar. 

BAR-HARBOR.  One  which  from  a  bar  at  its 
entrance  cannot  admit  ships  of  great  draft,  or 
can  only  do  so  at  high  water.  Bar-shallow, 
a  term  sometimes  applied  to  a  portion  of  a  bar 
which  has  less  water  on  it  than  other  parts  of  the 
bar. 

Baracoota.  A  tropical  fish  (Sphyrcena  bara- 
citda),  considered  in  the  West  Indies  to  be  dan 
gerously  poisonous  at  times,  nevertheless  eaten, 
and  deemed  the  sea-salmon. 


Barangay.  An  East  Indian  vessel  propelled 
by  oars. 

^Barbadoes  Tar.  A  mineral  pitch  or  petro 
leum,  which  flows  from  the  earth  or  rocks  in 
many  places. 

Barbalot.     The  barbel.     Also,  a  puffin. 

Barb-bolt.  A  rag-bolt.  A  bolt  with  a  jagged 
end  to  make  it  hold  when  it  cannot  be  clinched. 

Barbel.  A  fresh-water  fish  found  in  many 
European  rivers ;  its  upper  jaw  is  furnished 
with  four  beard-like  appendages. 

Barber.  A  singular  vapor  rising  in  streams 
from  the  surface  of  the  water.  The  condensed 
breath  on  the  beard  and  moustache.  A  rating 
on  the  ship's  books  for  the  man  who  shaves  the 
people. 

Barbette  (Fr.}.  A  mound  on  which  guns  are 
mounted  to  fire  over  the  top  of  the  parapet. 
Guns  are  in  barbette  when  they  are  mounted  so 
as  to  fire  over  a  parapet,  and  not  through  an 
embrasure.  Barbette  gun,  or  barbette  battery,  a 
gun  or  battery  mounted  in  barbette.  Barbette 
carriage,  a  carriage  which  permits  of  its  gun 
being  mounted  in  barbette. 

Barca  (Sp.).     A  small  two-masted  vessel. 

Barca-longa  (Sp.}.  A  large  Spanish  coasting 
vessel  with  pole-masts  and  lug-sails.  The  name 
is  also  applied  to  Spanish  gunboats. 

Barcarolle.  A  popular  song  sung  by  Vene 
tian  gondoliers. 

Barcelona.  A  seaport  town  of  Spain.  Lat. 
(mole  light)  41°  22'  36"  N. ;  Ion.  2°  II'  E.  The 
port  is  commodious,  two  moles  having  been  built 
for  its  improvement.  Pop.  225,000. 

Barces.  Short  guns  with  large  bores,  for 
merly  used  in  ships. 

Barchetta.  A  small  bark  for  transporting 
provisions. 

Barcon.     A  Mediterranean  lighter. 

Bareka.     A  small  barrel,  spelled  also  barika. 

Bare  poles.  A  vessel  at  sea  is  said  to  be 
under  bare  poles  when  no  sail  is  set;  in  which 
case  she  may  be  either  lying-to,  or  scudding 
before  the  gale. 

Barge.  A  vessel  or  boat  of  state  elegantly 
furnished.  A  double-decked  passenger  or  freight 
boat  having  no  power  of  its  own,  but  towed  by  a 
steamboat.  A  long  double-banked  boat  of  spa 
cious  construction  for  the  use  of  flag-officers.  A 
spacious  light-draft  river-boat  for  the  transporta 
tion  of  heavy  merchandise. 

BARGEES.  The  crews  of  canal-boats  and  river- 
barges. 

BARGE-MATE.  The  officer  who  steers  a  boat 
of  state  on  occasions  of  ceremony. 

BARGE-MEN,  or  BARGES.  Picked  men  who 
pull  the  barges. 

BARGET.     An  old  term  for  a  small  barge. 

Bari.  A  city  and  seaport  of  Italy,  on  a  penin 
sula  in  the  Adriatic.  Lat.  41°  7'*52"  N.  ;  Ion. 
16°  53'  4"  E.  The  quay  and  roadstead  are  good, 
and  the  harbor  has  been  much  improved  of  late. 
Pop.  52,000. 

Barilla.  A  sea-shore  or  maritime  plant  from 
which  soda  is  made.  In  commerce  this  name  is 
applied  to  the  impure  carbonate  of  soda  made  by 
burning  certain  maritime  plants.  See  ALG^E. 

Bark,  or  Barque.  Any  small  vessel.  A 
three-masted  vessel  square-rigged  on  the  fore 
and  main,  with  fore-and-aft  sails  on  the  mizzen- 
mast.  Bark-rigged,  rigged  as  a  bark,  with  no 
square-sails  on  the  mizzen-mast. 


BAKKANTINE 


65 


BAROMETER 


Barkantine,  or  Barquantine.  A  three-masted 
vessel  square-rigged  on  the  fore-mast,  and  fore- 
and-aft  rigged  on  the  main-  and  mizzen-masts. 

Barkers.  An  old  term  for  lower  deck  guns 
and  pistols. 

Barkey.  A  sailor's  term  of  endearment  for 
the  ship  to  which  he  belongs. 

Barking-irons.     Large  dueling  pistols. 

Barling.     An  old  term  for  the  lamprey. 

Barling-spars.  Spars  fit  for  any  small  mast 
or  yard. 

Barnacle  (Conch.).  A  species  of  the  Bala- 
nidce,  a  family  of  sessile  crustaceans.  The  shells 
are  common  along  sea-shores,  where  they  adhere 
to  rocks,  timber,  and  vessels.  (Ornith.)  A  spe 
cies  of  goose  (Anas  lucopsis)  frequenting  the 
northern  seas  in  summer  and  migrating  south 
wards  in  winter.  Formerly  the  strange  notion 
prevailed  that  they  grew  out  of  the  barnacles  at 
tached  to  ships  ;  hence  the  name. 

Barnstable  (Mass.).  A  port  of  entry  on  a 
bay  of  the  same  name,  which  is  a  part  of  Cape 
Cod  Bay.  Pop.  about  430,  mostly  engaged  in  the 
coast-trade  and  fisheries. 

Barometer  (Gr.  baros,  weight,  and  metron, 
measure).  An  instrument  for  measuring  the 
weight  or  pressure  of  the  atmosphere.  The  dis 
covery  of  the  instrument  resulted  from  an  appli 
cation,  made  to  Galileo  by  workmen  engaged  in 
preparing  a  suction  pump  for  a  deep  well,  to 
know  why,  notwithstanding  great  care  in  form 
ing  and  fitting  the  valves  and  piston,  the  water 
would  not  rise  higher  than  about  32  English 
feet.  In  that  age  the  doctrine  of  a  plenum  was 
an  axiom  in  philosophy  ;  and  the  ascent  of  water 
in  the  barrel  of  the  pump  was  universally  as 
cribed  to  nature's  horror  of  a  vacuum;  Galileo 
therefore  contented  himself  with  replying  that  the 
power  of  nature  to  overcome  a  vacuum  was  lim 
ited,  and  did  not  exceed  the  pressure  of  a  column 
of  water  32  feet  in  height.  Before  his  death, 
however,  which  happened  soon  after,  in  1642,  he 
earnestly  recommended  to  his  pupil  Torricelli  to 
undertake  the  investigation  of  the  subject.  Tor 
ricelli,  suspecting  the  true  cause  of  the  suspension 
of  the  water,  namely,  the  weight  of  the  atmos 
phere,  conceived  the  idea  of  trying  the  experi 
ment  with  mercury.  He  perceived  that  if  the 
weight  of  the  atmosphere  forms  a  counterpoise 
to  a  column  of  water  of  32  feet,  it  must  also 
counterpoise  a  column  of  mercury  of  about  28 
inches  in  height,  the  weight  of  mercury  being 
about  14  times  greater  than  that  of  water. 
Having  procured  a  glass  tube  of  about  3  feet  in 
length  and  a  quarter  of  an  inch  in  diameter, 
hermetically  sealed  at  one  end,  he  filled  it  with 
mercury;  and  covering  the  open  end  with  the 
finger,  he  immersed  it  in  an  open  vessel  contain 
ing  mercury.  On  bringing  the  tube  to  the  verti 
cal  position,  and  removing  the  finger,  the  mer 
cury  instantly  sank,  leaving  a  vacuum  at  the  top 
of  the  tube,  and  after  making  several  oscillations, 
stood  in  the  tube  at  the  height  of  about  28  inches 
above  the  surface  of  that  in  the  vessel.  On  cov 
ering  the  mercury  in  the  vessel  with  a  portion  of 
water,  and  raising  the  tube  till  the  lower  end 
came  into  contact  with  the  water,  the  mercury 
all  ran  out,  and  the  water  rushed  up  to  the  top 
of  the  tube.  This  experiment,  called  after  its 
author,  the  Torricellian  experiment,  demonstrated 
that  the  mercury  was  sustained  in  the  tube,  and 
the  .water  in  the  barrel  of  the  pump,  by  exactly 


the  same  counterpoise,  whatever  the  nature  of  it 
might  be.  Torricelli  died  shortly  after  without 
completing  his  discovery,  but  the  fame  of  his 
experiment  attracted  to  the  subject  the  attention 
of  philosophers  in  other  countries  ;  among  others 
the  celebrated  Pascal.  After  various  experi 
ments,  all  of  which  tended  to  establish  the  press 
ure  of  the  atmosphere,  it  occurred  to  Pascal  that 
if  the  mercurial  column  was  really  supported  by 
atmospheric  pressure  it  must  be  affected  by  the 
weight  of  the  superincumbent  mass  of  air,  and 
consequently  be  "diminished  at  considerable  ele 
vations.  Assisted  by  his  brother-in-law,  Perier, 
he  conclusively  established  by  experiments  the 
correctness  of  the  theory,  and  thereupon  pro 
posed  the  barometer  as  an  instrument  for  meas 
uring  the  height  of  mountains,  or  the  relative 
altitudes  of  places  above  the  surface  of  the  earth. 
"While  Pascal,  therefore,  is  justly  credited  with 
the  practical  demonstration  of  the  value  of  the 
barometer  in  the  determination  of  heights,  it  is 
claimed  that  Claudio  Beriguardi,  at  Pisa,  had 
made  the  same  application  of  the  instrument  five 
years  before;  and  it  appears  that  Alhazen,  the 
Saracen,  A.D.  1100,  was  aware  that  the  atmos 
phere  decreases  in  density  with  increase  of  height. 

The  barometer  in  its  ordinary  form  consists  of 
a  tube  34  inches  in  length,  closed  at  the  top,  ex 
hausted  of  air,  and  with  its  lower  end  immersed 
in  a  cup  of  mercury,  which  the  pressure  of  the 
atmosphere  causes  to  ascend  in  the  tube.  The 
height  of  the  mercurial  column  varies  with 
changes  in  the  weight  of  the  atmosphere,  and  a 
graduated  scale  alongside  the  tube,  embracing 
the  range  of  oscillation,  enables  the  variations 
to  be  noted. 

In  all  barometric  observations  there  are,  in 
general,  two  essential  corrections  to  be  made: 
one  for  capillarity,  or  depression  of  the  mercury 
in  the  tube,  and  the  other  for  temperature.  The 
following  are  the  corrections  for  tubes  of  different 
diameters  according  to  the  theory  of  Mr.  Ivory: 

Diam.  of  tube.      Depression.  Diam.  of  tube.      Depression. 

Inches.  Inches.  Inches.  Inches. 

.10  .1403  .40  .0153 

.15  .0863  ,          .45  .0112 

.20  .0581  .50  .0083 

.25  .0407  .60  .0044 

.30  .0292  .70  .0023 

.35  .0211  .80  .0012 

In  siphon  barometers  (so  called  from  their 
shape),  having  both  branches  of  the  same  di 
ameter,  the  depression  is  equal  at  both  ends ; 
consequently  the  effect  is  destroyed,  and  no 
correction  is  required.  The  correction  for  the 
temperature,  which  is  the  most  important,  de 
pends  on  the  expansion  of  the  mercury  and  the 
expansion  of  the  scale  on  which  the  divisions  are 
marked ;  this  latter  expansion  being  very  small, 
is  disregarded.  In  order  to  ascertain  the  neces 
sary  correction  for  expansion  of  the  mercury,  a 
thermometer  must  be  attached  to  the  barometer 
and  observed  at  the  same  time.  The  rule  usually 
followed  is  to  "subtract  the  ten-thousandth  part 
of  the  observed  altitude  for  every  degree  of  Fah 
renheit  above  32°. ' '  Calculated  correction  tables 
are  published. 

THE  ANEROID  BAROMETER  (Gr.  a,  without, 
and  neros,  a  fluid).  In  this  instrument  the  vary 
ing  pressure  of  the  atmosphere  is  indicated,  not 
by  the  varying  height  of  a  column  of  fluid,  but 
by  the  compression  and  expansion  of  a  small 
metal  vessel  from  which  nearly  all  the  air  has 


BAKOMETER-GATJGE 


66 


BARRY 


been  exhausted.  Its  external  appearance  is  that 
of  a  circular  brass  box  having  a  dial  face,  the 
graduations  of  which  are  pointed  out  by  a  finger, 
which  is  moved  by  machinery  attached  to  the 
elastic  nearly  exhausted  vessel  fixed  within.  At 
the  back  of  the  instrument  is  a  screw  for  the  pur 
pose  of  adjusting  its  indications  by  reference  to 
the  mercurial  barometer.  The  aneroid  requires 
to  be  thus  originally  set,  and  should  be  thus  ad 
justed  from  time  to  time.  It  possesses  the  ad 
vantages  of  being  very  susceptible  and  portable, 
and  is  a  most  convenient  "  weather  glass"  for 
ship's  use.  It  is  also  a  convenient  instrument 
for  roughly  estimating  the  heights  of  mountains. 

For  additional  information  respecting  the  ba 
rometer  and  its  uses,  see  "  Weather  Guides,"  by 
Rear-Admiral  Jenkins. 

Barometer-gauge.  An  appendage  to  a  boiler 
or  condenser. to  indicate  the  state  of  the  vacuum. 

Barquantine.     See  BARKANTINE. 

Barque.     See  BARK. 

Barra-boats.  Vessels  of  the  western  isles  of 
Scotland,  carrying  ten  or  twelve  men.  They  are 
extremely  sharp  fore  and  aft,  having  no  floor, 
but  with  sides  rising  straight  from  the  keel,  so 
that  a  transverse  section  resembles  the  letter  V. 
They  are  swift  and  safe,  for  in  proportion  as  they 
heel  to  a  breeze  their  bearings  are  increased. 

Barrack-smack.  A  corruption  of  Berwick- 
smack  ;  a  word  applied  to  small  Scotch  traders. 

Barracoon.  A  slave  warehouse,  or  an  in- 
closure  where  slaves  are  kept. 

Barrator.  The  master  of  a  ship  who  commits 
any  fraud  in  the  management  of  the  ship,  or  in 
relation  to  his  duties  as  master,  by  which  the 
owners  or  insurers  are  injured. 

Barratry.  A  fraudulent  breach  of  duty  or 
willful  act  of  known  illegality  on  the  part  of  a 
master  of  a  ship,  in  his  character  as  master,  or  of 
the  mariners,  to  the  injury  of  the  owner  of  the 
ship  or  cargo,  and  without  his  consent,  and  it 
includes  every  breach  of  trust  committed  with 
dishonest  views ;  as,  by  running  away  with  a  ship, 
by  scuttling  or  deserting  her,  or  by  embezzling 
her  cargo. 

Barred  Killifish.  A  fish  from  two  to  four 
inches  in  length,  which  frequents  salt-water 
creeks,  floats,  and  the  vicinity  of  wharves. 

Barrel.  The  cylinder  between  the  whelps  and 
the  pawl-rim  constituting  the  main  piece  of  a 
capstan.  The  part  of  the  wheel  on  which  the 
tiller-ropes  are  wound.  The  tube  of  a  fire-arm. 
The  piston-chamber  of  a  pump.  A  cylindrical 
wooden  vessel  or  cask,  greater  in  length  than  in 
breadth,  bulging  in  the  middle,  and  composed 
of  staves  and  headings  held  together  by  hoops 
of  wood  or  iron.  A  measure  of  capacity,  as  31£ 
gallons  of  wine,  36  gallons  of  ale,  or  196  pounds 
of  flour. 

BARREL-BUILDER.  An  old  rating  on  the  ship's 
books,  now  called  cooper. 

BARREL-BULK.  A  measure  used  in  estimating 
capacity  for  freights.  It  is  equal  to  five  cubic 
feet,  or  one-eighth  of  a  ton. 

Barrel-screw.  A  powerful  machine,  consist 
ing  of  two  large  poppets,  or  male  screws,  moved 
by  levers  in  their  heads  upon  a  bank  of  plank, 
with  a  female  screw  at  each  end.  It  is  of  great 
use  in  starting  a  launch. 

Barrier  of  Ice.  Ice  stretching  from  the  land- 
ice  to  the  sea-  or  main  ice,  or  across  a  channel,  so 
as  to  render  it  impassable. 


Barrier  Reefs.  Coral  reefs  that  either  extend 
in  straight  lines  in  front  of  the  shores  of  a  con 
tinent  or  large  island,  or  encircle  smaller  isles, 
in  both  cases  being  separated  from  the  land  by  a 
channel  of  water.  Barrier  reefs  exist  in  New 
South  Wales,  the  Bermudas,  Laccadives,  Mal 
dives,  etc. 

Barren,  James,  Commodore  U.S.N.  Born 
in  Virginia  in  1769.  Went  to  sea  early  in  life, 
and  served  with  his  father  in  the  early  marine  of 
Virginia,  commanding  the  "  Patriot."  Entered 
the  navy  as  lieutenant,  March  9,  1798,  and 
cruised  under  Barry,  in  the  "  United  States,"  in 
the  West  Indies,  and  afterwards  to  France.  Pro 
moted  to  captain,  May  22,  1799,  commanded  the 
"President"  (44)  in  Dale's  squadron  to  Tripoli, 
and  returned  in  Morris's  squadron  in  the  "  New 
York"  (36)  in  1802.  Transferred  to  the  "  Chesa 
peake"  (38),  and  returned  home  in  her.  Again 
went  to  the  Mediterranean,  in  the  "  Essex"  (32), 
under  the  flag  of  his  brother,  S.  Barren,  and  was 
transferred  to  the  "President"  (44)  in  1805.  Was 
sixth  captain  on  the  new  navy  list.  Returning 
home  in  1806,  he  was  given  the  "Chesapeake" 
(44),  and  hoisted  a  broad-pennant  on  her  in  June, 
1807.  He  put  to  sea  June  22,  and  was  followed 
out  of  Chesapeake  Bay  by  the  "Leopard"  (50),  an 
English  frigate,  and,  while  unprepared  to  fight, 
was  fired  into  from  that  ship,  after  some  parley 
concerning  search,  and  compelled  to  surrender, 
having  been  wounded.  He  was  tried  on  several 
charges,  found  guilty  of  two,  and  suspended  from 
rank  and  pay  for  five  years,  until  1813.  During 
the  period  of  his  suspension  he  was  absent  from 
the  United  States,  and  on  his  return  became 
involved  in  a  quarrel  with  Commodore  Decatur, 
and  killed  that  officer  in  a  duel,  March  22,  1820, 
himself  being  seriously  wounded.  Resided  in 
Norfolk  until  1825.  Commanded  Philadelphia 
navy-yard,  1825-27 ;  Norfolk  navy-yard,  1827- 
32;  Philadelphia  navy-yard,  1833-37;  wait 
ing  orders,  1838-42.  He  became  the.  senior 
officer  of  the  navy  in  1839.  On  leave  and  wait 
ing  orders  until' his  death,  which  occurred  at 
Norfolk  in  1851,  April  21,  he  being  82  years  old, 
and  having  been  in  the  navy  53  years. — F.  S. 
Bassett,  Lieutenant  U.S.N. 

Barry,  John,  Commodore  U.S.N.  Born  in 
Wexford  County,  Ireland,  in  1745.  He  went  to 
sea  in  the  merchant  service  while  yet  young. 
Arriving  in  America  at  the  age  of  15,  he  adopted 
it  as  his  home.  He  received  one  of  the  first  com 
missions  incur  navy.  Commanded  the  "Lex 
ington,"  brig  (16),  the  first  cruiser  to  sail,  and 
captured  the  British  tender  "Edward."  Was 
transferred  to  the  frigate  "  Effingham"  the  same 
year,  and  commissioned  captain,  No.  7  on  the 
list.  Successfully  removed  the  ships  up  the  river 
when  Philadelphia  was  taken,  and  captured  a 
schooner  by  a  bold  dash  with  boats.  Volun 
teered  with  the  army,  and  was  aid  to  General 
Cadwalader  at  Trenton.  Appointed  to  command 
the  "  Raleigh"  (32),  and  being  chased  by  a  British 
squadron,  he  made  a  brave  defense,  but  ran  his 
ship  ashore  and  lost  her. 

Commanded  several  letters  of  marque  in  the 
West  Indies.  Sailed  in  February,  1781,  in 
command  of  the  "  Alliance"  (32),  with  our  min 
ister,  Laurens,  to  France,  and  on  his  return  in 
the  same  year,  May  29,  captured  the  English 
sloop  "  Atalanta"  and  brig  "  Trepassa,"  and  was 
severely  wounded. 


BAKSE 


67 


BAKT 


Sailed  again  in  1781,  conveying  Lafayette  and 
De  Noailles  to  France.  Left  L'Orient  February, 
1782,  and  cruised  in  the  Atlantic.  Returning 
from  Havana  in  March,  he  was  chased  by  three 
English  ships,  but,  engaging  the  first,  so  injured 
her  that  he  was  able  to  escape. 

Sailed  at  intervals  during  the  war  in  letters  of 
marque.  Made  senior  officer  of  the  navy  in 
1794.  In  command  of  the  "  United  States"  (44) 
at  Philadelphia,  and  was  influential  in  having 
set  on  foot  the  construction  of  those  heavy  frigates 
that  won  so  many  victories.  During  the  war 
with  France  he  cruised  in  European  waters  in 
the  "  United  States,"  protecting  our  commerce. 
He  died  at  Philadelphia,  September  13,  1803,  at 
the  age  of  58.  He  was  the  third  commander- 
in-chief  of  the  navy. — F.  S.  Bassett,  Lieutenant 
U.S.N. 

Barse.     The  common  river-perch. 

Bar-shot.  Two  half  balls  joined  together  by 
a  bar  of  iron,  for  cutting  and  destroying  spars 
and  rigging.  "When  whole  balls  are  thus  fitted 
they  are  more  properly  double-headed  shot. 

Bart,  Jean.  Born  at  Dunquerque,  October, 
1650.  Died  in  the  same  place,  April,  1702.  The 
life  of  Jean  Bart  is,  or  was,  a  text-book  in  the 
French  naval  schools,  and  his  memory  has  al 
ways  been  preserved  among  the  French  sea 
faring  population  as  a  type  of  a  French  sailor. 
He  is  to  the  French  navy  what  Bayard  and 
Latour  d'Auvergne  are  to  the  army.  In  the 
English  navy  every  old  prejudice,  as  well  as  the 
custom  of  hard  fighting,  is  said  to  come  down 
from  Benbow,  and  so  in  the  French  navy  all 
such  traditions  are  traced  to  Jean  Bart.  He 
was  a  member  of  a  seafaring  family  of  Dun 
querque,  on  the  very  N.E.  confines  of  France. 
He  was  rather  more  Flemish  than  French,  in  fact. 

His  father  commanded  a  corsaire  (somewhat 
equivalent  to  a  "  letter  of  marque")  out  of  the 
port  of  Dunquerque.  Jean  Bart  went  to  sea  at 
twelve  years  of  age,  and  long  before  his  major 
ity  became  "  second"  of  a  brigantine,  with  the 
euphonious  name  of  the  Cochon  Gras,  or  "  Fat 
Hog,"  which  cruised  in  the  dangerous  naviga 
tion  of  the  English  Channel  as  a  lookout  against 
the  advance  of  the  British  fleet. 

In  1666,  Jean  Bart  entered  the  Dutch  Marine, 
serving  under  the  celebrated  Admiral  de  Ruyter 
in  the  war  with  the  English.  He  returned  home 
in  1672,  having  attained  the  rank  of  lieutenant, 
leaving  the  Dutch  service  on  account  of  war 
breaking  out  between  Holland  and  France. 
Still  a  very  young  man,  he  commenced  his 
career  as  corsaire,  and  for  six  years  his  whole 
sale  captures  of  Dutch  vessels  caused  his  name 
to  be  known  in  all  northern  ports. 

In  1679,  upon  the  recommendation  of  the  cele 
brated  Vauban,  Jean  Bart  was  commissioned 
as  lieutenant  de  vaisseait  in  the  French  Royal 
Marine. 

In  1681  he  was  sent  by  Colbert,  in  command 
of  two  frigates,  against  the  Salee  pirates.  He 
made  a  brilliant  cruise,  bringing  back  with  him 
many  important  Moorish  prisoners.  Two  years 
after,  during  the  war  between  France  and  Spain, 
he  made  important  and  successful  cruises  in  the 
Mediterranean,  and  was  advanced  to  the  rank  of 
capitalize  de  fregate.  At  this  time  he  organized 
squadrons  of  fast  frigates  and  corsaires  combined, 
and  so  drilled  them  that  they  were  not  only  able 
to  greatly  interfere  with  the  enemy's  commerce, 


but  were  able  to  unite  and  fight  in  line  upon 
occasion. 

By  this  time  his  reputation  as  a  bold  and  skill 
ful  commander  was  so  well  established  that  his 
services  were  always  sought  for  when  anything 
especially  difficult  or  daring  was  to  be  attempted 
by  sea. 

In  1689  he  convoyed  a  fleet  of  powder  and 
provision  vessels  from  Calais  to  Brest,  fighting 
his  way  down  the  channel  through  a  fleet  of 
English  and  Dutch  cruisers.  During  one  of 
these  fights  he  saw  his  son,  a  child  of  ten  years 
old,  showing  some  trepidation,  and  at  once  had 
him  lashed  to  the  mainmast  until  the  action  was 
over.  This  boy  became  a  vice-admiral  in  the 
French  navy. 

Soon  after  this  Jean  Bart  was,  with  Captain 
the  Chevalier  Forbin,  wounded  and  taken  pris 
oner  in  a  bloody  frigate  action  in  the  channel. 
They  were  taken  to  Plymouth,  but,  owing  to 
the  stubborn  resistance  of  the  men-of-war,  their 
convoy  escaped.  He  was  not  many  days  a  pris 
oner,  but  succeeded  in  escaping  during  foggy 
weather,  and,  with  Forbin  and  two  or  three 
sailors,  seized  the  yawl  of  a  merchant  vessel,  and 
pulled  for  the  French  coast.  After  forty-eight 
hours  of  exposure  and  excessive  labor,  they 
landed  on  the  coast  of  Brittany,  near  St.  Malo. 
Both  he  and  Forbin  were  made  capitaines  de  vais- 
seau  for  this  exploit. 

Jean  Bart  was  soon  at  sea  again,  this  time  in 
command  of  a  squadron  of  frigates,  with  which 
he  fought  several  actions  and  made  captures. 

In  1690  he  commanded  the  frigate  "  Alcyon," 
in  Tourville's  fleet,  with  great  approval  from  his 
admiral ;  and,  upon  his  return  from  this  cruise, 
he  was  allowed  to  carry  out  his  idea  of  forming 
a  special  squadron  to  destroy  the  Dutch  com 
merce  in  the  North  Sea  and  in  the  Baltic. 

By  the  time  he  had,  at  Dunquerque,  got 
ready  seven  frigates  and  a  fire-ship,  he  found 
himself  blockaded  by  thirty-five  English  and 
Dutch  vessels.  He  managed,  however,  to  elude 
them  all,  and  to  make  his  cruise,  during  which 
he  burnt  nearly  a  hundred  English  vessels, 
landed  near  Newcastle,  burnt  a  number  of  houses, 
and  returned  safely  to  his  port,  with  his  squadron 
intact  and  laden  with  spoil.  Never  willing  to  be 
idle,  he  was  soon  off  again  into  the  North  Sea, 
this  time  with  only  three  ships,  and  again  re 
turned  with  prizes. 

Jean  Bart's  fame  was  now  such  that  he  was  sent 
for  by  Louis  XIV.,  when  the  brilliant  courtiers 
of  that  august  monarch  were  much  amused  with 
his  brusque  manners  and  ways.  He  had  already 
been  popularly  called  "the  Sea  Bear,"  and  all 
sorts  of  stories"  are  told  of  how  he  bore  himself  in 
the  presence  of  the  "  Sun  of  France,"— how  he 
smoked  his  pipe  in  his  presence,  clapped  the 
princes  of  the  blood  on  the  back,  and  generally 
behaved  as  a  genuine  loup-de-mer.  There  ap 
pears  to  be  little  truth  in  these  relations.  Jean 
Bart  was  no  doubt  of  simple,  plain  manners, 
but  long  before  this  period  he  had  associated 
with  some  of  the  best  men  in  France,  and  he 
had  commanded  fleets  very  successfully.  It  is 
not  likely,  therefore,  that  he  would  have  been 
found  wanting  in  common  courtesy.  The  fact 
appears  to  be  that  the  stories  told  of  his  be 
havior  at  court  were  only  a  corollary  to  those 
popularly  related  of  him,  so  great  was  the  en 
thusiasm  created  by  his  exploits. 


BAKT 


68 


BARTON 


It  has  been  said  by  Eugene  Sue,  in  his  "  His- 
toirede  Marine,"  that  Jean  Bart  could  not  write, 
and  only  signed  his  name  mechanically.  This  is 
not  probable  in  the  case  of  one  who  was  a  good 
navigator.  The  "Archives  de  la  Marine"  show 
exceedingly  well-formed  signatures  of  his,  al 
though  the  letters  themselves  are  written  by  a 
clerk,  as  is  the  case  in  all  services  and  at  all  times. 
The  naval  registers  of  Dunquerque  show  the 
same  thing.  M.  Vanderest,  in  his  "  Histoire  de 
Jean  Bart,"  disposes  of  these  stories  in  an  en 
thusiastic  but  complete  fashion. 

Portraits  of  Jean  Bart  show  him  to  have  been 
a  square-built  man,  of  fair  height,  with  a  good, 
open,  Flemish  countenance,  blue  eyes,  and  light 
hair.  He  spoke  several  languages,  including 
English,  but,  it  is  said,  spoke  French  with  a 
Flemish  accent. 

In  1693,  Louis  XI V.,  wishing  to  repair  the 
disgrace  of  La  Hogue,  gave  Tourville  command 
of  a  new  fleet,  in  which  Jean  Bart  commanded 
the  "  Glorieux,"  and  in  her  fought  at  the  battle 
of  Lagos. 

After  this  he  had  command  of  a  squadron  of 
six  frigates  to  escort  an  immense  convoy  of 
grain,  and  succeeded  in  getting  his  charge  safely 
into  Dunquerque,  after  a  severe  battle  with  the 
Anglo-Dutch  fleet.  By  this  action  he  saved  that 
part  of  France  from  impending  famine  ;  and  the 
event  was  considered  so  important  that  a  medal 
was  struck  to  commemorate  it.  In  the  same 
year  Jean  Bart  took  three  English  frigates  and 
their  convoy  of  transports,  loaded  with  provisions 
and  stores. 

In  1694,  Louis  XIV.  gave  Jean  Bart  lettres 
de  noblesse,  with  the  cross  of  Saint  Louis,  and 
the  right  to  wear  the  fleur-de-lis  in  his  arms. 

In  the  same  year  the  ennobled  sailor  nar 
rowly  missed  capturing,  in  the  North  Sea,  Wil 
liam  of  Orange,  who  was  returning  from  Hol 
land  to  England.  A  curious  speculation  could 
be  elaborated  upon  the  result  of  such  a  capture. 
Certainly  William  would  have  fared  badly  as 
prisoner  of  Louis  XIV.,  and  most  likely  James 
II.  would  have  had  the  English  throne. 

In  1696,  Jean  Bart  went  cruising  in  the  North 
Sea  again,  and  though,  as  usual,  blockaded  in 
Dunquerque  by  a  strong  Anglo-Dutch  fleet,  he 
succeeded  in  eluding  them  and  getting  to  sea. 
Just  north  of  the  Texel  he  encountered  the  Dutch 
Baltic  fleet,  and  captured  their  escort  of  frigates 
and  some  forty  merchant  vessels.  When  about 
to  take  possession  of  them  a  very  superior  force 
of  the  enemy  hove  in  sight,  and  Jean  Bart  was 
obliged  to  burn  his  prizes,  which  he  did  thor 
oughly,  and  then  made  sail  in  retreat  in  line  of 
battle,  the  enemy  not  caring  to  pursue.  His 
thorough  ability  and  boldness  on  this  occasion 
elicited  the  admiration  of  the  very  men  opposed 
to  him.  Forbin,  in  his  "  Memoires,"  pretends 
that  Jean  Bart  was  only  fitted  for  frigate  actions 
and  coups  de  main,  but  we  have  seen  that  he 
handled  squadrons  well,  and  his  dispatches  con 
cerning  such  affairs  were  always  clear  and  well 
considered.  On  his  return  from  this  cruise  Louis 
XIV.  sent  for  him,  and  said,  "Jean  Bart,  I 
have  made  you  chef  d'escadron"  (commodore, — 
a  higher  rank  than  in  our  day).  "  Sire,"  Jean 
Bart  replied,  "you  have  done  well."  In  the 
previous  year  the  "Grand  Monarque"  had  hurt 
Jean  Bart's  feelings  by  telling  him  he  had  not 
done  as  well  as  usual. 


In  1697,  Jean  Bart  took  the  Prince  de  Conti  to 
Dantzic,  where  he  went  in  the  hope  of  obtaining 
the  throne  of  Poland.  On  their  voyage  they 
were  met  by  an  enemy's  squadron  of  no  less  than 
nine  line-of-battle  ships,  but  they  succeeded  in 
escaping  from  them.  The  prince  said,  "  We 
were  near  being  taken!"  "Oh,  no,"  said  Jean 
Bart :  "I  had  my  son  in  the  magazine,  to  blow 
us  up  before  that  should  happen."  The  prince 
was,  naturally,  shocked  at  this,  and  said,  "Your 
remedy  is  worse  than  the  evil !  I  forbid  any 
thing  of  the  kind  while  I  am  on  board."  Conti 
got  safe  to  Dantzic,  but,  as  we  all  know,  effected 
nothing. 

In  1697  occurred  the  peace  of  Ryswick,  and 
then  Jean  Bart,  for  the  first  time  in  his  life,  had 
a  period  of  repose,  which  he  spent  most  simply, 
with  his  family,  at  Dunquerque. 

As  soon  as  the  war  of  the  Spanish  Succession 
broke  out  he  was  ordered  to  command  a  fleet 
again.  Unfortunately,  in  his  personal  exertions 
in  pressing  on  the  preparations  he  caught  cold, 
had  a  pleurisy,  and  died,  in  April,  1702,  just  at 
the  time  that  France  had  most  need  of  him,  for 
she  was  soon  to  be  brought  to  suffer  great  dis 
asters,  both  by  sea  and  land. 

His  successor  in  the  fleet  never  tried  to  pass  the 
blockade,  as  Jean  Bart  had  done  so  often,  and 
by  so  doing  kept  ten  times  his  number  employed 
against  him. 

Jean  Bart  was  only  fifty-two  years  old  when  he 
died,  and  the  loss  of  no  man  of  his  time  was  more 
deplored. 

In  spite  of  all  his  prizes  he  had  saved  very 
little  money,  but  the  king  gave  his  widow  a  pen 
sion  of  2000  crowns. 

In  1845  a  statue  to  Jean  Bart,  by  the  cele 
brated  David,  was  erected  at  Dunquerque.  As 
has  been  stated,  his  son  became  a  vice-admiral, 
and  died  at  the  age  of  78.  His  grandson  became 
a  chef  d'escadron,  and  died  in  1784,  being  the 
last  of  his  direct  descendants. 

The  last  of  the  descendants  of  his  brother,  and 
the  last  who  bore  the  name  of  the  great  French 
sailor,  died  a  lieutenant  de  vaisseau  in  1843. — 
E.  Shippen, 

Barton,  Wm.  P.  C.,  Surgeon  U.S.  Navy. 
Born  in  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  November  17,  1786. 
He  was  descended  from  Rev.  Thomas  Barton,  an 
Episcopal  clergyman  who  came  to  America  under 
the  patronage  of  the  Penn  family,  and  married 
in  Philadelphia  the  sister  of  David  Rittenhouse, 
the  celebrated  mathematician  and  astronomer, 
and  the  first  president  of  the  Philosophical  So 
ciety.  Dr.  Barton  received  his  classical  educa 
tion  at  Princeton  College,  where  he  graduated 
with  distinction  at  an  early  age.  He  commenced 
the  study  of  medicine  under  the  direction  of  his 
uncle,  Dr.  Benjamin  Smith  Barton,  and  gradu 
ated  at  the  University  of  Pennsylvania  in  1808. 
After  graduating  Dr.  Barton  commenced  the 
practice  of  medicine  in  Philadelphia.  He  was 
surgeon  at  the  Pennsylvania  Hospital,  and  upon 
recommendation  of  the  celebrated  Dr.  Benjamin 
Rush  and  Dr.  Physick  he  was  appointed  surgeon 
in  the  navy.  He  was  for  many  years  on  active 
duty,  and  distinguished  himself  in  the  treatment 
of  cases,  and  by  his  great  skill  in  the  perform 
ance  of  difficult  and  delicate  operations.  During 
his  reliefs  from  sea  service  he  was  not  content  to 
pass  his  time  unemployed,  but  devoted  himself 
with  great  professional  ardor  to  the  publication 


BARUTH 


69 


BATED 


of  various  works,  which  acquired  at  the  time 
cpnsiderable  reputation.  Among  others,  his 
work  on  "  Marine  Hospitals"  (published  in  1814) ; 
his  "  Vegetable  Materia  Medica,"  and  "  Flora  of 
North  America,"  with  drawings  from  nature, 
made  by  himself  and  colored  by  his  wife  (pub 
lished  in  1817  and  1818) ;  his  translation  of  the 
work  of  the  celebrated  Gregory  on  the  Influences 
of  climate,  and  other  treatises,  were  extensively 
circulated,  and  gained  for  their  author  consider 
able  celebrity.  He  was  chosen  professor  of  bot 
any  in  the  University  of  Pennsylvania,  became 
a  Fellow  of  the  College  of  Physicians  of  Phila 
delphia,  a  member  of  the  American  Philosophi 
cal  Society,  president  of  the  Linnsean  Society, 
and  honorary  member  and  surgeon  of  the  First 
City  Troop.  Upon  the  creation  of  the  Bureau 
of  Medicine  and  Surgery  in  the  navy,  Dr.  Barton 
was  tendered  and  accepted  the  appointment  of 
chief  of  that  bureau.  In  this  position  he  intro 
duced  many  reforms,  corrected  and  abolished 
many  abuses,  and  secured  the  warm  commenda 
tion  and  approval  of  the  government.  He  re 
signed  his  position  as  head  of  the  bureau,  but  re 
tained  his  commission  in  the  navy,  and  had  been 
at  the  time  of  his  death  for  several  years  the  se 
nior  surgeon  of  the  navy.  He  died  at  Philadel 
phia,  February  29,  1856. 

Baruth.  An  East  Indian  measure,  with  a 
corresponding  weight  of  3£  pounds  avoirdupois. 

Base.  The  hemispherical  portion  of  the 
breech  of  a  gun.  The  lowest  part  of  the  perim 
eter  of  a  geometrical  figure.  When  applied  to 
a  delta  it  is  that  edge  of  it  which  is  washed  by 
the  sea,  or  recipient  of  the  deltic  branches.  The 
lowest  part  of  a  mountain  or  chain  of  mountains. 
The  level  line  on  which  any  work  stands,  as  the 
foot  of  a  pillar.  An  old  boat-gun  ;  a  wall-piece 
on  the  musketoon  principle,  carrying  a  5-ounce 
ball. 

BASE-LINE.  In  surveying,  the  base  on  which 
the  triangulation  is  founded.  In  gunnery,  a  line 
traced  around  the  breech  of  a  gun,  which  marks 
the  division  between  the  breech  and  cylinder. 

BASE  OF  OPERATIONS.  That  secure  line  of 
frontier  or  fortresses,  or  strong  country  occupied 
by  troops,  or  of  sea  occupied  by  fleets,  from 
which  forward  movements  are  made,  supplies 
furnished,  and  upon  which  a  retreat  may  be 
made,  if  necessary. 

BASE-RING.  A  molding  around  the  breech 
of  a  gun,  between  the  base  and  first  reenforce. 

Bashaw.  A  Turkish  title  of  honor  and  com 
mand  ;  more  properly  pacha. 

Basil.  The  angle  to  which  the  edge  of  ship 
wrights'  cutting  tools  is  ground  away. 

Basilicus.  A  name  of  Regulus,  or  the  Lion's 
Heart,  a  Leonis ;  a  star  of  the  first  magnitude. 

Basilisk.  An  old  name  for  a  long  48-pounder, 
the  gun  next  in  size  to  the  carthoun :  called 
basilisk  from  the  snakes  or  dragons  sculptured 
in  the  place  of  dolphins.  Also,  in  still  earlier 
times,  a  gun  throwing  an  iron  ball  of  200 
pounds  weight. 

Basillard.     An  old  term  for  a  poniard. 

Basin.  A  wet-dock  provided  with  flood-gates 
for  restraining  the  water,  in  which  shipping  may 
be  kept  afloat  at  all  times  of  tide.  Also,  all  those 
sheltered  spaces  of  water  which  are  nearly  sur 
rounded  with  slopes  from  which  waters  are  re 
ceived  ;  these  receptacles  have  a  circular  shape 
and  narrow  entrance.  Geographically  basins 


may  be  described  as  upper,  lower,  lacustrine, 
fluvial,  mediterranean,  etc. 

Basket-fish.  A  name  for  several  species  of 
Euryale;  a  kind  of  star-fish,  the  arms  of  which 
divide  and  subdivide  many  times,  and  curl  up 
and  intertwine  at  the  ends,  giving  the  whole 
animal  something  of  the  appearance  of  a  round 
basket. 

Basket-hilt.  The  guard  continued  up  the 
hilt  of  a  cutlass,  so  as  to  protect  the  whole  hand 
from  injury. 

Basking  Shark.  So  called  from  being  often 
seen  lying  still  in  the  sunshine.  A  large  carti 
laginous  fish,  the  Squalus  maximus  of  Linnaeus, 
inhabiting  the  Northern  Ocean.  It  attains  a 
length  of  30  feet,  but  is  neither  fierce  nor  vora 
cious.  See  SAIL-FISH, 

Bass,  or  Bast.  A  soft  sedge  or  rush  (Juncus 
Icevis),  of  which  coarse  kinds  of  rope  and  mat 
ting  are  made.  A  Gaelic  term  for  the  blade  of 
an  oar. 

Basse.  A  species  of  perch  (Perca  labrax), 
found  on  the  coast  and  in  estuaries,  commonly 
about  18  inches  long. 

Bassos.  An  old  term  for  shoals.  Rocks 
a- wash,  or  below  water. 

Bast.  The  inner  bark  of  the  lime-tree  or 
linden,  hence  the  cordage  or  mats  made  from 
this  bark.  See  BASS. 

Basta.  A  word  from  the  Italian,  in  former 
use  for  enough. 

Bastard.  A  term  applied  to  all  pieces  of  ord 
nance  of  unusual  or  irregular  proportions.  A 
square-sail  in  use  in  some  Mediterranean  craft; 
it  was  occasionally  used  as  an  awning. 

Bastard-mackerel,  or  Horse-mackerel.  The 
Caranx  trachurus,  a  dry,  coarse,  and  unwhole 
some  fish  of  the  family  Scomberidce. 

Bastard-pitch.  When  a  mixture  of  equal 
parts  of  colophony,  black  pitch,  and  tar  is  boiled 
down,  it  forms  a  liquid  substance  called  by  the 
French  bray  gras.  When  a  thicker  consistence 
is  required  more  colophony  is  added,  and  it  is 
then  called  bastard-pitch. 

Baste.  To  beat;  to  cudgel.  To  sew  with 
long  stitches. 

Bastile.  A  temporary  wooden  tower  used 
formerly  in  military  and  naval  warfare.  The 
name  is  specifically  applied  to  an  old  fortification 
in  Paris  built  in  the  14th  century,  long  used  as  a 
state  prison,  but  demolished  by  the  populace  in 
1789. 

Bat,  or  Sea-bat.  An  Anglo-Saxon  word  for 
boat  or  vessel.  A  broad-bodied  thoracic  fish 
(Chcetodon  vespertilio}. 

Batardate.     A  square-stemmed  row-galley. 

Batardeau.  Planks  to  prevent  the  entrance 
of  water  when  a  ship  is  hove  down  for  repairs. 

Batardelle.  A  galley  less  strong  than  the 
capitana. 

Batavia.  A  city  and  seaport  of  Java,  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Jukatra  River,  on  the  N.  coast  of 
the  island,  with  a  free  port,  extensive  and  safe. 
Lat.  6°  8'  S. ;  Ion.  106°  50'  E.  The  bay  or  har 
bor  forms  a  roadstead  of  great  beauty,  and  may 
be  entered  by  vessels  of  the  largest  class.  Pop. 
100,000. 

Bateau.  A  flat-bottomed,  sharp-ended,  clumsy 
boat  used  on  the  lakes  and  rivers  of  Canada.  A 
peculiar  army  pontoon. 

Bated.  A  plump,  full-roed  fish  is  said  to  be 
bated. 


BATELLA 


70 


BAY 


Batella.     A  small  plying-boat. 

Bath  (Maine).  A  city  and  port  of  entry  on 
the  right  bank  of  the  Kennebec  Kiver,  12  miles 
from  the  ocean,  36  miles  N.E.  of  Portland. 
Wooden  ship-building  is  carried  on  at  Bath  to  a 
very  large  extent.  Pop.  11,000. 

Bath-brick.  A  preparation  of  calcareous 
earth  in  the  form  of  a  brick,  used  for  cleaning 
bright-work. 

Bathometer.  A  sounding  apparatus,  which 
see. 

Bathymetry.  The  art  or  science  of  measuring 
the  depth  of  the  sea. 

Batillage.     An  old  term  for  boat-hire. 

Batman.  A  weight  used  in  the  East,  varying 
according  to  locality. 

Bat-swain.  An  Anglo-Saxon  expression  for 
boatswain. 

Battard.     An  early  cannon  of  small  size. 

Batteloe.     A  lateen-rigged  vessel  of  India. 

Batten.  Scantlings  from  one  inch  to  three 
inches  broad.  Long  slips  of  timber  used  for  set 
ting  fair  the  sheer  lines  of  a  ship,  for  staying  the 
lower  masts,  and  for  setting  off  distances  gener 
ally.  Strips  of  wood  secured  to  masts,  yards,  or 
rigging  to  protect  them  from  chafe.  Slips  of 
wood  used  for  confining  the  edges  of  the  tarpau 
lins  over  the  hatches. 

To  BATTEN  DOWN  THE  HATCHES,  to  haul  over 
the  tarpaulins  and  secure  them  by  nailing  bat 
tens  over  them. 

Battering  Charge.  A  charge  of  powder 
heavier  than  the  ordinary  charge,  to  be  used 
against  ironclads  or  masonry  at  short  range  for 
a  limited  number  of  fires. 

Battering-guns,  or  Battering-pieces.  Guns 
whose  weight  and  power  fit  them  for  demolishing 
by  direct  force  the  works  of  the  enemy. 

Battery.  A  place  where  guns  or  mortars  are 
mounted.  A  body  of  cannon  taken  collectively  ; 
as,  the  starboard  battery.  Two  or  more  pieces 
of  artillery  in  the  field.  Barbette  battery,  one 
without  embrasures.  Floating-battery,  a  vessel 
heavily  clad  with  iron,  and  having  little  or  no 
steam-power,  used  for  harbor  defense  ;  a  battery 
mounted  on  a  raft  or  hulk.  Masked,  or  covered 
battery,  one  concealed  from  the  enemy  by  a  bank 
or  breastwork  until  it  opens  fire.  Water-battery, 
one  close  to  and  nearly  on  a  level  with  the  water. 
Mortar-batteries  have  no  embrasures,  the  mortar 
being  generally  fired  at  an  angle  of  45°.  See 
ELECTRIC  BATTERY,  GALVANIC  BATTERY. 

Battle-lantern.  A  lantern  supplied  to  each 
gun  for  lighting  up  the  decks  during  an  engage 
ment  at  night. 

Battle-royal.  A  term  derived  from  cock- 
fighting,  but  generally  applied  to  a  noisy,  con 
fused  row. 

Battle  the  Watch.  To  contend  with  a  diffi 
culty  ;  to  shift  as  well  as  one  can  ;  to  depend  on 
one's  own  exertions. 

Bat-ward.     An  old  term  for  a  boat-keeper. 

Bavin.    See  BORE. 

Baw-burd.     An  old  expression  for  larboard. 

Bawdrick.     A  corruption  of  baldrick. 

Bawe.  A  species  of  worm  used  for  bait  for 
fish. 

Bawgie.  One  of  the  names  given  to  the  great 
black  and  white  gull  (Larus  marinus). 

Bawkie.     A  name  for  the  awk,  or  razor-bill. 

Baxios  (Sp.).  Bocks  or  sand-banks  covered 
with  water. 


Bay.  An  inlet  of  the  sea,  having  a  wide 
entrance,  and  usually  smaller  than  a  gulf,  al 
though  many  large  sheets  of  water  are  named 
bays.  Of  the  many  names  adopted  to  designate 
inlets  from  the  seas,  those  of  fiord  and  viik  may 
be  properly  included  under  the  head  of  bays. 
The  greater  portion  of  inlets  so  named  are  of  salt 
water,  but  many  fresh-water  bays  exist,  espe 
cially  in  the  great  American  lake-region.  An 
enumeration  of  the  bays  would  require  several 
pages,  and  some  that  are  not  from  their  size  ge 
ographically  important  are  remarkable  never 
theless  from  the  rivers  that  empty  into  them,  as 
Delaware  Bay ;  the  cities  that  are  situated  on 
them,  as  Boston  Bay ;  from  natural  causes,  as 
Fundy  Bay  from  its  great  rise  of  tides  ;  from 
historical  reasons,  as  Aboukir  Bay  ;  from  stra 
tegical  causes,  as  Gibraltar  Bay ;  or  from  some 
use  made  of  them,  rendering  them  peculiarly 
notable,  as  Botany  Bay,  the  home  of  English 
convicts. 

Keith  Johnston,  in  his  "Royal  Atlas,"  enu 
merates  more  than  a  thousand  bays,  and  this 
number  would  doubtless  increase  threefold  on  a 
careful  count  of  our  charts  of  the  known  coasts 
of  the  world.  Of  these,  Europe  has  by  far  the 
greater  number,  there  being  about  440  on  the 
chart,  and  North  America  comes  next  with  230, 
while  South  America  and  Oceanica  have  up 
wards  of  100  each,  and  Asia  has  upwards  of  80, 
Africa  having  no  more  than  60.  Of  European 
countries,  the  British  Isles  have  the  most  bays, 
and  Norway  comes  next  with  her  fiords.  Hol 
land,  Belgium,  and  Corsica  have  none;  Italy, 
Portugal,  Austria,  and  Turkey  one  each. 

The  principal  bays  of  Asia  are  the  Tidanski, 
Taimurski,  Katangski,  and  Borkaia  on  the  Arctic 
Ocean,  Avatcha,  Ulbansk,  Vladimir,  Victoria, 
Broughton,  Hangchow,  Yeddo,  Hakodadi,  Wan- 
chow,  Manila  to  the  eastward,  and  the  great 
Bay  of  Bengal  on  its  south  shores. 

The  principal  African  bays  are  Sofala,  Dela- 

§oa,  and  Algoa  to  the  eastward,  False,  Table, 
t.  Helena,  and  Walfisch  on  the  west,  Algiers, 
Tunis,  and  Arab  bays  to  the  northward.  Neu- 
stadt,  Kiel,  and  Liibeck  on  the  Baltic,  Cardigan, 
Donegal,  and  Galway  in  the  British  Isles,  and 
Biscay,  Cancale,  and  Fetubal  on  the  west  coast, 
comprise  the  principal  European  bays.  North 
America  has  many  large  bays,  chief  of  which 
are  Mackenzie,  Baffin's,  Frobisher's,  Hudson, 
James,  Ungava,  and  Cumberland  on  the  north 
coast,  Melville  and  Disco  in  Greenland,  Bay  of 
Fundy,  Massachusetts,  Cape  Cod,  Delaware, 
Chesapeake,  Long,  and  Onslow  bays  on  the  east 
coast,  Appalachicola,  Pensacola,  and  Galveston 
on  the  Gulf,  Campeachy,  Fonseca,  and  Tehuan- 
tepec  in  Mexico  and  Central  America,  and  Mag- 
dalena,  Seb.  Vizcaino,  Monterey,  San  Francisco, 
and  Bristol  bays  on  the  west  coast.  South 
America  has  Bahia  de  Todos  os  Santos,  Rio 
Janeiro,  and  White  bays  on  its  east  coast,  and 
Arauco,  Coquimbo,  Salado,  Moreno,  Pisco,  Se- 
chura,  and  Buenaventura  on  her  west  coast. 
Australia  is  well  provided  with  bays,  Prince 
Charlotte,  Hervey,  Encounter,  Geographe,  and 
Shark  bays  being  the  most  important. 

Three  bays  are  particularly  noticeable  from 
their  great  size,  viz. :  1.  Bay  of  Bengal.  This 
is  a  triangular  sheet  of  water,  an  arm  of  the 
Bengal  Sea,  washing  the  northeastern  shores  of 
Hindostan  and  the  west  coast  of  Pegu.  It  ex- 


BAY 


71 


BEAM 


tends  over  6  degrees  of  latitude  and  10  of  longi 
tude,  being  about  200,000  square  rniles  in  area. 
It  is  the  recipient  of  the  great  Brahmapootra, 
Ganges,  and  Shina  rivers,  but  contains  no  ob 
stacles  to  navigation  except  near  the  land.  2. 
Bay  of  Biscay.  This  is  a  trapezoidal-shaped  bay, 
an  arm  of  the  Atlantic,  washing  the  southwest 
coast  of  France,  where  its  shores  are  low  and 
marshy,  and  the  rocky  and  mountainous  north 
coast  of  Spain.  It  embraces  some  8  degrees  of 
latitude  and  5  of  longitude,  being  about  125,000 
square  miles  in  area.  It  receives  the  waters  of 
the  Adour,  Garonne,  and  Loire.  3.  Hudson^s 
Bay,  discovered  in  1615  by  Hendrik  Hudson. 
It  is  situated  wholly  within  the  North  American 
continent,  and  is  nearly  square,  having,  as  an 
addition,  James  Bay,  itself  of  some  extent. 
Hudson's  Bay  occupies  some  9  degrees  of  lati 
tude  and  14  of  longitude,  and  contains  some 
300,000  square  miles  "of  area.  It  communicates 
with  the  Atlantic  by  a  strait  of  the  same  name, 
and  with  the  Arctic  Ocean  by  several  passages. 
Some  idea  of  the  great  size  of  these  bays  is  ob 
tained  by  a  comparison  with  countries.  The 
Bay  of  Bengal  is  as  large  as  Germany,  or  its  own 
neighbor,  Siam.  The  Bay  of  Biscay  is  as  large 
as  Holland,  and  Hudson's  Bay  would  about  cover 
Spain. — F.  S.  Bassett,  Lieutenant  U.S.N. 

Bay.  The  fore  part  of  the  ship  between  decks. 
See  SICK-BAY. 

Bayamos.  Violent  blasts  of  wind  blowing 
from  the  land,  on  the  south  coast  of  Cuba,  and 
especially  from  the  Bight  of  Bayamo.  They  are 
accompanied  by  wind  and  lightning,  and  gen 
erally  terminate  in  rain. 

Bay-bolt.     A  bolt  with  a  barbed  shank. 

Bay-gulf.  A  branch  of  the  sea  of  which  the 
entrance  is  the  widest  part,  as  contradistin 
guished  from  the  strait-gulf. 

Bay-ice.  Ice  newly  formed  on  the  surface  of 
the  sea,  and  having  the  color  of  the  water ;  it  is 
then  in  the  first  stage  of  consolidation.  The 
term  is  sometimes  applied  to  ice  a  foot  or  two  in 
thickness  in  bays. 

Bayle.     An  old  term  for  bucket. 

Bayonet.  A  short  triangular  dagger  fitted  to 
the  muzzle  of  a  musket  or  rifle,  for  the  purpose 
of  giving  the  fire-arm  effect  as  a  thrusting 
weapon.  It  takes  its  name  from  Bayonne, 
France,  where  it  is  said  to  have  originated.  It 
was  first  used  by  the  French  in  the  Netherlands 
in  1647.  Formerly  the  handle  of  the  bayonet 
was  inserted  into  the  bore  of  the  fire-arm,  and 
had  to  be  unfixed  when  the  piece  was  fired;  to 
remedy  which  it  is  now  made  with  a  hollow 
handle  and  a  shoulder  so  that  it  fits  over  thebarrel, 
and  sets  otf  from  the  line  of  fire.  Modifications 
affecting  the  shape  of  the  blade  have  also  been 
made,  of  which  the  sabre-bayonet  and  the  more 
recent  trowel-bayonet  are  examples.  The  latter 
form  of  bayonet,  invented  by  Bvt.  Lt.-Col.  Rice, 
"U.S.A.,  is 'less  sightly  than  the  triangular,  either 
fixed  or  worn  as  a  side-arm,  but  is  most  valuable 
as  an  intrenching  tool  to  forces  operating  on 
land. 

Bayou.  The  outlet  of  a  small  lake ;  a  creek 
or  small  river. 

Bazaras.  A  large  pleasure-boat  of  the  Ganges 
impelled  by  oars  and  sails. 

Beach.  A  shelving  tract  of  sand  or  shingle 
washed  by  the  sea  or  a  lake,  and  interposed  be 
tween  the  water  and  the  land  on  which  vegeta 


tion  grows.  The  beach  of  the  ocean  is,  generally 
speaking,  little  more  than  the  space  between  low- 
and  high- water  mark ;  the  beach  of  a  lake  that 
between  the  water-marks  of  the  highest  and 
lowest  ordinary  level  of  the  lake.  An  inland 
sea  without  tide,  such  as  the  Mediterranean,  has 
generally  little  beach,  except  on  flat  coasts,  where 
the  waters  are  apt  to  rise  and  fall  considerably, 
according  to  the  prevailing  winds.  To  land  a 
person  with  the  intention  of  deserting  him,  an 
old  buccaneer  custom.  To  run  a  boat  or  a  vessel 
on  the  beach,  either  to  land  or  for  the  purpose  of 
repairs  where  there  are  no  other  accommodations. 
See  SURF. 

BEACH-COMBERS.  Long  waves  rolling  in  from 
the  ocean.  Loiterers  around  a  bay  or  harbor. 

BEACH-COMBING.  Loafing  about  a  port  to 
filch  small  things. 

BEACH-FLEA.  A  small  crustacean  (Talitra) 
frequenting  sandy  shores. 

BEACH-GRASS.  Alga  marina  thrown  up  by  the 
surf  or  tide. 

BEACH-MAN.  A  person  on  the  coast  of  Africa 
who  acts  as  interpreter  to  shipmasters,  and 
assists  them  in  conducting  trade. 

BEACH-MASTER.  An  officer  appointed  to  su 
perintend  the  disembarkation  of  an  attacking 
force,  who  holds  plenary  powers,  and  generally 
leads  the  storming  party. 

BEACH-MEN.  A  name  applied  to  boatmen  and 
those  who  land  people  through  a  heavy  surf. 

BEACH-RANGERS.  Men  hanging  about  sea 
ports,  who  have  been  turned  out  of  vessels  for 
bad  conduct. 

BEACH-TRAMPERS.  A  name  applied  to  the 
coast-guard  of  England. 

Beacon.  A  post  or  stake  erected  over  a  shoal 
or  sand-bank,  as  a  warning  to  seamen  to  keep  at 
a  distance  ;  also  a  signal-mark  placed  on  the  top 
of  hills,  eminences,  or  buildings  near  the  shore 
for  the  safe  guidance  of  shipping. 

BEACONAGE.  A  payment  levied  for  the  main 
tenance  of  beacons. 

Be -aft.  A  term  frequently  used  by  sailors  for 
abaft. 

Beak,  or  Beak-head.  A  piece  of  brass  like  a 
beak,  fixed  at  the  head  of  the  ancient  galleys, 
with  which  they  pierced  their  enemy's  vessels. 
Pisjeus  is  said  to  have  first  added  the  rostrum  or 
beak-head.  Later  it  was  a  small  platform  .at  the 
fore  part  of  the  upper  deck,  but  the  term  is  now 
applied  to  that  part  without  the  ship  before  the 
forecastle,  or  knee  of  the  head,  which  is  fastened 
to  the  stem  and  is  supported  by  the  main  knee. 
Latterly  the  whole  of  this  is  enlarged,  strength 
ened,  and  armed  with  iron  plates,  and  thus  the 
armed  stem  revives  the  ancient  strategy  in  sea- 
fights. 

Beam.  A  long  double  stratum  of  murky 
clouds  generally  observed  in  the  Mediterranean 
previous  to  a  violent  storm.  A  collection  of 
parallel  rays  emitted  from  the  sun  or  other  lu 
minous  body.  Any  large  piece  of  timber  or  iron 
long  in  proportion  to  its  other  dimensions.  One 
of  the  heavy  transverse  timbers  which  support 
the  deck  and  retain  the  sides  of  a  ship  in  shape. 
Beam,  or  breadth  of  beam,  the  width  of  a  ship. 
On  the  beam,  in  a  line  with  the  beams,  or  at 
right  angles  to  the  keel. 

"BEAM^CENTRE.  The  fulcrum  on  which  the 
walking-beam  vibrates. 

BEAM-ENDS.     A  ship  is  said  to  be  on  her  beam- 


BEAN-COD 


72 


BEAUMONT 


ends  when  she  has  heeled  over  so  much  that  her 
beams  approach  a  vertical  position.  The  expres 
sion  is  used  figuratively  for  a  person  in  distress. 

BEAM-ENGINE.  An  engine  with  an  oscillating 
beam,  by  which  the  power  is  transmitted  from 
the  piston  to  the  shaft. 

BEAM-FILLINGS.  Short  pieces  of  wood  to  fit 
between  the  beams,  to  complete  a  cargo  of  timber. 

BEAM-LINE.  A  line  which  indicates  the  in 
tersection  of  the  upper  part  of  the  beams  with  the 
frames  of  a  ship. 

BEAM,  WALKING-.  The  beam  of  a  beam-en 
gine,  called  also  working-beam. 

Bean-cod.  A  small  fishing-vessel,  or  pilot- 
boat,  common  in  Spain  and  Portugal.  It  is 
fitted  with  a  large  lateen-sail,  and  sometimes  has 
an  outrigger  over  the  stern.  It  is  extremely 
sharp  forward,  and  works  well  to  windward. 

Bear.  A  coir-mat  filled  with  sand,  or  a  block 
of  stone,  matted,  loaded  with  shot,  and  fitted 
with  ropes,  for  hauling  to  and  fro  to  grind  the 
decks. 

Bear.  To  bear  down  upon  a  vessel  is  to  ap 
proach  her  from  to  windward.  To  bear  up,  to 
put  the  helm  up  and  run  oif  to  leeward.  To  bear 
sail,  stiff  under  canvas.  To  bring  the  guns  to 
bear,  to  so  lay  the  ship's  head  that  the  guns  may 
be  pointed  at  the  enemy.  To  bear  in  with  (or 
off  from)  the  land  is  to  stand  in  toward  (or  off 
from)  the  coast.  To  bear  off,  to  push  one  object 
off  from  another ;  as,  a  lighter  from  the  ship's 
side. 

BEAK  A  BOB,  or  A  FIST.  Jocular  for  lend  a 
hand. 

BEAR  A  HAND     Hasten. 

Beard.  The  silky  filaments  by  which  some 
testacea  adhere  to  the  rocks.  The  gills  of  an 
oyster.  The  rays  of  a  comet  emitted  toward  that 
part  of  the  heavens  to  which  its  proper  motion 
seems  to  direct  it. 

Bearding.  The  diminution  of  the  edge  or 
surface  of  a  piece  of  timber  from  a  given  line; 
as,  on  the  stem,  deadwood,  etc. 

Bearding-line.  The  trace  of  the  inner  surface 
of  the  ship's  skin  on  the  keel,  stem,  and  stern-post. 

Bearer.  An  instrument  used  in  handling 
heavy  shells. 

Bearing.  The  manner  in  which  a  person 
conducts  himself.  The  portion  of  an  axle  or 
shaft  in  contact  with  its  supports.  The  bearing 
of  an  object  or  place  is  the  angle  contained  be 
tween  the  meridian  and  the  vertical  plane 
through  the  object.  It  is  the  same  as  the  course 
to  the  place. 

BEARING,  COMPASS.  The  bearing  of  an  ob 
ject  as  observed  by  the  compass.  It  is  the  angle 
between  the  needle  of  the  standard  compass  on 
board  the  ship  of  the  observer  and  the  direction 
of  the  object :  it  is,  therefore,  affected  by  the  de 
viation  and  variation  of  the  compass.  If  the 
correction  for  deviation  be  applied,  the  True 
Magnetic  Bearing  is  obtained ;  and  if,  further, 
the  correction  for  variation  be  applied,  the  True 
Bearing  or  Azimuth  is  deduced 

BEARING,  MAGNETIC.  The  magnetic  bearing, 
or  "  True  Magnetic  Bearing,"  of  an  object  is  the 
angle  which  its  direction  makes  with  the  mag 
netic  meridian.  This  is  the  bearing  which  "is 
observed  with  the  azimuth  compass  after  being 
corrected  for  local  deviation  ;  from  it  the  True 
Bearing  is  deduced  by  applying  the  correction 
for  variation. 


BEARING,  TRUE.  The  true  bearing  of  an  ob 
ject,  or  the  "  Bearing,"  properly  so  called,  is  the 
angle  which  the  direction  of  the  object  makes 
with  the  meridian.  It  is  thus  qualified  to  dis 
tinguish  it  from  the  Compass  and  Magnetic  Bear 
ing.  See  AZIMUTH. 

BEARING,  TAKING  A.  Taking  a  bearing  of  an 
object  is  to  ascertain  its  direction  by  the  com- 


BEARINGS,  CROSS.  "  Cross  Bearings"  are  the 
bearings  of  two  or  more  objects  taken  from  the 
same  place,  and  therefore  intersecting  or  "  cross 
ing"  each  other  at  the  station  of  the  observer. 
"When  near  a  coast  where  the  landmarks  are 
well  laid  down  on  the  chart,  cross  bearings  give 
the  position  with  ease  and  accuracy. 

BEARING,  LINE  OF.  If  a  ship  is  in  the  vicin 
ity  of  land,  one  "  Circle  of  Equal  Altitude" 
(Sumner's  Method)  is  often  of  great  use  to  the 
navigator  who  is  uncertain  of  his  exact  position. 
He  is  on  some  point  of  this  circle,  but  does  not 
know  where.  Let  him  project  it  on  his  chart 
and  produce  the  resulting  line  till  it  meets  or 
passes  near  the  land.  Such  a  line  is  called  a 
"Line  of  Bearing."  If  it  hit  any  prominent 
mark  or  light,  the  bearing  of  this  is  known,  and 
by  sailing  along  the  line  of  bearing  till  the  object 
is  sighted,  the  exact  position  of  the  ship  may  be 
picked  up.  The  line  of  bearing  may  cross  the 
range  of  a  light-house,  and  consequent!}',  when 
the  light  is  first  sighted,  the  exact  position  of  the 
ship  is  known.  Or  the  position  on  the  line  of 
bearing  may  be  found  by  soundings.  When 
the  coast  trends  parallel  to  the  line  of  bearing, 
the  distance  of  the  ship  from  the  shore  is  indi 
cated,  though  her  absolute  position  is  uncertain. 

Bearing  Binnacle.  A  small  binnacle,  gener 
ally  placed  in  the  centre  of  the  forward  part  of 
the  poop-deck. 

Bearings.  The  widest  part  of  a  vessel  below 
the  plank-shear.  The  line  of  flotation  when 
properly  trimmed  with  stores  and  ballast  on 
board.  To  bring  a  person  to  his  bearings  is  to 
bring  him  to  his  senses  ;  to  put  him  under  control. 

Beat.  To  make  progress  against  a  head  wind 
by  a  series  of  zigzag  courses. 

Beaten  Back.  Forced  to  return  on  account 
of  a  head  wind  and  sea. 

Beating  Wind.  A  wind  which  necessitates 
tacking  to  make  progress. 

Beating  the  Booby.  Swinging  the  arms  from 
side  to  side  to  create  a  warmth  by  accelerating 
the  circulation  of  the  blood. 

Beaufort  (S.  C.),  a  port  of  entry,  on  Port 
Royal  or  Beaufort  Island,  on  an  inlet  called 
Port  Royal  River,  about  14  miles  from  the 
ocean,  and  55  miles  W.S.W.  of  Charleston. 
Pop.  2000. 

Beaumont,  J.  C.,  Commodore  U.S.N.  Ap 
pointed  midshipman,  March  1,  1838;  sloops-of- 
war  "Ontario"  and  "Erie,"  1838-40;  frigate 
"Constellation"  during  her  cruise  around  the 
world,  1840-44. 

Promoted  to  passed  midshipman,  1844;  sloop- 
of-war  "  Jamestown,"  coast  of  Africa,  acting  mas 
ter,  1844-46;  ship-of-the-line  "Ohio,"  West 
India  Squadron,  1846;  at  the  fall  of  Vera  Cruz  ; 
frigate  "  Columbia,"  1847,  acting  lieutenant ; 
Naval  Observatory,  Washington,  D.  C.,  1848; 
razee  "  Independence,"  Mediterranean  Squadron, 
master  and  acting  lieutenant,  1849-52. 

Promoted  to  lieutenant  in  1852;  Naval  Ob- 


BECALM 


BELFRY 


servatory,  1852-54;  steamer  "San  Jacinto,"  on 
the  coast  of  Europe  and  the  West  Indies,  1854- 
55;  frigate  "Potomac,"  Home  Squadron,  1856; 
steam-frigate  "  Wabash,"  Home  Squadron,  1857  ; 
receiving-ship  at  New  York,  1857-58;  steam- 
sloop  "Hartford,"  East  India  Squadron,  1859- 
60;  sloop-of-war  "John  Adams,"  executive- 
oificer,  1860-61 ;  lieutenant-commander,  com 
manding  steamer  "  Aroostook,"  North  Atlantic 
Squadron,  1862;  was  an  active  participant  in 
the  engagements  with  the  enemy's  batteries  in 
the  James  River  and  at  Fort  Darling,  in  May, 
1862. 

Promoted  to  commander,  1862 ;  commanded 
the  steam-gunboat  "Sebago,"  South  Atlantic 
Squadron,  1862-63;  commanded  monitor  "Nan- 
tucket,"  1863,  in  various  engagements  with  the 
rebel  fortifications  in  Charleston  harbor,  and 
took  a  leading  part  in  the  capture  of  Fort 
"Wagner;  commanded  steamer  "Mackinaw," 
1864-65,  in  the  North  and  South  Atlantic 
Squadrons  ;  participated  in  all  of  the  attacks  on 
Fort  Fisher,  where  his  vessel  was  badly  cut  up 
by  the  enemy's  shell ;  participated  in  all  of  the 
subsequent  engagements  with  the  rebel  batteries 
on  the  Cape  Fear  River ;  commanded  the  iron 
clad  "  Miantonomah,"  special  cruise  on  the  coast 
of  Europe,  1866-67 ;  retired  in  1868. 

Restored  to  the  active  list  in  1873,  as  captain ; 
commanded  the  steamer  "Powhatan,"  1873-74, 
special  service. 

Promoted  to  commodore  in  1874  ;  chief  signal- 
officer  of  the  navy,  1875-79  ;  commandant  navy- 
yard,  Portsmouth,  N.  H.,  1879-80. 

Becalm.  To  render  quiet  or  calm  by  inter 
cepting  the  current  of  air  in  its  passage  to  the 
object ;  thus  the  jib  is  becalmed  by  the  foresail 
when  before  the  wind. 

BECALMED.  Rendered  quiet.  State  of  a  ves 
sel  at  sea  when  there  is  no  wind. 

Becket.  A  small  grommet  used  for  various 
purposes ;  as,  for  reefing  with  toggles,  for  hitch 
ing  the  standing  part  of  a  fall, "etc.  A  sailor's 
name  for  pocket. 

Bed.  Flat  thick  pieces  of  wood,  lodged  under 
the  quarters  of  casks  containing  any  liquid, 
and  stowed  in  a  ship's  hold,  in  order  to  keep 
them  bilge-free  ;  being  steadied  upon  the  beds  by 
means  of  wedges  called  quoins.  The  impres 
sion  made  by  a  ship's  bottom  on  the  mud  when 
aground.  The  bite  made  in  the  ground  by  the 
fluke  of  an  anchor.  A  kind  of  false  deck,  or 
platform,  placed  on  those  decks  where  the  guns 
were  too  low  for  the  ports.  A  platform  for  sup 
porting  a  mortar.  That  part  of  the  channel  of  a 
stream  over  which  the  water  generally  flows,  as 
also  that  part  of  the  basin  of  a  sea  or  lake  on 
which  the  water  lies.  Bed  of  a  gun-carriage,  or 
stool-led.  The  piece  of  wood  between  the  brackets 
which,  with  the  intervention  of  the  quoin,  sup 
ports  the  breech  of  the  gun.  It  is  itself  sup 
ported,  forward,  on  the  bed-bolt,  and  aft  on  the 
rear  axle.  Red  of  the  bowsprit,  a  bearing  formed 
out  of  the  stem  and  apron,  to  support  the  bow 
sprit  ;  it  is  lined  with  lead  to  prevent  the  water 
from  getting  below  on  account  of  any  shrinkage 
in  the  timber. 

BED-BOLT.  A  horizontal  bolt  passing  through 
both  brackets  of  a  gun-carriage,  and  on  which 
the  forward  end  of  the  stool-bed  rests. 

BEDDING  A  CASK.    Placing  dunnage  round  it. 

Bedlamers.     Young   Labrador  seals,   which 


set  up  a  dismal  cry  when  they  cannot  escape 
their  pursuers. 

Bed-  or  Barrel-Screw.  A  powerful  machine 
for  lifting  large  bodies,  and  placed  against  the 
gripe  of  a  ship  to  be  launched  for  starting  her. 

Be-dundered.     Stupefied  with  noise. 

Bee-blocks,  or  Bees.  Pieces  of  hard  wood 
bolted  to  the  sides  of  the  bowsprit,  through 
which  are  rove  the  fore-topmast  stays. 

Beef.  A  figurative  term  for  strength.  More 
beef !  more  men  on. 

Beef-eater.     A  man  more  distinguished  for 

Shysical  strength  than  for  mental  weight.  It  is 
ack's  term  for  an  Englishman. 

Beetle.  A  shipwright's  heavy  mallet  for 
driving  the  reeming-irons. 

Beetle-head.  A  large  beetle  used  in  pile- 
driving. 

Before  the  Mast.  A  term  used  to  distin 
guish  the  ship's  crew  from  the  officers. 

Before  the  Wind.  A  vessel  having  the  wind 
aft  is  before  the  wind.  The  yards  are  squared, 
and  as  the  mainsail  becalms  the  foresail  and 
causes  the  ship  to  steer  badly,  it  is  generally 
taken  in,  though  in  the  very  long  ships  of  the 
present  day  it  is  sometimes  carried. 

Beggar-bolts.  A  contemptuous  term  for  the 
missiles  which  were  thrown  by  the  galley-slaves 
at  an  approaching  enemy. 

Behavior.  The  action  and  qualities  of  a  ship 
under  different  impulses.  Seamen  speak  of  the 
manner  in  which  she  behaves  as  if  she  acted  by 
her  own  instinct. 

Behring,  Vitus,  a  celebrated  Danish  navigator. 
Born  in  Jutland,  1680,  entered  the  Russian  navy 
at  an  early  age,  and  fought  with  distinction 
against  the  Swedes.  In  1725  engaged  in  com 
mand  of  an  expedition  to  explore  the  Sea  of  Kamt- 
chatka,  this  skillful  Danish  navigator  discovered 
in  1728  the  straits  which  connect  the  Pacific  and 
the  Atlantic,  and  they  received  his  name.  In  a 
subsequent  voyage  he  was  wrecked  on  Behring 's 
Island,  where'he  died  December  8,  1741. 

Beikat.    See  BYKAT. 

Beiled.  A  sea-term  in  the  old  law-books,  ap 
parently  for  moored. 

Belay.  To  secure  a  rope  with  turns  around  a 
pin,  cleat,  or  cavil. 

BELAYING-PIN.  A  small  pin  of  wood  or  iron 
to  which  are  made  fast  the  hauling  parts  of  the 
running-gear. 

Belcher,  Sir  Edward.  Born  in  1799,  entered 
the  navy  in  1812  as  a  volunteer ;  in  1816  took 
part  in  the  bombardment  of  Algiers.  Distin 
guished  above  every  other  British  admiral  for 
his  voyage  round  the  world  and  his  exploration 
of  the*  American  shores  of  the  Pacific,  he  was 
nevertheless  unfortunate  in  an  attempt  that  he 
made  in  1852  to  trace  the  whereabouts  or  the 
fate  of  Sir  John  Franklin.  He  lost  both  of  his 
ships  in  the  enterprise,  and  was,  according  to 
custom,  tried  by  court-martial  for  the  disaster. 
The  verdict  was  honorable  acquittal.  In  1864  he 
became  rear-admiral  of  the  red. 

Belfast  (Me.).  A  city  and  port  of  entry  on 
the  W.  side  of  Penobscot  Bay  (which  is  the  es 
tuary  between  the  Penobscot  River  and  the 
ocean),  42  miles  E.  by  N.  from  Augusta,  and  30 
miles  from  the  ocean.  Many  of  the  inhabitants 
are  employed  in  ship-building.  Pop.  6200. 

Belfry.  A  frame  or  shelter  under  which  the 
ship's  bell  is  suspended. 


BELL 


74 


BENDS 


Bell.  The  rapid  ringing  of  a  ship's  bell  is  the 
fire-alarm,  which  see.  The  tolling  of  the  bell  is 
the  summons  to  divine  service.  The  principal 
use  of  the  bell  on  board  ship  is  to  mark  the  time. 
At  four,  eight,  and  twelve  o'clock  the  bell  is 
struck  eight  times, — half  an  hour  afterwards  it  is 
struck  once,  and  an  hour  afterwards  it  is  struck 
twice,  and  so  on  until  the  end  of  the  watch, 
when  it  is  struck  eight  times,  after  which  the 
preceding  routine  is  again  carried  out.  Time  is 
reckoned  by  bells,  thus  three  bells  in  the  fore 
noon  is  half-past  nine  o'clock,  and  four  bells  in 
the  afternoon  is  two  o'clock,  etc. 

Bell,  Charles  H.,  Rear-Admiral  U.S.N. 
Born  in  New  York,  1798.  Appointed  midship 
man  June  18,  1812  ;  attached  to  Commodore  De- 
catur's  squadron  all  of  1813  and  until  the  spring 
of  1814;  in  the  summer  of  1814  was  transferred 
to  the  squadron  of  Commodore  Chauncey,  on 
Lake  Ontario,  where  he  remained  until  the  war 
ended  ;  attached  to  Commodore  Decatur's  squad 
ron,  in  the  Mediterranean,  in  1815. 

Commissioned  as  lieutenant,  March  28,  1820; 
serving  in  sloop-of-war  "Erie,"  West  India 
Squadron,  1829  ;  navy-yard,  New  York,  1833 ; 
sloop  "  Vincennes,"  Pacific  Squadron,  1834-35; 
commanding  schooner  * '  Dolphin , ' '  Pacific  Squad 
ron,  1836. 

Commissioned  as  commander,  September  10, 
1840,  and  ordered  to  command  the  schooner 
"Dolphin,"  Brazil  Squadron;  commanding 
sloop-of-war  "Yorktown,"  coast  of  Africa, 
1846  ;  navy-yard,  New  York,  1850 ;  special  duty, 
1851-54. 

Commissioned  as  captain,  August  12,  1854 ; 
commanding  frigate  "  Constellation,"  Mediter 
ranean  Squadron,  1856-58;  commandant  Norfolk 
navy-yard,  1860. 

Commissioned  as  commodore,  July  16,  1862 ; 
commanding  Pacific  Squadron,  1862-64 ;  special 
duty,  James  River,  1865. 

Commissioned  as  rear-admiral,  July  25,  1866; 
commandant  navy-yard,  New  York,  1866-68; 
died  1872. 

Bell,  Henry  H.f  Rear-Admiral  U.S.N.  Born 
in  North  Carolina,  1808 ;  midshipman,  August 
4,  1823 ;  lieutenant,  March  3,  1831 ;  commander, 
August  12,  1854 ;  captain,  1861 ;  commodore, 
July  16,  1862  ;  rear-admiral,  July  25,  1866.  First 
served  in  the  "Grampus"  in  clearing  the  coast 
of  Cuba  of  pirates.  He  commanded  one  of  the 
vessels  of  the  East  India  Squadron,  which,  in 
November,  1856,  captured  and  destroyed  the  four 
barrier  forts  near  Canton,  China.  Assigned  to 
the  Gulf  Squadron  in  1861,  and  as  fleet-captain 
took  an  active  part  in  the  capture  of  New  Or 
leans  and  siege  of  Vicksburg.  He  was  for  a 
time  in  1863  in  command  of  the  West  Gulf  Squad 
ron,  and  when  Admiral  Thatcher  was  ordered  to 
other  duty  its  command  again  devolved  on  him. 
In  July,  1865,  he  was  ordered  to  command  the 
East  India  Squadron,  and  was  very  active  in 
putting  down  the  pirates  that  infested  the  Chi 
nese  seas.  In  1867  he  was  retired,  but  had  not 
been  relieved  when  he  was  drowned  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Osaka  River,  Japan,  January  11,  1868. 

Bella  Stella.  A  name  used  by  old  seamen  for 
the  cross-staif. 

Bellatrix  (Lat.  warlike).  The  name  for  the 
bright  star  y  Orionis. 

Bell-buoy.  A  buoy  on  which  is  placed  a  bell, 
which  is  sounded  by  the  action  of  the  waves. 


Belligerent  (Lat.  bellum,  war,  and  gerens, 
gerentis,  waging).  Waging  war.  Tending  ot 
pertaining  to  war ;  as,  belligerent  rights.  A  nation, 
power,  or  state  carrying  on  war.  See  INTER 
NATIONAL  LAW. 

Bellona.     The  goddess  of  war. 

Bellows.  An  old  hand  at  the  bellows,  a  phras( 
equivalent  to  saying  that  a  person  is  well  posted 
in  all  his  duties.  When  a  gale  increases  th( 
sailors  say  there  is  afresh  hand  at  the  bellows. 

Bell-rope.  A  piece  of  rope  spliced  around  the 
clapper  for  convenience  in  striking  the  bell. 

Belly.     The  inner  or  hollow  part  of  comps 
timber.     The  swell  of  a  sail.     Bellying  canvas, 
sails  inflated  with  wind. 

BELLY-BAND.  A  strengthening  band  of  canvas 
from  leech  to  leech,  half-way  between  the  lower 
reef-band  and  the  foot  of  the  sail. 

BELLY-GUY.  A  rope  or  tackle  applied  half-way 
up  a  sheer-leg,  or  long  spar,  to  keep  it  from 
buckling. 

BELLY-MAT.     See  PAUNCH-MAT. 

BELLY-STAY.     See  BELLY-GUY. 

Belone.  A  genus  of  abdominal  fishes  of  the 
Esox  or  pike  family. 

Below.  The  opposite  of  on  deck.  Below  the 
spar-deck. 

Belt.     A  zone ;  as,  a  calm  belt.     To  strike. 

Belting.     A  beating. 

Beluga.  A  fish  of  the  cetaceous  order  and 
dolphin  family.  The  northern  beluga  is  the 
white  whale  and  white-fish  of  the  whalers. 

Benbow,  John,  Admiral.  Born  in  Shrop 
shire  in  1650.  Beginning  life  as  a  midshipman 
in  the  reign  of  James  II.,  Benbow  became  a 
favorite  of  his  successor,  William  III.  After 
much  hard  service  in  different  quarters  he  was 
engaged  with  a  superior  French  force  under  Ad 
miral  Ducasse  off  St.  Martha,  in  the  West  In 
dies,  where  he  lost  his  right  leg.  In  the  midst 
of  the  fight  he  was  deserted  by  a  part  of  his 
squadron,  which  sorely  galled  him,  as  it  reflected 
on  the  honor  and  credit  of  the  navy.  He  ex 
claimed  that  he  would  rather  have  lost  both  legs 
than  witnessed  the  disgrace  of  the  service.  Died 
November  29,  1702. 

Bench-mark.  One  of  a  number  of  marks 
along  a  line  of  survey  indicating  a  series  of  levels 
at  different  elevations. 

Bend.  To  make  fast  a  rope  to  an  anchor,  spar, 
or  another  rope.  (See  STUN'-SAIL-HALLIARD-, 
FISHERMAN'S-,  SINGLE-,  DOUBLE-,  and  CAR- 
RICK-BEND.)  To  bend  a  sail  is  to  make  it  fast  to 
its  proper  yard,  gaff,  or  stay,  and  reeve  all  the 
gear  belonging  to  it.  To  bend  to  the  oars,  to  give 
way  strong.  To  bend  the  cable,  the  operation  of 
making  fast  the  cable  to  the  ring  of  the  anchor. 
The  term  is  still  used  for  shackling  the  chain  to 
the  anchor. 

Bender.     A  spree  or  jollification. 

Bend-mold.  A  mold  made  to  form  the  fut- 
tocks  in  the  square  body. 

Bends.  The  thickest  and  strongest  planks  on 
the  outward  part  of  a  ship's  side.  They  are  more 
properly  called  wales.  They  are  reckoned  from 
the  water,  and  are  distinguished  by  the  titles  of 
first,  second,  or  third  bend.  They  are  the  chief 
strength  of  a  ship's  sides,  and  have  the  beams, 
knees,  and  foot-hooks  bolted  to  them.  Bends 
are  also  the  frames  or  ribs  that  form  the  ship's 
body  from  the  keel  to  the  top  of  the  side,  indi 
vidualized  by  each  particular  station.  That  at 


BE-NEAPED 


75 


BIDDLE 


the  broadest  part  of  the  ship  is  denominated  the 
midship-bend  or  dead-flat. 

Be-neaped.  The  situation  of  a  vessel  when 
she  is  aground  at  the  height  of  spring-tides. 
See  NEAPED. 

Bengal-light.     See  BLUE-LIGHT. 

Benicia  (Cal.).  On  the  north  side  of  the 
Strait  of  Carquinez,  about  40  miles  N.E^.  of  San 
Francisco,  and  56  miles  S.W.  of  Sacramento. 
It  is  at  the  head  of  navigation  for  the  largest 
ships,  and  contains  the  depot  and  machine-shops 
of  the  Pacific  Mail  Company.  Pop.  2000. 

Benjy.  A  low-crowned  straw  hat,  with  a  very 
broad  brim. 

Benk.  A  term  for  a  low  bank,  or  ledge  of 
rock ;  probably  the  origin  of  bunk,  or  sleeping- 
places  in  merchant  vessels.  See  BUNK. 

Benn.     A  small  kind  of  salmon. 

Bent.  The  trivial  name  of  the  Arundo  are- 
naria,  or  coarse  unprofitable  grass  growing  on 
the  sea-shore. 

Bentinck-boom.  The  boom  which  stretches 
the  foot  of  the  foresail  in  many  small  square- 
rigged  merchantmen ;  particularly  used  in 
whalers  in  the  ice,  with  a  reefed  foresail  to  see 
clearly  ahead.  The  tack  and  sheet  are  thus 
dispensed  with,  a  tackle  amidships  bringing  the 
leeches  taut. 

Bentincks.  Triangular  courses,  so  named 
after  Captain  Bentinck,  by  whom  they  were 
invented. 

Bentinck  Shrouds.  Ropes  of  the  size  of  the 
topmast  rigging,  seized  on  to  the  weather  futtock- 
staff  and  set  up  to  the  lee  channels,  to  support 
the  mast  when  rolling  heavily.  They  are  not 
now  in  use. 

Bent  on  a  Splice.     Going  to  be  married. 

Bergen,  a  fortified  city  and  seaport  of  Nor 
way,  is  on  a  peninsula  at  the  end  of  a  deep  bay 
on  the  Atlantic,  190  miles  W.N.W.  of  Chris- 
tiania.  Lat.  60°  24'  N. ;  Ion.  5°  18'  E.  Bergen 
is  the  station  of  a  naval  squadron.  Its  harbor  is 
deep  and  sheltered,  and  defended  by  several  forts. 
Ship-building  is  carried  on  ;  the  fishery  is,  how 
ever,  the  principal  employment.  Pop.  36,000. 

Bermuda  Sails.     See  'MuGiAN. 

Bermuda  Squall.  A  sudden  and  strong  wintry 
tempest  experienced  in  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  near 
the  Bermudas ;  it  is  preceded  by  heavy  clouds, 
thunder,  and  lightning.  It  belongs  to  the  Gulf 
Stream,  and  is  felt,  throughout  its  course,  up  to 
the  banks  of  Newfoundland. 

Bermudez,  Juan.  A  Spaniard  who,  in  the 
era  of  Spanish  discoveries  (1522),  came  upon 
the  cluster  of  islands  in  the  "West  Indies,  to 
which  he  gave  his  own  name.  The  Bermudas, 
though  often  "vexed"  with  storms,  are  among 
the  most  beautiful  of  the  isles  of  the  west,  and 
are  particularly  valuable  as  harbors  for  vessels 
bound  either  to  the  north  or  south  of  the  Amer 
ican  continent.  They  are  now  the  property  of 
Great  Britain.  "Somerset  Island"  derives  its 
name  from  a  navigator  who  was  driven  upon  it 
in  a  gale. 

Bermudians.  Three-masted  schooners,  built 
at  Bermuda  for  the  English  during  the  war  of 
1814 ;  they  went  through  the  waves  without 
rising  to  them,  and  consequently  were  too  tick 
lish  for  northern  stations. 

Bernak.     The  barnacle  goose  (Anser  bernicla). 

Bersis.  A  species  of  cannon  formerly  much 
used  at  sea. 


Berth.  The  place  in  which  a  ship  lies  when 
she  is  at  anchor.  Situation,  position,  or  em 
ployment  of  an  individual.  The  space  allotted 
to  a  sailor  to  sleep  in.  To  give  a  point  or  rock  a 
wide  berth,  to  keep  at  a  considerable  distance 
from  it.  To  berth  a  ship's  company,  to  allot  to 
the  crew  the  place  in  which  they  are  to  swing 
their  hammocks.  The  watches  are  distributed 
in  equal  numbers  on  each  side  of  the  ship.  The 
boys  are  berthed  apart  from  the  men.  Marines, 
quartermasters,  and  others  who  sleep  in  till  six 
bells  are  berthed  well  aft,  so  they  will  not  be 
disturbed  when  all  hands  are  called.  Boat 
swain's  mates  swing  near  the  hatches.  Over 
each  man's  hammock-hook  is  hung  a  tin  plate 
with  his  hammock-number. 

BERTH-DECK.  The  deck  next  below  the  lower 
gun-deck. 

Berthing.  The  rising  or  working  up  of  the 
planks  of  the  ship's  side.  Berthing  also  denotes 
the  planking  outside  above  the  sheer-strake. 

Bervie.     A  haddock  split  and  half  dried. 

Berwick  Smack  (Eng.).  The  old  and  well- 
found  packet  of  former  days. 

Bessemer  Process.     See  STEEL. 

Best  Bower.     See  ANCHOR. 

Betelguese,  or  Betelgeux.  The  name  for  the 
bright  star  a  Orionis. 

Betty  Martin.  My  eye  and  Betty  Martin  is 
an  expression  implying  disbelief.  It  is  a  corrup 
tion  of  the  Romish  mtAt,  beate  Marline  I 

Between-decks.  The  space  comprised  be 
tween  any  two  whole  decks. 

Betwixt  Wind  and  Water.  That  portion  of 
a  vessel's  side  which  is  sometimes  below  and 
sometimes  above  the  surface  of  the  water.  This 
is  the  most  dangerous  place  to  receive  a  shot, 
hence  the  figurative  phrase  "  a  shot  betwixt  wind 
and  water,"  to  express  a  palpable  hit  in  an 
argument. 

Bevel.  Any  angle  except  a  right  angle ; 
a  sloped  surface.  An  instrument  composed  of  a 
stock  and  movable  tongue,  used  by  shipwrights 
in  getting  out  frame  timber,  plank,  etc.,  to  the 
desired  angle. 

BEVELING,.  The  angle  formed  between  one 
surface  and  another.  When  it  is  an  obtuse 
angle  it  is  called  a  standing  beveling  ;  when  the 
angle  is  acute  it  is  called  an  under  beveling. 

BEVELING-BOARD.  A  piece  of  white  pine  board 
on  which  the  beveling  of  the  frame  timbers  is 
described. 

BEVELING-EDGE.  The  edge  of  a  ship's  frame 
which  is  in  contact  with  the  skin. 

Bewpar.     The  old  name  for  bunting. 

Bezant.  An  early  gold  coin,  so  called  from 
having  been  first  coined  at  Byzantium. 

Bhur.  A  lighter  used  for  discharging  cargo 
at  Calcutta. 

Bibbs.  Pieces  of  timber  bolted  to  the  hounds 
of  a  mast,  to  support  the  tressle-trees. 

Bible.  A  small  holystone.  It  is  also  called 
a  prayer-book.  It  is  so  named  because  sailors 
kneel  in  using  them  to  clean  the  decks. 

Bible-press.  A  hand  rolling-board  for  car 
tridges,  rocket,  and  port-fire  cases. 

Biiddle,  James,  Commodore  U.S.N.,  was  born 
in  Philadelphia  in  1783,  and  entered  the  navy  as 
midshipman  in  1800.  On  his  second  cruise  he  was 
captured,  with  Capt.  Bainbridge  and  the  other 
ofiicers  and  crew  of  the  frigate  "  Philadelphia," 
by  the  Tripolitans,  when  that  ship  had  struck 


BIDDLE 


76 


BILGE 


upon  an  unknown  rock  off  the  harbor.  After  an 
imprisonment  of  twenty  months  the  captives  were 
released.  From  that  time  until  the  war  of  1812 
Biddle  was  actively  employed,  end  upon  the 
breaking  out  of  hostilities  sailed  in  the  sloop-of- 
war  "Wasp,"  Capt.  Jacob  Jones,  as  first  lieu 
tenant.  In  October,  1812,  the  "Wasp"  cap 
tured  the  British  sloop-of-war  "Frolic,"  of 
about  equal  force,  this  being  the  second  of  those 
famous  naval  combats  of  which  Alison  says, 
"  No  words  can  convey  an  adequate  idea  of  the 
impression  which  the  successive  capture  of  these 
three  frigates  and  two  sloops  made,  not  only  in 
Great  Britain  and  America,  but  over  the  whole 
civilized  world."  For  gallantry  on  this  occa 
sion  Lieut.  Biddle  was  promoted,  and  placed  in 
command  of  the  sloop-of-war  "Hornet."  On 
this  ship  he  was  blockaded,  with  Commodore 
Decatur's  squadron,  in  New  London.  Escaping 
the  blockade  he  sailed  for  the  East  Indies,  and 
off  the  island  of  Tristan  d'Acunha  encountered 
the  British  brig  "  Penguin,"  of  equal  force  with 
the  "Hornet."  After  an  action  of  twenty-two 
minutes,  in  which  the  British  ship  lost  a  third 
of  her  officers  and  crew  killed  and  wounded,  the 
"Penguin"  surrendered,  but  was  so  damaged 
that  it  was  necessary  to  scuttle  her.  Biddle  was 
severely  wounded  in  the  neck,  and  on  his  return 
to  the  United  States  was  promoted  to  the  rank 
of  captain. 

After  the  termination  of  the  war  he  was  con 
stantly  employed  both  in  the  ordinary  routine  of 
duty  and  also  upon  special  services  of  more  impor 
tance.  In  1817  he  took  possession  of  Oregon  Ter 
ritory  ;  in  1826  he  signed  a  commercial  treaty  with 
Turkey.  From  1838  to  1842  he  was  governor  of  the 
Naval  Asylum,  Philadelphia  ;  and  at  his  sugges 
tion  Secretary  Paulding  sent  thither  unemployed 
midshipmen  for  instruction,  thus  laying  the  foun 
dation  of  a  naval  school.  His  last  cruise  was  in 
command  of  a  squadron  in  the  East  Indies. 
After  exchanging  the'  ratifications  of  the  first 
treaty  with  China,  in  1845,  he  touched  at  Japan, 
and  was  for  a  short  time  in  command  on  the 
coast  of  California  during  the  Mexican  war.  He 
died  in  Philadelphia  in  October,  1848. 

Biddle,  Nicholas,  Captain  U.S.N.  An  officer 
of  the  Colonial  period.  In  command  of  the 
"  Andrew  Doria,"  of  14  guns,  he  displayed  great 
activity,  zeal,  and  intelligence.  He  made  a  num 
ber  of  prizes,  and  had  at  an  early  period  raised 
the  expectations  of  his  friends  to  such  a  height 
that  by  many  of  them  he  was  pronounced,  and 
probably  justly,  not  to  have  his  superior  in  merit 
in  the  service.  While  cruising  near  the  banks 
of  Newfoundland  he  intercepted  two  transports, 
with  400  Highland  troops  on  board,  and  was  so 
successful  in  making  captures  that  it  is  said  he 
returned  to  the  Delaware  with  five  only  of  the 
men  which  composed  his  crew  when  he  last  left 
that  river.  He  had  distributed  them  among  the 
captured,  and  received  in  return  such  of  the  crews 
of  his  prizes  as  were  disposed  to  enter  the  Con 
tinental  service.  Capt.  Biddle  was  appointed  by 
Congress  (June  6,  1776)  to  command  one  of  the 
frigates  then  building  in  Philadelphia, — the 
"  Randolph,"  of  32  guns.  In  February,  1777, 
she  sailed  on  a  cruise.  In  a  few  days  a  defect 
discovered  in  his  masts  induced  him  to  put  into 
Charleston,  S.  C.,  to  repair  them.  Having  re 
fitted,  he  again  sailed,  and  three  days  after 
being  out  tie  fell  in  with  four  vessels  from 


Jamaica,  one  of  them,  the  "True  Briton,"  of 
20  guns.  Having  captured  the  whole  four,  he  re 
turned  with  them  to  Charleston.  This  success 
gave  such  animation  and  encouragement  to  the 
State  authorities  of  South  Carolina  that  they 
fitted  out  four  small  vessels  of  war  ("  General 
Moultrie,"  "Fair  American,"  "Polly,"  and 
"Notre  Dame"),  and  placed  them  under  the 
orders  of  Capt.  Biddle.  The  immediate  object 
was  an  attack  upon  the  "  Carrysfort,"  32,  the 
"Perseus,"  24,  the  "  Hinchinbrook,"  16,  and 
a  privateer  then  cruising  off  Charleston.  The 
bar  of  Charleston  and  adverse  winds  detained 
Capt.  Biddle  so  long  in  Rebellion  Road,  that 
when  he  got  to  sea  the  British  cruisers  had  dis 
appeared.  He  captured  a  small  schooner,  and 
proceeded  on  his  cruise  till,  between  8  and 
o'clock  at  night  of  March  7,  1778,  he  fell  in 
with  the  "Yarmouth,"  Capt.  Vincent,  of  64 
guns.  An  action  immediately  commenced  by  a 
broadside  from  the  "  Randolph,"  and  was  main 
tained  with  great  energy  for  twenty  minutes  or 
more,  when  the  "Randolph"  blew  up,  and  the 
gallant  Biddle,  with  310  of  his  crew,  perished  in 
a  blaze  of  glory.  Four  only  of  his  men  escaped, 
and  they  were  picked  up  by  the  "  Yarmouth" 
four  days  after  the  action,  having  supported 
themselves  on  a  piece  of  the  wreck,  without  any 
thing  to  subsist  on  or  quench  their  thirst  ex 
cepting  rain-water  sucked  from  a  blanket,  which 
they  had  providently  preserved. 

Bid-hook.     A  small  kind  of  boat-hook. 

Biel-brief.  The  bottomry  contract  in  Den 
mark,  Sweden,  and  the  north  of  Germany. 

Bierling.     An  old  name  for  a  small  galley. 

Bifurcate.  A  river  is  said  to  bifurcate,  or  to 
form  a  fork,  when  it  divides  into  two  distinct 
branches,  as  at  the  heads  of  deltas  and  in  fluvial 
basins. 

Bight.  The  loop  of  a  rope.  A  bend  of  the 
coast  forming  a  wide-mouthed  bay. 

Bilander.  A  small  merchant  vessel  with  two 
masts,  particularly  distinguished  by  the  form  of 
her  mainsail.  It  is  bent  to  the  whole  length  of 
the  yard,  hangs  fore-and-aft,  and  is  inclined  at 
an  angle  of  45°  to  the  horizon.  Few  vessels  are 
now  rigged  in  this  manner,  and  the  name  is  in 
discriminately  used. 

Bilbo.  An  old  term  for  a  flexible  kind  of 
cutlass  from  Bilboa,  where  the  best  Spanish 
sword-blades  were  made. 

Bilboa.  A  city  and  seaport  of  Spain,  on  the 
Nerva,  6  miles  from  its  mouth.  Lat.  40°  14' 
3"  N. ;  Ion.  2°  56/  5"  W.  Bilboa  has  large  rope- 
walks  and  docks  for  ship-building,  and  the  an 
chors  for  the  Spanish  navv  are  here  manufactured. 
Pop.  27,000. 

Bilboes.  Bolts  and  shackles  used  by  the 
Spanish  to  confine  the  legs  of  their  prisoners. 

Bilge,  or  Bulge.  The  largest  circumference 
of  a  cask.  That  part  of  the  hull  of  a  ship  which 
approaches  more  nearly  to  a  horizontal  than  to 
a  vertical  position.  W'hen  a  ship  runs  aground 
and  receives  an  injury  in  this  part  of  the  hull 
she  is  said  to  be  bilged.  To  bilge,  in  a  figurative 
sense,  means  to  be  dropped  from  the  service  for 
failure  to  pass  an  examination. 

BILGE-BOARD.  The  board  covering  the  lim 
bers. 

BILOE-FEVEK.  A  fever  caused  by  the  foulness 
of  the  hold. 

BILGE-FREE.     The  situation  of  a  cask  when  it 


BILL 


77 


BILL  OF   LADING 


rests  entirely  on  its  beds,  and  the  bilge  is  clear 
of  everything. 

BILGE-KEEL.  A  projection  on  the  bilge  of  a 
vessel  parallel  with  the  keel.  Used  in  flat-bot 
tomed  light-draft  vessels  to  check  the  rolling. 

BILGE-KELSON.  A  timber  extending  fore-and- 
aft  inside  the  bilge  to  strengthen  the  frame. 

BILGE-PLANK.  A  strengthening  plank  at  the 
bilge  outside  or  inside. 

BILGE-PUMP.  A  pump  for  clearing  the  hold 
of  water.  A  small  pump  for  drawing  off  the 
bilge- water  when  the  ship  is  careened  so  that  the 
water  cannot  make  its  way  to  the  pump-well. 

BILGE-WATER.  "Water  that  has  collected  in 
the  bottom  of  a  ship.  It  should  be  pumped  out 
frequently,  as  it  soon  gives  off  an  offensive  odor 
and  endangers  the  health  of  the  crew. 

BILGE-WATER  ALARM.  A  bilge  water  gauge 
(which  see),  to  which  is  an  attachment  that 
sounds  an  alarm  when  the  water  has  risen  to  a 
certain  height. 

BILGE- WATER  DISCHARGE.  An  apparatus  for 
discharging  the  bilge- water  automatically ;  a 
tube  from  the  pump-well  through  the  stern, 
through  which  a  current  is  induced  by  the 
vacuum  which  is  formed  at  the  rear  orifice  by 
the  passage  of  the  ship  through  the  water. 

BILGE-VATER  GAUGE.  An  apparatus  to  in 
dicate  the  depth  of  water  in  the  hold. 

BILGE-WAYS.  A  series  of  timbers  on  either 
side  of  a  vessel  on  the  launching-ways,  on  which 
rests  the  cradle  which  supports  the  body  of  the 
ship  in  launching. 

Bill.  The  end  of  a  compass  or  knee-timber. 
The  extremity  of  the  arm  of  an  anchor.  A 
point  of  land,  as  Portland  Bill.  The  point  of  a 
hook.  See  FIRE-BILL,  WATCH-BILL,  QUARTER- 
BILL,  and  STATION-BILL. 

Bill  of  Entry.  A  document  containing  an 
account  of  goods  entered  at  a  custom-house, 
either  inward  or  outward. 

Bill  of  Exchange.  A  note  ordering  the  pay 
ment  of  a  sum  of  money  at  a  specified  time  and 
place,  to  a  person  therein  appointed,  in  consider 
ation  of  value  received  by  the  drawer  at  another. 

The  negotiation  of  inland  bills  of  exchange,  or 
those  drawn  by  one  person  on  another  residing  in 
the  same  country,  may  be  effected  either  with  or 
without  the  agency  of  bankers. 

Usually  there  are  three  parties  to  a  bill  of  ex 
change,  viz.,  the  drawer,  the  acceptor,  and  the 
indorser.  When  a  party  refuses  to  accept  a  bill 
drawn  upon  him,  the  holder's  notary  takes  pro 
test  upon  it,  whereupon  it  is  returned  to  the 
original  drawer,  who  is  liable  in  damages  to  the 
holder.  Should  the  bill  be  accepted,  but  not 
paid  when  due,  the  holder's  notary  protests  for 
non-payment.  The  acceptor  is  always  liable  to 
the  holder  ;  and  the  holder  has  recourse  also 
against  the  drawer  and  the  indorsers :  the  acceptor 
is  liable  only  for  the  expenses  of  an  action  against 
himself,  therefore  the  holder  must  make  his  elec 
tion  whom  to  sue.  To  preserve  this  recourse  the 
earliest  possible  notice  of  the  non-payment  of  a 
bill,  to  the  drawer,  and  also  to  the  indorsers,  must 
be  given.  Every  bill  must  be  for  payment  of 
money  only  ;  but  it  does  not  affect  the  validity  of 
a  bill  that  its  payment  should  depend  upon  some 
contingency,  provided  it  be  a  contingency  which 
must  eventually  happen,  such  as  the  death  of  a 
party  now  living.  An  alteration  in  the  date,  sum, 
or  time  of  payment  of  a  bill,  will  invalidate  it ; 


but  it  has  been  ruled  that  the  words  "  or  order" 
may  be  interlined  in  it.  A  bill  may  be  accepted 
either  absolutely  or  with  qualifications.  When 
accepted  qualifiedly,  it  does  not  bind  the  acceptor 
till  the  contingency  stipulated  shall  have  hap 
pened.  A  bill  may  be  also  accepted  partially, 
that  is,  it  may  be  drawn  for  $200,  but  accepted 
only  for  $150.  In  all  cases  of  conditional  or 
partial  acceptance,  it  is  the  duty  of  the  holder, 
if  he  wish  to  preserve  his  recourse  against  the 
drawer  and  indorsers,  to  give  notice  to  them 
of  such  partial  or  conditional  acceptance.  When 
a  bill  is  made  payable  a  certain  time  after  sight, 
the  holder  must  get  the  acceptor  to  note  upon 
it  the  day  when  it  was  presented  for  his  ac 
ceptance.  Notice  of  the  dishonoring  of  a  bill 
by  non-payment,  or  non-acceptance,  should  al 
ways  be  given  to  the  immediate  indorser,  next 
day,  through  the  post-office.  Bills  may  be  trans 
ferred  either  by  delivery  only  or  by  indorsation 
and  delivery.  Bills  payable  to  order  require  in 
dorsation  and  delivery ;  but  bills  payable  to 
bearer  may  be  transferred  by  either  mode.  A 
special  indorsement  precludes  the  person  in 
whose  favor  it  is  made  from  making  a  transfer. 
After  the  payment  of  a  part,  a  bill  may  be  in 
dorsed  over  for  the  residue.  If  a  bill  is  not  pre 
sented  for  payment  when  due,  the  drawer  and 
indorser  will  be  exonerated  from  liability.  ,  If  a 
bill  fall  due  on  Sunday,  or  a  holiday,  it  must  be 
presented  for  payment  on  the  day  preceding. 
The  days  of  grace  ought  to  have  expired  before 
a  bill  is  presented  for  payment.  No  days  of 
grace  are  allowed  on  bills  payable  on  demand,  or 
where  no  time  of  payment  is  expressed. 

Bills  of  exchange  may  be  drawn  payable  at 
sight,  or  so  many  days  or  months  after  date,  or 
at  usance,  as  it  is  termed  ;  that  is,  the  usual  term 
allowed  by  the  law  of  the  place  where  the  bill  is 
payable.  Most  countries,  however,  allow  a  few 
days  beyond  the  term  of  payment  for  settling  or 
taking  up  a  bill.  These  are  called  days  of  grace. 

Bill  of  Freedom.  A  full  pass  for  a  neutral  in 
time  of  war. 

Bill  of  Health.  A  certificate  properly  authen 
ticated  by  the  consul,  or  other  proper  authority 
at  any  port,  that  the  ship  comes  from  a  place 
where  no  contagious  disorder  prevails,  and  that 
none  of  the  crew,  at  the  time  of  her  departure, 
were  infected  with  any  such  distemper.  Such 
constitutes  a  clean  bill  of  health,  in  contradis 
tinction  to  &foul  bill. 

Bill  of  Lading.  A  document  signed  by  the 
master  of  a  ship  by  which  he  acknowledges  the 
receipt  of  a  merchant's  goods,  and  undertakes  to 
deliver  the  same  at  the  place  to  which  they  are 
consigned.  Bills  of  lading  are  generally  printed, 
leaving  blanks  to  be  filled  in.  Three  sets  are 
made  out,  one  of  which  should  be  sent  to  the 
consignee  by  mail  ;  the  second  transmitted  to 
him  by  the  vessel  itself ;  and  the  third  retained 
by  the  shipper.  Bills  of  lading  are  transferable 
by  indorsement.  The  indorsement  and  delivery 
of  the  bill  of  lading  transfers  the  property  in 
the  goods  from  the  time  of  such  delivery.  The 
bona  fide  holder  of  the  bill,  indorsed  by  the  con 
signee,  is  entitled  to  the  goods  if  he  purchased 
the  bill  for  a  valuable  consideration.  Where 
there  are  several  bills  of  lading,  each  is  a  con 
tract  in  itself  as  to  the  holder  of  it,  but  the  whole 
make  only  one  contract  as  to  the  master  and 
owners.  If  the  several  parts  of  the  bill  of  lading 


BILL  OF  PARCELS 


78 


BLACK-HOLE 


be  indorsed  to  different  persons,  a  competition 
may  arise  for  the  goods  ;  and  the  rule  generally 
is  that  if  the  equities  be  equal,  the  property  passes 
by  the  bill  first  indorsed.  See  CHARTEK  PARTY. 

Bill  of  Parcels.  A  written  account,  given  by 
seller  to  buyer,  of  the  quantities,  sorts,  and  prices 
of  goods  bought. 

Bill  of  Rights.  In  English  law  the  declara 
tion  delivered  by  the  two  houses  of  Parliament 
to  the  Prince  of  Orange,  February  13, 1688,  at  the 
period  of  his  succession  to  the  British  throne,  in 
which,  after  a  full  specification  of  various  acts 
of  James  II.  which  were  alleged  to  be  illegal, 
the  rights  and  privileges  of  the  people  were  as 
serted.  In  the  United  States  the  term  is  applied 
to  a  declaration  of  the  fundamental  rights  and 
liberties  of  the  people  which,  in  the  shape  of  ab 
stract  propositions  and  elementary  principles, 
forms  part  of  the  constitutions  of  many  of  the 
States. 

Bill  of  Sale.     See  VESSELS,  TITLE  TO. 

Bill  of  Sight.  "When  an  importer,  from 
ignorance  of  the  actual  quantities  or  qualities 
of  goods  assigned  to  him,  is  unable  to  make  an 
exact  entry  at  the  custom-house,  he  is  allowed  to 
make  an  entry  by  bill  of  sight, — that  is,  accord 
ing  to  the  best  description  that  can  be  given. 
On  this,  the  collector  or  comptroller  is  empow 
ered  to  grant  warrant  for  the  landing  of  the 
goods,  the  importer  being  bound  to  make,  within 
three  days  afterwards,  a  perfect  entry,  and  either 
to  pay  down  the  duties  or  to  warehouse  the 
goods. 

Bill  of  Store.  A  license  granted  by  the  cus 
tom-officers  for  carrying,  free  of  duty,  such  stores 
as  may  be  necessary  for  a  voyage.  Returned 
goods  may  be  entered  by  a  bill  of  store. 

Bill-boards.  Projections  of  oak  plank  se 
cured  to  the  bow  of  the  ship  abaft  the  cat-heads 
for  the  fluke  of  the  anchor  to  rest  on. 

Billet.  The  tin  tag  hung  above  the  ham 
mock-hook  on  which  the  number  is  painted. 
An  individual's  situation  or  employment.  A 
memorandum  of  the  various  duties  and  stations 
of  a  seaman,  which  is  given  to  him  when  he  first 
comes  on  board  for  duty. 

Billet-head.  A  scroll-head.  A  round  piece 
of  wood  fitted  to  the  bow  or  stern  of  a  whale- 
boat,  around  which  the  line  is  veered  when  the 
whale  is  struck. 

Billet-wood.     Small  wood  used  for  dunnage. 

Bill-fish.     See  GAR-FISH. 

Billow.     A  great  wave  or  surge  of  the  sea. 

Bindings.  A  general  term  for  beams,  knees, 
clamps,  transoms,  and  other  connecting  parts  of 
a  vessel. 

Binding  Strakes.  Thick  planks  on  the  decks, 
running  just  outside  the  line  of  hatches,  jogged 
down  over  the  beams  and  ledges.  The  principal 
strakes  of  plank  in  a  vessel,  especially  the  sheer- 
strake  and  wales. 

Binge.     To  rinse  a  cask. 

Bingid.     An  old  term  for  locker. 

Bink.    See  BENK. 

Binnacle.  A  case  or  box  to  contain  the  com 
pass.  It  is  fitted  with  a  lamp  to  light  up  the 
card  at  night. 

BINNACLE-LIGHT.  The  lamp  used  in  a  bin 
nacle. 

Binocle.  A  telescope  adapted  to  the  use  of. 
both  eyes. 

BINOCULAR  TELESCOPE.    A  two-barreled  tele 


scope  invented  by  Galileo  in  1617,  though  the 
invention  is  sometimes  credited  to  Schyrleus  de 
Rheita. 

Bior-linn.     A  very  old  word  for  boat. 

Bird's-foot  Sea-star.  The  Palmipes  me 
branaceous,  one  of  the  Arteriadce,  with  a  fl 
thin,  pentagonal  body,  of  a  bright  scarlet  color. 

Bird's-nest.     A  round  top  at  a  mast-head  f< 
a    look-out     station.      A    smaller    crow's-n 
Chiefly  used  in  whalers,  where  a  constant  loo 
out   is   kept  for  whales.     See  EDIBLE  BIRD' 

NEST. 

Bireme.  In  Roman  antiquity,  a  vessel  wi 
two  rows  of  oars. 

Birt.     A  kind  of  turbot. 

Birth-marks.  Marks  denoting  the  depth 
which  a  ship  may  be  loaded  with  safety. 

Biscuit.     Hard  bread  for  naval  use. 

Bishop.  A  name  of  the  great  northern  div 
(Colymbus  glacialis). 

Bismer.  A  name  of  the  stickleback  (Qast\ 
osteus  spinachia}. 

Bissextile  (Lat.  bis,  twice,  and  sextus,  sixth 
"Leap-year."      In   the  Julian   calendar   eve 
fourth  year  consisted  of  366  days.     The  add 
tional  day  was  inserted  after  the  24th  of  Febru 
ary,  which  in  the  Roman  calendar  was  called 
"the  sixth  day  before  the  Calends  of  March," 
and  being  reckoned  twice  over  every  fourth  year 
it  was  called  bissextus  dies,  and   the  year  was 
named  Bissextilis. 

Bit.  A  short  bit  is  equal  to  12£  cents,  a  long 
bit  to  25  cents.  The  term  arose  from  the  cutting 
of  Spanish  silver  coins  into  "  bits."  It  is  still  in 
use  in  the  west,  especially  in  California. 

Bite.  The  hold  which  the  short  end  of  a  lever 
has  under  the  object  to  be  lifted.  When  the 
fluke  of  an  anchor  enters  the  ground  it  is  said 
to  bite. 

Bitt.  To  take  a  turn  with  the  cable  around 
the  head  of  the  bitts.  To  double  bitt  or  to 
weather-bitt  the  cable  is  to  take  an  extra  turn 
around  the  head  of  the  bitts. 

Bitter.  Any  turn  of  the  cable  around  the 
bitts.  Hence  a  ship  is  brought  to  a  bitter  when 
the  chain  has  run  out  to  that  point. 

Bitter-end.  The  last  end.  The  end  of  the 
cable  not  bent  to  the  anchor. 

Bitt-head.     The  upper  part  of  the  bitts. 

Bitt-pin.  A  large  iron  pin  in  the  head  of  the 
bitts  to  prevent  the  chain  from  slipping  off  in 
veering. 

Bitts.  Vertical  timbers  projecting  above  the 
decks.  The  bitts  for  the  cable  are  circular,  and 
are  coated  with  iron.  There  are  generally  two 
pairs  of  them,  the  after  pair  being  used  for  the 
sheet-chains.  The  topsail-sheet  bitts  are  fixed 
near  to,  and  forward  of,  the  masts. 

Bitt-stopper.  A  stopper  used  at  the  bitts  for 
securing  the  cable.  See  STOPPER. 

Bize.  A  cold  wind  from  the  summits  of  the 
Pyrenees. 

Blackamoor.     A  thoroughly  black  negro. 

Black-and-tan.  An  epithet  applied  to  a 
mulatto. 

Black-bird  Catching.     The  slave-trade. 

Black-birds.     Negroes. 

Black-fish.  A  name  applied  to  many  differ 
ent  species  of  cetaceans. 

Black-head.  The  pewitt-gull  (Larus  ridi- 
bundus). 

Black-hole.     A  place  of  solitary  confinement. 


n 


BLACK  INDIES 


79 


BLAKE 


Black  Indies.  Newcastle,  Sunderland,  and 
Shields. 

Blacking  down.  The  operation  of  tarring  and 
blacking  the  rigging. 

Black-jack.  A  piratical-looking  individual. 
The  ensign  of  a  pirate. 

Black-list.  A  record  of  misdemeanors  for 
merly  kept  by  officers  for  their  private  use.  The 
list  of  men  who  are  detailed  for  extra  duty  as  a 
punishment. 

Black  Ship.  A  term  applied  to  a  ship  built 
in  India,  of  teak. 

Black  South-easter.  A  well-known  violent 
wind  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  in  which  vapory 
clouds,  called  the  Devil's  Table-cloth,  appear  on 
Table  Mountain. 

Black  Squall.  This  squall  may  be  principally 
ascribed  to  the  heated  state  of  the  atmosphere 
near  the  land. 

Black-strake.  The  range  of  planks  just  above 
the  wales. 

Black-strap.  Bad  port  wine.  The  dark  wines 
of  the  Mediterranean. 

Black-tang.  The  sea-weed  Fucus  vesicolosus, 
or  tangle. 

Blackwall-hitch.  A  hitch  made  by  putting 
the  bight  of  a  rope  over  the  back  of  a  hook,  and 
jamming  the  end  under  the  standing  part.  It 
is  used  principally  for  the  hauling  part  of  a 
tackle  when  there  is  not  sufficient  length  to 
make  a  cat's-paw. 

Black  Whale.  A  name  for  the  right  whale 
of  the  south  seas  (Balcena  australis), 

Black  Vomit.  A  copious  vomiting  of  dark- 
colored  matter,  or  the  substance  so  discharged  ; 
one  of  the  most  fatal  symptoms  in  yellow  fever. 

Blad.  A  term  used  on  the  northern  coasts  of 
Great  Britain  for  a  squall  accompanied  by  rain. 

Bladder-fish.  A  name  for  the  tetrodon.  See 
BALLOON-FISH. 

Blade.  The  cutting  part  of  a  sword  or  cutlass. 
The  part  of  the  arm  of  an  anchor  prepared  to 
receive  the  palm.  One  of  the  projecting  arms 
of  a  screw-propeller.  The  part  of  an  oar  which 
is  immersed  in  the  water  in  rowing. 

Blae,  or  Blea.  The  alburnum  or  sap-wood  of 
timber. 

Blake,  George  S.,  Commodore  U.S.N.  Born 
in  Massachusetts.  Appointed  midshipman,  April 
23,  1818  ;  commissioned  as  lieutenant,  March  31, 
1827;  West  India  Squadron,  1829;  survey  of 
Narragansett  Bay,  1831-33 ;  navy-yard,  Phila 
delphia,  1834  ;  coast  survey,  1837-48  ;  navy-yard, 
Philadelphia,  1848 ;  commissioned  as  commander, 
February  27,  1847 ;  fleet-captain,  Mediterranean 
Squadron,  1850-52  ;  bureau  construction,  1853- 
55 ;  commissioned  as  captain,  September  14, 1855 ; 
special  duty,  1856-57;  superintendent  Naval 
Academy,  1858-65 ;  commissioned  as  commo 
dore,  July  16,  1862 ;  light-house  inspector,  1866- 
69;  died  "at  Longwood,  Mo.,  June  24,  1871. 

Blake,  Homer  C.,  Commodore  U.S.N.  Born 
in  New  York,  1822.  Appointed  midshipman, 
March  2,  1840;  frigate  "Constellation,"  East 
India  Squadron,  1841-43  ;  sloop  "  Preble,"  coast 
of  Africa,  1843-45;  naval  school,  1846;  sloop 
"Preble,"  Pacific  Squadron,  1846-48. 

Promoted  to  passed  midshipman,  July  11, 
1846;  receiving-ship,  New  York,  1849-50; 
frigate  "  Raritan,"  Pacific  Squadron,  1850-52; 
receiving-ship,  Boston,  1853-56. 

Commissioned   as   lieutenant,  September   14, 


1855 ;  frigate  "  St.  Lawrence,"  Brazil  Squadron, 
1857-59;  frigate  "Sabine,"  Home  Squadron, 
1861—62. 

Commissioned  as  lieutenant-commander,  July 
16, 1862;  commanding  steamer  "Hatteras,"  West 
ern  Gulf  Blockading  Squadron,  1862-63.  On 
January  11,  1863,  the  "Hatteras,"  while  at  an 
chor  off  Galveston,  Texas,  was  ordered  by  signal 
from  the  "Brooklyn,"  flag-ship  of  the  division 
blockading  Galveston,  to  chase  a  sail  to  the 
southward  and  eastward.  Commander  Blake  at 
once  obeyed  the  signal,  and  steamed  at  all  speed 
in  the  direction  indicated,  and  rapidly  gained 
upon  the  suspicious  vessel,  which  was  discovered 
to  be  a  steamer.  When  within  about  four  miles 
of  the  vessel,  it  was  observed  that  she  had  ceased 
to  steam,  and  was  lying  "broadside  on,"  await 
ing  the  approach  of  the  "  Hatteras."  When  at 
about  the  distance  of  seventy-five  yards,  Com 
mander  Blake  hailed,  and  asked,  "  What  steamer 
is  that?"  The  reply  was,  "  Her  Britannic  Ma 
jesty 's  ship « Vixen.'  "  Commander  Blake  ordered 
a  boat  to  be  sent  aboard,  but  before  the  order 
could  be  obeyed,  the  commander  of  the  strange 
craft  hailed  and  said,  "  We  are  the  Confederate 
steamer  '  Alabama,'  "  which  was  accompanied  by 
a  broadside.  The  "  Hatteras"  returned  the  fire 
almost  instantly,  and  steamed  directly  for  the 
"Alabama"  in  the  hope  to  carry  her  by  board 
ing  ;  but  the  attempt  was  defeated  by  the  com 
mander  of  the  piratical  craft.  At  length  a  shell 
entered  the  hold  of  the  "  Hatteras,"  and  at  the 
same  instant  another  shell  passed  through  the 
"sick  bay,"  exploding  in  an  adjoining  compart 
ment,  and  setting  fire  to  the  vessel.  Still  another 
shell  entered  the  cylinder,  filling  the  engine-room 
and  deck  with  steam,  and  depriving  Commander 
Blake  of  all  power  to  manoeuvre  his  vessel  or 
work  the  pumps,  upon  which  the  reduction  of 
the  fire  depended.  With  the  vessel  on  fire  in 
two  places  and  her  engine  disabled,  Commander 
Blake  felt  that  it  was  useless  to  sacrifice  the  lives 
of  his  command,  and  so  ordered  a  lee  gun  to  be 
fired.  The  "Alabama"  then  asked  if  assistance 
was  desired,  to  which  an  affirmative  answer  was 
given.  After  considerable  delay,  the  "  Ala 
bama"  sent  assistance,  and  the  crew  and  officers 
of  the  "  Hatteras"  were  transferred  to  the  "  Ala 
bama."  Ten  minutes  after  the  crew  left  her 
decks,  the  "Hatteras"  went  down  bow  first. 
The  battery  upon  the  "  Alabama"  brought  into 
action  against  the  "Hatteras"  numbered  seven 
guns,  consisting  of  four  long  32-pounders,  one 
100-pounder  rifled  gun,  one  68-pounder,  and  one 
24-pounder  rifled  gun.  The  guns  used  in  the  action 
by  the  "Hatteras ' '  were  two  short  32-pounders,  one 
30-pounder  rifled  Parrot,  and  one  20-pounder 
rifled  gun.  The  action  was  fought  at  a  distance  of 
about  seventy-five  yards.  The  crew  of  the  "  Hat 
teras"  was  landed  at  Port  Royal,  Jamaica,  and 
was  with  all  dispatch  conveyed  from  Port 
Royal  to  Kingston,  under  the  guidance  of  the 
American  vice-consul,  John  N.  Camp.  Com 
manding  steamer  < '  Utah , ' '  North  Atlantic  Block 
ading  Squadron,  1863-65;  shelled  three  divisions 
of  rebel  army  at  Malvern  Hill,  1864  ;  assisted 
to  repulse  an  attack  of  the  rebels  on  the  right  of 
the  army  of  the  James,  October,  1864;  engage 
ment  with  rebel  batteries  at  Trent  Reach,  James 
River,  1865;  navy-yard,  Portsmouth,  N.  H., 
1866-68. 

Commissioned  as  commander,  March  3,  1866 ; 


BLAKE 


BLOCK 


commanding  steam-sloop  "  Swatara,"  European 
Squadron,  1868-69 ;  commanding  steam-sloop 
"Alaska,"  Asiatic  Fleet,  1870-72. 

Commissioned  as  captain,  May  25,  1871 ;  com 
manding  naval  rendezvous,  New  York,  1873-78. 

Promoted  to  commodore,  1880,  and  died  in 
February  of  that  year. 

Blake,  Robert.  Born  at  Bridgewater,  in 
Somersetshire,  in  1599.  In  the  annals  of  the 
Commonwealth  of  England  few  names  stand 
higher  than  that  of  this  bold  seaman.  He  was 
appointed  for  his  pre-eminent  ability  and  singu 
lar  intrepidity  "General  of  the  Sea"  in  1649, 
yet  he  was  fifty  years  of  age  before  he  became  a 
sailor.  One  of  his  earliest  exploits  was  the  de 
feat  of  Prince  Rupert's  fleet  on  the  Tagus  in 
1651.  In  1652  he  gained  a  victory  over  Van 
Tromp  after  a  running  fight  of  three  days.  The 
piratical  Tunisians  had  no  mercy  at  his  hands. 
His  greatest  achievement  was  at  Santa  Cruz,  in 
1657.  The  Spaniards,  with  several  treasure- 
ships,  were,  as  they  supposed,  impregnable  with 
in  the  fortified  harbor;  but  Blake  dashed  in, 
faced  the  fire  of  the  castle,  silenced  the  smaller  re 
doubts,  and,  seizing  the  richly-laden  galleons, 
sailed  out  without  the  loss  of  a  single  ship.  It 
was  truly  said  of  him  that  "  it  would  have  been 
hard  to  find  the  thing  which  Blake  dared  not 
do."  Died  at  Plymouth,  August  17,  1657. 

Blakeley,  Johnston,  Captain  U.S.N.  Born 
at  Seaford,  county  Down,  Ireland,  October,  1781; 
lost  at  sea  in  1814.  His  father  emigrated  to  Wil 
mington,  N.  C.  The  members  of  his  family  dying 
one  by  one,  he  was  left  alone  in  the  world,  and  had 
also  the  misfortune  to  lose  the  little  remnant  of 
their  property.  A  friend  gave  him  an  education, 
and  procured  for  him  a  midshipman's  warrant, 
February  5, 1800.  Made  lieutenant,  February  10, 
1807;  master-commander,  July  24, 1813;  captain, 
November  24,  1814.  In  1813  he  commanded  the 
brig  "  Enterprise,"  and  did  good  service  in  pro 
tecting  our  coasting  trade.  In  August  he  was  ap 
pointed  to  "The  Wasp,"  in  which,  June 28, 1814, 
he  captured,  after  an  action  of  nineteen  minutes, 
in  latitude  48°  36'  north,  H.  B.  M.  ship  "  Rein 
deer,"  which  he  was  obliged  to  burn.  This 
severe  action  showed  the  manifest  superiority  of 
American  gunnery.  The  "Reindeer"  made 
three  attempts  to  board,  in  the  last  of  which  her 
gallant  commander  was  slain.  For  this  exploit 
Congress  voted  him  a  gold  medal  with  suitable 
devices.  September  1,  1814,  in  a  severe  action 
with  the  brig  "Avon,"  he  compelled  her  to 
strike ;  but  the  approach  of  another  enemy  pre 
vented  his  taking  possession  of  her.  "  The 
Wasp"  was  afterward  spoken  off  the  Western 
Isles,  and  on  September  21  captured  the  brig 
"  Atalanta,"  which  arrived  safely  in  Savannah, 
and  brought  the  last  direct  intelligence  ever  re 
ceived  from  "  The  Wasp."  Being  heavily  armed 
and  sparred,  and  very  deep-waisted,  she  probably 
foundered  in  a  gale.  His  only  child,  a  daughter, 
was  educated  at  the  expense  of  the  State  of  North 
Carolina. 

Blank.  The  white  mark  in  the  centre  of  a 
target.  See  POINT-BLANK  and  CARTRIDGE. 

Blanket.  The  layer  of  blubber  under  the  skin 
of  a  whale. 

Blare.  To  bellow  or  roar  vehemently.  A 
mixture  of  hair  and  tar,  used  for  calking  the 
seams  of  boats. 

Blarney.     Idle  discourse ;  obsequious  flattery. 


Blashy.  Watery  or  dirty ;  as,  a  blashy  day. 
In  parlance,  trifling,  flimsy. 

Blast.     A  sudden  and  violent  gust  of  wind. 

Blast-engine.  An  apparatus  for  urging  the 
fire  of  a  furnace.  A  ventilating  machine  to  draw 
off  the  foul  air  from  a  ship's  hold  and  force  fresh 
air  into  it. 

Blast-furnace.  A  furnace  in  which  the  sup 
ply  of  air  is  furnished  by  a  pneumatic  apparatus. 

Blast-pipe.  A  pipe  to  convey  steam  into  the 
smoke-stack  to  aid  the  draft. 

Blather.     Thin  mud  ;  idle  nonsense. 

Blay.     A  name  of  the  bleak  (which  see). 

Blazer.  A  term  applied  to  a  mortar-vessel, 
from  the  great  emission  of  flame  when  the  mor 
tar  is  fired. 

Blazing-star.     A  popular  name  for  a  comet. 

Bleak.  The  Leuciscus  alburnus  of  naturalists, 
and  the  fresh-water  sprat  of  Izaak  Walton.  The 
name  of  this  fish  is  from  the  Anglo-Saxon  blican, 
owing  to  its  shining  whiteness, — its  lustrous  scales 
having  long  been  used  in  the  manufacture  of  false 
pearls. 

Bleed  the  Buoys.     To  let  the  water  out. 

Bleeding  the  Monkey.  The  monkey  was  a 
tall  pyramidal  kid  or  bucket,  which  conveyed 
the  grog  from  the  grog-tub  to  the  mess, — stealing 
from  this  in  transitu  was  termed  bleeding  the 
monkey. 

Blenny.  A  small  acanthopterygious  fish. 
(Blennius). 

Blether-head.     A  blockhead. 

Blethering.  Talking  idle  nonsense ;  insolent 
prate. 

Blind.  A  name  on  the  west  coast  of  Scot 
land  for  the  pogge,  or  miller's-thumb  (Coitus 
cataphractus}. 

Blind-bucklers.  Those  fitted  for  the  hawse- 
holes,  which  have  no  aperture  for  the  cable,  and 
used  at  sea  to  prevent  the  water  coming  in. 

Blind-harbor.  One,  the  entrance  of  which  is 
so  shut  in  as  not  readily  to  be  perceived. 

Blind-rock.  One  lying  just  under  the  surface 
of  the  water,  so  as  not  to  be  visible  in  calms. 

Blind-shell.  A  shell  with  a  large  fuse-hole 
and  filled  with  composition,  to  indicate  the  range 
at  night.  A  shell  which  does  not  explode. 

Blind-stakes.     A  sort  of  river-weir. 

Blink.     A  term  in  Greenland  for  iceberg. 

Blink  of  the  Ice.  The  reflection  of  an  iceberg 
in  the  air  above  it. 

Blirt.    A  gust  of  wind  and  rain. 

Bloat.  To  dry  by  smoke ;  a  method  applied 
almost  exclusively  to  cure  herrings.  Bloated  is 
also  applied  to  any  half-dried  fish.  i 

BLOATER.     A  herring  dried  by  smoke. 

Blocco.  Paper  and  hair  used  in  calking  a 
vessel's  bottom. 

Block.  The  large  piece  of  timber  out  of  which 
a  figure-head  is  carved.  One  of  the  transverse 
timbers  on  which  a  ship  is  built  or  placed  for  re 
pairs.  A  flat  oval  piece  of  wood  containing  one 
or  more  sheaves.  Blocks  are  used  either  to  gain 
an  increase  of  power  or  to  give  a  rope  a  fair  lead. 
A  block  consists  of  the  shell,  sheave,  pin,  and 
strap.  The  shell  is  the  frame  or  outside  part,  and 
is  made  of  ash  or  elm.  In  the  morticed  block 
the  shell  is  composed  of  but  one  piece  of  wood ; 
in  the  made  block  it  consists  of  two  or  more  pieces 
pinned  together,  the  two  principal  outside  pieces 
being  called  cheeks.  On  the  sides  and  at  each 
end  of  the  shell  is  cut  a  single  or  a  double  score. 


BLOCKADE 


81 


BLUBBER-FORKS 


which  allows  the  strap  to  set  snugly  on  the  block 
and  prevents  it  from  slipping  off.  The  size  of  a 
block  is  determined  by  the  length  of  the  shell. 
The  sheave  is  the  wheel  over  which  the  rope  runs, 
and  is  made  of  metal  or  lignum-vitse.  It  has  a 
hole  in  the  centre  to  receive  the  pin.  In  a  ligr 
num-vitse  sheave  this  hole  is  generally  bouched, 
or  lined  with  metal,  to  decrease  the  friction  and 
to  protect  the  sheave  from  chafe.  Friction  rollers 
are  sometimes  inserted  in  the  sheave  when  it  is 
not  to  be  subjected  to  a  very  great  strain.  Around 
the  circumference  of  the  sheave  a  groove  is  cut, 
which  serves  to  retain  the  rope  in  place  and  pre 
vent  it  from  chafing  against  the  shell.  The  pin 
is  the  bolt  through  the  shell  and  sheave  on  which 
the  latter  revolves.  The  strap  is  a  rope  which 
encircles  the  shell,  and  by  which  it  is  attached  to 
its  particular  place.  The  swallow  is  the  aperture 
through  which  the  rope  reeves.  The  hook  is 
attached  to  the  strap,  and  is  prevented  from 
chafing  by  means  of  a  thimble.  Two  of  these 
thimbles  joined  together  are  called  lock-thimbles. 
The  breech  is  the  end  of  the  block  farthest  from 
the  hook..  The  becket  is  a  small  grommet  to 
which  the  standing  part  of  the  fall  is  made  fast. 
Blocks  are  single,  double,  threefold,  or  fourfold, 
according  to  the  number  of  their  sheaves,  and 
vary  in  size  from  four  to  thirty  inches.  Iron 
blocks,  and  wooden  blocks  with  iron  straps,  are 
now  coming  more  generally  into  use.  Under  the 
general  head  of  blocks  come  hearts,  collar-hearts, 
dead-eyes,  bull's-eyes,  wooden  thimbles,  fair- 
leaders,  euphroes,  cleats,  cavils,  wooden  belaying- 
pins,  wooden  rollers,  chocks,  toggles,  travelers, 
wooden  hanks,  hoops,  trucks,  etc.  (which  see 
under  their  proper  heads).  Blocks  receive  their 
names  from  some  peculiarity  of  form,  from  the 
position  they  occupy,  or  from  the  rope  leading 
through  them.  For  description  of  blocks,  see 
under  the  following  heads:  BEE-BLOCKS,  or 
BEES,  BRAIL-,  CAT-,  CHEEK-,  CLEW-GARNET-, 
CLEWLINE-,  CHUNK-,  CLUMP-,  D-,  DASHER-, 
DOUBLE-,  FIDDLE-,  FISH-,  FIXED-,  FLY-,  GIRT- 
LINE-,  GIN-,  GUN-TACKLE-,  HANGING-,  JACK-, 
JEER-,  JEWEL-,  LONG-TACKLE-,  MONKEY-, 
NINE-PIN-,  NIB-,  PATENT-,  QUARTER-,  RUN 
NING-,  RACK-,  SHOE-,  SPAN-,  SPRING-,  SINGLE-, 
SHOULDER-,  SISTER-,  SECRET-,  STANDING-, 
SNATCH-,  TELEGRAPH-,  TREBLE-,  TAIL-,  TOP-, 
TYE-,  VIOL-,  and  WARPING-BLOCK. 

Blockade.  The  shutting  up  of  a  port  or  ports 
by  troops  or  ships,  so  as  to  prevent  egress  or  in 
gress,  or  the  reception  of  supplies.  To  constitute 
a  blockade  the  investing  power  must  be  able  to 
apply  its  force  to  every  point  of  practicable  ac 
cess,  so  as  to  render  it  dangerous  to  attempt  to 
enter  or  depart.  See  INTERNATIONAL  LAW. 

Block-and-block.  An  expression  denoting 
that  the  two  blocks  of  a  tackle  have  been  drawn 
together,  and  that  the  tackle  is  inoperative.  Syn 
onymous  with  two-blocks  and  chock-a-block. 

Blockmaker.     A  manufacturer  of  blocks. 

Blockmaking  Machine.  The  first  set  of  ma 
chinery  for  making  blocks  was  invented  by  Bru 
nei  early  in  the  present  century,  and  was  set  up 
at  Portsmouth,  England,  in  1808.  The  saving 
in  the  cost  of  blocks 'is  about  $100, 000  per  annum. 

Blood-sucker.  A  skulker;  one  who  throws 
his  proportion  of  work  on  the  shoulders  of  his 
shipmates. 

Bloody.  A  slang  superlative,  principally  used 
by  Englishmen. 


Bloody  Flag.     A  large  red  flag. 

Bloom.  A  warm  blast  of  wind.  A  mass  of 
iron  which  has  been  deprived  of  its  dross  by 
squeezing  or  shingling. 

Blore.     An  old  word  for  a  stiff  gale. 

Blouse.     A  light  single-breasted  sack-coat. 

Blout.  A  name  to  denote  the  sudden  break 
ing  up  of  a  gale. 

Blow.  A  gale  of  wind.  The  moving  of  the 
air  ;  as,  the  winds  blow.  A  violent  stroke  of  the 
hand,  or  any  instrument.  To  eject  wind  from 
the  mouth ;  hence  the  term  as  applied  to  the 
breathing  of  cetaceans, — the  air  expelled  from 
the  lungs,  being  heavily  charged  with  moisture, 
condenses  on  contact  with  the  atmosphere,  and 
appears  like  a  column  of  steam.  There  she 
blows!  the  cry  of  the  look-out  when  a  whale  is 
sighted. 

Blowe.  An  old  word  for  scold;  hence  the 
term  "blowing-up"  for  a  reprimand. 

Blow-holes.  The  nostrils  of  the  cetaceans. 
In  some  species  they  are  slits  placed  side  by  side  ; 
in  others  there  is  but  one  opening. 

Blow  Home.  The  wind  does  not  blow  home 
when  its  course  is  diverted  by  a  chain  of  moun 
tains  or  other  obstacle. 

Blowing  Great  Guns.  An  expression  to  de 
note  a  violent  gale. 

Blowing  Off.  The  operation  of  ejecting  from 
the  boiler  the  water  which  has  become  saturated 
with  salt,  to  prevent  the  formation  of  scale. 

Blowing  the  Grampus.  Throwing  water  over 
a  sleeper  on  watch. 

Blowing  Through.  The  operation  of  clear 
ing  the  valves,  cylinders,  and  condenser  of  air 
before  starting  the  engine. 

Blowing  Weather.  A  term  to  signify  a  con 
tinuance  of  strong  gales. 

Blow-off  Pipe.  A  pipe  leading  from  the 
bottom  of  the  boiler  to  convey  the  sediment 
overboard. 

Blown.  Half-dried ;  applied  to  cod  and  her 
rings. 

Blown  Itself  Out.  A  gale  is  said  to  have 
blown  itself  out  when  its  energy  is  expended. 

Blow-out.     A  jollification  or  spree. 

Blow-pipe.  An  engine  of  offense  used  by  the 
Araucanians  and  Borneans,  and  with  the  latter 
termed  sumpitan:  the  poisoned  arrow,  sumpit, 
will  wound  at  the  distance  of  140  or  more  yards. 
The  arrow  is  forced  through  by  the  forcible  and 
sudden  exertion  of  the  lungs.  A  wafer  can  be 
hit  at  30  yards  to  a  certainty,  and  small  birds 
are  unerringly  stunned  at  30  yards  by  pellets  of 
clay. 

Blow  the  Gaff.  To  reveal  a  secret;  to  expose 
or  inform  against  a  person. 

Blow-through  Valve.  A  valve  admitting 
steam  into  the  cylinder  and  condenser,  in  order 
to  clear  them  of  air  and  water  before  starting  the 
engine. 

Blow  Up.     To  abuse  angrily. 

Blow-valve.  The  snifting-valve.  The  valve 
which  permits  the  steam  to  escape  on  blowing 
through. 

Blubber.  The  layer  of  fat  in  whales  between 
the  skin  and  the  flesh,  varying  from  10  to  20 
inches  in  thickness,  which  is  flinched  or  peeled 
off,  and  boiled  for  oil.  See  SEA-BLUBBER. 

Blubber-forks  and  Choppers.  The  imple 
ments  with  which  blubber  is  "made  off,"  or  cut 
for  stowing  away. 


BLUBBER-GUY 


82 


BOARDING 


Blubber-guy.  A  large  rope  stretched  from 
the  main-  to  the  foremast-head  of  whalers,  to 
which  the  speck-falls  are  attached  for  the  opera 
tion  of  flensing. 

Blue.  Till  aWsblue:  carried  to  the  utmost, 
—a  phrase  borrowed  from  the  idea  of  a  vessel 
making  out  of  port,  and  getting  into  blue  water. 
To  look  blue,  to  be  surprised,  disappointed,  or 
taken  aback,  with  a  countenance  expressive  of 
displeasure. 

Blue-book.  The  name  by  which  the  book 
containing  the  regulations  for  the  navy  is  known  ; 
also,  a  book  containing  the  names  of  all  persons 
in  the  employ  of  the  United  States  government, 
with  the  amount  of  their  pay. 

Blue-jackets.  The  seamen  as  distinguished 
from  the  marines. 

Blue-light.  A  pyrotechnical  preparation  for 
signals  by  night.  Also  called  Bengal  light. 

Blue-lightism.     Affected  sanctimoniousness. 

Blue  Moon.     An  indefinite  period. 

Blue-nose.  A  native  of  Nova  Scotia,  or  a 
Nova  Scotian  vessel. 

Blue  Peter.  A  flag  with  a  blue  ground  and 
a  white  centre,  which,  when  hoisted  at  the  fore, 
denotes  that  the  ship  is  ready  to  sail.  It  corre 
sponds  to  the  cornet  in  the  navy. 

Blue  Pigeon.  A  nickname  for  the  sounding 
lead. 

Blue  Water.     The  open  ocean. 

Bluff.  An  abrupt  highland,  projecting  almost 
perpendicularly  into  the  sea,  and  presenting  a 
bold  front,  rather  rounded  than  cliffy  in  out 
line. 

Bluff-bowed.  .  Applied  to  a  vessel  that  has 
broad  and  flat  bows, — that  is,  full  and  square 
formed  ;  the  opposite  of  lean. 

Bluff-headed.  Built  with  the  stem  nearly 
straight  up-and-down. 

Blunderbuss.  A  short  fire-arm  with  a  large 
bore  and  wide  mouth. 

Blunk.     A  sudden  squall. 

Blustrous.     Stormy. 

Boadnash.     Buckhemshein  coins  of  Barbary. 

Boanga.  A  Malay  piratical  vessel  impelled 
by  oars. 

Board.  A  piece  of  sawed  timber  relatively 
broad  and  thin.  The  terms  board  and  plank  are 
often  indiscriminately  used.  See  PLANK. 

The  deck  or  interior  of  a  vessel.  To  board  a 
vessel  is  to  enter  either  in  a  friendly  or  a  hostile 
manner. 

The  side  of  a*  vessel.  Overboard,  over  the  side, 
in  the  water.  In-board,  inside,  or  farther  from 
the  side.  Out-board,  nearer  to  the  side.  Board 
to  board,  or  board  and  board,  side  by  side. 

The  stretch  which  a  ship  makes  on  one  tack  in 
beating  to  windward.  To  make  a  (jood  board,  to 
lose  little  or  nothing  to  leeward.  To  make  short 
boards,  to  tack  frequently.  When  a  ship  luffs 
up  into  the  wind  until  the  headway  has  nearly 
ceased,  and  is  then  made  to  pay  off  on  the  same 
tack,  she  is  said  to  make  a  'half-board;  with 
smooth  water  and  a  good  working  breeze  a  ship 
can  eat  her  way  up  to  windward  in  this  manner. 
When  the  vessel  goes  astern  she  makes  a  stern- 
board.  It  is  advisable  in  this  case  not  to  put  the 
helm  hard  over,  as  great  strain  would  be  brought 
on  the  rudder. 

A  word  applied  to  certain  individuals  in  a  col 
lective  capacity  who  are  appointed  by  competent 
authority  for  the  management  of  "some  public 


office  or  trust ;  as,  The  Light-house  Board  (which 
see);  or  to  perform  certain  specified  duties;  as, 
The  Board  for  the  Examination  of  Officers  for 
Promotion  and  Retirement  (which  see),  and  The 
Board  of  Inspection  (which  see).  There  are  also 
boards  convened  from  time  to  time  for  the  pur 
pose  of  collating  facts  and  expressing  opinions, 
of  an  advisory  character,  respecting  the  matters 
submitted  to  them  by  the  convening  authority. 

BOARD,  THE  ACADEMIC.  The  collective  des 
ignation  of  the  heads  of  the  departments  of 
instruction  at  the  Naval  Academy. 

Boarders.  The  men  detailed  to  attack  the 
enemy  by  boarding.  They  are  armed  with  pis 
tols  and  cutlasses,  and  are  led  by  the  executive- 
officer.  Thej7  are  summoned  by  verbal  order  and 
by  the  springing  of  the  rattle,  and  assemble  in 
the  part  of  the  ship  designated,  keeping  under 
cover  as  much  as  possible. 

Boarding.  The  act  of  entering  a  vessel,  either 
with  hostile  intent  or  in  a  friendly  manner. 

In  boarding  with  hostile  intent  the  way  is 
cleared  for  the  boarders  by  a  brisk  fire  from  the 
rifles  and  machine-guns,  by  hand-grenades,  and 
by  streams  of  hot  water  from  the  steam-pumps. 
The  great  guns  are  depressed,  and,  at  the  order 
board  the  enemy,  the  boarders  gain  the  enemy's 
deck  as  quickly  as  possible,  and  use  every  en 
deavor  to  clear  the  decks  by  disabling  or  driving 
the  men  below.  While  the  boarders  are  absent 
from  their  guns,  the  remaining  men  keep  up  as 
rapid  a  fire  as  is  possible  under  the  circumstances, 
and  the  ports  of  the  guns  not  in  use  are  closed. 

If  the  boarders  are  driven  back  they  rally  on 
the  flanks  of  the  riflemen,  taking  care  to  get 
quickly  out  of  the  line  of  their  fire. 

If  the  enemy  manifest  a  disposition  to  board, 
the  marines  and  riflemen  are  called  away,  and 
open  fire  from  favorable  positions,  and  the  great 
guns,  howitzers,  and  machine-guns  are  brought 
to  bear  on  the  enemy's  boarders.  Every  effort 
should  be  made  to  shake  or  disperse  them,  and, 
if  not  successful,  it  will  be  necessary,  before  the 
enemy  closes,  to  call  all  hands  repel  boarders. 
The  marines  and  riflemen  form  on  the  side  which 
is  engaged,  opposite  to  the  point  where  the  en 
emy  is  likely  to  attempt  to  enter,  the  boarders 
being  on  the  flank  and  in  the  rear.  The  re 
serves  are  posted  in  the  rear  of  the  flanks  of  the 
riflemen..  If  the  enemy  gain  a  footing  he  must 
be  charged  in  force,  as  the  necessity  for  driving 
him  back  at  once  is  absolute.  Rallying-points 
should  be  designated,  and  barricades  should  be 
constructed.  The  shaft  of  a  paddle-wheel  ves 
sel,  or  a  gun  run  in  to  a  taut  breeching,  affords 
a  good  shelter. 

When  at  close  quarters  the  sword  is  a  more 
effective  weapon  than  the  rifle  and  bayonet,  in 
which  case  the  bayonets  are  unfixed  and  used  as 
swords. 

When  there  is  a  possibility  of  being  boarded, 
boarding-nettings  are  got  up,  and  the  torpedoes 
are  got  ready  for  use. 

BOARDING  A  VESSEL  UNDER  SAIL.  Board  to 
leeward,  and  do  not  go  alongside  while  she  has 
stern-way  on.  See  that  the  line  by  which  the 
boat  rides  is  long  enough  to  permit  the  boat  to 
rise  and  fall  with  the  sea.  The  line  should  not 
be  belayed,  but  kept  in  hand  ready  for  shipping. 
Be  careful  that  the  masts  or  oars  do  not  take 
under  the  quarter-boats  or  chains. 

BOARDING  A  WRECK.     The  chief  dangers  to 


.. 


BOARDLING 


83 


BOATS 


be  apprehended  in  boarding  a  wreck  are  the  col 
lision  of  the  boat  with  the  ship,  or  with  floating 
spars,  and  the  swamping  of  the  boat  alongside. 
The  greater  violence  of  the  sea  on  the  weather 
side  makes  it  preferable  to  board  to  leeward.  The 
dangers  to  be  guarded  against  in  boarding  on  the 
lee  side  are  the  falling  of  the  masts  and  collision 
with  floating  spars. 

The  large  life-boats  that  go  off  to  wrecks 
anchor  to  windward  and  veer  down,  care  being 
taken  to  prevent  actual  contact. 

BOARDING-BOOK.  A  book  in  which  are  entered 
the  particulars  in  regard  to  every  ship  boarded. 
It  is  not  taken  on  board  men-of-war,  but  the 
particulars  are  afterwards  registered. 

BOARDING-NETTINGS.  A  network  of  wire  ropes 
or  hemp  ropes  soaked  in  tar  and  sanded,  to  pre 
vent  boarders  from  entering  a  ship.  The  lower 
edge  is  made  fast  to  the  rail,  arid  the  upper  edge 
triced  up  by  whips  or  stopped  to  the  ridge-rope. 

BOARDING-PIKE.  A  defensive  lance  against 
boarders. 

BOARD  IN  THE  SMOKE.  A  figurative  expres 
sion,  signifying  to  create  confusion  or  enthu 
siasm,  and  then  to  endeavor  to  attain  one's  ob 
ject  before  the  effect  has  passed  away.  The 
expression  arose  from  the  custom  of  delivering 
a  broadside  as  the  boarders  were  thrown  upon 
the  enemy's  decks. 

Boardling  (Eng.}.  A  flippant  understrapper 
of  the  admiralty  or  navy-board. 

Board  of  Trade.     See  TRADE,  BOARD  OF. 

Boat.  A  small  open  vessel,  propelled  by  oars 
or  sails,  and  sometimes  by  stearn.  The  name  is 
also  applied  to  large  river-craft  propelled  entirely 
by  steam,  and  also  to  a  vessel  having  no  motive 
power  of  its  own ;  as,  a  canal-boat.  Boats  are 
built  of  various  materials  ;  as,  wood,  iron,  paper, 
etc.  Wood  is  used  for  boats  for  ordinary  pur 
poses,  iron  for  heavy  boats,  and  wood  or  paper  for 
racing-boats. 

The  frame  of  a  carvel-built  boat  generally  con 
sists  of  a  floor  and  two  futtocks,  and  the  planks 
do  not  overlap,  but  make  flush  seams,  which  are 
calked.  In  the  clinker-built  boat  the  lower  edge 
of  each  plank  laps  over  the  upper  edge  of  the 
one  next  below.  A  diagonal-built  boat  is  one  in 
which  the  outer  skin  consists  of  two  layers  of 
planking  at  right  angles  to  each  other,  and 
making  an  angle  of  45°  with  the  keel. 

Boats  are  square-sterned,  or  sharp  at  both 
ends ;  in  the  latter  case  they  are  called  whale- 
boats.  Single-banked  boats  have  one  oarsman  to 
each  thwart,  and  a  double-banked  boat  has  two. 
Oars  are  double-banked  when  each  oar  is  pulled 
by  two  men. 

The  boats  in  use  in  the  navy  are  as  follows : 
steam-launches,  steam-cutters,  launches,  cutters, 
whale-boa'ts,  dingys,  barges,  and  gigs.  For  a 
description  of  these  various  boats,  with  their 
various  rigs,  see  under  the  proper  heads.  See 
LIFE-BOATS. 

Up  boats,  the  order  to  hoist  all  the  boats.  To 
secure  a  boat  for  sea,  to  rig  in  the  davits,  and 
pass  the  gripes  around  the  boat  and  strong-back. 
To  call  away  a  boat,  to  pass  the  word  "for  the 
crew  to  man  their  boat.  To  trim  boat,  to  so  dis.- 
pose  the  weight  in  her  that  she  shall  float  up 
right.  To  bail  a  boat,  to  throw  out  the  water 
that  may  be  in  her.  To  moor  a  boat,  to  secure  it 
at  a  buoy  or  wharf.  To  wind  a  boat,  to  slue  it 
around  end  for  end.  To  man  a  boat,  to  send  the 


crew  in  it  to  manage  it.  To  boat  the  oars,  to 
place  them  on  the  thwarts  fore-and-aft  ready  for 
use. 

Boats,  Equipment  of. 

KUNNING-BOATS,  or  boats  which  do  the  or 
dinary  duty  of  a  ship,  are  supplied  with  oars, 
boat-hooks,  fenders,  breaker,  anchor,  colors, 
cushions,  painter,  etc.  Masts,  sails,  compass, 
and  awnings  will  be  carried  as  ordered. 

ARMED  BOATS  are  equipped  according  to  the 
nature  of  the  service  they  are  to  perform. 

DISTANT  SERVICE.  The  boat  is  supplied 
with  provisions,  fuel,  cooking  utensils,  ammu 
nition,  arms  and  accoutrements,  tools  and  arti 
cles  for  repairing  damages,  boat-gear,  means  of 
making  signals,  and  a  medical  outfit.  If  a  gun 
is  c'arried,  ammunition  and  implements  for  the 
service  of  the  piece  afloat  are  supplied. 

CUTTING  OUT  VESSELS,  or  CONTENDING  WITH 
OTHER  BOATS.  The  boat  is  supplied  with  am 
munition,  arms  and  accoutrements,  tools  and 
articles  for  repairing  damages,  medical  outfit, 
means  of  making  signals,  a  small  quantity  of 
provisions,  and  as  many  men  as  can  be  carried 
without  undue  crowding.  If  a  gun  is  carried, 
ammunition  and  implements  for  the  service  of 
the  piece  afloat  are  supplied.  See  CUTTING  OUT. 

LANDING  WHERE  LIKELY  TO  BE  OPPOSED. 
The  boat  is  supplied  with  ammunition,  arms, 
and  accoutrements,  tools  and  articles  for  repair 
ing  damages,  and  a  small  quantity  of  provisions. 
No  masts  or  sails  are  carried.  If  a  gun  is  car 
ried,  ammunition  and  implements  for  the  service 
of  the  piece  afloat  and  ashore  are  supplied.  For 
more  minute  details,  see  ORDNANCE  INSTRUC 
TIONS,  1880. 

Boats,  Management  of. 

UNDER  OARS.  Before  leaving  the  ship  see 
that  she  is  properly  equipped  for  the  service  on 
which  she  may  be  going.  Do  not  shove  off 
during  stern-way.  Trim  the  boat.  Keep  the 
weights  amidships.  Do  not  allow  the  men  to 
stand  up  in  the  boat,  or  to  sit  on  the  gunwale. 
Sand  is  much  heavier  when  wet  than  when  dry, 
therefore  do  not  overload  the  boat  with  it. 
Water  in  breakers  is  safest  for  ballast ;  iron  or 
sand  stows  better,  but  in  the  event  of  a  capsize 
would  sink  the  boat.  A  loaded  boat  holds  her 
way  longer  than  when  light.  Make  due  allow 
ance  for  the  tide;  a  little  judgment  may  save  a 
long  pull.  Keep  clear  of  a  vessel  with  stern-way 
on.  Keep  a  boat  bows-on  to  a  heavy  sea.  A 
boat  may  ride  out  a  heavy  gale  by  lashing  the 
spars,  sails,  etc.,  together  and  riding  to  leeward 
of  them.  See  BOARDING,  KEDGING,  KOWING, 
SURF,  SALUTES,  TOWING,  and  WARPING. 

UNDER  SAIL.  When  the  ship  is  not  head  to 
wind,  pull  well  clear  of  the  ship  before  making 
sail.  Hoist  the  jib  before  the  foresail,  that  the 
mast-head  may  not  be  dragged  aft.  Do  not 
belay  the  sheets,  but  keep  them  in  hand.  Run 
ning  before  a  stiff  breeze,  reduce  sail  before  luff 
ing  up.  Running  dead  before  the  wind  in  a 
light  boat  is  dangerous ;  it  is  safer  to  run  half 
the  distance  with  the  wind  on  one  quarter,  and 
then  bring  the  wind  on  the  other  quarter.  In  a 
moderate  squall  ease  the  sheets  ;  in  a  hard  squall 
luff  up  and  lower  the  sails.  If  there  be  any 
doubt  about  weathering  a  point,  go  about  at 
once.  If  there  be  any  doubt  about  going  around, 
have  an  oar  ready  to  leeward.  If  the  men  are 
sitting  to  windward,  make  them  sit  amidships  on 


BOATSWAIN 


84 


BOBSTAY 


passing  to  leeward  of  a  ship.  In  a  stiff  breeze 
get  the  masts  down  before  going  alongside  of  a 
ship. 

BOATABLE.     Navigable  for  boats. 

BOAT-CHOCKS.  Pieces  of  wood  on  which  boats 
rest  when  stowed  on  deck. 

BOAT-CLOAK.  A  mantle  for  the  use  of  officers 
in  a  boat. 

BOAT-DAVIT.  The  name  applied  to  the  timbers 
which  project  over  the  side  or  stern  of  a  vessel, 
and  to  which  the  boats  are  hoisted. 

BOAT-DRILL.  The  objects  of  boat-drill  are  as 
follows :  first,  to  accustom  the  men  to  rowing 
and  to  the  handling  of  boats  under  sail  (see 
MANAGEMENT  OF  BOATS)  ;  second,  to  instruct  the 
men  in  the  manipulation  of  boat-guns  (see  HOW 
ITZER)  ;  third,  to  familiarize  the  men  with  their 
duties  in  providing  articles  for  the  equipment  of 
boats  (see  EQUIPMENT  OF  BOATS);  fourth,  to 
familiarize  the  officers  and  quartermasters  with 
making  and  reading  signals  (see  SIGNALS)  ;  and, 
fifth,  to  familiarize  the  officers  \vith  the  princi 
ples  of  fleet  tactics.  The  tactics  for  boats  under 
sail  are  the  same  as  for  vessels  under  canvas,  and 
when  the  boats  are  under  oars  they  conform  to 
the  rules  laid  down  for  the  regulation  of  vessels 
under  steam.  See  NAVAL  TACTICS. 

BOAT-FAST.  The  rope  by  which  a  boat  is  made 
fast. 

BOAT-GEAR.  The  rigging  and  furniture  of  a 
boat. 

BOAT-HIRE.  Expenses  for  the  use  of  shore- 
boats. 

BOAT-HOOK.  A  staff  fitted  with  an  iron  or 
brass  head,  used  in  a  boat  when  alongside  of  a 
wharf  or  a  ship. 

BOATILA.  A  narrow-sterned,  flat-bottomed 
boat  of  the  Gulf  of  Manar. 

BOATING.  Transporting  men,  munitions,  or 
goods  by  boats. 

BOAT-KEEPER.  One  of  the  boat's  crew  who 
remains  in  charge  during  the  absence  of  the 
others. 

BOAT-LINE.     See  BOAT-ROPE. 

BOAT-ROPE.  A  rope  by  which  a  boat  is  towed. 
A  rope  fitted  to  a  boat  to  assist  in  managing  it 
when  lowered  in  a  sea-way. 

BOAT'S-CREW.  The  men  detailed  for  duty  in  a 
particular  boat. 

BOAT'S-GRIPES.  Lashings  for  securing  davit- 
boats  at  sea. 

BOAT-SKIDS.  Skids  to  keep  a  boat  clear  of 
the  ship's  side  in  hoisting  or  lowering. 

Boatswain  (Fr.  maitred' equipage).  Formerly 
pronounced  and  sometimes  written  bote-son,  or 
boat's-son,  and  bo'sun,  is  in  the  Spanish  and  Por 
tuguese  navies  styled  "  Master  of  the  Canvass." 
The  title  is  said  to  be  derived  from  bat,  a  boat, 
and  swan,  a  swain,  or  servant.  His  symbol  of 
office — the  silver  call,  or  whistle — was  once  the 
proud  insignia  of  the  Lord  High  Admiral  of 
England,  and  the  decorative  appendage  of  the  Ad 
mirals  of  the  Fleet,  who  wore  it  suspended  from 
a  golden  chain,  and  with  it  "  were  wont  to  cheer 
their  men  in  battle."  The  duties  of  a  boat 
swain  are  constant  and  fatiguing;  his  station  is 
the  forecastle,  whence  he  can  direct  the  men 
aloft.  He  pipes  "all  hands"  for  general  work, 
and  his  mates  repeat  the  call  on  their  respective 
decks.  Boatswains  in  the  United  States  navy 
are  warrant-officers,  and  their  principal  duties 
are  as  follows : 


The  boatswain  is  to  be  generally  upon  deck 
during  the  day,  and  at  all  times  when  any  duty 
shall  require  all  hands  to  be  employed.  He  is 
with  his  mates  to  see  that  the  men  go  quickly 
upon  deck  when  called,  and  that  they  perform 
their  duty  with  alacrity.  He  will  every  day  at 
7.30  A.M.,  and  at  such  other  times  as  directed^ 
examine  the  rigging,  and  report  to  the  officer  of 
the  deck  the  state  in  which  he  finds  it.  He  is  to 
be  careful  that  the  anchors,  booms,  and  boats  are 
properly  secured,  and  is  to  have  ready  a  suf 
ficient  number  of  mats,  plats,  nippers,  points, 
and  gaskets,  that  no  delay  may  be  experienced, 
He  will  be  careful  that  the  masts  of  the  ship  are 
not  crippled  or  strained  in  setting  up  the  stays 
and  rigging,  and  that  they  retain  the  same  angle 
with  the  keel  after  the  stays  and  rigging  are  set 
up  that  they  had  when  they  were  only  wedged. 
He  is  to  see  when  junk  is  worked  up  that  every 
part  is  applied  to  the  purposes  ordered.  When 
preparing  for  battle,  he  is  to  see  that  everything 
necessary  for  repairing  the  rigging  is  in  place. 

BOATSWAIN-BIRD  (Phaeton  cethcreus}.  A  trop 
ical  bird,  so  called  from  the  whistling  noise  it 
makes.  It  has  two  long  feathers  in  its  tail,  called 
the  marling-spike. 

BOATSWAIN-CAPTAIN.  A  term  applied  to  a 
commanding  officer  who  pays  great  attention  to 
the  minor  details  which  are  generally  attended 
to  by  the  boatswain. 

BOATSWAIN'S  MATE.  The  chief  petty  officer 
of  the  watch.  He  passes  all  the  orders  of  the 
officer  of  the  watch,  and  uses  his  call  as  circum 
stances  require. 

BOATSWAIN'S  STORE-ROOM.  An  apartment 
for  the  boatswain's  stores. 

Boat  the  Oars.  To  place  the  oars  fore-and- 
aft  on  the  thwarts  ready  for  use. 

Bob.  The  ball  or  balance-Aveight  of  a  clock's 
pendulum ;  the  weight  attached  to  the  plumb- 
line.  ,  To  fish.  A  knot  of  worms  on  a  string, 
used  in  fishing  for  eels ;  also  colloquially,  it 
means  a  berth.  Shift  your  bob,  to  move  about, 
to  dodge.  Bear  a  bob,  make  haste,  be  brisk. 

Bobbery.  A  disturbance,  row,  or  squabble; 
a  term  much  used  in  the  East  Indies  and  China. 

Bobbing.  A  particular  method  of  fishing  for 
e-els. 

Bobbing  About.  Heaving  and  setting  with 
out  making  any  way. 

Bobble.  The  state  of  waves  when  dashing 
about  without  any  regular  set  or  direction,  as  in 
cross  tides  or  currents. 

Bobstay.  A  rope  or  chain  extending  from 
the  bowsprit  to  the  cutwater.  Its  use  is  to  coun 
teract  the  strain  of  the  head-stays.  The  bow 
sprit  is  also  fortified  by  shrouds  from  the  bows 
on  each  side,  which  are  all  very  necessary,  as  the 
foremast  and  the  upper  spars  on. the  mainmast 
are  stayed  and  greatly  supported  by  the  bowsprit. 

BOBSTAY-COLLAKS.  These  are  made  with  large 
rope,  and  an  eye  spliced  in  each  end  ;  they  are 
secured  round  the  bowsprit,  on  the  upper  side, 
with  a  rose  lashing.  They  are  almost  entirely 
superseded  by  iron  bands. 

Bo BST AY-HOLES.  Those  cut  through  the  fore 
part  of  the  knee  of  the  head,  between  the  cheeks, 
for  the  admission  of  the  bobstay ;  they  are  not 
much  used  now,  as  chain  bobstays  are  almost 
universal,  which  are  secured  to  plates  by  shackles. 

BOBSTAY-PIECE.  A  piece  of  timber  to  which 
the  bobstays  are  secured. 


BOCCA 


85 


BOLSTERS 


BOBSTAY-PLATES.  Iron  plates  by  which  the 
lower  end  of  the  bobstay  is  attached  to  the  stem. 

Bocca  (Sp.  boca,  mouth).  A  term  used  both 
in  the  Levant  and  on  the  north  coast  of  South 
America,  or  the  Spanish  Main,  for  a  rnouth  or 
channel  into  any  port  or  harbor,  or  the  entrance 
into  a  sound  which  has  a  passage  out  by  a  con 
trary  way.  Bocca  Tigris,  Canton  River. 

Body.  The  principal  corps  of  an  army,  or  the 
main  strength  of  a  fleet.  The  figure  of  a  ship, 
abstractly  considered,  is  divided  into  different 
parts  or  figures,  each  of  which  has  the  appella 
tion  body,  as  fore-body,  midship-body,  square- 
body,  etc. 

Body-hoops.     The  hoops  of  a  made  mast. 

Body-plan.  A  plan  of  a  ship  showing  the 
breadth  ;  it  is  a  transverse  section  of  the  ship  at 
the  broadest  part. 

Body-post.  The  post  at  the  forward  end  of 
the  space  in  which  the  screw  revolves. 

Boggs,  Charies  Stewart,  Rear-Admiral 
U.S.N.  Born  in  New  Brunswick,  N.  J.,  Janu 
ary  28, 1811.  Appointed  midshipman  from  same 
State,  November  1,  1826.  Attached  to  Medi 
terranean  Squadron, — sloop  of-war  "  Warren" 
and  ship-of-the-line  "  Delaware,"  — 1827-30; 
West  India  Squadron,  schooner  "Porpoise," 
from  1830-32. 

Promoted  to  passed  midshipman,  April  28, 
1832;  receiving-ship,  New  York,  1832;  West 
Indies,  sloop  "  Fal  mouth,"  1833-34  ;  rendezvous, 
New  York,  1835-36. 

Promoted  to  lieutenant,  September  6,  1837 ; 
Pacific  Squadron,  ship-of-the-line  "  North  Caro 
lina"  and  schooner  "Enterprise,"  1837-38;  re 
ceiving-ship  "  New  York,"  in  charge  of  appren 
tices,  1840-41;  coast  of  Africa,  sloop  "Sara 
toga,"  1842-43;  participated  in  the  destruction 
of  the  Bereby  village  on  that  coast ;  Home 
Squadron,  1846-47,  steamer  "Princeton";  pres 
ent  at  siege  of  Vera  Cruz  ;  commanded  boat  ex 
pedition  from  the  "  Princeton,"  which  destroyed 
the  U.  S.  brig  "  Truxtun"  after  her  surrender  to 
the  Mexicans  ;  receiving-ship,  New  York,  1848  ; 
executive-officer  of  the  frigate  "St.  Lawrence" 
to  the  World's  Fair,  London,  1848;  first  lieu 
tenant  navy-yard,  New  York,  and  inspecting  for 
Bureau  of  Provisions  and  Clothing,  1851-54. 

Commissioned  as  commander,  September  15, 
1855 ;  commanding  United  States  mail-steamer 
"  Illinois,"  1856-58  ;  light-house  inspector,  Cali 
fornia,  1860-61 ;  commanding  U.  S.  steamer 
"Varuna"  at  the  passage  of  Forts  Jackson  and 
St.  Philip,  April  24,  1862.  The  "  Varuna"  was 
the  only  vessel  of  Farragut's  squadron  lost  at  the 
passage  of  the  forts.  From  her  great  speed  she 
was  able  to  get  ahead  of  all  the  fleet,  and  engage 
the  rebel  squadron  above  the  forts.  She  was  at 
tacked  by  two  rams,  and  sunk  after  being  run 
into  the  bank  of  the  river ;  causing,  however, 
the  destruction  of  the  attacking  vessels. 

Commissioned  as  captain,  July  16,  1862  ;  com 
manded  steam-sloop  "  Sacramento"  on  the  block 
ade  of  Cape  Fear  River ;  left  his  command  on 
account  of  serious  sickness ;  special  duty  under 
Admiral  Gregory,  at  New  York,  1864-65;  super 
intended  the  construction  of  small  steam  picket- 
boats,  and  specially  designed  and  fitted  out  the 
torpedo-boat  which,  under  the  dashing  Gushing, 
destroyed  the  rebel  ironclad  "  Albemarle"  ;  1866, 
commanded  the  U.  S.  steamer  "Connecticut," 
special  cruise  in  the  West  Indies  ;  fell  in  with 


the  rebel  ironclad  "  Stonewall"  in  the  harbor  of 
Havana,  and  previous  to  her  being  given  up  to 
the  Spanish  government,  demanded  her  surren 
der  to  the  United  States. 

Promoted  to  commodore,  July  25,  1866  ;  com 
manded  steamer  "  De  Soto,"  North  Atlantic 
Squadron,  1866-68 ;  special  duty,  to  report  on 
the  condition  of  steam-engines  afloat,  1869-70 ; 
commanding  light-house  depot,  Tompkinsville, 
Staten  Island,  and  light-house  inspector,  third 
district. 

Commissioned  as  rear-admiral,  July,  1870; 
commanding  European  Fleet,  1871-72 ;  retired, 
1873. 

Bogue.  To  fall  off  from  the  wind ;  to  edge 
away  to  leeward.  The  mouth  of  a  river. 

Boiler.  A  close  vessel  in  which  steam  is  gen 
erated,  to  be  used  as  the  motive  force  in  steam- 
engines,  and  for  other  purposes.  It  is  usually 
made  of  wrought-iron  plates,  overlapping  at  the 
edges  and  fastened  with  rivets.  See  MARINE 
BOILERS. 

BOILER-ALARM.  An  apparatus  to  call  atten 
tion  to  the  low  level  of  the  water  in  the  boiler. 

BOILER-FEEDER.  An  apparatus,  usually  auto 
matic  and  self-regulating,  for  keeping  the  boiler 
supplied  with  water. 

BOILER-FLOAT.  A  float  which  rises  and  falls 
with  the  water  in  the  boiler,  and  which  shuts 
off  the  feed-water  when  the  water  has  risen  to 
the  requisite  height. 

BOILER-IRON.  Rolled  plates  of  iron  from  one- 
fourth  to  one-eighth  of  an  inch  in  thickness. 

BOILER-PROTECTOR.  A  non-conducting  ma 
terial  to  prevent  the  escape  of  heat ;  as,  felt,  lag 
ging,  etc. 

Boiling,  the  Whole.  A  contemptuous  ex 
pression  to  denote  the  whole  number  or  entire 
quantity. 

Bold  Bow.     A  broad  bluff  bow. 

Boldering  Weather.     Cloudy  and  thundery. 

Bold  Shore.  A  coast  where  the  Water  deep 
ening  rapidly  permits  the  near  approach  of  ships 
without  danger  of  grounding. 

Bold-to.  A  term  applied  to  land  when  the 
adjacent  water  deepens  rapidly.  Steep-to. 

Bole.     A  small  boat. 

Bolide.     A  name  for  an  aerolite. 

Boline.     See  BOWLINE. 

Bollard.  A  timber  around  which  a  turn  of 
the  line  is  taken  when  a  whale  is  struck,  in 
order  that  the  line  may  be  veered  steadily.  A 
vertical  timber  projecting  above  the  ground,  to 
which  hawsers  are  secured. 

Bollard -timber.  Usually  called  knight-head 
(which  see). 

Boiling,  or  Bowling  Along.  Going  through 
the  water  rapidly  with  a  free  wind. 

Bolme.  An  old  term  for  a  waterman's  pole 
or  boom. 

Boloto.  A  small  boat  of  the  Philippines  and 
Moluccas. 

Bolsters.  Small  cushions  or  bags  of  tarred 
canvas,  used  to  preserve  the  stays  from  being 
chafed  by  the  motion  of  the  masts  when  the  ship 
pitches  at  sea.  Pieces  of  soft  wood  covered  with 
canvas,  placed  on  the  tressle-trees  for  the  eyes  of 
the  rigging  to  rest  upon  and  prevent  a  sharp  nip. 
Also  pieces  of  oak  timber  fayed  to  the  curvature 
of  the  bow,  under  the  hawse-holes,  and  down 
upon  the  upper  cheek,  to  prevent  the  cable  from 
rubbing  against  the  cheeks. 


BOLT 


86 


BOOMS 


Bolt.  To  start  off;  to  run  away.  To  swallow 
food  without  chewing  it.  A  cylindrical  bar  of 
metal.  Bolts  take  their  names  from  the  uses  to 
which  they  are  applied ;  as,  bringing-to  bolt,  drive- 
bolt,  etc. ;  from  a  peculiarity  of  construction  ;  as, 
eye-bolt,  ring-bolt,  etc.  ;  from  the  mode  of  secur 
ing  them;  as,  screw-bolt,  bay-bolt,  etc.  For  a 
description  of  bolts  see  under  the  following 
heads :  BARB-,  BAY-,  BRINGING-TO-,  CLINCH-, 
COUNTERSUNK  -  HEADED-,  DOUBLE  -  ENDED-, 
DRIVE-,  DRIFT-,  EYE-,  TENDER-,  FLUSH-, 
FORELOCK-,  Fox-,  JAGGED-,  KEY-,  LEWIS-, 
POINTED-,  KAG-,  KING-,  KIVETED-,  KOSE- 
HEADED-,  HOUND-HEADED-,  SCARF-,  SCREW-, 
and  SET-BOLT. 

BOLT  OF  CANYAS.  A  roll  of  canvas  contain 
ing  39  yards.  « 

BOLT-AUGER.  An  auger  for  boring  holes  for 
bolts. 

,  BOLT-CHISEL.  A  cold  chisel  for  cutting  off  the 
projecting  ends  of  bolts. 

BOLT-CUTTER.  A  tool  for  cutting  off  bolts.  A 
tool  for  cutting  the  thread  on  bolts. 

Bolt-rope.  A  superior  quality  of  hemp  cord 
age  used  for  roping  sails. 

BOLT-ROPE  NEEDLE.  A  strong  needle  for 
stitching  a  sail  to  the  bolt-rope. 

Bolt-sprit.     See  BOWSPRIT. 

BOLT-STRAKE.  Strakes  of  plank  through 
which  pass  the  beam  fastenings. 

Bomb.  A  hollow  ball  or  shell  of  cast  iron 
charged  with  powder,  and  furnished  with  a  fuse 
so  adjusted  that  when  the  bomb  reaches  the  end 
of  its  range  the  fuse  ignites  the  powder  in  the 
shell  and  blows  it  to  pieces.  Bombs  appear  to 
have  first  come  into  use  in  the  wars  of  the  Neth 
erlands,  in  the  17th  century.  See  SHELL. 

BOMB-BED.  The  platform  which  supports  a 
mortar. 

BOMB-KETCH.     See  MORTAR  VESSEL. 

BOMB-SHELL.     See  BOMB. 

BOMB  VESSEL.     See  MORTAR  VESSEL. 

Bombalo.  A  delicate  kind  of  sand-eel  taken 
in  quantities  at  Bombay. 

Bombard.  An  ancient  piece  of  ordnance  for 
throwing  heavy  projectiles.  Its  bore  sometimes 
exceeded  twenty  inches  in  diameter.  There  were 
also  smaller  varieties  of  the  bombard.  See  ORD 
NANCE. 

A  vessel  in  which  beer  was  formerly  carried  to 
soldiers  on  duty;  whence  bum-boat  (which  see). 

Bombay.  A  city  and  seaport  on  the  island  of 
Bombay,  now  artificially  converted  into  a  penin 
sula,  all  of  which  is  included  in  the  municipal 
limits.  Lat.  18°  56'  N. ;  Ion.  72°  53'  E.  Since 
the  development  of  cotton  culture  in  India,  Bom 
bay  has  largely  increased  in  wealth  and  impor 
tance.  It  is  connected  by  railroads  with  most  of 
the  large  cities  of  India,  and  by  steamer  lines, 
via  Suez,,  with  Great  Britain.  On  the  S.  W.  the 
fort  is  connected  by  Colabba  causeway  with  the 
island  of  Colabba,  on  which  are  the  light-house, 
observatory,  and  a  stone  pier.  The  harbor  of 
Bombay  is  unequaled  for  safety  in  all  India.  It 
affords  good  anchorage  for  ships  of  the  largest 
burden,  and  it  has  excellent  building-  and  other 
docks  for  ships  of  the  first  class.  Pop.  700,000. 

Bombo.     Weak,  cold  punch. 

Bonaventure.  The  old  outer  mizzen,  long 
disused. 

Bone.  To  study.  To  bone  up  a  subject,  to 
study  it  thoroughly. 


Bon-grace.  Junk-fenders,  to  hang  over  the 
bows  and  sides  of  a  vessel.  See  BOW-GRACE. 

Bonito.  The  Thynnus  pelamys,  a  fish  of  the 
scomber  family,  commonly  about  2  feet  long, 
with  a  sharp  head,  small  mouth,  full  eyes,  and  a 
regular  semilunar  tail. 

Boni-vochil.  The  Hebridean  name  for  the 
great  northern  diver  (Colymbus  glacialis}. 

Bonnet.     An  additional  part  laced  to  the  foot 
of  the  jibs,  or  other  fore-and-aft  sails,  in  small 
vessels   in  moderate   weather,   to  gather   mor 
wind. 

Bonnet-flook.  The  well-known  flat-fish,  brill, 
pearl,  or  mouse-dab  ;  the  Pleuronectes  rhombus. 

Bony-fish.  A  name  for  the  hard-head  (which 
see). 

Bony  Pike  !  Lepidosteus}.  A  genus  of  ganoid 
fishes,  conspicuous  by  being  examples  of  a  nearly 
extinct  type. 

Booby.  A  well-known  tropical  sea-bird,  Sula 
fusca,  of  the  family  Pelecanidce.  It  is  fond  of 
resting  out  of  the  water  at  night,  even  preferring 
an  unstable  perch  on  the  yard  of  a  ship.  The 
name  is  derived  from  the  way  in  which  it  allows 
itself  to  be  caught  immediately  after  settling. 
The  direction  in  which  it  flies  as  evening  comes 
on  often  shows  where  land  may  be  found. 

Booby-hatch.  A  smaller  kind  of  companion, 
but  readily  removable.  A  kind  of  wooden  hood 
over  a  hatch,  fitted  with  a  sliding  top  and  readily 
removable. 

Book.  A  commercial  term  for  a  peculiar  pack 
ing  of  muslins,  bastas,  and  other  stuffs.  Brought 
to  book,  made  to  account. 

Books.  Oflicial  documents.  See  SHIP'S  BOOKS. 

Boom.  A  long  spar  used  to  extend  or  boom 
out  the  foot  of  a  particular  sail.  It  takes  its 
name  from  the  sail  it  extends.  (See  JIB-,  FLY 
ING-JIB-,  STUDDING-SAIL-,  SPANKER-,  RING 
TAIL-,  and  MAIN-BOOM.)  The  name  is  also 
applied  to  a  chain  stretched  across  a  river  or 
mouth  of  a  harbor  to  prevent  the  entrance  of  an 
enemy's  vessel.  See  FIRE-SHIPS. 

Booms  may  be  employed  in  the  defense  of  har 
bors  either  by  themselves,  or  in  combination  with 
submarine  mines.  The  essential  qualities  of  a 
boom  are  that  it  shall  possess  great  strength 
and  be  easy  to  manipulate.  The  main  cable 
should  be  of  wire  or  chain,  and  is  buoyed  up 
by  spars,  logs,  etc.  A  space  is  left  between  each 
float  to  give  the  whole  structure  flexibility.  The 
boom  should  be  moored  with  heavy  anchors  up 
stream,  and  with  heavy  chains  without  anchors 
down-stream  ;  the  former  to  counteract  the  force 
of  the  current,  and  the  latter  to  oppose  a  yielding 
obstacle  to  the  shock  of  ramming.  The  boom 
should  be  moored  obliquely  to  the  current,  which 
compels  an  enemy's  vessel  to  place  herself  athwart 
the  current  in  order  to  ram  the  boom  at  right 
angles.  The  boom  should  be  protected  from  the 
enemy's  boats  by  small  mechanical  mines,  and 
should  be  covered  by  batteries  on  each  side  of 
the  bay  or  river.  To  boom  off,  to  shove  off  a  ves 
sel  or  boat  with  spars.  To  top  up  a  boom  is  to 
elevate  one  end  of  it  by  hauling  on  the  topping 
lifts.  A  person  is  said  to  top  up  his  boom  when 
he  fortifies  himself  with  ardent  spirits. 

Booms.  The  space  between  the  fore-  and  main 
masts,  in  which  the  boom-boats  and  spare  spars 
are  stowed. 

BOOM-BOATS.  Boats  carried  inboard  and 
stowed  in  the  booms. 


BOOPAH 


87 


BOSCAWEN 


BOOM-BRACE.  A  rope  extending  from  the 
outer  extremity  of  the  topmast  studding-sail- 
boom  through  a  tail-block  in  the  rnain-rig- 
ging. 

BOOM-COVER.  The  large  tarpaulin,  or  painted 
canvas  cover,  extending  over  the  booms  and 
boom-boats. 

BOOM-IRONS.  Metal  hoops  or  rings  on  the 
lower  and  topsail  yards  through  which  the 
booms  traverse.  See  PACIFIC-IRONS. 

BOOM-JIGGER.  A  tackle  used  for  rigging  in 
and  out  the  topmast  studding-sail-booms. 

BOOMKIN.     See  BUMKIN. 

BOOM-MAINSAIL.  A  fore-and-aft  mainsail  the 
foot  of  which  is  spread  by  a  boom. 

BOOM-TRICING-LINE.  The  line  which  trices 
up  the  heel  of  a  stun 'sail-boom. 

Boopah.  A  Tongatabou  canoe  with  a  single 
outrigger. 

Bootes  (G-r.  bootes,  a  plowman).  The  con 
stellation  following  the  Great  Bear,  which,  it  is 
probable,  originally  figured  as  an  ox  or  wagon. 
Bootes  is  also  called  Arctophylax,  the  Bear- 
watcher  ;  and  the  bright  star  a  Bootis  is  named 
Arcturus,  which  means  the  Bear-keeper. 

Boothyr.  An  old  word  for  a  small  river 
vessel. 

Boot-lick.  One  who  cringes  and  flatters  to 
obtain  favors. 

Boot-topping.  The  old  operation  of  scraping 
off  the  grass,  slime,  shells,  etc.,  which  adhere  to 
the  bottom,  near  the  surface  of  the  water,  and 
daubing  it  over  with  a  mixture  of  tallow,  sul 
phur,  and  resin,  as  a  temporary  protection 
against  worms.  This  is  chiefly  performed  where 
there  is  no  dock  or  convenient  situation  for  bream 
ing  or  careening,  or  when  the  hurry  of  a  voyage 
renders  it  inconvenient  to  have  the  whole  bottom 
properly  cleansed.  The  term  is  now  applied  to 
sheathing  a  vessel  with  planking  over  felt. 

Booty.  That  sort  of  prize  which  may  be 
distributed  at  the  capstan-head,  or  at  once. 

Booze.  A  carouse  ;  hence,  boozy,  elevated  by 
liquor.  • 

Bora.  A  very  violent  wind  experienced  in 
the  upper  part  of  the  Adriatic  Sea,  but  which 
fortunately  is  of  no  great  duration. 

Borasca.  A  storm,  with  thunder  and  light 
ning. 

Bord.  The  sea-coast,  an  old  term.  Formerly 
meant  the  side,  edge,  or  brim ;  hence,  as  applied 
to  a  ship,  to  throw  overboard  is  to  cast  anything 
over  the  side  of  the  vessel. 

Borda,Jean  Charles,  a  scientific  French  navi 
gator,  born  at  Dax,  May  4,  1733  ;  died  in  Paris, 
February  20,  1799.  He  was  a  teacher  of  mathe 
matics  ;  became  a  captain  in  the  French  navy, 
and  by  his  scientific  knowledge  was  of  great  ser 
vice  to  the  Count  d'Estaing  during  the  American 
war,  in  which  he  commanded  the  "  Solitaire" 
with  distinction.  Made  a  member  of  the  Acad 
emy  of  Sciences  in  1756.  In  1771  he  made  a 
voyage  to  America  for  scientific  purposes,  and 
again  in  1774,  and  at  a  later  period,  of  which  he 
published  an  account  in  1778.  He  founded  the 
School  of  Naval  Architecture  in  France,  in 
vented  nautical  instruments,  was  one  of  the  sci 
entific  men  who  framed  the  French  metric  sys 
tem,  and  published  some  treatises  on  hydraulics. 
Member  of  the  French  Institute. 

Bordeaux.  A  city  in  the  S.  W.  of  France,  on 
the  Garonne,  60  miles  from  its  mouth,  and  chiefly 


on  its  left  bank.  Lat.  44°  W  19"  N. ;  Ion.  0° 
84X  32/7  W.  Situated  on  a  navigable  river,  in 
this  part  2600  feet  wide  and  from  60  to  90  feet 
deep,  Bordeaux  takes,  rank  next  after  Marseilles 
and  Havre  among  the  ports  of  France  both  in 
foreign  and  coastwise  trade.  Its  harbor  or  basin, 
formed  by  the  Garonne,  is  capable  of  containing 
1200  ships  of  the  largest  size,  and  is  accessible  for 
vessels  of  600  tons  at  all  times  of  the  tide.  It  has 
docks  and  building-yards  for  every  size  of  ves 
sels.  Its  principal  exports  are  wines,  brandy, 
and  fruits.  Pop.  225,000. 

Bordels.  An  old  word  for  houses  built  along 
a  strand. 

Bord  You.  A  saying  of  a  man  waiting,  to 
one  who  is  drinking,  meaning  that  he  claims  the 
next  turn. 

Bore.  The  cavity,  generally  cylindrical  in 
shape,  of  a  piece  of  ordnance  ;  also,  the  diameter 
of  this  cavity.  A  sudden  and  rapid  flow  of  tide 
in  certain  inlets  of  the  sea  ;  as,  the  monstrous 
wave  in  the  river  Hoogly,  called  bahn  by  the 
natives,  which  rolls  in  with  the  noise  of  distant 
thunder  at  flood-tide.  It  occurs  from  February 
to  November,  at  the  new  and  full  moon.  Its 
cause  has  not  been  clearly  defined,  although  it 
probably  arises  from  the  currents  during  spring 
tides,  acting  on  a  peculiar  conformation  of  the 
banks  and  bed  of  the  river  ;  it  strikes  invariably 
on  the  same  part  of  the  banks,  majestically  roll 
ing  over  to  one  side,  and  passing  on  diagonally 
to  the  other  with  impetuous  violence.  The  bore 
also  occurs  in  England,  near  Bristol ;  and  in 
America,  in  several  rivers,  but  especially  in  the 
Bay  of  Fundy,  where,  at  the  river  Petticodiac, 
the  tide  rises  76  feet.  It  also  occurs  in  Borneo 
and  several  rivers  in  the  East. 

Attention  to  the  bore  in  different  places  is  of 
great  importance  to  the  seaman.  No  boat  ven 
tures  to  navigate  the  channels  between  the  islands 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Brahmapootra  at  spring 
tide ;  in  the  Hoogly,  the  bore  running  along 
one  bank  only,  on  its  approach  the  smaller  ship 
ping  is  removed  to  the  other  side,  or  ride  it  out 
in  mid-stream  ;  and  in  some  of  the  rivers  of 
Brazil  the  barges,  at  the  spring-tides,  are  always 
moored  in  deep  water,  it  being  noticed  that  the 
bore  is  only  dangerous  on  the  shoals. 

Boreas.  Son  of  ^Estrseus  and  Heribeia,  gen 
erally  put  for  the  north  wind. 

Bore  Down.  Sailed  down  from  to  wind 
ward. 

Boring.  In  Arctic  seas,  the  operation  of 
forcing  a  ship  through  the  loose  ice. 

Boring-bit.  A  tool  for  clearing  the  vent  of  a 
gun. 

Borrachio  (Sp.  borracho,  drunk).  A  skin, 
usually  a  goat's,  for  holding  wine  or  .water. 
Used  "in  the  Levant.  A  skin-full ;  literally, 
gorged  with  wine. 

Borrow.  To  approach  closely  either  to  land 
or  wind ;  to  hug  a  shore  or  coast  to  avoid  an  ad 
verse  tide. 

Bort.  The  name  given  to  a  fishing-line  in  the 
Shetland  Isles. 

Boscawen,  Edward,  Admiral.  Born  August 
19,  1711.  Measuring  men  by  their  success, 
this  very  distinguished  sailor  occupies  a  high 
place  in  British  annals.  For  twenty  years  he 
was  in  continual  active  service.  The  West  In 
dies,  the  South  American  coast,  the  Mediterra 
nean,  India,  and  the  coast  of  North  America  were 


BOSS 


88 


BOUNCE 


the  scenes  of  his  professional  employment.  Fre 
quently  engaged  in  contests  with  the  French,  he, 
singularly  enough,  three  times  took  prisoner  the 
same  admiral,  and  carried  more  prizes  into  Eng- 
lish'ports  than  any  other  seaman  before  or  since. 
Vice-admiral  of  the  blue,  1756.  Died  January 
10,  1761. 

Boss.  An  elevated  or  thickened  portion, 
usually  around  an  aperture ;  as,  a  socket  for  a 

Sivot-bolt.  A  master-workman  or  superinten- 
ent. 

Boston  (Mass.)  is  on  a  bay  called  Boston 
Harbor,  which  forms  the  inner  bight  of  Massa 
chusetts  Bay,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Charles  and 
Mystic  Kivers.  Lat.  42°  '2V  27.6"  N. ;  Ion.  71° 
3'  30"  W.  The  harbor  is  excellent,  and  the 
wharves,  warehouses,  and  other  shipping  facili 
ties  are  not  surpassed.  Steamers  ply  hence  to 
Europe  and  to  the  principal  ports  of  the  United 
States.  Boston  has  a  large  trade  with  the  West 
Indies,  and  with  Nova  Scotia  and  New  Bruns 
wick,  and  the  coastwise  traffic  is  extensive.  Her 
commerce  with  India,  China,  and  Liverpool  is 
very  large,  although  less  than  it  was  twenty  years 
ago.  Much  capital  has  been  expended  in  the 
extension  of  harbor  facilities.  The  inner  harbor 
is  completely  sheltered,  not  difficult  of  access, 
and  is  seldom  encumbered  by  ice.  Several  large 
works  have  been  constructed  for  its  defense, 
Forts  Warren,  Independence,  and  Winthrop 
being  the  most  important.  The  channel  is  well 
lighted,  the  structure  on  Minot's  Ledge  being 
the  outermost  and  highest  of  its  four  light-houses. 
The  harbor  covers  75  square  miles,  and  has  a 
minimum  depth  of  23  feet  above  mean  low  tide. 
Charlestown,  formerly  a  suburb  of  Boston,  now 
incorporated  with  it,  is  the  seat  of  a  large  United 
States  navy-yard.  Pop.  about  352,000. 

Botany  Bay.  Discovered  by  Cook  in  1770, 
and  received  its  name  from  the  great  variety  of 
herbs  found  on  its  shores.  The  settlement  was 
selected  as  a  site  for  a  colony  of  English  convicts, 
and  the  first  governor  arrived  in  January,  1788. 
The  colony  was  eventually  located  at  Port  Jack 
son,  13  miles  north  of  the  bay. 

Botarga.  The  roe  of  the  mullet  pressed  flat 
and  dried ;  that  of  commerce,  however,  is  from 
the  tunny,  a  large  fish  of  passage  which  is  com 
mon  in  the  Mediterranean. 

Botch.     To  make  bungling  work. 

Bote's-carle.     An  old  word  for  coxswain. 

Both  Sheets  Aft.  A  ship  before  the  wind 
has  both  fore-sheets  hauled  aft.  The  expression 
is  also  applied  to  a  half-drunken  sailor  rolling 
along  with  both  hands  in  his  pockets  and  elbows 
square. 

Botte.     An  old  word  for  boat. 

Bottle-charts.  Charts  on  which  the  set  of 
surface  currents  is  marked,  when  the  set  has  been 
calculated  from  the  data  found  in  bottles  thrown 
overboard  and  washed  upon  the  beach,  or  picked 
up  by  ships. 

Bottle-nose,  or  Bottle-nosed  Whale.  A  name 
applied  to  several  of  the  smaller  cetaceans  of  the 
northern  seas,  more  especially  to  the  Hyperoodon 
rostratus. 

Bottom.  The  lowest  part  of  anything.  The 
rich  low  land  formed  by  alluvial  deposits.  The 
part  of  a  ship  under  water  ;  hence,  the  ship  itself; 
as  "foreign  bottoms."  A.  full  bottom  denotes 
that  such  a  form  has  been  given  to  a  ship  as  to 
allow  her  to  carry  a  large  amount  of  merchan 


dise.  The  bed  of  a  body  of  water ;  it  is  charac 
terized  as  muddy,  rocky,  sandy,  etc. 

BOTTOM-CLEAN.  Thoroughly  clean,  free  from 
weeds,  etc. 

Bottomry.  A  contract  in1  the  nature  of  a 
mortgage  of  a  ship  when  the  owner,  or  his  agent, 
borrows  money  to  enable  him  to  carry  on  his 
voyage,  and  pledges  the  keel  or  bottom  of  the 
ship  ( partem  pro  toto)  as  a  security  for  the  re 
payment.  If  the  ship  be  lost  the  lender  loses 
also  his  whole  money ;  but  if  it  return  in  safety 
then  he  shall  receive  back  his  principal,  and  also 
the  premium  stipulated  to  be  paid,  however  it 
may  exceed  the  usual  or  legal  rate  of  interest. 
And  this  is  allowed  to  be  a  valid  contract  in  all 
trading  nations,  for  the  benefit  of  commerce,  and 
by  reason  of  the  extraordinary  hazard  run  by 
the  lender.  And  in  this  case  the  ship  and  tackle, 
if  brought  home,  are  answerable  (as  well  as  the 
borrower  personally)  for  the  money  lent.  But 
if  the  loan  be  not  upon  the  vessel,  but  upon  the 
goods  and  merchandise,  which  must  necessarily 
be  sold  or  exchanged  in  the  course  of  the  voyage, 
then  only  the  borrower,  personally,  is  bound  to 
answer  the  contract,  and  in  this  case  he  is  said 
to  take  the  money  at  respondentia  (which  see). 

BOTTOMRY  PREMIUM.  The  high  rate  of  in 
terest  charged  on  the  safety  of  the  ship, — the 
lender  losing  his  whole  money  if  she  be  lost. 

Bottom-wind.  A  phenomenon  that  occurs  on 
the  lakes  in  the  north  of  England,  especially 
Derwent  Water,  which  is  often  agitated  by  swell 
ing  waves  without  any  apparent  cause. 

Bouche.     See  BUSH. 

Bougainville,  Louis  Antoine  de.  Born  in 
Paris,  November  11,  1729.  The  first  voyage 
round  the  world  by  a  Frenchman  was  made  by 
this  illustrious  seaman.  He  crossed  the  Atlantic, 
braved  the  stormy  seas  around  Cape  Horn,  and 
passed  into  the  Pacific.  He  visited  many  places 
on  the  western  shores  of  America  and  among 
the  islands  in  the  Pacific,  but  the  charts  which 
he  prepared  and  bequeathed  to  his  country  and 
posterity  are  not  reliable,  owing  to  the  great  dif 
ficulty  in  Bougainville's  day  of  making  astro 
nomical  observations,  and  the  imperfect  character 
of  the  plans  laid  down  by  men  of  science  for  as 
certaining  the  longitude.  Died  August  31,  1811. 

Bouge.     See  BOWGE. 

Bouge  and  Chine,  or  Bowge  and  Chime.  A 
method  of  stowing  casks  with  the  bilge  of  one 
against  the  end  of  another. 

Bouguer,  Pierre.  Born  at  Le  Croisic,  in  Bre- 
tagne,  February  16,  1698.  A  profound  French 
mathematician,  who  was  one  of  a  body  of  savants 
deputed  in  1735  to  proceed  to  South  America  to 
measure  a  degree  of  the  meridian  at  the  equator. 
Died  August  15,  1758. 

Bouilli.  Preserved  beef  in  hermetically-sealed 
cans;  termed  by  sailors  "bully-beef,"  or  "soup 
and  bully." 

Boulder.     See  BOWLDER. 

Boulogne.  A  town  of  France,  on  the  Eng 
lish  Channel,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Lianne.  Lat. 
50°  W  32"  N.  ;  Ion.  1°  36'  15"  E.  The  port 
is  formed  by  piers  stretching  out  only  to  low- 
water  mark,  but  the  tide  rises  upwards  of  16 
feet,  and  vessels  find  good  anchorage  about  half 
a  mile  from  the  harbor.  There  is  also  a  wet- 
dock  with  other  harbor  improvements.  Pop. 
40,000. 

Bounce.     The  larger  dog-fish. 


BOUNCER 


89 


BOWLINE-KNOT 


Bouncer.  A  gun  which  kicks  violently  when 
fired. 

Bound.  The  path  of  a  projectile  between  two 
grazes.  Destined ;  going,  or  intending  to  go. 
Where  are  you  bound  ?  to  what  place  are  you 
going.  Ice-bound,  entirely  surrounded  by  ice. 
Tide-bound,  beneaped,  or  prevented  from  sailing 
by  an  adverse  tide.  Wind-bound,  prevented 
from  sailing  by  an  unfavorable  wind. 

Boundary-line.  The  trace  of  the  outer  sur 
face  of  the  skin  of  a  ship  on  the  stern-post, 
stem,  and  keel. 

Bounty  for  Destruction  of  Enemies'  Vessels. 
An  amount  awarded  to  a  ship  or  vessel  of  the 
United  States  which  sinks  or  destroys  a  vessel 
of  war  belonging  to  an  enemy.  If  the  vessel  de 
stroyed  was  of  equal  or  superior  force  to  the 
United  States  vessel,  the  latter  is  awarded  $200 
for  each  person  on  board  the  former  at  the  begin 
ning  of  the  engagement ;  if  of  inferior  force, 
$100  for  each  person.  If  the  captors  of  an 
enemy's  vessel  are  instructed  to,  or  do  immedi 
ately,  destroy  the  vessel  for  the  public  interest, 
$50  is  awarded  for  each  person  on  board  the  ves 
sel  at  the  time  it  was  captured.  The  gross 
amount  awarded  as  above  is  divided  among  the 
officers  and  crew  in  the  same  manner  as  prize- 
money.  (See  PRIZE-MONEY.)  When  the  actual 
number  of  persons  on  board  the  destroyed  vessel 
cannot  be  ascertained,  it  is  estimated  according 
to  the  complement  of  a  vessel  of  its  class  in  the 
United  States  navy.  This  bounty  is  authorized 
by  the  laws  of  the  United  States,  but  cannot  be 
paid  unless  an  appropriation  is  made  by  Con 
gress  for  that  purpose. 

Bourdonnais,  Bertrand  F.  de.  A  naval  officer 
in  the  service  of  the  French  East  India  Com 
pany.  He  held  the  post  of  Director-General  of 
Mauritius  (then  called  the  Isle  of  France)  and 
Bourbon  ;  and  in  1746,  when  France  and  Eng 
land  were  at  war,  he  beat  a  squadron  under  Ad 
miral  Bassett,  and  bombarded  the  city  of  Madras. 

Bourse  (Fr.).  An  exchange;  a  place  where 
merchants  congregate  to  transact  business. 

Bouse.     See  BOWSE. 

Bout.  A  turn,  round,  or  trial.  A  convivial 
meeting. 

'Bout-ship.  A  contraction  of  about-ship.  An 
order  to  prepare  for  going  about. 

Bow.  The  forward  part  of  a  vessel.  A  full 
or  bluff  bow  is  broad  and  round ;  a  sharp  or  lean 
bow  is  narrow  and  thin.  The  bow  flares  more 
or  less  as  it  falls  out  or  increases  in  breadth  at 
the  upper  part.  Doubling  of  the  bows,  a  thick 
planking  secured  on  the  bow  to  prevent  the  point 
of  the  anchor  from  injuring  it.  Bows  on,  stem 
first.  On  the  bow,  at  an  angle  less  than  45°  from 
the  ship's  course.  Broad  off  the  bow,  at  an  angle 
of  45°  from  the  ship's  course. 

Bow.  An  old  instrument  for  taking  angles, 
consisting  of  a  graduated  arc  of  90°,  three  vanes, 
and  a  staff. 

Bow-bye.  An  old  expression  for  the  situation 
of  a  ship  when  she  is  in  irons. 

Bow-chaser.  A  gun  placed  in  the  bow  to  fire 
on  a  retreating  vessel. 

Bowd-eaten.  An  old  term  for  eaten  by  wee 
vils. 

Bowditch,  Nathaniel,  LL.D.,  F.R.S.,  mathe 
matician  and  astronomer,  born  in  Salem,  Mass., 
March  26,  1773  ;  died  at  Boston,  March  16, 1838. 
The  poverty  of  his  parents  occasioned  his  with 


drawal  from  school  at  the  age  of  10,  and  after  an 
apprenticeship  in  a  ship-chandler's  shop  until  he 
was  21 ,  he  spent  nine  years  in  a  seafaring  life,  at 
taining  the  rank  of  master.  He  published  in  1800, 
while  engaged  as  a  supercargo,  his  well  known 
a  PracticarNavigator,"  still  a  standard  work  of 
great  utility  and  value.  His  fame  as  a  man  of 
science  will  principally  rest  on  his  Commentary 
on  the  "Mecanique  Celeste"  of  La  Place,  of  which 
he  made  the  first  entire  translation,  and  which 
he  elucidated  in  a  manner  that  commands  the 
admiration  of  scientific  men.  The  elucidations 
and  commentaries  of  Bowditch  form  more  than 
half  the  work.  They  record  subsequent  discov 
eries,  and  show  the  sources  whence  La  Place 
derived  assistance.  He  contributed  many  valu 
able  papers  to  "  The  Memoirs  of  the  American 
Academy,"  and  an  article  on  modern  astronomy 
to  vol.  xx.  "  North  American  Review."  At  his 
death  he  was  a  member  of  the  principal  scientific 
societies  of  Europe.  He  twice  had  a  seat  in  the 
.executive  council  of  Massachusetts. 

Bowditch's  Practical  Navigator.  The  stand 
ard  work  on  navigation,  published  by  the  gov 
ernment  and  supplied  to  all  government  vessels. 
It  contains,  with  the  "Nautical  Almanac,"  all 
the  data  necessary  for  the  solution  of  problems  in 
navigation. 

Bowed.  The  state  of  a  yard  when  it  arches 
in  the  centre  from  hoisting  it  too  taut.  Also  of 
a  mast  when  it  bellies  or  is  crippled  by  inju 
diciously  setting  up  the  rigging  too  taut. 

Bower.     See  ANCHOR  and  CHAIN. 

Bow-fast.  A  rope  or  chain  for  securing  a 
vessel  by  the  bow.  See  FAST. 

Bowge,  or  Bouge.     An  old  term  for  bilge. 

Bow-grace.  A  kind  of  frame  or  fender  of  old 
junk,  placed  round  the  bows  and  sides  of  a  ship 
to  prevent  her  receiving  injury  from  floating  ice 
'or  timbers.  See  BON-GRACE. 

Bowing  the  Sea.  Meeting  a  turbulent  swell 
in  coming  to  the  wind. 

Bowlder.  A  large  stone  worn  and  rounded  by 
the  attrition  of  the  waves  of  the  sea. 

Bowlder-head.  A  work  against  the  encroach 
ment  of  the  sea  made  of  wooden  stakes. 

Bowline.  A  rope  leading  forward  connected 
by  bridles  to  cringles  on  the  leech  of  the  square- 
sails  ;  it  is  used  to  keep  the  wealher-edge  of  the 
sail  steady  when  the  ship  is  close-hauled,  and 
enables  the  ship  to  come  nearer  to  the  wind. 

On  a  bowline  and  on  a  taut  bowline  are  expres 
sions  to  signify  that  a  ship  is  sailing  as  close  as 
possible  to  the  wind.  To  check,  slack,  or  come  up 
a  bowline  is  to  let  it  go  when  the  wind  becomes 
free.  To  clear  away  a  bowline  is  to  let  it  go 
when  preparing  to  swing  the  yard.  To  sharp, 
haul  taut,  or  steady  out  a  bowline  is  to  pull  it  as 
taut  as  it  can  well  bear. 

BOWLINE-BRIDLE.  The  span  attached  to  the 
cringles  on  the  leech  of  a  square-sail  to  which 
the  bowline  is  toggled  or  clinched. 

BOWLINE- CRINGLE.  An  eye  worked  into  the 
leech-rope  of  a  sail,  to  which  a  bowline  or  the 
bowline-bridle  is  attached. 

Bowline-bend.  The  mode  of  bending  warps 
or  hawsers  together  by  making  a  bowline  in  the 
end  of  one  rope,  and  passing  the  end  of  the  other 
through  the  bight,  and  making  a  bowline  upon  it. 

Bowline-knot.  A  knot  much  in  use  on  board 
ship.  The  loop  can  be  made  of  any  size,  and 
does  not  jamb  nor  render. 


BOSS 


BOUNCE 


the  scenes  of  his  professional  employment.  Fre 
quently  engaged  in  contests  with  the  French,  he, 
singularly'enough,  three  times  took  prisoner  the 
same  admiral,  and  carried  more  prizes  into  Eng 
lish 'ports  than  any  other  seaman  before  or  since. 
Vice-admiral  of  the  blue,  1756.  Died  January 
10,  1761. 

Boss.  An  elevated  or  thickened  portion, 
usually  around  an  aperture ;  as,  a  socket  for  a 
pivot-bolt.  A  master-workman  or  superinten 
dent. 

Boston  (Mass.)  is  on  a  bay  called  Boston 
Harbor,  which  forms  the  inner  bight  of  Massa 
chusetts  Bay,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Charles  and 
Mystic  Kivers.  Lat.  42°  21'  27.6"  N. ;  Ion.  71° 
3'  30"  W.  The  harbor  is  excellent,  and  the 
wharves,  warehouses,  and  other  shipping  facili 
ties  are  not  surpassed.  Steamers  ply  hence  to 
Europe  and  to  the  principal  ports  of  the  United 
States.  Boston  has  a  large  trade  with  the  West 
Indies,  and  with  Nova  Scotia  and  New  Bruns 
wick,  and  the  coastwise  traffic  is  extensive.  Her 
commerce  with  India,  China,  and  Liverpool  is 
very  large,  although  less  than  it  was  twenty  years 
ago.  Much  capital  has  been  expended  in  the 
extension  of  harbor  facilities.  The  inner  harbor 
is  completely  sheltered,  not  difficult  of  access, 
and  is  seldom  encumbered  by  ice.  Several  large 
works  have  been  constructed  for  its  defense, 
Forts  Warren,  Independence,  and  Winthrop 
being  the  most  important.  The  channel  is  well 
lighted,  the  structure  on  Minot's  Ledge  being 
the  outermost  and  highest  of  its  four  light-houses. 
The  harbor  covers  75  square  miles,  and  has  a 
minimum  depth  of  23  feet  above  mean  low  tide. 
Charlestown,  formerly  a  suburb  of  Boston,  now 
incorporated  with  it,  is  the  seat  of  a  large  United 
States  navy-yard.  Pop.  about  352,00(X 

Botany  Bay.  Discovered  by  Cook  in  1770, 
and  received  its  name  from  the  great  variety  of 
herbs  found  on  its  shores.  The  settlement  was 
selected  as  a  site  for  a  colony  of  English  convicts, 
and  the  first  governor  arrived  in  January,  1788. 
The  colony  was  eventually  located  at  Port  Jack 
son,  13  miles  north  of  the  bay. 

Botarga.  The  roe  of  the  mullet  pressed  flat 
and  dried ;  that  of  commerce,  however,  is  from 
the  tunny,  a  large  fish  of  passage  which  is  com 
mon  in  the  Mediterranean. 

Botch.     To  make  bungling  work. 

Bote's-carle.     An  old  word  for  coxswain. 

Both  Sheets  Aft.  A  ship  before  the  wind 
has  both  fore-sheets  hauled  aft.  The  expression 
is  also  applied  to  a  half-drunken  sailor  rolling 
along  with  both  hands  in  his  pockets  and  elbows 
square. 

Botte.     An  old  word  for  boat. 

Bottle-charts.  Charts  on  which  the  set  of 
surface  currents  is  marked,  when  the  set  has  been 
calculated  from  the  data  found  in  bottles  thrown 
overboard  and  washed  up  on  the  beach,  or  picked 
up  by  ships. 

Bottle-nose,  or  Bottle-nosed  Whale.  A  name 
applied  to  several  of  the  smaller  cetaceans  of  the 
northern  seas,  more  especially  to  the  Hyperoodon 
rostratus. 

Bottom.  The  lowest  part  of  anything.  The 
rich  low  land  formed  by  alluvial  deposits.  The 
part  of  a  ship  under  water  ;  hence,  the  ship  itself; 
as  "foreign  bottoms."  A.  full  bottom  denotes 
that  such  a  form  has  been  given  to  a  ship  as  to 
allow  her  to  carry  a  large  amount  of  merchan 


dise.  The  bed  of  a  body  of  water ;  it  is  charac 
terized  as  muddy,  rocky,  sandy,  etc. 

BOTTOM-CLEAN.  Thoroughly  clean,  free  from 
weeds,  etc. 

Bottomry.  A  contract  in1  the  nature  of  a 
mortgage  of  a  ship  when  the  owner,  or  his  agent, 
borrows  money  to  enable  him  to  carry  on  his 
voyage,  and  pledges  the  keel  or  bottom  of  the 
ship  (partem pro  toto]  as  a  security  for  the  re 
payment.  If  the  ship  be  lost  the  lender  loses 
also  his  whole  money ;  but  if  it  return  in  safety 
then  he  shall  receive  back  his  principal,  and  also 
the  premium  stipulated  to  be  paid,  however  it 
may  exceed  the  usual  or  legal  rate  of  interest. 
And  this  is  allowed  to  be  a  valid  contract  in  all 
trading  nations,  for  the  benefit  of  commerce,  and 
by  reason  of  the  extraordinary  hazard  run  by 
the  lender.  And  in  this  case  the  ship  and  tackle, 
if  brought  home,  are  answerable  (as  well  as  the 
borrower  personally)  for  the  money  lent.  But 
if  the  loan  be  not  upon  the  vessel,  but  upon  the 
goods  and  merchandise,  which  must  necessarily 
be  sold  or  exchanged  in  the  course  of  the  voyage, 
then  only  the  borrower,  personally,  is  bound  to 
answer  the  contract,  and  in  this  case  he  is  said 
to  take  the  money  at  respondentia  (which  see). 

BOTTOMRY  PREMIUM.  The  high  rate  of  in 
terest  charged  on  the  safety  of  the  ship, — the 
lender  losing  his  whole  money  if  she  be  lost. 

Bottom-wind.  A  phenomenon  that  occurs  on 
the  lakes  in  the  north  of  England,  especially 
Derwent  Water,  which  is  often  agitated  by  swell 
ing  waves  without  any  apparent  cause. 

Bouche.     See  BUSH. 

Bougainville,  Louis  Antoine  de.  Born  in 
Paris,  November  11,  1729.  The  first  voyage 
round  the  world  by  a  Frenchman  was  made  by 
this  illustrious  seaman.  He  crossed  the  Atlantic, 
braved  the  stormy  seas  around  Cape  Horn,  and 
passed  into  the  Pacific.  He  visited  many  places 
on  the  western  shores  of  America  and  among 
the  islands  in  the  Pacific,  but  the  charts  which 
he  prepared  and  bequeathed  to  his  country  and 
posterity  are  not  reliable,  owing  to  the  great  dif 
ficulty  in  Bougainville's  day  of  making  astro 
nomical  observations,  and  the  imperfect  character 
of  the  plans  laid  down  by  men  of  science  for  as 
certaining  the  longitude.  Died  August  31,  1811. 

Bouge.     See  BOWGE. 

Bouge  and  Chine,  or  Bowge  and  Chime.  A 
method  of  stowing  casks  with  the  bilge  of  one 
against  the  end  of  another. 

Bouguer,  Pierre.  Born  at  Le  Croisic,  in  Bre- 
tagne,  February  16,  1698.  A  profound  French 
mathematician,  who  was  one  of  a  body  of  savants 
deputed  in  1735  to  proceed  to  South  America  to 
measure  a  degree  of  the  meridian  at  the  equator. 
Died  August  15,  1758. 

Bouilli.  Preserved  beef  in  hermetically-sealed 
cans;  termed  by  sailors  "bully-beef,"  or  "soup 
and  bully." 

Boulder.     See  BOWLDER. 

Boulogne.  A  town  of  France,  on  the  Eng 
lish  Channel,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Lianne.  Lat. 
50°  44'  32"  N.  ;  Ion.  1°  36'  15"  E.  The  port 
is  formed  by  piers  stretching  out  only  to  low- 
water  mark,  but  the  tide  rises  upwards  of  16 
feet,  and  vessels  find  good  anchorage  about  half 
a  mile  from  the  harbor.  There  is  also  a  wet- 
dock  with  other  harbor  improvements.  Pop. 
40,000. 

Bounce.     The  larger  dog-fish. 


BOUNCEK 


89 


BOWLINE-KNOT 


Bouncer.  A  gun  which  kicks  violently  when 
fired. 

Bound.  The  path  of  a  projectile  between  two 
grazes.  Destined ;  going,  or  intending  to  go. 
Where  are  you  bound1?  to  what  place  are  you 
going.  Ice-bound,  entirely  surrounded  by  ice. 
Tide-bound,  beneaped,  or  prevented  from  sailing 
by  an  adverse  tide.  Wind-bound,  prevented 
from  sailing  by  an  unfavorable  wind. 

Boundary-line.  The  trace  of  the  outer  sur 
face  of  the  skin  of  a  ship  on  the  stern-post, 
stem,  and  keel. 

Bounty  for  Destruction  of  Enemies'  Vessels. 
An  amount  awarded  to  a  ship  or  vessel  of  the 
United  States  which  sinks  or  destroys  a  vessel 
of  war  belonging  to  an  enemy.  If  the  vessel  de 
stroyed  was  of  equal  or  superior  force  to  the 
United  States  vessel,  the  latter  is  awarded  $200 
for  each  person  on  board  the  former  at  the  begin 
ning  of  the  engagement;  if  of  inferior  force, 
$100  for  each  person.  If  the  captors  of  an 
enemy's  vessel  are  instructed  to,  or  do  immedi 
ately,  destroy  the  vessel  for  the  public  interest, 
$50  is  awarded  for  each  person  on  board  the  ves 
sel  at  the  time  it  was  captured.  The  gross 
amount  awarded  as  above  is  divided  among  the 
officers  and  crew  in  the  same  manner  as  prize- 
money.  (See  PRIZE-MONEY.)  When  the  actual 
number  of  persons  on  board  the  destroyed  vessel 
cannot  be  ascertained,  it  is  estimated  according 
to  the  complement  of  a  vessel  of  its  class  in  the 
United  States  navy.  This  bounty  is  authorized 
\>y  the  laws  of  the  United  States,  but  cannot  be 
paid  unless  an  appropriation  is  made  by  Con 
gress  for  that  purpose. 

Bourdonnais,  Bertrand  F.  de.  A  naval  officer 
in  the  service  of  the  French  East  India  Com 
pany.  He  held  the  post  of  Director-General  of 
Mauritius  (then  called  the  Isle  of  France)  and 
Bourbon  ;  and  in  1746,  when  France  and  Eng 
land  were  at  war,  he  beat  a  squadron  under  Ad 
miral  Bassett,  and  bombarded  the  city  of  Madras. 

Bourse  (Fr.).  An  exchange;  a  place  where 
merchants  congregate  to  transact  business. 

Bouse.     See  BOWSE. 

Bout.  A  turn,  round,  or  trial.  A  convivial 
meeting. 

'Bout-ship.  A  contraction  of  about-ship.  An 
order  to  prepare  for  going  about. 

Bow.  The  forward  part  of  a  vessel.  A  full 
or  bli<ff"bow'  is  broad  and  round  ;  a  sharp  or  lean 
bow  is  narrow  and  thin.  The  bow  fares  more 
or  less  as  it  falls  out  or  increases  in  breadth  at 
the  upper  part.  Doubling  of  the  bows,  a  thick 
planking  secured  on  the  bow  to  prevent  the  point 
of  the  anchor  from  injuring  it.  Bows  on,  stem 
first.  On  the  bow,  at  an  angle  less  than  45°  from 
the  ship's  course.  Broad  off  the  bow,  at  an  angle 
of  45°  from  the  ship's  course. 

Bow.  An  old  instrument  for  taking  angles, 
consisting  of  a  graduated  arc  of  90°,  three  vanes, 
and  a  staff. 

Bow-bye.  An  old  expression  for  the  situation 
of  a  ship  when  she  is  in  irons. 

Bow-chaser.  A  gun  placed  in  the  bow  to  fire 
on  a  retreating  vessel. 

Bowd-eaten.  An  old  term  for  eaten  by  wee 
vils. 

Bowditch,  Nathaniel,  LL.D.,  F.R.S.,  mathe 
matician  and  astronomer,  born  in  Salem,  Mass., 
March  26,  1773  ;  died  at  Boston,  March  16, 1838. 
The  poverty  of  his  parents  occasioned  his  with 


drawal  from  school  at  the  age  of  10,  and  after  an 
apprenticeship  in  a  ship-chandler's  shop  until  he 
was  21 ,  he  spent  nine  years  in  a  seafaring  life,  at 
taining  the  rank  of  master.  He  published  in  1800, 
while  engaged  as  a  supercargo,  his  well  known 
11  PracticarNavigator,"  still  a  standard  work  of 
great  utility  and  value.  His  fame  as  a  man  of 
science  will  principally  rest  on  his  Commentary 
on  the  "Mecanique  Celeste"  of  La  Place,  of  which 
he  made  the  first  entire  translation,  and  which 
he  elucidated  in  a  manner  that  commands  the 
admiration  of  scientific  men.  The  elucidations 
and  commentaries  of  Bowditch  form  more  than 
half  the  work.  They  record  subsequent  discov 
eries,  and  show  the  sources  whence  La  Place 
derived  assistance.  He  contributed  many  valu 
able  papers  to  "  The  Memoirs  of  the  American 
Academy,"  and  an  article  on  modern  astronomy 
to  vol.  xx.  "  North  American  Review."  At  his 
death  he  was  a  member  of  the  principal  scientific 
societies  of  Europe.  He  twice  had  a  seat  in  the 
.executive  council  of  Massachusetts. 

Bowditch's  Practical  Navigator.  The  stand 
ard  work  on  navigation,  published  by  the  gov 
ernment  and  supplied  to  all  government  vessels. 
It  contains,  with  the  "Nautical  Almanac,"  all 
the  data  necessary  for  the  solution  of  problems  in 
navigation. 

Bowed.  The  state  of  a  yard  when  it  arches 
in  the  centre  from  hoisting  it  too  taut.  Also  of 
a  mast  when  it  bellies  or  is  crippled  by  inju 
diciously  setting  up  the  rigging  too  taut. 

Bower.     See  ANCHOR  and  CHAIN. 

Bow-fast.  A  rope  or  chain  for  securing  a 
vessel  by  the  bow.  See  FAST. 

Bowge,  or  Bouge.     An  old  term  for  bilge. 

Bow-grace.  A  kind  of  frame  or  fender  of  old 
junk,  placed  round  the  bows  and  sides  of  a  ship 
to  prevent  her  receiving  injury  from  flouting  ice 
'or  timbers.  See  BON-GRACE. 

Bowing  the  Sea.  Meeting  a  turbulent  swell 
in  coming  to  the  wind. 

Bowlder.  A  large  stone  worn  and  rounded  by 
the  attrition  of  the  waves  of  the  sea. 

Bowlder-head.  A  work  against  the  encroach 
ment  of  the  sea  made  of  wooden  stakes. 

Bowline.  A  rope  leading  forward  connected 
by  bridles  to  cringles  on  the  leech  of  the  square- 
sails  ;  it  is  used  to  keep  the  weather-edge  of  the 
sail  steady  when  the  ship  is  close-hauled,  and 
enables  the  ship  to  come  nearer  to  the  wind. 

On  a  bowline  and  on  a  taut  bowline  are  expres 
sions  to  signify  that  a  ship  is  sailing  as  close  as 
possible  to  the  wind.  To  check,  slack,  or  come  up 
a  bowline  is  to  let  it  go  when  the  wind  becomes 
free.  To  clear  away  a  bowline  is  to  let  it  go 
when  preparing  to  swing  the  yard.  To  sharp, 
haul  taut,  or  steady  out  a  bowline  is  to  pull  it  as 
taut  as  it  can  well  bear. 

BOWLINE-BRIDLE.  The  span  attached  to  the 
cringles  on  the  leech  of  a  square-sail  to  which 
the  bowline  is  toggled  or  clinched. 

BOWLINE- CRINGLE.  An  eye  worked  into  the 
leech-rope  of  a  sail,  to  which  a  bowline  or  the 
bowline-bridle  is  attached. 

Bowline-bend.  The  mode  of  bending  warps 
or  hawsers  together  by  making  a  bowline  in  the 
end  of  one  rope,  and  passing  the  end  of  the  other 
through  the  bight,  and  making  a  bowline  upon  it. 

Bowline-knot.  A  knot  much  in  use  on  board 
ship.  The  loop  can  be  made  of  any  size,  and 
does  not  jamb  nor  render. 


BOW-LINES 


90 


BKAIL 


Bow-lines.  Longitudinal  curves  representing 
the  ship's  fore-body. 

Bowling  Along.  Sailing  rapidly  with  a  free 
wind. 

Bowman,  or  Bow-oarsman.  The  man  who 
pulls  the  forward  oar  in  a  single-hanked  loat. 
In  a  double-banked  boat  there  are  two  bowmen. 

Bow-oar.  The  foremost  oar  or  oars  in  a  pull 
ing  bqat. 

Bow-rail.     The  rail  around  the  bows. 

Bowse.  To  haul  heavily  upon  a  rope  or  tackle. 
Bowse  up  the  jib,  a  colloquialism  to  denote  the  act 
of  tippling.  It  is  an  old  term,  probably  derived 
from  the  Dutch  buyzen,  to  booze. 

Bowsprit.  A  large  spar  projecting  over  the 
bows  to  support  the  foremast  and  extend  the 
head-sails.  It  is  supported  laterally  by  shrouds, 
and  from  below  by  the  gammoning  and  bobstays. 
The  outer  end  is  the  head,  the  inner  end  the  heel, 
and  that  portion  which  is  inboard  is  called  the 
housing.  A  running-in  bowsprit  is  used  in  boats, 
and  when  the  jib  is  hauled  down,  the  bowsprit  is 
run  in. 

BOWSPRIT-BITTS.  Strong  upright  timbers  se 
cured  to  the  beams  below  the  deck  ;  they  have  a 
cross-piece  bolted  to  them,  the  inner  end  of  the 
bowsprit  steps  between  them,  and  is  thus  pre 
vented  from  slipping  in.  The  cross-piece  pre 
vents  it  from  canting  up. 

BOWSPRIT-CAP.  The  cap  on  the  outer  end  of 
the  bowsprit,  through  which  the  jib-boom  tra 
verses. 

BOWSPRIT-CHOCK.  A  piece  placed  between  the 
knight-heads,  fitting  close  upon  the  upper  part 
of  the  bowsprit. 

BOWSPRIT-GEAR.  A  term  denoting  the  ropes, 
blocks,  etc.,  belonging  to  the  bowsprit. 

BOWSPRIT-HEART.  The  heart  or  block  of  wood 
used  to  secure  the  lower  end  of  the  fore-stay, 
through  which  the  inner  end  of  the  jib-boom  is 
inserted.  It  is  seldom,  if  ever,  used  now. 

BOWSPRIT-HORSES.  The  ridge-ropes  which  ex 
tend  from  the  bowsprit-cap  to  the  knight-heads. 

BOWSPRIT-NETTING.  The  netting  placed  just 
above  a  vessel's  bowsprit,  for  stowing  the  fore- 
topmast  staysail ;  it  is  usually  lashed  between 
the  ridge-ropes. 

BOWSPRIT-SHROUDS.  Strong  ropes  or  chains 
leading  from  nearly  the  outer  end  of  the  bow 
sprit  to  the  bow,  giving  lateral  support  to  that 
spar. 

Bow-timbers.  The  timbers  which  form  the 
bow  of  a  ship. 

Box.  See  CARTRIDGE-,  COXSWAIN-,  PASS 
ING-,  PRIMER-,  TRANSPORTING-,  and  SHELL- 
BOX. 

Boxhauling.  An  evolution  by  which  a  ship 
is  veered  short  round  on  her  heel,  when  the  ob 
ject  is  to  avoid  making  a  great  sweep.  Luff; 
when  headway  has  ceased,  haul  up  mainsail, 
brail  up  spanker,  square  after-yards,  brace  abox 
head-yards.  Keep  the  after-sails  lifting  till 
braced  up  sharp  on  the  other  tack,  and  lay  the 
head-yards  square.  Shift  the  helm  when  the 
ship  gathers  headway,  and  set  the  mainsail  and 
spanker  when  they  will  take  on  the  other  tack. 
With  much  wind  and  sea  this  evolution  would 
be  dangerous,  and  it  is  seldom  performed  except 
in  a  case  of  emergency,  as  a  seaman  never  likes 
to  see  his  ship  have  sternway. 

Boxing.  Any  projecting  wood  forming  a 
rabbet ;  as,  the  boxing  of  the  knight-heads. 


Box-metal.  A  composition  of  32  parts  of 
copper  to  5  of  tin. 

Box-off.  To  force  the  ship's  head  off  from  the 
wind  by  hauling  aft  the  head-sheets  and  bracing 
aback  the  head-yards. 

Box  the  Compass.  To  repeat  the  names  of 
the  points  of  the  compass  in  regular  order. 

Boy.  A  rating  in  the  navy.  See  NAVAL 
APPRENTICE  SYSTEM. 

Boyart.     An  old  term  for  a  hoy. 

Boyer.  A  sloop  of  Flemish  construction, 
with  a  raised  work  at  each  end. 

Brab.  The  sheaf  of  the  young  leaves  of  the 
Palmyra  palm,  from  which  sennit  for  hats  is 
made. 

Brab-tree.     The  Palmyra  palm. 

Brace.  A  composition  strap  to  receive  a  pin 
tle  of  the  rudder ;  a  gudgeon.  A  prop  or  sup 
port.  In  carpentry  and  engineering  the  term 
strictly  applies  to  something  that  supports  parts 
in  compression,  being  the  opposite  of  a  stay  or 
tie;  but  in  boiler-making  it  is  sometimes  ap 
plied  to  parts  in  tension. 

One  of  the  ropes  attached  to  the  extremities  of 
the  yards  by  which  they  are  moved  about  hori 
zontally.  They  also  assist  in  counteracting  the 
lateral  strain  brought  on  the  yard  by  the  wind 
acting  on  the  sail.  To  brace  a  yard,  to  move  it 
horizontally  by  the  braces.  To  brace  up,  to  haul 
in  the  lee  braces.  To  brace  up  sharp,  to  brace  a 
3'ard  as  far  forward  as  the  stay  and  rigging  will 
permit  it  logo.  To  brace  in,  to haul  in  the  weather 
braces.  To  brace  to,  to  check  the  lee  head-braces 
and  haul  in  the  weather  ones  to  allow  the  ship's 
head  to  come  up  to  the  wind  rapidly.  To  brace 
aback,  to  so  brace  a  yard  that  its  sail  will  be 
aback.  To  brace  abox,  to  lay  the  head-yards 
abox.  To  counter-brace  the  yards  is  to  brace 
them  all  sharp  up,  the  head-yards  by  opposite 
braces  to  the  after-yards. 

Brace  of  Shakes.  An  expression  signifying 
"in  a  moment";  as,  I  will  be  with  you  in  a 
brace  of  shakes.  The  expression  is  taken  from 
the  napping  of  a  sail. 

Brace  Pendant.  A  length  of  rope  or  chain 
into  which  the  yard-arm  brace-blocks  are  spliced. 
They  are  in  use  in  the  merchant  service,  and 
have  the  following  advantages,  viz.,  rope  is 
saved,  the  blocks  have  more  play,  and  when  the 
lee  brace  is  let  go  the  weight  of  the  chain  over 
hauls  the  brace. 

Brace  Up  !  Gather  Aft !  An  order  to  brace 
up  the  head-yards  and  haul  aft  the  head-sheets 
which  had  been  flowing. 

Bracket.  A  short  crooked  timber  resembling 
a  knee,  used  as  a  support.  One  of  the  vertical 
side  pieces  of  a  gun-carriage;  when  made  of 
wood  they  are  generally  formed  of  two  pieces 
jogged  and  doweled  together. 

Brackish.  Moderately  salty  ;  applied  to  river 
water  mingled  with  sea  water. 

Brad.  A  small  nail  without  a  head,  having  a 
projection  at  the  top  on  one  side. 

BRAD-AWL.  A  tool  to  pierce  holes  for  the  in 
sertion  of  brads. 

Brail.  Brails  are  ropes,  the  bights  of  which 
are  seized  to  the  leech  of  a  trysail,  leading 
through  blocks  on  the  gaff  or  luff.  All  trysails 
are  fitted  with  them.  They  serve  to  gather  up 
the  sail  ready  for  the  furling-line.  When  a  jib 
is  fitted  with  brails  it  is  for  the  purpose  of  lifting 
the  clew  clear  of  the  stays  when  the  sheet  is 


BKAKE 


91 


BKEAST 


shifted  over.  Foot-brails,  the  lowest  brails.  Peak- 
brails,  the  outermost  brails  on  the  gaff.  Throat- 
brails,  the  brails  which  make  fast  to  the  clew  of 
the  sail  and  reeve  through  a  block  at  the  jaws  of 
the  gaff.  Brail-up !  the  order  to  pull  on  the 
brails  and  thereby  spill  the  sail  and  haul  it  up 
for  furling. 

Brake.  The  lever  which  works  a  pump.  A 
piece  of  mechanism  for  retarding  or  stopping 
machinery  by  friction. 

Bran.  To  go  on.  To  lie  under  a  floe  edge,  in 
foggy  weather,  in  a  boat  in  Arctic  seas,  to  watch 
the  approach  of  whales. 

Branch  (Eng.}.  The  diploma  of  those  pilots 
who  have  passed  at  the  Trinity  House,  as  compe 
tent  to  navigate  vessels  in  particular  places. 

Branch-pilot  (Eng.}.  One  approved  by  the 
Trinity  House,  and  holding  a  branch,  for  a  par 
ticular  navigation. 

Brand.  The  Anglo-Saxon  for  a  burnished 
sword.  A  burned  device  or  character. 

Branded  Ticket  (Eng.}.  A  discharge  given 
to  an  infamous  man,  on  which  his  character  is 
written,  and  the  reason  he  is  turned  out  of  the 
service.  In  the  army,  deserters  are  branded  with 
D ;  also  B  for  bad  character.  In  the  navy,  a 
•corner  of  the  ticket  is  cut  off. 

Brandling.  A  supposed  fry  of  the  salmon 
species,  found  on  the  north  of  England  coasts. 
Also,  the  angler's  dew-worm. 

Bran-new.     Brand-new  ;  quite  new. 

Brash.  Small  fragments  of  crushed  ice,  col 
lected  by  the  wind  or  sea  near  the  shore,  which  a 
ship  can  force  her  way  through. 

Brass.  Impudent  assurance.  An  alloy  of 
copper  and  zinc.  The  proportions  vary  accord 
ing  to  the  required  color  and  proposed  use.  The 
term  is  often  employed  as  synonymous  with 
bronze  (which  see),  as  when  it  is  applied  to  ord 
nance,  the  bearings  of  machinery,  etc.  See 
BRIGHT-WORK,  SHEATHING. 

Brave.  This  word  is  used  to  express  strength 
as  well  as  courage;  as,  a  brave  wind. 

Brawet.     A  kind  of  eel. 

Brazil,  Navy  of.  Fifty-seven  steamers,  of 
which  18  are  ironclads,  carrying  68  guns,  and 
possessing  5080  horse-power,  represent  the  navy 
of  the  Brazilian  empire.  The  gunboats  are  23  in 
number.  The  rest  of  the  vessels  are  corvettes  and 
transports,  and  1  small  frigate.  The  crews  consist 
altogether  of  4200  sailors,  and  for  their  command 
and  the  general  management  of  naval  affairs 
there  is  a  minister  of  marine,  1  admiral,  2  vice- 
admirals,  4  rear-admirals,  8  chiefs  of  division,  16 
post-captains,  30  captains  of  frigates,  60  com 
manders,  146  lieutenants,  and  88  sub-lieutenants. 
There  are  5  naval  arsenals  and^  „  good  naval 
school.  ft! 

Breach.  An  old  term  for  a  *  j ivy  surf.  An 
old  word  to  denote  the  gap  ir  ^J levee  or  bank 
made  by  the  breaking  in  of  (  sea,  now  also 
applied  to  the  opening  or  gay  jiav/ortified  works, 
made  by  an  enemy's  guns.  ra^yolling  of  waves 
over  a  vessel ;  a  clear  bres  '  Inplies  that  the 
waves  roll  over  without  yo  feJng,  and  a  sea 
makes  a  clean  breach  whene(j  Blasts  and  every 
object  on  deck  are  swept  ament  | 

Breaching.  A  word  ma  ga}|,-  the  act  of  leap 
ing  out  of  the  water ;  apr_0  a  ™5  whales. 

Breach/.  Brackish,  a^an  fed  to  water,  prob 
ably  derived  from  the  fa^r  for'Jt  water  was  made 
brackish  by  the  sea  break,  an  Jji. 


Bread.  The  usual  name  given  to  biscuit  for 
ship's  use. 

Bread-fruit.  The  fruit  of  a  tree  (Artocarpus 
incisa]  found  in  the  islands  of  the  Pacific.  When 
baked  it  somewhat  resembles  bread.  The  name 
is  also  applied  to  the  tree. 

Bread-room.  A  water-tight  compartment  in 
which  the  bread  is  stowed. 

Bread-room  Jack.     See  JACK  o'  THE  DUST. 

Bread-tree.     See  BREAD-FRUIT. 

Break.  An  opening  in  the  clouds.  An  inter 
ruption  ;  as,  a  break  in  an  electric  circuit.  A 
sudden  ending ;  as,  the  break  of  the  poop.  To 
deprive  of  commission,  warrant,  or  rating.  To 
shatter  into  pieces  ;  as,  a  wave  breaks.  To  break 
one's  liberty  or  leave  is  to  remain  away  beyond 
the  time  specified  for  returning.  To  break  off, 
to  be  forced  off  to  leeward  of  the  course  by  a 
change  in  the  direction  of  the  wind.  Break  off! 
An  order  to  stop  working  at  one  job  to  begin 
at  another.  To  break  up,  to  separate  into  parts  ; 
as,  the  ice  breaks  up.  To  break  up  a  ship  is  to 
take  her  to  pieces  when  she  becomes  old  and  un 
serviceable.  Breaking  up  of  the  monsoon,  the 
ending  or  shifting  of  a  monsoon.  This  period 
is  generally  prolific  of  violent  storms.  Breaking 
of  a  gale,  indications  of  a  return  of  fair  weather. 
To  break  bulk,  to  destroy  the  entirety  of  a  cargo 
by  removing  a  portion  of  it.  To  break  ground, 
to  heave  the  anchor  clear  of  the  ground.  To 
break  joints,  to  so  arrange  the  planking  that  the 
joints  in  adjoining  courses  do  not  coincide  with 
each  other.  When  a  ship  at  anchor  is  forced  by 
the  wind  or  current  out  of  her  proper  position 
she  is  said  to  break  her  sheer. 

Breakage.  Damage  to  goods  in  being  broken. 
The  leaving  of  empty  spaces  in  stowing  the  hold. 

Break-beam.     A  beam  at  the  break  of  a  deck. 

Breaker.  A  small  water-cask.  A  wave  which 
breaks  violently  over  reefs  or  rocks  lying  at,  or 
under,  the  surface  of  the  water.  They  are  dis 
tinguished  both  by  their  appearance  and  by  their 
sound,  as  they  cover  the  sea  with  foam  and  pro 
duce  a  loud  roaring.  Breakers  ahead  I  A  warn 
ing  from  the  lookout  that  there  is  broken  water 
in  the  direction  the  ship  is  standing. 

Breakwater.  Any  structure  or  contrivance, 
as  a  mole,  mound,  wall,  or  sunken  hulk,  to  break 
the  force  of  waves  and  protect  a  harbor  or  any 
thing  which  is  exposed  to  the  force  of  the  waves. 

Bream.  A  common  fresh-  as  well  as  salt 
water  fish  (Abramis  brama],  little  esteemed  as 
food. 

Breaming.  Cleaning  a  ship's  bottom  by  burn 
ing  off  the  grass,  ooze,  shells,  or  sea- weed,  which 
it  has  contracted  by  lying  long  in  harbor ;  it  is 
performed  by  holding  kindled  furze,  fagots,  or 
reeds  to  the  bottom,  which,  by  melting  the  pitch 
that  formerly  covered  it,  loosens  whatever  filth 
may  have  adhered  to  the  planks  ;  the  bottom  is 


then  covered  anew  with  a  composition  of  sulphur, 
tallow,  etc.,  which  not  only  makes  it  smooth 


and 


slippery,  so  as  to  divide  the  fluid  more  readily, 
but  also  poisons  and  destroys  those  worms  which 
eat  through  the  planks  in  the  course  of  a  voyage. 
This  operation  may  be  performed  either  by  lay 
ing  the  ship  aground  after  the  tide  has  ebbed 
from  her,  or  by  docking  or  careening. 

Breast.  To  run  abeam  of  a  cape  or  object. 
To  cut  through  a  sea,  the  surface  of  which  is 
poetically  termed  breast.  To  breast  the  sea,  to 
meet  it  by  the  bow  on  a  wind.  To  breast  the 


BKEAST-BACKSTAY 


92 


BRIDGE 


surf,  to  brave  it,  and  overcome  it  by  swimming. 
To  breast  a  bar,  to  heave  at  the  capstan.  To 
breast  to,  the  act  of  giving  a  sheer  to  a  boat. 

Breast-backstay.  Breast-backstays  extend 
from  the  head  of  an  upper  mast,  through  an  out 
rigger,  down  to  the  channels  forward  of  the 
standing  backstays,  for  supporting  the  upper 
spars  from  to  windward.  When  to  leeward, 
they  are  borne  abaft  the  top-rim. 

Breast-fast.  A  rope  or  chain  used  to  confine 
the  midship  part  of  a  ship  to  a  wharf  or  another 
ship,  as  the  bow-fast  confines  her  forward,  and 
the  .stern-fast  abaft.  See  FAST. 

Breast-gaskets.  An  old  term  for  bunt-gas 
kets. 

Breast-hooks.  (  Large  pieces  of  compass-tim 
bers  or  knees  fitted  in  the  bows  of  ships  against 
the  apron  and  stemson,  with  the  arms  running 
back  across  the  timbers  of  the  bow.  Those  in  the 
line  of  the  de^-ks  are  called  deck-hooks. 

Breast-rail.  The  upper  rail  of  the  balcony ; 
formerly  it  was  applied  to  a  railing  in  front  of 
the  quarter-deck,  and  at  the  after-part  of  the 
forecastle-deck. 

Breast-rope,  or  Breast-band.  A  rope  or 
band  fitted  between  the  shrouds  in  the  chains  for 
the  safety  of  the  leadsman. 

Breather.     A  tropical  squall. 

Breath  of  Wind.  The  lightest  perceptible 
air. 

Breech.  The  outer  angle  of  a  knee-timber. 
The  end  of  a  block  farthest  from  the  hook.  The 
portion  of  a  gun  abaft  the  chamber. 

B  RE  KCH-BLOCK.  A  mass  of  metal  which  closes 
the  breech  of  a  gun,  and  receives  the  rear  thrust 
of  the  charge  when  it  is  fired. 

BREECHING.  A  large  rope  rove  through  the 
cascabel  of  a  gun  and  secured  to  the  ship's  side, 
to  limit  the  recoil.  Breechings  are  made  of 
hemp,  and  they  are  not  to  be  covered,  blackened, 
nor  rendered  less  pliable  in  any  way. 

BREECHING-BOLT.  A  bolt  in  the  ship's  side  to 
which  the  breeching  is  shackled. 

BREECH-LOADER.  A  gun,  large  or  small,  which 
is  charged  at  the  breech.  The  objects  sought  to 
be  attained  by  this  change  from  the  old  system 
are  rapidity  in  loading,  facility  of  cleaning,  ac 
curate  adjustment  of  the  size  of  the  shot  to  the 
calibre  of  the  gun,  and  facility  in  making  the 
shot  accommodate  itself  to  the  rifling.  Addi 
tional  mechanism  is  required,  as  the  breech 
must  be  so  far  opened  as  to  admit  the  shot  and 
cartridge,  and  then  so  firmly  closed  as  to  resist  the 
immense  pressure  occasioned  by  the  discharge 
of  the  piece.  See  ORDNANCE  and  SMALL-ARMS. 

BREECH-PIN.  A  plug  screwed  into  the  rear- 
end  of  a  gun-barrel,  forming  the  bottom  of  the 
bore.  Called  also  a  breech-screw  or  breech-plug. 

BRKECH-PLUQ.    See  BREECH-PIN. 

BRE;-:CH-SCREW.     See  BREECH-PIN. 

BREECII-SH;HT.     See  SIGHT. 

Breese,  Samuel  L.,  Rear-Admiral  U.S.N. 
Born  in  New  York.  Appointed  at  large,  Sep 
tember  10,  1810.  Midshipman  Breese  was  pre 
sent  at  the  battle  of  Lake  Champlain.  Commis 
sioned  as  lieutenant,  April  27,  1816,  and  as  com 
mander,  December  22,  1835.  Commissioned  as 
captain,  September  8,  1841. 

Captain  Breese  was  in  the  Pacific  during  the 
Mexican  war,  and  was  present  at  the  attack  on, 
and  capture  of,  the  towns  Tuspan  and  Tobasco, 
Mexico,  and  at  the  capture  of  Vera  Cruz,  1847  ; 


special  duty  on  the  lakes,  1848;  commandant 
Norfolk  navy-yard,  1853-55  ;  commanding  Medi 
terranean  Squadron,  1856-58 ;  commandant  navy- 
yard,  New  York,  1859-61. 

Commissioned  as  rear-admiral,  July  16,  1862 ; 
light-house  inspector,  1862;  special  duty,  New 
York,  1865  ;  port  admiral  at  Philadelphia,  1867- 
68.  Died  in  Philadelphia,  1870. 

Breeze.  A  wind  which  may  be  characterized 
as  light,  gentle,  moderate,  fresh,  stiff,  or  strong. 
The^land  and  sea  breezes  are  occasioned  by  the 
unequal  heating  of  the  land  and  water.  On  the 
coast  within  the  tropics,  a  light  breeze  sets  in 
from  the  sea  in  the  morning,  and  gradually  in 
creases  in  strength  until  the  hottest  portion  of 
the  day,  when  it  begins  to  decrease,  and  sinks  to 
a  cairn  toward  sunset.  Soon  after  the  land- 
breeze  commences  to  blow,  and  continues  until 
the  morning,  when  it  gives  place,  in  turn,  to  the 
sea-breeze. 

During  the  day  the  land  becomes  more  heated 
than  the  sea,  and  the  air  over  'the  land  ascends, 
and  the  cold  air  from  the  sea  rushes  in  to  supply 
its  place.  After  sunset  the  land  parts  with  its 
heat  more  readily  than  the  water,  and  the  tem 
perature  falls  below  that  of  the  sea,  and  the  air 
becoming  heavier  and  denser,  flows  out  to  sea  as 
a  land-breeze. 

To  KICK  UP  A  BREEZE.  To  create  a  disturb 
ance.  When  the  wind  increases  it  is  said  to 
breeze  up. 

Brest.  A  city  of  France,  on  the  N.  shore  of 
a  small  gulf,  called  the  Road  of  Brest.  Lat.  (of 
observatory)  48°  23'  32"  N. ;  Ion.  4°  29'  25"  W. 
It  is  a  fortified  city  of  the  first  class.  From  its 
natural  advantages,  the  extent  of  its  various  es 
tablishments,  and  its  means  of  defense,  Brest  is 
one  of  the  first  naval  ports  in  Europe.  The  outer 
road  is  one  of  the  finest  in  the  world,  and  has 
no  superior  in  the  safety  and  excellence  of  its  an 
chorage.  It  communicates  with  the  sea  by  a  single 
passage,  called  the  Goulet,  1750  yards  broad.  In 
the  middle  of  the  passage  rise  the  Mingan  Rocks, 
which  contract  the  entrance,  and  oblige  vessels 
to  pass  directly  under  the  batteries.  It  has  ex 
tensive  quays,  large  basins,  vast  magazines,  ship 
yards,  etc.  Brest  has  important  educational 
establishments,  and  the  naval  school  is  here  lo 
cated.  The  port  has  little  trade,  and  its  manu 
facturing  establishments  outside  the  arsenals  are 
not  la^e.  A  telegraph  cable  extends  to  Dux- 
bury,  Mass.  Pop."70,000. 

Brewing.  Gathering  or  forming  ;  as,  a  storm 
which  is  foretold  by  the  gathering  of  clouds,  or 
other  indications. 

Bricklayer's  Clerk.  A  contemptuous  expres 
sion  for  on  9  cho  pretends  to  have  seen  "  better 
days,"  bu'  imo  is  forced  to  betake  himself  to 
seafaring.  ^eidoN 

Bridge.v  &  ^Wangement  of  electrical  circuits 
used  for  r  v\ye  ^d  w<r  the  resistance  of  a  substance 
in  the  cir^  -Atv  i^mal 

A  platij^ef  the  ^or  other  substance,  in  a  cir 
cuit,  whi  c^  \t,  A  eat  resistance  to  the  passage 
of  the  cuiv  eStV$s.  lason  of  this  resistance  heat 
is  evolve^e  tiUs  art  the  current  be  suflicient, 
ignites  th  ^r.  the  1 

Bridge. ^^w?  on  th/  ridge  of  rock,  sand,  or 
shingle,  aie,^  V. them,  torn  of  a  channel,  so  as  to 
occasion  a'  ^\\  »r  the  .yhich  the  tide  ripples. 

Bridge. '^\\wviils  it  ;  partition  in  a  furnace. 
It  may  be  ?. .  „  Uof  thc-brick  or  of  iron.  Some- 


I 


BKIDGE 


93 


BROAD  OF  WATER 


times  it  is  hollow,  and  forms  a  portion  of  the 
water-space  of  a  boiler. 

Bridge.  A  platform  extending  across  the 
deck  above  the  rail  for  the  convenience  of  the 
officer  in  charge  of  the  ship.  Some  vessels  have 
two  bridges,  one  forward  of  the  main-  and  the 
other  forward  of  the  mizzen-mast.  In  paddle- 
wheel  vessels  it  connects  the  paddle-boxes. 

Bridgeport,  a  city  and  port  of  entry  of  Con 
necticut,  is  on  a  small  inlet  of  Long  Island 
Sound,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Pequonnock  River. 
Steamers  ply  daily  between  this  port  and  New 
York.  Pop.  20,000. 

Bridle.  A  chain  or  rope  span,  both  ends  of 
which  are  made  fast,  the  power  being  applied  to 
the  bight  or  middle  portion. 

BOWLINE-BRIDLE.  A  span  the  legs  of  which 
are  attached  to  the  leech  of  a  sail,  and  the  bow 
line  is  bent  to  the  bight. 

BRIDLE-CABLE.  The  cable  which  is  bent  to  a 
bridle. 

MOORING-BRIDLE.  The  chains  of  permanent 
moorings. 

Bridle-port.  The  forward  port  on  the  gun- 
deck. 

Brig.  The  name  given  to  the  place  where 
prisoners  are  confined  on  board  men-of-war.  A 
two-masted  square-rigged  vessel.  See  BRIG- 
SCHOONER  and  HERMAPHRODITE  BRIG. 

Brigantine.  A  two-masted  square-rigged  ves 
sel,  differing  from  a  brig  in  that  she  does  not 
carry  a  square  mainsail. 

Bright  Look-out.     A  vigilant  look-out. 

Bright-work.  A  term  applied  to  metal  objects 
which  are  kept  bright  by  polishing  ;  as,  the  rail 
ing  about  the  hatches,  capstan-head,  cap-squares, 
lock-  and  sight-covers,  metal  blocks,  rear  face  of 
the  cascabel,  face  of  the  muzzle,  ring-bolts  in 
the  decks,  etc.  Bright  wood-work  is  a  term  ap 
plied  to  the  wood-work  which  is  scraped  and 
scrubbed;  as,  the  pin-rails,  cavils,  cleats,  halliard- 
racks,  etc. 

Brig-schooner.  A  two-masted  vessel  with 
square-sails  on  the  foremast  and  fore-and-aft  sails 
on  the  main  ;  an  hermaphrodite  brig. 

Brill.  The  Pleuronectes  rhombus,  a  common 
fish,  allied  to,  but  smaller  than,  the  turbot. 

Brine.     A  saturated  solution  of  salt. 

Brine-gauge.     See  SALTNOMETER. 

Brine-pump.  A  pump  to  draw  off  the  super- 
salted  water  from  a  boiler. 

Brine-valve.     A  blow-off  valve. 

Bring  by  the  Lee.  See  BROUGHT  BY  THE  LEE. 

Bring  'em  Near.     A  spy-glass. 

Bringers  Up.  The  men  who  are  last  in  a 
boarding  party.  The  rear-most  men. 

Bring  Home.  When  the  toggle  becomes  dis 
engaged  and  the  chip  slips  through  the  water  the 
ship  brings  home  the  log.  When  in  heaving  up 
the  anchor,  the  anchor  comes  home,  the  ship 
brings  home  the  anchor. 

Bringing-to  Bolt.  A  bolt  having  an  eye  in 
one  end  and  a  nut  and  screw  at  the  other ;  used 
in  keying  up  a  structure. 

Bring  the  Sun  Down.  To  bring  in  contact 
the  horizon  and  the  reflected  image  of  the  sun 
in  a  sextant  or  other  instrument. 

Bring-to.  To  bring-to  a  sail  is  to  bend  it  to 
its  yard  or  gaff.  To  bring  to  a  messenger  or  cable 
is  to  put  it  around  the  capstan.  To  bring  a  ship 
to  is  to  lie-to  or  heave-to  or  force  another  ship  so 
to  do.  To  bring  a  ship  to  an  anchor  is  to  let  go 


the  anchor.  To  bring  an  enemy  to  action  is  to 
force  him  to  give  battle. 

Bring-up.  To  stop.  A  ship  is  brought  up 
when  her  way  is  stopped  either  by  letting  go 
the  anchor,  or  by  running  on  a  rock  or  shoal. 
To  bring-up  with  a  round  turn  is  to  stop  the  run 
ning  of  a  rope  by  taking  a  round  turn  around  a 
cavil  or  pin;  figuratively  used  in  speaking  of 
doing  anything  effectually  though  abruptly.  To 
bring-up  all  standing  is  to  be  stopped  suddenly 
and  without  warning. 

Briny.  An  adjective  which,  used  as  a  noun, 
signifies  the  sea ;  as,  plowing  the  briny. 

Brisas.  A  northeast  wind  which  blows  on 
the  coast  of  South  America  during  the  trades. 

Brismak.  A  name  among  the  Shetlanders  for 
the  excellent  fish  CM  lied  tusk  or  torsk,  the  best  of 
the  cod  kind  (Brosmus  vulgaris}. 

Bristol  (England)  is  on  the  Avon,  at  its  con 
fluence  with  the  Frome,  8  miles  from  Bristol 
Channel.  It  is  one  of  the  leading  British  ports 
in  foreign  trade.  Large  ships  can  ascend  the 
river  to  the  city,  where  spacious  docks,  quays, 
and  ship-yards  have  been  constructed.  It  is  the 
fourth  town  in  Great  Britain  in  customs  rev 
enue.  Pop.  190,000. 

Brit.  A  fish  of  the  herring  kind  (Clupea 
minima]  from  1  to  4  inches  long,  found,  at  some 
seasons,  in  immense  numbers,  on  the  eastern  coast 
of  New  England. 

British-built  Ship.  A  ship  built  in  Great 
Britain  or  Ireland,  Guernsey,  Jersey,  the  Isle  of 
Man,  or  some  of  the  colonies*  plantations,  islands, 
or  territories  in  Asia,  Africa,  or  America,  which, 
at  the  time  of  building,  belonged  to  or  were  in 
possession  of  Great  Britain  ;  or  any  ship  whatso 
ever  which  has  been  taken  and  condemned  as 
lawful  prize.  See  INTERNATIONAL  LAW. 

British  Seas.  The  four  seas  which  surround 
Great  Britain. 

Brittle-star.  The  common  name  of  a  long- 
rayed  starfish  (Ophiocoma  rosula). 

Broach.  To  pierce  ;  to  tap  ;  as  a  cask,  to  draw 
off  the  fluid.  To  broach  a  business,  to  begin  it. 

Broach-to.  To  fly  up  into  the  wind.  It  gen 
erally  happens  when  there  is  considerable  sea  on, 
and  the  ship  is  carrying  a  press  of  canvas  with  a 
good  deal  of  after-sail  set.  When  a  ship  sails 
with  the  wind  aft,  or  on  the  quarter,  the  wind 
acts  in  the  direction  of  the  ship's  course  and  the 
pressure  on  the  sails  is  very  much  diminished. 
If  from  this  position  the  ship  suddenly  presents 
her  broadside  to  the  wind,  the  sails,  masts,  and 
rudder  will  be  endangered,  and  in  extreme  cases 
the  ship  may  capsize  or  be  forced  down  stern 
foremost.  Broaching-to  is  generally  occasioned 
by  the  difficulty  of  steering  the  ship  ;  by  the  neg 
ligence  or  incapacity  of  the  helmsman  ;  or  by  an 
accident  happening  to  the  helm  which  renders  it 
incapable  of  governing  the  ship.  See  BROUGHT 
BY  THE  LEE. 

Broad  Arrow  (Eng.}.  The  royal  mark  for 
government  stores. 

Broad-ax.     See  Ax. 

Broadcloth.  Square-sails.  A  wide  and  su 
perior  article  of  woolen  cloth,  plain  or  twilled. 

Broad-horn.  An  old  name  for  a  flat-boat  on 
the  Western  rivers. 

Broad  of  Water.  An  extensive  lake  with  a 
channel  communicating  with  the  sea,  or  a  wide 
opening  of  a  river  after  passing  a  narrow  en 
trance. 


BUG 


96 


BUMP 


commerce  of  Buffalo  is  large  and  constantly  in 
creasing,  a  fact  due  to  its  location  at  the  foot  of 
the  great  chain  of  lakes,  and  to  its  being  the 
terminus  of  the  Erie  Canal  and  of  several  rail 
road  lines.  Grain  is  the  most  important  article 
of  commerce,  and  the  facilities  for  handling  and 
storing  it  are  unexcelled  by  those  of  any  other 
city  on  the  continent.  Pop.  150,000. 

Bug.  An  old  term  for  a  vessel  more  remark 
able  for  size  than  efficiency. 

Bugalilo.  A  large  trading-boat  of  the  Gulf 
of  Persia ;  called  buglo  by  sailors. 

Bugazeen.     An  old  term  for  calico. 

Buggy-boat.  A  boat  fitted  with  wheels  for 
use  as  a  vehicle  on  land. 

Bugling.  At  the  Naval  Academy  the  bugle 
sounds  a  call  to  terminate  each  recitation,  and 
when  a  midshipman  has  a  problem  which  he  is 
unable  to  solve,  he  sometimes  remains  at  the  black 
board  until  this  call  is  sounded,  trusting  thus  to 
evade  the  consequences  of  a  poor  recitation. 
This  manoeuvre  is  termed  bugling. 

Bugologist.  Jack's  term  for  an  amateur 
entomologist. 

Build.     A  vessel's  form  or  construction. 

Build  a  Chapel.  To  turn  a  vessel  suddenly 
by  negligent  steering.  See  CHAPEL. 

Builder's  Certificate.  A  document  contain 
ing  an  account  of  a  ship's  denomination,  tonnage, 
where  and  by  whom  built,  etc. 

Built.  A  suffix  to  denote  the  construction  of 
a  boat  or  vessel ;  as.  carvel-built,  frigate-built, 
sharp-built,  etc. 

Built-block.     A  made  block. 

Built-up.  An  expression  applied  to  masts  or 
guns  made  of  several  pieces. 

Bulch.     To  bilge. 

Bulge.     See  BILGE. 

Bulk.  The  greater  part.  Substances  stowed 
without  cases  or  packages  are  stowed  in  bulk.  To 
break  hulk,  to  commence  discharging  cargo. 

BULKER.  A  person  employed  to  measure 
goods>  and  ascertain  the  amount  of  freight  with 
which  they  are  charge'able. 

Bulk-head.  Anv  partition  separating  apart 
ments  on  the  same  deck.  Some  are  very  strong, 
and  others  are  light  and  can  be  removed  at  pleas 
ure.  To  hulk-head  is  to  carry  on  a  conversation 
which  is  intended  for  the  ears  of  a  third  party. 

Bull.  A  male  whale.  Weak  grog  made  by 
pouring  water  into  a  spirit-cask  nearly  empty. 
When  the  tide  and  wind  cause  the  ship  to  bump 
up  against  her  buoy  she  is  said  to  bull  the  buoy. 

Bull-dance.     A  stag-dance. 

Bull-dogs.  A  general  term  for  the  main-deck 
guns. 

Bullet.  A  small  projectile,  usually  of  lead, 
and  either  spherical  or  elongated,  for  use  in  the 
smaller  kinds  of  fire-arms,  such  as  muskets,  rifles, 
carbines,  and  pistols.  Formerly  spherical  bullets 
were  made  by  melting  lead  and  pouring  it  into 
molds.  They  are  now  made  more  expeditiously 
and  more  truly  spherical  by  compression.  The 
load  is  first  formed  into  a  rod  about  a  yard  long 
by  five-  or  six-eighths  of  an  inch  thick',  which  is 
passed  between  rollers  for  the  purpose  of  con 
densing  it;  other  rollers  then  press  it  into  a  row 
of  nearly  globular  pieces,  to  each  of  which  the 
proper  form  is  given  by  means  of  a  spherical  die, 
after  which  a  treadle- worked  punch  separates 
them  into  bullets.  The  spherical  bullet  is,  how 
ever,  rapidly  becoming  obsolete,  having  been 


almost  entirely  superseded  by  the  elongated  bullet, 
which  encounters  less  resistance  from  the  air,  and 
has  a  longer  range  and  greater  penetrating  power 
than  the  spherical.  Several  forms  of  the  elon 
gated  bullet  are  used.  In  most  of  them  the  base 
of  the  bullet  is  made  expansive  either  by  being 
hollowed,  or  by  being  fitted  with  a  wooden  plug, 
so  that  the  force  of  the  powder  shall  dilate  the 
lead  and  cause  it  to  fill  the  grooves  of  the  rifle. 
By  this  means  the  bullet  acquires  a  rotatory  mo 
tion  around  its  long  axis  which  tends  to  increase 
its  range  and  precision.  See  EXPLOSIVE  BULLET. 

BULLET-COMPASSES.  A  pair  of  compasses 
with  a  ball  on  one  leg  to  fit  in  a  hole. 

BULLET-LADLE.  A  ladle  for  melting  lead  for 
casting  bullets. 

BULLET-MOLD.  An  implement  for  shaping 
bullets. 

BULLET-PROBE.  An  instrument  for  exploring 
tissue  to  find  the  situation  of  a  bullet. 

BULLET-SCREW.  A  screw  on  the  end  of  a 
rammer  for  drawing  a  bullet  from  a  fire-arm. 

BULLET-SHELL.     An  explosive  bullet. 

Bull-head,  or  Bull-jub.  A  name  of  the  fish 
called  miller's  thumb  (Coitus  gobio). 

Bullion.    Heavy  twisted  fringe  for  ornaments. 

Bullock-block.  A  block  formerly  used  under 
the  topmast  cross-trees  for  the  topsail-ties. 

Bullock-slings.  Slings  for  hoisting  in  live 
cattle. 

Bull's-eye.  A  small  annular  block  of  hard 
wood  without  a  sheave ;  it  has  a  groove  to  take 
a  strap,  and  is  measured  by  its  diameter.  A 
small  circular  cloud  ruddy  in  the  centre,  a  fore 
runner  of  a  storm.  The  centre  of  a  target.  The 
lens  of  a  dark  lantern  ;  hence  the  lantern  itself. 
A  small,  thick,  circular  piece  of  glass  inserted 
in  the  decks,  port-lids,  etc.,  for  the  admission  of 
light.  A  popular  name  for  the  star  Aldebaran 
(a  Tauri). 

BULL'S-EYE  CRINGLE.  A  cringle  worked 
around  a  bull's-eye. 

Bull-trout.  The  salmon-trout  of  the  Tweed. 
A  large  species  of  trout  taken  in  the  waters  of 
Northumberland.  The  sea-trout. 

Bullyrag.  To  reproach  contemptuously,  and 
in  a  hectoring  manner  ;  to  bluster,  to  abuse,  and 
to  insult  noisily. 

Bulwark.  The  planking  or  wood-work  round 
a  vessel  above  the  deck. 

BULWARK-NETTING.  An  ornamental  frame 
of  netting  answering  the  purpose  of  a  bulwark. 

Bumbard.  A  cask  or  large  vessel  for  liquids. 
See  BOMBARD. 

Bum-boat.  A  boat  employed  to  carry  pro 
visions,  vegetables,  and  small  merchandise  for 
sale  to  ships.  The  name  is  corrupted  from  bom 
bard,  the  vessel  in  which  beer  was  formerly  car 
ried  to  soldiers  on  duty. 

Bumkin,  Bumpkin,  or  Boomkin.  A  short 
boom  or  beam  of  timber  projecting  from  each 
bow  of  a  ship.  Its  use  is  to  extend  the  weather 
clew  of  the  foresail.  The  name  is  also  applied 
to  the  timber  projecting  from  each  quarter  for 
the  main-brace  blocks. 

Bummaree.  A  word  synonymous  with  bot- 
tomri/  in  maritime  law.  It  is  also  a  name  given 
to  a  class  of  speculating  salesmen  of  fish,  not  rec 
ognized  as  regular  tradesmen. 

Bump.  To  bump  a  boat  is  to  pull  astern  of 
her  in  another,  and  insultingly  or  inimically  give 
her  the  stem. 


BUMP-ASHORE 


BUOYS 


Bump-ashore.  To  run  stem-on  to  a  beach  or 
bank.  A  ship  bumps  by  the  action  of  the  waves 
lifting  and  dropping  her  on  the  bottom  when  she 
is  aground. 

Bumper.  A  log  of  wood  over  the  side,  used 
as  a  fender. 

Bumpkin.     See  BUMKIN. 

Bund.  In  the  East,  an  embankment  or  sea 
wall. 

Bundle.  To  load  things  into  a  boat  in  a  slovenly 
manner.  Bundle  up  I  Hurry  up  from  below. 

Bungle.  To  perform  duty  in  a  slovenly  man 
ner. 

Bungo,  or  Bonga.  A  dug-out  made  from  the 
bonga-tree. 

Bung-starter.  A  stave  or  bat  used  for  starting 
bungs  by  beating  on  the  cask  on  either  side  of 
the  bung.  A  sobriquet  for  the  captain  of  the 
hold. 

Bung-up  and  Bilge-free.  A  cask  placed  with 
the  bung-stave  uppermost,  and  the  bilge  clear  of 
everything. 

Bunk.     A  standing  bed-place. 

Bunker.  A  bin  for  stowing  coal  on  board  a 
steamer. 

Bunt.  The  middle  part  of  a  sail.  The  sail 
which  is  tossed  up  on  the  centre  of  the  yard  in 
furling.  A  high  bunt  is  formed  when  the  bunt- 
whip  is  hauled  taut-up  and  a  great  amount  of 
sail  is  stowed  in  the  exact  centre  of  the  yard  ;  in 
a  lorv  or  roiling  bunt  the  sail  tapers  gradually 
from  the  centre. 

BUNTERS.     The  men  who  stow  the  bunt. 

BUNT-FAIR.     Before  the  wind. 

BUNT-GASKET.     See  GASKET. 

BUNT-JIGGER.  A  small  purchase  for  rousing 
up  the  bunt  of  heavy  sails. 

BUNT-WHIP.  A  whip  for  rousing  up  the  bunts 
of  the  light  sails  in  furling. 

Bunting.  A  thin  woolen  stuff  of  which  flags 
are  made. 

Buntline.  One  of  sev"  il  ropes  toggled  to  the 
foot  of  a  sail  and  leadin  _,  thence,  before  all,  to 
blocks  above  the  yard  and  thence  to  the  deck. 
They  are  used  for  hauling  the  foot  of  the  sail  up 
to  the  centre  of  the  yard. 

BUNTLINE-CLOTH,  A  narrow  lining  on  the 
forward  surface  of  a  sail  in  the  wake  of  the  bunt- 
line  to  protect  the  '.  iil  from  chafe. 

^E.     A  cringle  worked  into 
,il  to  which  the  buntline  was 
have  been   superseded   by 


BUNTLINE-CRIJ 

the  foot-rope  of  r 
clinched.      Crin 
toggles. 

BUNTLINE-S 

a  thimble  in  o- 
is  rove ;  the 
block  to  keep 
ally  called  a 

BUNTLINI 

foot-rope  of 
tached  by  a 
bowline,  th< 
and  are  attf 
Buoy.     . 
tight  cask, 
attached  t 
serve  to  m; 
tion  of  obj 
rocks,  she 
for  other 
permanen 
of  a  sein 


A  short  piece  of  rope  with 
through  which  the  buntline 
nd  is  made  fast  to  the  tie- 

into  the  yard.    It  is  gener- 

A  toggle   seized  to  the 

;j  which  the  buntline  is  at- 

\;'hen  the  sail  is  loosed  to  a 

are  unbent  from  the  bridles 

ese  toggles. 

body,  commonly  a  water- 
ilock  of  wood.  They  are 
n  by  a  rope  or  chain,  and 
annel,  or  indicate  the  posi- 
le  surface  of  the  water  ;  as, 
,etc.  They  are  also  used 
>,  life-preservers,  floats  for 
floats  for  the  upper  edge 
r  are  generally  made  of 


wood,  or  sheet-iron,  but  gutta-percha  has  some 
times  been  used.  They  are  variously  shaped 
and  colored,  and  sometimes  named  and  num 
bered,  in  order  that  they  may  be  easily  distin 
guished  from  each  other.  A  cone-  or  can-buoy  is 
conical  in  shape,  a  cask-buoy  cylindrical  or  nearly 
so,  and  a  nut-  or  nun-buoy  is  shaped  like  the  frus- 
trum  of  two  cones  with  the  bases  joined  together. 
A  spar-buoy  is  a  spar,  one  end  of  which  is  an 
chored.  Anchor-buoys  are  attached  to  the  an 
chors,  and  serve  to  mark  out  the  position  of  the 
anchors,  so  that  they  may  be  avoided  in  tending 
ship,  or  picked  up  in  case  of  being  obliged  to 
slip.  A  bell-buoy  is  a  large  buoy  on  which  is 
placed  a  bell,  which  is  sounded  by  the  heaving 
and  setting  of  the  sea.  A  whistling-buoy  is  fitted 
with  an  apparatus  which  makes  a  peculiar 
whistling  noise  at  certain  stag*es  of  the  tide  or 
sea.  To  buoy  an  object  is  to  indicate  its  posi 
tion  by  means  of  a  buoy  and  a  rope  or  chain. 
To  buoy  the  cable  is  to  attach  a  buoy  to  the 
bight  to  keep  it  from  sinking  and  chafing 
against  the  rocks.  To  bleed  a  buoy\s  to  let  the 
water  out  of  it.  A  buoy  watches  when  it  floats 
on  the  water.  To  stream  the  buoy  is  to  let  an 
anchor-buoy  fall  from  the  bows  previous  to 
letting  go  the  anchor. 

Buoyancy.  The  quality  of  floating  in  a  liquid. 
The  weight  of  a  floating  body  as  measured  by  the 
volume  of  fluid  displaced. 

CENTRE  OF  BUOYANCY.     See  CENTRE. 

Buoys,  Directions  for  Coloring,  Numbering, 
and  Placing.  UNITED  STATES. — In  conformity 
to  the  terms  of  the  act  of  Congress,  approved 
September  28,  1850,  prescribing  the  manner  of 
coloring  and  numbering  the  buoys  along  the 
coasts  and  in  the  bays,  sounds,  rivers,  and  har 
bors  of  the  United  States,  the  following  order 
must  be  observed,  viz. : 

1.  In  approaching  the  channel,  etc.,  from  sea 
ward,  red  buoys,  with  even  numbers,  will  be  found 
on  the  starboard  side  of  the  channel,  and  must 
be  left  on  the  starboard  hand  in  passing  in. 

2.  In  approaching  the  channel,  etc.,  from  sea 
ward,  black  buoys,  with   odd   numbers,  will   be 
found  on  the  port  side  of  the  channel,  and  must 
be  left  on  the  port  hand  in  passing  in. 

3.  Buoys  painted  with  red  and  black  horizontal 
stripes  will  be  found  on  obstructions,  with  chan 
nel-ways  on  either  side  of  them,  and  may  be  left 
on  either  hand  in  passing  in. 

4.  Buoys  painted  with  white   and  black  per 
pendicular  stripes  will  be  found  in  mid-channel, 
and  must  be  passed  close-to  to  avoid  danger. 

5.  All  other  distinguishing   marks  to  buoys 
will  be  in  addition  to  the  foregoing,  and  may  be 
employed   to  mark  particular  spots,  a  descrip 
tion  of  which  will  be  given  in  the  printed  list  of 
buoys. 

6.  Perches,  with  balls,  cages,  etc.,  will,  when 
placed  on  buoys,  be  at  turning-points,  the  color 
and  number  indicating  on  what  side  they  shall 
be  passed. 

The  following  abbrevations  are  used  on  charts 
and  buoy  lists : 

R.,  red  buoys,  Nos.  2,  4,  6,  etc.,  starboard.  B., 
black  buoys,  Nos,  1,  3,  5,  etc.,  port.  P.  S.,  white 
and  black  perpendicular  stripes,  without  num 
bers,  in  mid-channel.  H.  S.,  red  and  ^  black 
horizontal  stripes  (on  obstructions),  without 
numbers. 

BELGIUM. — On  entering  the  channel  from  sea- 


BURBOT 


98 


BURT'S   NIPPERS 


ward,  white  buoys  must  be  left  on  the  starboard 
hand,  black  buoys  on  the  port. 

CANADA.— The  same  as  the  United  States. 

ENGLAND. — The  starboard  side  of  a  channel  is 
the  right-hand  side  proceeding  from  seaward. 
The  entrance  to  a  channel  or  a  turning-point  is 
marked  by  a  spiral  buoy,  with  or  without  staff 
and  globe,  triangle,  cage,  etc.  Single-colored 
can-buoys,  black  or  red,  mark  the  starboard  side, 
and  buoys  of  the  same  shape  and  color,  either 
checkered  or  vertically  striped  with  white,  mark 
the  port  side.  Globes  are  used  on  buoys  on  the 
starboard  hand,  and  cages  on  the  port.  When  a 
middle  ground  exists  in  a  channel,  each  end  of 
it  is  marked  by  a  buoy  with  horizontal  white 
stripes.  Wrecks  are  marked  by  green  buoys. 
All  buoys  have  their  names  painted  on  them  in 
conspicuous  letters. 

FRANCE. — On  entering  a  channel  from  sea 
ward,  all  buoys  and  beacons  painted  red  with  a 
white  band  near  the  summit,  must  be  left  to  star 
board  ;  those  painted  black  must  be  left  to  port. 
Buoys  that  can  be  passed  on  either  side  are  painted 
red  with  black  horizontal  bands.  That  part  of  a 
beacon  below  the  level  of  high  water,  and  all 
warping  buoys,  are  painted  white.  The  small 
rocky  heads  in  frequented  channels  are  colored 
the  same  as  beacons  when  they  have  a  surface 
sufficiently  conspicuous.  Each  buoy  or  beacon 
has  upon  it  the  name  of  the  danger  it  is  intended 
to  point  out,  and  also  its  number,  commencing 
from  seaward.  The  even  numbers  are  on  the  red 
buoys,  and  the  odd  numbers  on  the  black.  The 
buoys  that  can  be  passed  on  either  side  are  named 
but  not  numbered. 

HOLLAND. — The  same  as  Belgium. 

SCOTLAND. — Coming  from  seaward,  leave  the 
red  buoys  on  the  starboard  hand,  and  the  black 
buoys  on  the  port.  Red  and  black  buoys  are 
placed  on  detached  dangers,  and  may  be  passed  on 
either  side.  Wrecks  are  marked  by  green  buoys. 
Fairway  buoys  are  plainly  marked,  and  all  buoys 
have  their  names  painted  on  them.  Liverpool  is 
buoyed  on  the  same  system. 

BUOY-ROPE.  The  rope  which  attaches  the 
buoy  to  the  anchor  ;  it  should  always  be  of  suffi 
cient  strength  to  lift  the  anchor  should  the  cable 
part. 

BUOY-ROPE  KNOT.  A  knot  made  by  unlaying 
the  strands  of  a  cable-laid  rope,  and  also  the 
small  strand  of  each  large  strand ;  and  after  single 
and  double  walling  them,  as  for  a  stopper-knot, 
worm  the  divisions,  and  round  the  rope. 

Burbot.  A  fish  of  the  genus  Lota,  shaped 
like  an  eel,  but  shorter  and  thicker,  with  a  flat 
head,  having  on  the  nose  two  small  beards  and 
another  on  the  chin.  Sometimes  called  an  eel- 
pout. 

Burden.  The  quantity  of  merchandise  that 
a  ship  carries  when  properly  trimmed.  See  TON 
NAGE. 

Bureau.  A  department  of  government.  In 
most  European  countries  the  highest  depart 
ments  of  government  receive  the  name  of  bureaus. 
In  England  and  the  United  States  the  term  is 
confined  to  subordinate  departments,  as  Bureau 
of  Ordnance.  See  ORGANIZATION. 

Burgall.  A  fish  of  our  eastern  coasts,  from  6 
to  12  inches  long  ;  also  called  the  blue-perch,  the 
chogset,  and  the  nibbler, — the  last  from  its  habit 
of  nibbling  off  the  bait  thrown  for  other  fishes. 

Burgee.     A  swallow-tailed  flag ;  in  the  mer 


chant  service  it  generally  has  the  ship's  name  on 
it. 

Burgomaster.  In  the  Arctic  Sea,  a  large 
species  of  gull  (Larus  glaucus). 

Burgoo.  A  dish  made  of  boiled  oatmeal  sea 
soned  with  salt,  butter,  and  sugar. 

Burgoyne,  Hugh  Talbot.  Born  in  1838.  Only 
son  of  Sir  John  Burgoyne,  Royal  Engineers. 
He  was  a  captain  in  the  English  navy.  During 
the  Crimean  war,  while  still  a  junior  officer,  he 
commanded  a  small  but  active  vessel.  For  his 
action  at  Kinburn  he  was  made  one  of  the  first 
recipients  of  the  Victoria  cross.  At  the  close 
of  the  war  he  was  made  Knight  of  the  Legion 
of  Honor,  and  received  the  order  of  Medjidie. 
After  this  he  was  rapidly  promoted.  He  was  lost 
while  in  command  of  the  Coles  turret-ship 
"  Captain,"  which  foundered  off  Cape  Finisterre, 
September  7,  1870.  The  "Captain"  had  an  ex 
tremely  low  free-board,  and  was  built  by  Laird, 
of  Birkenhead,  under  the  supervision  of  her  de 
signer,  Captain  Coles,  and  Captain  Burgoyne. 

During  her  first  cruise,  in  May,  1870,  Admiral 
Sir  Thomas  Symonds  reported  her  as  behaving 
extremely  well  in  all  weather,  using  her  heavy 
guns  readily  in  a  seaway,  very  stable,  and  es 
pecially  handy  under  sail.  She  capsized,  how 
ever.  Her  constructor,  Captain  Cowper  Coles, 
R.N.,  perished  in  her,  with  542  out  of  560  souls, 
who  composed  her  complement. 

The  former  chief  constructor  of  the  Royal 
navy,  Mr.  E.  J.  Reed,  had  always  declared  that 
the  "  Captain"  was  uhseaworthy. — E.  Shippen. 

Burley-twine.     A  strong  coarse  twine. 

Burnettizing.  A  process  for  the  preservation 
of  timber.  The  timber  is  immersed  in  a  solution 
of  chloride  of  zinc  for  a  certain  period,  which 
depends  upon  the  size  of  the  timber. 

Burn  the  Water.  A  phrase  denoting  the  act 
of  killing  fish  at  night  with  a  gig.  The  fisher 
men  have  a  torch  in  the  boat ;  hence  the  phrase. 

Burr.  The  hazy  c  ile  which  appears  around 
the  moon  before  rain. 

Burrel.  Langrage  shot,  consisting  of  bits  of 
iron,  bullets,  nails,  etc.,  got  together  in  haste  for 
a  sudden  emergency. 

Burrock.  A  small  weir  over  a  river,  where 
weels  are  laid  for  taking  fist. 

Burr-pump.    A  name  foi  the  bilge-pump. 

Burser.     See  PURSER. 

Burster-bag.  A  bag  for  bursting  charge 
of  a  shell. 

Bursting  Charge.  The  ?ce  charge  of  a 
shell  as  distinguished  from  '•lowing  charge. 

In  some  shells  the  bursting  ^  is  inclosed  in 

a  bag  as  a  guard  against  pr  e  explosions. 

Burt.     A  flat  fish  of  the  ttnd. 

Burthen.     See  BURDEN 

Burton.  A  tackle  used 
as,  swaying  aloft  a  topsa: 
etc.  A  top-burton  is  kept  J 
at  the  topmast-head.  It  i 
long  enough  to  permit  the 
ing  part  to  come  down  to 
the  main  top-burton  is  th 
ging  in  a  ship.  See  SPAN 

Burt's  Nippers.     An    ; 


tached  to  a  deep-sea  le 
line  to  run  readily  throi 
descending  ;  but  as  soon 
bottom,  releasing  the  te 
the  surface  of  the  water. 


us  purposes  ; 
ting  a  yard, 
the  pendants 
ckle,  and  is 
k  and  haul- 
The  fall  of 
>iece  of  rig- 
tf. 

-netimes  at- 
allows  the 
,he  lead  is 
trikes  the 
&  "ne  at 


BUSH 


99 


BY-WASH 


Bush.  A  perforated  piece  of  metal  let  into 
certain  parts  of  machinery  to  receive  the  wear 
of  pivots,  journals,  etc.  Any  similar  lining  of 
a  hole  with  metal ;  as^  the  vent  of  a  gun.  The 
bush  or  bushing  of  the  vent  of  a  gun  is  made  of 
pure  copper ;  the  outer  orifice  is  faced  with  steel, 
and  the  inner  orifice,  in  heavy  guns,  is  lined 
with  platinum. 

Bushing.    See  BUSH. 

Bush-metal.     An  alloy  of  copper  and  tin. 

Bushnell,  David,  of  Connecticut,  was  the  first 
to  show  practically  that  a  charge  of  gunpowder 
could  be  fired  under  water,  and  is  therefore  en 
titled  to  the  credit  of  inventing  torpedoes  or  sub 
marine  mines  (1775). 

Busking.  Piratical  cruising.  Beating  to 
windward  along  a  coast,  or  cruising  oiF  and  on. 

Buss.  A  small  strong-built  Dutch  vessel 
with  two  masts,  used  in  the  herring  and  mack 
erel  fisheries,  generally  of  50  to  70  tons  burden. 

Bust-head.    See  FIGURE-HEAD. 

Busy  as  the  Devil  in  a  Gale  of  Wind.  Fid 
gety  restlessness,  or  double  diligence  in  a  bad 
cause ;  the  imp  being  supposed  to  be  mischievous 
in  hard  gales. 

But.     A  conical  basket  for  catching  fish. 

Butcher's  Bill.  A  nickname  for  the  official 
return  of  killed  and  wounded  which  follows  an 
action. 

Butescarli.  The  early  name  for  the  sea-officers 
in  the  British  navy. 

Butt.  A  wine  measure  of  126  gallons.  The 
large  end  of  the  stock  of  a  fire-arm.  A  target ; 
hence  a  person  at  whom  are  leveled  the  shafts  of 
sarcasm  or  ridicule.  The  joining  of  two  timbers 
or  planks  endways  ;  also  the  ends  of  the  timbers 
or  planks  so  joined.  The  largest  end  of  any  tim 
ber  or  plank.  To  start  or  spring  a  butt  is  to 
loosen  the  end  of  a  plank  by  the  laboring  of  the 
ship. 

Butt-and-butt.  A  term  denoting  that  the  butt 
ends  of  two  timbers  meet  but  do  not  overlap. 

Butter-box.  A  name  given  to  the  brig-traders 
of  lumpy  form,  from  London,  Bristol,  and  other 
English  ports.  A  cant  term  for  a  Dutchman. 


Butter-bump.     A  name  of  the  bittern. 

Butter-fingered.  Having  a  careless  habit  of 
allowing  things  to  slip  through  the  fingers. 

Buttock.  The  after-part  of  the  ship  on  each 
side  below  the  knuckle.  A  ship  is  said  to  have 
a  broad  or  narrow  buttock  according  to  her  tran 
som  convexity  under  the  stern. 

BUTTOCK-LINES.  Represented  on  the  sheer 
draught  as  curve  lines  cutting  the  ship  into  ver 
tical  longitudinal  sections  parallel  to  the  centre 
line. 

Button.  The  knob  of  metal  which  terminated, 
the  breech-end  of  old  guns,  and  which  afforded  a 
convenient  bearing  for  the  application  of  hand 
spikes,  breechings,  etc. 

Buttons,  To  Make.  A  common  time-honored, 
but  strange  expression  for  sudden  apprehension 
or  misgiving. 

Butt- shaft,  or  Butt-bolt.  An  arrow  without 
a  barb,  used  for  shooting  at  a  butt. 

By.  Being,  or  passing,  near.  By  the  wind,  as 
near  the  wind  as  possible.  Full  and  by,  rap- 
full,  but  close  to  the  wind.  By  and  large,  to  the 
wind  and  off  it.  Stand  by  !  Be  prepared.  By 
the  board,  over  the  ship's  side  ;  a  mast  carried 
away  near  the  deck  is  said  to  go  by  the  board. 
A  ship  is  doiun  by  the  head  (or  stern)  when  she 
draws  more  water  forward  (or  aft)  than  she  does 
when  she  is  in  her  proper  trim. 

Bykat.  A  term  for  a  male  salmon  of  a  certain 
age,  because  of  the  beak  which  then  grows  on  its 
under-jaw. 

Byllis.     An  old  spelling  for  bill. 

Byrth.     The  old  expression  for  tonnage. 

Byssa.  An  ancient  gun  for  discharging  stones 
at  the  enemy. 

Byssus.  The  silken  filaments  of  any  of  the 
bivalved  mollusks  which  adhere  to  rocks,  as  the 
Pinna,  Mytilus,  etc.  The  silken  byssus  of  the 
great  pinna,  or  wing-shell,  is  woven  into  dresses. 
In  the  Chama  gigas  it  will  sustain  1000  pounds. 
Also,  the  woolly  substance  found  in  damp  parts 
of  a  ship. 

By-wash.  The  outlet  of  water  from  a  dam 
or  discharge  channel. 


100 


CABLE 


C. 


C.  Abbreviation  for  can  in  the  TJ.  S.  General 
Service  Signal  Code.  Among  the  letters  used  in 
the  log-book  to  register  the  state  of  the  weather 
c  denotes  cloudy. 

Caaing  Whale  (Globicephalus  deductor).  A 
cetacean  belonging  to  the  genus  Delphinus,  but 
differing  from  the  other  Delphinidce  in  having 
the  phalanges  more  numerous  and  the  limbs 
lower  and  more  approximated  in  position.  It 
resembles  the  common  porpoise  in  general  form, 
but  is  much  larger,  measuring  from  16  to  24  feet 
in  length,  and  rather  more  than  10  feet  in  cir 
cumference  at  its  thickest  part,  which  is  at  the 
root  of  the  dorsal  fin,  whence  the  body  tapers 
towards  the  tail,  which  is  deeply  forked.  In 
color  it  is  black,  with  a  white  streak  on  the 
under  side.  Its  pectoral  fins  are  long  and  nar 
row.  Its  vertebrae  number  55.  It  is  very 
gregarious,  and  is  found  on  the  coasts  of  Great 
Britain,  North  America,  and  Iceland,  while 
other  species  of  the  same  genus  exist  in  the 
South  Seas  and  the  North  Pacific.  It  is  most 
frequently  taken  on  the  Scottish  coast,  whence 
also  it  derives  its  name,  the  word  "caaing" 
being  Scotch  for  "driving."  The  animal  is  so 
called  from  the  fact  that  owing  to  its  sheep-like 
propensity  to  follow  its  leader,  the  fishermen, 
having  hemmed  in  a  herd  between  their  boats 
and  the  shore,  are  enabled  to  drive  the  whole 
herd  into  shallow  water,  where,  becoming 
stranded,  they  fall  an  easy  prey,  and  form  a 
rich  booty  to  their  pursuers. 

Cabane.  A  flat-bottomed  passage-boat  of  the 
Loire. 

Cabin.  In  passenger  steamers  the  cabin  is  a 
large  apartment  which  is  occupied  by  the  better 
class  of  passengers.  In  it  are  the  state-rooms  or 
private  rooms  of  the  passengers,  and  the  space 
between  the  rows  of  state-rooms  is  the  saloon, 
which  is  for  the  accommodation  of  the  passengers 
in  general,  and  is  frequently  used  as  a  dining- 
room.  In  large  vessels  there  are  two  or  three 
cabins,  in  which  case  they  are  occupied,  respec 
tively,  by  the  first-,  second-,  and  third-class  pas 
sengers.  In  an  ordinary  merchant  vessel  the 
cabin  is  the  apartment  occupied  by  the  master 
of  the  vessel. 

In  a  man-of-war  the  cabin  is  the  apartment 
occupied  by  the  cabin-officers.  Cabin-officers 
are  the  commanding  officer  and  other  line-officers 
of  and  above  the  grade  of  commander,  whether 
they  are  on  duty  or  attached  to  the  ship  as  pas 
sengers.  In  large  vessels  there  are  two  cabins, 
one  on  the  main  deck  and  one  on  the  upper  deck. 
The  cabin  is  frequently  divided  into  compart 
ments  by  light  bulkheads,  and  two  or  more 
state-rooms  are  formed  in  the  same  manner. 
"When  there  is  a  flag-officer  on  duty  on  board  a 
vessel  having  two  cabins,  he  selects  one  for  his 
own  use  and  the  commanding  officer  occupies 
the  other;  when  there  is  but  one  cabin,  the 


commanding  officer  is  entitled  to  one-third  of 
the  space,  divided  off  by  a  fore-and-aft  bulk 
head. 

CABIN-BOY.  A  boy  whose  duty  it  is  to  wait 
on  the  officers  and  passengers  in  the  cabin. 

CABIN-LECTURE.  A  severe  but  private  repri 
mand.  See  JOBATION. 

Cable.  A  large  strong  chain,  or  rope  made 
of  hemp,  manilla,  or  coir,  used  to  retain  a  ship 
in  place  when  at  anchor.  Rope  for  cables  is 
cable-laid,  to  render  it  impervious  to  water,  but 
the  additional  twist  given  in  laying  it  up  de 
tracts  from  the  strength,  the  cable-laid  being 
30  per  cent,  weaker  than  plain-laid  rope  of 
equal  size.  Cables  vary  in  size  from  10  to  26 
inches.  Eope-cable  has  been  superseded  by 
chain. 

Chain  for  cables  for  the  navy  is  manufactured 
at  the  Washington  navy-yard  The  utmost  care 
is  taken  to  procure  good  iron  ;  each  bar  is  tested, 
and  the  links  are  carefully  welded.  A  cast-iron 
stud  is  inserted  in  each  link,  except  those  at  the 
ends  of  the  sections ;  the  object  of  the  stud  is  to 
strengthen  the  chain  and  keep  it  from  kinking. 

Chain-cables  are  120  fathoms  long,  a  shackle 
being  introduced  at  each  section  of  15  fathoms, 
and  a  swivel  at  ?£,  STj,  and  82  J  fathoms.  The 
object  of  the  swivel  is  to  keep  the  chain  from 
getting  full  of  turns. 

Chain-cables  are  marked  at  the  shop  in  the  fol 
lowing  manner :  each  shackle  is  marked  across 
the  eye  with  its  number ;  the  swivels  and  club- 
link  are  marked  with  the  number  of  the  chain, 
the  date,  place  of  manufacture,  and  the  initials 
of  the  inspector. 

On  the  stud  are  cast  the  initials  U.  S.  and 
"W.  N.  Y.,  and  also  the  size  of  the  chain  in 
figures. 


Table  for  Proof  of  Cables. 


Size 
Cab! 
2i4in 

$ 

1% 
1% 

>1 

7 

P 

of                                 Pounds  Strain 
e.                                   Single  Proof, 
ch                                       147  800 

134  400 

117,600 
1(X)  800 

87  800 

78000 

66  600 

56,000 

44800 

34,600 

26800 

Double  Proof 

for  Triplets. 

295,600 

268,800 

235,200 

201,600 

175,600 

156,000 

133,200 

112,000 

89,600 

69,200 

53,600 


Chain-cables  differing  1-16  inch  in  size  are  not  manufactured 
now. 

The  triplets  are  cut  from  the  chain  to  be  issued,  and  are 
tested  to  destruction,  but  must  stand  the  double  proof  before 
breaking. 

Cables  issued  to  the  service  are  pulled  to  single  proof  only. 

After  the  cable  has  stood  the  required  test 
given  in  the  proof-table,  it  is  examined  by  an 
expert,  to  see  if  there  are  any  defects  in  the 
welding. 

A  shot  of  cable,  two  cables  spliced  together. 


GABON 


101 


CABRAL 


To  pay  out  or  veer  cable,  to  let  more  cable  run 
out  of  the  hawse-hole.  To  bitt  the  cable,  to  take  a 
turn  with  the  cable  around  the  bitts.  To  stopper 
the  cable,  to  secure  it  by  means  of  pieces  of  ropes, 
called  stoppers,  attached  to  the  deck  or  bitt  (See 
STOPPER.)  To  buoy  the  cable,  to  attach  buoys  to 
the  bight  of  the  cable  to  keep  it  clear  of  the 
ground.  To  coil  a  cable,  to  lay  it  in  fakes  and 
tiers.  To  bend  ti  cable,  to  clinch  or  shackle  it  to 
the  ring  of  the  anchor.  To  range  a  cable,  to  lay 
it  along  the  deck  in  parallel  lines.  To  slip  the 
cable,  to  let  go  the  inboard  end  and  allow  it  all 
to  run  out.  Cable  enough !  the  cry  from  the  fore 
castle  when  sufficient  cable  has  been  veered  to 
allow  the  anchor  to  be  catted. 

CABLE-BENDS.  Two  small  ropes  for  lashing 
the  end  of  a  cable  to  its  own  part,  in  order  to 
secure  the  clinch,  by  which  it  is  made  fast  to  the 
anchor. 

CABLE,  BOWER-.  The  cable  belonging  to  a 
bower-anchor. 

CABLE-BUOY.  A  cask  used  to  buoy  up  the 
bight  of  a  cable. 

CABLE,  ELECTRICAL.  An  insulated  wire  or 
combination  of  wires  used  in  telegraphy  or  in 
firing  mines.  The  essential  qualities  are  strength, 
pliability,  and  high  insulation.  The  substances 
generally  used  for  insulating  a  cable  are  gutta- 
percha,  india-rubber,  and  Hooper's  material ; 
the  latter  is  considered  to  be  the  best.  To  pro 
tect  the  insulating  material  from  chafe  over 
rocks,  cables  are  generally  provided  with  an 
external  metallic  covering. 

CABLE-LAID  ROPE.  Three  plain-laid  ropes 
laid  up  into  one  rope,  thus  forming  a  nine- 
stranded  left-handed  rope. 

CABLE,  SHEET-.  The  cable  belonging  to  the 
sheet-anchor. 

CABLE'S  LENGTH.  One-tenth  of  a  sea-mile, 
about  100  fathoms. 

CABLE-STAGE.  A  platform  in  the  hold  on. 
which  are  coiled  the  cables  and  hawsers. 

CABLE,  STREAM-.  A  hawser  or  large  rope 
used  with  a  stream-anchor. 

CABLET.  A  cable-laid  rope  of  less  than  10 
inches  in  circumference  ;  a  hawser. 

CABLE-TIER.  The  place  where  cables  and 
hawsers  are  stowed. 

Gabon.     An  old  word  for  a  nipper. 

Caboose,  or  Camboose.  The  cook-room  or 
kitchen  of  merchantmen,  on  deck  ;  a  diminutive 
substitute  for  the  galley  of  a  man-of-war ;  the 
term  is  sometimes  applied  to  a  portable  cast-iron 
stove  used  in  coasting-vessels  for  cooking  on 
deck. 

Cabot,  John.     See  CABOTO,  GIOVANNI. 

Cabot,  Sebastian.  One  of  the  sons  of  Gio 
vanni.  He  survived  his  father  and  brothers,  and 
earned  a  high  reputation  as  an  explorer.  Born 
at  Bristol,  England  claims  him  as  one  of  her 
sons.  After  the  death  of  Henry  VII.  he  entered 
the  service  of  Spain,  and  became  a  member  of  the 
Council  of  the  Indies.  In  the  reign  of  Henry 
VIII.  he  commanded  an  expedition  in  search  of 
the  Northwest  passage,  "  the  dream  of  all  the 
greatest  navigators  since  the  close  of  the  fifteenth 
century."  The  object  of  the  expedition  was  de 
feated  by  the  pusillanimity  of  Admiral  Pert. 
Cabot,  however,  turned  the  frustrated  mission 
to  account  by  observing  the  dip  of  the  needle  and 
the  variation  of  the  compass  in  those  regions, 
and  by  forming  plans  for  the  accurate  deter 


mination  of  the  longitude.  In  1520,  Cabot  left 
the  service  of  the  king  of  England,  and  accepted 
the  grade  of  pilot-major  under  the  government 
of  Charles  V.  of  Spain.  By  that  monarch  he 
was  appointed  captain-general  of  an  expedition 
to  Cape  Horn  and  the  Pacific  shores  of  South 
America ;  but  through  the  jealousy  of  his  sub 
ordinates  his  operations  were  confined  to  the  Rio 
de  la  Plata  and  its  tributary  streams.  With 
drawing  from  the  Spanish  service  in  1548,  he 
once  more  settled  in  Bristol,  and  Edward  VI.  of 
England  employed  him  in  a  capacity  correspond 
ing  with  that  of  a  first  lord  of  the  Admiralty. 
As  superintendent  of  the  shipping  and  foreign 
commerce  of  England,  Cabot  destroyed  the 
monopoly  of  a  grasping  company,  and  improved 
the  public  revenues  by  encouraging  the  princi 
ples  of  free  trade.  He  then  founded  a  Society  of 
Merchant  Adventurers,  and  in  that  capacity  sent 
out  ships  with  keels  of  lead  as  a  precaution 
against  the  worm.  Some  years  later  he  closed  a 
useful  life,  and  was  posthumously  panegyrized 
as  the  most  scientific  seaman  of  the  age,  and  one 
of  the  gentlest,  bravest,  and  best  of  men,  who 
gave  to  Britain  not  only  a  large  continent  but 
the  untold  riches  of  the  deep  in  the  fisheries  of 
Newfoundland  and  the  Arctic  Sea.  He  was,  in 
fact,  the  father  of  free  trade. 

Cabotage  (ItaL).  Sailing  from  cape  to  cape 
along  a  coast,  or  the  details  of  coast  pilotage. 

Caboto,  or  Kaboto,  Giovanni  (JoiiN  CABOT), 
obtained  a  patent  from  Henry  VII.,  King  of 
England,  empowering  him  and  his  three  sons  to 
sail  into  the  eastern,  western,  or  northern  seas, 
with  a  fleet  of  five  ships,  at  their  own  expense, 
to  search  for  islands,  countries,  provinces,  or 
regions  not  before  seen  by  Christian  people ;  to 
float  the  English  flag  on  any  city,  island,  or 
continent  that  they  might  find,  and,  as  vassals 
of  the  English  crown,  to  possess  and  occupy  the 
territories  so  discovered.  The  expedition  sailed 
from  Bristol,  May,  1497,  and  the  Cabots  sighted 
Labrador.  In  the  following  year  they  made  a 
second  voyage,  and  got  as  far  as  Maryland, 
having  previously  discovered  Newfoundland. 
In  1499  they  made  a  third  voyage,  extending  to 
the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  See  SEBASTIAN  CABOT. 

Cabral,  or  Cabrera,  Pedro  Alvarez,  the  dis 
coverer  of  Brazil,  was  descended  from  an  old 
and  patrician  Portuguese  family.  Nothing  is 
known  of  his  early  life  save  the  fact  that  he 
must  have  recommended  himself  by  talent  and 
enterprise  to  King  Emanuel,  of  Portugal,  who, 
after  the. first  voyage  of  Vasco  de  Gama,  ap 
pointed  Cabral  to  the  command  of  a  fleet  of  13 
vessels,  carrying  1200  men,  and  bound  for  the 
East  Indies.  On  the  9th  of  March,  1500,  he 
sailed  from  Lisbon.  To  avoid  the  inconvenience 
of  being  becalmed  on  the  coast  of  Africa,  he  took 
a  course  too  far  westerly,  fell  into  the  South 
American  current  of  the  Atlantic,  and  was  car 
ried  to  the  unknown  coast  of  Brazil,  of  which 
he  claimed  possession  for  the  king  of  Portugal, 
April  24,  1500,  naming  the  new  country  "  Terra 
da  Santa  Cruz."  After  sending  home  one  ves 
sel  to  bear  news  of  this  great  accidental  dis 
covery,  Cabral  sailed  for  India ;  but  on  the  29th 
of  May  four  of  his  vessels  foundered,  and  all  on 
board  perished,  including  Diaz,  the  great  navi 
gator  ;  and  soon  afterwards  three  more  vessels 
were  lost.  Cabral  therefore'  landed  at  Mozam 
bique,  on  the  east  coast  of  Africa,  of  which  he 


CABURN 


102 


CACHOLOT 


first  gave  clear  information,  and  also  discovered 
(August  23)  the  Antschedives  Islands,  of  which 
he  described  correctly  the  position.  Hence  he 
sailed  to  Calicut,  where,  having  made  the  terror 
of  his  arms  felt,  he  was  permitted  to  found  a  fac 
tory  ;  entered  into  successful  negotiations  with 
native  rulers,  and  thus  established  the  first  com 
mercial  treaty  between  Portugal  and  India.  He 
returned  from  India,  bringing  with  him  a  con 
siderable  booty,  and  arrived  in  the  port  of  Lis 
bon  July  31,  1501.  It  appears  probable  that  the 
king  was  dissatisfied  with  the  results  of  the  ex 
pedition  (although  it  had  annexed  Brazil  to  the 
crown  of  Portugal),  for  subsequently  we  find  no 
mention  made  of  Cabral  among  other  discoverers. 
At  the  request  of  Cabral,  Sancho  de  Toar  wrote 
a  description  of  the  coast  of  Sofola.  Cabral's 
voyages  are  described  in  Ramusio's  "  Naviga- 
tione  e  Viaggi,"  3vols.  (Venice,  1563;  newed., 
Venice,  1835.) 

Caburn.  A  small  line  made  of  spun-yarn,  for 
worming  cables,  seizings,  and  the  like. 

Cacao  (Sp.).  The  plant  Theobroma,  from 
which  cocoa  is  derived. 

Cache  (Fr.,  a  place  of  concealment).  Ex 
plorers  and  other  travelers  in  waste  regions  wish 
ing  either  to  disencumber  themselves  of  a  portion 
of  their  impedimenta,  or  to  establish  magazines 
for  use  on  their  return  journey,  frequently  bury 
in  the  ground  provisions  and  articles  of  equip 
ment.  The  place  of  such  a  deposit  is  termed  a 
cache,  and  the  process  of  making  it,  cacheing. 

Cacholot,  Spermaceti,  or  Sperm  Whale  (Phy- 
seter  macrocephalus,  or  Cntodon  macrocephalus}. 
One  of  the  largest  of  the  Cetacea  (which  see),  and 
of  very  peculiar  form.  Unlike  the  right  whale, 
it  affords  no  whalebone,  but  is  much  sought 
after,  not  only  on  account  of  the  oil,  but  still 
more  for  the  spermaceti  and  ambergris  which  it 
yields.  It  is  widely  distributed  geographically  and 
inhabits  nearly  all  seas,  but  is  most  abundant  in 
those  of  the  southern  hemisphere.  It  sometimes 
attains  the  length  of  70  or  80  feet.  The  general 
color  is  very  dark  gray,  nearly  black  on  the  up 
per  parts  but  lighter  beneath.  Old  males,  or,  as 
the  South-Sea  whalers  call  them,  old  bull-whales, 
usually  have  a  large  gray  spot  on  the  front  of 
the  head.  The  head  is  enormously  large,  form 
ing  about  one-half  of  the  entire  bulk  of  the 
animal,  and  taking  up  more  than  one-third  of 
the  whole  length.  From  the  head  the  body 
tapers  to  the  tail,  and  at  last  rather  rapidly. 
The  muzzle  is  very  obtuse,  almost  as  if  suddenly 
cut  off  in  front,  the  breadth  of  it  almost  equaling 
the  thickness  of  the  body.  In  a  protuberance 
on  the  upper  part  of  it  is  the  blow-hole,  which 
is  single,  situated  a  little  on  the  left  side,  and  in 
form  not  unlike  the  letter  S  elongated.  The 
mouth  is  very  wide,  and  the  throat,  unlike  that 
of  the  Greenland  whale,  is  sufficiently  capacious 
to  admit  the  whole  body  of  a  man.  *The  upper 
jaw  projects  some  feet  beyond  the  lower,  and  has 
neither  teeth  nor  whalebone  ;  but  the  lower  jaw 
contains  twenty  or  twenty-five  teeth  on  each  s'ide, 
according  to  the  age  of  the  animal.  The  teeth, 
which  are  conical  and  slightly  recurved,  project 
about  two  inches  from  the  gum.  The  lower  jaw 
is  very  narrow,  its  two  branches  being  for  most 
of  their  length  in  contact ;  it  fits  into  a  groove 
in  the  upper  jaw,  in  which  are  cavities  for  the 
teeth.  The  eyes  are  small  and  placed  far  back 
in  the  head  above  the  angles  of  the  mouth  ;  the 


left  eye  is  said  to  be  smaller  than  the  right. 
Just  above  the  eyes  the  dorsal  line  rises  con 
siderably  ;  the  dorsal  fin  is  also  represented  by  a 
protuberance  about  half-way  between  the  neck 
and  tail,  and  these  parts  are  seen  above  water  in 
the  ordinary  swimming  of  the  animal,  which  is 
at  the  rate  of  from  3  to  7  miles  an  hour  and  just 
beneath  the  surface  of  the  water,  although  when 
alarmed  it  swims  more  swiftly  and  strikes  the 
water  with  its  tail  upward  and  downward  with 
great  force.  The  pectoral  fins  are  small,  and 
seem  scarcely,  if  at  all,  to  aid  in  progression, 
which  is  accomplished  by  the  large  and  powerful 
tail-fin.  The  tail-fin  is  very  broad  and  is  divided 
into  two  lobes,  called  by  the  South-Sea  whalers 
the  flukes.  The  head  of  the  cacholot  is  in  great 
part  occupied  by  a  cavity  in  front  of  and  above 
the  skull,  called  by  whalers  the  case,  which  is  a 
receptacle  for  spermaceti  (which  see).  This  sub 
stance  being  light,  the  animal  in  swimming 
raises  its  head  above  the  surface  of  the  water, 
which  it  also  does  when  at  rest.  The  case  fre 
quently  holds  not  less  than  ten  large  barrels  of 
spermaceti.  It  is  not  formed  of  bone,  but  of  a 
strong  tendinous  integument,  and  is  divided  into 
compartments  which  communicate  with  each 
other.  The  substance  which  it  contains  is  in  a 
semi-fluid  state,  but  hardens  on  cooling  ;  it  con 
sists  of  spermaceti  and  oil.  The  oil  is  separated 
by  drawing  and  squeezing,  and  the  spermaceti 
further  purified  till,  instead  of  being  a  yellow, 
unctuous  mass, — the  state  in  which  it  is  brought 
home  by  the  whalers, — it  assumes  a  beautiful 
pearly  white,  flaky,  nearly  crystalline  appearance. 
When  the  spermaceti  whale  is  killed  and  towed 
alongside  the  whaling-ship,  the  case  is  emptied 
of  its  valuable  contents  through  a  hole  made 
in  front  of  the  muzzle,  and  by  means  of  a  basket 
attached  to  a  pole.  The  spermaceti  used  to  be 
considered  the  brain  of  the  whale  ;  what  purpose 
it  serves  is  not  known,  except  that  already  alluded 
to  of  giving  buoyancy  to  the  fore  part  of  the  ani 
mal,  and  perhaps  this  is  its  chief  use,  respiration 
even  more  than  progression  depending  on  it.  It 
is  distinct  enough  from  the  brain,  which,  as  well 
as  the  skull  that  contains  it,  is  very  small  com 
pared  with  the  bulk  of  the  creature.  Cavities 
filled  with  spermaceti  are  distributed  over  the 
body,  and  even  ramify  through  the  external  fat 
or  blubber,  although  the  principal  mass  is  in  the 
head.  The  blubber  of  the  cacholot  is  not  nearly 
as  thick  as  that  of  the  Greenland  whale,  being 
only  about  14  inches  in  thickness  on  the  breast 
of  a  large  whale,  and  from  8  to  11  inches  on 
other  parts  of  the  body.  It  is  called  by  whalers 
the  blanket,  is  removed  from  the  captured  whale 
in  great  strips,  and  is  heated  in  large  pots,  the 
skin  of  the  whale  serving  for  fuel,  when  the  oil — 
known  as  sperm  oil  (which  see) — flows  from  it. 
The  junk,  a  thick  elastic  mass,  which  occupies  the 
forepart  of  the  head  immediately  under  the  case, 
yields  also  a  considerable  quantity  of  sperm  oil. 
The  cacholot  feeds  principally  upon  squids  and 
cuttle-fish.  It  goes  in  herds,  which  are  called 
schools  by  the  sailors.  Large  herds  consist  gen 
erally  of  females  with  only  a  few  males  ;  herds 
of  young  males  also  occur.  When  solitary  in 
dividuals  are  met  with,  they  are  almost  always 
old  males.  Terrible  conflicts  often  take  place 
among  the  males,  and  it  is  not  unusual  to  find 
the  lower  jaw  dislocated  or  broken  as  a  result  of 
these  encounters. 


CADE 


103 


CALCUTTA 


Cade.  A  small  barrel  of  about  500  herrings 
or  1000  sprats. 

Cadence.  The  regularity  requisite  in  pull 
ing.  A  uniform  time  and  pace  in  marching  in 
dispensable  to  the  correct  movements  of  troops. 

Cadet.  A  French  word  signifying  younger, 
junior.  This  term  is  also  applied'in  France  and 
other  countries  to  a  student  in  the  art  of  war  and 
military  science. 

CADET  ENGINEER.  The  lowest  grade  of  the 
engineer  corps  in  the  U.  S.  navy ;  so  called 
during  their  state  of  pupilage  at  the  Naval 
Academy  and  up  to  the  time  of  their  promotion 
to  assistant  engineer. 

CADET  MIDSHIPMAN.  The  lowest  grade  of 
line-officers  in  the  U.  S.  navy ;  so  called  while 
pupils  at  the  Naval  Academy  and  during  a  pro 
bationary  period  of  sea  service,  at  the  expiration 
of  which  they  are  promoted  to  midshipman.  See 
ACADEMIES,  NAVAL. 

Cadge.  To  carry.  Kedge  may  be  a  corrup 
tion. 

Cadiz.  A  city  and  seaport  of  Spain,  capital 
of  the  province  of  Cadiz,  on  the  island  of  Leon, 
off  the  S.W.  coast  of  Andalusia,  60  miles  N.W. 
of  Gibraltar,  and  64  miles  S.  of  Seville.  Lat. 
36°  32'  N. ;  Ion.  6°  17'  15"  W.  It  stands  on  a 
narrow  tongue  of  land,  which  projects  about  5 
miles  N.N.W.  into  the  sea  ;  it  is  surrounded  on 
three  sides  by  water,  and  is  strongly  defended 
both  by  nature  and  by  art.  The  entrance  to  its 
capacious  bay  is  commanded  by  forts,  while  on 
the  other  sides  large  vessels  cannot  approach 
within  three-fourths  of  a  mile  of  the  city.  One 
of  the  most  conspicuous  objects  in  Cadiz  is 
the  light-house  of  San  Sebastian,  172  feet  in 
height.  The  bay,  which  is  formed  by  the  penin 
sula  and  the  mainland,  is  spacious,  and  affords 
good  anchorage.  La  Caraca,  the  royal  dock 
yard,  is  situated  at  the  bottom  of  the  inner  bay, 
about  6  miles  from  the  city,  and  is  defended  by 
the  cross-fire  of  two  forts.  It  contains  3  spacious 
basins,  and  12  docks  or  slips.  The  trade  of  Cadiz 
is  less  extensive  than  formerly.  The  chief  arti 
cle  of  export  is  sherry  wine.  Salt  is  another 
article  of  export.  The  chief  imports  are  staves, 
tobacco,  hides,  cacao,  indigo,  cochineal,  dye- 
woods,  sugar,  codfish,  and  coals.  Pop.  58,000. 

Caelum.    See  CONSTELLATION. 

Caffila.     See  KAFILA. 

Cag.     See  CARRY. 

Cage.  An  iron  cage,  formed  of  hoops,  on  the 
top  of  a  pole,  and  filled  with  combustibles.  It  is 
lighted  before  high  water,  and  marks  a  channel, 
navigable  for  the  period  during  which  it  burns. 

Cage-work.  An  old  term  for  a  ship's  upper 
works. 

Caique,  or  Kaique.  A  small  Levantine  ves 
sel.  Also,  a  graceful  skiff,  seen  in  perfection  at 
Constantinople,  where  it  almost  monopolizes  the 
boat  traffic.  It  is  fast  but  crank,  being  so  nar 
row  that  the  oars  or  sculls  have  their  looms  en 
larged  into  ball-shaped  masses  to  counterbalance 
their  outboard  length.  It  has  borne  for  ages  the 
wave-line,  which,  upon  its  introduction  into  our 
marine  architecture  a  few  years  ago,  was  esteemed 
a  novelty.  It  may  have  from  one  to  ten  or  twelve 
rowers. 

Cairban.  A  name  in  the  Hebrides  for  the 
basking-shark. 

Cairn.  A  pile  of  stones  used  as  a  mark  in 
surveying. 


Caisson.  A  boat-gate,  having  generally  both 
ends  similar  in  form  to  the  bows  of  a  vessel,  used 
to  close  the  entrance  to  a  dock  or  basin.  An  ap 
paratus  for  lifting  a  vessel  out  of  the  water  for 
repairs  or  inspection.  It  is  usually  a  hollow 
structure  sunk  by  letting  water  into  it.  There 
is  an  air-chamber  inside,  which  allows  it  to  sink 
only  a  certain  depth.  In  that  state  it  is  hauled 
under  the  ship's  bottom,  the  traps  or  openings 
are  closed,  the  water  is  pumped  out,  and  the 
caisson  rises  with  the  ship  upon  it.  In  another 
arrangement,  a  platform  is  sunk  to  a  certain 
depth  in  the  water,  and  is  suspended  by  iron 
screws  from  a  strong  wooden  framework;  the 
ship  is  floated  upon  the  platform,  steadied  by 
shores,  and  lifted  high  and  dry  by  means  of 
levers,  wheels,  pinions,  and  screws.  In  military 
matters,  an  ammunition-chest  and  the  wagon  on 
which  it  is  carried.  The  term  is  also  applied  to 
a  chest  loaded  with  explosives  and  buried  deep 
in  the  ground  under  a  fortification  for  the  pur 
pose  of  being  blown  up  if  the  enemy  approach 
and  take  possession  of  that  particular  part  of  the 
work. 

Calais.  A  town  of  France,  department  of 
Pas-de-Calais,  on  the  Strait  of  Dover,  26  miles 
E.S.E.  of  Dover,  and  20  miles  N.E.  of  Boulogne. 
Lat.  of  the  new  light-house,  50°  57'  45"  N. ; 
Ion.  1°  51'  18"  E. ;  height,  192  feet.  The  tower 
and  harbor  are  defended  by  a  castle  and  several 
forts,  and  by  means  of  sluices  the  whole  adjacent 
country  may  be  laid  under  water.  The  harbor 
is  formed  by  two  moles,  which  are  continued 
seaward  by  wooden  piers,  the  whole  being  about 
three-fourths  of  a  mile  in  length.  At  ebb-tide  it 
is  nearly  dry ;  has  not  a  greater  depth  than  15 
or  18  feet  at  high  water.  A  tower  in  the  centre 
of  the  town  serves  as  a  light*house.  There  is 
good  anchorage  ground  2  to  3  miles  N.W.  of  the 
harbor.  Pop.  20,000. 

Calais,  a  city  of  Washington  Co.,  Me.,  is 
on  the  St.  Croix  River.  It  is  at  the  head  of 
navigation,  about  12  miles  from  Passamaquoddy 
Bay,  82  miles  E.N.E.  of  Bangor,  and  27  miles 
N.N.W.  of  Eastport.  Pop.  6000. 

Calamary  (calamus,  a  pen).  A  Cephalopod, 
which  derives  its  name  from  the  fact  of  its  body 
containing  a  gladius,  or  internal  shell,  shaped 
like  a  quill,  and  a  bag  in  its  visceral  sac  from 
which  it  diffuses  an  ink-like  fluid.  Its  mouth  is 
furnished  with  eight  arms.  The  different  species 
are  distributed  oVer  all  parts  of  the  world,  but 
are  much  more  abundant  in  some  seas  than  in 
others  ;  they  form  a  principal  part  of  the  food  of 
some  of  the  larger  fishes  and  of  whales.  It  is  the 
Loligo  vulgaris  of  Cuvier. 

Calamine.  An  ore,  consisting  essentially  of 
silicate  of  zinc.  Its  primary  form  is  a  rhomboid, 
and  it  occurs  in  small  obtuse-edged  crystals,  also 
compact  and  massive.  It  is  white,  yellowish 
white,  brown,  green,  or  gray;  is  sometimes 
opaque,  sometimes  translucent,  is  brittle,  and 
has  an  uneven  conchoidal  fracture.  It  occurs 
in  beds  and  veins  in  rocks  of  various  kinds,  but 
most  commonly  in  limestone. 

Calanca.  A  creek  or  cove  on  the  Italian  and 
Spanish  coasts. 

Calcutta,  capital  of  British  India  and  of  Ben 
gal,  is  situated  on  the  E.  bank  of  the  Hoogly 
River,  80  miles  from  the  sea,  in  lat.  22°  33'  47" 
N.,  Ion.  88°  23'  34"  E.,  opposite  the  town  of 
Howrah,  to  which  a  floating-bridge  extends. 


CALENDAK 


104 


CALK 


Calcutta  is  the  largest  emporium  of  trade  in 
Asia,  being  the  natural  outlet  of  the  valleys  of 
the  Ganges  and  Brahmapootra.  The  chief  ex 
ports  are  jute,  opium,  indigo,  rice,  hides,  raw 
silk,  saltpetre,  etc.,  and  the  chief  imports  are 
cotton,  linen,  and  silk  goods,  hardware,  wines, 
spirits,  and  salt.  Pop.  city  proper,"  448,000; 
including  suburbs,  about  900,000. 

Calendar  (Lat.  calendce,  the  first  day  of  each 
month,  from  caldre ;  Gr.  kalein,  to  call,  to 
summon).  The  regulation,  arrangement,  and 
register  of  civil  time.  The  natural  unit  adapted 
to  the  immediate  wants  and  ordinary  occupations 
of  man  is  the  sola?'  day,  or  the  period  elapsed  be 
tween  two  successive  arrivals  of  the  sun  at  a 
given  meridian.  It  varies  in  length  at  different 
seasons  of  the  year ;  but  the  variation  is  socially 
unimportant,  and  the  tacit  adoption  of  its  mean 
value  from  the  earliest  ages  arose  probably  from 
ignorance  that  such  fluctuation  existed.  This 
mean  solar  or  civil  day  is  divided  into  24  hours. 
The  unit  for  longer  duration  again  is  naturally 
the  period  in  which  recur  the  seasons  on  which 
depend  all  the  vital  business  of  life.  It  is  the  in 
terval  between  two  successive  arrivals  of  the  sun 
at  the  vernal  equinox,  and  is  called  the  tropical 
year.  This  period  varies  slightly,  and  is  incom 
mensurate  with  the  lesser  unit,  its  length  being 
about  365  days  5  hours  58  minutes  59.7  seconds. 
Now,  if  the  odd  hours,  minutes,  etc.,  were  to  be 
neglected,  and  the  civil  year  made  to  consist  of 
365  days,  the  seasons  would  soon  cease  to  cor 
respond  to  the  same  months,  and  would  run  the 
round  of  the  whole  year;  this  odd  time  must 
therefore  be  taken  account  of.  But  then,  again, 
it  would  be  very  inconvenient  to  have  the  same 
day  belonging  to  two  different  years.  To  obviate 
this  difficulty,  a  very  neat  contrivance  was  in 
augurated  by  Julius  Caesar.  He  introduced  a 
system  of  two  artificial  years,  one  of  365  and  the 
other  of  366  integer  days  ;  three  consecutive  years 
of  365,  and  then  a  fourth  year  of  366  days.  The 
longer  years  were  called  "bissextile"  or  "leap- 
years,"  and  the  surplus  days  formed  of  the  ac 
cumulated  fractions  and  thrown  into  the  reckon 
ing  were  called  "intercalary"  or  "leap-days." 
This  calendar  made  the  average  length  of  civil 
years  365  days  6  hours,  which  was  only  a  rough 
approximation  to  the  truth,  and  the  error  soon 
accumulated  to  a  whole  day.  A  reformation 
was  effected  by  Pope  Gregory  XIII.  ;  and  his 
law  for  regulating  the  succession  of  the  two  arti 
ficial  years  (of  365  days  and  366  days)  is  such, 
that  during  the  lapse  of  at  least  some  thousands  of 
years  the  sum  of  these  integer-day  years  shall  not 
differ  from  the  same  number  of  real  tropical  years 
by  a  whole  day.  For  the  period  of  10,000  years  the 
average  length  of  the  Gregorian  year  is  365.2425 
days,  which  is  a  very  close  approximation  to  the 
mean  tropical  year,  365.242264  days  (according 
to  Delambre's  tables).  The  Gregorian  rule  is  as 
follows:  The  years  are  denominated  as  years 
current  (not  as  years  elapsed)  from  the  midnight 
between  the  31st  of  December  and  the  1st  of 
January  immediately  subsequent  to  the  birth  of 
Christ,  according  to  the  chronological  determina 
tion  of  that  event  by  Dionysius  Exiguus.  Every 
year  whose  number  is  not  divisible'by  4  without 
remainder  consists  of  365  days  ;  every  year  which 
is  so  divisible,  but  is  not  divisible  by  100,  of  366 
days  ;  every  year  divisible  by  100,  but  not  by 
400,  again  of  365 ;  and  every  year  divisible  by 


400  again  of  366  days.  The  principle  might  be 
applied  further,  and  any  degree  of  approxima 
tion  attained.  In  our  calendar  the  year  is  arbi 
trarily  divided  into  12  unequal  months,  the  in 
tercalary  day  being  placed  at  the  end  of  the 
shortest. 

Calf.  A  word  generally  applied  to  the  young 
of  marine  mammalia,  as  the  whale.  Calf,  in  the 
Arctic  regions,  a  mass  of  floe-ice  breaking  from 
under  a  floe,  which  when  disengaged  rises  with 
violence  to  the  surface  of  the  water;  it  differs 
from  a  tongue,  which  is  the  same  body  kept  fixed 
beneath  the  main  floe.  The  iceberg  is  formed  by 
the  repeated  freezing  of  thawed  snow  running 
down  over  the  slopes,  until  at  length  the  wave 
from  beneath  and  weight  above  causes  it  to 
break  off  and  fall  into  the  sea,  or,  as  termed  in 
Greenland,  to  calve.  Thus,  berg,  is  fresh-water 
ice,  the  work  of  years ;  the  floe,  is  salt  water 
frozen  suddenly  each  winter,  and  dissolving  in 
the  summer. 

Calf,  or  Calva.  A  Norwegian  name,  also  used 
in  the  Hebrides,  for  islets  lying  off  islands,  and 
bearing  a  similar  relation  to  them  in  size  that  a 
calf  does  to  a  cow  ;  as,  the  Calf  at  Mull  and  the 
Calf  of  Man. 

Calfat.  The  old  word  for  calking.  (Calfater, 
Fr.  ;  probably  from  cale,  wedge,  and  faire,  to 
make. )  To  wedge  up  an  opening  with  any  soft 
material,  as  oakum.  (Cala/atear,  Sp.) 

Caliber,  or  Calibre.  The  diameter  of  the  bore 
of  a  gun,  cannon-shot,  or  bullet.  A  ship's  cali 
bre  means  the  known  weight  her  armament  rep 
resents. 

Calipash.  The  upper  shell  of  a  turtle. 
Calipee.  The  under  shell  of  a  turtle. 
Calipers,  or  Caliper  Compasses.  Bow-legged 
compasses  used  to  measure  the  girth  of  timber, 
the  external  diameter  of  masts,  shot,  and  other 
circular  or  cylindrical  substances.  Calipers  of 
the  best  sort  are  made  with  a  scale,  having  dif 
ferent  sets  of  numbers  engraved  on  it,  like  a 
sliding-rule,  for-  the  purpose  of  exhibiting  at 
once  various  relations  depending  on  the  magni 
tude  of  the  diameter  of  the  body  measured. 
Thus,  as  the  weights  of  balls  of  the  same  metal 
are  in  a  constant  ratio  to  the  cubes  of  their  di 
ameters,  the  scale  maybe  so  graduated  and  num 
bered  that  the  observer  may  read  off  either  the 
diameter  in  inches  or  the  weight  in  pounds. 
Other  numbers  having  a  less  immediate  applica 
tion  are  also  frequently  attached ;  for  example, 
the  degrees  of  a  circle,  the  proportions  of  troy 
and  avoirdupois  weight,  tables  of  the  specific 
gravities  and  weights  of  bodies,  etc.  It  is  ob 
vious  that  these  may  be  varied  infinitely  ac 
cording  to  the  purposes  proposed  to  be  accom 
plished.  Also  an  instrument  with  a  sliding  leg 
used  for  measuring  the  packages  constituting 
a  ship's  cargo,  which  is  paid  for  by  its  cubical 
contents. 

Calk.  To  drive  oakum  into  the  seams  between 
the  planks  in  the  sides  and  decks  of  a  vessel,  in 
order  to  prevent  the  entrance  of  water.  The 
seam  is  first  widened  as  much  as  possible,  and 
the  oakum  is  then  forced  in  thread  by  thread. 
The  oakum  is  driven  until  it  forms  a  dense  mass, 
when  the  seam  is  payed  or  coated  over  with  hot 
pitch.  The  first  people  to  make  use  of  pitch  in 
calking  were  the  inhabitants  of  Phaeacia.  Wax 
and  resin  had  been  previously  used,  and  a  kind 
of  unctuous  clay  has  been  made  use  of  for  the 


CALL 


105 


CAMPEACHY 


same  purpose.  In  the  East  a  very  hard  cement, 
known  as  chttnam,  is  used  for  the  seams  of  ves 
sels.  To  calk  also  means  to  sleep  on  deck  with 
clothes  on. 

CALKER.     One  who  calks  and  pays  seams. 

CALKER'S  SEAT.  A  box  slung  to  the  ship's 
side  whereon  a  calker  sits  when  calking.  It 
contains  the  calker's  tools  and  oakum. 

CALKING-BUTT.  The  opening  between  the 
ends  of  planks  when  worked  for  calking. 

CALKING-IRONS.  Peculiar  chisels  used  in 
calking  ;  there  are  several  kinds,  as  the  calking- 
iron,  the  making-iron,  the  rasing-iron,  and  the 
reeming-iron. 

CALKING-MALLET.  The  wooden  mallet  or 
beetle  used  in  driving  the  calking-irons. 

Call.  A  signal  made  by  a  drum,  bugle,  trum 
pet,  or  boatswain's  pipe.  A  peculiar  silver 
whistle  or  pipe  used  by  the  boatswain  and  his 
mates  to  summon  the  men  to  their  stations  and 
to  direct  them  in  their  various  duties.  This  is  done 
by  sounding  various  strains,  each  of  which  is 
a  signal  to  do  a  particular  thing  ;  as,  belay,  veer, 
walk  away,  sweep  down,  etc.  The  act  of  wind 
ing  this  instrument  is  called  piping.  In  early 
times  a  gold  call  and  chain  was  the  badge  of  an 
admiral. 

Calliope.  An  instrument  which  consists  of  a 
series  of  steam-whistles  toned  to  produce  musical 
notes  ;  the  valves  by  which  steam  is  admitted  to 
the  whistles  are  operated  by  keys  arranged  like 
those  of  an  organ.  It  is  sometimes  placed  on 
the  hurricane-deck  of  steamboats  on  the  western 
rivers. 

Call  the  Watch.  The  order  to  turn  out  the 
watch  below  to  relieve  the  watch  on  deck.  See 
WATCH. 

Calm.  A  word  used  to  denote  the  state  of  the 
weather  when  there  is  no  perceptible  wind.  It 
is  characterized  as  being  flat,  dead,  or  stark.  In 
a  calm,  under  canvas,  it  is  customary  to  haul  up 
the  courses,  brail  up  the  trysails,  counter-brace, 
and  wait  for  a  breeze.  When  two  vessels  are 
very  near  each  other  in  a  calm  their  heads 
should  be  kept  in  different  directions,  otherwise 
they  would  collide,  on  account  of  the  attraction 
between  the  two  bodies  and  the  undulating  mo 
tion  of  the  sea,  which  causes  vessels  to  forge 
ahead  even  in  a  calm.  For  the  same  reasons  a 
vessel  becalmed  near  the  land  should  keep  her 
head  to  seaward.  A  heavy  cannonading  will 
sometimes  occasion  a  calm,  and  a  large  fire  will 
cause  a  breeze  to  spring  up,  the  wind  coming  in 
from  all  directions  towards  the  fire. 

CALM  LATITUDES.  The  tract  of  ocean  between 
the  northeast  and  southeast  trade-winds.  Its 
situation  varies  several  degrees,  depending  upon 
the  season  of  the  year.  The  term  is  also  applied 
to  the  calm  belt  on  the  polar  side  of  the  trades. 
(See  HORSE  LATITUDES.)  The  calm  latitudes 
were  almost  as  much  dreaded  by  the  mariner  as 
the  region  of  storms.  During  a  calm  of  many 
weeks  food  and  water  were  likely  to  be  exhausted 
at  a  point  too  far  from  land  for  a  boat  to  reach 
it.  Since  the  introduction  of  steam  and  the  ap 
paratus  for  distilling  water,  the  calm  belts  have 
lost  the  greater  portion  of  their  terrors. 

Calorimeter.  An  instrument  for  measuring 
quantities  of  heat.  It  consists  essentially  of  a 
vessel  containing  a  known  weight  of  some  con 
venient  liquid,  such  as  water  or  mercury  ;  a  ther 
mometer  for  indicating  the  temperature  of  that 


liquid  ;  and,  if  necessary,  an  agitator  for  making 
the  liquid  circulate.  Experiments  are  performed 
by  immersing  in  the  liquid  or  mixing  with  it 
a  known  weight  of  the  substance  to  be  experi 
mented  on,  at  a  known  temperature  different 
from  the  temperature  of  the  liquid,  and  noting 
the  common  temperature  of  the  liquid  and  the 
immersed  substance  when  equilibrium  of  tem 
perature  is  restored,  taking  care  that  all  losses 
of  heat,  and  other  sources  of  error,  are  ascer 
tained  and  accounted  for. 

This  term  is  sometimes,  though  improperly, 
applied  to  the  cross  sectional  area  of  boiler 
tubes. 

Cam,  or  Wiper.  In  mechanism,  a  device 
by  which  any  desired  variety  of  relative  motion 
may  be  obtained.  It  consists  of  either  a  contin 
uously  rotating  or  an  oscillating  body  which,  by 
the  shape  of  its  face  or  edge,  or  by  a  groove  in 
its  side  or  face,  drives  a  sliding  or  turning  piece 
either  with  constantly  varying,  regular,  or  inter 
mittent  motion.  It  is  extensively  used  in  fabri- 
cative  machinery,  such  as  the  printing-press  or 
sewing-machine.  In  steam-engines  it  is  applied 
only  to  valve-gear. 

CAM-SHAFT.     A  shaft  carrying  a  cam. 

CAM-ROLLER.  A  roller  that  acts  on  the  face 
or  in  the  groove  of  a  cam. 

CAM-WHEEL.  A  whegl  driving  or  carrying 
one  or  more  cams,  and  which  may,  by  itself, 
communicate  a  motion  different  from  that  of 
the  cams. 

Cambala.     Marco  Polo's  name  for  Pekin. 

Camber.  In  ship-building,  a  term  for  any 
thing  which  rounds,  but  chiefly  to  express  the 
camber  to  the  ways  for  the  launching  of  a  ship. 

CAMBER-KEELED.  Having  the  keel  arched 
upwards,  but  not  actually  hogged. 

Camboose.     See  CABOOSE. 

Camden.  A  city  and  port  of  entry,  capital 
of  Camden  Co.,  N.  J.,  on  the  Delaware  River, 
opposite  Philadelphia.  Its  river  front  extends 
from  Cooper's  Creek  on  the  north  to  Newton 
Creek  on  the  south.  Cooper's  Creek  is  navigable 
beyond  the  city  limits.  Pop.  37,000. 

Camel.  A  water-tight  structure  placed  be 
neath  a  vessel  in  the  water  to  raise  it.  Camels 
were  invented  by  the  Dutch,  about  1688,  for 
carrying  vessels  into  harbors  where  the  depth 
of  water  would  not  otherwise  permit  them  to 
enter.  They  consisted  of  two  large  water-tight 
boxes  or  half  ships,  built  in  such  a  manner  that 
they  could  be  applied  to  each  side  of  the  hull 
of  a  vessel.  When  about  to  be  used  water  was 
allowed  to  run  into  them,  and  when  they  sank 
to  the  required  depth  they  were  firmly  secured 
to  the  ship's  hull.  The  water  was  then  pumped 
out,  and  the  camel  rose,  bringing  up  the  vessel 
with  it.  The  camels  in  use  in  Holland  are 
upwards  of  100  feet  in  length  and  20  feet  in 
breadth. 

Camels  are  frequently  used  to  raise  sunken 
bodies. 

Cameleopardalis.    See  CONSTELLATION. 

Camfer.     See  CHAMFER. 

Camock.  A  very  early  term  for  crooked 
timber. 

Campeachy.  A  town  of  Mexico,  capital  of 
the  state  of  Campeachy,  on  the  bay  of  the  same 
name,  90  miles  S.S.W.  of  Merida.  .Lat.  19°  50' 
N. ;  Ion.  90°  33'  W.  The  harbor  is  capacious 
but  shallow,  and  vessels  drawing  more  than  6 


CANAICHE 


106 


CANALS 


feet  of  water  are  compelled  to  anchor  3  miles 
from  the  shore.  Notwithstanding  this  disad 
vantage,  vessels  measuring  100  feet  of  keel  are 
built  here.  Pop.  18,500. 

Canaiche,  or  Canash.  An  inner  port,  as  at 
Granada  in  the  West  Indies. 

Canal.  An  artificial  channel  filled  with  water, 
formed  for  the  purposes  of  inland  navigation. 
The  section  of  a  canal  is  usually  a  trapezium, 
of  which  two  sides  are  parallel  and  horizontal 
and  the  other  two  equally  inclined  to  the  hori 
zon.  The  inclination  depends  on  the  nature  of 
the  soil.  It  is  least  in  tenacious  earth  and  great 
est  in  loose  soil ;  but  no  soil  will  maintain  itself 
unless  the  base  of  the  slope  exceeds  its  height  at 
least  in  the  ratio  of  four  to  three.  In  loose  soil 
the  base  requires  to  be  twice  as  great  as  the 
height.  A  canal  is  usually  confined  between  a 
bank  on  one  side  and  a  towing-path  on  the 
other.  The  bed  of  a  canal  must  be  absolutely 
level,  or  have  no  more  slope  than  is  necessary  to 
convey  water  to  replace  that  which  has  been 
wasted.  Hence,  when  a  canal  intersects  a  sloping 
country  in  a  series  of  channels  at  different  levels, 
means  must  be  provided  to  enable  vessels  to  pass 
from  one  level  to  another.  This  is  commonly 
effected  by  means  of  a  lock  (which  see).  See 
CANALS,  INTEROCEANIC. 

CANAL-BOAT.  A  large  boat  generally  decked 
and  towed  by  horses. 

Canals,  Interoceanic.  The  Suez  Canal  is  the 
only  one  completed  or  even  under  construction. 
Those  proposed  and  based  on  surveys  sufficient 
to  establish  their  practicability  are  via  Nicaragua 
and  via  Panama,  to  connect  the  waters  of  the 
Atlantic  and  Pacific  Oceans. 

The  Suez  Canal  is  a  little  over  99  miles  in 
length,  connecting  Port  Said  on  the  Mediter 
ranean  and  Suez  on  the  Red  Sea.  It  follows 
certain  lines  of  depression  known  as  Lakes  Men- 
zaleh,  Ballah,  Timsah,  and  the  Bitter  Lakes, 
which  form  a  length  of  about  60  miles.  These 
parts  required  only  partial  excavation,  leaving  40 
miles  of  canalization  through  full  excavation, 
and  with  a  summit  of  only  60  feet  above  the 
mean  ocean-level. 

The  aggregate  superfice  of  the  lakes  named  is 
near  300  miles.  Lake  Menzaleh  lies  6  miles 
from  Port  Said,  and  Ballah  29  miles.  The  Bitter 
Lakes  are  12  miles  from  Suez :  these  natural 
reservoirs  equalize  tidal  flow  and  confine  any 
rapid  current  between  the  sea  and  the  first  natural 
reservoir.  The  charts  give  6  to  18  inches  tidal 
action  at  Port  Said,  and  5  feet  at  Suez. 

The  excavation  required  to  obtain  a  depth  of 
26  feet  was  75,000,000  cubic  metres,  almost 
wholly  in  loose  sand  and  clay.  The  estimated 
cost  was  162,000,000  francs,  and  to  meet  all  sup 
posed  possible  contingencies  200,000,000  was 
named.  The  actual  capital  and  indebtedness, 
January  1,  1879,  was  very  nearly  524,000,000 
francs.  The  draft  of  vessel  allowed  is  25  feet ; 
the  rates  of  toll  established  are  10  francs  for  each 
passenger,  and  10  francs  per  ton  on  measure 
ments  designed  to  represent  the  net  tonnage,  to 
which  are  added  pilotage,  towage,  and  "other 
charges,  usually  increasing  the  cost  of  transit  10 
per  cent. 

In  1877,  1663  vessels,  of  an  average  of  2055 
tons,  passed  through ;  in  1879,  1477  vessels,  of 
an  average  tonnage  of  2190;  in  1878,  1593  ves 
sels  passed,  of  which  25  were  sailers.  The  de 


crease  of  tonnage  between  the  years  named  will 
be  observed. 

In  the  Red  Sea  and  the  upper  Mediterranean 
heavy  short  blows  are  frequent  during  the  winter, 
and  calms  prevail  in  the  summer.  As  a  result, 
in  1876  nearly  60  per  cent,  of  the  English  vessels 
trading  to  India  and  to  Malasia  pursued  the 
route  by  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  The  tolls  and 
income  of  the  canal  for  1879  were  32,209,493 
francs. 

The  absence  of  fresh  water  along  the  line  of 
the  canal  was  a  great  discouragement  and  caused 
considerable  expense  until  the  fresh-water  canal 
from  the  Nile  was  completed,  and  the  drifting 
sands  of  the  desert  were  partially  arrested  by  vege 
tation,  which  became  possible  through  irrigation. 
The  extensive  works  necessary  for  the  formation 
of  Port  Said  was  the  most  formidable  difficulty 
encountered,  and  it  is  possible  of  maintenance 
only  by  constant  dredging,  involving  large  ex 
penditures.  The  favorable  conditions  were  the 
almost  entire  absence  of  rain-fall,  being  a  mean 
of  an  inch  and  one-third  }Tearly  at  Cairo,  the 
existence  of  inconsiderable  tides,  and  the  small 
amount  of  hard  material  to  excavate.  The  easy 
slopes  and  low  grounds,  as  well  as  the  absence 
of  heavy  rain-falls,  made  the  deposition  of  the 
excavated  material  easy  ;  in  general,  by  very 
powerful  dredging-machines,  elevating  the  earth 
sufficiently  to"  deposit  it,  through  the  aid  of 
sluices,  where  it  would  be  permanent. 

The  Nicaragua  Canal  as  projected  by  Com 
mander  E.  P.  Lull,  U.S.N. — The  proposed  canal 
as  located  requires  the  construction  of  two  har 
bors,  one  at  Greytown,  the  other  at  Brito,  on  the 
Pacific.  In  the  construction  of  these  harbors  a 
liberal  estimate  of  cost  is  proposed,  but  that  part 
is  the  only  uncertain  element  of  cost  of  the 
canal;  the  plans  have  received  the  careful  ex 
amination  and  approval  of  able  engineers  on  the 
estimate  of  cost  as  given. 

The  distance  apart  of  these  harbors,  following 
the  line  as  located,  is  181  £  miles;  the  summit- 
level  is  Fall  Lake,  107.6  feet  above  mean  ocean- 
level.  From  Greytown  to  slack-water  naviga 
tion  of  the  San  Juan  River  is  42  miles,  and  esti 
mate  of  cost  $13, 390,000.  Recent  instrumental 
examinations  insure  a  decrease  in  distance  of 
7  miles,  with  a  proportionate  decrease  in  the 
estimate  of  cost. 

The  slackvwftter  navigation  begins  above  the 
mouth^Tthe  San  Carlos  River,  and  continues  a 
distance  of  63  miles  to  Lake  Nicaragua.  As 
I6cated,  four  dams  are  required  of  a  mean  height 
of  29.}  feet,  and  an  aggregate  length  of  3960  feet ; 
the  natural  foundations  are  good.  Three  natural 
canals  around  the  dams  have  an  aggregate  length 
of  3£  miles.  Between  a  point  6  miles  from 
Greytown  and  Lake  Nicaragua  a  lockage  of 
107.6  feet  has  to  be  effected.  A  certain  amount 
of  blasting  and  dredging  is  proposed  in  flhe  bed 
of  the  San  Juan  for  slack-water  navigation. 
Recent  examinations  have  led  to  th«  considera 
tion  of  making  only  two  dams,  and/ thus  reduce 
subaqueous  work  and  lateral  canalization. 

The  lake  navigation  extends  56-j  miles,  and 
the  estimated  cost  of  its  improvement  is  $715, (560. 

The  distance  from  Virgin  Bay  to  the  Pacific  is 
16|  miles  by  the  Rio  del  Medio  route.  Recent 
investigations  assure  the  diversion  of  the  head 
waters  of  the  Rio  Grande  into  the  lake,  thus 
securing  a  satisfactory  surface-drainage  and  a 


CANALS 


107 


CANALS 


cutting  of  only  43  feet  above  the  lake  by  the 
Lajas  route.  The  descent  involves  10  locks,  as 
now  proposed,  of  equal  lift,  and  a  tide-lock  at 
Brito,  where  the  spring-tides  are  8  feet. 

Summarized,  the  actual  canalization  required 
is  52  miles  ;  slack-water  navigation  on  the  river 
San  Juan,  63  miles  ;  lake  navigation,  unimpeded 
except  as  above  stated,  56J  miles  ;  cost  as  located, 
$52,577,718  ;  with  25  per  cent,  contingent,  $65,- 
722,147.  The  improved  location  reduces  estimate 
for  labor  $7,000,000. 

The  mean  annual  rain-fall,  with  not  very  ex 
tended  observations,  is  83  inches,  with  a  dry 
season  extending  from  December  to  April.  The 
probable  time  required  to  construct  the  canal  is 
five  years.  Excellent  stone,  lime,  and  cement, 
as  well  as  timber,  are  in  abundance  and  con 
venient.  Lake  Nicaragua  has  a  superfice  of 
2800  miles,  and  an  outflow  twenty  times  as  great 
as  could  be  required  for  lockage.  The  trade- 
winds  extend  to  the  ports  almost  without  inter 
ruption,  making  the  proposed  canal  easy  for  the 
passage  of  sailing-vessels. 

To  such  persons  as  have  given  little  attention 
to  an  American  interoceanic  ship-canal,  an  in 
spection  of  a  globe  will  at  once  show  its  im 
portance  to  the  inhabitants  of  the  northern  hem 
isphere,  and  at  the  same  time  the  advantage  that 
will  be  derived  through  being  able  to  pursue 
routes  in  belts  of  prevailing  fair  winds  by  making 
slight  detours  for  the  purpose. 

The  Panama  Route  as  developed  by  the  surveys 
of  Commander  E.  P.  Lull,  U.S.N.—The  pro 
posed  route  as  located  extends  from  Aspinwall 
to  Panama,  a  distance  of  41  f  miles.  The  canal 
has  a  summit-level  of  124  feet,  and  derives  its 
•water-supply  from  the  upper  Chagres,  crossing 
that  river  at  summit-level  by  means  of  an  aque 
duct  1900  feet  in  length.  The  height  at  which 
the  canal  should  cross  the  Chagres  was  deter 
mined  as  a  necessity  to  avoid  extraordinary  floods, 
but  this  height  appears  to  be  four  feet  less  than 
would  be  found  necessary  to  secure  the  safety  of 
the  aqueduct  from  such  floods  as  those  of  No 
vember,  1879.* 

The  proposed  feeder  is  10}  miles  in  length,  and, 
with  dam  and  appliances,  the  estimated  cost  is 
$10,366,899.  At  the  time  of  locating  the  canal 
the  water-supply  was  supposed  to  be  unusually 
low,  but  still  entirely  sufficient  for  purposes  of 
lockage.  In  March,  1878  and  1880,  the  water- 
supply  was  inadequate. 

As  planned  there  are  24  lift-locks  of  10J  feet 
each,  and  a  tide-lock  at  Panama,  where  the  tides 
reach  22  feet.  At  Aspinwall  the  tide  is  nominal. 

The  estimated  cost  for  labor  and  material, 
made  on  a  common  basis  for  the  Nicaragua  Canal, 
is  $75,609,108,  and  with  25  per  cent,  contingent, 
$94,511,360.  Commander  Lull  remarks  the  ab 
sence  of  all  material  for  construction  except 
timber. 

The  average  yearly  rain-fall  is  124  inches.  In 
1872  it  was  170  inches.  The  dry  season  extends 
usually  from  January  to  about  the  middle  of 
April. 

The  Panama  Canal  d  niveau  of  M.  de  Lesseps. 
— Accompanying  a  "circular"  addressed  by  M. 
de  Lesseps  to  American  bankers  is  a  "  Eeport 
of  the  International  Technical  Commission  ap- 

*  On  page  7  of  Commander  Lull's  report  will  he  found  his 
instructions,  and  the  reasons  for  the  proposed  height  of  lock 
age  and  objections  to  a  sea-level  canal  by  that  route. 


pointed  to  examine  the  definite  work  required 
for  the  construction  of  the  Panama  Canal." 
This  title  is,  perhaps,  given  from  the  fact  that 
the  engineers  employed  by  M.  de  Lesseps  were 
of  different  nationalities.  The  report  is  dated 
Panama,  February  14,  1880,  and  in  substance  is 
as  follows : 

1.  On  the  line  of  levels  of  the  Panama  rail 
road,  as  a  base,  58  cross-sections  have  been  taken. 
Several  curves  of  2000  metres  radius  have  been 
adopted. 

2.  Fifteen  borings  had  been  taken  on  the  line 
of  the  canal  and  on  the  line  of  the  proposed  dam 
at  Gamboa ;  these  borings  were  from  a  depth  of 
from  12  to  22  metres. 

3.  It  has  been  determined  to  adopt  a  slope  of 
1  to  1,  except  in  the  summit  division  in  rock, 
where  J  to  1  is  considered  sufficient. 

4.  It  is  proposed  to  overcome  the  difficulties 
presented  by  the  river  Chagres  by  the  construc 
tion  of    a   dam   at   Gamboa,  situated    between 
Matachin  and   Cruces.     "The  commission  ex 
presses   the  opinion  that   a  dam  40  metres  in 
height  would  provide  for  the  storage  of  a  volume 
of  water  of  one  thousand  millions  of  cubic  metres, 
a  quantity  equal  to  the  maximum  estimate  of 
the  flood  of  November  25,  1879  (the  greatest  that 
has  ever  been  recorded),  as  given  by  Colonel  G. 
M.  Totten.     This  work  will  be  completed  by  the 
construction  of  a  new  channel  for  the  regulated 
flow  of  the  river  from  the  Gamboa  dam  to  the 
sea.     Another  similar  but  narrower  channel  will 
be  provided  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  canal,  for 
the  stream  and  drainage  on  that  side." 

5.  The  commission  deems  it  necessary  to  pro 
vide  at  Panama  a  tide-lock  at  the  outlet,  so  as  to 
preserve  a  constant  level  in  the  canal,  and  on  the 
Atlantic  side,  at  Limon  Bay,  a  breakwater  2 
kilometres  (6561  feet)  in  length. 

6.  The  estimate  of  amount  of  excavation  is  as 
follows  :  in  earth,  12,005,000  ;  hard  soil,  300,000  ; 
hard  rocks,  6,786,000;  a  total  of  19,091 ,000  cubic 
metres.      For  above  water:  earth,  27,350,000; 
soft  rock,  825,000;  hard  rock,  27,734,000;  mak 
ing  a  grand  total  of  75,000,000  cubic  metres. 

The  estimate  for  excavation  of  rock  above 
water  is  given  at  2|-  francs ;  for  rocks  of  mean 
hardness,  7 ;  for  hard  rocks,  12 ;  for  excavation 
of  rock  where  pumping  is  required,  18  francs. 

For  dredging  and  excavation  under  water: 
mud,  2£  francs;  hard  soil,  12;  excavation  of 
rocks,  35  francs  per  cubic  metre. 

The  proposed  dam  at  Gamboa  has  a  length  of 
1600  metres  (5249  feet),  with  a  height  of  40 
metres  (131  feet),  exclusive  of  foundation.  The 
cost  is  set  down  in  a  round  sum  of  100,000,000 
francs. 

The  lateral  canals  for  the  purpose  of  securing 
surface-drainage  are  also  set  down  for  a  round 
sum  of  75,000,000  francs,  the  tide-lock  at  Panama 
at  12,000,000,  and  the  breakwater  in  Limon  Bay 
at  10,000,000,  which,  with  a  contingent  of  10 
per  cent.,  makes  a  grand  total  of  843,000,000 
francs,  which  the  commission  states  was  u  the 
cost  of  the  work  at  the  prices  fixed  by  the  Paris 
congress  for  the  various  items." 

M.  de  Lesseps  gives  further  information  to 
the  Board  of  Trade  of  San  Francisco.  Length 
of  canal,  45  miles,  with  a  cutting  through  an 
elevation  of  90  metres  (295  feet)  above  ocean- 
level  for  a  distance  of  three-fifths  of  a  mile.  He 
estimates  the  time  necessary  for  construction  at 


CANALS 


108 


CANALS 


six  years,  and  proposes  a  depth  of  water  below  the 
sea-level  of  27  feet. 

It  is  apparent  that  the  capacity  of  the  proposed 
reservoir,  the  strength  of  the  dam,  and  the  suffi 
ciency  of  the  proposed  lateral  canals,  as  well  as 
their  strength  of  embankment,  are  of  the  utmost 
importance  to  the  security  of  the  work. 

The  prevalence  of  calms  in  Panama  Bay  and 
its  approaches  appears  on  all  weather-charts,  and 
has  been  especially  remarked  by  Capt.  Bedford 
Pine,  of  the  British  navy,  and  also  by  Commander 
Maury,  formerly  of  our  navy,  who  regards  this 
fact  as  making  that  locality  totally  unfit  for  the 
construction  of  a  canal. 


length  varies  from  32  to  81  miles ;  depth  of 
cutting,  50  to  80  feet ;  sea-level,  with  two 
tide-locks;  estimated  cost,  from  $8,000,000  to 
141,000,000,  according  to  route. 

6th.  From  Cape  Cod  Bay  to  Buzzard's  Bay. 
Length,  about  18  miles;  proposed  by  a  company 
incorporated  by  the  State  of  Massachusetts ;  es 
timated  cost,  $4,000,000. 

7th.  From  the  Atlantic  Ocean  to  Appalachi- 
cola  Bay,  across  Florida  (with  locks).  Proposed 
and  surveyed  by  the  U.  S.  government ;  length, 
168.5  miles;  summit,  203  feet;  estimated  cost, 
$50,278,746. 

8th.  Between  Caspian  and  Black  Seas  via  Sea 


Existing  Ship-Canals.^ 


Name  of  Canal. 

Where 
Situated. 

Connecting  what 
Waters  or  Lo 
calities. 

By  whom 
Designed. 

1 

1 
5  3 

st 

I 
« 

fe 

Vessels  of 
ift—  Feet. 

Cost- 
Dollars. 

o 
•g| 

If 

O° 

m 

Remarks. 

1 

I 

il«c 

a% 
£3 

1 

3 

H 

9 

X 

£ 

Caledonian. 

Scotland. 

Loch  Lihnne  and 

Telford. 

60^ 

100 

23 

17 

5,000,000 

1823 

Hardly  pays  expenses. 

Inverness  Frith. 

Great        North 
Holland. 

Holland. 

Amsterdam  and 
the  Helder. 

Blanken. 

51^ 

IK  to 
5  feet 

3 

17 
to 

7,500,000 

1825 

below 

18 

the 

sea. 

North  Sea. 

Holland. 

Amsterdam  and 

A  Dutch 

141-5 

17-12 

2 

24 

16,000,000 

1876 

North  Sea. 

Commission. 

below 

j 

St.  Mary's  Falls. 

Michigan. 

Lake      Superior 

Canfield. 

1 

sea. 
18 

2 

10 

1,000,000!  1855 

and  Lake  Hu 

ron. 

St.  Mary's  Falls. 

Michigan. 

Lake      Superior 

Poe. 

1 

18 

1 

17 

Estimated   Prob- 

The    largest    ship-canal 

and  Lake  Hu 

2,200,000:     ably 

lock  in  existence.  Ex 

ron. 

1880 

penditures  to  July  1, 

Welland  and  St. 
Lawrence. 

Canada. 

Lake    Erie   and 
Tide-Water. 

Canadian 
Commission. 

70%T 

536^ 

54 

10 

14,847,2271 

1844 
to 

1880,  $1,569,173. 
This  canal  system   con 
sists  of  seven  different 

1856 

sections,     varying    in 

length  from  %  to  27Vg 

miles. 

Welland  and  St. 
Lawrence. 

Canada. 

Lake    Erie    and 
Tide-Water. 

Canadian 
Commission. 

69% 

536^ 

5)5 

13 

38,623,9481 

Prob 
ably 

1882 

Suez. 

Egypt. 

Mediterranean 

De  Lesseps. 

100 

Sea- 

0 

26 

About 

1869 

and  Red  Sea. 

level. 

100,000,000 

*  Includes  the  new  St.  Mary's  Falls,  Welland  and  St.  Lawrence  enlargement,  none  of  which  are  quite  completed. 

t  Does  not  include  river  and  lake  navigation. 

j  The  cost  of  canals  up  to  date  of  confederation,  in  1867. 

||  Includes  upwards  of  $8,000,000  expended  in  improvements  and  enlargement  from  1867  to  1877. 


Proposed  Ship-Canals. — 1st.  From  Bay  of 
Campeachy  to  Gulf  of  Tehuantepec,  in  Mexico 
(with  locks).  Proposed  by  private  capitalists; 
surveyed  by  IT.  S.  government;  length,  144 
miles;  summit,  650  feet;  estimate  of  cost  not 
given. 

2d.  From  Caribbean  Sea  to  Pacific  Ocean,  in 
Nicaragua  (see  above  description). 

3d.  From  Bay  of  San  Bias  to  Bay  of  Panama, 
in  U.  S.  of  Colombia  (at  sea-level).  Proposed 
by  private  individuals ;  surveyed  by  order  of 
U.  S.  government ;  length,  30  to  33  miles  ;  height 
of  summit,  unknown ;  estimated  cost  by  Paris 
Canal  Congress,  $280,000,000;  tunnel,  7  to  10 
miles  long. 

4th.  From  Bay  of  Limon  to  Bay  of  Panama, 
in  U.  S.  of  Colombia  (see  text). 

5th.  From  Chesapeake  to  Delaware  Bays,  in 
Maryland  and  Delaware.  Several  routes  pro 
posed ;  surveyed  by  the  U.  S.  government; 


of  Azof,  in  Russia.  Proposed  by  the  Russian 
government.  The  summit,  or  divide,  is  stated 
to  be  but  23  feet  above  sea-level.  The  Caspian 
is  84  feet  below  the  level  of  the  sea. 

9th.  Between  the  Baltic  and  North  Seas,  in 
Germany  (with  locks).  Proposed  by  the  im 
perial  government  of  Germany.  Connects  the 
mouth  of  the  Elbe  and  the  port  of  Kiel.  Dis 
tance,  about  45  miles  ;  estimated  cost,  f#8, 750,000. 

10th.  From  the  Mediterranean  to  the  North 
Sea,  in  France.  Proposed  by  Can't.  Salicis,  of 
the  French  navy;  length,  1071  miles ;  summit, 
935  feet ;  no  locks,  except  at  the  gea. 

llth.  From  the  Gulf  of  Finland,  near  Cron- 
stadt,  to  St.  Petersburg,  in  Rusjsia  (at  the  sea- 
level).  Now  under  construction  by  the  govern 
ment.  Length,  16.4  miles ;  /designed  to  be 
extended  in  a  reduced  size  to  thfe  White  Sea. 

12th.  From  the  Gulf  of  Mrfnaar  to  the  Palk 
Strait,  in  India  (at  the  sea-jlevel).  Proposed 


CAN-BODY 


109 


CANT 


by  the  government ;  length,  about  3  miles ;  es 
timated  cost,  $2,200,000. 

13th.  From  East  River,  New  York  Harbor,  to 
the  Hudson,  via  Hudson  River  (sea-level).  To  be 
constructed  by  the  government.  Length,  about 
6  miles ;  estimated  cost  by  Gen.  Newton,  $2,100,- 
000.—  Daniel  Ammen,  Rear-Admiral  U.S.N. 

Can-body.     An  old  term  for  a  can-buoy. 

Can-buoy.  A  buoy  in  the  form  of  a  cone ; 
they  are  floated  over  sands  and  other  obstruc 
tions  in  navigation  as  marks  to  be  avoided.  See 
BUOYS. 

Cancer,  Constellation  of  (Lat.  Cancer,  "The 
Crab").  The  fourth  constellation  of  the  ancient 
zodiac,  lying  between  Gemini  and  Leo.  There 
is  no  star  in  it  above  the  fourth  magnitude. 

CANCER,  SIGN  OF.  The  fourth  division  of  the 
ecliptic,  including  from  90°  to  120°  of  longitude. 
Owing  to  the  precession  of  the  equinoxes,  the 
constellation  Cancer  is  no  longer  in  the  sign  of 
the  name,  the  constellation  Gemini  having  taken 
its  place.  The  sun  is  in  Cancer  from  about  June 
21  to  about  July  22.  Symbol  05. 

CANCER,  TROPIC  OF.  That  parallel  in  the 
northern  hemisphere  whose  latitude  is  equal  to 
the  sun's  greatest  declination,  about  23°  28'. 

Candle.  Candles  which  are  used  for  the  battle- 
lanterns  are  kept  primed.  The  magazine  lantern 
is  fitted  to.  burn  candles  made  of  hard  spermaceti 
or  wax ;  those  of  parafline,  or  such  as  have  tal 
low  in  them,  are  prohibited,  and  all  candles  are 
thoroughly  examined  and  tested.  When  candles 
are  used  for  side  lights  they  should  be  of  suf 
ficient  size  to  burn  from  sunset  to  sunrise,  and 
to  be  visible  on  a  dark  night,  with  a  clear  atmos 
phere,  at  a  distance  of  at  least  two  miles. 

CANDLE-BARK.    A  cylindrical  tin  for  candles. 

Cane.  The  rattan  (Calamus  rudentum]  is 
sometimes  used  for  standing  rigging  and  cables. 
The  cables  remain  in  the  water  along  time  with 
out  decaying  or  becoming  injured  by  the  teredo. 
They  are  very  hard  and  difficult  to  cut,  and  are 
therefore  used  to  connect  logs  as  booms  to  stop 
the  navigation  of  rivers.  See  CANEVAS. 

Canes" Venatici  (Lat.  "The  Hunting  Dogs"). 
A  constellation  between  Ursa  Major  and  Bootes. 
The  principal  star  is  marked  12  Canum  Venati- 
corum,  named  also  Cor  Cdroli,  and  may  be  found 
by  drawing  a  line  from  Dubhe,  the  star  of  the 
Great  Bear  nearest  the  pole,  to  the  opposite  star 
of  the  square  of  that  constellation,  and  producing 
it  to  nearly  twice  the  distance. 

Canevas.  An  old  word  for  hemp  canvas,  but 
many  races  in  the  East  make  sails  entirely  of 
cane. 

Can-hooks.  Hooks  used  to  sling  a  cask  by 
the  chimes. 

Canis  Major  (Lat.  "  The  Greater  Dog").  A 
constellation  to  the  S.E.  of  Orion,  containing  the 
brightest  star  in  the  heavens,  a  Canis  Majoris, 
the  Dog  Star  ;  it  can  be  found  by  continuing 
the  line  of  the  belt  of  Orion  to  about  three  times 
its  length. 

Canis  Minor  (Lat.  "  The  Lesser  Dog").  A 
constellation  to  the  E.  of  Orion,  containing  a 
bright  star,  a  Canis  Minoris,  called  also  Procyon. 
It  can  be  found  by  continuing  a  line  through 
the  two  upper  stars  of  Orion  to  about  twice  its 
length. 

Canister.  A  tin  or  sheet-iron  cylinder  filled 
with  cast-iron  shot,  and  closed  at  the  ends  by 
blocks  of  wood  ;  the  larger  sizes  are  strengthened 


by  a  spindle  running  through  and  connecting 
the  ends,  having  a  nut  and  handle  fixed  to  the 
upper  part.  ^  The  interstices  are  filled  with  dry 
sawdust  to  give  greater  solidity  to  the  mass,  and 
to  prevent  the  balls  from  crowding  when  the 
piece  is  fired. 

Cannon.  A  military  engine  for  projecting 
shot,  shell,  etc.,  by  the  force  of  gunpowder. 
Cannons  are  classified  as  guns,  howitzers,  and 
mortars  (which  see).  See  ORDNANCE. 

CANNONADE.  The  opening  and  continuance 
of  the  fire  of  artillery  upon  any  object. 

CANNON-PERER.  An  ancient  piece  of  ord 
nance  in  ships  of  war  for  throwing  stone  shot. 

CANNON-PETRONEL.  A  piece  of  ordnance  with 
a  6-inch  bore  which  carried  a  24-pound  shot. 

CANNON-ROYAL.  A  60-pounder  of  SJ-inch 
bore. 

CANNON-SERPENTINE.  An  old  name  for  a 
gun  of  7  inches  bore. 

Canoe.  A  light  narrow  boat  which  is  im 
pelled  by  paddles  used  vertically,  and  some 
times  fitted  with  a  sail.  It  is  formed  of  a  tree 
hollowed  out  by  hewing  or  burning,  or  of  a  light 
frame- work  covered  with  bark  or  hides.  Canoes 
are  also  made  of  iron,  paper,  and  caoutchouc. 
See  ROB  ROY. 

The  Fejee  Islanders  use  a  double  canoe,  which 
is  fitted  with  an  enormous  sail.  The  two  canoes 
are  several  yards  apart,  but  a  deck  extends  over 
and  is  firmly  secured  to  both.  See  FLYING 
PROA. 

Canopus.     The  name  of  the  star  a  Argfi,s. 

Canopy.  A  light  awning  over  the  stern-sheets 
of  a  boat.  The  brass  frame-work  over  a  hatch. 

Cant.  The  term  used  to  express  the  position 
of  a  piece  of  timber  which  does  not  stand  square  ; 
it  is  said  to  be  on  a  cant  or  diagonal  line.  A 
cut  made  in  a  whale,  to  which  is  made  fast  the 
lower  block  of  a  purchase  for  turning  the  whale 
over  during  the  operation  of  flensing.  To  turn 
anything  so  that  it  does  not  stand  square.  To 
diverge  from  a  central  line. 

CANT  BALLAST.  When  a  ship  by  a  violent 
lurch  throws  her  ballast  over  to  leeward,  where 
it  remains,  keeping  her  from  righting,  she  is 
said  to  cant  or  shift  her  ballast. 

CANT-BLOCKS.  The  blocks  of  the  cant-pur 
chase. 

CANT-BODY.  That  part  of  the  plans  of  the 
body  of  a  ship,  either  in  the  drawings  or  in  the 
mold-loft,  which  represents  the  outlines  of  the 
cant-timbers,  and  also  the  lines  of  the  bevelings 
of  the  timbers. 

CANT-FALLS.     See  SPIKE-TACKLE. 

CANT-FRAME. — The  name  of  one  of  those 
frames  of  the  ship  which  do  not  stand  square 
across  the  keel,  but  which  have  their  heads  in 
clined  in  a  diagonal  direction,  either  forward  or 
aft,  as  may  be  needed  to  fill  the  space  between 
the  square  frames  and  the  stem  forward,  or  the 
square  frame  and  the  counter-timbers  at  the 
after  end  of  the  ship. 

CANT-HOOK.  A  lever  with  a  hook,  for  slueing 
heavy  articles. 

CANT-MOLDING.  The  molding  of  any  one 
of  the  frames  or  the  timbers  by  the  use  of  the 
cant-molds  and  the  cant-bevels,  prepared  in  the 
mold-loft,  preparatory  to  the  timbers  being  cut 
into  the  required  shape  by  the  workmen.  ^ 

CANT-PURCHASE.  A  purchase  of  which  the 
upper  block  is  secured  to  the  mast-head,  and  the 


CANTAKA 


110 


CAPE 


lower  block  to  the  whale,  to  turn  it  over  during 
the  operation  of  flensing. 

CANT-TIMBER. — The  name  of  any  one  of  the 
timbers,  of  which  there  are  several  in  each  cant- 
frame. 

Cantata.     A  watering-place. 

Canteen  (Fr.  cantine).  A  military  term 
which  in  the  United  States  is  applied  only  to  a 
tin  vessel  covered  with  cloth  and  furnished  with 
a  strap  by  which  it  is  slung,  which  is  issued  to 
soldiers  for  carrying  water  for  their  personal  use 
on  the  march  or  in  campaign.  In  other  countries 
the  term,  or  its  equivalent,  is  used  to  indicate  a 
small  wooden  or  leathern  chest  or  coffer  contain 
ing  the  table  equipage  and  utensils  of  an  officer 
in  campaign ;  it  is  also  applied  to  the  store  of 
the  licensed  sutler  of  a  regiment  or  garrison. 

Cantick-quoin.  A  quoin  used  in  chocking  up 
casks  to  keep  them  from  working. 

Canting-livre.  A  light  piece  of  ornament  at 
the  forward  part  of  a  quarter-gallery,  also  called 
console-bracket. 

Cant-line.     Gant-line  or  girt-line  (which  see). 

Canton.  A  city  of  China,  and  the  great  com 
mercial  emporium  of  the  province  of  Quang- 
Tong,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Canton  or  Pearl 
River,  about  80  miles  from  its  mouth  in  the 
China  Sea.  Lat.  23°  6/  9"  N.  ;  Ion.  113°  15' 
E.  Canton,  with  its  suburbs,  occupies  the  north 
bank  of  the  river,  extending  inland  nearly  to  a 
row  of  heights  commanding  it  on  the  north  and 
northeast,  but  between  which  and  the  city  is  a 
broken  ravine ;  to  the  south  lies  an  alluvial 
plain,  formed  by  the  delta  of  the  river.  A  large 
part  of  the  population  reside  on  the  water,  and 
for  four  or  five  miles  opposite  the  city  and  both 
above  and  below  the  river  is  crowded  with  vessels 
and  rafts  of  all  kinds.  Pop.  1,500,000. 

Cant-rope.     See  FOUR-CANT. 

Cant-spar.  A  small  spar  fit  for  making  a 
small  mast,  yard,  boom,  etc. 

Canvas.  Coarse  cloth  made  of  hemp,  flax,  or 
cotton.  In  the  navy  cotton  canvas  is  used  for 
mess-cloths,  tarpaulins,  boom-covers,  windsails, 
bags,  hammocks,  etc.  Flax  canvas  is  used  for 
sails,  and  is  woven  in  cloths  24  inches  in  width, 
and  put  up  in  bolts  of  40  yards  each.  Canvas  is 
numbered  from  1  to  9,  No.  1  being  the  heaviest. 
In  large  vessels  numbers  1,  2,  3  are  used  for 
storm-staysails,  courses,  and  topsails  ;  4  and  5  for 
jib  and  main  topgallant-sails,  and  the  lighter 
canvas  for  royals,  stun'sails,  flying-jib,  etc. 

It  is  of  the  first  importance  to  obtain  the  best 
canvas,  as  the  safety  of  the  ship  frequently  de- 

nds  on  its  quality.  The  warp  or  chain  of  Nos. 
,  and  3  should  be  wholly  wrought  and  made 
of  double  yarns,  and  both  the  warp  and  shoot  or 
weft  yarn  ought  to  be  made  of  long  flax,  which 
should  be  well  dressed,  properly  cleansed,  even 
spun,  and  well  twisted ;  and  all  the  weft  yarns 
should  be  fully  as  strong  as  the  warp  yarns. 

It  has  been  found  that  sails  made  with  the 
seams  and  selvages  running  down  parallel  with 
their  edges  are  very  apt  to  bag  and  become  worn 
in  the  middle  from  the  strain  to  which  they  are 
subjected  by  the  force  of  the  wind.  To  obviate 
this,  a  mode  of  making  sails  with  the  seams  and 
selvages  running  diagonally  was  proposed  by 
Admiral  Brooking,  and  a  patent  was  granted  to 
him  in  1828.  It  has  also  been  proposed  to  weave 
the  canvas  with  diagonal  threads ;  that  is,  to 
place  tne  weft  yarns  at  an  oblique  angle  to  the 


warp  yarns.  To  accomplish  this  object  the  loom 
must  be  peculiarly  constructed,  its  warp  and 
work-beams  must  stand  at  an  oblique  angle  with 
the  sides  of  the  loom,  and  the  batten  and  slay 
must  hang  in  a  peculiar  manner,  in  order  to  beat 
up  the  weft  in  lines  ranging  diagonally  with 
the  warp. 

Canvas  is  also  a  technical  term  for  the  sails  of 
a  ship.  Under  canvas,  under  sail  ;  storm-can 
vas,  the  storm-staysails,  trysails,  storm-mizzen, 
double-reefed  foresail,  close-reefed  fore  and  main 
topsails,  and  fore-topmast  staysail. 

Canvas-back.  A  species  of  duck,  Fuligula, 
valisneriana,  deriving  its  name  from  the  color  of 
the  plumage  on  its  back. 

Cap.  A  bit  of  leather  or  tarred  canvas  put 
over  the  ends  of  standing  rigging  to  protect 
them  from  the  weather.  A  large  thick  block  of 
wood  having  a  round  and  square  hole  in  it,  used 
to  confine  two  masts  together  when  one  is  erected 
at  the  head  of  the  other.  The  square  hole  of  the 
lower  cap  fits  over  the  tenon  of  the  lower  mast, 
and  the  topmast  traverses  through  the  round 
hole.  The  topmast  is  fitted  with  a  cap  for  the 
topgallant-mast,  and  the  bowsprit  for  the  jib- 
boom. 

In  mechanism,  a  block  or  plate  of  wood  or 
metal,  used  to  confine  the  adjustable  bearings  of 
a  journal.  It  is  usually  secured  by  bolts  and 
nuts,  or  by  keys.  See  JOURNAL. 

Generally,  a  cap  is  a  top-piece  used  to  confine, 
cover,  or  protect  any  portion  of  a  machine  or 
structure. 

CAP-BLOCK.  The  upper  piece  of  each  pile  of 
building  blocks  on  which  the  keel  is  laid. , 

CAP-SCUTTLE.  A  scuttle  having  a  ledge  or 
coaming,  over  which  is  a  top  setting  closely  into 
a  rabbet. 

CAP-SHORE.  A  supporting  spar  between  the 
cap  and  trestle-trees. 

CAP-SQUARE.  A  curved  plate  of  metal,  so 
arranged  as  to  be  easily  removed,  used  to  con 
fine  the  trunnions  of  a  gun  to  the  carriage. 

Capabarre.  An  old  term  for  misappropriating 
government  stores. 

Capacise.     A  corrupt  form  of  capsize. 

Capacity.  Burden ;  tonnage ;  extent  of  room 
or  space. 

Cape.  To  keep  a  course.  How  does  she  cape  ? 
How  does  she  lie  her  course  ? 

Cape.  A  cape  is  a  neck  of  land  extending 
some  distance  into  the  sea,  or  into  other  bodies 
of  water.  A  high,  mountainous  cape  is  called  a 
promontory  ;  a  low,  sandy  cape  is  called  a  spit ; 
a  very  small,  sharp  cape  is  called  a  point.  The 
term  ^headland,  or  head,  may  include  all  these, 
or  indicates  a  broad  cape. 

The  local  names  used  to  designate  these  head 
lands  have,  in  many  instances,  remained  on  the 
charts.  Point  is  the  term  generally  used  to  in 
dicate  a  cape  on  the  shores  of  the  Baltic  and 
Gulf  of  Finland.  In  Prussia,  Ort ;  in  Norway 
and  Sweden,  Naes,  Horn,  and  Kyn  ;  in  Den 
mark,  Naes ;  in  Holland,  Hoek ;  in  Scotland, 
the  Shetland  and  Orkney  Islands,  Ness  and 
Head ;  Ru  in  the  Isle  of  Skye ;  Butt  and  Aird 
in  the  Hebrides ;  Point,  Nab,  Ness,  and  Head 
in  England  and  Wales  ;  Head  and  Foreland  in 
Ireland ;  Spit  in  the  Caspian  and  Aral  Seas  ; 
Ras  in  North  Africa,  the  Red  Sea,  Persian  Gulf, 
and  coast  of  Arabia  ;  and  Saki  in  Japan,  are 
common  examples  of  these  designations. 


CAPELLA 


111 


CAPSTAN 


In  the  names  of  the  thousands  of  capes  that 
fringe  the  continents  and  islands  of  the  world, 
navigators  have  perpetuated  their  own  names, 
the  names  of  their  vessels,  their  countries,  their 
cities,  their  great  men,  their  rulers,  and  their 
heroes,  while  the  saints  of  the  calendar  are  not 
to  be  forgotten  as  long  as  the  many  Cape  St. 
Elizabeths,  St.  Sebastians,  St.  Anthonys,  and 
many  other  sanctified  names  remain.  Some  head 
lands  are  named  from  the  circumstances  attend 
ing  their  discovery,  as  Cape  Disappointment, 
Cape  Flattery,  and  others  ;  some  from  the  day 
on  which  they  were  first  seen,  as  Friday  Cape, 
etc.  ;  others  from  physical  characteristics,  as 
Kojo  (Ked  Cape),  Blanco  (White  Cape),  Verd 
(Green  Cape),  Sandy  Cape,  Rocky  Point,  etc.  'f 
others  again  from  the  products  of  sea  or  shore 
found  near  them,  as  Cape  Cod,  Lobos  (Seal) 
Point,  etc.  Many  capes  are  remarkable  from 
the  important  position  they  occupy,  being  promi 
nent  landmarks  to  the  mariner,  and  some  even 
receive  their  names  from  this  characteristic, 
as  Start  Point ;  and  Land's  End  and  Finis- 
terre  describe  their  position  by  their  names. 
Some  headlands  attain  a  prominence  from  being 
at  the  entrance  of  important  bays,  rivers,  or 
harbors,  where  large  cities  and  greater  commerce 
enhance  their  usefulness.  On  the  more  promi 
nent  headlands  of  the  world  light-houses  are 
placed,  and  those  that  are  at  the  entrance  of  im 
portant  places  have  electric,  or  other  lights  of 
a  high  illuminating  power. 

The  following  capes  on  the  coast  of  the  United 
States  have  first-order  lights  : 


Capitana.  The  principal  galley  in  an  ancient 
fleet. 

Caplin,  or  Capelin.  A  fish  of  the  family 
Clupeidce,  very  similar  to  a  smelt,  and  used  for 
bait  for  cod-fish  011  the  banks  of  Newfound 
land. 

Cap'n.  A  colloquial  abbreviation  for  cap 
tain. 

Capon.     A  jeering  term  for  red  herring. 

Capote.  A  storm-coat  fitted  with  a  hood, 
much  worn  in  the  Mediterranean. 

Cappanus.  The  worm  which  adheres  to  and 
gnaws  the  bottom  of  a  ship. 

Capped.  A  ship  endeavoring  to  make  her 
way  against  head  currents  is  said  to  be  capped. 

Capricorn,  Tropic  of.  That  parallel  in  the 
southern  hemisphere  whose  latitude  is  equal  to 
the  sun's  greatest  declination,  about  23°  28'. 
See  TROPICS. 

Capricornus,  Constellation  of  (Lat.  Capri- 
cormis,  "  The  Goat").  The  tenth  constellation  of 
the  ancient  zodiac,  lying  between  Sagittarius  and 
Aquarius.  There  is  no  star  in  it  above  the  third 
magnitude ;  a  and  (3  may  be  found  by  the  line 
joining  Lyra  and  Altair  being  produced  to  not 
quite  its  own  length. 

CAPRICORNUS,  SIGN  OF.  The  tenth  division 
of  the  ecliptic,  including  from  270°  to  300°  of 
longitude.  In  consequence  of  the  precession  of 
the  equinoxes,  the  constellation  of  Capricorn  is 
no  longer  in  the  sign  of  this  name,  the  constella 
tion  Sagittarius  having  taken  its  place.  The 
sun  is  in  Capricorn  from  about  December  21  to 
about  January  20.  Symbol  >J. 


Name. 

No.  of 
Lights. 

Lat. 

Lon. 

Height, 
in  Feet. 

Distance 
Visible, 
in  Miles. 

Character  and  Color. 

Elizabeth  

2 

43°  34' 

70°  12' 

143 

18 

Fix.  and  Fl.  W. 

2 

42°  38' 

70°  34' 

165  \4 

20 

Fix  White. 

Cod 

1 

42°  02' 

70°  04' 

195 

20 

Fix  W 

Gay  Head      

1 

41°  21' 

70°  50' 

170 

20 

Fl  W.  and  R. 

1 

40°  04' 

71°  51' 

169V< 

20 

Fix  var.  by  W.  FL 

Pondqnoque  Point  

I 

40°  31' 

72°  30' 

160 

19 

Fix.  W. 

May            

1 

38°  56' 

74°  58' 

167 

19 

Fl  W 

1 

38°  47' 

75°  65' 

128 

17 

Fix  W 

Charles  

1 

37°  07' 

75°  54' 

150 

19 

Fl.  W. 

Hatteras                   .                          . 

1 

35°  1  5' 

75°  31' 

191 

20 

Fl   W 

Lookout  

1 

34°  37' 

76°  31' 

156 

19 

Fix.  W. 

1 

32°  01' 

79°  22' 

154 

18 

Fl   W 

1 

28°  28' 

80°  32' 

139     - 

18 

Fl   W 

Point  Conception  

1 

34°  27' 

120°  28' 

208 

23 

Fl.  W. 

Pigeon  Point              .                            » 

1 

37°  11' 

122°  24' 

150 

181^ 

Fl  W 

Point  Reyes  

1 

38°  10' 

123°  01' 

296 

242 

Fl.  W. 

Point  Arena  

1 

38°  57' 

123°  45' 

156 

19 

Fix  W. 

1 

40°  26' 

123°  24' 

423 

28 

Fl  W 

Blanco  

1 

42°  46' 

124°  33' 

256 

23 

Fix.  W. 

Foulweather.....  ...   . 

1 

44°  39' 

124°  04' 

161 

19 

Fix  W 

1 

46°  1  ?' 

124°  02' 

232 

21 

Fix  W 

Flattery  

1 

48°  19' 

124°  44' 

162 

19 

Fix.  W. 

F.  S.  Bassett,  Lieutenant  U.S.A. 

CAPE  FLY-AWAY.  A  cloud-bank  having  the 
appearance  of  distant  land. 

CAPE-HEN.  A  bird  which  follows  in  the  wake 
of  a  ship  rounding  the  Cape.  It  is  a  small  kind 
of  albatross.  See  MOLLY-MAWK. 

CAPE-PIGEON,  or  CAPE-PETREL.  A  sea-bird 
which  follows  a  ship  round  the  Cape. 

Capella(Lat.  "  The  Kid").  The  star  a  Aurigce. 

Caper.  A  vessel  used  for  privateering  by  the 
Dutch  in  the  17th  century. 

Caper-cornerways.     Diagonally. 

Capful  of  Wind.  A  light  puff  of  wind  which 
speedily  dies  away. 


Capsize.  To  upset  or  overturn  ;  as,  to  capsize 
a  ship. 

Capstan.  A  machine  used  on  shipboard  when 
mechanical  power  is  required  for  the  moving  or 
raising  of  heavy  weights.  It  involves  the  prin 
ciple  of  the  wheel  and  axle,  and  is  an  improve 
ment  of  the  windlass,  by  which  greater  compact 
ness  and  convenience  in  use  are  obtained.  It  also 
admits  of  the  application  of  greater  power  upon 
the  levers  or  bars. 

The  capstan  has  been  used  from  the  earliest 
times  as  a  mechanical  power.  It  was  in  use  by  the 
English,  French,  and  Spanish  as  early  as  the  15th 


CAPSTAN 


112 


CAPTAIN 


century,  and  the  drum-capstan  in  nearly  its 
present  form  was  invented  by  Sir  Thomas  More- 
land  in  1661.  It  consists  of  an  upright  cylin 
der,  called  the  barrel,  surmounted  by  a  circular 
disk  called  the  drum-head,  the  circumference  of 
which  contains  sockets  for  the  admission  of  the 
capstan-bars  or  levers  by  which  the  capstan  is 
turned. 

To  the  surface  of  the  barrel,  and  forming  a 
part  of  it,  are  attached  several  upright  pieces  of 
wood  called  whelps,  which  serve  to  increase  the 
circumference  of  the  barrel  with  but  slight  in 
crease  in  the  weight  of  the  capstan.  The  outer 
edges  of  the  whelps  being  concave,  the  turns  of 
the  rope  or  messenger  surge  or  slip  towards  the 
centre  of  the  barrel  as  it  is  wound  about  it  by 
the  revolutions  of  the  capstan.  The  base  of  the 
capstan  is  called  the  pawl-head,  and  is  similar 
in  size  and  shape  to  the  drum-head.  The  pawls 
are  short  stout  pieces  of  iron  attached  at  one  end 
to  the  periphery  of  the  pawl-head.  The  pawl- 
rim  is  a  narrow  circular  part  bolted  through  the 
deck  to  the  partners,  and  is  of  sufficient  width  to 
admit  the  lower  end  of  the  pawls  as  the  capstan 
is  turned.  By  means  of  the  pawls  and  the  cross- 
pieces  or  notches  in  the  pawl-rim,  the  capstan  is 
prevented  from  turning  back  when  the  power  is 
removed  from  the  bars. 

The  axis  of  the  capstan  consists  of  a  vertical 
iron  spindle,  attached  to  one  or  more  decks,  and 
by  which  the  capstan  is  held  firmly  in  place. 
The  same  spindle  may  serve  as  the  axis  of  a 
double  capstan,  or  two  capstans  on  different 
decks,  by  which  the  power  of  both  may  be  ap 
plied  to  the  same  object,  or  they  can  be  detached 
and  used  separately. 

Previous  to  the  improvements  that  have  been 
made  in  capstans,  the  cable  was  connected  with 
the  capstan  by  means  of  a  rope  called  the  mes 
senger.  Three  or  four  turns  of  the  messenger 
were  placed  upon  the  capstan,  one  end  passed 
forward  on  one  side  of  the  deck,  and  returned  on 
the  opposite  side,  arid  the  two  ends  lashed  to 
gether,  forming  an  endless  rope,  the  bight  of 
which  extended  from  the  capstan  to  the  hawse- 
hole.  The  messenger  was  fastened  to  the  cable 
by  means  of  nippers,  those  nearest  the  capstan 
being  changed  to  the  cable  near  the  hawse-hole 
as  they  approached  the  capstan. 

Capstans  composed  entirely  of  iron  are  now 
in  general  use,  and  improvements  have  been 
made  by  which  the  chain-cable  is  brought  di 
rectly  to  the  capstan  and  the  use  of  the  messenger 
thereby  avoided.  They  are  so  constructed  that 
the  cable  passes  around  the  rear  of  the  capstan, 
and  fits  into  a  space  between  the  barrel  and  pawl- 
head,  in  which  are  placed  chain-whelps,  which 
prevent  the  cable  from  slipping.  After  leaving 
the  capstan  the  cable  passes  around  a  vertical 
friction-roller,  which  is  placed  in  a  socket  in  the 
deck,  and  thence  to  the  chain-locker  on  the  side 
of  the  deck  to  which  the  cable  belongs. 

Steam-power  has  also  been  applied  to  this  de 
scription  of  capstan  on  board  of  steamers,  by 
which  means  the  number  of  the  crew  may  be 
reduced. 

An  increase  of  power  has  also  been  obtained 
by  means  of  a  system  of  gearing  placed  inside  of 
the  capstan,  which  connects  the  barrel  with  the 
spindle.  By  the  use  of  a  lock-bolt  the  capstan 
can  be  used  as  a  simple  purchase,  but  by  re 
moving  the  bolt  the  gearing  is  brought  into 


action,  and  the  power  is  increased  threefold. 
The  barrel  of  the  capstan  then  turns  in  a  con 
trary  direction  to  the  drum-head.— E.  T.  Strong, 
Lieutenant  U.S.N. 

To  pawl  the  capstan,  to  drop  the  pawls  into 
their  sockets  to  prevent  the  capstan  from  turning 
back.  To  rig  the  capstan,  to  ship  and  swift  in 
the  bars.  To  surge  the  capstan,  to  slack  the  rope 
wound  around  the  barrel  of  the  capstan  to  pre 
vent  it  from  riding  or  fouling.  To  walk  back  the 
capstan,  to  lift  the  pawls  and  turn  the  capstan 
in  the  opposite  direction, 

CAPSTAN-BAR.  A  long  lever  to  give  an  in 
crease  of  power  in  heaving  at  the  capstan. 

CAPSTAN-BARRING.  A  sea-punishment,  in 
which  the  offender  was  sentenced  to  carry  a 
capstan-bar  during  the  watch. 

CAPSTAN-BAR  P*IN.  A  pin  sometimes  inserted 
on  the  end  of  a  capstan-bar  to  prevent  it  from  un 
shipping. 

CAPSTAN-STEP.  The  steady,  measured  tread 
of  the  men  while  heaving  at  the  capstan. 

Captain.  A  name  given  to  the  crooner, 
crowner,  or  gray  gurnard  (Trigla  gurnardus}. 

Captain.  This  almost  universal  term  of  com 
mand  is  supposed  to  have  originated  in  the  naval 
service  from  "  caput,"  the  head  or  chief,  and 
"thane,"  a  Saxon  title  of  honor,  which  by 
statute  of  King  Athelstan  was  conferred  on  any 
merchant  who  had  been  thrice  across  the  high 
seas  upon  his  own  account. 

Post-captain  was  a  term  frequently  used  in  the 
Royal  navy  and  the  IT.  S.  navy  to  distinguish 
captains  commanding  frigates,  from  master-com 
mandants  or  commanders  the  next  in  rank,  com 
manding  vessels  of  a  smaller  size,  who  in  com 
mon  conversation  were  and  are  called  "  captain." 
There  never  was  such  a  commission  as  "post- 
captain"  in  either  service. 

In  the  British  navy,  in  1747,  when  the  rank 
of  captain  was  first  clearly  defined,  those  captains 
who  commanded  post-ships,  or  what  are  now 
called  rated  ships,  in  the  Royal  navy  took  rank, 
if  of  three  years'  standing,  with  army  colonels, 
and  until  the  year  1824  the  Royal  Navy  List 
described  them  as  post-captains.  The  prefix 
"post"  then  disappeared  without  any  order  in 
council  or  warrant  being  issued. 

Until  1862  captain  was  the  highest  com 
missioned  rank  in  the  U.  S.  navy,  and  ranked 
with,  according  to  seniority  or  duty,  a  lieuten 
ant-colonel,  colonel,  or  brigadier-general.  Under 
the  present  organization  of  the  U.  S.  navy  a 
captain  has  assimilated  rank  with  a  colonel  in 
the  army.— G.  H.  Preble,  Rear- Admiral  U.S.N. 

A  captain  commands  a  vessel  of  the  second 
class,  or  a  vessel  of  the  first  class  under  an  ad 
miral,  vice-  or  rear-admiral,  or  a  commodore ; 
may  be  employed-  as  aid  to  any  grade  of  ad 
miral  ;  as  chief  of  staff  to  a  naval  force  or  de 
tached  division,  commanded  by  a  rear-admiral 
or  commodore  ;  on  duty  under  a  bureau  ;  act  as 
second  in  command  of  shore-stations,  and  may 
command  small  practice  or  flying  squadrons. 
See  COMMANDING  OFFICER. 

The  name  is  also  given  to  certain  leading  men 
in  the  ship's  company ;  as,  captain  of  a  gun, 
captains  of  tops,  forecastle,  afterguard,  hold,  etc. 

Captain  is  also  the  popular  title  of  the  master 
of  a  merchant  vessel. 

Captain  of  Navy-yard.  The  line-officer  next 
in  rank  to  the  commandant  of  the  yard ;  he  com- 


CAPTAIN'S   CLOAK 


113 


CAREEN 


mands  during  the  temporary  absence  of  the  com 
mandant,  but  has  no  authority  to  change  the 
established  routine.  He  has  special  charge  of 
the  police  and  the  enforcement  of  police  regula 
tions  ;  of  all  the  fires  and  lights  in  the  work 
shops,  and,  after  working  hours,  he  will  satisfy 
himself  that  there  is  no  danger  of  fire  through 
the  night ;  of  keeping  the  walks  and  grounds 
clean  and  in  good  condition  ;  of  the  berthing, 
moving,  and  mooring  vessels,  and  of  the  fire- 
and  other  tugs.  The  captain  of  the  yard  directs 
the  fire  department,  and  he  frequently  examines 
the  engines  and  all  apparatus  for  subduing  fires, 
reports  at  once  any  deficiencies,  and  once  a  month 
at  least,  in  writing,  their  actual  condition.  He 
causes  to  be  scrutinized  all  articles  and  packages 
passing  into  or  out  of  the  yard  ;  all  suspected  ar 
ticles  are  stopped  and  examined,  when,  if  found 
to  be  of  an  improper  character,  they  are  detained, 
and  a  report  made  to  the  commandant.  Each 
morning  all  passes  presented  at  the  gate  during 
the  preceding  day  are  delivered  to  the  captain  of 
the  yard  for  inspection  and  report.  He  has  no 
direct  authority  or  control  of  the  affairs  of  the 
yard  by  virtue  of  his  own  rank  or  position,  but 
it  is  his  duty  to  convey  to  the  heads  of  the  de 
partments  of  the  yard  such  orders  as  the  com 
mandant  desires  to  transmit  verbally  ;  and  it  is 
also  his  duty  to  visit  and  observe  all  parts  of  the 
navy-yard  and  its  establishments,  and  to  make 
such  reports  as  will  enable  the  commandant  to 
be  fully  informed  as  to  the  harmonious  working 
of  the  various  parts  of  the  station  under  his  com 
mand.  A  regular  journal  is  kept  under  his 
direction,  which  he  is  to  sign  daily  and  submit 
monthly  to  the  commandant  for  his  approval. 
In  it  must  be  entered  the  time  when  all  officers 
report  for  duty  at,  or  are  detached  from,  the 
yard,  when  any  vessel  is  received  for  repairs  or 
put  in  commission,  the  number  of  mechanics 
and  others  employed,  the  arrival  and  departure 
of  all  vessels  of  war  and  of  vessels  with  stores  of 
any  kind  for  the  yard,  the  time  when  any  vessel 
is  taken  into  or  removed  from  the  dock,  the  state 
of  the  wind  and  weather,  as  well  as  the  barometer 
and  thermometer,  and  the  other  principal  trans 
actions  of  the  yard. 

Captain's  Cloak  (Ena.}.  The  jocose  name 
given  to  the  thirty-sixth  article  of  war:  "All 
other  crimes  not  capital,  and  for  which  no  pun 
ishment  is  hereby  directed  to  be  inflicted,  shall 
be  punished  according  to  the  laws  and  customs 
in  such  cases  used  at  sea." 

Captive.  A  prisoner  taken  by  force  or  strata 
gem  in  war  by  an  enemy.  Kept  in  bondage  or 
confinement. 

Captor.  One  who  takes  a  prisoner,  prize,  or 
place  in  war.  See  INTERNATIONAL  LAW,  PRIZE. 

Capture.  The  act  of  taking.  To  take  a  pris 
oner,  prize,  or  place  in  war.  The  thing  taken. 
See  INTERNATIONAL  LAW,  PRIZE. 

Carack,  Carrak,  or  Carrick.  A  large  ship  of 
burden,  the  same  with  those  called  galleons. 
Hippus,  the  Tyrian,  is  said  to  have  first  devised 
caracks,  and  onerary  vessels  of  prodigious  bulk 
for  traffic  or  offense.  See  CARRAC. 

Caracora.  A  proa  of  Borneo,  Ternate,  and 
the  Eastern  Isles ;  also  called  caracol  by  early 
voyagers. 

Caramoussal.  A  Turkish  merchant  ship  with 
a  pink-stern. 

Caravel,  or  Caravela.  A  Portuguese  dispatch- 
8 


boat,  lateen-rigged,  formerly  in  use;  it  had 
square-sails  only  on  the  foremast,  though  dig 
nified  as  a  caravela. 

Caravelao.  A  light  pink-sterned  vessel  of 
the  Azores. 

Carbasse.     See  KARBATZ. 

Carbin.  A  name  for  the  basking  shark  (which 
see). 

Carcass.  A  shell  for  incendiary  purposes, 
filled  with  a  very  fiercely  flaming  composition 
of  saltpetre,  sulphur,  resin,  turpentine,  anti 
mony,  and  tallow.  It  has  three  vents  for  the 
flame,  and  sometimes  is  equipped  with  pistol- 
barrels,  so  fitted  in  its  interior  as  to  discharge 
their  bullets  at  various  times.  The  ribs,  keel, 
stem,  and  stern-post  of  a  ship  after  the  planks 
are  stripped  off. 

Carcatus  (from  caricato,  It.).  A  law-term 
for  a  freighted  ship. 

Card.  The  dial  or  face  of  the  magnetic  com 
pass, — probably  derived  from  cardinal. 

Cardinal  (Lat.  cardinalis,  literally  pertaining 
to  a  hinge,  cardo,  hence  that  on  which  other 
things  turn,  principal).  The  points  to  which, 
as  regards  position  and  motions,  others  are  re 
ferred.  Thus  we  have  "the  Cardinal  Points  of 
the  Compass,"  "the  Cardinal  Points  of  the 
Horizon,"  "  the  Cardinal  Points  of  the  Ecliptic." 

CARDINAL  POINTS  OF  THE  COMPASS.  The 
same  as  the  cardinal  points  of  the  horizon,  but 
with  reference  to  the  direction  of  the  magnetic 
needle.  They  are  named  North,  South,  East,  and 
West ;  the  most  important  of  which  is  the  North. 

CARDINAL  POINTS  OF  THE  HORIZON.  The 
four  cardinal  points  of  the  horizon  are  the  North 
(N.),  South  (S.),  East  (E.),  and  West  (W.).  The 
north  and  south  points  are  where  the  meridian 
intersects  the  horizon,  and  they  are  the  poles  of 
the  prime  vertical ;  the  east  and  west  points  are 
where  the  prime  vertical  intersects  the  horizon, 
and  are  the  poles  of  the  meridian.  The  north 
and  south  points  are  those  from  which  the  hori 
zontal  distance  from  the  meridian  of  all  bodies 
having  an  altitude  is  measured  ;  the  east  point  is 
that  to  which  their  rising,  and  the  west  point 
that  to  which  their  setting,  is  referred. 

CARDINAL  POINTS  OF  THE  ECLIPTIC.  The 
four  cardinal  points  of  the  ecliptic  are  the  two 
points  of  its  intersection  with  the  equinoctial, 
called  the  Equinoctial  Points  ;  and  the  two  points 
where  it  attains  its  greatest  distance  from  tbe 
equinoctial,  called  the  Solstitial  Points.  With 
reference  to  the  seasons  of  the  northern  hemis 
phere,  these  are  named  the  Vernal  and  Autumnal 
Equinoctial  Points,  and  the  Summer  and  Winter 
Solstitial  Points.  These  are  more  commonly 
called  after  the  signs  of  the  ecliptic  in  which 
they  are  severally  situated :  the  First  Point  of 
Aries  (symbol  ^f)  and  the  First  Point  of  Libra 
(:£=),  the  First  Point  of  Cancer  (05)  and  the 
First  Point  of  Capricorn  (Itf).  The  Colures  in 
tersect  the  ecliptic  in  these  four  points.  The 
most  important  of  them  is  the  First  Point  of 
Aries,  as  from  it  right  ascensions  and  longitudes 
are  reckoned.  The  sun  is  in  <y>  about  March  21, 
in  05  about  June  21,  in  ^  about  September  21, 
and  in  V?  about  December  21. 

CARDINAL  WINDS.  Winds  from  due  north, 
south,  east,  or  west. 

Careen.  A  ship  is  said  to  careen  when  she 
inclines  to  one  side,  or  lies  over  when  sailing  on 
a  wind  ;  off  her  keel  or  carina. 


CAREY 


114 


CARTEK 


To  careen  a  vessel  is  to  heave  her  down  pre 
paratory  to  cleaning  or  repairing  her  bottom. 
See  HEAVING  DOWN. 

Carey.    See  MOTHER  CAREY'S  CHICKENS. 

Cargo.  The  merchandise  with  which  a  ship 
is  freighted. 

CARGO- JACK.  A  jack  used  on  its  side  in 
stowing  cargo,  for  forcing  heavy  articles  into 
place. 

CARGO-PORT.  The  aperture  through  which 
the  cargo  of  a  vessel  is  loaded  and  discharged. 
A  timber-port  is  in  the  bows  of  the  vessel. 

Caricatore.  Places  where  the  traders  of 
Sicily  take  in  their  goods,  from  caricare,  to 
load. 

Carina.  An  old  term,  from  the  Latin,  for 
the  keel  or  a  ship's  bottom. 

Carl,  or  Male-hemp.    See  FIMBLE,  or  FIM- 

BLE-HEMP. 

Carle-crab.  The  male  of  the  black-clawed 
crab,  Cancer  pagurus ;  also  of  the  partan,  or 
common  crab. 

Carline,  or  Carling.  A  short  timber  ranging 
fore-and-aft  from  one  deck-beam  to  another. 

CARLINE-KNEE.  A  knee  in  the  deck-framing, 
which  is  placed  against  a  carline. 

Cam-tangle.  A  long  and  large  fucus,  thrown 
on  beaches  after  a  gale  of  wind  in  the  offing. 

Carous.  A  sort  of  gallery  in  ancient  ships, 
which  turned  on  a  pivot.  It  was  hoisted  to  a 
given  height  by  tackles,  and  thus  brought  to 
project  over,  or  into,  the  vessel  of  an  adversary, 
furnishing  a  bridge  for  boarding. 

Carp.  A  well-known  fresh-water  fish  of  the 
Cyprinidce  family,  a  native  of  Persia,  considered 
to  have  been  introduced  into  England  in  the 
time  of  Henry  VIII. ;  but  in  Dame  Berner's 
book  on  angling,  published  in  1486,  it  is  de 
scribed  as  the  "  daynteous  fysshe"  in  England. 

Carpenter.  A  warrant-officer  whose  duty  is 
to  see  that  the  hull,  masts,  and  spars  of  the  ship 
are  kept  in  good  repair,  and  to  point  out  any 
and  all  defects  in  either  to  his  commanding 
officer.  It  is  his  duty  also,  with  the  men  under 
him,  to  take  charge  of  the  pumps,  and  to  stop 
shot-holes  in  time  of  action.  Carpenter  is  also 
the  rating  of  one  of  the  mechanics  belonging  to 
the  carpenter's  gang. 

CARPENTER'S  CREW,  or  GANG.  The  mechan 
ics  of  the  ship  not  belonging  to  the  engineer's  de 
partment;  as,  the  carpenter's  mate,  cooper,  etc. 

CARPENTER,  SHIP-.     A  builder  of  ships. 

Carrac,  Carraca,  Carrack,  or  Carricke.  A 
name  given  by  the  Spaniards  and  Portuguese  to 
the  vessels  they  sent  to  Brazil  and  the  East 
Indies ;  large,  round  built,  and  fitted  for  fight 
as  well  as  burden.  Their  capacity  lay  in  their 
depth,  which  was  extraordinary.  English  ves 
sels  of  size  and  value  were  sometimes  also  so 
called.  See  CARACK. 

Carrara.  The  great  northern  diver,  Colymbus 
fflacialis, 

Carriage.    See  GUN-CARRIAGE. 

Carrick-bend.  A  peculiar  bend  much  used 
for  bending  two  hawsers  together. 

Carrick-bitts.  The  bitts  which  support  the 
<ends  of  a  windlass,  called  also  windlass-bitts. 

Carronade.  A  gun,  capable  of  carrying  a 
large  ball,  and  useful  in  close  engagements  at 
sea.  It  took  its  name  from  the  large  iron- 
foundry  on  the  banks  of  the  Carron,  near  Fal- 
kirk,  in  Scotland,  where,  this  sort  of  ordnance 


was  first  made,  or  the  principle  applied  to  an 
improved  construction.  Shorter  and  lighter  than 
the  common  cannon,  and  having  a  chamber  for 
the  powder  like  a  mortar,  they  were  generally 
of  large  calibre,  and  carried  on  the  upper  works, 
as  the  poop  and  forecastle. 

Carry.  To  subdue  a  ship  by  boarding ;  to 
capture  a  fort  by  an  assault.  To  convey  or  pro 
pel  ;  as,  a  gun  carries  well, — that  is,  propels  the 
shot  to  a  great  distance.  To  bear  or  support ; 
as,  a  ship  carries  canvas,  guns,  or  cargo.  To 
carry  on,  to  conduct ;  as,  to  carry  on  duty  ;  also 
to  carry  sail  beyond  the  limits  of  prudence.  To 
carry  away,  to  break  ;  as,  to  carry  away  a  rope 
or  mast.  To  carry  the  keg,  &  smuggler's  phrase, 
meaning  to  continue.  See  LASH  AND  CARRY. 

Cartagena.  A  city  and  seaport  of  the  United 
States  of  Colombia,  on  a  small  sandy  peninsula, 
connected  with  the  continent  by  an  artificial 
neck  of  land.  Lat.  10°  25'  36"  N. ;  Ion.  75°  84' 
W.  The  bay,  which  is  landlocked  and  has  smooth 
water,  extends  from  north  to  south  7  miles,  and 
affords  excellent  anchorage.  There  were  two 
entrances  to  the  port, — the  Boca  Grande,  close 
to  the  town,  and  the  Boca  Chica,  farther  south. 
Two  strong  castles  defend  Boca  Chica,  which  is 
the  principal  entrance.  Pop.  9250. 

Cartagena.  A  city  and  the  chief  naval  arsenal 
of  Spain,  on  a  noble  bay  of  the  Mediterranean, 
27  miles  S.S.E.  of  Murcia.  Lat.  37°  36'  5".N.  ; 
Ion.  0°  56'  36"  W.  Pop.  55,000.  Its  harbor 
has  been  much  improved  by  the  construction  of 
moles.  An  island  on  the  south,  as  well  as  the 
city,  is  strongly  fortified.  In  its  western  division 
are  docks  for  building  men-of-war,  an  arsenal, 
and  a  floating-dock,  its  port  communicates  with 
the  Segura  River  by  the  Lorca  Canal. 

Carte  Blanche.  Authority  to  act  at  discre 
tion. 

Cartel.  In  military  parlance,  an  agreement 
for  the  exchange  of  prisoners.  Also  a  challenge 
to  fight  a  duel.  A  cartel-ship  is  one  commis 
sioned  in  time  of  war  to  convey  prisoners  for 
exchange,  or  to  carry  proposals  of  any  kind  be 
tween  belligerent  powers.  She  has  only  one  gun 
for  the  purpose  of  firing  signals,  as  the  officer 
who  commands  her  is  particularly  ordered  to 
carry  no  cargo,  ammunition,  or  implements  of 
war.  Cartel-ships,  by  trading  in  any  way,  are 
liable  to  confiscation. 

Carter,  John  C.,  Commodore  U.S.N.  Born 
in  Virginia.  Appointed  from  Kentucky  ;  sloop 
"Lexington,"  1827;  frigate  "  Delaware^,"  Med 
iterranean  Squadron,  1829-30;  commissioned 
as  lieutenant,  1837;  frigate  "Macedonian," 
West  India  Squadron,  1840;  receiving-ship, 
New  York,  1845;  steamer  "Mississippi,"  Home 
Squadron,  1846;  navy-yard,  Norfolk,  1847-48; 
frigate  "  Raritan,"  Pacific  Squadron,  1852-53  ; 
rendezvous,  New  York,  1855 ;  commissioned  as 
commander,  1855  ;  commanding  steamer  "  Mich 
igan,"  on  the  Lakes,  1861-64;  commissioned 
as  commodore,  July  16,  1862;  commanding  re 
ceiving-ship  "Vermont,"  New  York,  1865; 
light-house  inspector,  1866-69  ;  died  in  1871. 

Carter,  Samuel  P.,  Commodore  U.S.N. 
Born  in  Carter  County,  Tennessee.  Appointed 
from  Tennessee,  February  14,  1840  ;  promoted  to 
passed  midshipman,  July  11,  1846;  "Ohio,"  74, 
Home  Squadron,  1846-47  ;  present  at  capture  of 
Vera  Cruz  ;  commissioned  as  lieutenant,  April 
18,  1855;  steam-frigate  "  San  Jacinto,"  East  In- 


CAETEE 


115 


CAEVEL 


dia  Squadron,  1855-57 ;  at  attack  on  Barrier 
Forts,  Canton  Eiver,  China,  1856  ;  Naval  Acad 
emy,  1857-60;  steam-sloop  "  Seminole,"  Brazil 
Squadron,  1860-61 ;  returned  to  the  United 
States,  July  6,  1861 ;  July  11,  1861,  Lieutenant 
Carter  was  ordered  to  report  to  the  Secretary  of 
War  for  special  duty  ;  was  instructed  to  proceed 
to  East  Tennessee  and  raise  troops;  organized 
the  Tennessee  Brigade,  and  was  assigned  to  com 
mand  in  September,  1861,  with  acting  appoint 
ment  of  brigadier-general;  present  at  Wild  Cat, 
Kentucky,  at  Zollicoffer's  repulse,  October,  1861 ; 
at  battle  of  Mill  Springs,  January,  1862  ;  com 
manded  in  Southeastern  Kentucky  from  Febru 
ary,  1862,  to  April,  1862 ;  and  in  operations 
against  Cumberland  Gap,  March  and  May,  1862  ; 
commissioned  brigadier-general  May  1,  1862;  at 
capture  of  Cumberland  Gap,  June  17,  1862;  in 
Kanawha  Valley  in  October  and  November,  1862, 
at  which  time  the  rebel  troops  were  driven  out 
and  the  valley  re-occupied  by  Union  forces. 
Commanded  cavalry  expedition  into  East  Ten 
nessee,  tore  up  track  and  destroyed  bridges  on 
East  Tennessee  and  Virginia  Eailroad,  and  in 
several  engagements,  atHolston,  Carter's  Station, 
and  Jonesville,  defeated  rebel  troops  in  Decem 
ber,  1862,  and  January,  1863.  This  cavalry  raid, 
which  was  the  first  of  any  importance  made  by 
Union  troops  into  rebel  territory,  was  attended 
with  valuable  results,  not  only  from  amount  of 
damage  done  the  rebel  cause  from  destruction 
of  property,  loss  of  troops,  and  the  breaking  of 
their  principal  line  of  railway,  but  from  the  re 
lief  it  afforded  Gen.  Eosecrans  when  pressed 
at  Murfreesboro',  and  the  new  life  it  infused 
throughout  all  our  cavalry  commands.  For  this 
successful  raid  received  thanks  of  the  general- 
in-chief  of  the  army  in  general  orders ;  also  of 
the  commander  of  the  Department  of  the  Ohio, 
in  general  orders,  and  the  commander  of  the 
district  of  Kentucky ;  was  recommended  by 
latter  two  for  promotion  to  major-general ;  wa8 
assigned  to  command  of  division  of  Central 
Kentucky  in  March,  1863  ;  at  battle  of  Dutton's 
Hill,  March  31,  1863;  commanded  in  Southeast 
ern  Kentucky,  headquarters  at  Somerset,  from 
May  to  July,  1863  ;  defeated  Pegram's  forces  at 
Monticello  and  Beaver  Dam  in  May  and  June, 
1863,  and  Morgan  at  West's ;  was  thanked,  in 
general  orders,  by  the  commander  of  the  Depart 
ment  of  the  Ohio.  In  July,  1863,  was  assigned 
to  command  of  cavalry  division,  23d  Army 
Corps,  and  had  the  advance  when  Burnside  oc 
cupied  East  Tennessee,  in  August  and  Septem 
ber,  1863;  defeated  Morgan's  forces,  near  Emory, 
August  28, 1863,  and  Smith's,  at  Loudon,  August 
29 ;  present  at  siege  and  battle  of  Knoxville, 
November  and  December,  1863  ;  provost-mar 
shal-general  of  East  Tennessee,  September,  1863, 
to  January,  1865,  when  he  was  relieved  at  his 
own  request,  ordered  to  North  Carolina,  and  as 
signed  to  command  of  division  of  the  district  of 
Newbern ;  commanded  the  left  wing  at  battle 
of  Kinston  (Wise's  Fork),  N.  C.,  on  March  10, 
1865,  where  Bragg  was  defeated  ;  occupied  Golds- 
boro',  N.  C.,  March  20,  1865,  driving  out  the 
rebels  with  his  command ;  was  in  command  of 
the  place  during  its  occupancy  by  the  armies 
of  Gen.  Sherman ;  assigned  to  command  of  3d 
Division,  23d  Army  Corps,  April  7,  1865;  bre- 
vetted  major-general,  March  13,  1865 ;  was  in 
command  of  Western  North  Carolina  from  May, 


1865,  and  of  23d  Army  Corps  from  July  until 
relieved  from  duty  in  that  State  in  August,  1865 ; 
honorably  mustered  out  of  the  army  January, 
1866. 

Commissioned  as  lieutenant-commander,  July 
16,  1862. 

Commissioned  as  commander,  June  23,  1865  ; 
commanding  steamer  "  Monocacy,"  Asiatic 
Squadron,  1866-69 ;  Naval  Academy,  as  com 
mandant  of  midshipmen,  1869-72. 

Commissioned  as  captain,  October  28,  1870; 
commanding  steam-sloop  "Alaska,"  European 
Station,  1872-75:  member  light-house  board, 
1876-80. 8 

Commissioned  as  commodore  in  1878. 

Carthoun.  The  ancient  cannon  royal,  carry 
ing  a  66-pound  ball,  with  a  point-blank  range  of 
185  paces,  and  an  extreme  one  of  about  2000. 
It  was  12  feet  long  and  of  8£  inches  diameter  of 
bore. 

Cartouch.  A  paper  case  containing  a  charge 
for  a  fire-arm.  A  case  filled  with  shot  to  be 
fired  from  a  cannon. 

Cartridge.  A  case  of  paper,  flannel,  or  sheet- 
metal  to  contain  a  charge  of  powder  for  a  fire 
arm.  For  muzzle-loading  small-arms  the  powder 
and  ball  are  inclosed  in  paper ;  for  breech-load 
ing  small-arms  the  powder  and  ball  are  enveloped 
in  a  sheet-metal  case,  which  also  contains  the 
fulminate  for  igniting  the  charge. 

The  cartridges  for  great  guns,  howitzers,  and 
mortars  are  put  up  in  bags  made  of  serge  cloth, 
woven  expressly  for  this  purpose,  being  entirely 
of  wool  and  of  a  close  uniform  texture.  It  is 
manufactured  in  pieces  of  29  yards  in  length, 
and  from  16  to  36  inches  in  width.  Eattinet, 
merino,  bombazette,  or  silk  cloth  can  be  used  if 
impossible  to  obtain  the  serge  cartridge-cloth. 
Cartridge-bags  are  made  of  two  shapes,  conical 
and  cylindrical,  and  are  sewed  with  worsted 
yarn.  They  are  white,  and  when  filled  are  tied 
with  woolen  thrums,  and  are  stenciled  in  black, 
with  the  calibre  of  gun  and  weight  of  charge. 
The  cartridge-bags  of  the  smooth-bore  howitzers 
are  fitted  with  a  brass  wire  ring  for  the  purpose 
of  attaching  them  to  the  sabot  of  the  projectile ; 
when  so  attached  the  cartridge  and  projectile  are 
called  a  round  of  fixed  ammunition. 

CARTRIDGE,  BALL-.  A  cartridge  for  small- 
arms  which  contains  a  projectile. 

CARTRIDGE-BOX.  A  small  box  made  of  har 
ness  leather,  worn  on  the  waist-belt,  to  contain 
cartridges  for  a  pistol  or  rifle.  See  PASSING- 
BOX. 

CARTRIDGE,  BLANK.  A  cartridge  which  does 
not  contain  a  projectile  It  is  used  only  for  firing 
salutes  or  making  signals. 

CARTRIDGE,  DUMMY.  A  block  of  wood  of 
the  size  and  shape  of  a  ball-cartridge,  for  use  in 
exercise  to  accustom  the  men  to  the  handling  of 
cartridges. 

CARTRIDGE,  METALLIC.  The  metallic  car 
tridges  used  in  the  navy  are  central  primed,  and 
are  purchased  as  required  from  private  manufac 
turers.  The  same  calibre  is  used  for  pistols, 
rifles,  and  machine-guns.  The  bullet  is  cylindro- 
conical  in  shape,  having  three  rings  and  a  con 
cave  base. 

Caruel.     See  CARVEL. 

Carved  Work.  The  ornaments  of  a  ship 
which  are  wrought  by  the  carver. 

Carvel.     A  light  lateen-rigged  vessel  of  small 


CARVEL-BUILT 


116 


CASING 


burden,  formerly  used  by  the  Spaniards  and 
Portuguese.  Also,  a  coarse  sea- blubber,  on 
which  turtles  are  said  to  feed. 

Carvel-built.  A  term  to  signify  that  the 
planks  of  a  boat  meet,  and  do  not  overlap  as  in 
a  clinker-built  boat. 

CARVEL-JOINT.     A  flush  joint. 

Cascabel.  The  part  of  a  gun  abaft  the  base 
of  the  breech. 

CASCABEL-BLOCK.  The  mass  of  iron  which 
fits  in  between  the  jaws  of  the  cascabel.  It  is 
removed  to  admit  the  bight  of  the  breeching. 

CASCABEL,  JAWS  OF  THE.  That  part  of  a 
cascabel  abaft  the  breeching-hole. 

CASCAB EL-PIN.  An  iron  pin  to  secure  the 
cascabel-block  in  the  jaws  of  the  cascabel. 

Casco.  A  rubbish-lighter  of  the  Philippine 
Islands. 

Case.     The  outside  planking  of  the  ship. 

Case,  Augustus  Ludlow,  Rear-Admiral 
U.S.N.  Born  in  Newburgh,  N.  Y.,  February 
3,  1813.  Appointed  midshipman  April  1,  1828; 
first  order,  July,  1828,  to  receiving-ship  "  Robert 
Fulton,"  New  York;  first  cruise  in  frigate 
"  Hudson,"  Brazil  Squadron,  1828-31  ;  navy- 
yard,  New  York,  1832 ;  cruise  in  sloop-of-war 
"St.  Louis,"  West  Indies,  1832-33;  New  York 
Navy- Yard  and  School,  1833-34. 

Promoted  to  passed  midshipman,  June  14, 
1834 ;  navy-yard,  New  York,  1835 ;  schooner 
"Experiment,"  coast  survey,  1836;  bark  "Pi 
oneer,"  U.  S.  South  Sea  Surveying  and  Explor 
ing  Expedition,  1837. 

Commissioned  as  "  lieutenant  while  on  duty 
in  the  exploring  expedition,"  June,  1838;  store- 
ship  "Relief,"  exploring  expedition,  1838;  sloop- 
of-war  "  Vincennes,"  exploring  expedition, 
1839-42. 

Commissioned  as  lieutenant,  February  25, 
1841;  cruise  in  frigate  "  Brandywine,"  East 
Indies,  1843-45.  During  Mexican  war:  In 
schooner  "  Mahonese,"  brig  "  Porpoise,"  frigate 
"  Raritan,"  sloops-of-war  "John  Adams"  and 
"  Germantown,"  Gulf  of  Mexico,  1846-48.  He 
was  present  at  and  participated  in  the  capture  of 
Vera  Crux,  Alvarado,  and  Tabasco.  After  the 
landing  of  the  troops  on  the  first  day,  was  in 
charge  of  the  beach  and  superintended  "the  land 
ing  of  men,  ordnance,  and  stores  for  the  invest 
ment  of  Vera  Cruz.  After  possession  of  Laguna 
was  taken  by  the  "  Porpoise,"  he  was  dispatched, 
in  a  "bungo"  having  one  of  the  "  Porpoise's" 
42-pounder  carronades  mounted  on  the  bow, 
with  Passed  Midshipman  F.  K.  Murray  and  25 
men,  up  the  Palisada  River  to  the  town  of  the 
same  name,  which  was  captured  and  hold  for  a 
fortnight  against  a  large  body  of  cavalry  which 
almost  daily  threatened  an  attack.  The  object 
of  holding  the  town  was  to  intercept  and  capture 
Gen.  Santa  Anna,  who,  it  was  supposed,  would 
endeavor  to  escape  to  Honduras,  via  the  Palisada 
passes.  Cruising  in  sloop-of-war  "  Vincennes," 
Pacific  Ocean,  1849-51 ;  commanding  sloop-of- 
war  "Warren,"  Pacific  Squadron,  1852-53; 
light-house  inspector,  third  district,  New  York, 
1853-57. 

Commissioned  as  commander,  September  14, 
1855 ;  waiting  orders  in  1858 ;  commanding 
steamer  "  Caledonia,"  Brazil  Squadron  and 
Paraguay  Expedition,  in  1859;  waiting  orders 
in  1860.  During  the  Rebellion:  In  March, 
1861,  just  at  the  commencement  of  the  Rebel 


lion,  Commander  Case  was  ordered  to  Washing 
ton  as  assistant  to  (then)  Commodore  Stringham, 
in  the  Office  of  Detail ;  but  on  the  assignment  of 
the  latter  to  the  command  of  the  North  Atlantic 
Blockading  Squadron,  he  was  appointed  fleet- 
captain  of  it,  and  with  him  joined  the  steam- 
frigate  "  Minnesota,"  at  Boston,  April  18.  Sub 
sequently,  served  in  the  same  position  with  Flag- 
Officer  L.  M.  Goldsborough  and  Acting  Rear- Ad 
miral  S.  P.  Lee,  who  were  successively  appointed 
to  command  the  fleet,  1861-62.  He  took  part  in 
the  capture  of  Forts  Clarke  and  Hatteras,  August 
28  and  29,  1861 ;  Roanoke  Island,  February  7 
and  8,  1862;  Sewell's  Point  (where,  in  passing 
the  heavy  fortifications  on  Craney  Island,  he 
landed  from  his  "tug"  and  hauled  down  the 
large  rebel  flag  there  flying)  and  Norfolk,  May 
10,  1862  ;  and  all  of  the  general  active  operations 
of  the  North  Atlantic  Fleet,  until  January,  1863, 
when,  it  being  understood  that  active  operations 
were  over,  and  that  the  duty  of  the  fleet  would 
be  mostly  confined  to  blockading,  he  was  assigned 
to  the  command  of  the  steam-sloop  "  Iroquois," 
which  was  fitted  to  look  after  the  "Alabama," 
but  was  afterward  attached  to  the  North  Atlan 
tic  Squadron.  In  charge  of  the  blockade  of  New 
Inlet,  N.  C.,  1863  ;  cut  out  the  steamer  "  Kate" 
from  under  Fort  Fisher  and  the  other  batteries 
at  New  Inlet,  aided  by  the  steamers  "James 
Adger"  and  "Mount  Vernon,"  in  August, 
1863. 

Commissioned  as  captain,  January  2,  1863; 
special  duty,  Washington,  in  1864;  navy-yard, 
New  York,  1864-65]  fleet-captain,  European 
Squadron,  1865-66. 

Commissioned  as  commodore,  December  8, 
1867 ;  light-house  inspector,  third  district,  New 
York,  1867-69. 

Chief  of  Bureau  of  Ordnance,  1869-73. 

Commissioned  as  rear-admiral,  May  24,  1872; 
commanding  European  Squadron,  1873-75,  and 
combined  European  North  and  South  Atlantic 
Fleets,  assembled  at  Key  West,  Fla.,  1874,  for 
special  service  in  connection  with  the  steamer 
"  Virginius"  difficulties,  and  for  ordnance,  tor 
pedo,  and  fleet  practice  and  tactics,  etc.  Total 
sea  service,  twenty-four  years  ten  months ;  shore 
or  other  duty,  twelve  years. 

Case-book.  A  register  or  journal  in  which 
the  surgeon  records  the  cases  of  all  the  sick  and 
wounded  who  are  placed  under  medical  treat 
ment. 

Case-shot.    See  CANISTER. 

CASE-SHOT,  SPHERICAL.     See  SHRAPNEL. 

Cash.  A  Chinese  copper  coin  having  a  square 
hole  in  the  centre.  It  bears  on  one  side  the  name 
of  the  province  in  which  it  is  cast  and  the  Chi 
nese  word  money  ;  on  the  other  side  are  the  Chi 
nese  words  "  current  money"  and  the  name  of  the 
reigning  emperor.  It  is  the  only  native  coin, 
and  is  called  tsien  by  the  Chinese  and  sapeque  by 
the  French. 

Casing.  The  lining,  veneering,  or  planking 
over  a  ship's  timbers,  especially  for  the  cabin- 
beams  ;  the  sheathing.  A  bulkhead  round  a 
mast  to  prevent  the  interference  of  cargo,  or 
shifting  materials. 

In  steam  enginery,  a  covering  applied  to 
boilers,  steam  pipes,  cylinders,  etc.,  to  prevent 
radiation  of  heat.  It  is  generally  composed  of 
hair  felt,  protected  by  wood  or  sheet  metal 
sheathing.  Asbestos  cement,  plaster  of  Paris, 


CASK 


117 


CAT-BOAT 


and  empty  air-tight  spaces  are  frequently  sub 
stituted  for  the  felt. 

Cask.     A  strong  barrel  for  containing  fluids. 

Casket.     See  GASKET. 

Cassava,  or  Cassada.  A  species  of  the  genus 
Jatropha  janipha,  well  known  to  seamen  as  the 
cassava  bread  of  the  West  Indies.  Tapioca  is 
produced  from  the  Jatropha  manihot.  Caution 
is  necessary  in  the  use  of  these  roots,  as  the  juice 
is  poisonous. 

Cassin,  Stephen,  Commodore  U.S.N.  Born 
in  Philadelphia,  February  16,  1783;  died  at 
Georgetown,  D.  C.,  August  29,  1857.  Entered 
the  navy  as  midshipman,  February  21,  1800; 
became  lieutenant,  February  12,  1807 ;  master, 
September  11,  1814;  captain,  March  3,  1825. 
Served  with  distinction  in  the  war  with  Tripoli ; 
commanded  the  "  Ticonderoga,"  in  McDon- 
ough's  victory  on  Lake  Champlain ;  was  re 
warded  by  Congress  with  a  gold  medal  for 
bravery  in  that  action,  and  was  a  terror  to  the 
pirates'  who  infested  the  West  Indies,  and  cap 
tured  four  of  their  vessels,  September  28,  29, 
1822. 

Cassiopeia  (named  after  the  mythical  wife  of 
Cepheus).  A  constellation  on  the  opposite  side 
of  the  pole  to  the  Great  Bear,  and  at  about  the 
same  distance  from  it.  It  consists  of  a  group  of 
stars  of  the  third  and  fourth  magnitude,  disposed 
in  a  form  somewhat  resembling  a  chair,  a  Cas 
siopeia  is,  of  the  six  principal  stars,  the  farthest 
from  the  pole. 

Cast.  A  term  meaning  four;  applied  to  her 
rings,  haddocks,  etc.  The  heaving  of  the  lead 
into  the  sea  to  ascertain  the  depth  of  water.  The 
act  of  casting  anything  in  a  mold.  To  force  a 
ship's  head  off  from  the  wind  on  getting  under 
way.  Acast,  abox,  the  position  of  the  head- 
yards  in  casting.  To  cast  off,  to  throw  off;  to 
let  go.  To  cast  anchor,  to  come  to  anchor, — an 
expression,  however,  which  is  never  used  in  the 
navy.  To  cast  up  accounts,  to  vomit, — the  effect 
of  sea-sickness.  To  cast  loose  a  gun  is  to  get  it 
ready  for  action. 

CAST-AWAY.     Wrecked. 

CAST-AWAYS.  The  people  belonging  to  a 
wreck ;  men  who  are  left  behind  when  a  vessel 
goes  to  sea. 

CAST-OFFS.  The  citizen's  clothing  abandoned 
by  sailors  on  enlisting  in  the  navy. 

Cast  Knees.  The  hanging  knees  which  crook 
or  arch  over  the  corners  of  the  gun-ports,  riders, 
etc. 

Castle-wright.  An  artificer  employed  in  the 
erection  of  castles  in  early  ships. 

Castor,     a2  Geminorum. 

Castor  and  Pollux.  Fiery  balls  sometimes 
seen  flickering  about  the  ma'st-heads  and  yard- 
arms  during  a  gale.  See  ST.  ELMO'S  FIRE. 

Casualty.  That  which  comes  without  design  ; 
an  event  inevitable  and  not  to  be  guarded 
against. 

CASUALTIES.  A  word  comprehending  all 
men  who  die,  desert,  or  are  discharged. 

Cat.  A  ship  formed  on  the  Norwegian  model, 
usually  employed  in  the  coal  and  timber  trade, 
and  generally  built  remarkably  strong.  A  cat 
is  distinguished  by  a  narrow  stern,  projecting 
quarters,  a  deep  waist,  and  no  ornamental  figure 
on  the  prow.  An  instrument  of  punishment 
formerly  used  in  the  navy.  (See  CAT  o'  NINE 
TAILS.)  The  purchase  used  to  hoist  the  anchor 


from  the  hawse-hole  to  the  cat-head.  To  cat  the 
anchor,  to  hoist  it  up  to  the  cat-head  arid  pass 
the  ring-stopper. 

CAT-BACK.  A  line  from  the  cat-block  to  assist 
in  hooking  it  to  the  ring  of  the  anchor. 

CAT-BEAM,  or  BEAK-HEAD  BEAM.  In  former 
times  the  forward  ends  of  the  ships  of  war  were 
finished  square  across  the  ship  at  the  upper  part 
instead  of  rounding  to  the  ends  as  nowadays, 
and  the  cat-heads  were  attached  to  each  end  of 
this  beam.  The  beam  was  generally  made  in 
two  breadths,  being  a  very  wide  beam,  and 
tabled  and  bolted  together ;  the  forward  side  was 
placed  far  enough  forward  to  receive  the  heads 
of  the  stanchions  of  the  beak-head  bulkhead. 

CAT-BLOCK.  A  heavy,  double,  or  threefold 
iron-bound  block  having  a  hook  fitted  with  a 
link  ;  used  in  catting  the  anchor. 

CAT-HEAD.  The  timber  that  projects  over  the 
bows,  and  to  which  the  anchor  is  hoisted. 

CAT-FALL.  The  rope  reeving  through  the 
cat-block  and  sheaves  of  the  cat-head,  forming 
the  purchase  called  the  cat. 

CAT-STOPPER,  or  CAT-HEAD  STOPPER.  The 
ring-stopper. 

CAT-TAIL.     The  inner  end  of  the  cat-head. 

Catalan.     A  small  Spanish  fishing-boat. 

Catamaran.  A  sort  of  raft  used  in  the  East 
Indies,  Brazils,  and  elsewhere ;  those  of  the 
island  of  Ceylon,  like  those  of  Madras  and  other 
parts  of  that  coast,  are  formed  of  three  logs 
secured  together  by  means  of  three  spreaders 
and  cross  lashings,  through  small  holes ;  the 
centre  log  is  much  the  largest,  with  a  curved 
surface  at  the  fore-end,  which  tends  and  finishes 
upwards  to  a  point.  The  side  logs  are  similar 
in  form,  and  fitted  to  the  centre  log.  These 
floats  are  navigated  with  great  skill  by  one  or  two 
men,  in  a  kneeling  position;  they  think  nothing 
of  passing  through  the  surf  which  lashes  the 
beach  at  Madras  and  at  other  parts  of  these 
coasts,  when  even  the  boats  of  the  country  could 
not  live  upon  the  waves;  they  are  also  propelled 
out  to  the  shipping  at  anchor  when  boats  of  the 
best  construction  and  form  would  be  swamped. 
Their  length  is  from  20  to  25  feet,  breadth  2£  to 
3£  feet,  and  the  timber  preferred  for  their  con 
struction  is  the  Dup  wood,  or  Cherne-Maram, 
the  pine  varnish-tree. 

Catanadromi.  Migratory  fishes,  which  have 
their  stated  times  of  going  from  fresh  water  to 
salt  and  returning,  as  the  salmon,  etc. 

Catania,  a  city  of  Sicily,  on  its  east  coast,  54 
miles  by  rail  N.N.W.  of  Syracuse.  Lat.  37° 
28'  20"  N.  ;  Ion.  15°  ¥  15"  E.  The  harbor  is 
not  adequate  to  the  importance  of  the  city,  but 
it  is  generally  full  of  small  craft.  It  is  small, 
and  during  a  strong  sirocco  no  ship  can  enter. 
Pop.  85,000. 

Catascopia.  Small  vessels  anciently  used  for 
reconnoitring  and  carrying  dispatches. 

Cat-boat.  A  shallow,  saucer-like  boat  draw 
ing  little  water  and  fitted  with  a  centre-board. 
The  forward  part  is  decked  over,  and  the  mast 
is  stepped  close  to  the  stem.  It  has  but  one 
sail,  which  is  extended  by  a  gaff  and  a  long 
boom.  It  can  be  easily  handled  by  one  person, 
and  its  management  is  easily  learned.  Its  length 
varies  from  10  to  40  feet,  but  the  greater  number 
are  over  15  and  under  25  feet  in  length.  It  is 
the  typical  American  sail-boat,  the  cat-rig  being 
scarcely  known  in  Europe. 


CATCH 


118 


CELESTIAL 


Catch.  A  fisherman's  term  for  the  number 
of  fish  taken  at  one  time. 

Catch  a  Crab.  In  rowing,  if  the  oar  be  im 
mersed  too  deep  in  the  water  the  blade  is  carried 
aft  and  the  loom  thrown  forward,  thus  jamming 
the  oar  in  the  rowlock  ;  the  boat's  headway  must 
be  checked  before  it  can  be  recovered.  This 
mishap  is  termed  catching  a  crab. 

Catch  a  Turn.  To  belay,  or  take  a  turn 
quickly. 

Catch-fake.  An  unseemly  doubling  in  a  badly 
coiled  rope. 

Catenary.  The  curve  formed  by  a  rope  hang 
ing  freely  between  two  points  of  suspension. 

Caterer.  A  purveyor  and  provider  of  pro 
visions.  Each  mess  of  officers  selects  a  caterer 
from  their  number,  and  his  duties  are  to  preside 
at  the  mess-table  and  to  manage  and  direct  all 
the  affairs  of  the  mess ;  he  keeps  an  account  of 
the  receipts  and  expenditures,  and  at  the  end  of 
the  month  renders  a  statement  of  his  accounts. 

Cat-fish.  The  sea-cat  or  sea- wolf  (Anarrhicas 
lupus),  often  six  feet  in  length.  Also  a  fresh 
water  fish  of  the  genus  Pitnelodus.  The  common 
cat-fish  is  also  called  bull-head  and  horned  pout. 

Cat-gut.  A  term  applied  to  the  sea-laces,  or 
Fucusjiium. 

Cat-harpings,  or  Cat-harpins.  Short  ropes 
used  to  bind  in  the  rigging  in  the  wake  of  the 
topsail-yards,  that  the  yard  may  be  braced  sharp 
up. 

Cathay.     Marco  Polo's  name  for  India. 

Cathode.  Faraday's  term  for  the  negative 
pole  of  a  battery. 

Cat-holes.  Holes  through  the  quarter  through 
which  are  passed  the  hawsers  for  fasts  and 
springs. 

Cat-lap.     Tea,  or  weak  drink. 

Cat  o'  Nine  Tails.  An  instrument  formerly 
used  for  flogging  in  the  navy.  It  consisted  of 
nine  pieces  of  cord,  with  three  knots  in  each, 
fixed  on  a  short  piece  of  thick  rope  as  a  handle. 
"With  this  the  offender  was  flogged  on  the  bare 
back.  See  FLOGGING. 

Catraia.  Portuguese  surf-  or  pilot-boats. 
They  are  generally  about  56  feet  long  by  15  feet 
beam,  and  are  impelled  by  16  oars. 

Cat-rig.     See  CAT-BOAT. 

Cat's-paw.  A  light  air  which  slightly  ruffles 
the  surface  of  the  sea.  Cat's-paws  occur  during 
calms,  and  are  transitory  in  their  nature.  Super 
stitious  sailors  scratch  the  booms,  masts,  or  back 
stays  to  invoke  even  these  cat's-paws,  as  they  are 
the  forerunners  of  a  steady  breeze.  Cat's-paw 
is  also  a  name  given  to  a  peculiar  twisting  hitch 
in  the  bight  of  a  rope,  making  two  smaller 
bights,  into  which  a  tackle  is  hooked. 

Cat's-skin.  The  impression  made  by  a  cat's- 
paw  on  the  surface  of  the  sea. 

Cattan.     A  Japanese  sword. 

Catty.  A  Chinese  commercial  weight  of  18 
ounces.  Tea  is  packed  in  one  or  more  catty- 
boxes  ;  hence  most  likely  our  word  tea-caddy. 

Caudal  Fin.  The  fin  terminating  the  tail  of 
a  fish. 

Caudicarise.  A  kind  of  lighter  used  by  the 
Romans  on  the  Tiber. 

Caul.  The  membrane  encompassing  the  heads 
of  some  infants  when  born,  and  from  early  an 
tiquity  esteemed  an  omen  of  good  fortune  and  a 
preservation  against  drowning.  Also,  a  name 
for  a  dam-dike. 


Caulk.     See  CALK. 

Caury.     "Worm-eaten. 

Cavallo,  or  Carvalhas.  A  salt-water  fish, 
well  known  as  the  bonito,  or  horse-mackerel. 

Cavalot.   A  gun  carrying  a  ball  of  one  pound. 

Caver.  A  word  used  in  the  Hebrides  for  a 
gentle  breeze. 

Caviare.  A  preparation  of  the  roe  of  stur 
geons  and  other  fish  salted.  It  forms  a  lucrative 
branch  of  commerce  in  Italy  and  Russia. 

Cavil.  A  large,  square  wooden  pin  fixed  in  a 
pin-rail  to  which  are  belayed  the  larger  ropes ; 
as,  topsail-halliards,  yard-ropes,  etc.  Sometimes 
the  word  is  applied  to  a  large  cleat. 

Cavity.  The  hollow  in  the  water  formed  by 
the  immersed  bottom  and  sides  of  a  vessel. 

Cavo-fungo.    A  boat  or  mud-machine  used  by 
the  Venetians  to  clean  out  canals. 
•   Cawe,  or  Cawfe.     A  floating  cage,  in  which 
eels,  lobsters,  etc.,  are  kept. 

Cawker.  An  old  term  to  signify  a  glass  of 
spirits  taken  early  in  the  morning ;  an  eye- 
opener. 

Cay,  or  Cayos.  Small  insulated  sandy  spots 
or  rocks.  See  KEY. 

Cayenne.  A  town  of  South  America,  capital 
of  French  Guiana,  on  the  western  point  of  an 
island  of  the  same  name,  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Cayenne  or  Oyaque  River,  in  the  Atlantic.  Lat. 
4°  56'  5"  N. ;  Ion.  52°  20'  W.  The  harbor  is 
shallow,  has  two  quays,  and  is  protected  by  a 
fort  and  several  batteries.  Cayenne  is  a  penal 
settlement  for  French  political  and  criminal 
offenders.  Pop.  10,500. 

C.  B.  (Eng.}.  The  uncials  of  Companion  of 
the  most  honorable  order  of  the  Bath.  This 
grade  was  at  one  time  distributed  so  profusely 
that  an  undecorated  veteran  testily  remarked  that 
if  the  government  went  on  thus  there  would  soon 
be  more  C.B.'s  than  A.B.'s  in  the  navy. 

Cease  Firing.     The  order  to  stop  firing. 

Ceiling.  Strakes  of  plank  worked  between 
the  clamps  and  water-ways  on  berth-decks,  and 
between  the  thick  strakes  and  clamps,  and  thick 
strakes  and  bilge- strakes  in  the  hold. 

Celestial  (Lat.  ccelestis,  from  ccelum,  the 
heavens).  Pertaining  to  the  heavens;  opposed 
to  terrestrial.  Thus  we  have  the  "  celestial  me 
ridian,"  the  "celestial  horizon,"  the  "  celestial 
equator,"  etc. 

CELESTIAL  CONCAVE  (Lat.  concavus,  hollow). 
Of  the  two  spherical  surfaces  with  which  we  are 
concerned,  the  terrestrial  sphere  is  convex, — i.e., 
presents  its  external  surface  to  us  ;  while  the 
celestial  sphere  is  concave, — i.e.,  presents  its  in 
ternal  surface  to  us.  The  different  heavenly 
bodies  are  interspersed  in  space  at  various  dis 
tances  from  the  earth,  but  to  an  observer  on  its 
surface  all  of  them  appear  to  be  placed  or  pro 
jected  on  the  internal  surface  of  a  hollow  sphere. 
This  sphere  is  called  the  celestial  concave,  celestial 
sphere,  sphere  of  the  heavens,  or  sphere  of  the 
stars,  its  centre  being  the  position  of  the  observer. 
It  must  always  be  remembered  that  the  celestial 
concave  is  an  imaginary  surface,  arising  in  the 
mind  of  the  observer  either  from  association  with 
the  real  concave  surface  of  the  retina  of  his  eye, 
which  is  the  true  seat  of  all  visible  angular  di 
mensions  and  angular  motion,  or  from  the  in 
ability  of  the  eye  to  perceive  differences  of  dis 
tances  in  objects  so  remote  as  the  heavenly 
bodies. 


CELL 


119 


CHAMBER 


CELESTIAL  EMPIRE.  A  popular  designation  for 
China.  It  is  said  to  be  derived  from  the  Chinese 
words  Tien  Chan,  that  is,  Heavenly  Dynasty, 
meaning  the  kingdom  ruled  over  by  the  dynasty 
appointed  by  heaven. 

Cell.    See  GALVANIC  BATTERY. 

Celoces,  or  Celetes.  Light  row-boats  formerly 
used  in  piracy,  and  also  for  conveying  dispatches. 

Centaurus  (Lat.  "The  Centaur").  A  con 
stellation  which,  together  with  Crux,  constitutes 
a  bright  group  in  the  southern  hemisphere, 
pointed  out  by  the  line  joining  Arcturus  and 
Spica.  The  two  principal  stars  a2  and  (3  of  the 
Centaur  are  close  together,  (3  being  the  nearer  to 
the  cross. 

Centigrade  (Lat.  centum,  a  hundred ;  gradus, 
a  step,  graduation).  See  THERMOMETER. 

Centime  (Fr.).  The  hundredth  part  of  a 
franc. 

Central  Eclipse.     See  ECLIPSE. 

Centre.     The  middle  part  of  anything. 

CENTRE-FIRE  CARTRIDGE.  A  metallic  car 
tridge  in  which  the  fulminate  occupies  an  axial 
position. 

CENTRE-LINE.  The  line  which  is  the  exact 
centre  of  the  ship,  either  in  the  drawings  or  upon 
the  ship's  hull. 

CENTRE  OF  A  FLEET.  The  division  between 
the  van  and  rear,  or  between  the  weather  and  lee 
divisions. 

CENTRE  OF  ATTRACTION,  or  GRAVITATION. 
The  point  to  which  bodies  tend  by  gravity. 

CENTRE  OF  BUOYANCY,  OF  DISPLACEMENT, 
OF  CAVITY,  AND  OF  IMMERSION.  Synonymous 
terms  in  naval  architecture  for  the  mean  centre 
of  that  part  of  a  vessel  which  is  immersed  in  the 
water. 

CENTRE  OF  EFFORT.  A  point,  to  which  the 
whole  force  of  the  wind  on  the  sails  being  ap 
plied,  the  eifect  produced  is  the  same  as  that 
caused  by  the  wind  when  uniformly  distributed 
on  the  system  of  sails. 

CENTRE  OF  GRAVITY.  That  point  of  a  body 
about  which  all  the  parts  exactly  balance  each 
other,  so  that  if  it  be  supported  the  whole  body 
will  be  at  rest  in  any  position  whatever. 

CENTRE  OF  MOTION.  The  point  about  which 
any  body,  or  system  of  bodies,  moves. 

Ceola.     A  very  old  term  for  a  large  ship. 

Cephalopod.  An  animal  of  the  sub-kingdom 
Mollusca,,  characterized  by  a  distinct  head  sur 
rounded  by  a  circle  of  long  arms  or  tentacles. 

Cepheus.  a  Cephei,  Alderanim ;  f3  Cephei, 
Alphirk.  See  CONSTELLATION. 

Ceradene.     A  large  fresh-water  mussel. 

Cercuri.  Ancient  ships  of  burden  fitted  with 
both  sails  and  oars. 

Certificate  of  Registry.  A  document  which 
specifies  the  names  of  the  vessel,  master,  and 
owners,  together  with  the  tonnage,  particulars  as 
to  origin,  and  the  port  to  which  the  vessel  be 
longs. 

Cetacea  (Gr.  katos,  a  whale).  An  order  of 
mammals  living  in  the  sea  or  large  rivers,  and 
shaped  like  fishes  for  moving  habitually  in  the 
watery  element,  having  the  posterior  part  of 
the  spine  disencumbered  of  a  sacrum  and  hinder 
extremities  to  allow  the  tail  to  have  a  due  free 
dom  and  extent  of  motion.  They  breathe 
air,  have  warm  blood,  and  a  double  circulation, 
like  the  rest  of  the  class  to  which  they  belong  ; 
they  are  consequently  compelled  to  resort  to  the 


surface  for  the  purpose  of  respiration ;  and  the 
tail-tin  is  accordingly  horizontal  and  not  vertical, 
as  in  some  fishes. 

Cetine.  An  ancient  float,  "in  bulk  like  a 
whale;"  derived  from  cetus,  which  applied  both 
to  whale  and  ship. 

Cetus.  a  Ceti,  Menkar  ;  ft  Ceti,  Diphda.  See 
CONSTELLATION. 

C.  G.  (Eng.}.  Coast-guard  of  Great  Britain 
(which  see). 

Chad.  A  fish  like  a  small  bream,  abundant 
on  the  southwest  coasts  of  England. 

Chafe.  To  rub  or  fret  the  surface  of  cables, 
masts,  yards,  etc. 

CHAFING-CHEEKS.  An  old  name  for  the 
sheaves  in  the  yards. 

CHAFING-GEAR.  Mats,  strands,  battens,  etc., 
for  protecting  objects  from  injury  by  chafing. 

Chaffer.     A  name  for  a  whale  or  grampus. 

Chain.  A  series  of  connected  links.  A  chain- 
cable.  A  lineal  measure  of  4  rods,  or  66  feet, 
divided  into  100  links.  When  mountains,  lakes, 
or  islands  are  joined  together  so  that  their  length 
greatly  exceeds  their  breadth,  they  form  what  is 
termed  a  chain. 

CHAIN-CABLE.     See  CABLE. 

CHAIN-HOOK.  An  iron  rod  with  a  hook  at 
one  end  and  an  eye  for  the  hand  in  the  other, 
used  in  working  the  chain-cables. 

CHAIN-LOCKER.  A  locker  in  the  hold  in  which 
the  chain-cables  are  stowed. 

CHAIN-PIPE.  An  aperture  in  the  deck  through 
which  pass  the  chains  from  the  locker  to  the 
deck  above. 

CHAIN,  TOP-.  A  chain  to  sling  the  lower  yard 
in  action. 

CHAIN- STOPPER.     See  STOPPER. 

CHAIN-WELL.     See  CHAIN-LOCKER. 

Chains.  Iron  links  which  secure  the  dead- 
eyes  connected  with  the  channels.  See  CHAN 
NELS. 

CHAIN-BOLT.  The  bolt  which  passes  through 
the  toe-links  and  secures  the  chains  to  the  side. 

CHAIN-PLATES.  Iron  plates  to  which  the 
dead-eyes  are  secured  ;  they  are  often  substituted 
for  chains,  being  considered  preferable. 

Chain-shot.  Two  balls  connected  by  a  chain 
for  cutting  the  spars  and  rigging  of  an  enemy's 
ship. 

Chaland.  A  large  flat-bottomed  boat  of  the 
Loire. 

Chalder.     A  gudgeon. 

Chaldrick.  A  name  for  the  sea-pie  (Hceman- 
topus  ostralegus}. 

Chaldron.  A  measure  of  coal  equal  to  36 
bushels. 

Chalink.     A  kind  of  Massoolah  boat. 

Challenge.  The  hail  of  a  sentry  to  a  person 
approaching.  See  DUEL. 

Chamaeleon.     See  CONSTELLATION. 

Chamber.  A  contraction  of  the  bore  of  a  gun 
which  receives  the  charge  of  powder.  The 
chamber  in  general  use  is  the  conical  or  gomer 
chamber.  The  ballistic  power  of  some  of  the 
European  guns  has  been  augmented  by  adding  to 
the  weight  of  the  charge  and  igniting  it  in  a 
space  considerably  larger  than  that  occupied  by 
the  powder.  This  increased  space  is  obtained 
by  enlarging  the  chamber.  If  the  charge  had 
not  been  increased  the  air-space  would  have 
caused  a  diminution  both  in  velocity  and  press 
ure,  the  latter  decreasing  in  a  greater  ratio  than 


CHAMFER 


120 


CHAKLES'S  WAIN 


the  former;  but,  by  judiciously  increasing  the 
weight  of  the  charge,  it  has  been  possible  to  gen 
erate  a  greater  volume  of  gas  behind  the  projec 
tile  without  carrying  the  maximum  pressure  be- 
vond  that  which  obtained  when  the  old  cartridge 
and  full  chamber  were  used. 

A  clear  space  between  the  riders  in  those  ves 
sels  which  have  floor  and  futtock  riders. 

CHAMBER-PIECE.  A  movable  piece  to  fit  into 
the  breech  of  old  guns.  See  GINGAL. 

Chamfer.  To  cut  or  take  off  a  sharp  edge  or 
angle. 

Champlin,  Stephen,  Commodore  U.S.N. 
Born  at  South  Kingston,  B.  L,  November  17, 
1789;  died  at  Buffalo,  February  20,  1870.  His 
father,  Stephen,  was  a  volunteer  in  the  American 
Revolution.  His  mother,  Elizabeth  Perry,  was 
an  aunt  of  Commodore  Perry.  At  16  he  began  a 
sea-faring  life,  and  at  22  commanded  a  ship  out  of 
Norwich.  May  22, 1812,  he  was  appointed  sail 
ing-master  in  the  navy  ;  lieutenant,  December  9, 
1814;  commander,  June  22,  1838;  captain,  Au 
gust  4,  1850 ;  and  commodore  on  retired  list, 
July  16,  1882.  He  first  commanded  a  gunboat 
under  Perry  at  Newport ;  was  second  in  the 
command  of  the  "  Asp"  in  the  affairs  of  Little 
York  and  Fort  George,  U.  C.  ;  and,  joining 
Perry  at  Lake  Erie,  took  command  of  the 
"  Scorpion,"  in  which  he  did  good  service  at  the 
battle  of  September  10,  18l3,  capturing  the 
"  Little  Belt."  Of  this  battle,  in  which  he  fired 
the  first  and  last  guns,  he  was  the  last  surviving 
officer.  In  the  following  spring  he  commanded 
the  "Tigris,"  and,  while  blockading  Mackinac, 
was  attacked  at  night  by  an  overwhelming  force, 
severely  wounded,  and  made  prisoner.  In  1816 
he  commanded  the  "  Porcupine,"  but  performed 
little  subsequent  service  on  account  of  his  wound. 
He  was  a  resident  of  Buffalo  from  1834. 

Chancery,  In.     See  IRONS,  IN. 

Chancy.     Doubtful. 

Chandler,  Ship-.     A  dealer  in  naval  stores. 

Change.  The  voluntary  substitution  of  a 
different  voyage  for  a  merchant  ship  from  the 
one  originally  specified  or  agreed  upon, — an  act 
which  discharges  the  insurers. 

Changey-for-Changey.  An  expression  used 
in  relation  to  a  "swap,"  to  denote  that  each 
party  is  satisfied  with  his  bargain. 

Channel.  An  arm  of  the  sea  separating  an 
island  from  the  mainland,  or  two  islands  from 
each  other.  The  fair-way  or  deepest  part  of  a 
river,  harbor,  or  strait. 

CH ANNEL-GROPERS  (Enff.).  Men-of-war  which 
cruise  in  the  English  Channel. 

Channels.  Flat  ledges  of  white-oak  plank 
projecting  outboard  from  the  ship's  side  for 
spreading  the  lower  shrouds  and  giving  addi 
tional  support  to  the  masts ;  also  called  chains. 

CHANNEL-BOLTS.  The  bolts  driven  through 
the  channels  edgewise,  and  through  the  frame 
and  planking,  to  secure  them  to  the  ship's  side. 

CHANNEL-PUMP.  A  pump  rigged  in  the 
channels. 

Chape.  The  top  locket  of  the  scabbard  of  a 
sword. 

Chapel.  In  a  light  breeze  when  the  ship  comes 
to  against  the  helm,  or  is  taken  aback  by  a  shift 
of  wind,  or  by  negligence  at  the  helm,  she  may 
be  recovered  on  the  same  tack  without  bracing 
the  head-yards,  by  causing  the  ship  to  make  a 
complete  circle,  until  she  arrives  at  her  original 


position.      This   manoeuvre   is   called  chapeling 
ship,  or  building  a  chapel. 

Chaph.     ft  Cassiopeice. 

Chaplain.     See  NAVAL  CHAPLAIN. 

Chapman.  A  small  trader ;  a  ship's  super 
cargo. 

Char.     A  species  of  trout. 

Charcoal.  A  form  of  carbon  obtained  by 
burning  wood  with  the  imperfect  access  of  air, 
or  by  heating  or  distilling  it  in  iron  cylinders  so 
constructed  as  to  allow  of  the  collection  of  the 
volatile  products,  among  which  are  tar  and 
pyrollgneous  acid,  which  is  impure  vinegar. 
The  purity  of  the  carbon  varies  directly  with  the 
temperature  at  which  the  wood  is  charred ;  thus, 
charcoal  charred  at  480°  contains  65  per  cent,  of 
carbon,  while  that  charred  at  750°  contains  80, 
and  that  charred  at  2730°  contains  96;  but  the 
loss  of  charcoal  occasioned  by  these  high  tem 
peratures  is  very  great,  the  three  percentages  of 
charcoal  corresponding  to  these  temperatures 
being  50,  20,  and  15.  Among  the  many  uses  of 
charcoal,  that  of  most  interest  to  military  and 
naval  men  is  its  employment  in  the  manufacture 
of  gunpowder  (which  see).  For  this  purpose  the 
charcoal  from  willows  and  alder  is  now  chiefly 
used.  A  peculiar  kind  of  charcoal,  termed  from 
its  color  cnarbon  rouge,  is  prepared  in  France  for 
the  manufacture  of  the  gunpowder  used  for 
sporting  purposes,  by  subjecting  wood  in  iron 
cylinders  to  the  action  of  superheated  steam 
under  a  pressure  of  two  atmospheres.  Powder 
made  with  this  charcoal  absorbs  moisture  more 
rapidly  than  ordinary  gunpowder. 

Charge.  The  quantity  of  powder  used  in 
loading  a  fire-arm  or  in  filling  a  shell  or  torpedo. 
Service  charges  are  the  ordinary  charges  author 
ized  by  the  bureau  of  ordnance.  Battering 
charges  are  larger  than  the  service  charges,  and 
are  used  for  a  limited  number  of  fires  against 
ironclads  or  masonry  at  short  range.  A  burst 
ing  charge  is  the  full  charge  of  powder  used  in  a 
shell ;  a  blowing  charge  is  a  small  quantity  of 
powder  used  in  a  shell  in  target  practice  when 
the  object  is  to  test  the  fuse. 

Charge  and  Specification.  The  formal  written 
statement  of  the  offense  alleged  to  have  been 
committed  by  the  accused  before  a  general  court- 
martial. 

In  the  British  service  there  is  no  distinction 
between  the  "charge,"  as  such,  and  the  "speci 
fication  ;"  the  fact,  or  body  of  facts,  constituting 
each  offense  being  only  presented  in  a  single  sen 
tence  or  paragraph,  the  separate  paragraphs 
being  numbered  where  the  charges  are  more 
than  one,  but — even  when  the  offenses  are  all  of 
the  same  class  and  character — introduced  by  no 
general  title  or  descriptive  heading.  In  our  ser 
vice,  on  the  contrary,  a  military  charge  consists 
of  two  parts, — the  technical  "charge"  and  the 
"specification."  The  former  defines  and  desig 
nates  the  offense,  and  the  latter  sets  forth  a  cer 
tain  state  of  facts  which  are  supposed  to  make 
out  such  offense.  See  COURT-MARTIAL. 

Charge  d'Affaires.  The  designation  of  diplo 
matic  agents  of  the  third  class. 

Charity  Sloops  (Eng.}.  Certain  ten-gun  brigs 
built  toward  the  close  of  Napoleon's  wars.  They 
were  rated  sloops  in  order  to  give  a  command  to 
a  great  number  of  commanders. 

Charles's  Wain.  The  seven  principal  stars  in 
Ursa  Major,  generally  known  as  the  "Dipper." 


CHARLESTON 


121 


CHART 


Charleston.  A  port  of  entry  and  the  largest 
city  of  South  Carolina,  situated  at  the  conflu 
ence  of  the  Ashley  and  Cooper  Rivers,  which 
unite  immediately  below  the  town  and  form  a 
good  and  spacious  harbor,  communicating  with 
the  ocean  at  Sullivan's  Island,  7  miles  below.  It 
is  118  miles  N.E.  of  Savannah,  580  miles  S.W. 
of  Baltimore,  and  540  miles  from  Washington. 
Lat.  323  W  N.  ;  Ion.  79°  57/  W.  Cooper  and 
Ashley  Rivers  are  from  30  to  40  feet  deep,  the 
former  1400  and  the  latter  2100  yards  wide.  The 
ground  on  which  the  city  is  built  is  elevated  8 
or  9  feot  above  the  level  of  the  harbor  at  high 
tide,  which  rises  about  6  feet,  flowing  by  the 
city  with  a  strong  current,  thus  contributing  to 
its  salubrity.  It  has  a  water  front  of  9  miles. 
A  sandbar  extends  across  the  mouth  of  the  har 
bor,  affording,  however,  two  entrances,  of  which 
the  deepest,  near  Sullivan's  Island,  has  18  feet 
of  water  at  low  tide.  The  harbor  is  defended  by 
Castle  Pinckney  and  Fort  Sumter,  each  on  an 
island,  the  former  2  and  the  latter  6  miles  below 
the  city,  and  also  by  Fort  Moultrie,  on  Sulli 
van's  Island.  Charleston  is  the  most  commer 
cial  city  of  South  Carolina,  and  has  an  advan 
tageous  position  for  trade,  having  a  harbor  deep 
enough  for  the  largest  ships.  Pop.  60,000. 

Charley  Noble.  The  popular  name  for  the 
galley-funnel. 

Chart.  Chart  is  derived  from  the  Greek  c.hartes ; 
Latin,  charta*,  which  was  originally  applied  to  a 
sort  of  paper  made  of  the  plant  papyrus  or  biblus. 

In  navigation  it  is  defined  as  a  representation, 
in  piano,  of  a  part  or  of  the  whole  of  the  water 
on  the  surface  of  the  globe  and  the  adjacent 
coasts. 

To  trace  the  history  of  cartography,  an  art 
probably  as  ancient  as  the  invention  of  letters, 
would  exceed  the  limits  of  this  article.  The 
period  from  Anaximander  to  Henry  the  Navi 
gator,  extending  over  two  thousand  years,  be 
longs  rather  to  the  province  of  the  antiquary. 

Unquestionably  the  ancients  had  sea-maps 
which  guided  their  barks  in  voyages  of  adven 
ture  or  profit,  and  did  we  possess  fuller  sources 
of  information  much  that  is  interesting  might  be 
said  of  them.  But  of  such  knowledge  a  cele 
brated  historian  has  remarked,  "  We  possess 
only  what  has  drifted  ashore  from  a  stranded 
vessel." 

Charts,  therefore,  as  we  understand  them,  may 
be  assigned  to  the  epoch  of  the  inauguration  of 
maritime  enterprise  among  the  nations  of  modern 
times.  To  Prince  Henry,  Duke  of  Visco,  son 
of  John  I.,  King  of  Portugal,  is  ascribed  the 
credit  of  first  introducing  them  into  the  marine, 
about  the  year  1400.  These  were  of  the  kind  de 
nominated  plane  charts,  and  they  have  continued 
in  use  to  the  present  day,  being  now  employed 
only  for  very  limited  areas. 

The  first  chart  made  in  England  appeared  in 
an  almanac  printed  on  vellum  in  1520. 

In  1542,  John  Rotz,  a  Frenchman,  made  for 
King  Henry  VIII.  "A  Book  of  Hydrography," 
containing  charts  of  the  sea-coast  finely  painted 
on  large  skins  of  parchment,  still  preserved  in 
the  British  Museum. 

For  any  considerable  extent  of  surface  charts 
of  this  construction  were  soon  found  to  be  incor 
rect,  and  their  errors  were  successively  exposed 
by  Martin  Cortes,  Petrus  Nonius,  and  Edward 
Wright ;  especially  the  last  named,  in  his  treatise 


entitled  "  Certain  Errors  in  Navigation  Detected 
and  Corrected,"  published  at  London  in  1599. 

With  a  view  to  correcting  these  errors,  Gerard 
Kauffman,  more  familiarly  known  by  the  Latin 
equivalent  Mercator  (merchant),  a  Flemish  geog 
rapher,  in  the  year  1556,  published  a  chart  in 
which  the  parallelism  of  the  meridians  was  com 
pensated  for  by  increasing  the  length  of  each  de 
gree  of  latitude  from  the  equator  towards  the 
poles.  It,  however,  appears  that  his  charts  had 
no  claim  to  accuracy;  for  the  intervals  between 
the  parallels  did  not  agree  with  the  diiferences 
of  the  corresponding  meridional  parts  of  those 
parallels.  It  seems  evident,  therefore,  that  Mer 
cator  had  no  correct  method  of  dividing  the  en 
larged  meridian. 

The  discovery  of  a  rule  for  this  purpose  was 
made  by  Wright  and  published  in  his  book  above 
mentioned.  He  states  that  the  idea  was  suggested 
to  him  by  Mercator's  chart,  "  But  the  way  how 
this  should  be  done  I  learned  neither  from  Mer 
cator  nor  any  man  else." 

The  primitive  idea  of  the  projection  upon 
which  all  our  modern  charts  for  navigating  pur 
poses  are  constructed,  expressed  in  the  quaint 
language  of  its  author,  is  as  follows  :* 

"Suppose  a  spheerical  superficies,  with  me 
ridians,  parallels,  rumbes,  and  the  whole  hydro- 
graphicall  description  drawn  thereupon,  to  be 
inscribed  into  a  concave  cylinder,  their  axes  agree 
ing  in  one.  Let  the  sphaerical  superficies  swell 
like  a  bladder  (whiles  it  is  in  blowing)  aequally 
alwayes  in  every  part  thereof  (that  is,  as  much 
in  longitude  as  in  latitude)  till  it  apply,  and  joyn 
itself  (round  about,  and  all  alongst  till  towards 
either  pole)  unto  the  concave  superficies  of  the 
cylinder  ;  each  parallel  upon  the  sphaerical  super 
ficies  increasing  successively  from  the  equinoctial 
towards  either  pole,  until  it  come  to  be  of  {equal 
diameter  with  the  cylinder,  and  consequently  the 
meridians  still  widening  themselves,  till  they 
come  to  be  so  far  distant  everywhere  each  from 
the  other  as-  they  are  at  the  ^equinoctial.  Thus 
it  may  be  most  easily  understood  how  a  spherical 
superficies  may  (by  extension)  be  made  cylin 
drical,  and  consequently  a  plain  parallelogram 
superficies;  because  the  cylinder  is  nothing  else 
but  a  plain  parallelogram  wound  about  two 
sequal  equidistant  circles.  .  .  .  Since  in  this 
projection  the  parallels  are  all  made  tequal  to 
tHe  equator,  it  is  evident  they  are  enlarged  in 
the  proportion  of  the  radius  to  the  co-sines  of 
their  respective  latitudes  ;  wherefore  the  merid 
ian,  in  order  to  preserve  everywhere  its  propor 
tion  to  the  several  parallels  thus  increased,  must, 
at  the  latitude  of  each  parallel,  be  enlarged  in 
the  proportion  of  the  radius  to  the  co-sine  of  the 
latitude,  or  so  that  the  length  of  a  minute  of  the 
true  or  proper  meridian,  which  upon  the  globe 
is  the  same  in  all  latitudes,  and  sequal  to  a  min 
ute  of  the  equator,  may  be  to  the  length  of  a 
minute  on  the  enlarged  in  any  latitude,  as  the 
co-sine  of  the  latitude  to  radius,  or,  which  is  the 
same,  as  radius  is  to  the  secant  of  the  latitude. 
.  .  .  Hence  a  table  of  natural  secants  to  every 
degree  and  minute  of  the  quadrant,  and  whose 
radius  is  1,  will  express  the  several  lengths  of 
the  enlarged  meridian  at  the  latitude  belonging 
to  those  secants  respectively.  And  hence  the 

*  Properly  speaking,  this  should  be  called  Mercator's  de 
velopment  ;  it  is  not  a  projection  in  tlie  strict  sense  of  tho 
term. 


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122 


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sum  of  the  secants  of  all  the  minutes  from  the 
beginning  of  the  quadrant  to  the  degree  and 
minute  of  any  parallel's  latitude  will  be,  in 
minutes  of  the  equator,  or  nautical  miles,  the 
length  of  that  part  of  the  enlarged  meridian 
which  is  contained  between  the  equator  and  the 
given  parallel." 

In  this  manner  Wright  constructed  his  "  Table 
of  Latitudes  for  Graduating  a  Meridian  in  the 
General  Sea-Chart,"  which  has  since  obtained 
the  name  of  "A  Table  of  Meridional  Parts," 
called  by  the  French  "  Latitudes  Croissantes." 

The  above  method  of  dividing  the  meridian  is 
not  geometrically  accurate.  Wright  understood 
this,  and  devised  "  A  conceit  for  dividing  the 
meridian  of  the  nautical  planisphsere  that  may 
satisfie  the  curious  exactness  of  the  geometrician. ' ' 
Since  his  time  various  mathematicians  have  im 
proved  on  his  method.  The  first  correct  solution 
of  the  problem  appears  in  "  Norwood's  Epitome 
of  Navigation,"  1645.  Its  author  is  unknown, 
and  the  ^demonstration  was  not  given ;  this  was 
supplied  by  Mr.  James  Gregory,  of  Aberdeen, 
1668,  and  more  concisely  at  a  later  period  by 
Dr.  Halley. 

In  most  works  on  navigation  containing  tables 
of  meridional  parts  the  calculations  have  been 
made  on  the  supposition  that  the  earth  is  a  sphere, 
and  this  answers  well  enough  for  practical  pur 
poses.  But  theory,  confirmed  by  observation, 
has  shown  our  globe  to  be  an  oblate  spheroid, 
and  Sir  Isaac  Newton  and  others  have  calculated 
the  ratio  of  the  equatorial  to  the  polar  diameter  ; 
this  is  called  the  compression  of  the  terrestrial 
spheroid.  Its  value  has  been  variously  estimated  : 
that  adopted  by  the  Bureau  of  Navigation, 

is,  c=_  - 

299.1528 

On  the  Mercator  chart  the  loxodrome,  or  ship's 
track,  is  developed  as  a  right  line  making  the 
same  angle  with  each  meridian  crossed,  and  this 
constitutes  its  chief  advantage  over  other  sys 
tems  for  purposes  of  navigation.  As  for  every 
increase  of  latitude  a  new  scale  of  measurement 
is  introduced,  objects  near  the  pole  are  increased 
in  size  but  their  outlines  are  not  distorted.  The 
relative  positions  of  places  with  respect  to  a 
rhumb-line  are  correct,  but  the  relative  distances 
between  places  are  not  shown  with  precision. 

Observed  bearings,  unless  due  north  or  south, 
or  east  and  west  at  the  equator,  are  never  identi 
cal  with  bearings  taken  from  the  Mercator  chart, 
and  the  error  increases  the  higher  the  latitude. 
Such  bearings  being  similar  to  courses  on  a  great 
circle,  it  follows  that  this  chart  is  not  adapted  for 
great  circle  sailing. 

Since  bearings  obtained  either  by  means  of  the 
magnetic  needle  or  astronomical  observations 
cannot  be  laid  off  with  accuracy,  it  is  evident 
that  the  Mercator  projection  does  not  answer  for 
the  more  refined  purposes  of  surveying. 

All  attempts  to  project  a  spherical  surface  on 
a  plane  result  in  more  or  less  distortion  of  the 
country  delineated,  in  large  extents  so  great  as 
to  destroy  the  true  proportion  between  the  parts. 

For  map-making  and  plotting  the  data  of  a 
survey  various  projections  are  employed,  such  as 
the  orthographic,  stereographic,  equidistant,  coni 
cal,  gnomonic,  and  polyconic ;  the  last  three  are 
the  only  ones  adapted  to  our  present  purpose. 
Since  surveys  are  first  plotted  on  one  of  these 
projections  and  then  transferred  to  the  Mercator 


chart  for  the  use  of  the  navigator,  a  brief  con 
sideration  of  them  is  not  out  of  place  here. 

The  conical  projection  is  much  used  by  Euro 
pean  map-makers,  and  is  drawn  as  if  projected 
from  the  centre  of  the  earth  on  the  surface  of  a 
cone  cutting  the  surface  of  the  earth  in  the  paral 
lels  of  latitude  equidistant  from  the  extremes 
and  middle  of  the  required  limits.  Within  mod 
erate  areas  the  distortion  is  quite  inappreciable, 
and  even  for  a  considerable  extent  of  country  it 
is  but  trifling  ;  on  this  account  it,  or  some  modi 
fication  of  it,  is  now  generally  used  for  maps. 
For  purposes  of  accurate  measurement  it  has 
the  disadvantage  that,  with  the  exception  of  the 
meridians,  all  great  circles  are  represented  on  it 
by  curved  lines.  Now,  all  measurements  between 
places  on  the  earth's  surface  are  necessarily  made 
on  the  arc  of  a  great  circle,  and  for  these  to  be 
accurately  represented  on  paper  it  is  of  the  great 
est  importance  that  the  projection  of  every  arc 
of  a  great  circle  should  be  a  right  line.  This  re 
quirement  prevents  the  use  of  the  orthographic 
projection,  which  near  its  centre  is  the  most  ac 
curate  of  all,  and  the  same  objection  applies  to 
the  Mercator. 

The  gnomonic  projection  fulfills  this  require 
ment.  It  is  formed  by  lines  drawn  through  the 
several  points  from  the  centre  of  a  sphere  to  a 
plane  touching  the  sphere  in  a  point  near  the 
middle  of  the  country  to  be  represented.  The 
distortion  is  greater  than  in  the  orthographic  or 
conical  projections,  but  within  the  limits  of  a 
survey,  so  trifling  as  to  be  practically  inappre 
ciable.  At  a  distance  of  60  miles  from  the 
central  point  a  mile  so  projected  is  but  one  foot 
too  long,  and  no  one  chart  on  a  moderately  large 
scale  exceeds  120  miles. 

For  detailed  charts,  such  as  are  drawn  by 
surveyors  in  the  progress  of  a  survey,  the  gno 
monic  projection  is,  practically  speaking,  accu 
rate  ;  and  possessing  the  desired  property  of 
representing  all  great  circles  by  straight  lines, 
cutting  each  other  at  angles  which  within  the 
required  limits  have  no  sensible  difference  from 
the  angles  at  which  the  circles  cut  each  other,  it, 
or  some  modification  of  it,  is  much  used  by  sur 
veyors.  The  numerical  computations  necessary 
for  this  projection  require  a  knowledge  of  conic 
sections  ;  but  such  calculations  are  obviated  by 
the  use  of  Carrington's  tables.  Large  charts  of 
the  gnomonic  projection  have  been  constructed 
for  purposes  of  great  circle  sailing.  Such  charts 
are  useful  auxiliaries  to  rhumb  sailing. 

These  two  projections  are  used  by  the  Ad 
miralty  surveyors  and  rnap-makers  of  Great 
Britain. 

The  United  States  Coast  Survey  and  Hydro- 
graphic  Office  have  adopted  the  polyconic  system 
in  the  plotting  of  surveys.  The  coast  charts  of 
the  United  States  are  issued  in  this  projection, 
and  the  largest  extends  from  Cape  Hatteras  to 
Cape  Sable.  This  is  a  modification  of  the  conical 
projection,  and  supposes  each  parallel  of  latitude 
to  be  developed  upon  its  own  cone,  the  vertex  of 
which  is  on  the  axis  of  the  sphere  at  its  intersec 
tion  with  the  tangent  to  the  meridian  at  the 
parallel.  The  "  Projection  Tables,"  published 
by  the  Bureau  of  Navigation,  give  a  description 
of  the  theory  and  practical  construction  of  this 
projection. 

The  survey  is  plotted  on  shipboard,  as  made 
from  day  to  'day,  on  blank  projection  sheets  of 


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123 


CHAKT 


well-stretched  drawing-paper.  This  work,  to 
gether  with  all  the  data  of  the  survey,  is  sent  to 
the  Hydrographic  Office,  where  it  is  carefully 
revised ;  the  several  sheets  combined  form  a 
polyconic  chart  on  a  large  scale.  The  work  is 
then  ready  for  transfer  to  the  Mercator  chart. 

The  scale  having  been  determined  on,  a  Mer 
cator  chart  is  developed  within  the  required 
limits  in  the  following  manner: 

A  sheet  of  Whatman's  cold-pressed  drawing- 
paper,  previously  stretched,  is  secured  to  the 
board  by  means  of  thumb-tacks  ;  the  usual  in 
struments  of  the  draughtsman  should  be  within 
reach. 

If  the  equator  is  to  be  included  within  the 
limits  of  the  proposed  chart,  the  values  to  be 
laid  oif  for  latitude  are  given  directly  in  the 
table.  Should  the  equator  not  come  within  the 
chart,  then  the  difference  of  the  meridional  parts 
corresponding  to  the  upper  and  lower  latitudes 
gives  these  values.  Such  quantities  may  be 
directly  measured  off  by  means  of  a  diagonal 
scale,  or  reduced  to  the  proper  proportions  from 
a  scale  of  yards,  metres,  etc.  If,  for  instance,  it 
be  required  to  construct  a  chart  on  a  scale  of  one- 
quarter  of  an  inch  to  five  minutes  of  arc  on  the 
equator,  a  diagonal  scale  may  first  be  constructed, 
on  which  ten  meridional  parts,  or  ten  minutes  of 
arc  on  the  equator,  have  a  length  of  half  an  inch. 
Then,  in  the  usual  manner,  multiples  of  one 
meridional  part  may  be  measured  on  the  base 
line,  multiples  of  0.1  on  the  lines  parallel  to  the 
base-line,  and  multiples  of  0.01  maybe  estimated 
between  the  parallels.  If  an  inch'scale  be  used, 
the  meridional  parts,  before  being  laid  down  on 
the  projection,  must  be  multiplied  by  0.05  or 
divided  by  20,  since  .20  minutes  of  arc  on  the 
equator,  or  20  meridional  parts,  have  to  be  made 
equal  to  one  inch. 

Often  it  may  be  desirable  to  adapt  the  scale  to 
a  certain  size  of  paper.  In  this  case  the  extreme 
parallels  are  first  drawn  on  the  sheet,  the  dis 
tance  between  them  measured,  and  the  included 
number  of  meridional  parts  ascertained.  Divid 
ing  the  measured  distance  by  this  number  gives 
the  length  of  one  meridional  part,  this  represents 
the  scale  of  the  chart,  and  by  it  all  the  merid 
ional  parts  taken  from  the  table  must  be  multi 
plied. 

The  practical  construction  is  best  shown  by  an 
example :  Suppose  a  projection  be  required  for  a 
chart  of  14°  extent  in  longitude,  between  the 
parallels  of  latitude  20°  30'  and  30°  25',  and  let 
the  space  available  on  the  paper  between  these 
parallels  measure  10  inches. 

Entering  the  column  headed  20°  in  the  table 
of  meridional  parts  and  running  down  to  the  line 
of  30'  in  the  side  column,  will  be  found  1249.08  ; 
then  entering  the  column  headed  30°  and  run 
ning  down  to  the  line  of  25',  will  be  found  1905.68. 
The"  difference,  1905.68  —  1249.08  =  656.60,  is  the 
value  of  the  meridional  arc  between  those  lati 
tudes,  for  which  V  of  arc  on  the  equator  is  taken 
as  the  unit. 

On  the  intended  projection,  therefore,  lx  of 


arc  of  longitude  will  measure 


10  in. 


=0.0152 


656.60 

inches,  which  will  be  the  scale  of  the  chart; 
for  the  sake  of  brevity  call  this  0.015.  By  this 
quantity  all  the  values  derived  from  the  table 
must  be  multiplied  before  laying  them  down  on 
the  projection,  if  they  are  to  be  measured  by  a 


diagonal  scale  of  one  inch.  This  should  not  be 
confounded  with  the  natural  scale,  which  is  the 
proportion  that  the  chart  bears  to  the  earth,  ob 
tained  by  reducing  the  number  of  feet  in  the 
minute  of  latitude  to  inches  and  dividing  the 
product  by  the  scale. 

Draw  now  in  the  centre  of  the  sheet  a  vertical 
straight  line,  and  assume  it  to  be  the  middle  me 
ridian  of  the  chart.  Construct  very  carefully  on 
this  line  a  perpendicular  near  the  'lower  border 
of  the  sheet,  and  assume  this  perpendicular  to  be 
the  parallel  of  latitude  20°  30' ;  it  may  also  serve 
as  the  southern  inner  neat  line  of  the  chart. 
Prom  the  intersection  of  the  vertical  and  hori 
zontal  lines  thus  drawn,  lay  off  on  the  latter, 
each  side  of  the  middle  meridian,  seven  degrees  of 
longitude,  equal  to  0.015  X  60  X  7  —  6.3'inches, 
and  through  the  extremes  draw  parallels  to 
the  middle  meridian,  which  will  be  the  eastern 
and  western  inner  neat  lines  of  the  chart.  Find 
in  the  table  the  meridional  parts  for  21°  Ox, 
which  are  1280.97  ;  subtracting  from  this  num 
ber  the  parts  corresponding  to  20°  30',  and  mul 
tiplying  the  difference  by  0.015,  we  obtain  0.478 
inches,  which  is  to  be  laid  off  from  the  parallel 
of  20°  30r  on  the  verticals,  and  draw  a  straight 
line  through  the  points  thus  established.  Pro 
ceed  in  the  same  manner  to  lay  off  all  the  paral 
lels  corresponding  to  full  degrees  of  latitude. 

A  degree  of  longitude  will  measure  on  this 
chart  0.015  X  60  =  °-9  inches ;  lay  off  on  the 
extreme  and  middle  parallels  on  each  side  of  the 
middle  meridian  the  distances  0.9  inches,  1.8 
inches,  2.7  inches,  etc.,  determining  the  points 
where  meridians  of  full  degrees  cross  the  paral 
lels  on  the  chart,  through  them  draw  the  merid 
ians.  Draw  the  outer  neat  lines  of  the  chart  and 
extend  to  them  the  parallels  and  meridians.  Be 
tween  the  neat  lines  subdivide  the  degrees  of  lati 
tude  and  longitude  as  minutely  as  the  scale  will 
allow.  Subdivisions  of  longitude  are  found  by 
dividing  the  degrees  into  equal  parts,  those  for 
latitude  being  determined  from  the  table,  as  ex 
plained  for  the  full  degree.  L'astly,  draw  the 
border-lines  and  a  compass,  graduated  into  points 
and  quarter-points,  from  the  magnetic  meridian. 

The  subdivisions  between  the  parallels  will 
serve  for  estimating  distances.  Distances  be 
tween  places  bearing  north  and  south  of  each 
other  may  be  referred  to  the  subdivisions  between 
their  parallels.  Distances  represented  by  lines 
at  an  angle  to  the  meridians  may  be  measured 
by  taking  a  number  of  subdivisions  near  the 
middle  latitude  of  the  line  to  be  measured  in 
the  dividers  and  applying  them  to  that  line. 

A  chart  may  be  transferred  from  any  projec 
tion  to  the  Mercator  by  drawing  a  system  of  cor 
responding  horizontal  and  vertical  lines  on  both 
charts,  forming  minute  squares,  and  the  outlines 
and  characters  contained  in  each  square  of  the 
one  may  be  copied  in  the  corresponding  squares 
of  the  other. 

The  best  trained  eye  and  hand,  aided  by  the 
most  carefully  constructed  instruments,  cannot 
render  a  chart  perfect ;  but  this  fact  is  no  excuse 
for  careless,  hasty  execution. 

The  chart  should  be  such  that  every  portion  of 
a  sea-coast  may  be  recognized  without  hesitation, 
and  the  best  manner  of  approaching  or  avoiding 
it  perceived  and  ports  entered  without  the  aid  of 
a  pilot  in  every  state  of  weather,  wind,  and  tide. 

Besides  the  outline  of  the  shore,  with  soundings 


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CHARTER 


and  off-lying  dangers  and  relative  positions  of 
the  principal  points,  its  character  should  be  ac 
curately  delineated.  The  extent  of  shoals,  with 
the  limits  of  the  intervening  channels,  should  be 
clearly  shown  and  the  sea-marks  indicated,  the 
directions  expressed  so  tersely  and  simply  that 
by  the  rapid  opening  or  closing  of  the  marks,  and 
the  sequence  of  the  soundings,  the  mariner  may 
be  able  to  feel  his  way  with  decision  and  promp 
titude. 

The  topographic  portion  of  such  a  chart  should 
be  complete,  containing  all  the  principal  features 
which  are  conspicuous  from  the  offing  and  the 
relative  positions  of  secondary  objects.  The 
table  of  signs  and  abbreviations  employed  at  the 
United  States  Hydrographic  Office  gives  the 
necessary  information  respecting  hydrographical 
representations. 

For  the  purposes  of  the  navigator  the  elabor 
ate  systems  of  orographic  representation  are  not 
necessary,  and  it  is  needless  to  discuss  here  the 
relative  merits  of  the  methods  of  Lehman,  Du- 
four,  and  others. 

A  judicious  arrangement  of  light  and  shade, 
produced  by  increasing  or  diminishing  the  thick 
ness  of  the  hachures  and  inclining  them  so  as  to 
give  the  general  idea  of  the  course  taken  by  a 
drop  of  water,  supposing  it  to  flow  from  the  sum 
mit  to  the  foot  of  a  declivity,  gives  a  plastic 
effect  and  satisfies  the  eye. 

The  title  and  other  lettering  on  a  chart  should 
be  executed  in  the  plainest  and  neatest  manner. 
Roman  capitals  are  used  for  the  principal  titles, 
and  other  printing  may  be  done  in  small  Roman, 
Italics,  and  stump-writing. 

The  grand  division  of  sea  or  land  to  which  the 
chart  belongs  should  be  stated,  also  the  date  of 
survey,  and  by  whom  made  ;  references  to  special 
plans  that  ma}r  be  included  within  the  limits  ; 
the  longitude  and  prime  meridian,  or  secondary, 
upon  which  the  longitude  depends  ;  the  latitude  ; 
the  variation  of  the  compass  and  its  amount  of 
annual  change  ;  the  plane  of  reference  to  which 
soundings  are  reduced,  and  whether  soundings 
are  expressed  in  feet  or  fathoms ;  rise  of  spring 
tides  at  full  and  change  of  the  moon,  and  curves 
of  equal  variation. 

Views  of  certain  harbors  and  conspicuous  ob 
jects  are  often  drawn  on  the  margins  in  Indian 
ink;  in  which  case  the  bearings  from  the  point 
of  view  should  be  given. 

The  work  of  the  draughtsman  being  complete, 
the  chart  passes  into  the  hands  of  the  engraver, 
and  is  transferred  to  the  copper  plate ;  many 
months  of  careful  labor  must  elapse  before  it  is 
ready  for  printing  and  issue. 

Another  method  of  reproducing  charts  has, 
from  its  economy  and  facility,  been  much  used 
by  the  United  States  Hydrographic  Office,  and 
the  camera  has  been  utilized  for  this  purpose. 
By  photo-lithography  a  chart  may  be  repro 
duced  ;  but  this  system  lacks  the  clearness  and 
accuracy  of  engraving,  and  it  is  not  adapted  to 
large  extents.  In  preparing  plans  for  this  pro 
cess  particular  care  is  required  in  making  with 
clearness  all  the  details,  and  the  scale  should  be 
somewhat  larger  than  that  intended  for  issue. 

Charts  may  be  classed,  according  to  their 
uses,  under  the  following  heads  :  Ocean,  general, 
and  coast  charts,  harbor  plans,  and  physical 
charts.  Various  other  charts  are  employed  for 
scientific  purposes,  such  as  : 


Chart,  Variation,  a  Mercator  chart  upon  which 
are  laid  down  curves  representing  the  variation 
of  the  compass  at  those  places  through  which 
they  pass.  Such  a  chart  was  first  constructed  by 
Dr.  Halley,  in  1700,  with  a  view  to  finding  the 
longitude. 

Chart  of  the  Inclination,  or  Dip  of  the  Mag 
netic  Needle,  containing  curves  expressing  the 
amount  of  inclination,  or  dip  of  the  needle,  at  the 
places  through  which  they  pass.  The  first  chart 
of  this  kind  appeared  in  England  in  1721,  and 
was  published  by  Mr.  Whiston  in  his  treatise 
entitled  "  The  Longitude  and  Latitude  found 
by  the  Indinatory  or  Dipping  Needle." 

Chart,  Skeleton,  or  Track,  blank  sheets  con 
structed  on  the  Mercator  projection  for  different 
latitudes,  upon  which  the  ship's  track  is  to  be 
plotted  by  the  navigator  during  a  cruise. 

Chart,  Physical,  showing  the  streams,  cur 
rents,  and  drifts  of  the  ocean,  prevailing  winds, 
and  meteorological  data  compiled  from  the  re 
cords  of  navigators,  made  during  voyages  at  all 
seasons  of  the  year  in  all  parts  of  the  world. 

Chart,  Chorographic,  a  delineation  of  a  par 
ticular  country. 

Chart,  Heliographic,  a  representation  of  the 
body  of  the  sun  and  of  the  maculae,  or  spots, 
thereon. 

Chart,  Selenographic,  a  representation  of  the 
moon  and  the  spots  on  her  disk. 

Chart,  Telegraphic,  a  delineation  of  the  tele 
graph  on  paper. 

Chart,  Topographic,  a  minute  and  scientific 
delineation  of  a  tract  of  country.  In  a  military 
sense  it  may  have  particular  reference  to  fortifi 
cations,  camps,  and  the  movement  of  troops. 

The  charts  published  by  the  British  Admiralty 
number  over  2600,  and  are  sold  at  prices  varying 
from  Gd.  to  3s.  each ;  this  is  below  their  actual 
cost. 

In  the  financial  year  1860-61  a  sum  of  £11,000 
was  provided  for  this  branch  irrespective  of  the 
surveying,  which  required  a  larger  sum.  The 
sale  of  these  charts  in  five  years  numbered 
290,000  copies,  besides  the  supply  furnished  the 
queen's  ships. 

There  are  866  charts  published  by  the  United 
States  Hydrographic  Office,  and,  with  a  view  to 
encourage  their  general  use,  they  are  sold  below 
the  cost  price.  There  are  over ~ 700  charts  pub 
lished  by  the  United  States  Coast  Survey  Office. 
— George  P.  Colvocor esses,  Lieutenant  U.  S.  Nary. 

Charter.  To  charter  a  vessel  is  to  take  her  to 
freight  under  a  charter-party  (which  see). 

CHARTERED  SHIP.  One  let  to  hire  to  one  or 
more  exclusively,  or  to  a  company.  A  general 
ship  is  one  loaded  with  the  goods  of  persons  not 
connected  in  interest. 

CHARTERER.  The  individuals,  government, 
or  company,  hiring  or  chartering  a  ship. 

CHARTER-PARTY.  -A  contract  of  affreight 
ment  in  writing,  by  which  the  owner  of  a  ship 
lets  the  whole  or  a  part  of  her  to  a  merchant  for 
the  conveyance  of  goods  on  a  particular  voyage, 
in  consideration  of  the  payment  of  freight.  All 
contracts  under  seal  were  anciently  called  char 
ters ;  they  were  divided  into  two  parts,  of  which 
each  party  interested  took  one,  and  this  was  the 
meaning  of  the  charta-partita.  It  was  a  deed  or 
writing  divided,  consisting  of  two  parts,  like  an 
indenture  at  common  law.  Lord  Mansfield  ob 
served  that  the  charter-party  was  an  old  informal 


CHASE 


125 


CHERBOURG 


instrument,  and  by  the  introduction  of  different 
clauses  at  different  times,  it  was  inaccurate  and 
sometimes  contradictor}'-.  But  this  defect  has 
been  supplied  by  giving  it,  as  mercantile  con 
tracts  usually  receive,  a  liberal  construction  in 
furtherance  of  the  real  intention  and  the  usage 
of  trade.  The  charter-party  describes  the  par 
ties,  the  ship,  and  the  voyage,  and  contains,  on 
the  part  of  the  owner,  a  stipulation  as  to  sea 
worthiness  and  as  to  the  promptitude  with  which 
the  vessel  shall  receive  the  cargo  and  perform 
the  voyage ;  and  the  exception  of  such  perils  of 
the  sea  for  which  the  master  and  ship-owners  do 
not  mean  to  be  responsible.  On  the  part  of  the 
freighter,  it  contains  a  stipulation  to  load  and 
unload  within  a  given  time,  with  an  allowance 
of  so  many  lay,  or  running  days  for  loading  and 
unloading  the  cargo,  and  the  rate  and  time  of 
payment  of  the  freight,  and  rate  of  demurrage 
beyond  the  allotted  days. 

Chase.  That  part  of  a  gun  between  the  rein 
force  and  the  swell  of  the  muzzle.  A  ship  which 
is  being  pursued  by  an  enemy.  When  a  ship  is 
so  built  as  to  be  able  to  fire  several  guns  right 
ahead  or  right  aft,  she  is  said  to  have  a  good 
chase.  To  chase  or  to  give  chase,  to  pursue  a  ves 
sel.  When  the  pursuer  follows  directly  in  the 
wake  of  the  chase,  it  is  a  stern  chase,  which  is 
said  to  be  long  but  sure;  each  ship  must  depend 
entirely  upon  its  speed,  as  there  is  little  oppor 
tunity  for  manoeuvring  and  a  shift  of  wind  would 
affect  them  equally ;  if  the  chaser  have  the 
superiority  in  speed  there  is  little  doubt  but  that 
the  chase  will  be  eventually  captured. 

To  chase  in  the  wind's  eye,  to  chase  to  wind 
ward.  The  chaser  should  persevere  even  though 
inferior  in  speed,  as  an  accident,  a  shift  of  wind, 
or  a  lucky  shot  may  give  her  an  advantage  ;  on 
the  other  hand  the  chase  should  do  her  utmost 
to  evade  the  pursuer,  and  to  retard  the  time  of 
being  overtaken;  as  a  fog,  squall,  shift  of  wind, 
darkness,  or  an  accident  to  the  chaser  may  enable 
the  chase  to  escape. 

CHASE-GUNS.    See  CHASER,  Bow  (or  STERN). 

CHASE-PORT.  A  port  forward  or  aft,  used  for 
a  chase-gun. 

CHASER.     A  vessel  pursuing  another. 

CHASER,  Bow  (or  STERN).  A  gun  so  mounted 
as  to  fire  nearly  or  directly  ahead  (or  astern). 

Chasse  Mafee  (Fr.).  A  French  coasting  ves 
sel,  generally  lugger-rigged. 

Chat.  A  lazy  fellow".  A  louse.  A  ship  built 
on  the  Norwegian  model.  See  CAT. 

Chatham,  Chest  of  (Eng.}.  An  ancient  in 
stitution,  restored  by  Queen  Elizabeth  in  1590, 
for  the  wounded  seamen  of  the  Royal  navy.  It 
was  supported  by  a  tax  on  each  man  in  the  navy, 
according  to  amount  of  his  pay.  This  tax  was 
called  smart-money. 

Chauncey,  John  S.,  Commodore  U.S.N. 
Born  in  New  York.  Appointed  from  New  York, 
January  1,  1812. 

Promoted  to  passed  midshipman,  1821 ;  sloop 
"Peacock,"  West  India  Squadron,  1822;  in  Au 
gust, 1822,  engaged  in  thecaptureof  seven  piratical 
schooners  off  Bah i a  Honda,  Cuba,  and  a  heavily- 
armed  pirate-schooner  by  the  boats  of  the  "  Pea 
cock"  ;  was  ordered  to  command  one  of  the 
prizes;  the  vessel  was  nearly  decimated  by  yel 
low  fever, — thirty  to  forty  deaths  among  the 
crew,  and  three  or  four  lieutenants,  himself  the 
only  midshipman  remaining  on  dutyj  ordered 


to  schooner  u  Grampus,"  West  India  Squadron, 
as  acting  lieutenant,  by  Commodore  Porter, 
1823;  ordered  to  sloop  "Ontario,"  as  lieutenant, 
1824  ;  Mediterranean  Squadron,  1824-20. 

Commissioned  as  commander,  September  8, 
1841;  commanding  sloop  "Vandalia,"  West 
Indies,  Home  Squadron,  1843-45;  inspector  of 
ordnance,  Washington,  1847-50. 

Commissioned  as  captain,  September  14,  1855; 
commanding  steam-sloop  "  Susquehanna,"  1861 ; 
engaged  at  Forts  Hatteras  and  Clark,  as  second 
in  command,  August  29  and  30,  1861 ;  in  com 
mand  of  the  blockade  of  sounds  of  Virginia  and 
North  Carolina,  September,  1861. 

Commissioned  as  commodore,  July  16,  1862 ; 
inspector  of  ordnance,  Reading,  Pa.,  1863;  special 
service,  court-martial  duty,  1864-65 ;  special 
service,  navy-yard,  New  York,  18GG-67  ;  retired 
1868 ;  died  1874. 

Chaw.     To  chew.     A  quid  of  tobacco. 

CHAW-MOUTH.     An  opprobrious  epithet. 

Cheat  the  Devil.  One  is  said  to  cheat  the 
devil  when,  instead  of  being  profane,  he  makes 
use  of  such  expressions  as  darn  it,  deuce  take  it, 
etc. 

Cheat  the  Glass.     See  FLOG  THE  GLASS. 

Chebacco-boat.  A  boat  employed  in  the 
Newfoundland  fisheries. 

Chebec.     See  CHEBACCO-BOAT. 

Check.  To  check  a  brace,  bowline,  etc.,  is  to 
ease  it  off.  To  check  the  headway  is  to  lessen  the 
ship's  progress  through  the  water.  To  check  a 
cable  is  to  stop  it  from  running  out  rapidly. 

Checkered  Sides.  Sides  of  a  ship  painted  to 
show  all  the  ports  ;  particularly  applicable  when 
there  are  two  or  more  rows. 

Checking-line.  A  small  line  bent  to  the  eye 
of  the  topgallant  or  royal  lift  and  brace,  and 
rove  through  a  bull's-eye  at  the  mast-head,  to 
haul  the  lifts  and  braces  in  when  the  light  yards 
are  sent  down. 

Cheek.  Impudent  assurance.  The  side  of  a 
gun-carriage.  The  side  of  a  block.  Generally, 
in  any  machine  where  there  are  two  flat  timbers 
or  parts  which  are  similar  to  each  other,  each 
timber  is  called  a  cheek. 

CHEEK-BLOCK.  A  block  bolted  to  a  mast  or 
gaff,  and  having  only  one  cheek,  the  mast  or 
gaff  forming  the  other  side  of  the  block. 

CHEEK-KNEES.  Knees  worked  above  and  be 
low  the  hawse-pipes  in  the  angle  of  the  bow  and 
cut-water,  the  brackets  being  a  continuation  of 
them  to  the  billet  or  figure-head. 

Cheeks.  An  old  sobriquet  for  a  marine,  de 
rived  from  a  rough  pun  on  his  uniform  in  olden 
days. 

Cheer.  To  animate  ;  to  encourage.  To  salute 
a  person  or  ship  by  huzzaing.  To  cheer  ship  is 
to  send  the  men  in  the  rigging  and  salute  a  pass 
ing  ship  by  cheering.  It  is  forbidden  by  the 
regulations  to  give  cheers  to  any  officer  on  join 
ing  a  ship,  while  attached  to  her,  or  on  being  de 
tached  from  her.  What  cheer  ?  How  fare  ye  ? 

CHEERILY.     Heartily  ;  with  a  will. 

Cheese.   A  circular  wad  covered  with  canvas. 

Chelynge.     An  old  name  for  the  cod-fish. 

Cherbourg.  A  fortified  seaport  town  and  im 
portant  naval  station  of  France,  department  of 
Manche,  on  the  English  Channel,  at  the  north 
end  of  the  peninsula'of  Cotentin',  about  85  miles 
west  of  Havre.  Lat.  49°  40'  N.  ;  Ion.  1°  35'  W. 
Pop.  38,000.  The  principal  buildings  are  the 


CHEREMERI 


126 


CHINE 


military  and  naval  arsenals,  hospitals,  and  bar 
racks.  The  commercial  and  naval  ports  are 
quite  distinct  from  each  other.  The  commercial 
port  consists  of  a  harbor  and  a  basin,  1338  feet  long 
and  416  feet  wide.  The  basin  communicates  with 
the  harbor  by  dock-gates,  which  prevent  the  re 
flux  of  the  water.  The  channel  from  the  harbor 
to  the  sea  is  1968  feet  long  and  164  feet  wide, 
lined  by  a  granite  quay  with  parapets.  In  this 
channel  the  depth  of  water  is  never  less  than  19 J 
feet.  The  Port  Militaire  and  Arsenal  de  la  Marine 
consist  of  a  port  984  feet  long  and  754  feet  wide, 
capable  of  containing  50  large  ships  of  war,  and 
accessible  at  all  times  of  tide  for  vessels  of  the 
largest  class  ;  a  floating-basin  closed  by  lock- 
gates,  and  a  third  basin.  There  are  four  slips 
for  vessels  of  the  largest  size ;  adjoining  these 
slips  is  a  dry-dock.  The  great  work,  however, 
for  which  Cherbourg  is  noted  is  the  digue,  or 
breakwater,  stretching  across  the  roadstead.  The 
digue  was  commenced  by  Louis  XVI.,  and 
finished  in  1858.  It  is  2}  miles  from  the  harbor, 
in  water  varying  from  40  to  65  feet  deep.  Its 
proportions  are — length,  4120  yards  ;  breadth  at 
base,  262  feet ;  at  top,  102  feet.  The  entrance 
east  of  the  digue  is  3285  feet  wide,  and  that  to  the 
west  9875  feet.  A  fort  and  light-house  occupy 
the  centre  of  the  digue,  and  there  are  also  light 
houses  at  each  entrance  to  the  roadstead,  and 
one  at  the  entrance  to  the  commercial  port.  The 
defenses  consist  of  the  batteries  of  Fort  National, 
of  100  guns,  on  the  Isle  of  Pelee,  and  many  other 
forts,  which  render  Cherbourg,  if  not  impreg 
nable  from  the  sea,  at  least  very  difficult  of  at 
tack. 

Cheremeri.  In  the  East,  a  bribe  in  making  a 
contract  or  bargain. 

Cherry.  A  species  of  smelt  or  spirling  in  the 
Frith  of  Tay. 

Chesil.    A  term  used  for  a  bank  of  shingle. 

Chess-trees.  Formerly,  certain  pieces  of  oak 
timber,  fayed  and  bolted  to  the  topsides,  one  on 
each  side,  abaft  the  fore-channels,  which  had  a 
sheave  fitted  in  the  upper  part,  for  the  conven 
ience  of  hauling  home  the  main  tack. 

Chest.  A  box  of  wood  in  which  articles  are 
deposited;  as,  an  arm-chest,  a  top-chest,  etc. 
A  sea-chest  is  generally  capable  of  being  taken 
apart  and  stowed  in  a  small  space. 

Chester  (Pa.),  on  the  Delaware  River,  15  miles 
below  Philadelphia.  The  celebrated  ship-yards 
of  John  Roach,  which  give  employment  to  2500 
men,  are  situated  here.  Pop.  15,000. 

Chest-rope.     Guess-rope,  or  guess-warp. 

Chevender.  An  old  name  for  the  chevin  or 
chub. 

Chevil.     See  CAVIL. 

Chevron.  The  distinguishing  stripes  on  the 
sleeves  of  non-commissioned  officers  of  marines. 

Chevy.  To  shake  or  force  with  a  shivering 
motion. 

Chewing  Oakum,  or  Pitch.  Said  of  a  vessel 
which  leaks  from  inefficient  calking,  or  on  ac 
count  of  the  working  of  her  timbers. 

Chicago  (111.),  a  port  of  entry  and  the  most 
important  centre  of  commerce  in  the  North 
western  States,  is  situated  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Chicago  River,  on  the  southwestern  bend  of  Lake 
Michigan.  Lat.  41°  53/  3"  N. ;  Ion.  87°  37'  30" 
W.  The  length  of  the  city  from  north  to  south 
is  from  7  to  8  miles,  and  its  breadth  from  east  to 
west  about  5  miles  ;  area,  about  36  square  miles. 


It  is  divided  by  the  Chicago  River  and  its 
branches  into  three  parts,  the  north,  south,  and 
west  divisions,  which  are  connected  by  33 
bridges  and  2  stone  tunnels  under  the  river-bed, 
one  1890  feet  long  under  the  main  river,  the 
other  1608  feet  long,  under  the  South  Branch. 
Of  these  divisions  the  west  is  nearly  double  the 
size  of  the  other  two  combined,  embracing  15,104 
acres,  while  the  north  contains  but  2533  acres, 
and  the  south  5363  acres.  The  imports  into  Chi 
cago  during  1879  aggregated  19,000,000.  The 
amount  of  duties  received  was  $1,451,536.  The 
exports  reached  the  large  sum  of  $10,000,000. 
The  first  shipment  of  wheat  was  made  from  Chi 
cago  in  1839,  and  amounted  to  1678  bushels.  In 
1879  the  receipts  of  grain  of  all  kinds  were 
138,154,571  bushels,  while  the  shipments  were 
121 ,094,000  bushels.  Pop.  477,000. 

Chief.  A  familiar  appellation  for  the  senior 
engineer  on  board  ship. 

Chief  Officer,  or  Chief  Mate.  The  first  mate  ; 
an  officer  of  a  merchant  vessel  next  in  rank  to 
the  master. 

Chief-of- staff.  A  line-officer  who  is  attached 
to  the  flag-ship,  and  assists  the  commander-in- 
chief  or  flag-officer  in  the  various  details  and 
arrangements  for  the  management  of  the  fleet  or 
squadron.  At  present  the  duties  of  the  chief-of- 
staif  are  performed  by  the  commanding  officer 
of  the  flag-ship. 

Chigre.  A  minute  insect  of  tropical  countries, 
which  pierces  th6  bottom  of  the  foot  and  breeds 
there,  producing  great  pain.  See  JIGGER. 

Chili.  This  comparatively  small  republic, 
which  cast  oif  the  Spanish  yoke  in  1810,  now 
boasts  a  population  of  2,000,000,  an  annual  ex 
port  trade  of  $19,000,000,  and  a  revenue  of 
$20,000,000.  Its  greatest  enemies  are  its  near 
neighbors,  and  to  check  them  the  state  main 
tains  a  navy  of  10  small  steamers  of  120  to  300 
horse-power,  and  2  powerful  ironclads.  These 
two  latter  vessels  are  each  210  feet  long  and  45 
feet  in  breadth,  of  2200  tons  measurement,  and 
of  2500  horse-power.  The  battery  is  amidship, 
and  is  armed  with  6  12£-ton  rifled  guns.  The 
range  of  fire  in  both  ships  is  peculiar,  for  al 
though  they  have  the  appearance  of  ordinary 
broadside  ships,  they  are  able,  with  the  three 
guns  on  each  side,  to  fire  over  all  the  points  of 
the  compass.  This  advantage  was  obtained  by 
placing  each  of  the  fore-and-aft  guns  at  the  cor 
ners  of  the  battery,  and  raising  the  side  of  the 
ship  so  as  to  enable  the  foremost  guns  to  fire 
right  forward  and  in  a  line  with  the  keel,  and 
in  like  manner  the  aft  guns  fire  right  aft.  The 
corners  of  the  batteries  are  made  of  an  octagonal 
shape,  so  that  the  same  guns  which  fire  right 
forward  and  aft  can  be  brought  into  the  broad 
side  position,  and  command  any  angle  between 
them  and  the  line  of  the  keel.  The  midship 
guns  on  each  side  are  made  to  fire  with  broad 
side,  and  also  to  support  the  fire  of  the  forward 
guns. 

Chilled  Shot.  Shot  which  are  rapidly  cooled 
after  being  cast.  They  are  very  hard  but  brittle. 

Chimbe,  Chime,  or  Chine.  The  ends  of  the 
staves  which  project  beyond  the  head  of  a  cask. 

CHIMBE  AND  CHIMBE.  End  to  end ;  as,  casks 
or  barrels. 

Chime  in.     To  join  in. 

Chinckle.     A  small  bight  in  a  line. 

Chine.    To  hollow  out  slightly.     That  part 


CHINESE  NAVY 


127 


CHINESE  NAVY 


of  the  water-way  which  is  above  the  deck  and 
hollowed  out  or  beveled  off  to  the  spirketing. 
See  CHIMBE. 

Chinese  Navy,  The.  The  Chinese  navy  dates 
back  to  a  period  before  the  foundation  of  the 
British  navy  was  laid  under  the  last  two  Henrys. 
The  art  of  ship-building  has  a  great  antiquity  in 
China.  The  junks  of  to-day,  unaltered  as  they 
are  from  designs  dating  centuries  back,  will  com 
pare  favorably  with  the  coasting  craft  of  some 
Western  countries  now,  and  those  in  existence 
nearly  three  hundred  years  ago  must  have 
equaled  in  most  respects  and  surpassed  in  many 
the  barques,  pinnaces,  and  caravals  which  sailed 
under  the  successors  of  Magellan  and  Andrade. 
The  sea-going  war-junks  were  often  of  large  size, 
easily  handled,  and  not  bad  sailers.  Many  of 
them  had  high  bulwarks  and  pentagonal  port 
holes.  Guns  were  mounted  only  on  the  upper 
deck,  frequently  on  immovable  carriages,  and 
the  crews  had  but  the  most  slender  knowledge  of 
gunnery. 

Early  European  travelers  were  often  struck  by 
the  condition  of  the  Chinese  forces.  Of  the  navy, 
one  authority  writes  :  "  The  greatest  ships  they 
have  are  called  'juncos,'  which  are  very  great 
and  are  made  for  the  wars,  with  castles  very  high 
in  the  poop  and  prore,  like  to  the  ships  of  the 
Levant.  There  are  so  many  of  these  that  it  is 
easy  for  any  general  of  the  sea  to  join  together 
in  a  little  time  a  navy  of  from  five  hundred  to  a 
thousand  of  them." 

But  from  the  early  part  of  the  17th  century 
onward,  while  progress  in  Europe  was  rapid, 
Chinese  naval  architecture  remained  stationary. 
When  the  British  first  came  to  blows  with  the 
Chinese  nearly  forty  years  ago,  their  army  and 
navy  were  equipped  in  a  manner  which  showed 
that  but  little  advancement  had  been  made  since 
the  middle  of  the  17th  century. 

"  In  1876  a  naval  yard  was  established  near 
Shanghai,  and  though  there  are  a  few  English 
men  and  Americans  holding  posts  in  it,  the  con 
trol  of  it  is  exclusively  in  the  hands  of  native 
officials.  Two  steam-frigates  of  nearly  3000  tons 
measurement  and  five  gun-vessels  had  been 
launched  from  it  three  years  ago,  and  a  small 
ironclad  for  river  service  completed.  Of  the  fri 
gates  one  was  in  commission,  and  the  writer, 
who  has  seen  her  actually  at  sea,  was  allowed  to 
go  over  her  when  lying  at  anchor  near  Shanghai. 
She  is  a  handsome  craft,  completely  armed  with 
Krupp  guns.  Her  crew  from  the  captain  down, 
without  exception,  is  composed  of  native  China 
men.  She  did  the  Chinese  credit  in  all  respects. 
Attached  to  the  dock-yard  is  a  large  military 
arsenal,  in  which  are  stored  guns  and  small-arms 
of  all  descriptions,  and  in  which  projectiles  for 
heavy  and  field  guns  and  breech-loading  rifles 
of  the  Remington  pattern  were  being  continu 
ously  produced.  Heavy  machinery  for  the  manu 
facture  of  armor-plates  was  being  erected  in  a 
portion  of  the  works.  On  the  opposite  bank  of 
the  river  may  be  seen  the  great  powder-factory, 
not  long  ago  constructed  for  the  manufacture  of 
gunpowder  of  the  European  kind. 

"  But  perhaps  the  most  marked  instance  of 
progress  in  this  direction  is  to  be  observed  at,  or 
rather  near,  the  treaty  port  of  Foochow.  Under 
the  authority  of  the  distinguished  Tso-Tsung- 
Tang,  M.  Giguel,  an  officer  of  the  French  navy, 
began  some  twelve  years  ago  to  form  a  dock-yard 


on  the  Min  Kiver,  a  few  miles  below  the  city 
just  mentioned,  which  could  be  easily  fortified. 
The  extraordinary  success  which  has  attended 
his  labors  will  be  understood  by  some  knowledge 
of  the  difficulties  with  which  he  had  to  contend. 
The  very  ground  on  which  the  navy-yard  is 
formed  had  to  be  made.  The  soil  was  alluvial, 
formed  by  a  thick  layer  of  solidified  mud  covered 
with  a  coating  of  nearly  liquid  clay.  In  conse 
quence  of  the  freshets  in  the  river,  the  level  of 
the  ground  had  to  be  raised  five  feet.  In  spite 
of  these  and  other  disadvantages,  M.  Giguel,  at 
the  end  of  seven  years,  had  iron-works,  rolling- 
mills,  engine-factories,  and  building-slips — in 
fact,  all  the  plant  of  a  naval  yard — in  full  work 
ing  order ;  and  had  actually  built  the  engines, 
and,  in  some  cases,  the  armament  for  no  less 
than  fifteen  vessels,  of  which  eleven  were  over 
1000  tons  displacement.  Not  only  this,  but  a 
school  for  naval  officers  had  been  formed,  and  a 
training-ship,  fitted  to  make  cruises  at  sea,  had 
been  attached  to  the  establishment. 

"Even  this  account  of  several  great  arsenals 
would  not  exhaust  all  that  might  be  said  in  de 
scription  of  what  has  recently  been  done  in  China 
to  increase  the  efficiency  of  the  army  and  navy, 
which  she  has  begun  to'consider  necessary  to  her 
well-being." 

The  Chinese  do  not  rely  entirely  upon  their 
own  dock-yards  constructors.  In  addition  to  the 
fleet  of  native  production,  they  have  recently 
had  constructed  in  England  a  series  of  gunboats 
of  the  latest  types,  armed  with  the  most  improved 
and  heaviest  guns. 

In  1876-78  four  gunboats  were  completed  at 
the  works  of  Sir  William  Armstrong  for  the 
Chinese  government,  of  the  British  "Staunch" 
type,  designed  by  a  member  of  the  firm,  the 
talented  engineer,  Mr.  G.  W.  Rendel,  but  in 
which  several  important  improvements  upon 
that  type  were  introduced.  These  boats  were 
named  "Alpha,"  "Beta,"  "Gamma,"  and 
"Delta."  The  first  two  are  each  118  feet  long 
and  27  feet  beam,  with  a  mean  draft  of  7  feet 
6  inches,  and  a  displacement  of  319  tons.  The 
last  two  are  120  feet  between  perpendiculars  by 
30  feet  beam,  having  a  draft  of  8  feet  and  a 
displacement  of  400  tons.  They  are  schooner- 
rigged,  with  tripod  masts,  are  propelled  by  twin- 
screws,  and  can  steam  9  knots  per  hour. 

But  the  increased  dimensions  of  these  last  two 
vessels  were  of  trivial  importance  compared  with 
the  difference  in  their  armament ;  for  while  the 
first  two  carry  each  a  26J-ton  gun,  the  others 
carry  each  a  38-ton  gun  of  the^British  service 
pattern.  The  mounting  of  these  guns  on  vessels 
of  only  400  tons  displacement  was  a  most  daring 
innovation,  and  its  boldness  becomes  more  ap 
parent  when  we  remember  that  the  only  guns 
of  the  same  weight  and  calibre  then  afloat  were 
the  two  in  the  fore-turret  of  the  great  British 
ship  "Thunderer,"  and  that  vessels  of  the  size 
of  these  generally  carried  guns  not  exceeding  5 
or  6  tons  in  weight,  and  even  the  "Staunch," 
considered  a  serious  innovation,  a  gun  of  only 
12J  tons  weight. 

The  system  of  working  these  guns  is  notice 
able,  the  piece  being  so  much  heavier  than  those 
used  in  the  English  boats,  and  the  little  vessel 
herself  being  made  to  act  as  the  gun-carriage. 
The  gun  is  worked  by  hydraulic  power,  and  the 
entire  arrangement  of  the  mechanism  is  similar 


CHINESE  NAVY 


128 


CHOMMEKY 


to  that  employed  by  the  Italians  in  working  the 
100-ton  gun  at  Spezia.  Two  heavy  iron  beams 
in  the  fore  part  of  the  vessel  are  placed  side  by 
side,  on  a  level  with  the  deck  and  parallel  with 
the  keel ;  on  these  beams  are  bolted  frames  analo 
gous  to  the  cross-head  guides  of  a  horizontal 
engine,  and  the  trunnions  of  the  gun  are  fitted 
in  side-blocks,  these  last  taking  the  place  of  the 
cross-head.  Thus  arranged,  the  gun  can  slide 
back  and  forth  through  a  range  of  about  three 
feet.  The  preponderance  at  the  breech-end  is 
supported  by  two  secondary  parallel  bars  inside 
the  main  gun-beams.  These  are  hinged  at  the 
rear  end,  while  at  the  forward  end  they  are  car 
ried  on  the  cross-head  of  a  vertical  hydraulic 
ram  fixed  beneath  the  deck.  The  breech-end  of 
the  gun  is  supplied  with  a  hoop  and  lugs;  the 
lugs  rest  on  the  two  secondary  bars  near  their 
hinged  ends,  and  thus,  by  causing  the  hydraulic 
ram  to  rise  or  fall,  the  gun  can  be  elevated  or 
depressed  at  will.  No  turning  gear  is  provided, 
the  lateral  training  of  the  gun  being  effected  by 
turning  the  whole  boat  through  the  required 
arc  by  the  use  of  the  rudder  and  twin-screws. 
To  run  the  gun  in  and  out,  two  hydraulic  cylin 
ders  are  used,  one  of  which  is  fixed  horizontally 
on  each  side-beam,  the  cross-heads  of  the  rams 
taking  hold  of  the  trunnion  side-blocks.  The  re 
coil  is  taken  up  by  these  rams,  or,  more  property, 
pistons,  delivering  water  under  a  weighted  valve. 
The  gun  is  loaded  by  a  hydraulic  rammer,  the 
shot  being  brought  to  the  muzzle  by  a  trolley  or 
carriage,  off  which  it  is  pushed  into  the  bore. 

During  the  trials  of  the  "  Gamma,"  the  38-ton 
gun  was  fired  with  charges  consisting  of  180 
pounds  of  powder  behind  an  800-pound  projectile, 
the  elevation  being  3£  degrees.  The  initial 
velocity  was  1500  feet  per  second,  and,  as  tested 
at  Shoeburyness,  capable  of  penetrating  19£ 
inches  of  iron  in  three  thicknesses,  sandwiched 
with  10  inches  of  teak.  In  addition  to  the  heavy 
guns,  two  12-pounders  are  also  carried,  and  a 
machine-gun  of  the  Gatling  type. 

These  vessels  are  iron-built,  and  each  carries 
50  tons  of  coal  and  50  rounds  of  ammunition. 
They  all  made  successful  passages  to  China,  the 
first  two  being  delivered  at  Foochow  in  187G, 
and  the  last  two  at  Tientsin  in  1878. 

But  the  Chinese  did  not  stop  with  the  con 
struction  of  these  four  boats.  Four  more,  built 
on  the  Tyne  under  the  supervision  of  the  Elswick 
firm,  and  armed  each  with  a  35-ton  gun  of  the 
Armstrong  new  type,  sailed  from  England  in 
July,  1879,  for  China.  These  boats,  or  "  floating 
gun-carriages,"  are  substantially  of  the  same  de 
sign  and  construction  as  those  which  have  already 
been  described.  The  most  important  difference 
is  that  they  are  built  of  steel  instead  of  iron,  and 
are  double-ended,  the  stern  and  bow  lines  being 
after  the  same  model,  and  are  fitted  with  bow 
rudders,  which  enable  them  to  steam  either  back 
ward  or  forward.  The  bulwarks  have  been 
heightened  to  give  additional  cover  to  the  men. 

In  addition  to  the  vessels  already  described, 
there  have  also  been  built  in  England  for  the 
Chinese  navy  eight  small  gunboats,  of  from  100 
to  220  tons  displacement,  each  carrying  from  2 
to  7  guns. 

At  the  Foochow  arsenal  there  have  been  built 
seventeen  composite  gunboats,  each  mounting 
one  7-ton  or  9-ton  gun  with  other  light  pieces, 
one  composite  corvette,  carrying  11  guns,  one  of 


11  tons  weight,  and  three  transports.  There  are 
also  the  two  wooden  frigates  and  the  five  gun- 
vessels  already  mentioned  as  constructed  at 
Shanghai.  All  of  these  vessels  are  now  doing 
duty  in  southern  waters. 

In  addition  to  these  gunboats,  the  Chinese 
have  determined  to  still  further  equip  themselves 
for  coast  defense  by  providing  a  supply  of  tor 
pedo-boats,  and  the  first  of  the  series  proposed, 
an  experimental  boat,  was  shipped  from  England 
to  China  in  August,  1879.  Its  dimensions  are 
as  follows:  length,  52  feet;  breadth,  7  feet; 
mean  draft  of  water,  3  feet  6  inches ;  maxi 
mum  speed,  16  knots  per  hour.  It  is  built  of 
steel,  is  divided  by  six  water-tight  compartments, 
and  is  arranged  to  work  three  spar-torpedoes. 

The  Chinese  authorities  have  also  taken  the 
initiative  step  in  the  formation  of  an  ironclad 
fleet,  by  ordering  from  Messrs.  Mitchell  &  Co., 
on  the'  Tyne,  England,  a  double-turreted  steel 
armor-clad,  to  have  a  speed  of  16  knots,  the  ma 
chinery  to  be  built  by  Hawthorne,  of  Newcastle. 

Chinse.  To  stop  small  seams  by  working  in 
oakum  with  a  knife  or  small  iron  when  the  searn 
will  not  bear  the  force  required  for  calking. 

CHINSING-IRON.     A  light  calking-iron. 

Chip.  The  triangular  piece  of  wood  attached 
to  the  log-Tine.  See  LOG. 

Chips.  The  familiar  sobriquet  of  the  carpenter 
on  board  ship. 

Chit.  A  note ;  an  I.  O.  U.  In  China  they 
have  a  silver  currency  which  being  inconvenient 
to  carry,  credit  is  universally  given  by  the  mer 
chants,  the  purchaser  giving  a  chit,  which  is  pre 
sented  for  settlement  at  the  end  of  the  month. 

CHIT-BOOK.  A  book  of  printed  forms  for 
chits. 

Chiton.  A  mollusk  with  a  many  -jointed 
shell  covering  its  back. 

Chiule.     A  Saxon  ship. 

Chivey.     A  knife. 

Chock.  Entirely  ;  quite;  as,  chock-full,  chock- 
home,  chock-aft,  etc.  A  sort  of  wedge  used  to 
prevent  a  cask,  or  any  other  heavy  body,  from 
moving.  Also,  a  small  piece  of  wood  fitted  neatly 
into  a  larger  piece  of  timber,  in  order  to  make 
good  some  deficiency  in  the  main  piece.  Also, 
a  piece  sometimes  placed  between  the  head  of 
the  lower  mast  and  the  head  of  the  topmast. 

CHOCK-A-BLOCK.     See  BLOCK-AND-BLOCK. 

CHOCK-CHANNELS.  Channels  with  the  spaces 
between  the  chain-plates  filled  in  with  wood. 

CHOCK  OF  THE  BOWSPRIT.  A  wedge-shaped 
piece  fayed  to  fit  the  hole  above  the  bowsprit, 
after  the  bowsprit  was  shipped,  in  order  to 
secure  it. 

CHOCK  or  THE  RUDDER.  In  former  times 
a  piece  of  timber  fitted  and  kept  in  readiness  to 
stop  the  motion  of  the  rudder  in  the  case  of  an}' 
accident,  and  while  a  new  tiller  was  being 
shipped. 

Chocolate-gale.  A  brisk  N.W.  wind  of  the 
West  Indies  and  Spanish  main. 

Chogset.     See  BURGALL. 

Choke.  The  nip  of  a  rocket.  To  foul ;  as,  a 
rope  in  a  block.  To  choke  the  luff,  to  thrust  the 
hauling  part  of  a  tackle  close  up  to  the  block, 
under  the  other  parts,  thus  jamming  the  hauling 
part  and  keeping  the  tackle  from  rendering. 

Chokey.     Inchokey,  in  jail ;  in  the  brig. 

Chommery.  Jack's  word  for  chasse-marce,  a 
French  coasting-vessel. 


CHOP 


129 


CHRONOMETER 


Chop  (Chinese).  A  permit,  or  clearance. 
Quality  ;  as,  first  chop,  second  chop,  etc.  A  de 
vice  or  trade-mark. 

CHOP-BOAT.  A  licensed  lighter  employed  ,in 
transporting  goods. 

CHOP-DOLLAR.  In  China,  when  the  silver 
dollar  passes  into  a  bank  or  large  mercantile 
house  it  is  tested  and  stamped  ;  in  the  course  of 
time  these  impressions  become  so  numerous  that 
the  piece  of  silver  bears  little  resemblance  to  the 
original  coin.  From  the  resemblance  which  one 
of  these  coins  bears  to  the  face  of  a  person  badly 
marked  with  smallpox,  the  individual  so  marked 
receives  the  sobriquet  of  chop-dollar. 

Chop  About.  When  the  wind  changes  its 
direction  suddenly  it  chops  about. 

Chopping-sea.  Tumbling  waves  dashing 
against  each  other. 

Chops.  The  junction  of  a  channel  with  the 
sea ;  as,  the  chops  of  the  English  Channel. 

Chow.     See  CHOW-CHOW. 

Chow-chow.  A  word  from  the  Chinese,  mean 
ing  eatables. 

CHOW-CHOW  CHOP.  The  lighter  containing 
the  articles  which  complete  a  ship's  cargo. 

CHOW-CHOW  WATER.  Strong  cross-currents 
and  eddies  in  which  vessels  are  difficult  to 
manage. 

Chowder.  A  dish  made  of  pork,  biscuit, 
onions,  etc.,  and  fresh  fish  or  clams. 

Chowder-head.     A  stupid  fellow. 

Christening  a  Ship.  The  present  system  of 
"christening"  ships  may  be  considered  a  relic 
of  the  ancient  libation  practiced  when  they  were 
launched.  The  action  of  "blessing"  ships  is 
alluded  to  by  the  monks  of  St.  Denys.  In  July, 
1418,  the  Bishop  of  Bangor  was  sent  to  South 
ampton  to  "bless"  the  king's  ship,  the  "Grace 
Dieu,"  and  received  £5  for  his  expenses.  In 
the  fleet  commanded  by  John  de  Outremarins 
against  the  Tunisians,  according  to  ancient  cus 
tom  and  to  insure  success,  the  ships  were  blessed 
by  the  priests  ;  and  being  afterwards  exposed  to 
storms,  the  captains  desired  the  soldiers  and  sail 
ors  to  invoke  the  Lord,  and  while  they  were  at 
frayer  the  wind  became  suddenly  favorable.  In 
242,  when  Henry  III.  was  at  war  with  France, 
a  fleet  was  prepared  in  which  that  monarch  em 
barked,  after  visiting  the  shrines  of  many  saints, 
to  propitiate  their  influence  against  storms,  and 
to  insure  success  to  his  arms.  Before  the  Refor 
mation  it  was  usual  for  the  priests  at  Yarmouth 
to  give  a  blessing  to  the  fishing-vessels  yearly, 
and  it  was  afterwards  customary  for  the  minister 
of  the  parish  to  preach  a  "  fishing"  sermon. 

Christian.     A  gold  Danish  coin. 

Christiania.  The  capital  of  Norway,  situated 
at  the  head  of  the  Christiania-Fiord,  in  lat.  59° 
54'  V  N.,  Ion.  10°  45'  E.  The  fiord  is  frozen 
for  two  months  of  the  year  from  about  20  miles 
from  Christiania  to  the  sea,  and  the  harbor  is 
generally  locked  up  for  three  or  four  months. 
Pop.  100,000. 

Christiansand.  A  town  of  Norway,  near  its 
southern  extremity,  on  a  fiord  of  the  Skager- 
Rack,  157  miles  southwest  of  Christiania.  Lat. 
58°  8'  N.  ;  Ion.  8°  3'  E.  The  harbor  is  deep  and 
well  sheltered,  and  is  defended  by  several  bat 
teries  and  by  the  fort  of  Christianholm,  on  the 
small  island  of  Oddero,  at  the  entrance  of  the 
harbor.  Pop.  13,000. 

Christian's  Gales.   The  fearful  gales  of  1795- 


96,  which  nearly  destroyed  a  fleet  under  Admiral 
Christian  while  on  his  way  to  attack  the  French 
West  India  Islands. 

Chrockle.     A  thorough-foot  (which  see). 

Chronometer  (Gr.  chronos,  time ;  metron,  a 
measure).  A  time-piece  of  superior  construc 
tion,  having  adjustments  and  compensations  for 
changes  of  temperature.  The  proposition  to  de 
termine  the  longitude  at  sea  by  means  of  a  time 
piece  and  observation  of  the  heavenly  bodies 
was  made  by  Gemma  Frisius  in  1530.  In  1714 
the  British  government  offered  a  reward  of 
£20,000  to  the  person  who  should  so  perfect  this 
method  as  to  determine  the  longitude  within  30 
miles.  In  1758  John  Harrison  received  this  re 
ward,  his  chronometer  having  shown  an  error  of 
18  miles  during  a  five  months'  voyage.  At  the 
present  day,  under  favorable  circumstances,  lon 
gitude  determined  by  a  chronometer  can  be  relied 
upon  to  within  two  or  three  miles,  and  even  this 
small  error  is  due  rather  to  the  faults  of  observa 
tion  than  to  the  imperfections  of  the  instrument. 
A  sea-chronometer  has  for  its  moving-power  a 
spring,  the  force  of  which  is  made  uniform  by  a 
variable  lever  ;  it  is  carried  through  all  varieties 
of  climate,  and  is  therefore  furnished  with  an 
expansion  balance,  formed  by  a  combination  of 
metals  of  different  expansive  qualities. 

In  carrying  a  chronometer  to  and  from  the 
ship  the  gimbals  are  steadied  by  the  stay,  and 
care  is  taken  not  to  give  the  instrument  a  circu 
lar  motion.  When  on  board,  the  chronometer 
is  placed  in  a  position  not  exposed  to  currents  of 
air  nor  to  sudden  shocks,  such  as  are  occasioned 
by  the  striking  of  a  sea  against  the  side,  or  by 
the  firing  of  salutes,  etc.,  and  metallic  substances 
are  kept  at  a  distance  from  it. 

The  chronometers  in  use  on  board  ship  are 
generally  constructed  to  run  for  56  hours,  but 
they  are  wound  every  day  at  8  A.M.  In  wind 
ing"  it  is  handled  carefully  and  the  key  turned 
steadily ;  a  pocket-chronometer  is  held  immov 
able  in  one  hand  in  order  to  avoid  a  circular  mo 
tion.  If  a  chronometer  should  run  down,  it  is 
started  by  giving  it  a  quick  circular  motion  in 
the  plane  of  the  dial ;  the  hands  are  never 
touched.  As  no  chronometer  is  absolutely  per 
fect,  the  navigator  ascertains  its  error  and  makes 
allowance  for  it.  Three  chronometers  are  sup 
plied  to  government  vessels,  and  they  are  com 
pared  with  each  other  every  day ;  a  sudden 
change  in  one  will  be  shown  by  the  other  two. 

CHRONOMETER,  ERROR  or.  The  error  of  the 
chronometer  is  the  difference  between  the  time 
indicated  by  it  and  any  other  given  time.  The 
error  is  fast  or  slow  as  the  chronometer  is  in  ad 
vance  of  or  behind  the  time  in  question.  Before 
sailing  the  navigator  must  know  the  error  of 
his  chronometer.  It  can  be  determined  in  a 
variety  of  ways,  the  most  reliable,  of  which  is  a 
comparison  of  the  chronometer  with  the  clock  of 
an  observatory.  The  general  use  of  time-balls 
renders  the  clocks  of  the  observatories  available 
to  everybody.  In  our  ports  the  time  at  noon  is 
always  received  at  the  telegraph-offices  from  the 
naval  observatory  at  Washington.  If  unable  to 
compare  the  chronometer  with  the  clock  of  an 
observatory,  the  error  is  found  by  means  of  a 
sextant  and  an  artificial  horizon,  either  by  a 
time-sight  of  the  sun  or  star,  or  by  equal  alti 
tudes  of  the  sun  or  star. 

CHRONOMETER,  RATE  or.  The  rate  is  the  daily 


CHUB 


130 


CIKCLE 


change  of  error ;  it  is  gaining  when  the  chro 
nometer  is  running  too  fast ;  losing  if  too  slow. 
The  rate  is  determined  by  finding  the  error  on 
different  days,  and  dividing  the  change  of  error 
by  the  number  of  days  elapsed  between  the  ob 
servations.  On  arrival  at  the  first  port  after  the 
beginning  of  a  cruise,  the  navigator  will  gener 
ally  find  that  the  error  of  his  chronometers,  as 
shown  by  an  observation  or  by  comparison  with 
an  astronomical  clock,  does  not  coincide  with  the 
error  shown  by  the  rate  obtained  before  sailing. 
By  dividing  the  difference  between  this  new  error 
and  the  error  on  the  day  of  sailing  by  the  num 
ber  of  days  elapsed  a  new  rate  is  obtained,  which 
is  called  the  sea-rate,  and  thereafter  is  always 
made  use  of  when  at  sea. 

Chub.  The  Leuciscus  cephalis,  a  fresh-water 
fish. 

Chuck.    A  sea-shell.     See  CHOCK. 

Chuckle-head.  A  stupid  fellow;  a  lubber. 
A  person  with  a  large  round  head. 

Chunam.  A  cement  used  in  the  East  for  the 
seams  of  ships.  It  becomes  very  hard,  and  when 
of  good  quality  will  take  a  polish. 

Chunk-block.  A  strongly-made  block,  having 
a  metal  sheave  and  a  large  swallow. 

Church.  To  riff  church,  to  arrange  the  seats, 
altar,  etc.,  for  divine  service  on  board  ship.  To 
unrig  church,  to  clear  up  the  decks  after  service. 

Chute,  or  Shoot.  A  pipe  or  channel  for  con 
veying  ashes,  refuse  matter,  and  other  articles 
down  to  a  lower  level. 

Cigar-boat.  A  peculiar  boat  shaped  like  a 
spindle,  constructed  by  Winans. 

Cingle.     A  belt  worn  by  sailors. 

Cinque  Ports,  The.  These  are  five  highly 
privileged  stations,  the  once  great  emporiums 
of  British  commerce  and  maritime  greatness ; 
they  are  Dover,  Hastings,  Sandwich,  Komney, 
and  Hythe,  which,  lying  opposite  to  France, 
were  considered  of  the  utmost  importance.  To 
these  were  afterwards  added  Winchelsea,  Rye, 
and  Seaford.  These  places  were  honored  with 
peculiar  immunities  and  privileges,  on  condi 
tion  of  their  providing  a  certain  number  of  ships 
at  their  own  charge  for  forty  days.  Being  ex 
empted  from  the  jurisdiction  of  the  admiralty 
court,  the  Lord  Warden  of  the  Cinque  Ports  is 
authorized  to  make  rules  for  the  government  of 
pilots  within  his  jurisdiction,  and  in  many  other 
general  acts  exceptions  are  provided  to  save  the 
franchises  of  the  Cinque  Ports  unimpeached.  It 
is  a  singular  fact  that  it  has  never  been  legally 
determined  whether  the  Downs  and  adjacent 
roadsteads  are  included  in  the  limits  of  the  Cinque 
Ports.  All  derelicts  found  without  the  limits 
by  Cinque  Port  vessels  are  droits  of  admiralty. 
This  organization  was  nearly  broken  up  in  the 
late  state  reforms,  but  the  Lord  Warden  still 
possesses  some  power  and  jurisdiction. 

Cipango.  A  marvelous  island  described  by 
Marco  Polo,  and  represented  as  lying  in  the  east 
ern  seas,  1500  miles  from  the  mainland.  It  was 
an  object  of  diligent  search  with  Columbus  and 
the  early  navigators.  It  is  supposed  by  some  to 
be  the  same  as  Japan.  (Written  also  Lipangi.} 

Circinus.  The  Roman  compass.  See  CON 
STELLATION. 

Circle.  A  plain  figure  bounded  by  a  curve, 
every  point  of  which  is  equally  distant  from  a 
point  within  it.  The  line  bounding  a  circle. 

CIRCLE,  ASTRONOMICAL.    A  reflecting  instru 


ment  for  measuring  angles,  in  which  the  limb  is 
a  complete  circle  of  metal ;  as,  the  mural  circle, 
reflecting  circle,  repeating  circle,  etc. 

CIRCLE,  DIURNAL.  The  diurnal  circle  of  a 
heavenly  body  is  the  circle  it  describes  in  the 
apparent  daily  revolution  of  the  celestial  sphere. 
It  is  the  parallel  of  declination  passing  through 
the  body ;  only  when  the  body  is  in  the  equinoc 
tial  is  it  a  great  circle.  At  the  equinoxes  the 
sun's  diurnal  circle  is  the  equinoctial ;  at  the 
summer  and  winter  solstices,  its  diurnal  circle  in 
the  heavens  corresponds  to  the  tropics  of  Cancer 
and  Capricorn  on  the  surface  of  the  earth. 

CIRCLE,  HOUR.  A  great  circle  of  the  celes 
tial  sphere  perpendicular  to  the  equinoctial,  and 
therefore  passing  through  the  poles  of  the  heav 
ens.  See  CO-ORDINATES  FOR  THE  SURFACE  OF 
A  SPHERE. 

CIRCLE  OF  ALTITUDE,  DECLINATION,  LATI 
TUDE.  In  the  different  systems  of  co-ordinates 
for  the  surface  of  the  celestial  sphere,  it  is  the 
common  practice  to  regard  the  secondary  great 
circles  as  ordinate  circles  to  the  primitive,  and 
they  are  hence  named  after  that  one  of  the  co 
ordinates  which  is  measured  upon  them.  Thus, 
the  great  circles  which  are  ordinate  circles  to  the 
horizon  are  called  Circles  of  Altitude,  because  al 
titudes  are  measured  upon  them  ;  the  great  cir 
cles  which  are  ordinate  circles  to  the  equinoctial 
are  called  Circles  of  Declination,  because  declina 
tions  are  measured  upon  them ;  and  the  great 
circles  which  are  ordinate  circles  to  the  ecliptic 
are  called  Circles  of  Latitude,  because  latitudes 
are  measured  upon  them.  Under  a  different 
system  of  nomenclature  these  are  severally  called 
Circles  of  Azimuth,  Circles  of  Right  Ascension, 
and  Circles  of  Longitude,  See  CO-ORDINATES 
FOR  THE  SUR'FACE  OF  A  SPHERE. 

CIRCLE. OF  A  SPHERE.  A  circle  on  the  sur 
face  of  a  sphere ;  when  its  plane  passes  through 
the  centre  of  the  sphere  it  is  a  great  circle  ;  in  all 
other  cases  it  is  a  small  circle. 

CIRCLE  OF  AZIMUTH,  RIGHT  ASCENSION, 
LONGITUDE.  In  the  different  systems  of  co 
ordinates  for  the  surface  of  the  celestial  sphere, 
some  writers  allow  the  conception  of  polar  co 
ordinates  to  predominate,  and  thus  regard  the 
secondary  great  circles  as  sweeping  out  angles 
at  the  pole  ;  they  therefore  name  them  after  that 
one  of  the  co-ordinates  which  is  marked  out  by 
them.  Thus,  the  great  circles  passing  through 
the  poles  of  the  horizon  are  called  Circles  of 
Azimuth,  because  they  each  mark  out  all  points 
which  have  the  same  azimuth  ;  the  great  circles 
passing  through  the  poles  of  the  equinoctial  are 
called  Circles  of  Right  Ascension,  because  they 
each  mark  out  all  points  which  have  the  same 
right  ascension  ;  and  the  great  circles  passing 
through  the  poles  of  the  ecliptic  are  called  Cir 
cles  of  Longitude,  because  they  each  mark  out 
all  points  which  have  the  same  longitude.  Under 
a  different  system  of  nomenclature  these  are  sev 
erally  called  Circles  of  Altitude,  Circles  of  Decli 
nation,  Circles  of  Latitude.  See  CO-ORDINATES 
FOR  THE  SURFACE  OF  A  SPHERE. 

CIRCLE  OF  ILLUMINATION.  Approximately 
one-half  of  the  earth's  surface  is  always  illu 
minated  by  the  sun,  while  the  opposite*  hemi 
sphere  is  in  the  shade.  The  great  circle  which 
at  any  instant  is  the  boundary  between  the  illu 
minated  and  darkened  hemispheres  is  called  the 
Circle  of  Illumination. 


CIRCUIT 


131 


CLARK 


CIRCLE  OF  PERPETUAL  APPARITION.  A  cir 
cle  within  which  the  heavenly  bodies  are  always 
above  the  horizon. 

CIRCLE  OF  PERPETUAL  OCCULTATION.  A 
circle  within  which  the  heavenly  bodies  are  al 
ways  below  the  horizon. 

CIRCLE,  POLAR.  The  polar  circles  are  small 
circles  of  the  terrestrial  sphere,  parallel  to  the 
equator,  and  23°  28'  distant  from  the  poles.  The 
northern  is  the  arctic,  and  the  southern  the  ant 
arctic  circle. 

CIRCLE,  VERTICAL.  A  great  circle  passing 
through  the  zenith  ;  the  prime  vertical  passes 
through  the  east  and  west  points  of  the  horizon. 

Circuit.  A  continuous  electrical  communica 
tion.  A  metallic  circuit  is  one  in  which  a  return 
wire  is  used.  To  short  circuit  a  battery  is  to 
connect  its  poles  by  a  conductor  whose  resistance 
is  practically  zero." 

Circular.  An  official  letter,  generally  printed, 
copies  of  which  are  sent  to  several  persons. 

Circulating  Pump.  A  pump  used  in  connec 
tion  with  surface-condensers  for  circulating  the 
refrigerating  water  through  or  among  the  tubes. 
It  may  be  driven  either  directly  by  the  recipro 
cating  parts  of  the  main  engine,  or  by  the  inter 
vention  of  beams  or  levers,  or  by  an  independent 
engine.  In  the  latter  case  rotary  pumps  are 
much  used.  The  refrigerating  water  is  drawn 
through  a  pipe  passing  through  the  side  or 
bottom  of  the  vessel,  and  discharged,  after 
having  done  its  work,  through  another  pipe,  at 
or  near  the  load  water-line.  Both  of  these  pipes 
can  be  closed  at  the  ship's  side  by  valves  called, 
respectively,  the  "  injection  valve"  and  the  "  out 
board  delivery  valve."  A  branch  suction-pipe, 
controlled  by  a  valve,  leads  to  the  bilge,  afford 
ing  powerful  means  of  freeing  the  vessel  of 
water  in  cases  of  extraordinary  leakage.  See 
CONDENSER. 

Circummeridian  (Lat.  circum,  about).  About 
or  near  the  meridian.  Circummeridian  altitudes 
are  taken  when  the  body  is  near  the  meridian. 
See  ALTITUDE. 

Circumnavigate.  To  sail  round;  to  pass  around 
by  water. 

Circumpolar.     Situated  about  the  pole. 

Cirripedia.  A  group  of  marine  animals,  allied 
to  the  Crustacea.  They  are  free  and  natatory 
when  young,  but  in  the  adult  state  attached  to 
rocks  or  some  floating  substance.  They  are  pro 
tected  by  a  multivalve  shell,  and  have  long  cili 
ated  curled  tentacles,  whence  their  name  (curl- 
footed}.  The  barnacles  (Lepas)  and  the  acorn- 
shells  (Balanus)  are  familiar  examples. 

Cirro-cumulus.    See  CLOUD. 

Cirro-stratus.     See  CLOUD. 

Cirrus.     See  CLOUD. 

Cisco.  A  fish  of  the  herring  kind,  of  which 
thousands  of  barrels  are  annually  taken  and 
salted  in  Lake  Ontario. 

Cit.     A  citizen. 

CITS.     Citizen's  clothing. 

Citizen.    In  the  United  States,  a  person,  native 

or  naturalized,  who  has  the  privilege  of  voting 

for  public  officers,  and  who  is  qualified  to  fill 

offices  in  the  gift  of  the  people.     (See  ALIEN, 

NATURALIZATION.)     The  word  is  often  used  to 

distinguish  a  person  engaged  in  civil  pursuits 

from  members  of  the  military  and  naval  services. 

City  of  Masts.     A  name  applied  to  London 

in  allusion  to  the  magnitude  of  its  commerce. 


Civil.  The  civil  time,  day,  year,  is  that  reck 
oning  which  is  adopted  for  the  social  purposes 
of  life.  See  TIME,  DAY,  YEAR. 

Civil  Engineer.     See  ENGINEER,  CIVIL. 
Civil  Lord  (Eng.).      The  junior  member  of 
the  admiralty  board. 

Civil  War.  A  war  between  subjects  of  the 
same  realm,  or  between  factions  of  the  same 
state. 

Civita  Vecchia.  A  seaport  city  of  Italy,  on 
the  Mediterranean,  38  miles  by  rail  W.N.W.  of 
Rome.  Pop.  11,640.  The  port,  which  owes  its 
origin  to  the  Emperor  Trajan,  is  one  of  the  best 
in  Central  Italy.  Two  large  moles  form  the 
harbor,  and  a  breakwater  outside  protects  the 
shipping  from  heavy  seas;  a  light-house  is 
erected  on  its  southern  end.  Lat.  42°  5'  N. ; 
Ion.  11°  45'  E.  The  harbor  has  depth  of  water 
for  vessels  of  400  or  500  tons,  and  ships  of  greater 
draft  may  anchor  inside  the  breakwater.  The 
city  has  regular  steam  communication  with  the 
chief  Mediterranean  ports. 

Clake.  A  name  for  the  barnacle  goose  (Anser 
bernicla],  and  also  for  the  Lepas  anatifera,  a 
cirriped  often  found  attached  to  vessels  or  tim 
ber  by  a  long  fleshy  peduncle. 

Clam.  A  well-known  bivalve  shell-fish  of 
different  genera ;  as,  the  Venus  mercenaria,  the 
Mya  arenaria,  and  others.  As  happy  as  a  clam 
at  high  water,  a  figurative  expression  for  indolent 
comfort. 

Clamber.     To  ascend  ;  to  climb. 

Clamps.  The  strakes  of  plank  on  which  the 
deck-beams  rest. 

CLAMP-NAILS.   Nails  used  to  fasten  the  clamps. 

Clang.     The  rattling  and  clashing  of  arms. 

Clap.  A  burst  of  sound  ;  as,  a  clap  of  thunder. 

CLAPPER.     The  tongue  of  a  bell. 

Clap-match.  A  sort  of  seal  distinct  from  the 
fur-seal. 

Clap  On.  To  clap  on  to  a  rope  is  to  lay  hold 
of  it  in  order  to  haul  upon  it.  To  clap  on  a 
stopper  is  to  put  on  a  stopper  ;  stop  talking.  To 
clap  on  canvas,  to  make  more  sail. 

Clap-sill.     The  lockage  of  a  flood-gate. 

Clark,  Ezra  W.,  Chief  of  U.  S.  Revenue 
Marine.  Born  at  Granville,  Licking  Co.,  O.,  in 
1839,  his  father  being  Rev.  Ezra  W.  Clark,  for 
about  forty  years  a  clergyman  of  the  Baptist 
Church  in'Ohio.  After  receiving  a  rudimentary 
education  he  was,  at  the  age  of  twelve  years, 
apprenticed  to  the  printing  business.  Having 
acquired  this  trade  he  was  prepared  for  college 
at  Lima,  N.  Y.  Subsequently  he  pursued  the 
study  of  Mathematics  with  Prof.  Aaron  Schuy- 
ler,  president  of  Berea  College,  0.  He  attended 
college  at  Otterbien  University,  in  Ohio.  He 
studied  law  with  Hon.  John  K.  Hord,  of  Tiffin, 
O.  In  April,  1861,  he  entered  the  Union  army, 
and  was  a  private  soldier  and  subsequently  a 
captain  in  the  8th  Regiment  Ohio  Vols.  Later, 
he  was  adjutant  of  the  34th  Ohio  infantry ;  was 
appointed  assistant  adjutant-general  of  volun 
teers  by  President  Lincoln  in  1863;  served  as 
such  in  the  army  of  West  Virginia,  and  was 
assistant  adjutant-general  of  a  cavalry  division 
under  Gens.  Hunter  and  Sheridan  in  the  cam 
paigns  of  1864.  He  was  afterwards  transferred 
to  the  staff  of  Maj.-Gen.  W.  S.  Hancock,  and 
became  assistant  adjutant-general  of  the  Mid 
dle  Military  Grand  Division,  headquarters  at 
Washington,  D.  C.,  and  was  transferred  to  Bal- 


CLARTY 


132 


CLASSIFICATION 


timore  with  Gen.  Hancock  when  the  latter  as 
sumed  command  of  the  Middle  Department.  In 
the  beginning  of  1866,  the  war  heing  over,  he 
left  the  army  and  entered  the  legal  profession. 
He  was  admitted  to  the  bar  of  the  Supreme 
Court  of  the  District  of  Columbia,  and  after 
wards  to  the  bar  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  the 
United  States.  In  1871  he  was  appointed  assist 
ant  chief  of  the  revenue  marine,  and,  with  Mr. 
S.  I.  Kimball,  participated  in  the  reorganiza 
tion  of  the  revenue  marine  service  and  the  life- 
saving  service.  He  was  appointed  chief  of  the 
revenue  marine  July  1,  1878.  In  addition  to  his 
duties  in  charge  of  this  bureau,  he  is  a  mem 
ber  of  the  examining  board  of  the  Treasury  De 
partment,  to  examine  applicants  for  admission 
and  promotion  to  clerkships  in  the  Department ; 
also  a  member  of  the  board  designated  by  the 
Secretary  of  the  Treasury  to  consider  all  matters 
pertaining  to  Alaska. 

Clarty.     Wet;  slippery;  dirty;  sticky. 
Clary,  Albert  G.,  Commodore  U.S.N.     Born 
in  Massachusetts.     Appointed,  1832  ;  attached  to 
sloop  "  Vincennes,"  Pacific  Squadron,  1834-36; 
Naval  School,  New  York,  1837. 

Promoted  to  passed  midshipman,  July  8, 1839 ; 
sloop  "Marion,"  Brazil  Squadron,  1839-42;  re 
ceiving-ship,  Boston,  1843-45. 

Commissioned  as  lieutenant,  April  11,  1845; 
sloop  "  Preble,"  Home  Squadron,  during  the  war 
with  Mexico,  at  Tuspan  and  Tabasco;  sloop 
"  Preble,"  Pacific  Squadron,  1847-50 ;  receiving- 
ship,  Boston,  1852;  sloop  "Marion,"  coast  of 
Africa,  1853;  frigate  "Constitution,"  coast  of 
Africa,  1854-55;  navy-yard,  Portsmouth,  N.  H., 
1856-57  ;  steam-frigate  "  Minnesota,"  East  India 
Squadron,  1858-59;  steam-frigate  "Colorado," 
1861 ;  commanding  steamer  "  Anacostia,"  Poto 
mac  Flotilla,  1861 ;  engagement  at  Acquia  Creek, 
May  31  and  June  1,  1861 ;  battle  of  Port  Royal, 
November  7,  1861. 

Commissioned  as  commander,  July  16,  1862 ; 
commanding  steamer  "  Mount  Vernon,"  North 
Atlantic  Blockading  Squadron,  1862;  command 
ing  steamer  "Tioga,"  West  India  Squadron, 
1863;  commanding  steam-sloop  "Dacotah," 
North  Atlantic  Blockading  Squadron,  1864; 
commanding  steam-sloop  "Seminole,"  West 
Gulf  Blockading  Squadron,  1864-65  ;  command 
ing  receiving-ship,  Norfolk,  1866. 

Commissioned  as  captain,  November  21,  1866  ; 
commanding    "Dictator,"    1870-72.      Commis 
sioned  as  commodore,  1873  ;  retired,  1874. 
Clashy.     Showery. 

Clasp-hook.    A  clip-hook  (which  see). 
Class.     A  group  of  objects,  animate  or  inani 
mate,  which  possess  common  characteristics.     A 
number  of  students  of  the  same  standing,  or 
who  are  pursuing  the  same  studies. 

Classification  of  Men-of-War.  First-rates 
will  comprise  steamships  of  4000  tons  displace 
ment  and  upward ;  ironclad  steamers  of  300C 
tons  measurement  and  upward;  ships-of-the- 
line  commissioned  for  sea-service. 

Second-rates  will  comprise  steamships  of  200( 
to  4000  tons  displacement ;  ironclad  steamers  of 
2000  to  3000  tons  measurement;  frigates  (sail 
ing)  commissioned  for  sea-service. 

Third-rates  will  comprise  steamships  of  900  t 
2000  tons   displacement;    ironclad   steamers  of 
1200  to  2000  tons  measurement ;  sloops-of-wa: 
(sailing)  commissioned  for  sea-service. 


st  Class. 


2d  Class. 
3d  Class. 


French 
Veritas. 
3.3  1.1 

5.61.1 


Fourth-rates  will  comprise  steamships  below 
500  tons  displacement,  dispatch- vessels,  and 
tore-ships. 

Whenever  a  vessel  is  commissioned  as  a  re- 
ieiving-ship,  her  rate  will  be  decided  by  the 
tfavy  Department. 

Classification  of  Merchant-vessels. 

American      British 

Lloyd's.  Lloyd's. 

1st  Grade  1st  Class.    A  1  A  1 
2d      "            "              Al- 

3d      "            "              A  \y,  " 

1st  Grade  2d  Class..    A  l]Z-  A  1  (in  red)     5.6  2.1 

2d      "            "              A  2  *JE  I  (in  red)    "    " 

1st  Grade  3d  Class..    A  2-  2&  1                  3.4  2.1 

2d      "                            A.  2\^>  -ZE  2                   2.3  2.2 

The  degrees  of  first  and  second  class  will 
mply  confidence  for  the  transportation  of  per 
ishable  cargoes  on  long  voyages.  The  degrees 
of  third  class  will  not  imply  confidence  for  the 
conveyance  of  cargoes  in  their  nature  subject  to 
sea  damage. 

The  classification  of  shipping  depends  upon 
the  quality  and  dimensions  of  materials  used, 
the  equalization  of  strength  in  their  distribution 
in  scarfs,  laps,  and  butts,  with  mode  and  extent 
of  fastening.  Model  and  manner  of  construction 
must  accord  with  the  best  practice  of  ship-build 
ing,  for  all  grades.  The  sparring  must  be  in 
good  proportion,  and  all  equipments  efficient. 

The  frame,  head,  and  heels  of  timber  must  be 
square,  and  free  from  sap  or  decay ;  the  timber 
well  seasoned,  salted  or  pickled  when  in  pro 
gress  of  construction  ;  ventilation  preserved  fore 
and  aft ;  and  a  water-course  made  on  under  side 
of  floors  to  admit  the  water  to  the  pumps. 

The  frames  must  be  of  white  oak,  the  principal 
timbers  of  live-oak  or  other  timber  of  equal  du 
rability,  and  the  tops  of  frames  mixed  with  red 
cedar,  hackmatack,  locust,  or  white-heart  chest 
nut.  The  butts  must  be  distributed  out  of  line ; 
the  timber  scarfs  not  less  than  4  feet  6  inches 
long;  the  floor  timbers  extending  well  towards 
the  ends  of  the  ship;  the  heels  of  the  cants 
stepped  in  the  dead-wood  and  bolted  through 
with  copper ;  the  wing  and  main  transom  well 
kneed  and  connected  to  the  frames. 

The  keel  must  be  sided  of  sufficient  size  to 
admit  of  twice  the  thickness  of  the  outside  plank 
between  rabbets  on  stem  and  stern-post,  the  rab 
bets  to  extend  as  far  as  practicable,  to  admit  of 
fastening  the  wood  ends  thereto.  The  heel  of 
stem  must  be  a  crook,  and  stepped  in  a  hooked 
scarf  on  the  keel,  and  not  less  than  3  feet  6 
inches  long.  The  stern-post  must  also  be  stepped 
in  the  keel. 

Natural  crooks  are  preferred  for  rising  floors 
and  second  futtocks.  The  siding  of  timbers  must 
be  in  proportion  from  floor-heads  to  heads  of 
top-timbers ;  the  distance  at  centres  for  all  ves 
sels  of  800  tons  and  under  must  not  be  over  26 
inches,  and  vessels  over  that  tonnage  not  over 
30  inches. 

The  keelson  must  be  sided  not  less  than  size 
of  keel,  and  the  scarfs  not  less  than  7  feet  long ; 
if  single  keelson,  the  shifts  of  scarfs  to  be  at 
least  one-third  the  length  of  the  stick  from  the 
end  of  the  scarf  of  the  keel.  In  rider  keelson  the 
scarfs  must  not  be  less  than  six  feet  long ;  assist 
ant  keelson,  if  adopted,  to  be  well  bolted  to  first 
futtocks  and  to  main  keelson.  The  scarfs  must 
be  distributed  so  as  not  to  be  under  the  heel  of  a 
mast. 

The  beams  must  be  of  oak  or  yellow  pine  of 


CLASSIFICATION 


133 


CLASSIFICATION 


sufficient  size  and  6  feet  from  centres,  except 
for  hatchways,  and  securely  fastened  to  the  side 
by  knees  carefully  fitted  to  the  timber,  natural 
crooks.  The  lodge-  and  bosom-knees  must  be 
of  oak  or  hackmatack.  Seasoned  oak  or  hackma 
tack  is  preferred  for  hanging-knees ;  vessels  of 
200  tons  are  required  to  have  a  hanging-knee  of 
wood  or  iron  under  each  end  of  each  alternate 
beam  ;  if  over  200  tons,  to  have  a  hanging-knee 
under  each  beam,  the  arms  of  good  length,  not 
less  than  3  feet  6  inches ;  the  knees  to  be  fas 
tened  with  through  bolts  driven  from  outside 
and  clinched  overlings,  in  addition  to  the  blunt 
bolts  driven  from  the  inside,  and  each  hanging 
knee  must  be  keyed  to  the  beam. 

The  breasthooks  and  pointers  must  be  square- 
fastened,  one-third  of  the  bolts  driven  from  the 
outside  through  the  timbers  and  clinched  over 
rings  on  the  inside,  and  all  blunt  bolts  must  be 
driven  within  one  inch  of  through.  Copper  or 
composition  bolts  must  be  driven  through  the 
apron  and  inner  stern-post  not  over  20  inches 
apart  and  clinched  over  rings  of  the  same  mate 
rial  on  the  outside.  Copper  or  composition  bolts 
must  be  driven  through  the  dead-wood  20  inches 
apart,  passing  through  the  heels  and  scarfs  of 
stern  and  stern-post  and  clinched  over  rings  on 
the  outside  and  lower  side  of  keel. 

Spar-deck  water-ways  must  be  fayed  to  the 
beams  and  timbers,  the  scarfs  vertical,  and  at 
least  three  planks  next  the  water-way  must  be 
one  inch  thicker  than  the  adjoining  plank,  and 
alternately  let  one  inch  into  and  one  inch  over 
the  beams  and  carlines,  the  edge  bolted  through 
water-ways  and  timbers,  and  clinched.  The  main 
and  inner  water-ways  on  lower  decks  must  be 
cogged  to  the  beams  with  locust,  bolted  through 
each  beam  and  clinched,  and  bolted  from  outside 
through  each  timber  and  clinched  over  rings. 
The  clamps  and  inside  planking  must  be  of  good 
length,  the  clamp-scarfs  to  be  hooked  or  keyed, 
arranged  to  suit  the  timbers,  and  in  length  not 
less  than  five  times  the  length  of  the  plank.  The 
ceiling  must  be  of  good  quality,  the  butts  prop 
erly  shifted,  the  whole  square- fastened,  and  the 
edges  beveled  to  good  calking  seams.  In  all 
cases  the  nibs  of  the  butt-scarfs  must  be  one- 
third  the  width  of  the  planks,  and  reach  the 
frame  forward  and  abaft  of  their  centres. 

The  outside  planking  must  be  of  white  oak  or 
yellow  pine,  and  fit  closely  to  each  other  on  the 
inside.  The  garboard  streaks  must  be,  at  least, 
from  3  to  1J  inches  thicker  than  the  rest  of  the 
covering.  No  butts  in  any  part  of  the  planking 
must  be  nearer  than  5  feet  of  each  other,  un 
less  there  be  a  streak  wrought  between  them, 
when  a  distance  of  4  feet  will"  be  the  minimum  ; 
all  butts  on  the  same  timber  must  have  3  streaks 
between.  Vessels  under  200  tons  are  exempt 
from  the  full  operation  of  this  rule. 

Deck-planks  must  be  of  white  or  yellow  pine 
of  best  quality,  and  not  less  than  30  feet  in 
length ;  no  planks  to  be  over  5J  inches  wide  and 
3  inches  thick,  and  fastened  with  two  copper 
spikes  in  the  butt  of  each  plank  ;  rail-scarfs  must 
be  hooked  or  keyed,  and  in  length  5  times  their 
width.  Stanchions  under  deck-beams  must  be 
of  oak  or  pitch-pine. 

Garboards,  first  and  second,  must  be  bolted  to 
the  floors  with  copper  or  composition  driven 
through  each  frame  and  clinched,  and  edge 
bolted  through  keel  and  each  other  in  addition 


to  treenailing.  All  bolts  going  into  the  timber 
must  be  driven  within  one  inch  of  through,  and 
the  plank,  well  wrought  to  the  timbers  with 
copper  or  composition  spikes,  must  be  square- 
fastened  with  locust  treenails  of  best  quality 
driven  through  and  wedged,  outside  and  in ; 
when  the  plank  is  6  inches  wide,  then  to  be  tree- 
nailed  single  and  double  in  each  frame;  when 
10  inches,  to  be  square-treenailed.  Each  plank 
must  be  fastened  with  at  least  one  headed  copper 
or  composition  bolt  driven  through  the  first 
frame  and  aft  the  butt,  and  clinched  over  rings 
on  the  inside  of  ceiling. 

Each  alternate  floor  must  be  fastened  to  the 
keel  with  a  copper  bolt  driven  from  above  and 
clinched  on  the  under  side  of  the  keel.  The  inter 
mediate  floors  must  be  fastened  with  a  copper  bolt 
driven  through  the  main  keelson  and  clinched 
on  the  under  side  of  the  keel.  If  a  "  rider  keel 
son"  is  added,  it  must  be  fastened  with  one  iron 
bolt  in  each  floor  through  the  rider  to  within 
one  inch  of  the  lower  part  of  the  keel.  The  ver 
tical  bolting  in  the  assistant  keelsons  to  be  driven 
through  the  first  futtocks. 

In  calking,  the  seams  must  be  well  filled  with 
oakum  thread,  50  feet  to  the  pound,  and  at  least 
one  thread  to  each  half-inch  of  the  thickness  of 
the  plank. 

Ships  exceeding  5  times  their  breadth  in  length 
should  be  iron  strapped  diagonally. 

The  timber  used  in  all  vessels  must  be  free 
from  sap  and  decay.  The  stem  above  the  fore 
foot  must  be  of  one  piece,  or  if  scarfed,  the  scarf 
must  be  above  light-water  line.  Stern-post 
must  be  of  one  piece.  Scarfs  of  keel  not  to  be 
under  a  mast.  Bilge  streaks  to  correspond  to 
tonnage.  Vessels  of  800  tons  and  over  should 
have  a  heavy  stringer  under  the  lower  knees. 

Channel-bolts  must  be  driven  through  the 
frames  and  ceiling  and  clinched  or  keyed.  The 
partial  fastenings  of  ceiling  and  outside  planking 
must  be  complete  before  the  treenail  holes  are 
bored,  and  care  should  be  taken  not  to  split  the 
plank  in  driving  the  treenails.  The  pumps  of 
vessels  must  correspond  to  their  tonnage,  and  be 
so  distributed  that  they  may  free  the  ship  from 
water  at  any  time  or  inclination  ;  the  pump-well 
must  be  accessible  at  all  times.  Vessels  when 
wormed  will  not  be  classed  until  defects  are  re 
moved.  All  vessels  must  have  anchors,  cables, 
boats,  compasses,  charts,  leads,  lead-lines,  etc. 
Vessels  trading  to  ports  beyond  the  Cape  of 
Good  Hope  or  Cape  Horn  must  have  two  suits 
of  courses,  topsails,  jibs,  spankers,  and  fore-top 
mast  stay-sails,  and  be  metal  sheathed  within  one 
foot  of  load-line.  Other  vessels*  should  carry  a 
spare  topsail  and  fore-topmast  stay-sail. 

Vessels  having  two  decks  should  have  scup 
pers  through  the  water-ways  of  lower  deck.  Ves 
sels  transporting  dry  cargoes  should  have  their 
masts  coated.  Vessels  over-sparred  or  deficient 
will  not  receive  classification.  Vessels  whose 
bowsprits  step  below  the  spar-deck,  or  whose 
hawse-holes  are  cut  below  the  spar-deck,  are 
subjected  to  a  lower  classification. 

New  vessels  are  to  be  surveyed  while  building 
at  the  following  stages  :  when  the  keel  and  keel 
son  are  united  ;  when  the  frame  is  raised  and  the 
keelson  in  ;  when  the  deck  frames  are  complete  ; 
when  treenailed  and  butt  and  bilge  bolted  ;  when 
masted  and  fully  equipped.  When  old  vessels 
are  examined  for  classification  particular  atten- 


CLASSIFICATION 


134 


CLASSIFICATION 


tion  is  directed  to  the  state  of  the  upper  and 
main  deck  and  coamings ;  the  upper  and  lower 
deck  bolts  ;  the  knees,  beams,  plank-shears,  and 
water-ways  ;  the  hawse  timbers,  breast-hooks, 
aprons,  transoms,  floor,  and  keelsons;  the  rudder, 
keel,  windlass,  planking,  and  treenails;  the 
frame  exposed,  and  inner  surface  of  planking. 
A  listing  should  be  taken  out  of  the  ceiling 
above  flopr-heads  ;  also,  a  short  plank  taken  out 
uiider  each  tuck,  and  at  such  other  places  as  may 
seem  necessary.  The  sheer  and  general  line  of 
the  ship,  and  the  condition  of  the  oakum  and 
calking,  are  examined. 

Requirements  for  Grades  of  Classification. — 
Vessels  properly  constructed  and  equipped  class 
A  1  for  12  years ;  if  opened  and  bored  at  the 
expiration  of  that  term  and  found  sound,  the 
class  is  continued  for  such  a  period  as  the  sur 
veyors  may  determine. 

When  vessels  are  built  with  floors  of  oak,  birch, 
and  beech,  futtocks  and  top-timber  of  oak  and 
hackmatack,  covering  of  oak,  scantlings  of  good 
size,  and  materials  and  workmanship  first-class, 
they  will  receive  the  A  1  class  9  years,  at  the  ex 
piration  of  which,  if  found  sound,  the  class  will 
be  continued  for  3  years. 

When  vessels  are  built  of  mixed  woods,  such 
as  birch,  beech,  elm,  hackmatack,  fir,  pine,  hem 
lock,  spruce,  etc.,  the  treenails  through  ceiling 
and  wedged  outside  and  in,  with  butt  bolts  in 
plank,  and  all  other  parts  fastened  sufficiently, 
and  deck  frames  secured  by  lodge-  and  hanging- 
knees,  they  will  receive  class  A  1  8  years. 

Ships  with  depth  of  hold  exceeding  23  feet  will 
be  required  to  have  orlop-beams,  secured  with 
horizontal  and  hanging  knees ;  when  exceed 
ing  25  feet,  to  have  three  full  decks.  Single- 
decked  vessels,  with  depth  of  hold  exceeding  12 
feet,  to  have  partner-beams  and  secured  with 
knees  and  masts  wedged  in  partners. 

Single-decked  vessels,  when  built  of  standard 
materials,  with  depth  of  hold  not  exceeding  11 
feet,  the  fastenings  in  accordance  with  the  rules 
set  forth,  will  receive  the  same  class  as  double- 
decked  vessels;  when  built  of  other  materials, 
they  will  be  classed  in  accordance  with  quality 
of  materials  and  construction. 

Centre-board  vessels  of  superior  construction, 
with  oak  frames  and  coverings,  all  fastenings 
first-class,  moderately  sparred,  and  the  centre 
board  trunk  well  secured,  will  class  A  7  years ; 
when  built  inferior  to  this  grade,  they  will  be 
classed  in  accordance  with  quality  of  build. 

Vessels  having  their  centre-boards  taken  out 
will  be  required  to  have  the  floor  timbers  run 
across  to  meet  the  second  futtocks,  and  chocks 
put  in  to  meet  the  first  futtocks. 

When  vessels  are  rebuilt  or  thoroughly  re 
paired,  they  will  bo  restored  to  original  character 
if  the  materials  used  are  equal  to  the  original. 

IRON  VESSELS.  The  classification  of  iron  ves 
sels  depends  on  the  quality  of  iron,  mode  of  con 
struction,  dimensions  of  plating,  frames,  and 
angle-iron,  the  distribution  of  scarfs  and  butts, 
etc. 

Neither  steam-  nor  sailing-vessels  must  ex 
ceed  seven  times  their  breadth  in  length ;  the 
latter  to  have  two  bulkheads,  and  the  former  not 
less  than  four,  and  secured  with  angle-iron  equal 
in  size  to  that  of  frames  ;  the  distance  of  frames 
at  centres  must  not  exceed  20  inches. 

The  keel,  stern,  and  stern-post  must  be  of  solid 


iron,  the  scarfs  to  be  in  length  eight  times  the 
thickness  of  the  material.  Propeller-posts  are 
required  to  be  in  thickness  double  that  of  keel, 
and  to  taper  off  along  the  line  of  keel ;  the  whole 
to  be  well  united. 

Floor-plates  must  be  fitted  closely  to  the  keel, 
riveted  to  every  frame,  and  extend  across  the 
stern-post  and  above  the  bilges,  that  the  sides 
may  be  properly  connected.  The  depths  of 
plate  must  be  one-twelfth  the  depth  of  hold, 
measured  from  top  of  keelson  to  upper  deck 
beams ;  and  a  water-course  to  be  preserved  to 
admit  the  water  to  the  pumps.  A  reduction  in 
size  of  plates  will  be  allowed  towards  the  ends  of 
the  vessel. 

The  keelson  must  be  two-thirds  the  depth  of 
floor-plates,  and  extend  to  stem  and  stern-post, 
and  be  connected  thereto ;  the  butts  must  be 
properly  shifted,  well  fitted,  and  riveted  to  floor- 
plates.  Angle-iron  must  be  fitted  on  top  and 
bottom  of  vertical  plating,  and  riveted  to  the 
reversed  angle-iron  on  top  of  floors.  Additional 
keelsons  are  required  for  vessels  of  800  tons  or 
over. 

The  frames  must  be  of  the  greatest  possible 
length,  the  butts  well  shifted  and  fitted  closely 
to  the  keel.  The  frames,  if  welded,  must  be  per 
fect,  and  the  whole  strengthened  with  reverse 
angle-iron.  All  vessels  must  have  double  frames 
to  above  the  bilges. 

The  beams  must  be  one-quarter  of  an  inch  in 
depth  for  each  foot  of  length  of  midships  beam. 
The  angle-iron  must  be  of  good  size,  the  two 
sides  of  each  not  less  in  breadth  than  three- 
fourths  the  depth  of  beam-plate.  The  beams  to 
be  all  well  connected  to  the  frames  with  bracket 
ends  of  knee-plates  equal  in  thickness  to  beams, 
and  the  arms  to  be  three  times  the  depth  of 
beams. 

In  vessels  having  three  decks,  the  beams  must 
be  over  each  other,  and  stanchioned  where  prac 
ticable  ;  the  orlop-beams  must  be  fastened  to 
every  sixth  frame,  and  have  stringer-plates  and 
angle-iron. on  their  ends  fore  and  aft.  Vessels 
of  20  feet  depth  must  have  the  same  number 
of  hold  and  deck  beams.  A  depth  of  hold  of  16 
feet  must  have  beams  to  every  fourth  frame,  and 
secured  with  knee-plates  and  to  stringer-plate  at 
under  side. 

All  vessels  must  have  stringer-plates  on  each 
tier  of  beams,  connected  at  ends  with  angle-iron, 
and  also  to  frames  and  outside  planking.  The 
clamps  must  be  equal  in  dimensions  to  the 
stringers,  and  riveted  to  each  frame.  The  tie- 
plates  must  be  well  riveted  to  each  other,  and  to 
beams,  hooks,  and  transoms,  and  the  butts  well 
shifted.  When  the  deck  arrangement  will  admit 
of  it,  all  vessels  are  to  have  diagonal  tie-plates. 
The  hatchways,  mast-holes,  and  partners  must 
be  strongly  framed  and  secured  with  angle-irons 
and  carlines. 

All  butts  must  be  double  riveted,  and  the 
plating  closely  fitted  to  the  frames  and  to  each 
other,  and  no  plate  less  in  length  than  5  spaces 
of  frames ;  a  reduction  in  length  and  size  of 
plating  will  be  allowed  toward  the  hood  ends. 
The  edges  and  butts  must  be  well  fitted  and 
water-tight,  the  butts  well  supported  to  receive 
the  plating,  and  united  by  straps  of  the  same 
thickness  as  the  plating,  with  the  fibres  of  each 
in  the  same  direction.  The  frame  must  have 
solid  filling  or  lining  pieces,  closely  fitted  in  one 


CLAW  OFF 


135 


CLEVELAND 


length  of  the  same  breath  as  frames.  In  screw- 
vessels  no  reduction  in  plating  towards  the  ends 
is  allowed. 

Rivets  must  be  of  the  best  quality  of  iron,  the 
rivet-holes  equally  spaced  and  carefully  punched, 
and  to  be  countersunk  through  the  outer  plating. 
The  rivets  must  be  at  least  their  diameter  from 
the  edge  of  plating,  lining  pieces,  or  any  angle- 
irons,  and  distant  from  each  other  4  times  their 
diameter ;  all  edges  of  horizontal  joints  of  out 
side  plating  must  be  double-riveted  throughout. 

The  main  piece  of  the  rudder  must  be  of 
wrought  iron.  The  ceiling  must  be  of  a  superior 
quality,  in  thickness  from  2  to  3  inches,  and 
secured  so  as  to  be  detached  when  required. 

The  decks  and  water-ways  must  be  equal  in 
thickness  to  wooden  vessels  of  corresponding 
tonnage,  and  fastened  with  screw-bolts  two  in 
each  plank,  in  every  beam,  the  water-ways  fas 
tened  with  screw-bolts,  and  secured  at  under  side 
of  stringers. 

Bulkheads  must  be  made  water-tight  where 
ties,  stringers,  or  screw-shafts  pass  through, 
closely  fitted  between  two  frames  at  each  side, 
and  riveted  through  them,  the  whole  well  sup 
ported  by  angle-irons  30  inches  apart,  and  riv 
eted  together  and  to  the  floors,  beams,  and 
frames,  etc.  A  pump  must  be  fitted  to  each 
compartment.  Iron  vessels  are  required  to  have 
the  same  equipments  as  wooden  vessels  of  cor 
responding  tonnage. 

STEAM-VESSELS.  The  classification  of  steam- 
vessels  depends  on  the  construction  of  the  hull 
and  the  character  and  condition  of  machinery. 

In  the  construction  no  departure  from  .the 
standard  rules  will  be  admitted.  The  scantlings 
and  dimensions  must  be  regulated  in  proportion 
to  capacity,  to  insure  longitudinal  strength. 
The  floor  must  be  filled  in  solid  as  high  up  as 
the  turn  of  the  bilge.  The  frame  must  be  diagon 
ally  iron  strapped  from  the  floor-heads  to  the 
upper  deck  beams,  and  bolted  to  each  timber ;  and 
when  double  laid,  riveted  in  each  timber  room. 

There  must  be  water-tight  bulkheads,  30  to  50 
feet  from  stem  and  stern,  to  reach  at  least  two 
feet  above  deep  load-line,  which  must  be  well 
secured  to  strong  stanchions  on  the  after-side. 
Steam- vessels  engaged  in  the  transportation  of 

Cjengers  are  required  to  have  sufficient  life- 
ts.  Steam-vessels  navigating  the  ocean  or 
coast,  are  required  to  have  a  sufficient  spread  of 
canvas  to  make  a  port  in  case  of  derangement 
of  machinery.  All  steam- vessels'  bottoms  are  to 
be  examined  annually,  and  are  required  to  be 
opened  for  inspection  at  the  expiration  of  5  years, 
to  ascertain  the  condition  of  their  frame. 

Sea-going  steamers  of  standard  construction, 
and  having  sufficient  canvas  to  make  port  in 
case  the  machinery  is  disabled,  rate  A  1*. 

Sea-going  steamers  with  but  little  canvas, 
rate  A  1. 

Steamers  constructed  for  navigating  sounds, 
lakes,  and  rivers,  rate  A  1  to  A  2. 

Claw  Off.  To  work  to  windward  from  a  lee 
shore ;  particularly  when  the  operation  is  per 
formed  under  difficult  circumstances. 

Clayborne,  William.  A  surveyor  by  pro 
fession.  Authorized  by  the  rulers  of  Virginia 
to  discover  the  limits  of  Chesapeake  Bay,  he 
pursued  his  investigation  with  great  ardor  be 
tween  the  34th  and  41st  degrees  of  latitude,  in 
1625.  A  company  having  obtained  the  royal 


license  to  trade  with  the  Indians,  Clayborne  was 
placed  at  the  head  of  an  expedition,  and  leaving 
England  with  a  number  of  persons  disposed  to 
settle  in  Virginia  under  his  government,  he 
planted  a  colony  on  Kent  Island,  in  Chesapeake 
Bay. 

Cleaching  Net.  A  hand-net  with  a  hoop  and 
bar,  used  by  fishermen. 

Clean.  Free  from  danger ;  as,  a  clean  coast, 
a  clean  harbor,  etc.  In  general  parlance  it 
means  quite,  entirely. 

CLEAN  BILL  OF  HEALTH.  See  BILL  OF 
HEALTH. 

CLEAN  DONE.  Adroitly  tricked ;  purpose 
well  effected. 

CLEAN-FULL.     Rap  full ;  applied  to  the  sails. 

CLEAN  OFF  THE  REEL.  When  the  ship  is 
going  so  fast  as  to  take  the  log-line  off  the  reel 
without  its  being  fed  to  her,  she  takes  the  line 
clean  off  the  reel.  The  expression  is  used  for 
anything  that  is  done  without  stop  or  hindrance. 

CLEAN  SHIP.  A  whale-ship  unfortunate  in 
her  trip,  having  no  fish  nor  oil. 

Clear.  A  word  applied  to  many  different  ob 
jects,  and  its  signification  is  generally  opposed 
to  foul.  To  clear  a  rock,  vessel,  or  point,  to  get 
by  it  without  touching.  To  clear  a  time-glass, 
to  let  all  the  sand  run  out  of  one  end.  To  clear 
a  rope,  to  remove  any  obstruction  to  its  running 
freely.  To  clear  a  lighter,  to  discharge  its  cargo. 
To  clear  goods,  to  pay  duties  and  go  through  the 
formalities  required  by  the  custom-house  officials. 
To  clear  is  to  present  the  proper  documents  and 
receive  permission  of  the  proper  authorities  to 
sail.  To  clear  the  decks  is  to  send  or  drive  the 
men  off  from  them.  To  clear  up  the  decks  is  to 
lay  up  the  ropes  and  put  everything  in  its  place. 
The  weather  clears  up  when  the  clouds  break 
away,  and  there  is  a  prospect  of  a  return  of  fine 
weather.  To  clear  away  a  rope  is  to  let  go  the 
end  of  it.  To  clear  for  action,  to  prepare  for 
battle.  To  clear  the  land,  to  gain  such  a  distance 
from  the  land  as  to  have  plenty  of  sea-room. 

CLEARANCE.  A  document  from  the  custom 
house  certifying  that  the  ship  has  cleared ;  per 
mission  to  sail. 

CLEARING  THE  DISTANCE.  The  operation  of 
deducing  the  true  from  the  apparent  lunar  dis 
tance. 

CLEAR  WATER.  Water  free  from  obstruc 
tions,  as  ice,  rocks,  etc. 

Cleat.  A  piece  of  wood  or  metal  bolted  to  the 
side  or  deck  to  which  a  rope  is  belayed.  Cleat  is 
also  the  name  given  to  a  wedge-like  piece  of 
wood  nailed  on  a  spar  to  keep  the  rigging  from 
slipping  in  or  down.  To  cleat  an  object  is  to 
nail  cleats  against  it  to  keep  it  from  slipping. 

Clench.     See  CLINCH. 

Clerk.  A  civilian  appointed  by  the  officer 
who  is  entitled  to  his  services  ;  as,  captain's  and 
paymaster's  clerk.  He  is  required  to  be  at  least 
18  years  old,  and  to  serve  until  regularly  dis 
charged.  A  clerk  is  a  steerage  officer,  but  the 
captain's  clerk  sometimes  messed  with  the  com 
manding  officer,  in  which  case  he  was  not  en 
titled  to  quarters  in  the  steerage.  The  com 
manding  officer  is  not  now  entitled  to  a  clerk, 
his  di  ties  being  performed  by  one  of  the  junior 
officers  attached  to  the  vessel. 

Cleveland,  a  port  of  entry  and  second  city  of 
Ohio,  is  situated  on  the  south  shore  of  Lake 
Erie,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Cuyahoga  River, 


CLEW 


136 


GLITZ 


which  flows  through  the  city,  affording  a  fine 
sheltered  harbor,  to  which  has  been  added  a 
commodious  ship-channel  200  feet  wide,  flanked 
by  two  piers  extending  1200  feet  into  the  lake. 
A  harbor  of  refuge,  commenced  in  1878,  is  also 
in  course  of  construction  by  the  U.  S.  govern 
ment,  extending  from  a  point  northerly  from 
the  west  pier,  and  running  west  by  south  to  the 
lake-shore.  The  work  is  under  the  supervision 
of  an  army  engineer,  and  is  estimated  to  cost 
$1,800,000.  Lat.  41°  30'  5"  N. ;  Ion.  81°  42/  6" 
W.  Pop.  160,000. 

Clew.  The  combination  of  nettles  by  which 
a  hammock  is  suspended.  The  ordinary  clews 
are  plaited  for  a  short  distance  below  the  ring 
or  eye ;  Spanish  clevis  are  served  without  being 
plaited ;  triangular  spans  and  iron  rings  have 
been  used  to  give  spread  to  hammocks,  but  they 
do  not  give  satisfaction.  One  of  the  lower  cor 
ners  of  a  square-sail,  or  the  after  lower  corner  of 
a  fore-and-aft  sail.  From  clew  to  earing,  liter 
ally,  the  diagonal  of  a  square-sail ;  figuratively, 
from  top  to  bottom  ;  entirely  ;  as,  to  shift  one's 
clothes  from  clew  to  earing.  A  clew  up,  a  case 
of  despair.  To  clew  down,  to  haul  on  the  clew 
lines  and  force  a  yard  down.  To  clew  up,  to  run 
the  clews  of  a  sail  up  to  the  yard. 

CLEW-CRINGLE.  A, cringle  in  the  clew  of  a 
sail  to  which  the  sheet  is  bent.  In  our  service 
clew-irons,  or  spectacle-irons,  are  used  instead  of 
rope  cringles. 

CLEW-GARNET.  A  rope  by  which  the  clews 
of  the  courses  are  run  up  to  the  lower  yards. 

CLEW-GARNET  BLOCK.  A  large,  single,  iron- 
bound  block  at  the  slings  of  the  lower  yards,  to 
act  as  a  leader  for  the  clew-garnet.  Also  the 
block  at  the  clew  of  the  sail  through  which  the 
clew-garnet  reeves. 

CLEW-IRON.  The  iron  shackle  in  the  clew 
of  a  sail  to  which  the  sheet  is  bent.  The 
iron  is  galvanized,  and  has  two  eyes  with  thim 
bles  inserted  ;  the  round  shape  of  the  iron  and 
the  position  of  the  two  eyes  give  it  the  appear 
ance  of  a  pair  of  spectacles;  hence  the  name 
spectacle-iron,  which  is  sometimes  applied  to  it. 
The  objection  which  is  sometimes  made  to  the 
use  of  clew-irons  is  that  they  may  iron-mold  the 
canvas.  They  are  stronger  than  rope  and  when 
galvanized  do  not  rust  for  a  long  time,  and  when 
the  sail  is  worn  out  they  may  be  galvanized 
afresh  and  put  in  a  new  sail.  They  are  univer 
sally  used  in  the  navy. 

CLEW-JIGGER.  A  temporary  purchase  for 
hauling  up  the  clews  of  courses  and  topsails 
forward  of  and  above  the  yard ;  they  are  not 
used  at  sea.  The  fore  clew-jigger  is  also  used  as 
the  inner  halliards  of  the  lower  stun'sail,  and 
both  fore  and  main  clew-jiggers  are  used  as  reef- 
tackles. 

CLEW-LINE.  A  rope  by  which  the  clews  of 
all  square-sails  except  courses  are  run  up  to  their 
yards. 

CLEW-LINE  BLOCK.  The  block  at  the  clew 
of  a  topsail  through  which  the  clew-line  reeves. 
Formerly,  the  quarter-block  was  called  a  clew 
line  block. 

CLEW-ROPE.    The  roping  at  the  clew  of  a  sail. 
A  rope  leading  from  the  clew  of  a  trysail  to  the 
jaws  of  the  gaff. 
Click.     A  small  pawl. 

Cliff.  A  precipitous  termination  of  the  land. 
See  CRAG. 


Clinch.  A  kind  of  hitch,  in  which  the  end 
of  a  rope  is  taken  around  the  standing  part  and 
seized  to  its  own  part.  In  the  inner  clinch  the 
end  is  inside  of  the  other  part,  and  in  the  outer 
clinch  the  end  part  is  outside.  The  seizings  are 
called  bends.  To  clinch  a  rope  is  to  secure  the 
end  of  it  by  means  of  a  clinch.  To  clinch  a  bolt 
is  to  rivet  the  end  of  it  over  a  ring  or  plate.  To 
clinch  a  bargain  is  to  settle  it  beyond  further  dis 
pute. 

CLINCH-BOLT.  A  bolt,  the  end  of  which  is 
turned  over  by  hammering. 

CLINCHER.     An  incontrovertible  argument. 

CLINCH-NAILS.  Nails  made  of  malleable 
metal,  as  copper,  wrought  iron,  etc.,  whose 
ends  may  be  turned  back. 

Clinch-built.     See  CLINKER-BUILT. 

Clincher-built.     See  CLINKER-BUILT. 

Clincher-work.     See  CLINKER-WORK. 

Clinker-built.  A  term  to  denote  that  the 
planks  of  a  boat  overlap.  When  the  plates  of 
iron  vessels  overlap  they  are  distinguished  as 
lap-jointed.  See  CLINKER- WORK. 

Clinker-work.  Lap-jointed  work.  A  mode 
of  building  in  which  the  lower  edge  of  each 
plank  laps  over  the  upper  edge  of  the  plank  next 
below.  This  method  of  building  is  employed  in 
boats  of  light  construction,  and  sometimes  in  iron 
ships. 

Clinton,  George,  Admiral.  Governor  of  New 
York,  September,  1743-October,  1753.  Died 
governor  of  Newfoundland,  July  10,  1761. 
Youngest  son  of  Francis,  sixth  earl  of  Lincoln. 
Appointed  commodore  and  governor  of  New 
foundland,  1732.  Subsequently  appointed  gov 
ernor  of  New  York.  His  want  of  skill  in  civil 
affairs  peculiarly  exposed  him  to  the  tumults  and 
commotions  of  colonial  government.  In  his 
controversies  with  the  assembly  Golden,  after 
wards  lieutenant-governor,  was  his  champion 
with  the  pen ;  his  chief  opponent  being  Horse- 
mander.  Clinton  afterwards  became  governor 
of  Greenwich  hospital ;  in  1745  became  vice- 
admiral  of  the  red,  and  admiral  of  the  fleet  in 
1757. 

Clip-hook.  A  hook  composed  of  two  parts 
moving  on  the  same  pivot.  When  hooked  and 
moused  these  two  parts  form  a  solid  hook,  and 
cannot  beseparated  until  the  mousing  is  removed. 

Clipper.  A  long,  low,  sharp,  fast-sailing 
ship. 

CLIPPER-BUILT.  Built  on  the  model  of  a 
clipper. 

'  Glitz,  John  M.  B.,  Rear-Admiral  U.S.N. 
Born  in  New  York,  March  10, 1823.  Appointed 
from  Michigan,  August  12,  1837 ;  attached  to 
sloop  "Ontario,"  West  India  Squadron,  1838- 
42;  Naval  School,  Philadelphia,  1843. 

Promoted  to  passed  midshipman,  June  29, 
1843;  sloop  "  St.  Mary's,"  Mediterranean  Squad 
ron,  1844-45;  sloop  "  Falmouth,"  Home  Squad 
ron,  1845-46  ;  bomb-brig  "  Hecla,"  Home  Squad 
ron,  1847;  capitulation  of  castle  of  San  Juan 
d'Ulloa  and  capture  of  Tuspan ;  steamer  "  Pe- 
trita,"  Home  Squadron,  1847-48  ;  frigate  "  Cum 
berland,"  Mediterranean  Squadron,  1849-51. 

Commissioned  as  lieutenant,  April  6,  1851; 
Coast  Survey,  1851-52;  steam-frigate  u  Missis 
sippi,"  East'  India  Squadron,  1852-55;  special 
duty,  Washington,  1856;  sloop  "Decatur,"  Pa 
cific  Squadron,  1858-59;  steam-sloop  "  Iro- 
quois,"  1861. 


CLIYE 


137 


CLOUD 


Commissioned  as  commander,  July  16,  1862 ; 
commanding  steamer  "  Penobscot,"  North  At 
lantic  Blockading  Squadron,  1863  ;  commanding 
steam-sloop  "Juniata,"  East  Gulf  Blockading 
Squadron,  1863;  commanding  steamer  "Osce- 
ola,"  North  Atlantic  Blockading  Squadron, 
1864-65  ;  at  both  attacks  on  Fort  Fisher ;  navy- 
yard,  Boston,  1866. 

Commissioned  as  captain,  July  25,  1866  ;  com 
manding  steam-sloop  "  Pawnee,"  South  Atlantic 
Squadron,  1868-69;  ordnance  duty,  navy-yard, 
New  York,  1870;  commanding  "California" 
(second-rate),  Pacific  Fleet,  1870-72. 

Commissioned  as  commodore,  December  28, 
1872 ;  commanding  naval  station,  Port  Royal, 
S.  C.,  1876-77;  light-house  inspector,  1878-80; 
commissioned  as  rear-admiral,  1880;  under  or 
ders  to  command  East  India  Squadron. 

Clive.     An  old  spelling  of  cliff. 

Clock,  Astronomical.  A  pendulum  clock  of 
superior  construction  and  specially  adapted  for 
astronomical  observations.  It  is  adjusted  to 
show  sidereal  time,  and  indicates  Oh  Om  0s  when 
the  first  point  of  Aries  is  on  the  meridian.  It  is 
regulated  by  observing  with  a  transit  instrument 
the  meridian  passage  of  the  heavenly  bodies. 
The  astronomical  clock  furnishes  the  best  means 
of  rating  a  chronometer. 

CLOCK,  MEAN  SOLAR.  A  clock  which  indi 
cates  mean  solar  or  civil  time.  See  TIME. 

CLOCK,  SIDEREAL.  A  clock  which  indicates 
sidereal  time.  See  TIME. 

CLOCK-STARS.  A  name  for  the  nautical  stars 
(which  see). 

Clock-calm.  Dead  calm ;  not  a  breath  of 
air  stirring. 

Clod-hopper.     A  clownish  landsman. 

Close.     Near.     To  draw  near. 

CLOSE  ABOARD.     Near  the  ship. 

CLOSE  BUTT.  A  shipwright's  definition  of  a 
close  butt  is,  a  butt  of  a  half-way  piece  either  in 
the  outside  planking  or  the  deck  of  a  vessel,  not 
intended  to  be  calked.  Before  this  piece  is  put 
into  position  the  seams  and  the  butts  of  the  said 
half-way  pieces  are  made  tight  or  close  for  ap 
pearance  only. 

The  calker's  definition  of  a  close  butt  is,  one 
that  cannot  be  properly  calked  without  cutting, 
whereas  a  proper  open  butt  involves  no  extra 
expense,  and  leaves  a  smooth  edge  for  the  forma 
tion  of  a  perfect  oakum  wedge. 

CLOSED  PORT.  An  interdicted  or  blockaded 
port. 

CLOSE-FIGHTS.     See  CLOSE-QUARTERS. 

CLOSE-FISTED.     Stingy ;  penurious. 

CLOSE  HARBOR.  An  artificial  harbor  with  an 
entrance  which  may  be  opened  and  closed  at  will. 

CLOSE-HAULED.  The  situation  of  a  ship  when 
her  yards  are  braced  up  sharp  and  she  is  sailing 
as  close  to  the  wind  as  possible.  The  after-yards 
should  be  braced  in  a  little  more  than  the  head- 
yards,  and  the  upper  yards  a  little  more  than  the 
one  next  below,  in  order  that  the  after-sails  may 
lift  before  the  sails  on  the  fore,  and  the  light 
sails  before  the  courses  and  top?ails.  The  helms 
man  steers  by  the  weather-leech  of  the  upper  sail 
on  the  main. 

CLOSE  PACK.     See  PACK-ICE. 

CLOSE  PORT.  A  port  which  lies  up  a  river,  in 
contradistinction  to  an  out-port. 

CLOSE-QUARTERS,  or  CLOSE-FIGHTS.  In  olden 
times  heavy  bulkheads  or  barricades,  fitted  with 


loop-holes,  were  erected,  and  the  crew  retreated 
to  this  place  when  they  were  unable  to  drive  the 
enemy's  boarders  back.  The  fight  was  then 
carried  on  from  inside  the  barricade.  The  term, 
which  was  then  confined  to  these  hand-to-hand 
combats,  is  now  applied  to  a  fight  at  short  range 
between  ships. 

CLOSE-REEF.     The  last  reef  in  a  sail. 

CLOSE-SIGHT.  The  notch  in  the  base-ring  of 
old  guns. 

CLOSE  TO  THE  WIND.  As  near  the  wind  as 
possible  without  causing  the  sails  to  lift. 

CLOSE  WITH.  To  approach  ;  as,  to  close  with 
an  enemy. 

Cloth.  A  general  term  for  the  sails  of  a  ship. 
Canvas  is  wove  in  cloths  or  breadths,  and  the 
width  of  a  sail  is  denoted  by  the  number  of 
cloths  it  contains. 

CLOTH  IN  THE  WIND.  Too  near  the  wind ; 
sails  lifting.  Also,  half  intoxicated. 

Clothed.  The  lower  masts  are  said  to  be 
clothed  when  the  courses  have  a  great  deal  of 
drop.  A  ship  is  clothed  with  canvas  when  she  is 
carrying  all  sail. 

Clothes-line.  A  system  of  parallel  lines  on 
wnich  the  men's  washed  clothes  are  stopped  to 
dry.  The  harbor-lines  extend  from  the  bowsprit 
to  the  spanker-boom,  and  are  triced  well  up  to 
the  lower  yards.  The  sea-lines  extend  from'  the 
main  to  the  mizzen  rigging. 

Clothing.  The  rigging  of  the  bowsprit.  To 
clothe  the  bowsprit,  to  rig  it. 

Cloud.  Clouds  are  masses  of  visible  vapor  or 
watery  particles  suspended  in  the  atmosphere.  A 
cloud,  motionless  or  nearly  so,  lying  at  or  near 
the  surface  of  the  earth,  receives  the  name  of 
haze,  mist,  or  fog,  according  to  its  density.  The 
term  scud  is  applied  to  loose  vapory  fragments 
of  clouds  driven  by  the  wind. 

The  formation  and  height  of  clouds  vary  with 
the  amount  of  vapor  in  the  air,  the  course  and 
height  of  air-currents,  the  climate,  season,  tem 
perature,  extent  of  sea  and  land,  and  the  height 
of  the  land.  Cloud-strata  in  mountains  vary 
from  1600  to  3400  feet.  Remarkable  cloud-rings 
prevail  over  the  calm  zones  of  the  equator,  and 
over  those  of  the  tropics  of  Cancer  and  Capri 
corn.  Kaemtz  regards  the  usual  height  of  cir 
rus  to  be  10,000  to  24,000  feet ;  cumulus,  3000 
to  10,000;  nimbus,  1500  to  5000;  but  cirrus 
may  descend  to  2000  or  3000  feet,  and  nimbus 
to  within  a  few  hundred  feet  of  the  earth. 

Clouds  moderate  the  sun's  rays  during  the  day 
and  the  earth's  radiation  at  night;  they  are  the 
source  of  moisture  required  by  plants ;  of  the 
water  for  springs,  lakes,  and  rivers ;  and  of  the 
polar,  glacial,  and  winter  snows. 

The  scale  adopted  for  indicating  the  amount 
of  cloud  is  0  to  10, — 0  denoting  a  clear  sky,  5,  a 
sky  half  covered,  and  10,  the  sky  overcast  or 
wholly  obscured. 

In  1802,  Howard  proposed  the  following  classi 
fication  of  clouds,  which  has  been  universally 
adopted :  cirrus,  cumulus,  stratus,  cirro-cumu 
lus,  cirro-stratus,  cumulo-stratus,  and  cumulo- 
cirro-stratus,  or  nimbus. 

Cirrus,  or  curl-cloud,  consists  of  streaks,  wisps, 
and  fibres.  It  is  the  highest  and  least  dense  of 
clouds ;  varies  most  in  extent  and  shape ;  retains 
longest  its  outlines ;  and  is  illuminated  longest 
after  sunset  and  before  sunrise.  Cirrus  seems  to 
arise  from  the  mixing  of  parallel  air-currents,  or 


CLOUD 


138 


CLUBS 


are  the  relics  of  dissolving  clouds  drawn  out  by 
the  wind.  Cirrus  being  so  high  must  consist  of 
minute  snow-crystals,  whose  refractions  and  re 
flections  produce  the  halos,  coronse,  and  mock 
suns  and  moons  almost  restricted  to  this  cloud, 
and  its  derivatives,  the  cirro-cumulus  and  cirro- 
stratus. 

Cumulus,  day-,  or  summer-cloud,  consists  of 
dense,  convex,  hemispherical,  or  conical  heaps 
of  cloud  piled  or  stacked  on  each  other.  Cumulus 
begins  after  sunrise  as  a  few  scattered  specks  in 
the  clear  sky  ;  these  specks  increase  and  unite  to 
form  clouds,  which  sometimes  cover  the  whole 
sky  in  the  afternoon,  and  generally  decrease  and 
vanish  about  sunset.  The  tops  of  these  clouds 
become  cirrus  in  very  dry  air. 

Stratus,  fall-,  or  night-cloud,  the  lowest  of 
clouds,  is  a  widely  extended  horizontal  sheet  of 
varied  thickness.  It  is  common  in  summer  and 
autumn  from  sunset  to  sunrise,  and  is  densest 
about  midnight.  After  sunrise  it  generally  rises 
from  the  ground,  breaks  up  into  cumulus,  and 
vanishes  with  the  increasing  heat;  sometimes 
it  accumulates  in  layers  and  becomes  nimbus. 
Stratus  does  not  wet  objects  which  it  touches, 
and  thus  differs  from  a  variety,  cirro-stratus,  Of 
like  external  aspect. 

Cirro-cumulus,  or  sonder-cloud,  is  composed 
of  well-defined,  small,  rounded  patches,  or 
woolly  irregular  tufts  at  great  heights.  It  often 
has  the  appearance  of  flocks  of  sheep  at  rest 
("  sheep  in  a  meadow"),  and  is  commonly  known 
as  the  "  mackerel  sky."  It  may  vanish  or  pass 
into  cirrus  or  cirro-stratus.  It  often  occurs  in 
warm  dry  weather. 

Cirro-stratus,  or  vane-cloud,  consists  of  long 
thin  layers  with  undulated  edges.  It  often  as 
sumes  a  barred  appearance,  or  resembles  a  shoal 
of  fish.  The  cloud  partakes  of  the  nature  of  the 
cirrus  and  stratus.  In  distinguishing  it,  atten 
tion  must  be  paid  not  so  much  to  the  form  as  to 
the  structure,  which  is  dense  in  the  middle  and 
thin  towards  the  edges. 

Cumulo-stratus,  or  t wain-cloud,  is  a  cirro- 
stratus  mixed  with  cumulus  heaps,  or  a  wide, 
flat  base  surmounted  by  a  bulky  cumulus  with 
fleecy  protuberances.  It  is  much  denser  than 
cumulus,  though  the  air  is  not  dry  enough  to 
round  off  sharply  its  tops.  It  often  forms  vast 
banks  with  overhanging  masses,  and  is  common 
towards  night  in  windy  weather,  when  it  has  a 
leaden  hue.  It  generally  arises  from  cumulus, 
and  tends  towards  nimbus. 

Nimbus,  or  cumulo-cirro-stratus,  the  rain- 
cloud,  is  a  mixed  system  of  clouds,  ending  in 
rain,  snow,  or  hail.  It  is  a  dense,  continuous, 
horizontal  block,  or  gray  sheet,  with  fringed 
edges,  a  cap  of  cirrus,  and  cumulus  on  the  sides 
and  below.  Before  rain,  vast  towering  masses  of 
cumulus  often  pass  on  to  cumulo-stratus,  which, 
increasing  in  density,  darkness,  and  extent,  be 
come  nimbus  capped  with  cirro-stratus. 

In  Admiral  Fitzroy's  system  there  are  four 
primary  classes  of  clouds,  viz. :  cirrus,  stratus, 
nimbus,  and  cumulus.  He  combines  these 
words  to  describe  the  intermediate  modifications, 
and  renders  the  terms  more  explanatory  by  the 
use  of  the  terminations  onus  and  itus;  as,  cirro- 
nus,  cirritus,  cirrono-stratus,  cirrito-stratus,  etc. 
See  WEATHER. 

CLOUDS,  MAGELLANIC.  Two  nebulae  situated 
near  the  south  pole. 


Clout.  A  blow.  A  gore  of  blood.  A  chaf- 
ing-plate  on  the  arm  of  the  axle  of  a  wooden 
gun-carriage. 

CLOUT-NAILS.  Nails  with  which  piles  and 
ships'  bottoms  were  studded  before  the  introduc 
tion  of  copper  sheathing. 

Clove-hitch.  Two  half  hitches,  in  which  the 
end  parts  come  out  parallel  with,  and  opposite 
to,  each  other. 

Clove-hook.    See  CLIP-HOOK. 

Cloy.     To  spike  (which  see). 

Club.  To  drift  down  a  current  with  an  anchor 
out.  Vessels  drifting  in  this  manner  generally 
have  a  spring  from  the  quarter  to  the  ring  of  the 
anchor,  by  which  they  can  be  sprung  broadside 
to  the  current.  The  objection  to  this  manoeuvre 
is  the  probability  of  fouling  the  anchor. 

To  club  a  feet  is  to  mano3uvre  so  as  to  place 
the  first  division  to  windward. 

Clubbock.  The  spotted  blenny,  or  gunnel 
((jrunellus  vulgar  is). 

Club-haul.  In  clawing  off  a  lee  shore  when 
there  is  no  room  to  wear,  and  therefore  an  abso 
lute  necessity  for  going  about  without  running 
the  risk  of  missing  stays,  the  ship  is  club-hauled. 
The  lee  anchor  is  got  ready  for  letting  go,  and  a 
hawser  is  bent  to  it  and  taken  to  the  lee  quarter. 
Proceed  as  in  tacking ;  if  she  goes  around,  so 
much  the  better.  If,  however,  it  is  evident  that 
she  will  not  go  round,  let  go  the  anchor  when 
the  headway  ceases,  and  brace  around  the  after- 
yards.  When  she  swings  to  the  anchor  the  wind 
will  be  ahead  or  perhaps  a  little  on  what  was  the 
lee  bow.  Haul  in  the  hawser  and  make  it  fast ; 
veer  chain,  and  when  the  hawser  has  the  strain, 
slip  the  cable;  when  the  after-sails  fill,  brace 
around  the  head-yards  and  cut  the  hawser.  This 
manoeuvre  is  attempted  only  when  absolutely 
necessary,  as  it  results  in  the  loss  of  an  anchor, 
and  a  part  of  a  cable  and  hawser. 

Clubs,  British  Service.  At  every  important 
naval  and  military  station  of  the  British  empire 
are  to  be  found  service  clubs,  whose  members 
are  officers  on  duty  at  those  places,  but  the  lead 
ing  British  service  clubs  are  in  London,  and  we 
give  them  according  to  their  date  of  formation. 

The  Guards  Club,  70  Pall-Mali,  was  founded 
in  1813  for  the  officers  of  'the  three  regiments  of 
Guards.  January  1, 1880,  it  contained  357  mem 
bers.  The  entrance  fee  1s  30  guineas,  and  the 
yearly  subscription  10  guineas. 

The  United  Service  Club,  116  Pali-Mall,  was 
founded  in  1815  for  senior  officers  of  the  army, 
navy,  and  marine  corps  ;  the  limit  is  major  in  the 
army  and  marines  and  commander  in  the  navy. 
January  1,  1880,  it  contained  1550  members. 
The  entrance  fee  is  £40,  and  the  yearly  subscrip 
tion  7  guineas. 

The  Junior  United  Service  Club,  Charles 
Street,  St.  James'  Square,  was  founded  in  1827 
for  officers  of  all  grades  in  the  army,  navy,  ma 
rines,  and  militia.  January  1,  1880,  it  contained 
2000  members.  The  entrance  fee  is  £40,  and  the 
yearly  subscription  7  guineas. 

The  Army  and  Navy  Club,  36  Pall-Mall,  was 
founded  in  1838  for  officers  of  the  armj-,  navy, 
and  marines  of  all  grades.  January  1,  1880,  it 
contained  2342  members.  The  entrance  fee  is  40 
guineas,  and  the  yearly  subscription  10  guineas. 

In  1838,  Sir  Edward"  Barnes  and  other  officers, 
just  arrived  from  India,  finding  that  from  the 
lists  of  candidates  for  the  United  Service  and 


CLUBS 


139 


COAL 


Junior  United  Service  Clubs  it  would  be  sev 
eral  years  before  they  could  obtain  admission, 
concluded  to  start  an  Army  Club,  and  asked  the 
Duke  of  Wellington  to  be  the  president.  He 
declined  unless  the  navy  and  marines  were  ad 
mitted.  That  being  agreed  to  it  was  founded. 
The  Duke  of  Wellington  was  the  first  president. 
He  was  succeeded  by  the  Duke  of  Cambridge. 
At  the  death  of  the  latter  the  present  Duke  of 
Cambridge  was  elected,  and  is  still  the  president. 
The  club  occupied  temporary  quarters  in  King 
Street,  St.  James'  Square,  until  the  present  build 
ing  was  completed,  in  1854. 

The  Naval  and  Military  Club,  94  Piccadilly, 
was  founded  in  18C2  for  officers  of  the  army, 
navy,  and  marines  of  all  grades.  January  1, 
1880,  it  contained  2000  members.  The  entrance 
fee  is  35  guineas,  and  the  yearly  subscription  8 
guineas. 

The  Junior  Army  and  Navy  Club,  12  Grafton 
Street,  was  founded  in  1871  for  officers  of  all 
grades  of  the  army,  navy,  and  marines.  Jan 
uary  1,  1880,  it  contained  800  members.  The 
entrance  fee  is  10  guineas,  and  the  yearly  sub 
scription  7  guineas. 

The  Koyal  Artillery  and  Engineers'  Club,  3 
Pali-Mall  East,  was  founded  in  1873  for  officers 
of  the  artillery  and  engineers.  January  1,  1880, 
it  contained  400  members.  There  is  no  entrance 
fee,  and  the  yearly  subscription  is  3  guineas. 

The  Junior  Naval  and  Military  Club  was  re- 
founded  in  1879  at  27  Dover  Street,  Piccadilly, 
for  officers  of  all  grades  of  the  army,  navy,  ma 
rines,  and  militia.  It  was  established  first,  in  1875, 
as  a  proprietary  club  on  Pall-Mall ,  but  the  fail 
ure  of  the  proprietor  in  1879,  and  other  causes, 
— the  principal  one  of  which  was  to  eliminate  ob 
jectionable  members, — caused  it  to  be  re-estab 
lished  at  the  present  address.  January  1,  1880, 
it  numbered  over  500  members,  and  no  limit  was 
fixed.  The  entrance  fee  was  nil,  and  the  yearly 
subscription  8  guineas. 

The  East  India  United  Service  Club,  14  St. 
James'  Square,  was  founded  in  1847  for  officers 
of  all  grades  in  the  East  India  service,  both 
military  and  naval.  January  1,  1880,  it  con 
tained  1200  members.  The  entrance  fee  is  30 
guineas,  and  the  yearly  subscription  8  guineas. 

The  United  Service,  Junior  United  Service, 
and  Army  and  Navy  Clubs  occupy  perfect  pal 
aces,  which  were  built  especially  for  them.  The 
Naval  and  Military  occupy  the  house  of  the  late 
Lord  Palmerston,  and  their  proximity  to  Hyde 
Park  and  outlook  on  Green  Park  gives  them 
the  finest  location  in  London.  They  have  been 
recently  doing  up  their  club-house,  which  com 
pares  well  with  the  first  three  mentioned.  They 
have  a  long  lease  on  the  club-house,  whereas  the 
other  three  mentioned  own  the  buildings,  and 
two  of  them  the  ground. 

The  Guards  own  their  club-house,  the  others 
lease  the  buildings.  The  appointments  of  all 
the  service  clubs  in  London  are  first-class.  The 
cuisine  is  the  best,  the  servants  who  wear  the 
club  liveries  are  attentive,  polite,  and  well  trained. 
Every  comfort  of  a  home  is  to  be  found  in  them, 
and  some  who  live  in  London  merely  take  lodg 
ings  near  their  clubs,  where  they  spend  unoccu 
pied  time.  The  rules  and  regulations  of  the  ser 
vice  clubs  are  strict  and  enforced,  yet  so  framed 
as  to  be  a  protection  to  the  individuality  of  each 
member.  Socially,  they  rank  at  the  head  of  the 


ninety-odd  London  clubs,  and  expulsion  from 
them,  as  well  as  other  London  clubs,  means  a 
social  disgrace.  The  number  of  candidates  for 
admission  is  always  large,  and  generally  five  to 
seven  years  elapse  between  proposal  and  election. 
In  the  Army  and  Navy  Club,  which  always  has 
a  large  list,  as  long  as  twelve  years  occasionally 
happens ;  their  average  is  about  eight  to  ten 
years. 

Military  and  naval  attaches  of  foreign  govern 
ments,  and  also  the  diplomatic  corps,  are  honor 
ary  members,  while  in  Great  Britain  foreign 
officers  can  also  be  elected  as  such  for  three 
months  and  extension  by  the  club  committee, 
provided  they  are  regularly  proposed  and  sec 
onded.  The  oldest  club  in  London  is  White's, 
founded  in  1730.  The  diplomatic  club  is  the 
St.  James',  106  Piccadilly.  The  leading  social 
club  is  the  Marlborough,  on  Pail-Mall.  Officers 
of  the  army  and  navy  are  eligible  to  election  at 
nearly  all  the  London  clubs.  Gambling  is  strictly 
prohibited  at  all  the  London  service  clubs ;  for 
any  games  the  limits  of  the  wager  are  fixed  at  a 
small  amount.  The  experiments  of  a  ladies'  and 
gentlemen's  club  are  tried  successfully  at  the 
Albemarle,  25  Albemarle  Street,  and  the  Kussell, 
316  Regent  Street. 

There  are  no  exclusively  service  clubs  in 
France.  French  officers  in  garrison  towns  gen 
erally  make  one  of  the  cafes  a  resort  similar  to  a 
club.  There  is  a  navy  club  at  Cronstadt,  in 
Russia,  and  the  Guard's  Club  at  St.  Petersburg. — 
H.  T.  Stockton,  Lieutenant  U.S.N. 

Clue.     See  CLEW. 

Clump-block.  A  short,  thick,  single  block 
with  a  metal  sheave. 

Clutch.  A  forked  stanchion.  The  oyster- 
spawn  adhering  to  stones,  oyster-shells,  etc. 

Cluttery  Weather.  Weather  inclined  to  be 
stormy. 

Co.  An  abbreviation  of  complement;  as,  co- 
latitude,  co-sine,  etc. 

CO-ALTITUDE.  The  complement  of  the  alti 
tude,  or  the  zenith  distance. 

CO-DECLINATION.  The  complement  of  the 
declination,  or  the  polar  distance. 

Coach,  or  Couch  (06s.).  An  apartment  in 
&  large  ship-of-war  near  the  stern  was  formerly 
called  a  "  coach."  The  floor  of  it  was  formed  by 
the  aftermost  part  of  the  quarter-deck,  and  the 
roof  of  it  by  the  poop.  It  was  generally  the 
habitation  of  the  captain. 

An  apartment  before  the  captain's  cabin. 

Coach-horses.  The  picked  men  who  man 
the  barge. 

Coach- whip.     The  narrow  pennant. 

Coak.  To  place  pieces  of  hard  wood,  either 
circular  or  square,  in  the  edges  or  surfaces  of  any 
pieces  that  are  to  be  united,  to  prevent  their 
working  or  sliding  over  each  other.  A  small 
piece  of  hard  wood  or  dowel  used  in  coaking. 

Coal.  A  word  formerly  applied  to  any  sub 
stance  which  was  used  as  fuel.  Thus,  Sir  John 
Pettus  in  his  "Fodinaj  Regales,"  published  in 
1660,  mentions  two  kinds  of  "coale":  black, 
such  as  is  burnt  or  "charkt";  and  white,  which 
is  only  baked  in  an  oven  to  make  it  dry  for 
"fewele."  The  two  substances  here  mentioned 
are  evidently  charcoal  and  white  or  uncharred1 
wood,  so  that  with  this  author  "coale"  means 
wood  fuel.  Mineral  fuel,  however,  has  now  so 
long  and  justly  ranked  first  among  fuels  that 


COAL 


140 


COAL 


the  word  coal  has  come  to  be  applied  to  that 
substance  alone. 

Coal  is  found  in  beds  or  strata  in  that  group 
of  the  secondary  rocks  which  includes  the  red 
sandstone  and  mountain  limestone  formations, 
and  which  is  commonly  called  the  Carboniferous 
group,  or  coal-measures.  From  the  peculiarities 
of  their  deposition  they  are  often  spoken  of 
under  the  names  of  coal-basins  and  coal-fields. 
The  vegetable  origin  of  coal  is  evidenced  both  by 
its  chemical  composition,  the  elements  of  which, 
viz.,  carbon,  oxygen,  hydrogen,  and  a  small 
proportion  of  nitrogen,  are  precisely  analogous 
to  those  of  all  vegetable  organic  compounds,  and 
by  the  fact  that  vegetable  tissue  is  obvious  either 
to  the  unaided  eye  or  under  the  microscope  in 
nearly  every  species  of  coal  formation.  There 
has  been  considerable  difference  of  opinion  as  to 
the  mode  of  deposition  of  the  coal  strata,  some 
holding  that  they  have  been  deposited  by  the 
action  of  water  in  bringing  down  drift-wood, 
others  adopting  the  theory  proposed  by  Dr. 
Mohr,  that  they  are  of  marine  origin  and  have 
been  formed  by  the  carbonization  of  sea-weeds, 
such  as  the  great  kelp  plant  of  the  Pacific,  while 
the  still  more  generally  received  opinion  is  that 
they  are  the  result  of  the  transformation  of  plants 
on  the  site  of  their  growth.  This  latter  theory 
seems  to  be  verified  by  the  fact  that  all  coal 
strata  rest  on  old  soils,  and  practically  consist  of 
nothing  but  vegetable  matter.  The  abundance 
of  roots  shows  that  the  soils  supported  a  luxuriant 
growth  of  plants,  and  these,  as  they  died  and  fell 
to  the  ground,  would  supply  exactly  the  material 
for  the  production  of  coal.  Prominent  among 
the  vegetable  fossils  contained  in  the  "  under- 
day,"  or  "seat-stones,"  on  which  the  coal 
seams  rest,  are  certain  long,  cylindrical  branch 
ing  bodies  called  Stigmaria.  These  lie  horizon 
tally  in  the  underclay,  and  their  filaments  run  out 
in  all  directions,  till  the  clay  is  often  one  thickly 
matted  mass  of  them.  They  were  long  generally 
accepted  as  being  the  roots  of  a  plant  called  Sigil 
laria,  often  found  fossil  in  the  coal-measures, 
though  Stigmaria  had  never  been  found  actually 
attached  to  Sigillaria.  It  was  reserved  for  Mr. 
Binney  to  supply  this  missing  link  in  the  evi 
dence.  He  discovered  in  a  railway  cutting  a 
number  of  trunks  of  Sigillaria  standing  erect  as 
they  grew  with  roots  still  attached  to  them.  The 
roots  were  Stigmaria,  and  the  rock  into  which 
they  struck  down,  which  was  of  course  the  soil 
on  which  the  trees  grew,  was  the  seat-stone  of  a 
thin  seam  of  coal.  This  discovery  seemed  to 
render  complete  the  proof  that  the  herbs  and 
trees  of  which  coal  is  formed  grew  on  the  areas 
where  the  coal  now  occurs.  One  variety  of  coal 
— cannel — forms  probably  an  exception  to  the 
general  rule  here  stated.  The  presence  of  fossil 
fish  in  cannel-coals  shows  that  they  must  have 
been  formed  under  water,  and  they  probably 
consist  of  vegetable  matter  which  was  drifted 
down  into  ponds  or  lakes.  They  always  occur  in 
dish-shaped  patches,  thinning  away  to  nothing 
on  all  sides. 

Vegetable  matter  undergoing  decomposition, 
freely  exposed  to  the  action  of  the  air  and  rain, 
passes  into  a  dark-brown,  moldy  substance 
known  to  chemists  under  the  name  of  Humus  or 
Ulmin ;  but  the  process  of  decomposition  does 
not  stop  with  the  formation  of  humus ;  the 
transformation,  which  mainly  consists  in  the 


gradual  elimination  of  the  oxygen  and  the  con 
centration  of  the  carbon,  still  proceeds,  and  re 
sults  in  the  composition  of  the  organic  substance 
of  peat,  which  is  largely  made  up  of  altered 
humus,  generally,  although  not  altogether,  de 
rived  from  the  decomposition  of  the  vegetable 
matter  of  mosses.  Peat  varies  in  external  charac 
ter  and  chemical  composition  with  its  age  and  po 
sition  in  the  beds  in  which  it  is  found.  The  upper 
layer  is  light  in  color  and  soft  and  spongy  in 
texture,  and  its  vegetable  origin  is  obvious  even 
on  the  most  superficial  inspection.  Deeper  down 
in  the  bog  the  layers  become  darker  and  are  more 
strongly  pressed  together,  the  vegetable  struc 
ture  becomes  less  and  less  apparent,  until  near 
the  bottom  of  a  deep  bog  the  peat  is  almost 
black,  has  a  density  nearly  equal  to  that  of  coal, 
and  requires  rather  careful  scrutiny  to  detect  any 
organized  structure.  The  chemical  composition 
of  the  moss  alters  with  this  change  in  outward 
character  ;  the  relative  proportion  of  the  oxygen 
steadily  diminishes,  whilst  that  of  the  carbon  as 
steadily  increases.  The  altered  vegetable  mat 
ter  now  passes  into  a  form  analogous  to  that  met 
with  in  Lignite, — a  dark-brown,  somewhat  fri 
able  substance,  of  a  compact,  woody  texture. 
As  this  woody  texture  disappears  the  substance 
passes  into  brown  coal,  which  contains  a  still 
larger  percentage  of  carbon  and  a  smaller  per 
centage  of  oxygen  than  the  true  lignites.  From 
the  brown  coal  we  pass  by  insensible  gradations 
to  the  black  coal,  or  coal  proper.  The  change 
is  attended  by  an  absolute  loss  of  ligneous  struc 
ture,  by  an  increased  density,  and  a  tolerably 
well  developed  cubical  fracture.  When  finely 
powdered  most  black  coals  show  more  or  less  of 
a  brown  color  in  proportion  corresponding  to  the 
amount  of  oxygen  which  they  contain.  The 
softer  varieties  of  these  black  coals  are  usually 
classed  as  bituminous  coals, — a  term  which  is 
founded  on  a  misapprehension,  for  there  is  no 
thing,  strictly  speaking,  of  the  nature  of  bitumen 
in  them.  Some  coals  when  thrown  on  the  fire 
seem  to  fuse  and  swell  up ;  these  are  technically 
known  as  caking  coals,  in  contradistinction  to  the 
dry,  or  free-burning  coals,  which  retain  their 
shape,  but  tend  to  split  into  columnar  fragments. 
The  cause  of  this  difference  is  not  clearly  made 
out.  It  is  certainly  not  dependent  on  ultimate 
composition,  for  two  varieties  of  coal  occurring 
in  the  same  bed  may  have  the  same  proportions 
of  elementary  constituents  and  yet  behave  very 
differently  on  heating.  Many  coals  lose  their 
power  of  caking  by  long  exposure  to  the  air ;  but, 
on  the  other  hand,  the  slack  of  non-caking  coal 
may  often  be  made  to  fuse  together  into  a  com 
pact  mass  if  heated  suddenly. 

The  blacker  and  harder  varieties  of  coal  grad 
ually  merge  into  the  kind  known  as  stone  coal, 
or  anthracite.  Anthracite  has  a  brilliant  lustre  ; 
is  denser,  harder,  and  more  brittle  than  ordinary 
bituminous  coal,  and  has  a  conchoidal  fracture. 
It  ignites  with  difficulty,  and  gives  out  little 
flame  on  burning,  owing  to  the  non-formation 
of  volatile  hydrocarbons.  The  manner  in  which 
anthracite  has  been  formed  has  given  rise  to 
much  discussion.  The  general  opinion  is  that 
it  is  simply  bituminous  coal  modified  or  altered 
by  heat.  The  evidence  on  this  point  is,  however, 
far  from  being  conclusive.  Many  coals  tend  to 
become  anthracitic  by  simple  exposure  to  air  at 
ordinary  temperatures.  It  has  also  been  observed 


COAL 


141 


COAL 


that  coal  in  the  vicinity  of  open  faults,  or  imme 
diately  below  a  sandstone  roof,  alters  in  texture, 
loses  its  cubical  fracture,  and  is  more  highly  car 
bonaceous  than  the  ordinary  bituminous  varie 
ties.  Hence  it  must  not  be  supposed  that  anthra 
cite  is  necessarily  the  oldest  because  it  is  the  most 
altered  form  of  coal.  There  are  coal-basins  in 
which  the  coal  is  of  the  same  age  throughout, 
while  in  one  part  it  is  of  the  ordinary  bitumi 
nous  kind  and  in  another  part  anthracite. 

The  essential  conditions  for  the  formation  of 
the  coal  strata  would  seem  to  have  been  : 

1.  A  luxuriant  vegetable  growth  on  the  site 
of  deposition. 

2.  A  gradual  subsidence  of  the  area  covered 
with  the  vegetable  deposit  beneath  a  shallow  sea, 
during  which  beds  of  sediment — sand  or  clay — 
were  deposited  on  top  of  it. 

3.  A  re-elevation  of  the  submerged  area,  and 
a  repetition  of  the  processes  of  growth,  deposition, 
subsidence,  sedimentary  deposits,  and  emergence. 

We  have  no  means  of  knowing,  even  approx 
imately,  what  amount  of  woody  fibre  would  be 
required  to  make  coal.  Mohr  has  calculated  that 
the  transformation  is  attended  with  a  loss  of  75 
per  cent,  in  weight,  and  that  when  regard  is  had 
to  the  density  of  the  two  substances,  the  volume 
of  the  coal  is  only  about  one-twelfth  of  the  woody 
matter  from  which  it  has  been  derived,  but  the 
data  for  such  computations  are  not  very  trust 
worthy. 

Attempts  have  been  made  by  Cagniard  de  la 
Tour,  Kiviere,  Daubree,  and  others  to  imitate  by 
heat  the  mode  in  which  coal  has  been  produced 
from  wood.  According  to  Baroulier,  vegetable 
matter,  such  as  sawdust,  twigs,  stalks,  and 
leaves,  imbedded  in  moist  clay  and  heated  from 
200°  to  300°  C.  for  some  time,  yields  a  carbonized 
mass  very  similar  to  some  varieties  of  coal. 

Let  us  now  briefly  glance  at  coal  as  a  source 
of  power.-  The  foot-pound,  by  which  is  meant 
the  amount  of  work  necessary  to  raise  a  pound  in 
weight  through  a  foot  of  space,  may  be  taken  as 
a  convenient  unit  by  which  to  measure  the 
energy  of  heat  in  the  production  of  power.  The 
brilliant  researches  of  Joule,  Weber,  and  others 
inform  us  that  (in  round  numbers)  772  foot 
pounds  of  work  are  necessary  to  produce  a  unit 
of  heat,  and  conversely,  that  a  unit  of  heat,  if 
entirely  used  up  in  the  production  of  mechanical 
work,  will  perform  772  foot-pounds.  From  vari 
ous  experiments  made  on  the  calorific  power  of 
coal,  it  has  been  deduced  that  a  pound  of  good 
coal  in  the  state  in  which  it  is  ordinarily  used 
gives  out  during  combustion  about  14,000  units 
of  heat.  By  multiplying  the  number  of  units 
of  heat  produced  by  the  combustion  of  a  pound 
of  coal  by  772  we  obtain  the  number  of  foot 
pounds  of  work  to  which  the  heat  is  equivalent. 
By  this  rule  the  average  mechanical  value  of  a 
pound  of  coal  is  14,000  X  772  =  10,808,000  foot 
pounds,— in  round  numbers  10,000,000  foot 
pounds.  The  following  table  gives  the  number 
of  foot-pounds  of  work  which  can  be  done  under 
favorable  conditions  by  a  man  and  a  horse,  to 
gether  with  the  number  of  pounds  of  coal  the 
combustion  of  which  would  produce  the  same 
amount  of  work.  The  result  is  that  a  man  and 
a  horse,  under  the  most  favorable  circumstances 
referred  to  in  the  table,  could  only  do  in  a  day 
as  much  work  as  is  locked  up  in  two-tenths  and 
twelve-tenths  of  a  pound  of  coal  respectively. 


Kind  of  Work. 


Agent,  Man. 

Raising  his  own  weight  up  stair  or 
ladder 

Carrying  weights  up-stairs  and  re 
turning  unloaded 

Pushing  or  pulling  horizontally 

Working  pump 


Agent,  Horse. 

Drawing  cart  or  boat  (walking) 

Drawing  light  railway  truck  (can 
tering  and  trotting) 


of 


Foot-pounds 
of  work 
per  day. 


Number 

pounds 
coal  the  heat 

of  combus 
tion  of  which 
is  equivalent 
to  work. 


2,088,000 

399,600 
1,626,400 
1,188,000 


12,441,600 
6,444,000 


0.21 

0.04 
0.15 
0.12 


1.24 
0.64 


It  must  be  remembered,  however,  that  only  a 
small  proportion  of  the  total  heat  supplied  by  the 
combustion  of  the  coal  is  employed  in  the  pro 
duction  of  useful  work.  The  loss  of  the  re 
mainder  is  due  to  several  causes,  which,  although 
theoretically  preventable,  will  probably  never  be 
completely  done  away  with.  Some  of  them, 
such  as  imperfect  combustion,  conduction,  and 
radiation,  may,  by  careful  firing  and  improved 
construction  of  furnaces,  be  rendered  very  small, 
but  as  things  are  the  net  result  is  that  only  from 
50  to  70  per  cent,  of  heat  is  transmitted  to  the 
water  and  steam,  and  that  of  this  a  small  frac 
tion,  amounting  in  the  best  engines  to  only 
about  11  per  cent.,  is  converted  into  work.  The 
enormous  loss  of  power  which  thus  occurs  in  the 
steam-engine  has  from  time  to  time  prompted 
efforts  to  devise  other  forms  of  machines,  which, 
while  equally  serviceable  for  practical  purposes, 
shall  more  efficiently  utilize  the  heat  of  the  fuel 
employed.  The  electric-engine,  the  air-engine, 
and  the  gas-engine  are  among  the  results  of  the 
efforts  thus  inspired.  Coal  is  the  source  of 
power  in  them  all,  though  the  machinery  for 
transforming  its  energy  into  useful  work  is 
widely  different.  In  the  steam-  and  air  engines 
it  is  employed  directly ;  from  it  the  gas  required 
for  the  gas-engine  is  extracted,  and  by  it  the 
zinc  or  other  metals  used  in  the  galvanic  cell  are 
smelted.  The  subjoined  table  gives,  in  the  sec 
ond  column,  the  percentage  of  heat  which  the 
various  machines  named  transform  into  work 
under  favorable  conditions,  and  in  the  third,  the 
relative  cost  of  the  fuel  capable  of  producing 
equal  quantities  of  work  in  each. 


Electric-engine. 

Air-engine 

Steam-engine  ... 
Gas-engine 


Percentage 
of  heat 
utilized. 


Relative  cost 
of  fuel  for 
equal    quan 
tities  of 
work. 


55.00 
0.84 
1.00 
6.00 


The  electric-engine  and  the  gas-engine  are 
convenient,  both  because  they  can  be  set  in  mo 
tion  without  delay  and  because  the  expenses  con 
nected  with  them  are  incurred  only  when  they 
are  actually  working.  They  are  compact  in 
form,  and  are  well  suited  for  operations  in  which 


COAL 


142 


COAL 


a  small  amount  of  power  at  irregular  intervals 
only  is  needed.  The  cost  of  the  fuel  is,  how 
ever,  in  both  cases  too  great  to  admit  of  their 
employment  on  a  large  scale.  The  air-engine, 
on  the  other  hand,  though  making  a  better  use 
than  the  steam-engine  of  the  fuel  with  which  it 
is  supplied,  is  discarded  on  account  of  its  bulk, 
and  because  the  hot  air  oxidizes,  and  so  destroys 
the  metallic  surfaces  with  which  it  is  in  contact. 
In  respect  of  their  steam-producing  qualities, 
the  different  varieties  of  coal  possess  merits  and 
defects  the  importance  of  which  can  be  esti 
mated  only  by  »eference  to  the  special  purpose 
in  view.  Recent  experiments  carefully  made 
by  a  board  of  chief  engineers  of  the  navy  with 
anthracite  and  certain  typical  varieties  of  bitu 
minous  and  semi-bituminous  coals,  afford  the  fol 
lowing  data  for  a  comparison  of  the  vaporiza 
tion  efficiencies  of  the  kinds  of  coal  named  : 


than  any  other  coal,  and  more  men  are  required 
to  produce  a  given  weight  of  steam  in  a  given 
time  with  it  than  are  required  with  any  of  the 
coals  likely  to  be  placed  in  competition  with  it. 
But  its  supreme  defect  is  its  excessive  slowness 
of  combustion,  in  which  respect  it  is  inferior  to 
any  other  coal,  requiring  a  correspondingly 
larger  boiler  to  produce  a  given  weight  of  steam 
in  a  given  time.  For  a  naval  steamer,  where 
space  is  the  most  difficult  thing  to  obtain,  this 
defect  is  most  serious,  requiring  a  longer  vessel 
to  hold  the  greater  quantity  of  boiler  for  a  given 
speed  ;  or,  if  this  additional  length  be  not  given, 
then  obtaining  the  speed  at  the  expense  of  other 
valuable  qualities  of  the  vessel. 

The  semi-bituminous  coals  of  Maryland  and 
Southern  Pennsylvania,  which  are  the  analogues 
of  the  steam-coals  of  Southern  Wales,  have 
merits  and  defects  less  strongly  marked  than  the 


Rate  of  combus 

Pounds  of  water  vaporized 

I 

tion  per  hour 

from  the  temperature  of 

per  square  foot 

212  degrees   Fahrenheit, 

IB 

Weight  of  the  coals. 

of   grate  -sur 

and  under  the  standard 

a 

face. 

atmospheric  pressure. 

I 

Kind  of  Coal. 

Rate  of  Com 
bustion. 

nds  of  the  crude 
al. 

Ijl 

•3 

T3 

a 

Els 

5-2 
of  . 

ill 

III 

cubic  foot  of  the 
ude  coal. 

1 

•s 
.p 

9  2 

centum  of  the 
>al  in  refuse  of 
h,  clinker,  and 
ot. 

!{ 

ic  feet  of  space 
quired  to  stow 
ic  ton  of  coal. 

r 

l*° 

feS 

Is* 

o  « 
p. 

z 

fe  «  ce  m 

£** 

|*s 

Slow 

79896 

74809 

109595 

11  7047 

534  2756 

26'76  86 

63670 

4875 

45  9487 

13.0334  l   12.2036     10.2023 

10.8960 

497.3621 

3989  14 

6.3670 

4875 

45.9487 

Maximum  14.3664     13.4517     10.1386 

10.8280 

494.2567 

4369.67 

6.3670 

48.75 

45.9487 

!j  Slow                          78199 

6858       103361     1  1  7SA8 

558.1494 

2424  93 

12  3005 

5400 

41  4815 

Medium   11.6340 

10.203    |     99357 

11.3292 

536.5278 

3467.69 

123005 

54.00 

41.4815 

Maximum  139875 

12.267    I     9.6912 

11.0505 

523  3248 

4066.80 

12.3005 

54.00 

41.4815 

Slow  

7.7905 

6.611 

9.9923]   11.7751 

559.5688 

2335.36 

15.1402 

56.00 

40.0000 

i    Mcilimti   

10  5798 

8978 

9.9923     11.7751 

659  5688 

3171.50 

15.1402 

56.00 

400000 

Maximum  

12.9531 

10.992 

9.9923     11.7751 

I 

559.5688 

3882.96 

15.1402     I     56.00 

40.0000 

The  merits  of  the  anthracite  as  a  steam-pro 
ducer  on  board  of  vessels  are  very  considerable. 
It  gives  a  high  economic  vaporization,  which  is 
less  affected  by  forcing  the  rate  of  combustion 
than  in  the  case  of  other  coals.  It  has  a  greater 
density  than  other  coals,  whereby  a  greater 
weight  can  be  stowed  in  the  same  space ;  this  is 
a  very  important  merit  for  all  vessels,  and  in  an 
especial  degree  for  naval  vessels,  where  the  space 
allowed  for  coal  is  necessarily  more  restricted, 
and  where  the  need  of  carrying  a  long  supply  is 
greater  than  in  merchant  vessels.  It  possesses 
such  strong  cohesion  that  it  is  always  furnished 
in  lumps,  and  it  suffers  scarcely  any  waste  by 
transportation  or  handling;  but  the  same  quality 
entails  more  labor  in  breaking  it  on  the  fire-room 
floor  to  suitable  lumps  for  firing. 

Anthracite  is  scarcely  affected  by  weather  or 
water,  it  emits  no  smoke,  deposits  but  little  soot, 
and  is  in  no  danger  of  spontaneous  combustion, 
— all  very  important  merits  for  steamers,  and 
particularly  for  naval  steamers.  The  absence  of 
smoke  is  of  the  highest  value  to  naval  steamers 
in  time  of  war,  the  presence  of  smoke  betraying 
their  position  at  long  distances. 

A  great  defect  of  anthracite  is  its  large  per 
centum  of  refuse,  a  considerable  part  of  which 
is  strongly  adherent  clinker,  entailing  great 
labor  on  the  firemen.  In  this  respect  it  is  worse 


anthracite.  Their  economic  vaporization  is  sen 
sibly  the  same  as  that  of  anthracite,  but  their 
density  is  less,  causing  a  greater  space  to  be  re 
quired  for  the  stowage  of  a  ton.  They  are  more 
injured  by  weather  and  water,  and  occasionally 
suffer  spontaneous  combustion,  but  very  favor 
able  conditions  are  necessary  to  produce  it.  Be 
ing  very  friable,  they  make  a  great  deal  of  dust, 
and  the  loss  in  handling  from  this  cause  is  greater 
than  with  anthracite.  They  emit  a  moderate 
quantity  of  light-brown  smoke,  and  deposit  a 
moderate  amount  of  soot  on  the  heating  surfaces 
of  the  boiler.  They  give  a  less  per  centum  of 
refuse  than  anthracite,  and  of  that  refuse  a  less 
proportion  is  clinker.  In  firing  a  given  weight 
of  coal  the  labor  is  much  less  with  the  semi- 
bituminous  than  with  the  anthracite.  As  steam- 
producers  the  semi-bituminous  coals  have  a 
marked  superiority  over  the  anthracite  in  their 
much  greater  rate  of  combustion,  a  merit  of  the 
highest  value  for  all  steamers,  and  in  an  especial 
degree  for  naval  steamers,  allowing,  with  a  given 
quantity  of  boiler,  a  greater  speed  of  vessel  than 
is  possible  with  anthracite.  In  the  case,  how 
ever,  of  a  forced  combustion  by  steam-jets  or 
blowers,  the  economic  vaporization  of  the  semi- 
bituminous  coal  would  be  less  than  that  of  the 
anthracite. 

The  bituminous  coal  gives  off  somewhat  more 


COAL-FISH 


143 


COAST  SURVEY 


smoke  than  the  semi-bituminous  coal,  and  de 
posits  correspondingly  more  soot  on  the  heating- 
surfaces  of  the  boiler.  It  has  less  density  and 
requires  more  space  to  stow  a  given  weight,  but 
is  about  as  friable,  has  about  the  same  propor 
tion  of  dust,  and  wastes  about  as  much  in  hand 
ling  and  in  transportation.  Its  economic  vapor 
ization  is  higher  than  that  of  either  the  semi- 
bituminous  coal  or  of  anthracite  at  all  rates  of 
combustion,  due  to  its  less  per  centum  of  refuse, 
for  the  economic  vaporization  of  its  gasifiable 
portion  is  less  than  that  of  the  gasifiable  portion 
of  those  coals.  Its  rate  of  combustion  is  higher 
than  that  of  the  semi-bituminous  coal,  and  con 
siderably  higher  than  that  of  anthracite.  Its 
per  centum  of  refuse  is  greatly  less,  and  a  given 
weight  of  it  can  be  fired  with  much  less  labor 
than  in  the  case  of  either  anthracite  or  semi- 
bituminous  coal.  As  regards  smoke,  soot,  dust, 
and  spontaneous  combustion,  it  is  no  more  ob 
jectionable  than  the  best  of  other  coals,  exclusive 
of  anthracite,  while  it  exceeds  all  in  economic 
vaporization,  rate  of  combustion,  and  ease  of 
firing.  Its  great  defect  for  use  on  shipboard  is 
its  low  density,  nearly  one-seventh  more  space 
being  required  to  stow  equal  weights  than  with 
anthracite,  and  nearly  one-ninth  more  than  with 
semi-bituminous  coal.  But  if  the  comparison  be 
made  for  the  bulks  required  to  produce  equal 
quantities  of  steam,  then  the  bituminous  coal  re 
quires  about  one-eighth  more  space  than  anthra 
cite  and  about  one-tenth  more  space  than  semi- 
bituminous  coal. 

COAL-HEAVER.  One  employed  in  handling 
coal  in  loading  and  unloading,  or  in  bringing  it 
to  a  furnace  in  such  quantities  and  at  such  times 
as  may  be  required.  In  steamships  the  coal- 
heaver  must  break  the  coal  to  a  proper  size,  re 
move  all  ashes  and  refuse,  sweep  boiler-flues  or 
tubes,  and  assist  in  handling  the  fires  and  clean 
ing  the  machinery.  Intelligent  men  acquire 
the  art  of  "  fireman"  or  "stoker"  in  a  short 
time.  On  board  vessels  of  war,  at  "general 
quarters,"  such  coal-heavers  as  are  not  actually 
employed  in  serving  the  furnaces  are  attached  to 
the  powder  division  ;  and  when  the  ship  is  under 
sail,  without  steam,  they  are  placed  in  the  deck- 
watches. 

COAL-TAR.  Tar  extracted  from  bituminous 
coal. 

Coal-fish.  The  Oadus  carbonarius.  Called 
gerrack  in  its  first  year,  cuth  or  queth  in  its 
second,  sayth  in  its  third,  lythe  in  its  fourth,  and 
colmie  in  its  fifth,  when  it  is  full  grown. 

Coal-sacks.  An  early  name  of  dark  patches 
of  sky  in  the  Milky  Way,  nearly  void  of  stars 
visible  to  the  naked  eye.  The  largest  patch  is 
near  the  Southern  Cross,  and  called  the  Black 
Magellanic  Cloud. 

Coal-say.     The  coal-fish. 

Coamings.  The  pieces  that  lie  fore  and  aft 
in  the  framing  of  the  hatchways  and  scuttles. 
The  pieces  that  lie  athwart  ship,  to  form  the  ends, 
are  called  head-ledges. 

Coast.  The  sea-shore ;  the  sea-front  of  the 
land. 

COASTER.    A  small  vessel  engaged  in  coasting. 

COASTING.  Sailing  along  the  coast,  for  which 
is  necessary  a  minute  knowledge  of  the  tides, 
currents,  prevailing  winds,  rocks,  shoals,  har 
bors,  landmarks,  etc.  The  position  of  the  ship 
is  determined  by  the  lead  and  by  bearings. 


COASTING  TRADE,  The  commerce  between 
two  ports  of  the  same  realm  or  state.  See  COM- 

ME.RCE. 

COAST-PILOT.  A  pilot  licensed  to  conduct 
vessels  from  one  part  of  the  coast  to  another. 
On  going  into  port  he  is  superseded  by  the  local 
pilot. 

COAST-WARNING.  A  storm-signal  on  the 
coast. 

COASTWISE.     By  way  of  or  along  the  coast. 

Coast  and  Geodetic  Survey.  The  scope  of 
the  United  States  Coast  arid  Geodetic  Survey  em 
braces,  1,  &  geodetic  survey  of  the  whole  area  of 
the  United  States ;  2,  a  topographical  survey  of 
the  lands  bordering  the  sea-coast  and  the  rivers 
to  the  head  of  ship  navigation,  "  to  be  carried  as 
far  inland  as  may  be  necessary  for  purposes  either 
of  commerce  or  defense"  (Plan  of  the  Survey) ; 
and,  3,  the  hydrography  of  the  waters  adjacent 
to  the  coast,  Lake  Champlain,  the  bays,  har 
bors,  and  navigable  rivers  to  the  head  of  ship 
navigation,  and  including  the  Gulf  Stream,  its 
approaches,  and  extension. 

GEODESY. — The  geodetic  work  comprises  a 
system  of  triangles,  starting  from  a  measured 
base  and  spreading  over  large  areas,  controlled 
in  direction  with  reference  to  the  meridian  by 
astronomical  azimuths.  Three  orders  of  trian- 
gulation  are  recognized  on  the  work,  viz.,  the 
primary,  with  sides  varying  in  length  from  20 
to  169  miles  ;  the  secondary,  with  sides  of  from 
5  to  40  miles  ;  and  the  tertiary,  with  sides  of  less 
than  6  miles.* 

The  primary  and  part  of  the  secondary  series, 
composed  principal!}7  of  quadrilaterals,  and  veri 
fied  at  intervals  by  the  measurement  of  additional 
bases,  and  by  new  determinations  of  the  astro 
nomical  azimuth,  latitude,  and  longitude,  consti 
tute  the  standard  geodesy  of  the  survey.  From 
this  class  of  work,  in  connection  with  pendulum 
observations  for  the  determination  of  gravity, 
the  dimensions  and  figure  of  the  earth  are  de 
duced.  Measurements  of  arcs  of  the  meridian 
and  of  the  39th  parallel  of  latitude  are  now  (1880) 
in  progress.  Part  of  the  secondary  triangulation 
is  used  to  connect  the  primary  with  the  tertiary. 
The  primary  bases  are  measured  with  compen 
sated  bars  or  rods,  designed  by  the  late  Prof. 
A.  D.  Bache,  by  whom  the  imperfections  in  the 
base  apparatus  previously  in  use  were  almost 
entirely  eliminated.  An  apparatus  is  about  to 
be  constructed,  upon  the  design  of  Assistant  C. 
A.  Schott,  on  the  principle  of  the  Borda  ther 
mometer.  It  will  consist  of  two  rods  protected 
by  wooden  cases,  very  light  and  portable.  Each 
rod  will  be  provided  with  two  compensations,  by 
one  of  which  the  length  is  kept  constant  through 
all  changes  of  temperature,  whether  sudden  or 
gradual, "and  by  the  other  the  rear  end  is  kept  in 
place  when  the  rod  is  set  in  its  trestles.  Like 
those  now  in  use,  the  new  rod  will  be  provided 
with  the  level-sector  for  measuring  inclinations. 
The  forward  end  of  each  rod  will  be  provided 
with  an  agate  face,  and  the  rear  end  with  the 
sliding -contact  attachment,  terminating  in  an 
agate  knife-edge,  set  horizontally. 

The  angular  measurements  are  made  with 
theodolites  of  the  most  perfect  character  known 
to  the  present  state  of  science.  In  the  astronom- 


*  Field  Work  of  the  Triangulation,  by  Gen.  B.  D.  Cutte,  As 
sistant. 


COAST  SURVEY 


144 


COAST  SURVEY 


ical  work  the  transit  instrument  for  time  obser 
vations  and  the  zenith-telescope  for  latitudes  are 
used.  The  magnetic  telegraph  is  used  for  meas 
uring  differences  of  longitude,  measurements 
being  made  from  station  to  station  around  a  cir 
cuit,  observers  exchanging  positions  between  sta 
tions,  and  finally  returning  to  the  initial  point 
as  a  test  of  the  accuracy  of  the  work.  Early  ad 
vantage  was  taken  of  the  transatlantic  cables 
by  the  Superintendent  of  the  coast  survey  to 
connect  the  principal  observatories  of  Europe 
with  those  of  the  United  States,  assistants  being 
sent  abroad  for  that  purpose. 

Geodetic-leveling. — In  order  that  all  distances 
may  be  reduced  to  the  level  of  the  sea,  the  heights 
of  primary  points  are  measured  by  leveling  in 
struments  of  the  most  refined  character,  and  by 
methods  which  secure  the  utmost  precision. 
Owing  to  local  needs,  the  geodetic  work  has  been 
begun  independently  in  several  parts  of  the 
country;  the  junction  of  these  partial  systems 
offers  a  crucial  test  of  the  accuracy  of  the  work. 
Only  selected  observers  of  long  training  and 
great  skill  are  employed  on  this  portion  of  the 
survey.  Trigonometric  surveys  are  being  carried 
on  in  several  of  the  States  by  the  Coast  and  Geo 
detic  Survey  in  connection  with  the  geodetic 
work  ;  under  instructions  from  the  Superinten 
dent  the  work  is  executed  by  college  professors 
during  their  vacations,  subject  to  the  supervision 
of  the  chief  of  the  geodetic  division. 

TOPOGRAPHY. — By  the  tertiary  triangulation  > 
based  upon  the  secondary,  are  located  points  for 
the  use  of  the  topographers  and  hydrographers  ; 
being  an  essential  part  of  the  topography,  it 
covers  practically  the  same  ground  as  the  latter, 
as  above  described.  Every  triangulation  point 
is  permanently  marked,  and  a  sketch  and  de 
scription  of  the  locality  taken,  with  the  bearings 
and  distances  of  witness-marks,  placed  for  the 
purpose  if  necessary,  so  that  the  point  may  be 
recovered  when  needed.  The  latitude  and  lon 
gitude  of  each  triangulation  point  are  computed, 
and  its  distance  and  azimuth  from  at  least  two 
other  points. 

Projections. — In  all  the  original  or  manuscript 
maps  and  charts  of  the  Coast  and  Geodetic  Sur 
vey,  as  well  as  in  the  published  series,  the  poly- 
conic  projection  is  used  for  representing  the  sur 
face  of  the  earth  upon  a  plane,  this  projection  ex 
hibiting  areas  with  the  minimum  of  distortion, 
and  showing  distances  in  all  parts  of  the  sheet  to 
the  same  scale.  The  projection  is  drawn  upon 
the  sheet  before  it  is  taken  into  the  field.  The 
parallels  and  meridians  are  drawn  usually  for 
each  minute  of  latitude  and  longitude  respect 
ively.  All  triangulation  points  determined,  fall 
ing  within  its  limits,  are  plotted  upon  the  sheet. 
The  plane-table  is  the  instrument  used  in  the 
topographical  survey.  By  this  instrument  all 
topographical  features  are  represented  upon  the 
sheet  in  their  true  position  (i.e.,  in  bearing  and 
distance),  relative  to  the  already  established 
points,  and  are  drawn  to  scale.  Cultivated  fields, 
woodlands,  grass,  salt-  and  fresh-water  marshes, 
hill  and  plain,  sand- beaches,  re^fs,  and  other 
topographical  features,  whether  natural  or  arti 
ficial,  are  represented,  each  with  its  appropriate 
conventional  symbol.  In  order  to  avail  himself 
of  the  triangulation  points  the  topographer  erects 
signals  over  them,  unless,  as  often  happens,  they 
are  located  upon  some  conspicuous  object,  which 


itself  answers  for  a  signal.  The  scales  of  original 
topographical  sheets  vary  from  1-20,000 of  nature, 
the  smallest  scale,  to  1-1200,  the  largest ;  those 
most  frequently  used  are  1-20,000  and  1-10,000, 
or,  approximately,  3T67  inches  to  the  geograph 
ical  mile,  and  7^  inches.  The  topographer 
locates  the  shore-line  to  low-water  mark,  and 
fixes  the  position  of  all  islands,  reefs,  and  rocks 
which  are  visible  at  low  water.  Elevations  are 
represented  by  drawing  the  contours  of  different 
heights,  usually  for  every  10  or  every  20  feet 
above  the  datum-plane. 

HYDROGRAPHY. — There  are  three  classes  of 
hydrography,  differing  mainly  as  to  their  results 
in  the  number  of  soundings  in  a  given  area : 
they  are,  1,  harbor  and  river  work  ;  2,  inshore- 
soundings  along  the  coast;  and,  3,  deep-sea  sound 
ings.  The  first  two  are  intended,  first,  for  the 
development  of  fair-ways  and  anchorages,  of 
shoals,  bars,  reefs,  and  other  obstructions  to 
navigation ;  and,  second,  to  show  the  changes 
which  from  time  to  time  take  place.  The  har 
bor  and  river  work  is  close  enough  for  ordinary 
constructive  works,  though  special  surveys  are 
usually  made  for  that  purpose.  The  area  to  be 
surveyed  having  been  determined  by  the  Super 
intendent,  a  projection  covering  the  same  is  fur 
nished  to  the  hydrographer ;  all  triangulation 
points  which  fall  within  its  limits  are  plotted  on 
the  sheet,  together  with  the  shore-line,  and  any 
topographical  objects  or  features,  natural  or 
artificial,  which  may  assist  him  in  his  work. 
Copies  of  the  sketches  and  descriptions  of  triangu 
lation  points  above  referred  to  are  furnished  him 
to  enable  him  to  find  them  the  more  readily. 
Having  selected  and  recovered  such  points  as  he 
needs,  he  erects  u  hydrographic  signals"  over 
them  (fixing  new  points  for  himself  if  needed), 
establishes  his  tide-gauge,  and  is  then  ready  to 
begin  his  soundings.  It  is  usual  to  run  the 
soundings  in  parallel  lines,  with  a  second  system 
of  lines  crossing  the  first  at  right  angles ;  the 
number  of  lines  and  of  soundings  upon  each  line 
depend  upon  local  conditions  and  needs.  The 
time,  depth,  and  character  of  the  bottom  are 
noted  at  each  sounding.  The  position  of  the 
vessel  or  boat  is  fixed  from  time  to  time,  either 
by  simultaneous  cuts  from  two  theodolite  sta 
tions  on  shore,  or  by  measuring  from  the  boat 
with  a  sextant,  the  angle  between  a  selected  cen 
tral  signal  and  one  on  either  side  of  it  respec 
tively,  or,  as  it  is  usually  known,  by  the  "  three- 
point  problem."  In  the  deep-sea  work  the  posi 
tions  are  determined  astronomically.  Other 
systems  of  lines  in  addition  to  the  above  are  used 
for  special  purposes,  such  as  the  development 
of  bars,  shoals,  intricate  channels,  etc.  The 
soundings  before  being  plotted  are  (in  the  har 
bor  and  inshore  work)  reduced  to  the  plane  of 
mean  low  water,  or,  on  the  Pacific  coast,  to  that 
of  lower-low  waters.  The  curves  of  equal  depths 
are  drawn  to  correspond  with  the  contours  of 
equal  elevation  on  shore.  The  work  of  the  hy 
drographer  extends  to  high-water  mark,  thus 
lapping  that  of  the  topographer.  Tidal  observa 
tions  are  carried  on  to  give  data  for  the  reduc 
tion  of  soundings,  for  the  computation  of  the 
tidal  establishment,  and  for  computing  tide-tables 
in  advance ;  in  the  last  are  predicted  the  times 
and  heights  (above  or  below  the  usual  plane  of 
reference)  of  the  high  and  low  waters  at  the 
stated  parts  for  every  day  in  the  year.  In  many 


COAST  SURVEY 


145 


COAST-GUARD 


localities  continuous  tidal  observations,  covering 
a  complete  lunar  cycle,— nineteen  years, — have 
been  made,  or  are  in  progress. 

DEEP-SEA  HYDROGRAPHY. — Under  this  head 
are  being  investigated  the  depths,  currents,  sur 
face  and  sub-surface,  the  temperatures  and  den 
sities  of  the  sea-water  from  surface  to  bottom. 
Specimens  of  the  water  and  of  the  bottom  are 
being  obtained  for  examination  and  analysis, 
and  deep-sea  dredgings  of  the  most  successful 
character  are  being  carried  on.'  For  all  sound 
ings  of  over  100  fathoms  wire  is  used,  with  the 
very  perfect  apparatus  designed  by  Lieutenant- 
Commander  C.  D.  Sigsbee,  U.S.N.,  Assistant 
Coast  and  Geodetic  Survey.  Much  of  the  deep- 
sea  work  is  designed  for  the  study  of  the  origin, 
extent,  phenomena,  and  influences  of  the  Gulf 
Stream. 

Physical  Hydrography. — Under  this  head  are 
investigated,  either  by  special  observations  or  by 
those  taken  in  connection  with  other  work,  the 
tidal  circulation  and  movements,  the  flow  of 
rivers,  the  action  of  the  waves,  and  the  effect  of 
each  and  of  all  combined  in  producing  changes 
in  harbors  and  upon  the  coasts ;  the  effects,  in 
conjunction  with  these,  of  artificial  works, 
whether  protective,  such  as  breakwaters  and 
jetties ;  for  improvements,  such  as  the  deepen 
ing  of  channels  and  fair-ways ;  or  economical, 
such  as  wharves,  etc.  ;  or  for  the  reclaiming  of 
overflowed  lands,  and,  by  analogy,  the  probable 
effects  of  any  such  works  when  in  contemplation. 

COAST-PILOT. — The  work  of  this  division  con 
sists  in  preparing  descriptions  and  views  of  the 
coasts,  particularly  the  approaches  to  ports,  har 
bors  of  refuge,  etc.,  the  description  of  the  dangers 
to  navigation,  of  the  established  artificial  aids  to 
navigation,  and  of  sailing  directions  for  navi 
gating  the  coast,  and  for  entering  and  leaving 
the  ports  and  harbors. 

MAGNETIC  WORK. — Observations  are  in  con 
tinuous  progress,  at  fixed  magnetic  observatories, 
and  by  parties  moving  from  place  to  place  on 
land  and  at  ^  sea,  for  declination  and  the  other 
magnetic  elements.  The  results  are  used  for  the 
preparation  and  correction  of  the  isogonic  charts, 
for  keeping  the  variation  of  compass  correctly 
noted  upon  the  marine  charts,  and  for  recording 
the  secular  changes  in  the  variation.  It  is  hoped 
that  sufficient  data  will  ultimately  be  obtained 
to  determine  the  law  of  the  secular  change,  and 
to  make  it  possible  to  predict  it  for  many  years 
in  advance. 

INSTRUCTIONS. — The  work  of  each  party  in  the 
field  is  executed  under  written  instructions  issued 
by  the  Superintendent. 

OFFICE  WORK. — All  original  sheets  and  field- 
notes  are  carefully  preserved,  and  sent  to  the 
office  at  Washington,  where,  under  the  imme 
diate  direction  of  the  assistant-in-charge  of  office, 
the  computations  and  reductions  are  examined 
and  checked,  or  made  independently  by  a  corps 
of  trained  computers.  Plotting  done  in  the  field 
is  carefully  inspected,  and,  if  need  be,  replotted 
from  the  original  notes.  Drawings  for  charts 
are  made  by  one  set  of  draughtsmen  reducing 
-the  work  from  the  original  sheets  to  the  pub 
lication  scale,  after  which  the  reductions  are 
verified  by  other  draughtsmen.  The  charts  thus 
prepared  are  engraved  upon  copper  plates,  from 
which,  after  careful  examination,  electrotype 
plates  are  made  for  the  plate-printer,  no  print- 
10 


ing  being  done  from  the  engraved  plate.  The 
work  passes  through  many  hands  and  processes, 
by  which  a  constant  check  is  kept  upon  its  accu 
racy,  and  at  each  stage  it  is  examined,  and  must 
be  approved  by  the  Superintendent. 

PUBLICATIONS. — The  regular  publications  of 
the  Coast  and  Geodetic  Survey  consist  of  Marine 
Charts,  Magnetic  Charts,  the  Coast-pilot,  the 
Superintendent's  Annual  Report  of  Progress, 
the  Tide-tables  of  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific 
Coasts,  and  the  series  entitled  u  Methods,  Dis 
cussions,  and  Results,"  in  which  last,  as  the 
name  implies,  are  described  the  plan  of  the  sur 
vey,  the  methods,  instruments,  and  appliances 
used,  and  the  results  expected  and  required. 
The  most  of  these  are  scientific  papers  of  great 
value.  The  occasional  publications,  usually  con 
tained  in  the  appendix  to  the  Annual  Eeport, 
are  scientific  papers,  which  do  not  fall  under  the 
last-named  head.  The  Charts  are  in  four  series, 
viz. :  1,  sailing  charts,  on  a  scale  of  1-1,200,000  ; 

2,  general  coast  charts,  on  a  scale  of  1-400,000 ; 

3,  coast  charts,  on  a  scale  of  1-80,000 ;  and,  4, 
harbor  charts,  on  larger  scales. 

ORGANIZATION. — The  personnel  of  the  Coast 
and  Geodetic  Survey  comprises  a  superintendent, 
in  general  charge  of  the  work,  with  a  corps  of 
assistants,  sub-assistants,  aids,  and  recorders  for 
field  service ;  of  computers,  tidal  computers, 
draughtsmen,  engravers,  electricians,  mechan 
icians,  and  plate-printers  for  office  work;  a  dis 
bursing  agent  and  accountant ;  a  secretary,  and 
copyists.  By  authority  of  law,  officers  and  men 
of  the  navy  are  employed  upon  the  hydrographic 
work  of  the  survey.  There  have  been  thus  far 
four  superintendents,  viz.,  Ferdinand  R.  Hassler, 
from  the  first  organization  of  the  work  to  1843  ; 
A.  Dallas  Bache,  LL.D.,  from  1843  to  1867; 
Benjamin  Peirce,  LL.D.,  from  1867  to  1874; 
and  Carlisle  P.  Patterson,  C.E.,  LL.D.,  since 
1874. 

WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES.— The  superintend 
ent  of  the  Coast  and  Geodetic  Survey  is  also  su 
perintendent  of  the  standard  weights  and  meas 
ures  of  the  United  States. — Edward  P.  Lull, 
Commander  U.S.N. 

Coast- Guard  of  Great  Britain,  The,  originally 
instituted  as  a  means  of  revenue  protection,  has 
taken,  on  account  of  the  free-trade  policy  of 
Great  Britain,  which  exempts  almost  all  articles 
from  duty  except  spirits  and  tobacco,  the  char 
acter  of  a  naval  reserve  and  a  life-saving  and  sig 
nal  service.  It  employs  4000  officers  and  men 
ashore ;  afloat,  there  are  9  large  ships  (iron 
clads)  and  40  small  vessels,  the  latter  used  as 
cruising  and  watch  vessels,  and  varying  from 
100  to  500  tons  each.  The  first  named  form  the 
squadron  of  the  first  reserve ;  one  is  attached  to 
each  coast-guard  district,  and  is  commanded  by 
the  captain  commanding  the  district;  they  are 
all  under  reduced  complements. 

The  whole  coast  is  divided  into  9  districts, 
termed  the  Hull,  Harwich,  Newhaven,  Wey- 
mouth,  Liverpool,  Leith,  Clyde,  Limerick,  and 
Kingstown  districts.  The  districts  are  sub 
divided  into  79  divisions,  in  charge  of  inspecting 
officers,  of  whom,  at  present  writing  (May,  1880), 
36  are  commanders,  32  lieutenants,  and  the  re 
mainder  subordinate  coast-guard  officers.  The 
divisions  are  again  divided  into  225  stations,  each 
in  charge  of  a'chief  officer,  who  is  about  equal  in 
rank  to  a  warrant-officer.  The  whole  is  under 


COAT 


146 


COD 


the  command  of  an  admiral  superintendent, 
whose  principal  office  is  in  London. 

At  each  station  are  erected  neat  groups  of  cot 
tages  for  the  men,  in  which  they  may  live  with 
their  families.  The  coast  lying  between  the  sta 
tions  is  patrolled  at  all  times,  and  means  of  sig 
naling  from  point  to  point  are  at  hand.  During 
the  summer  months  all  the  force  that  can  be 
spared  is  embarked  in  the  9  co,ast-guard  ships, 
which  then  cruise  in  squadron  for  6  weeks,  gen 
erally  as  part  of  the  Channel  squadron.  The 
men  are  thus  kept  in  a  high  state  of  efficiency  as 
regards  drill  and  seamanship. 

The  qualifications  for  entry  into  the  coast 
guard  are  as  follows  :  "Every  seaman  in  the  navy 
of  good  character,  who  has  completed  8  years' 
continuous  service,  whose  age  does  not  exceed 
37,  who  is  either  a  trained  man  or  a  seaman 
gunner,  and  who  wears  at  least  one  good  con 
duct  badge,  is,  upon  the  recommendation  of  his 
captain,  eligible.  There  is  no  restriction  as  to 
the  number  of  candidates  to  be  recommended 
from  any  particular  ship. 

All  men  are  discharged  from  the  coast-guard 
at  50,  whether  fit  for  service  or  not,  excepting 
chief  boatmen  in  charge,  who  are  discharged  at 
55.  On  leaving  they  are  under  the  same  rules  as 
regards  pensions  as  the  other  men  of  the  navy. 

Men.  who  enter  the  coast-guard  must  renew 
their  continuous-service  engagements  while 
serving  in  that  force ;  they  may  also  be  dis 
charged  into  a  sea-going  ship  for  misconduct,  or 
at  their  own  request. 

This  unequaled  body  of  men  forms  England's 
most  efficient  and  valuable  reserve  in  time  of 
war,  there  being  enough  men  employed  to  fur 
nish  the  men  of  the  seamen  class  for  a  squadron 
of  15  large  ships. 

The  estimates  of  1880  for  the  men  of  the  coast 
guard  are  £50,781.  The  total  charge  of  the 
coast-guard  service,  including  officers  and  men 
of  the  ships  and  vessels  employed,  provisions, 
stores,  buildings,  etc.,  including  the  above 
£50,781,  is  £454,414.— F.  E.  Chadwick,  Lieuten 
ant-Commander  U.S.N. 

Coat.  A  piece  of  canvas  fitted  around  the 
partners  of  the  masts  to  prevent  the  water  from 
getting  below.  A  layer  of  paint,  varnish,  shel 
lac,  etc. 

COAT-TACKS.  The  peculiar  nails  with  which 
mast-coats  are  fastened. 

Coat  of  Mail.     The  chiton  shell. 

Cob.  To  punish  by  striking  on  the  breech 
with  a  strap  or  cobbing-board.  A  young  her 
ring.  A  sea-gull.  A  breakwater  or" dock  made 
of  piles  and  timber  and  filled  in  with  rocks. 

Cobb.     A  Gibraltar  term  for  a  Spanish  dollar. 

Cobbo.  The  small  fish  known  as  the  miller's 
thumb. 

Coble,  or  Cobble.  A  low  flat-floored  boat 
used  in  the  cod-  and  turbot-fisheries ;  the  rudder 
extends  4  or  5  feet  under  the  bottom.  There  is 
also  a  small  boat  of  the  same  name  used  by  sal 
mon-fishers. 

Coboose.    See  CABOOSE. 

Cock.  A  device  for  regulating  or  stopping 
the  flow  of  fluids  through  small  pipes.  It  con 
sists  principally  of  a  conical  "plug,"  accurately 
fitted  to  a  "shell"  or  "chamber,"  with  its  axis 
at  right  angles  to  that  of  the  pipe  to  which  it  is 
attached,  the  plug  being  penetrated  by  a  hole 
equal  in  area  to  that  of  the  pipe.  When  the 


plug  is  turned  on  its  axis  the  opening  may  be 
increased  or  diminished  at  will,  or  closed  alto 
gether.  The  shell  is  provided  with  flanges  or 
screw-nipples  for  attaching  it  to  the  pipe,  and 
the  plug  with  a  handle.  When  a  cock  is  used 
for  drawing  liquids  from  a  reservoir  it  is  fre 
quently  called  a  "faucet"  or  "spigot."  The 
hammer  of  a  gun-lock.  To  cock  a  piece  is  to 
raise  the  hammer  to  its  full  extent. 

Cockade.  A  knot  of  ribbons  or  rosette  worn 
on  the  hat  as  a  badge. 

Cock-a-hoop.  Full  of  confidence  and  high 
spirits. 

Cockandy.  A  name  for  the  puffin,  otherwise 
called  Tom  Noddy  (Fratercula  arctica). 

Cock-bill.  To  cock-bill  the  anchor  is  to  sus 
pend  it  from  the  cat-head  preparatory  to  letting 
go.  To  cock-bill  the  yards  is  to  top  them  up  at  an 
angle  with  the  deck, — the  symbol  of  mourning. 

Cock-boat.  A  very  small  boat  used  on  rivers 
or  near  the  shore. 

Cockburn,  Sir  George,  Admiral.  Serving 
the  crown  of  Great  Britain  from  his  youth,  this 
officer  as  he  advanced  in  rank  manifested  a 
capacity  for  responsible  command.  During  the 
long  war  with  revolutionary  France  and  the 
Empire  he  captured  the  island  of  Martinique. 
At  a  later  period,  when  peace  had  been  made 
with  France  and  a  war  begun  with  the  United 
States,  Cockburn  was  sent  to  America,  and 
numbered  among  his  exploits  the  destruction 
of  some  of  the  buildings  in  Washington  and  on 
the  shores  of  the  Chesapeake  and  Potomac.  Fi 
nally  he  was  intrusted  with  the  duty  of  convey 
ing  Napoleon  I.  and  his  suite  to  their  prison  on 
the  island  of  St.  Helena. 

Cocked  Hat.  The  full-dress  head-covering  of 
naval  officers.  See  UNIFORM. 

Cocket  (Eng.}.  A  cock-boat.  A  custom-house 
seal.  An  instrument  sealed  and  delivered  by 
officers  of  the  customs  as  a  warrant  that  mer 
chandise  is  entered.  An  office  in  the  custom 
house  where  goods  to  be  exported  are  entered. 

Cocket-bread.     Hard  sea-biscuit, 

Cockle.  A  common  bivalve  mollusk  (Car- 
dium  edule),  often  used  as  food. 

Cockling  Sea.  Tumbling  waves  dashing 
against  each  other  with  a  short  and  quick  mo 
tion. 

Cock-paddle.  A  name  of  the  paddle,  or  lump- 
fish  (Cyclopterus  lumpus). 

Cockpit.  An  apartment  below  the  water- 
line,  in  which  the  wounded  are  placed  during 
an  engagement.  The  rooms  are  used  as  store 
rooms  and  for  quarters  for  such  officers  as  can 
not  be  accommodated  in  the  steerage.  In  olden 
times  the  warrant-officers  were  quartered  in  the 
fore  cockpit,  and  subsequently  under  the  fore 
castle ;  hence  the  name  forward-officers. 

COCKPITARIAN.  A  name  for  one  who  was 
quartered  in  the  cockpit. 

Cocksetus.  An  old  law-term  for  a  boatman 
or  coxswain. 

Cocksure.     Dead  certain. 

Cockswain.     See  COXSWAIN. 

Cocoanut-tree.  The  Palma  cocos  yields  toddy ; 
the  nut  a  valuable  oil  and  milky  juice  ;  the  stern, 
bark,  branches,  etc.,  also  serve  numerous  pur 
poses. 

Cod.  The  centre  of  a  deep  bay.  The  bight  of 
a  trawl  or  seine.  Also,  the  Gadus  morrhua,  one 
of  the  most  important  of  oceanic  fishes.  The 


CODDY-MODDY 


147 


COLHOUN 


ccd  is  always  found  on  the  submerged  hills 
known  as  banks ;  as,  the  Dogger  Bank  and 
banks  of  Newfoundland.  To  cod,  to  rig ;  to 
harass ;  to  tantalize. 

COD-BAIT.  The  large  sea-worm,  or  lug,  dug 
from  the  wet  sands ;  the  squid  or  cuttle,  her 
rings,  caplin,  any  meat,  or  even  a  false  fish  of 
bright  tin  or  pewter. 

COD-FISH.     See  COD. 

COD-FISHER.  A  banker,  or  fishing-vessel, 
which  anchors  in  60  or  70  fathoms,  and  remains 
fishing  until  full,  or  driven  off  by  stress  of 
weather.  Season  from  June  until  October.  See 
FISHERIES. 

COD-LINE.     An  eighteen-thread  line. 

COD-SOUNDS.  The  swim-bladders  of  cod-fish, 
cured  and  packed  for  the  market. 

Coddy-moddy.  A  gull  in  its  first  year's 
plumage. 

Code.    See  SIGNALS. 

Codrington,  Sir  Edward,  Admiral.  In  1827, 
when  the  Greeks  were  resisting  Turkish  oppres 
sion,  a  combined  French,  Kussian,  and  English 
fleet  was  dispatched  to  the  Mediterranean  to  stop 
the  cruelties  practiced  by  Ibrahim  Pacha,  who  was 
then  in  command  of  an  Egyptian  fleet.  Sir  Ed 
ward  Codrington  commanded  the  British  squad 
ron.  Entering  the  harbor  of  Navarino,  he  com 
menced  negotiations  with  the  pacha,  with  the 
view  of  putting  an  end  to  the  barbarities  of  the 
Turks.  A  reference  to  Constantinople  being 
deemed  necessary  before  any  compact  could  be 
concluded,  it  was  arranged  that  the  pacha's 
fleet  should  remain  in  the  harbor  until  the  sul 
tan's  reply  was  received,  and  in  the  meanwhile 
the  European  fleets  retired  ;  but  they  had  scarcely 
left  Navarino  when  the  Turks  violated  the  ar 
mistice  and  attempted  to  sail  out  of  the  harbor. 
Codrington  forced  them  back.  A  fierce  battle  en 
sued,  and  the  Turkish  fleet  of  81  men-of-war  was 
destroyed,  only  1  frigate  and  15  smaller  vessels 
being  left  in  a  condition  to  put  to  sea  again. 

Coehorn.  A  small  mortar,  usually  of. bronze, 
throwing  a  shell  of  from  12  to  24  pounds,  and 
convenient  for  ships'  gangways,  launches,  etc., 
afloat ;  and  for  advanced  trenches,  the  attack  of 
stockades,  etc.,  ashore.  It  takes  its  name  from 
its  inventor,  Baron  van  Coehorn,  a  celebrated 
Dutch  engineer  and  general  of  the  latter  part  of 
the  17th  and  early  part  of  the  18th  centuries. 

Coffer-dam.  A  device  employed  in  hydraulic 
engineering  to  lay  bare  a  portion  of  the  sub 
merged  surface.  It  consists  of  a  water-tight  in- 
closure,  formed  by  double  lines  of  piles  filled 
in  with  clay  tightly  rammed.  It  may  also  be 
made  with  piles  only,  the  piles  being  driven  close 
together,  and  sometimes  notched  or  dovetailed 
into  one  another;  or,  if  the  water  is  not  very 
deep,  the  piles  may  be  driven  at  a  distance  of 
five  or  six  feet  from  each  other  and  grooved  in 
the  sides,  with  boards  let  down  between  them  in 
the  grooves.  However  formed,  it  must  be  made 
very  strong  and  well  braced  from  the  inside  to 
resist  the  pressure  of  the  water  from  without. 
The  water  inclosed  within  the  dam  is  gotten  rid 
of  by  being  pumped  out. 

Cog.  The  tooth  of  a  wheel,  by  which  motion 
is  communicated  to  another  wheel.  A  coak  or 
dowel. 

Cogge.  An  Anglo-Saxon  word  for  a  cock 
boat  or  light  yawl. 

COGGE-WARE.     Goods  carried  in  a  cogge. 


Goggle,  or  Cog.     A  small  fishing-boat. 

Cogmen.  Shipwrecked  mariners  who  wander 
about  begging  and  stealing  ;  nautical  tramps. 

Coguing  the  Nose.  Making  comfortable  over 
hot  grog. 

Coign.     See  QUOIN. 

Coil.  A  quantity  of  rope  wound  into  a  ring 
or  series  of  rings ;  each  turn  of  the  rope  is  a 
fake,  and  several  of  these  fakes,  one  within  the 
other,  are  called  a  sheave  or  tier.  In  a  Flemish 
coil  there  is  but  one  sheave,  the  hauling  part 
being  in  the  centre. 

Coir.  The  fibrous  husks  of  the  cocoa-nut, 
used  for  making  ropes,  mats,  brushes,  brooms, 
etc.  Coir  cables  have  the  advantage  of  floating 
on  the  water,  but  they  are  disagreeable  to  handle. 

Coke.  The  charcoal  obtained  by  heating  coal 
with  the  imperfect  access  of  air,  or  by  its  distilla 
tion.  The  former  is  usually  called  oven  coke ;  the 
latter  gas  coke,  being  abundantly  produced  in 
gas-works.  Caking  coal  (for  which  see  COAL)  is 
most  suitable  for  the  manufacture  of  coke.  As 
the  coal  becomes  heated  it  evolves  a  number  of 
substances,  solids,  liquids,  and  gases,  and  yields 
a  residue,  the  coke,  relatively  richer  in  carbon 
than  the  original  coal.  Coke  is  hard,  brittle, 
and  porous,  varying  in  color  from  iron-gray  to 
blackish-gray,  and  more  or  less  of  a  metallic 
lustre.  It  absorbs  moisture  from  the  air  some 
times  to  the  extent  of  30  per  cent.,  and  contains 
an  amount  of  ash  ranging  from  \  up  to  15  per 
cent.  It  gives  off  no  smoke  in  burning,  is  of 
great  value  as  a  fuel,  evolving  a  very  large 
amount  of  heat,  and  is  used  extensively  in  smelt 
ing  ores  and  for  other  purposes. 

Coker.     The  old  name  for  a  cocoa-nut-tree. 

Cold-blast.  Air  forced  into  a  smelting-fur- 
nace  at  a  natural  temperature,  in  contradistinc 
tion  to  a  heated  blast,  which  is  more  economical, 
but  produces  iron  of  an  inferior  quality. 

Cold-chisel.  A  stout  chisel  made  of  steel, 
used  for  cutting  iron  when  it  is  cold. 

Cold-eel.     The  Gymnotus  electmcus. 

Cold-hammering.  The  hammering  of  metal 
at  a  low  temperature  to  give  hardness  and 
temper. 

Cole.     Colewort,  or  sea-kale. 

Cole-goose.  A  name  for  the  cormorant  (Pha- 
lacrocorax  carbo). 

Cole-perch.  A  small  fish  less  than  the  com 
mon  perch. 

Colhoun,  Edmund  R.,  Commodore  U.S.N., 
was  born  at  Chambersburg,  Pa.,  May  6,  1821 ; 


terranean  and  Brazil  Squadrons,  1842-44  ;  Naval 
School,  Philadelphia,  1845;  promoted  to  passed 
midshipman,  July  2,  1845;  frigate  "Cumber 
land,"  Home  Squadron,  1846-47.  Served  in  the 
Mexican  war,  being  present  at  the  first  attack  on 
Alvarado,  under  Commodore  D.  Conner,  and 
also  under  Commodore  M.  C.  Perry,  at  the  cap 
ture  of  Tabasco.  Keceiving-ship  at  Philadelphia, 
1850-51 ;  frigate  "  St.  Lawrence,"  Pacific  Squad 
ron,  1851-53 ;  resigned  June  27,  1853.  Re-en 
tered  the  navy  as  an  acting  lieutenant,  1861  ; 
commanded  steamers  "Shawsheen"  and  "Hunch 
back,"  North  Atlantic  Blockading  Squadron, 
1861-62;  was  in  the  following  engagements: 
Roanoke  Island,  February  7  and  8,  1862  ;  capture 
of  Newbern,  March  14, 1862 ;  engagement  on  the 


COLLAR 


148 


COLORS 


Black-water  River,  below  Franklin,  Va.,  October, 
1862 ;  commissioned  as  commander,  November 
17,  1862;  commander  steamer  "  Ladona,"  North 
Atlantic  Blockading  Squadron,  1863;  monitor 
"  Weehawken,"  South  Atlantic  Blockading 
Squadron,  1863;  took  part  in  the  different  ac 
tions  with  Forts  Sumter,  Wagner,  Beauregard, 
etc.,  from  July  10  to  September  15,  1863;  com 
manded  monitor  "Saugus,"  1864-65;  engaged 
Hewlett's  Battery  on  James  River,  June  21  and 
Dec.  5,  1864 ;  took  part  in  the  bombardment  of 
Fort  Fisher,  Dec.  25,  1864,  and  its  capture,  Jan. 
15,  1865;  was  on  special  duty  at  New  York, 
1866 ;  fleet-captain,  South  Pacific  Squadron, 
1866-67 ;  commissioned  as  captain,  March  2, 
1869 ;  commanded  monitor  "  Dictator,"  1869-70 ; 
flag-ship  "Hartford,"  Asiatic  Station,  1873-74; 
was  in  command  of  the  Asiatic  Station  for  four 
months ;  was  then  transferred  to  the  "  Rich 
mond,"  flag-ship  of  the  South  Pacific  Station, 
being  in  command  of  her  from  August,  1874,  to 
July,  1875;  commissioned  as  commodore,  April 
26,  1876.  Relieved  rear-admiral  John  Rodgers, 
in  command  of  the  navy-yard,  Mare  Island, 
Cal.,  April  17, 1877,  of  which  yard  he  is  at  pres 
ent  date  commandant. 

Collar.  The  part  of  a  stay  which  goes  over 
the  mast-head.  A  strap  or  grommet  in  which 
is  seized  a  heart  or  dead-eye ;  used  for  stays, 
bobstays,  bowsprit-shrouds,  etc. 

In  mechanism,  a  ring  of  metal  placed  upon  a 
shaft  to  prevent  motion  in  direction  of  the  shaft's 
axis  while  leaving  it  free  for  rotative  motion.  A 
collar  may  be  wrought  or  cast  upon  the  shaft  as 
a  part  thereof,  or  it  may  be  a  separate  piece  con 
fined  by  pins  or  set-screws. 

COLLAR-HEART.      See  HEAKT. 

Collar-beam  (Obs.).  Formerly,  it  was  the 
beam  upon  which  the  stanchions  of  the  beak- 
head  bulkhead  stood.  The  upper  side  of  it  kept 
well  with  the  upper  deck  port-sills,  and  was  let 
down  into  the  spirketing  at  the  side,  but  its 
springing  over  the  bowsprit  in  the  middle  gave 
it  a  form  which  in  timber  was  not  to  be  ob 
tained  without  great  difficulty;  a  framing  of 
carlings,  with  a  stanchion  on  each  side,  was 
generally  substituted  in  its  place. 

Collier.  A  vessel  employed  exclusively  in  the 
coal-trade. 

Collimation,  Axis  or  Line  of.  The  axial 
line  of  a  telescope,  or  an  imaginary  line  which 
passes  through  the  optical  centre  of  the  object- 
glass  and  the  intersection  of  cross-wires  at  its 
focus.  The  error  of  collimation  is  the  deviation 
of  the  line  of  collimation  from  its  normal  posi 
tion. 

Collingwood,  Lord  Cuthbert,  Admiral.  A 
disciple  of  the  famous  Nelson,  and  worthy  of 
all  honor  for  his  services  and  undaunted  bear 
ing  throughout  a  long  career  in  the  British 
navy.  He  played  a1  conspicuous  part  in  the 
great  victories  achieved  by  Lord  Howe  and 
Lord  St.  Vincent  (which  see),  and  in  command 
of  a  line-of-battle  ship  at  the  famous  battle  of 
Trafalgar  he  was  the  first  to  break  the  line  of 
the  French  and  Spanish  fleets.  When  Nelson 
saw  him  leading  his  squadron  into  the  enemy's 
array,  he  exclaimed,  "See  how  that  noble  fel 
low  Collingwood  takes  his  ship  into  action." 
Firm,  mild,  brave  but  prudent,  he  was  adored 
in  the  navy,  and  died,  in  1810,  deeply  regretted. 

Collins,    Napoleon,    Rear-Admiral    U.S.N. 


Born  in  Pennsylvania.  Appointed  from  Iowa, 
January  2,  1834. 

Promoted  to  passed  midshipman,  July  16, 
1840. 

Commissioned  as  lieutenant,  November  6, 
1846;  sloop  u  Decatur,"  Home  Squadron,  1846- 
49 ;  at  Tuspan  and  Tabasco,  Mexican  war  ; 
steamer  "Michigan,"  on  the  lakes,  1850-53; 
commanding  store-ship  "John  P.  Kennedy," 
North  Pacific  Expedition,  1853-54  j  steam-frigate 
"  Susquehanna,"  East  India  Squadron,  1854-55; 
navy-yard,  Mare  Island,  California,  1856-57 ; 
sloop  "John  Adams,"  Pacific  Squadron,  1857- 
58;  steamer  "Michigan,"  on  the  lakes,  1858- 
60;  commanding  steamer  "  Anacosta,"  Potomac 
Flotilla,  1861 ;  engagement  at  Acquia  Creek, 
May  31  and  June  1,  1861 ;  commanding  gun 
boat  "Unadilla,"  South  Atlantic  Blockading 
Squadron,  1861-62;  battle  of  Port  Royal,  No 
vember  7,  1862;  various  expeditions  on  the 
coasts  of  South  Carolina,  Georgia,  and  Florida, 
1861-62. 

Commissioned  as  commander,  July  16,  1862 ; 
commanding  steamer  "Octorara,"  West  India 
Squadron,  1862-68;  commanding  steam-sloop 
"  Wachusett,"  special  service,  1863-64;  on  the 
7th  of  October,  1864,  Commander  Collins,  then 
in  the  "Wachusett,"  seized  the  rebel  steamer 
"Florida,"  lying  within  the  harbor  of  Bahia, 
Brazil ;  the  capture  was  effected  without  loss  of 
life. 

Commissioned  as  captain,  July  25, 1866  ;  com 
manding  steam-sloop  "  Sacramento,"  special  ser 
vice,  1867  ;  navy-yard,  Norfolk,  1869-70.  Com 
missioned  as  commodore  1871,  and  as  rear-admiral 
1874.  Died  in  1876. 

Collision.    See  RULE  OF  THE  ROAD  AT  SEA. 

COLLISION-CLAUSE.  See  RUNNING-DOWN 
CLAUSE. 

Collop.     A  cut  from  a  joint  of  meat. 

Colmie.  A  fifth -year  or  full-grown  coal-fish  ; 
sometimes  called  comb. 

Colmow.  An  old  word  for  the  sea-mew,  de 
rived  from  the  Anglo-Saxon. 

Colombo.  The  principal  seaport  town  and 
the  capital  of  Ceylon,  on  its  west  coast,  in  lat.  6° 
56'  N.,  Ion.  79°  49'  E.  Pop.  100,000.  The  har 
bor,  defended  by  several  forts,  is  small,  and  the 
roadstead  is  safe  only  during  the  southeast  mon 
soon. 

Colonnati.     The  Spanish  pillared  dollar. 

Colorable.  Ship's  papers  so  drawn  as  to  be 
available  for  more  than  one  purpose.  In  ad 
miralty  law,  a  probable  plea. 

Colors.  A  national  flag.  In  port  the  colors 
are  hoisted  at  8  A.M.,  and  kept  flying  till  sunset. 
At  sea  the  colors  are  generally  shown  on  falling 
in  with  another  vessel.  The  colors  are  half- 
masted  as  a  symbol  of  mourning,  and  are  hauled 
down  as  a  token  of  submission.  Dipping  the 
colors  is  a  compliment  or  salute,  but  our  men- 
of-war  are  forbidden  to  dip  their  colors  except 
in  return  for  a  similar  compliment.  The  boats 
of  a  man-of-war  are  required  to  keep  their  colors 
flying  while  absent  from  their  ship.  In  a  funeral 
procession  the  colors  are  draped. 

In  the  navies  of  some  European  countries, 
when  the  colors  are  hauled  down  they  are  re 
ceived  by  a  commissioned  officer,  and  all  persons 
on  deck  take  off  their  caps  as  a  mark  of  respect. 

COLOR-CHEST.     See  SIGNAL-CHEST. 

COLOR-LOCKER.    See  SIGNAL-LOCKER. 


COLT 


149 


COMMANDER 


Colt.  A  short  piece  of  rope  with  a  knot  on 
one  end,  formerly  used  to  start  skulkers. 

Columba  (Lat.  "The  Dove").  A  constella 
tion  next  to,  and  to  the  S.W.  of,  Canis  Major. 
a  Columbce  may  be  found  by  producing  the  line 
joining  Procyon  and  Sirius  to  about  the  same 
distance. 

Columbia.  A  name  often  given  to  America 
in  honor  of  the  great  discoverer.  The  patriotic 
ballad,  "Hail  Columbia,  happy  land,"  was 
written  by  Joseph  Hopkinson  for  the  benefit  of 
an  actor  named  Fox,  and  to  an  air  entitled 
"The  President's  March,"  composed  in  1789 
by  a  German  named  Teyles,  on  the  occasion  of 
Gen.  Washington's  first  visit  to  a  New  York 
theatre. 

Columbiad.  A  kind  of  heavy  cannon  in 
vented  by  Col.  Bomford.  See  ORDNANCE. 

Columbus,  Christopher,  a  native  of  Corsica, 
when  the  island  was  under  the  government  of 
the  republic  of  Genoa,  cherished  for  eighteen  years 
the  theory  of  the  rotundity  of  the  earth,  and 
sought  to  establish  it  by  endeavoring  to  get  the 
means  for  sailing  in  a  westerly  direction  from  the 
shores  of  Spain.  He  was  doomed  to  many  checks 
and  disappointments,  and  endured  the  ridicule 
of  the  ignorant.  A-t  length,  Isabella,  the  queen 
of  Ferdinand  of  Spain,  caused  him  to  be  supplied 
with  ships  and  provisions  that  he  might  make  a 
voyage  of  discovery  in  the  direction  he  had  in 
dicated.  His  attempt  was  attended  with  danger, 
for  the  crew  of  his  ship,  impatient  of  its  slow 
progress,  murmured  and  exhibited  a  mutinous 
disposition,  but  his  science,  courage,  and  deter 
mination  had  a  happy  issue,  for  in  1492  he  dis 
covered  San  Salvador,  in  the  western  hemi 
sphere.  A  second  expedition  in  1493-96  con 
ducted  him  to  that  of  the  outlying  islands,  and 
he  reached  the  continent  of  America  on  a  third 
voyage,  in  1498.  The  discoveries  and  fulfillment 
of  the  theory  of  Columbus  did  not  reap  the  rec 
ompense  to  which  so  much  energy  and  persever 
ance  entitled  him.  He  was  pursued  by  envy  and 
jealousy,  and  fell  a  victim  to  his  triumph  over 
ignorance  and  superstition,  dying  in  poverty  at 
Valladolid,  in  Spain,  20th  May,  1506. 

Column.     See  FLEET  TACTICS. 

Colures  (Gr.  kolouros,  dock-tailed,  or  cutting 
the  tail ;  from  kolouein,  to  cut,  and  oura,  the 
tail).  A  term  originally  applied  to  any  great 
circle  passing  through  the  poles  of  the  heavens. 
It  is  derived  by  some  from  the  fact  that  one  part 
of  each  of  these  circles  appears  always  "cut  off" 
by  the  horizon.  A  more  probable  explanation 
of  the  word  seems  to  be  "cutting  the  tail"  of 
the  northern  constellation, — i.e.,  passing  through 
the  pole  star.  This  star  is  situated  in  the  tail 
of  the  Lesser  Bear,  a  group  which  appears  to 
have  been  more  anciently  figured  as  a  dog  ;  hence 
the  pole  star  is  called  the  Cynosure  (kunosoura), 
"  The  Dog's  Tail"  (kudn,  kunos,  a  dog,  and  oura, 
the  tail).  The  word  colures  has  more  lately  be 
come  restricted  to  the  two  circles  of  the  system 
which  pass  through  the  four  cardinal  points  of 
the  ecliptic, — the  equinoctial  and  solstitial  points, 
— the  former  being  called  the  Equinoctial  Colure, 
and  the  latter  the  Solstitial  Colure.  The  equi 
noctial  colure  may  be  regarded  as  the  initial 
position  of  the  hour-circle ;  the  solstitial  colure 
passes  through  the  poles  of  the  ecliptic  as  well  as 
those  of  the  equinoctial. 

Coma  Berenices.     See  CONSTELLATION. 


Comb.  The  projection  on  the  hammer  of  a 
gun-lock,  to  which  the  thumb  is  applied  in 
cocking  the  piece.  A  name  for  the  colmie.  A 
wooden  form  used  by  riggers  in  weaving  mats, 
gaskets,  etc. 

Comber.     A  long  curling  wave. 

COMBER,  BEACH-.     See  BEACH-COMBER. 

COMBER,  GRASS-.     See  GRASS-COMBER. 

Combing.     See  COAMING. 

Comb  the  Cat.  To  separate  the  tails  of  the 
"cat"  by  running  the  fingers  through  them. 

Combustion.  The  practical  means  of  pro 
ducing  artificial  heat.  It  is  the  union  of  oxygen 
with  the  carbon  and  hydrocarbon  contained  in 
the  various  kinds  of  fuels,  most  of  which  are 
hydrocarbons,  and  which  have  been  produced 
by  the  heat  of  the  sun. 

Come.  To  come  to  is  to  luff,  or  bring  the 
ship's  head  nearer  to  the  wind.  To  come  to,  or 
to  come  to  an  anchor,  to  let  go  the  anchor.  T<t 
come  up  a  rope  or  tackle,  to  slack  it  oiF  or  let  it 
go.  To  come  up  with  a  vessel  is  to  overtake  her. 
The  anchor  comes  home  when  it  slips  through 
the  mud  in  heaving  up, — that  is,  the  anchor  is 
dragged  toward  the  ship  instead  of  the  ship  being 
hauled  up  toward  the  anchor. 

Comity  of  Nations  (Lat.  comitas  gentium}. 
That  species  of  international  legal  courtesy  by 
which  the  laws  and  institutions  of  one  country 
are  recognized  and  given  effect  to  by  another. 
See  INTERNATIONAL  LAW. 

Command.  To  order  with  authority.  To  di 
rect.  To  exercise  supreme  authority  over.  To 
lead.  The  word  is  also  used  to  express  both  the 
order  given  and  the  force  commanded.  It  sig 
nifies  also  advantage  of  position ;  as,  when  we 
say  that  one  place  commands  another,  we  mean 
that  it  overtops  or  overlooks  the  other. 

Commandant.  The  officer  in  command  of  a 
navy-yard  or  naval  station.  Under  the  direc 
tion  of  the  Secretary  of  the  Navy  he  exercises 
control  over  every  department  in  the  yard,  and 
is  held  responsible  for  the  preservation  of  all 
buildings,  stores,  and  vessels,  and  for  the  judi 
cious  application  of  all  labor. 

He  is  to  see  that  none  but  effective  men  are 
employed,  and  that  the  rate  of  wages  conforms 
with  that  of  private  establishments  in  the  vicin 
ity.  He  is  to  see  that  the  officers  perform  their 
duties  in  a  proper  manner,  and  that  all  reports 
and  returns  are  made  at  the  time  and  in  the 
manner  directed  by  the  department.  He  is  to 
establish  regulations  to  guard  against  fire,  and 
cause  the  entire  force  of  the  yard  to  be  organ 
ized  into  fire  companies,  and  drilled  once  a 
month. 

He  will  not  permit  any  vessel  to  be  repaired 
at  the  yard  without  an  order  from  the  Depart 
ment,  except  in  an  emergency,  and  all  vessels 
repairing  are  under  his  control. 

Commandant  of  Cadets.  The  executive-offi 
cer  of  the  U.  S.  Naval  Academy. 

Commander.  This  title  in  the  British  and 
United  States  navies  has  the  same  derivation  as 
commodore,  viz.,  from  the  Spanish  "  Comenda- 
dor."  It  was  first  introduced  into  the  U.  S. 
navy  in  1838,  when  it  was  enacted  that  "mas 
ter-commandants"  should  be  known  and  styled 
"  commanders,"  although  the  pay-bill,  approved 
March  3,  1835,  recognized  the  title.  It  is  the 
next  rank  below  that  of  captain,  and  corresponds 
with  that  of  lieutenant-colonel  in  the  army. 


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150 


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A  commander  commands  vessels  of  the  third 
and  fourth  classes ;  may  be  employed  as  chief 
of  staff  to  a  commodore  ;  on  duty  under  a  bureau  ; 
or  as  aid  to  a  flag-officer  of  either  grade  on  shore- 
stations. 

Commander.  A  heavy  wooden  maul,  for 
beating  down  the  eyes  of  the  rigging,  and  for 
other  purposes  where  the  use  of  an  iron  instru 
ment  would  injure  the  rigging. 

Commander,  Master  and,  or  Master-Com 
mandant.  For  some  time  after  the  formation  of 
the  regular  Royal  navy  by  Henry  V.,  of  England, 
those  who  attended  to  the  navigation  of  the  ship 
and  the  mariners  were  a  totally  distinct  class 
from  those  who  superintended  the  fighting  de 
partment  and  the  soldiers.  The  first  attempt  to 
unite  in  one  person  the  two  offices  may  be  traced 
in  the  now  abandoned  term  of  master  and  com 
mander.  The  first  officer  of  the  rank  was  Robert 
Best,  appointed  September  13,  1667,  in  the  Med 
iterranean,  by  Sir  John  Narborough,  to  a  vessel 
called  the  "  Orange-Tree." 

Commander,  Lieutenant-.  This  intermediate 
rank  between  commander  and  lieutenant  was 
first  introduced  into  the  United  States  service  at 
the  reorganization  of  the  navy  in  1862.  Before 
that  time  lieutenants  when  in  command  of  a  small 
vessel-of-war  were  styled  lieutenants  command 
ing.  A  lieutenant-commander  holds  assimilated 
rank  with  a  major  in  the  army. 

A  lieutenant-commander  may  act  as  aid  to  an 
admiral,  vice-admiral,  rear-admiral,  or  commo 
dore  commanding  afloat ;  as  aid  or  executive  of 
a  commanding  officer,  navigating,  or  watch- 
officer  in  first- ,  second-,  and  third-rates  ;  and  per 
forms  duty  at  shore-stations  or  under  a  bureau, 
and  may  be  ordered  to  command  a  vessel  of  the 
fourth  class. 

Commander-in-chief.  The  President  of  the 
"United  States  is  the  commander-in-chief  of  the 
army  and  navy,  but  the  title  of  commander-in- 
chief  is  given  to  an  officer  in  command  of  an  in 
dependent  fleet  or  squadron,  when  appointed  as 
such  by  the  Navy  Department.  He  possesses  all 
the  rights,  honors,  and  responsibilities  from  the 
date  on  which  his  flag  is  hoisted  until  it  is  finally 
hauled  down. 

He  will  make  himself  well  acquainted  with 
the  sailing  and  steaming  qualities  of  the  vessels 
under  his  command,  and  inform  himself  of  the 
quantity  of  coal  each  vessel  can  carry,  the  amount 
used  in  average  and  in  full  steaming  during 
twenty-four  hours.  He  will  inspect  the  vessels 
under  his  command  at  least  once  in  six  months, 
and  satisfy  himself  that  they  are  in  a  state  of 
efficiency  to  perform  any  service  that  may  be  re 
quired. 

He  will  cause  the  boats  of  his  fleet  or  squadron, 
manned  and  armed,  to  be  frequently  assembled, 
inspected,  and  exercised  in  manoeuvres  in  land 
ing,  embarking,  and  boarding  vessels.  He  will 
see  that  the  vessels  of  his  fleet  are  frequently 
practiced  in  exercises  in  port  and  in  performing 
manoeuvres  at  sea ;  he  will  frequently  exercise 
the  officers  in  making  night-  and  day-signals  to 
insure  accuracy,  and  he  will  cause  quarterly  re 
ports  of  all  general  exercises  to  be  made  in  ac 
cordance  with  the  prescribed  form,  which,  with 
his  remarks,  are  to  be  forwarded  to  the  Navy 
Department.  He  will  not  inflict  punishment 
upon  the  people  of  any  civilized  nation  with 
whom  the  United  States  has  treaties,  for  any 


violation,  alleged  or  otherwise,  of  such  treaties 
or  of  international  law ;  but  in  the  absence  of  a 
diplomatic  representative,  he  will  enter  into  cor 
respondence  with  the  authorities  of  the  nation, 
and  will  take  the  earliest  opportunity  to  com 
municate  all  the  information  in  his  possession  to 
the  Navy  Department.  He  is  to  satisfy  himself 
that  the  laws  and  regulations  of  the  navy  are 
maintained  on  board  every  vessel  under  his  com 
mand,  and  also  that  all  the  special  orders  of  the 
Secretary  of  the  Navy,  through  the  different 
bureaus  of  the  Navy  Department,  are  strictly 
observed. 

The  commander-in-chief  of  a  squadron,  being 
frequently  invested  with  a  great  charge,  on  which 
the  fate  of  a  nation  may  depend,  ought  certainly 
to  be  possessed  of  abilities  equal  to  so  important 
a  station  and  so  extensive  a  command.  His 
squadron  is  unavoidably  exposed  to  a  variety  of 
perplexing  situations  in  a  precarious  element.  A 
train  of  dangerous  incidents  necessarily  arise 
from  those  situations.  The  health,  order,  and 
discipline  of  his  people  are  not  less  the  objects  of 
his  consideration  than  the  condition  and  quali 
ties  of  his  ships.  A  sudden  change  of  climate, 
a  rank  and  infectious  air,  a  scarcity  or  unwhole- 
someness  of  provisions  maybe  as  pernicious  to 
the  former  as  tempestuous  weather  or  dan 
gerous  navigation  to  the  latter.  He  ought  to 
have  sufficient  experience  to  anticipate  all  the 
probable  events  that  may  happen  to  his  squad 
ron  during  an  expedition  or  cruise,  and  to  pro 
vide  against  them.  His  skill  should  be  able  to 
counteract  the  various  disasters  which  his  squad 
ron  may  suffer  from  different  causes.  His  vigi 
lance  and  presence  of  mind  are  necessary  to  seize 
every  favorable  opportunity  that  his  situation 
may  offer  to  prosecute  his  principal  design ;  to 
extricate  himself  from  any  difficulty  or  distress  ; 
to  check  unfortunate  events  in  the  beginning, 
and  retard  the  progress  of  any  great  calamity. 
He  should  be  endued  with  resolution  and  forti 
tude  to  animate  his  officers  by  force  of  example, 
and  promote  a  sense  of  emulation  in  those  who 
are  under  his  command,  as  well  to  improve  any 
advantage  as  to  frustrate  or  defeat  the  efforts  of 
his  ill  fortune. 

He  should  be  well  acquainted  with  the  princi 
ples  of  naval  law,  that  he  may  judge  with  pro 
priety  of  the  proceedings  of  courts-martial,  and 
correct  the  errors  and  restrain  the  abuses  which 
may  happen  therein  by  mistake,  ignorance,  or 
inattention. 

As  he  is  frequently  called  upon  to  represent 
the  government  on  occasions  of  great  moment, 
he  should  be  well  versed  in  international  law. 

He  does  his  utmost  to  protect  the  commerce  of 
his  country,  and  to  this  end  causes  surveys  to  be 
made  of  all  dangers  to  navigation,  and  in  time 
of  war  affords  convoy  and  protection  to  mer 
chantmen  of  the  United  States,  and  also  to  the 
merchantmen  of  nations  which  may  be  in  alli 
ance  with  the  United  States. 

The  most  essential  part  of  his  duty  is  military 
conduct.  He  is  required  to  keep  pace  with  the 
various  improvements  in  vessels  and  ordnance, 
and  the  changes  in  fleet  tactics  in  consequence 
thereof.  When  preparing  a  fleet  or  squadron 
for  sea,  in  time  of  war,  as  the  vessels  join  him, 
he  will  furnish  each  commanding  officer  with  a 
copy  of  all  general  orders,  dispositions,  private 
signals,  orders  of  battle,  etc.,  so  that  they  may 


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have  a  complete  understanding  of  what  they  will 
be  called  upon  to  do  on  going  into  action. 

When  the  squadron  shall  put  to  sea  it  is  fre 
quently  exercised  in  fleet  tactics  that  the  officers 
may  become  proficient  in  their  duties.  When 
he  meditates  an  attack  the  commanding  officers 
should  be  made  acquainted  with  the  plan  of  bat 
tle,  and  his  orders  should  be  drawn  up  with  the 
greatest  care ;  they  should  be  simple,  perspicu 
ous,  direct,  and  comprehensive,  and  should  di 
rect  the  plan  to  be  followed  in  case  either  of  suc 
cess  or  defeat.  History  and  experience  confirm 
the  necessity  of  these  observations,  and  present 
us  with  a  variety  of  disasters  that  have  happened 
on  such  occasions  merely  by  a  deficiency  in  this 
material  article. 

When  an  admiral  conquers  in  battje,  he  should 
endeavor  to  improve  his  victory  by  pushing  the 
acquired  advantages  as  far  as  prudence  directs  ; 
when  he  shall  be  defeated,  he  ought  to  embrace 
every  opportunity  of  saving  as  many  of  his  ships 
as  possible,  and  endeavor  principally  to  assist 
those  which  have  been  disabled.  In  short,  it  is 
his  duty  to  avail  himself  of  every  practicable  ex 
pedient  rather  than  sink  under  his  misfortune, 
and  suffer  himself  to  become  an  easy  prey  to  an 
enemy. 

Commanding  Officer.  The  officer  in  actual 
command  of  a  government  vessel.  He  is  a  line- 
officer,  and  in  case  of  his  absence  or  death,  he  is 
succeeded  by  the  line-officer  next  in  rank. 

The  duties  of  the  commanding  officer  are  very 
comprehensive,  inasmuch  as  he  is  not  only  an 
swerable  for  any  bad  conduct  in  the  military 
government,  navigation,  and  equipment  of  the 
ship  he  commands,  but  also  for  any  neglect  of 
duty  or  ill-management  in  his  inferior  officers, 
whose  several  duties  he  is  appointed  to  superin 
tend  and  regulate. 

On  first  joining  his  vessel  he  will  make  a 
thorough  personal  examination  of  her,  and  will 
inform  himself  fully  as  to  the  condition  of  the 
vessel,  her  engines  and  boilers,  as  also  regarding 
the  qualifications  of  the  officers  placed  under  his 
command.  He  will  be  furnished  by  the  com 
mandant  of  the  navy-yard,  or  by  the  previous 
commanding  officer  of  the  vessel,  if  the  vessel  is 
already  in  commission,  with  a  statement  of  her 
condition  and  of  her  presumed  or  ascertained 
qualities,  as  also  with  drawings  and  plans  show 
ing  the  dimensions  of  the  vessel,  the  arrange 
ment  and  stowage  of  the  holds,  store-rooms, 
magazines,  shell-rooms,  shot-lockers,  etc. 

He  will  not  sail  from  a  port  in  the  United 
States  until  the  men  are  watched,  quartered,  and 
stationed  ;  and  before  proceeding  to  sea,  he  is,  if 
possible,  to  exercise  the  men  at  the  different  evo 
lutions,  and  practice  them  at  target-tiring.  He 
will  cause  a  routine  of  drills  to  be  prepared,  and 
will  see  that  the  men  are  thoroughly  conversant 
with  their  various  duties.  He  will  cause  the 
senior  engineer  to  submit  to  him,  for  approval, 
his  watch,  fire,  quarter,  and  cleaning  bills,  show 
ing  the  specific  duties  of  each  member  of  the 
force  under  his  charge.  He  will  pay  the  great 
est  attention  to  the  health  of  the  crew  and  the 
cleanliness  of  the  vessel,  frequently  inspecting 
her  throughout ;  he  will  see  that  the  officers  are 
considerate  as  regards  the  health  of  the  men,  and 
that  they  are  not  unnecessarily  exposed  to  the 
sun  or  to  the  night-dews,  and  he  will  see  that 
all  regulations  regarding  the  meal-hours  are  ob 


served.  He  will  make  careful  and  repeated  trials 
of  the  vessel,  under  sail  and  under  steam,  with 
every  variety  of  wind  and  weather,  and  will  in 
form  himself  thoroughly  as  to  her  capabilities 
for  every  service,  and  of  the  length  of  time  that 
she  would  be  able  to  keep  the  sea  under  steam. 
He  will  make  a  quarterly  report  of  her  sailing 
qualities  to  the  Navy  Department  in  accordance 
with  the  prescribed  form.  When  in  command 
of  _an  iron  vessel,  he  will  have  the  bottom  exam 
ined  on  every  opportunity,  being  careful  that  the 
plates  are  cleaned  and  coated  with  preserving 
composition  as  often  as  necessary,  that  no  injury 
be  done  by  corrosion,  and  that  no  copper  articles 
rest  on  the  bottom  in  contact  with  the  iron. 

On  putting  to  sea  he  will  cause  a  bright  look 
out  to  be  kept,  and  on  approaching  a  foreign 
man-of-war,  or  being  approached  by  one  under 
suspicious  circumstances,  he  will  have  the  crew 
at  quarters,  ready  for  battle,  and  preserve  this 
disposition  until  he  ascertains  her  intentions. 
He  will  not  suffer  his  vessel  to  be  searched  by 
any  foreign  power  under  any  pretext,  nor  any 
officers  or  men  to  be  taken  out,  so  long  as  they 
have  power  of  resistance  ;  if  force  be  used,  re 
sistance  must  be  continued  as  long  as  possible  ; 
if  overcome,  he  is  to  yield  his  vessel,  but  not  his 
men  without  the  vessel. 

When  a  vessel  of  an  enemy  strikes  her  flag  in  an 
action,  it  will  be  the  duty  of  the  commanding  offi 
cer  to  send  an  officer  on  board,  if  possible,  to  de 
mand  the  captain's  sword,  and  to  bring  that  offi 
cer  with  him,  as  a  proof  that  the  vessel  has  sur 
rendered  ;  and  if,  under  these  circumstances,  she 
should  again  hoist  her  flag  and  continue  the 
fight,  she  may  be  destroyed.  On  taking  posses 
sion  of  a  captured  vessel  he  will  adopt  all  neces 
sary  precautions  to  prevent  her  from  being  re 
captured.  He  will  send  all  the  officers  and  a 
number  of  the  crew  of  the  captured  vessel  on 
board  of  the  vessel  he  commands,  and  will  pre 
serve  all  journals,  signals,  written  orders,  and 
important  papers,  particularly  those  that  certify 
to  the  validity  of  the  prize.  He  will  see  tha't 
prisoners  of  war  are  treated  with  humanity,  that 
their  personal  property  is  carefully  protected, 
and  that  they  have  the  use  of  such  of  their  effects 
as  are  necessary  to  their  comfort,  and  that  they 
are  duly  supplied  with  rations,  but  he  will  take 
care  that  prisoners  of  war  are  guarded  and  de 
prived  of  all  means  of  escape  or  revolt.  When 
an  action  is  over,  it  is  the  duty  of  the  com 
manding  officer  of  a  vessel  to  repair  all  damages 
and  put  the  vessel  under  his  command  in  good 
fighting  order  without  delay ;  to  have  reported 
to  him  the  exact  amount  of  munitions  of  war  re 
maining  on  board,  and  to  transmit  to  the  com- 
mander-in-chief  an  account  of  the  battle,  in 
cluding  a  statement  of  the  conduct  of  the  officers 
and  crew  under  his  command,  with  a  list  of 
killed  and  wounded.  Should  he  be  compelled  to 
strike  the  flag,  he  is  to  take  special  care  to  de 
stroy  all  signals  and  papers,  the  possession  of 
which  by  an  enemy  might  be  injurious  to  the 
United  States,  and  he  will  keep  them  so  pre 
pared,  with  weights  attached,  that  they  will  sink 
immediately  on  being  thrown  overboard. 

He  will  make  to  the  Department,  through  the 
com mander-in-  chief,  a  full  report  of  any  action, 
chase,  or  important  movement  in  which  the  ves 
sel  he  commands  may  be  engaged,  and  will  also 
furnish  diagrams  illustrating  the  positions  and 


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movements  of  the  vessels,  the  direction  of  the 
wind,  the  bearing,  distance,  and  outline  of  land, 
should  any  be  in  sight,  and  all  information  which 
may  tend  to  a  clear  understanding  of  the  occur 
rence.  He  will  keep  a  journal,  noting  in  it  all 
desirable  information  in  regard  to  the  naval 
forces  or  armament  of  foreign  powers,  with  such 
information  regarding  commerce,  hydrography, 
etc.,  as  may  be  useful  to  the  government,  and 
he  will  communicate  immediately  to  the  Bureau 
of  Navigation  all  hydrographic  information 
which  may  affect  the  charts  or  sailing  directions. 
At  the  expiration  of  the  cruise  the  journal  will 
be  forwarded  to  the  Bureau  of  Navigation.  He 
will  direct  the  officers  under  his  command,  when 
visiting  foreign  ports,  to  obtain  and  report  to 
him  in  writing  such  information  as  he  may  des 
ignate,  and  will  himself  report  to  the  Navy  De 
partment  the  capacity,  power,  and  speed  of  the 
foreign  vessels  of  war  he  meets  with. 

He  will  see  that  the  sailing  directions,  charts, 
and  light-lists  are  carefully  compared  with  those 
of  all  public  vessels  that  he  may  meet  having 
later  information  ;  will  have  those  of  the  vessel 
under  his  command  corrected,  and  tracings  or 
copies  made  of  any  new  charts  or  hydrographic 
information.  He  will  keep  a  file  of  all  the  hy 
drographic  notices,  notices  to  mariners,  and  hy 
drographic  information  that  he  receives.  He 
will  cause  careful  surveys  to  be  made,  and  charts 
constructed,  of  any  shoals,  dangers,  or  harbors 
not  correctly  located,  or  which  may  require  ex 
amination  ;  and,  when  completed,  he  will  for 
ward  them,  with  all  the  original  data  and  com 
putations,  to  the  Bureau  of  Navigation.  When 
passing  in  the  vicinity  of  doubtful  dangers,  or 
where  there  is  an  indication  of  shoal  water  or 
danger  not  on  the  charts,  he  will  make,  unless 
there  be  special  reasons  to  the  contrary,  such 
search  as  the  weather  and  other  circumstances 
permit,  and  will  forward  the  results  to  the 
Bureau  of  Navigation,  with  a  track-chart  of  the 
traverses  made,  soundings  taken,  etc.,  and  in 
general  fulfill  the  conditions  indicated  by  the 
hydrographer  for  making  such  examinations. 

In  a  port  where  there  is  not  a  consul  of  the 
United  States,  and  on  the  high  seas,  commanders 
of  fleets,  squadrons,  and  of  single  vessels  are  au 
thorized  and  empowered  by  law  to  exercise  the 
powers  of  consuls,  in  regard  to  mariners  of  the 
United  States. 

Commerce,  Modern.  The  commercial  activity 
of  nations  has  in  all  ages  been  taken  as  consti 
tuting  a  fair  measure  of  their  development  in 
civilization,  and  in  most  cases  the  organized 
international  exchanges  comprehended  in  this 
single  word  have  formed  the  direct  civilizing 
agency.  Asiatic  history  affords  exceptions  to 
this  generalization,  undoubtedly,  if  we  admit 
that  the  ancient  Indian  and  Chinese  civilizations 
can  claim  any  rank  with  those  of  modern  times 
in  Europe  and  the  West ;  and  again,  with  Rome 
there  was  a  form  of  national  energy  capable  of 
great  results,  yet  having  little  in  common  with 
the  civilization  of  Europe  even  in  the  middle 
ages.  As  these  ages  develop,  and  as  Europe 
becomes  a  family  of  nations,  the  function  of 
commerce  rises  to  the  highest  place  as  a  law  of 
development,  until  now  the  most  powerful 
agencies  of  internal  movement  in  every  country 
are  no  more  than  equal  to  the  strictly  commercial 
systems  of  exchange  conducted  between  nations. 


No  one  country  is  independent  of  the  necessity 
to  exchange  its  products  with  those  of  other 
countries.  No  people,  whatever  their  nationality 
or  origin,  can  isolate  themselves  from  other 
peoples.  A  force  superior  to  all  others  compels 
them  to  come  into  the  general  family  of  nations, 
to  exchange  their  products  and  their  services  with 
all  others,  and  to  recognize  a  common  interest 
which  no  one  of  them  can  resist. 

Modern  commerce  is  the  commerce  of  even  the 
most  recent  times  greatly  intensified,  and  active 
to  a  degree  only  recently  rendered  possible.  The 
steamship,  as  a  freighting  vessel,  is  new  within 
a  very  few  years,  and  the  fleets  of  steamers  now 
almost  daily  laden  for  transatlantic  trade  are 
scarcely  yet  known  to  the  country  as  the  facts 
of  magnitude  they  are.  The  actual  commerce 
of  the  United  States  with  Europe  conducted  by 
these  steamer  fleets  is  enormous,  and  it  increases 
with  a  degree  of  rapidity  greater  than  is  repre 
sented  by  the  growth  of  either  continent ;  that 
is,  the  demand  for  these  exchanges  is  itself  in 
creasing  independently  of  the  increased  produc/- 
tion  of  the  articles  or  quantities  exchanged.  A 
larger  proportion  of  the  wheat  crop  and  of  the 
corn  crop  of  the  United  States  is  now  demanded 
and  consumed  in  Europe  than  at  any  previous 
time,  and  the  proportion  sold  abroad  will  be  still 
greater  hereafter.  It  is  so  with  many  other 
staples  of  export,  with  provisions  and  meats, 
with  lard,  cheese,  butter,  petroleum,  and  many 
other  articles.  The  original  inquiry  or  experi 
ment  as  to  the  salable  value  of  any  one  of  these 
commodities  has  changed  to  an  imperative  neces 
sity  for  these  articles  as  staples  of  consumption, 
and  this  necessity  cannot  be  delayed  or  denied. 
The  nations  of  Europe  cannot  now  dispense  with 
the  supply  of  food  furnished  by  these  steam  fleets 
laden  with  grain  and  provisions.  In  place  of 
the  hesitating  choice  with  which  they  were  taken 
but  a  few  years  ago,  the  various  forms  in  which 
corn  is  prepared  are  now  unquestionably  accepted 
as  a  staple  food  for  all  classes,  and  the  shipments 
during  the  current  year  are  consequently  one- 
third  greater  than  ever  before.  Having  estab 
lished  the  position  of  Indian  corn  as  the  best  and 
cheapest  grain  food  for  Europe,  we  need  not  again 
apprehend  its  waste  by  using  it  as  fuel.  Nor  will 
the  freight-carrying  lines  of  the  interior  fail  to 
find  a  profitable  business  in  moving  it  across  the 
country  to  the  sea-board. 

This  outward  movement  already  constitutes  a 
circulation  altogether  vital  to  the  security  of 
business.  If  this  circulation  is  clogged  or  stopped, 
even  for  a  day,  it  affects  the  greatest  interests.  A 
week  of  obstruction  would  bring  on  a  financial 
panic,  entailing  enormous  losses,  and  becoming 
general  in  its  effects  on  all  other  business  in 
terests.  The  value  of  the  export  movement  is 
now  felt  by  every  farmer  in  the  Mississippi  Val 
ley,  and  the  sense  of  international  dependence  is 
keenly  felt  at  every  railroad  station  in  the  west. 
Much  of  the  advantage  resulting  to  all  the  par 
ties  to  these  exchanges  is  due  to  the  perfection 
attained  in  economically  handling  these  staples, 
and  to  the  triumph  over  time  and  distance 
achieved  by  railroads  and  freighting  facilities  as 
they  now  are.  If  these  had  not  been  greatly 
improved,  the  value  of  meats  and  grains  would 
be  eaten  up  by  the  cost  of  transit,  and  the  west 
ern  producer  would  have  little  for  the  articles 
themselves.  As  it  is,  however,  the  perfection 


COMMEBCE 


153 


COMMERCE 


attained  in  freighting  is  wonderful,  both  inland 
and  at  sea,  and  the  provisions  sent  to  Europe  are 
worth  all  they  cost  to  the  ultimate  consumers. 

The  weekly  export  of  general  merchandise — 
grain  and  provisions  being  the  chief  articles — is 
now  about  10  millions  of  dollars  in  value  at  the 
port  of  New  York  alone,  and  this  average  has 
been  maintained  now  for  several  months.  The 
highest  shipment  on  a  single  day  was  1,254,500 
bushels  of  grain,  wheat,  and  corn — a  quantity 
nearly  approached  on  one  or  two  other  days,  and 
likely  again  to  be  reached  at  any  time. 

It  will  be  seen  by  these  illustrations  that  com 
merce  in  general  has  assumed  proportions  which 
strikingly  illustrate  the  greater  productive  capa 
city  of  the  present  age,  and  the  efficiency  of  all 
the  appliances  of  business.  It  could  not  exist  if 
agricultural  production  remained  where  it  was 
twenty-five  years  ago,  nor  if  railroads,  elevator?, 
and  steamships  were  the  same  as  then.  It  could 
not  supply  the  necessities  of  nations  with  any 
less  efficient  machinery  than  that  now  in  use, 
and  we  pass  on  to  these  changes  and  improve 
ments  in  a  great  degree  unconscious  of  the  mag 
nitude  of  the  general  movement. 

The  following  table,  giving  the  aggregate 
values  of  merchandise  imported  into  and  ex 
ported  from  the  United  States  for  ten  years,  will 
show  the  rapid  increase  now  taking  place, — the 
years  ending  June  30  in  each  case  : 


Value  of  Imports. 

1870 8462,377,587 

1871 541,493,708 

1872 640,338,376 

1873 663,617,147 

1874 595,861,248 

1875 553,906,153 

1876 476,667,871 

1877 492,097,540 

1878 466,872,846 

1879 466,073,775 

1880 760,919,875 


Value  of  Exports. 
$499,092,143 
562,518,651  ' 
549,219,718 
649,132,563 
693,039,054 
643,094,767 
644,956,406 
676,115,592 
722,811,815 
717,093,777 
852,845,943 


For  the  last  year — 1879-80 — the  importation 
of  a  large  amount  of  gold  adds  an  unusual  value 
to  the  imports,  the  merchandise  account  being  im 
ports  $667,885,565,  and  the  exports  $835, 793,924. 
The  gold  and  silver  coin  imported  reached  the 
large  sum  of  $93,034,310  ;  the  gold  and  silver  ex 
ports  being  $17,142,919.  For  other  years  of  the 
table  there  was  little  difference  between  the  ex 
ports  and  imports  of  gold. 

This  period  embraces  at  least  one  of  the  com 
plete  cycles  of  foreign  trade  characteristic  of  this 
country  in  the  great  increase  of  business  of  1872 
and  1873,  followed  by  the  depression  of  1874  to 
1879.  Again,  there  was  a  remarkable  change  in 
1879,  bringing  in  a  fresh  flood  of  importations  in 
1880  of  more  than  one  hundred  millions  in  value 
greater  than  in  the  previous  year.  Generally, 
while  the  imports  have  decreased  in  value,  and 
in  some  classes  of  goods  have  almost  ceased  to 
come  in  as  part  of  the  necessary  supply,  the  ex 
ports  have  increased  one  half,  rising  from  500 
millions  in  1870  to  750  millions  in  1880.  To  go 
a  few  years  farther  back  the  contrast  would  be 
still  more  striking  :  the  average  for  several  years 
near  to  1860  would  be  about  300  millions ;  for 
1870,  about  500  millions;  and  for  1880,  about 
750  millions.  And  in  1879  and  1880  there  has 
been  a  total  cessation  of  the  usual  large  specie 
exports,  very  little  being  sent,  while  during  1879 
the  imports  of  specie  were  large,  being  about  80 
millions  in  excess  of  any  other  recent  year. 

The  increase  of  shipping  in  the  carrying  trade 


is  even  more  decisive,  the  total  tonnage  capacity 
of  vessels  entering  all  the  ports  of  the  United 
States  from  foreign  countries  being,  for 


1870 6,270,189 

1871 6,994,187 

1872 7,769,986 

1873 8.394,749 

1874 10,009,655 


1875 

1876 

1877 

1878 

1879 


9,143,338 

.  9,715,904 

10,406,488 

11,530,527 

13,772,300 


For  1880  the  figures  would  be  still  larger,  and 
it  may  be  stated  that  the  shipping  engaged  in 
foreign  trade  has  doubled  within  ten  years. 
There  would  be  more  satisfaction  with  this  re 
sult  if  the  increase  had  been  in  American  ves 
sels  ;  but,  on  the  contrary,  it  is  almost  wholly 
foreign.  The  vast  fleet  of  half-em  ployed  foreign 
steamers  has  been  turned  into  the  transatlantic 
trade  with  the  United  States  by  wholesale,  as 
the  best-paying  trade  of  the  world,  and  the  only 
one  that  offers  unlimited  opportunity  for  expan 
sion. 

The  new  transatlantic  fleet  of  steamers  is 
almost  wholly  under  foreign  flags.  Of  the  en 
tire  tonnage  arriving  at  New  York  not  one 
steamship  is  American,  and  but  four  of  those  at 
other  ports,  these  four  belonging  to  the  American 
line  between  Philadelphia  and  Liverpool.  The 
contrast  between  the  nationality  of  vessels  under 
sail  and  those  under  steam  is  extreme,  and  it  re 
sults  from  the  narrow  and  sordid  policy  of  Con 
gress  in  regard  to  the  encouragement  of  steam 
lines.  All  European  nations  faithfully  and  per 
sistently  support  the  steamship  lines,  through 
which  alone  a  successful  foreign  commerce  can 
now  be  conducted,  and  our  government,  on  the 
contrary,  with  equal  stubbornness  and  persist 
ence,  refuses  not  only  all  assistance,  but  all  rec 
ognition  as  vessels  under  the  protection  of  the 
United  States.  The  result  is  that,  with  a  trade 
the  richest  in  the  world,  and  a  vast  and  daily 
increasing  commerce,  we  are  defeated  the  mo 
ment  we  leave  our  own  shores. 

The  commerce  of  Europe  has  become  more 
general  and  more  decisive  in  its  influence  on  re 
mote  countries  with  every  step  of  its  general 
progress.  The  establishment  of  regular  steam 
ship  lines  to  all  countries  affording  a  constant 
trade  was  the  greatest  step  of  progress,  and  with 
its  accompanying  certainty  of  mail  carriage  and 
of  passenger  transportation,  it  has  now  for  twenty 
years  or  more  constituted  the  most  powerful  civil 
izing  agency  the  world  has  known.  This  triumph 
is  almost  wholly  to  be  credited  to  England,  as  the 
originator  of  the  steam  mail-service  by  sea,  al 
though  every  other  maritime  nation  has  followed 
the  example  set  by  England  more  or  less  re 
motely,  several  European  countries  maintaining 
effective  lines  of  distant  service,  but  none  ap 
proaching  the  English  in  number.  Great  and 
regular  lines  to  the  Indies,  and  by  the  way  of 
the  Indies  to  Australia,  were  established,  and 
continue  as  the  leading  feature  of  the  British 
mail  service ;  next  are  the  South  American 
and  transatlantic  lines,  South  America  being 
reached  by  lines  passing  the  French  and  Spanish 
coasts,  and  touching  at  Havre,  Bordeaux,  Lis 
bon,  and  the  Azores  on  their  way  to  Pernam- 
buco;  thence  to  Eio  Janeiro  and  the  River 
Plate,  and  with  extensions  through  the  Straits 
of  Magellan  to  the  west  coast  of  South  America, 
Chili,  "Peru,  Ecuador,  and  Panama.  No  less 
than  ten  lines  of  steamers  ran  in  1877  to  1879 
from  European  ports  to  South  America, — five 


COMMISSION 


154 


COMMISSIONERS 


English,  employing  58  vessels,  and  five  German, 
French,  and  Italian,  employing  43  vessels, — all 
being  steamships  of  large  capacity  and  heavily 
freighted  in  both  directions.  The  Royal  Mail 
Steamship  Company,  the  oldest  of  the  lines,  ran 
10  vessels  from  Southampton  to  Rio  Janeiro 
and  the  River  Plate,  monthly  and  semi-monthly  ; 
the  Pacific  Steam  Navigation  Company,  with 
the  same  number  of  vessels,  ran  through  to  the 
west  coast  of  South  America  with  a  monthly 
service;  the  Allan  Line,  to  Brazil,  with  10  ves 
sels;  the  Liverpool,  Brazil,  and  River  Plate, 
with  20  vessels;  and  the  Clyde  Line,  with  6 
vessels,  complete  the  English  list.  The  North 
German  Lloyds  and  the  Hamburgh  and  South 
American  constitute  two  German  lines ;  the 
"Chargeurs  Reunis,"  the  "  Compagnie  Mes- 
sageries  Maritimes,"  and  the  "  Sodete  Generale 
Trans- Atlantique,"  constitute  the  French  lines  ; 
and  one  Italian  line,  from  Genoa,  completes  the 
list. 

This  is  an  illustration  of  the  extent  and  com 
pleteness  of  the  mail  steamship  service  of  modern 
commerce.  It  extends  to  every  country  having 
sufficient  development  to  justify  communication 
with  Europe,  and  it  radiates  from  English  ports 
almost  universally,  although  duplicated  to  a 
considerable  extent  from  French,  German,  and 
Belgian  ports.  There  is  always  an  English  line, 
and  there  may  be,  in  addition,  a  French,  Ger 
man,  or  Italian  line.  Neither  of  these  last  has 
any  general  field  exclusive  of  the  English.  In 
all  this  service  the  United  States  have  no  part,  ex 
cept  in  the  "American  Line"  of  four  steamers 
from  Philadelphia  to  Liverpool,  and  the  line  of 
John  Roach  &  Co.,  of  three  steamers,  from 
New  York  to  Rio  Janeiro.  Neither  of  these 
lines  receives  especial  recognition  or  compensa 
tion  for  mail  service,  although  both  carry  some 
portion  of  the  mails.  Repeated  efforts  have  been 
made  to  establish  lines,  or  to  obtain  from  Con 
gress  authority  for  conducting  a  mail  service  by 
sea,  but  in  only  two  instances  have  such  efforts 
been  successful,  and  the  authority  under  which 
they  were  conducted  has  some  years  since  ex 
pired.  The  Pacific  mail  service  is  now  paid  by 
the  Australian  governments  of  New  South 
Wales  and  New  Zealand,  these  two  colonial 
governments  uniting  in  payment  for  a  monthly 
mail  service  from  Sydney  and  Auckland  to  San 
Francisco,  the  withdrawal  of  which  would  com 
pel  a  discontinuance  of  that  branch  of  the  Pa 
cific  mail  steamship  service. 

Such  is  the  commerce  of  the  present  time, 
briefly  reviewed.  It  is  unquestionably  in  a  transi 
tion  state,  and  certain  to  undergo  great  changes 
within  a  comparatively  brief  period.  These 
changes  will  not  be  in  the  direction  of  dimin 
ished  volume  or  of  inferior  appliances,  but  they 
will  probably  exhibit  a  higher  and  more  general 
appreciation,  in  the  United  States  at  least,  of  the 
true  function  of  commerce  itself,  and  a  recogni 
tion  of  the  duty  of  every  great  government  to 
maintain  its  own  proper  relation  to  the  necessary 
exchanges  of  the  world. — Lorin  Blodgett. 

Commission  (Lat.  committere,  to  commit, 
to  intrust).  An  instrument  in  writing  in  the 
form  of  a  warrant,  or  letters  patent ;  a  certificate 
of  rank.  The  chief  executive,  or  the  supreme 
authority  of  the  state,  issues  commissions  to  the 
officers  of  the  army  and  navy,  by  virtue  of  which 
they  hold  office  and  exercise  the  duties  thereof. 


Such  officers  are  termed  commissioned  officers 
to  distinguish  those  of  the  navy  from  warrant- 
officers ;  those  of  the  army  from  now-com 
missioned  officers.  By  Section  1467,  Revised 
Statutes,  line-officers  take  rank  in  each  grade  ac 
cording  to  the  dates  of  their  commissions. 

A  commission  survives  only  during  the  pleasure 
of  the  authority  whence  it  emanates.  The  Duke 
of  Maryborough,  while  at  the  height  of  his  power, 
exerted  all  his  great  influence  to  have  his  com 
mission  as  captain-general  extended  for  life  ;  but 
the  lord  chancellor  of  England,  having  searched 
the  records  in  vain  for  a  precedent,  declared  that 
"a  patent  for  life  would  be  an  innovation,  to 
which  he  would  not  put  the  Great  Seal"  (Earl 
Stanhope's  "Reign  of  Queen  Anne").  It  was 
found  that  the  commission  issued  to  Monk,  who 
as  "  Restorer  of  the  Monarchy"  might  claim  es 
pecial  privilege,  was  made  to  continue  "during 
pleasure"  only.  Not  satisfied  with  this  decision, 
Maryborough,  during  the  campaign  in  Flanders, 
addressed  a  personal  letter  to  Queen  Anne  pray 
ing  to  be  made  general  for  life.  To  this  the 
queen,  on  consulting  with  her  ministers,  re 
turned  a  positive  refusal. 

The  commission  issued  to  Washington  by  Con 
gress  under  date  of  June  19,  1775,  giving  him 
the  rank  of  commander-in-chief  of  the  Ameri 
can  army,  stated  that  it  was  "to  continue  in 
for^e  until  revoked  by  this  or  a  future  Congress." 

Following  immemorial  custom,  all  commis 
sions  issued  to  officers  in  the  public  service  of 
the  United  States  contain  the  following  :  "This 
commission  to  continue  in  force  during  the  pleas 
ure  of  the  President  of  the  United  States  for  the 
time  being." 

In  past  years  the  President  of  the  United 
States  has,  on  several  notable  occasions,  actually 
exercised  his  prerogative,  by  summarily  dis 
missing  officers.  But  Congress  has  now  limited 
that  power  to  a  time  of  war.  Article  36  of  the 
Articles  for  the  Government  of  the  United  States 
Navy,  commonly  known  as  the  Articles  of  War, 
declares  that  "  No  officer  shall  be  dismissed  from 
the  naval  service  except  by  the  order  of  the 
President  or  by  sentence  of  a  general  court- 
martial  ;  and  in  time  of  peace  no  officer  shall  be 
dismissed  except  in  pursuance  of  the  sentence  of 
a  general  court-martial  or  in  mitigation  there 
of."  Congress  has  further  decreed  that  under 
certain  conditions  the  President's  order  of  dis 
missal  shall  be  void.  (Act  of  June  22,  1874.) 

A  commission  sometimes  includes  a  number 
of  persons  associated  together  for  some  particular 
object.  The  commission  issued  by  Queen  Vic 
toria  (1858)  to  Earl  Hardwicke  and  eight  others, 
"to  inquire  into  the  best  means  of  manning  the 
Royal  Navy,"  led  to  the  present  admirable  sys 
tem  of  training  boys  for  that  navy. 

The  act  of  putting  a  vessel  of  war  "  in  com 
mission"  is  accomplished  by  hoisting,  in  their  ap 
propriate  places,  the  national  colors  and  the  pen 
nant  of  the  commanding  officer.  The  command 
ing  officer  then  assembles  the  officers  and  crew, 
and  reads  to  them  the  order  by  virtue  of  which 
he  assumes  command. — S.  B.  Luce,  Captain 
U.S.N. 

COMMISSIONED  OFFICER.  An  officer  holding 
a  commission  from  the  President,  as  distin 
guished  from  non-commissioned  and  warrant- 
officers. 

Commissioners,  Board  of  Navy.     In  1815 


COMMISSIONERS 


155 


COMPASS 


Congress  authorized  the  formation  of  a  board 
of  navy  commissioners,  which  was  placed  under 
the  superintendence  of  the  Secretary  of  the  Navy, 
and  was  charged  with  all  the  ministerial  duties 
of  the  department  relating  to  the  procuring  of 
supplies  and  stores,  the  collection  of  materials, 
the  construction,  armament,  and  employment  of 
all  the  vessels.  Commodores  Kodgers,  Hull,  and 
Porter  were  appointed  the  first  commissioners. 
The  board  was  abolished  in  1842.  See  ADMIN 
ISTRATION,  NAVAL. 

Commissioners  of  the  Navy  (Eng.}.  Cer 
tain  officers  formerly  appointed  to  superintend 
the  affairs  of  the  navy  under  direction  of  the 
lords  commissioners  of  the  Admiralty.  Their 
duty  was  more  immediately  concerned  in  the 
building,  docking,  and  repairing  of  ships  in  the 
dock-yards ;  they  had  also  the  appointment  of 
some  of  the  officers,  as  surgeons,  masters,  etc., 
and  the  transport,  victualing,  and  medical  de 
partments  were  controlled  by  that  board.  It 
was  abolished  in  1831.  See  ADMINISTRATION, 
NAVAL. 

Commodore.  This  rank  of  no  remote  date  in 
the  British  service,  and  only  now  a  brevet  rank, 
so  to  speak,  for  a  captain  in  command  of  a  squad 
ron  or  a  division  of  a  fleet,  is  not  noticed  in  the 
dictionaries  of  the  17th  century.  It  is  supposed 
to  be  derived  from  the  Spanish  "  Comendador," 
one  having  command  over  others,  or  a  company. 

Until  1861  captains  in  the  United  States  navy 
commanding,  or  having  commanded,  squadrons, 
were  recognized  as  commodores,  though  never 
commissioned  as  such,  and  wore  a  broad  pennant 
distinctive  of  that  rank.  In  1862  it  was  estab 
lished  by  law  as  a  fixed  rank,  and  in  July  of  that 
year  lq  were  commissioned  on  the  active  and  17 
on  the  retired  list. 

A  commodore  has  assimilated  rank  with  a  brig 
adier-general  of  the  army ;  and  the  chief  naval 
constructor,  paymaster-general,  surgeon-general 
and  engineer-in-chief  of  the  navy,  bureau  offi 
cers,  rank  with  commodores. 

A  commodore  may  command  a  division  or  a 
squadron,  or  be  chief  of  staff  of  a  naval  force 
commanded  by  an  admiral,  a  vice-  or  rear-ad 
miral  ;  or  may  command  ships  of  the  first  class, 
naval  stations,  or  the  vessel  of  an  admiral,  vice- 
admiral,  or  rear-admiral  commanding  a  fleet. 

Companion.  The  skylights  or  framing  and 
sash-lights  on  the  upper  deck,  by  which  light 
passes  to  the  deck  below.  A  kind  of  wooden 
hood  over  the  staircase  of  the  cabin  in  small 
ships,  Companions  are  generally  movable. 

COMPANION-LADDER.  The  ladder  by  which 
the  cabin-officers  ascend  to  or  descend  from  the 
quarter-deck.  fc 

COMPANION-WAY.  The  staircase  or  berthing 
of  the  ladder-way  to  the  cabin. 

Comparison.  The  difference  between  the 
chronometer  and  the  time-piece  used  in  an  ob 
servation.  To  take  a  comparison  is  to  ascertain 
the  difference  between  the  time-piece  and  the 
chronometer;  this  should  be  done  just  before 
and  just  after  the  observation. 

Compasant.     See  ST.  ELMO'S  FIRE. 

Compass,  The  Mariner's.  This  is  probably  the 
most  important  of  all  the  instruments  employed 
by  the  navigator,  and  consists  essentially  of  the 
card,  the  needle,  and  the  bowl.  It  is  used  for  the 
purpose  of  pointing  out  the  direction  of  the 
ship's  track,  or  the  course  upon  which  she  is 


sailing,  and  is  supposed  to  derive  its  name  from 
the  fact  that  it  includes  or  compasses  the  whole 
plane  of  the  horizon. 
The  card  (Fig.  1)  is  of  a  circular  form,  divided 

Fio.  1. 


at  its  circumference  into  thirty-two  points  of 
eleven  degrees  and  fifteen  minutes  each,  the 
points  being  subdivided  into  half  and  quarter 
points,  and  when  a  still  smaller  division  is  de 
sired,  into  degrees.  It  is  also  divided  into  four 
quadrants  of  ninety  degrees  each,  the  extremities 
marking  these  quadrants  being  called  the  four 
cardinal  points,  or  north,  east,  south,  and  west 
(written  N.,  E.,  S.,  and  W.),  counting  from  the 
top  of  the  card  and  going  around  by  the  right 
hand,  or  in  the  direction  "in  which  the  hands  of 
a  watch  move.  The  north  point  of  the  card  is 
generally  marked  by  &  fleur-de-lis. 

The  quadrants  are  again  equally  divided  at 
every  four  points,  or  forty-five  degrees,  the  points 
marking  these  subdivisions  being  given  names 
compounded  of  the  names  of  the  two  cardinal 
points  between  which  they  fall,  or  northeast, 
southeast,  southwest,  and  northwest  (written 
N.E.,  S.E.,  S.W.,  and  N.W.). 

The  eight  points  already  described  may  be 
called  the  eight  principal  points  of  the  compass. 

The  points  half-way  between  the  four  cardinal 
points  and  the  points  N.E.rS.E.,S.W., and  N.W. 
are  given  a  name  composed  of  the  nearest  cardi 
nal  point  and  the  points  Just  named.  Thus,  the 
point  midway  between  N.  and  N.E.  is  called 
north-northeast  (written  N.N.E.),  that  between 
N.E.  and  E.  east-northeast  (written  E.N.E.), 
etc.,  the  name  of  the  cardinal  point  nearest 
which  they  fall  always  coming  first. 

The  points  next  the  eight  principal  points  take 
the  word  by  between  such  principal  point  and 
the  next  cardinal  point,  the  name  of  the  princi 
pal  point  next  which  they  fall  coming  first.  For 
example,  the  point  next  to  N.  on  the  right  is 
north  by  east  (written  N.  by  E.,  or  N.  b.  E.), 
that  next  to  N.E.  on  the  right,  northeast  by  east 
(written  N.E.  by  E.,  or  N?E.  b.  E.),  etc. 

The  quarter  point  next  to  N.  on  the  right  is 
north  a  quarter  east  (written  N.  \  E.),  the  half 
point  north  a  half  east  (written  N.  £  E.),  the 
same  general  rule  being  observed  as  in  naming  the 
whole  points. 

In  many  cases  the  bearings  of  objects  are  given 
to  eighths  of  a  point. 


COMPASS 


156 


COMPASS 


The  name  of  the  opposite  point  to  any  given 
point  is  known  at  once  by  simply  reversing  the 
name  or  the  letters  which  indicate  the  name  of 
the  given  point.  Thus,  the  opposite  of  N.  being 
S.  and  that  of  E.,  W.,  the  opposite  point  of  N.E. 
is  S.W.,  that  opposite  N.E.  by  E  ,  S.W.  by  W., 
etc. 

If  the  impressions  of  the  card  are  taken  on 
paper,  this  should  be  done  after  the  paper  has 
been  cemented  to  the  plate  forming  the  basis,  in 
order  to  prevent  distortion  from  shrinkage,  and 
also  to  attain  a  more  perfect  centring.  This 
being  accomplished,  the  card  is  placed  upon  the 
needles,  which  consist  of  laminae,  or  layers,  of 
hardened  steel,  capable  of  receiving  and  retain 
ing  a  high  degree  of  magnetic  power.  The 
needles  are  fastened  at  equal  distances  to  a  light 
frame- work  of  brass,  and  are  screwed  to  the  card 
in  a  direction  parallel  to  the  line  joining  the 
north  and  south  points. 

In  the  best  form  of  air  or  dry  compasses,  that 
used  in  the  English  navy,  and  known  as  the  Ad 
miralty  pattern,  these  needles  are  four  in  num 
ber,  the  two  centre  ones  being  about  7^  inches 
long  and  the  two  outer  ones  about  5£  inches. 
The  extremities  of  these  needles  are  15°  and  45° 
from  the  extremities  of  the  diameter  of  the  card 
which  is  parallel  to  them.  On  the  needles  small 
brass  balancing-slides  are  placed,  so  that*the  card 
may  be  restored  to  its  horizontal  position  when 
affected  by  dip.  These  slides  should  move  freely, 
but  should  have  sufficient  friction  to  retain  them 
in  their  places. 

Two  cards,  a  light  and  a  heavy  one,  marked 
respectively  A  and  J,  are  supplied  with  this 
compass,  the  former  being  for  ordinary  use 
when  the  ship  is  comparatively  steady,  and  the 
latter  for  use  when  there  is  a  great  deal  of  mo 
tion.  The  light  card  is  balanced  on  a  pivot 
having  a  point  of  "  native  alloy,"  which  is 
harder  than  steel,  and  does  not  corrode  on  expo 
sure  to  the  atmosphere.  Two  spare  pivots  of 
hardened  steel  are  also  furnished  for  the  light 
card,  and  these  are  gilded  by  an  electrical  pro 
cess.  The  caps  in  which  these  pivots  work  are 
centred  with  ruby  or  agate,  while  the  cap  of  the 
heavy  card  is  centred  with  speculum  metal  and 
ruby-pointed  pivots  are  used. 

The  pivot  should  be  screwed  into  the  exact 
centre  of  the  bowl,  which  is  made  of  strong  cop 
per,  with  a  glass  top,  and  fitted  with  gimbals, 
so  that  the  card  may  always  preserve  a  horizon 
tal  position  even  when  the  motion  of  the  ship  is 
most  violent.  The  intersecting  point  of  the  axis 
of  the  gimbals  must  coincide  with  the  centre  of 
the  card  and  with  the  centre  of  the  azimuth  cir 
cle.  This  latter  is  a  metal  circle,  graduated  to 
minutes  of  arc,  and  fitted  with  a  prism  and  a 
sight  vane,  the  latter  having  a  wide  opening  in 
which  is  placed  a  vertical  hair-line  exactly  oppo 
site  the  centre  of  the  prism,  the  line  of  sight 
joining  the  two  passing  over  the  pivot.  The 
azimuth  circle  is  made  to  ship  on  the  circum 
ference  of  the  bowl,  and  is  used  in  taking  bear 
ings.  Colored  glasses  are  also  fitted  to  the  circle 
to  prevent  the  glare  of  the  sun  from  blinding  the 
observer  when  taking  bearings  of  that  body. 
The  azimuth  circle  is  only  fitted  to  the  standard 
compass,  the  binnacle,  or  steering  compasses, 
being  unprovided  with  it. 

The  bowl  and  the  compass-card  are  placed  in 
a  wooden  box  and  the  whole  in  a  binnacle,  which 


consists  of  a  wooden  case  mounted  on  a  stand, 
the  top  being  of  brass,  fitted  with  glass,  so  that 
the  card  may  be  seen,  and  having  lamps  at  the 
sides  to  light  up  the  card  at  night. 

The  pivots,  caps,  and  margins  of  the  card 
should  be  frequently  examined  to  see  that  they 
are  in  good  order  and  working  freely,  and  when 
the  card  works  sluggishly  or  injury  from  any 
cause  occurs,  a  new  cap  or  pivot  should  be 
screwed  in,  being  careful  when  screwing  the 
pivot  into  the  bowl  to  preserve  its  point  from 
injury  and  to  place  the  card  lightly  upon  it. 
When  the  bowl  does  not  work  freely  in  the 
gimbals,  the  axes  of  the  latter  and  their  bouch- 
ings  should  be  examined,  and,  if  necessary, 
slightly  rubbed  with  plumbago.  No  oil,  grease, 
or  other  fatty  substance  should  be  used  for  this 
purpose. 

In  addition  to  the  fittings  already  described  a 
screw  is  fitted  to  the  side  of  the  bowl,  by  means 
of  which  the  card  may  be  lifted  off  the  pivot  and 
clamped.  When  it  is  necessary  to  move  the 
compass,  or  when  firing  the  heavy  guns,  the  card 
should  be  raised  to  avoid  injury  to  the  pivot. 

The  screws  attached  to  the  prism  plate  and  to 
the  sight  vane  receive  special  adjustment,  and 
should  not  be  touched. 

Ritchie1  s  -Liquid  Compass  (Fig.  2),  which  is 
used  as  the  regulation  compass  in  the  United 

FIG.  2. 


States  navy,  consists  of  a  skeleton  card  mounted 
on  a  pivot,  and  having  the  bowl  filled  with  a 
liquid  composed  of  thirty-five  parts  of  alcohol 
and  sixty-five  parts  of  distilled  water,  the  freez 
ing-point  of  the  mixture  being  about  — 10°  Fahr 
enheit.  In  the  bowls  of  the  compasses  designed 
for  use  in  the  Arctic  regions  pure  alcohol  is  used. 
The  needles,  which  are  two  in  number,  each 
consist  of  six  laminae  of  a  superior  quality  of 
steel,  known  in  commerce  as  "  Stubb's  sheet," 
this  having  been  found  the  best  for  the  purpose, 
not  only  for  its  uniform  excellence,  but  for  its 
magnetic  capacity  in  both  intensity  and  per 
manence.  Each  of  these  laminae  is  six  and  a 
half  inches  long,  seven-sixteenths  of  an  inch 
wide,  and  about  one-fortieth  of  an  inch  thick, 
and  each  needle  weighs  a  little  less  than  two 
ounces. 


COMPASS 


157 


COMPASS 


These  needles  are  inclosed  in  two  parallel 
tubes,  which  serve  also  as  air-chambers,  the  tubes 
being  parallel  to  the  line  joining  the  N.  and  S. 
points  of  the  card,  their  ends  meeting  the  rim  a 
little  within  30°  of  this  line.  These  tubes  are 
connected  at  the  centre  by  a  third  hollow  tube  at 
right  angles  to  them,  which  supports  the  cap 
upon  which  the  card  is  pivoted.  The  rim  is 
fitted  to  form  another  air-chamber,  thus  giving 
great  buoyancy  to  the  card. 

Great  care  is  exercised  in  hardening  and  tem 
pering  the  lamime,  and,  by  means  of  a  powerful 
electro-magnet,  they  are  magnetized  to  satura 
tion.  They  are  then  separately  tested  for  rela 
tive  magnet  power,  and  the  angle  of  deflection 
marked  on  each.  Afterwards  they  are  thrown 
promiscuously  into  contact  for  a  short  time  and 
again  tested,  any  which  show  a  sensible  falling 
off  being  rejected. 

These  compasses  have  given  great  satisfaction 
in  use,  and  are  found  to  possess  in  the  highest 
degree  the  three  great  requisites  of  a  good  com 
pass,  viz.,  directive  force,  sensibility,  and  steadi 
ness.  The  7^-inch  has  been  adopted  as  the  regu 
lation  size  in  the  navy,  and  as  the  azimuth  cir 
cle  that  lits  one  fits  all,  any  compass  may  be  used 
indifferently  as  a  standard  or  as  a  steering  com 
pass. 

Another  great  advantage  possessed  by  these 
compasses  is  that  the  pressure  on  the  pivot  being 
only  about  seventy  grains  on  an  average,  there 
is  much  less  frictional  error,  and  of  course  a 
much  less  degree  of  wear  on  the  caps  and  pivots 
than  with  the  card  of  the  air  compass,  in  which 
the  pressure  on  the  pivot  with  the  heavier  card 
may  be  sixty  times  as  great. 

In  the  tell-tale  compasses,  which  are  mounted 
face  downward,  the  pressure  on  the  pivot  is  so 
regulated  as  to  act  upward. 

^Duchemin's  Compass  (Fig.  3)  consists  of  two 
concentric  circular  needles  with  a  steel  traverse 

FIG.  3. 


connecting  the  poles.  The  maximum  magnetiza 
tion  (shown  by  the  heavy  shading)  is  at  the  N. 
and  S.  points,  decreasing  gradually  to  zero  at  E. 
and  W.  The  circle  is  magnetized  by  a  special 
process,  which  gives  magnetic  stability,  and 
placed  upon  a  pivot  or  suspended  by  a  thread 
from  the  centre,  it  forms  a  true  compass,  the  N. 
pole  pointing  to  the  south  and  the  S.  pole  to  the 
north. 


In  a  series  of  experiments  made  at  sea  with 
this  compass,  in  which  it  was  intentionally  ex 
posed  to  the  roughest  usage,  it  proved  so  satis 
factory  with  regard  to  sensibility,  steadiness,  and 
fixity  of  the  line  of  its  poles, 'that  it  has  been 
adopted  as  the  regulation  compass  in  the  French 
navy,  and  is  in  use  in  several  lines  of  merchant 
steamers. 

The  magnetic  needle  is  subject  to  the  influ 
ences  of  variation  or  declination,  dip  or  incli 
nation,  and  deviation. 

On  account  of  the  magnetic  attraction  of  the 
earth  there  are  but  few  places  on  the  globe  at 
which  the  compass-needle  points  to  the  true 
north,  or  in  the  direction  of  a  terrestrial  me 
ridian.  The  direction  that  the  horizontal  needle 
assumes  when  uninfluenced  by  local  causes  is 
called  the  magnetic  meridian,  hence  the  variation 
of  the  compass  is  the  angle  included  between  the 
terrestrial  and  the  magnetic  meridians,  and  is 
measured  by  the  number  of  degrees  between  the 
true  and  the  magnetic  north.  If  the  N.  end  of 
the  needle  is  drawn  to  the  right  hand  of  true 
north,  the  variation  is  called  easterly,  and  if  to 
the  left  hand,  westerly. 

The  variation  of  the  compass  differs  at  differ 
ent  places,  and  is  constantly,  though  slowly, 
changing  at  the  same  place,  increasing  for  a  cer 
tain  time,  then  slowly  decreasing  for  a  period, 
when  it  again  commences  to  increase.  Thus, 
at  Paris,  in  1550,  the  variation  was  8°  E.,  in 
1660,  zero,  and  in  1769,  20°  W.  It  is  also 
subject  to  mensual  and  diurnal  changes,  the 
mensual  change  being  according  to  the  season 
of  the  year.  It  was  first  noticed  about  the  year 
1756. 

In  the  diurnal  change,  a  small  easterly  move 
ment  of  the  needle  is  observed  during  the  early 
morning  hours,  reaching  a  maximum  about  7 
A.M.  After  that  time  the  N.  end  moves  rapidly 
westward,  reaching  its  extreme  westerly  position 
at  about  1  P.M.  It  then  returns  to  the  eastward, 
but  more  slowly,  the  easterly  deviation  becoming 
a  maximum  at  about  10  P.M.  To  seamen,  how 
ever,  these  small  fluctuations  are  unimportant. 
The  mean  daily  range  of  the  magnetic  needle  is 
about  9.3'. 

The  needle  is  also  affected  by  sudden  changes  in 
the  direction  and  intensity  of  the  magnetic  force. 
Eaper  cites  a  case  in  which,  at  Greenwich  ob 
servatory,  the  needle  was  observed  to  change  its 
direction  more  than  2£°  in  eight  minutes  of  time, 
and  similar  effects  were  observed  at  other  places. 
These  sudden  disturbances  are  called  magnetic 
storms. 

If  all  places  having  the  same  variation  be 
united  by  lines  drawn  upon  the  chart,  these  lines 
will  be  found  to  describe  irregular  curves,  called 
lines  of  equal  variation,  or  isogonic  lines.  The 
lines  uniting  places  at  which  the  needle,  when 
uninfluenced  by  local  causes,  points  to  the  true 
north  are  called  lines  of  no  variation,  or  agonic 
lines. 

The  discovery  of  the  variation  of  the  needle 
from  the  true  north  is  usually  attributed  to  Co 
lumbus  during  the  voyage  in  which  he  discovered 
America,  but  in  one 'of" the  earliest  treatises  on 
magnetism,  written  in  1269,  the  variation  of  the 
needle  is  spoken  of.  The  authenticity  of  this 
work  has,  however,  been  questioned. 

The  magnetic  needle  when  placed  on  a  pivot 
will  not  retain  its  horizontal  position  except  on 


COMPASS 


158 


COMPASS 


the  magnetic  equator,  the  N.  end  of  the  needle 
dipping  and  the  S.  end  rising  in  N.  magnetic 
latitudes,  and  the  S.  end  dipping  and  the  N. 
end  rising  in  S.  magnetic  latitudes.  This  incli 
nation  of  the  needle  to  a  horizontal  plane  or  to 
the  horizon  is  called  the  dip,  or  inclination  of 
the  needle,  and  is  different  at  different  places  ac 
cording  to  their  magnetic  latitude.  The  dip, 
like  the  variation,  undergoes  a  continual  change, 
which  is,  however,  very  small  in  amount,  the 
decrease  at  London  in  the  last  three  hundred 
years  amounting  to  no  more  than  about  four  de 
grees.  There  is  a  diurnal  change  amounting  to 
three  or  four  minutes.  Lines  drawn  on  the 
chart  to  unite  places  having  the  same  dip  are 
called  lines  of  equal  dip,  or  isoclinal  lines.  On 
the  magnetic  equator  the  dip  is  zero,  and  at  the 
magnetic  poles  it  is  90°.  It  is  found  by  means 
of  the  dipping-needle,  a  very  delicate  instrument. 
The  dip  being  in  some  degree  a  measure  of  the 
intensity  of  the  earth's  magnetism  as  well  as  ma 
terially  modifying  the  directive  force  of  tho 
needle,  is  a  matter  of  great  importance  to  the 
mariner.  At  the  magnetic  poles,  where  the 
needle  is  perpendicular,  it  has  of  course  no 
directive  force,  although  at  these  points  the 
greatest  magnetic  intensity  is  developed.  The 
dip  was  first  observed  by  Robert  Norman,  an 
English  compass-maker,  in  1576. 

The  Magnetic  Equator,  of  which  we  have  al 
ready  spoken,  is  an  irregular  curve,  cutting  the 
terrestrial  equator  in  three  points  according  to 
some  authorities,  in  four  according  to  others. 
From  the  magnetic  equator  magnetic  latitude  is 
reckoned,  and  at  any  point  on  it  the  magnetic 
needle  will  retain  its  horizontal  position,  or  there 
will  be  no  dip. 

As  this  curve  does  not  coincide  throughout 
with  the  terrestrial  equator,  magnetic  latitudes 
do  not  correspond  everywhere  with  the  common 
or  geographical  latitude,  differing  at  some  places 
as  much  as  13°. 

The  Magnetic  Poles  are  two  spots  on  the  sur 
face  of  the  earth,  one  in  the  northern  and  the 
other  in  the  southern  hemisphere,  at  which  the 
needle  points  directly  downward,  or  at  which  the 
dip  is  90°.  The  present  position  of  the  south 
magnetic  pole  is  about  lat.  70°  N.,  Ion.  98°  W., 
and  of  the  north  magnetic  pole,  lat.  74°  S.,  Ion. 
148°  E.  The  change  in  the  variation  previously 
mentioned  has  been  ascribed  to  the  revolution  of 
these  poles  around  the  poles  of  the  earth. 

The  Deviation  of  the  Compass  may  be  denned 
to  be  the  angle  which  the  needle  makes  with  the 
magnetic  meridian,  and  is  measured  by  the  num 
ber  of  degrees  between  this  meridian  and  the 
line  of  direction  of  the  needle.  It  is  marked 
east  or  west  as  the  N.  end  of  the  needle  is  drawn 
to  the  right  or  left  of  the  magnetic  meridian. 

The  deviation  of  the  compass  is  caused  by  the 
action  on  the  needle  of  the  iron  in  a  ship,  whether 
employed  in  her  construction,  equipment,  or 
cargo,  and  by  the  action  of  magnetic  forces  with 
out  the  ship,  such  as  exist  in  volcanic  bodies, 
iron  cranes,  water-pipes,  or  in  anything  that  can 
exert  a  magnetic  influence  on  the  needle.  The 
magnetic  influence  which  one  iron  ship  can  ex 
ercise  upon  the  compasses  of  another  in  close  prox 
imity  is  very  appreciable.  Lightning  may  affect 
the  compass  needle. 

There  are  different  methods  of  finding  the 
error  due  to  these  causes,  a  description  of  which 


will  be  found  in  almost  any  work  on  navigation, 
but  all  consist  in  bringing  the  ship's  head  in  suc 
cession  to  each  of  the  thirty-two  points  of  the 
compass,  and  then  observing  the  bearing  of  some 
object,  either  celestial  or  terrestrial,  whose  true 
bearing  is  found  either  by  calculation  or  by  the 
inspection  of  tables  prepared  for  the  purpose. 
The  difference  between  the  true  bearing  so  found 
and  the  bearing  shown  by  compass,  after  the 
variation  due  to  the  place  has  been  applied  to  the 
compass  bearing,  is  the  error  due  to  local  devia 
tion. 

As  the  local  deviation  differs  in  iron  ships 
when  the  ship  is  on  an  even  keel  and  when  heel 
ing,  it  should  be  determined  under  both  circum 
stances,  and  in  steamers,  if  this  error  has  been 
determined  with  the  funnel  up,  a  few  bearings 
should  be  taken  with  it  down,  when,  if  any  con 
siderable  difference  is  observed,  the  errors  should 
be  obtained  for  both  positions  of  the  funnel. 

The  deviation  may  be  found  by  bringing  the 
ship's  head  on  every  other  point  of  the  compass, 
or  even  on  the  eight  principal  points,  the  error 
on  the  omitted  points  being  obtained  by  inter 
polation.  Graphic  methods  of  representing  the 
deviation  have  been  devised,  the  best  being  that 
of  Napier  and  the  right-line  method  of  Archi 
bald  Smith. 

After  finding  the  deviation  on  all  the  points 
of  the  compass,  these  errors  may  be  either  tabu 
lated  or  the  compass  may  be  compensated  by 
means  of  magnets  placed  in  the  deck  near  the 
compass.  In  some  iron  vessels,  where  the  devia 
tion  on  particular  courses  is  very  large,  a  com 
bination  of  the  two  methods  is  used,  the  errors 
being  partially  compensated  by  magnets  and  the 
residual  error  being  found  by  observation  and 
tabulated. 

Both  methods,  the  compensation  and  the  tabu 
lar,  have  their  advocates.  In  the  United  States 
navy,  as  well  as  in  the  navy  of  England,  uncom- 
pensated  compasses  are  used,  and  the  deviations 
given  from  the  deviation  table  are  applied 'to  the 
compass  courses  to  find  the  correct  magnetic 
course  steered  or  to  steer.  Many  merchant  ves 
sels  use  compensated  compasses. 

As  the  deviations  found  for  the  compasses  of  a 
vessel  are  only  good  at  the  place  where  found, 
and  change,  from  a  variety  of  causes,  after  any 
considerable  lapse  of  time  or  after  considerable 
change  of  position,  it  frequently  becomes  neces 
sary  to  move  the  magnets  by  which  the  compen 
sation  is  effected  in  order  to  compensate  for  the 
new  deviations  found.  Great  difficulty  is  some 
times  experienced  in  doing  this  as  the  magnets 
are  ordinarily  fitted.  To  obviate  this  difficulty, 
as  well  as  to  furnish  a  compass  possessed  of  great 
steadiness  and  small  frictional  error,  Sir  William 
Thomson  has  designed  an  instrument  which, 
while  possessing  all  the  qualities  of  a  good  com 
pass,  can  be  readily  and  quickly  adjusted  for 
changes  of  deviation,  and  which  may  be  described 
as  follows  : 

The  compass-card  (Fig.  4)  is  supported  on  a 
thin  rim  of  aluminium,  and  its  inner  parts  on 
thirty-two  silk  threads  or  fine  copper  wires 
stretched  from  the  rim  to  a  small  central  boss  of 
aluminium.  The  card  itself  is  of  thin,  strong 
paper,  and  all  the  central  parts  of  it  are  cut  away, 
leaving  only  enough  to  show  conveniently  the 
points  and  degree  divisions  of  the  compass. 

The  central  boss  consists  of  a  thin  disk   of 


COMPASS 


159 


COMPASS 


aluminium  with  a  hole  in  its  centre,  which  rests 
on  the  projecting  lip  of  a  small  aluminium  in- 


FIG.  4. 


verted  cup  mounted  with  a  sapphire  cap,  which 
rests  on  a  fixed  iridium  point.  Eight  small 
needles  from  3^  to  2  inches  long,  made  of  thin 
steel  wire,  and  weighing  in  all  54  grains,  are 
fixed  like  the  steps  of  a  rope  ladder  on  two  paral 
lel  silk  threads,  and  slung  from  the  aluminium 
rim  by  four  fine  copper  wires  through  eyes  in 
the  four  ends  of  the  outer  pair  of  needles. 

The  weight  of  the  central  boss,  aluminium 
cup,  and  sapphire  cap  amounts  in  all  to  about  5 
grains.  It  need  not  be  more  for  a  24-inch  than 
for  a  10-inch  compass.  For  the  10-inch  compass 
the  whole  weight  on  the  iridium  point,  including 
rim,  card,  silk  thread,  central  boss,  and  needles, 
is  about  180  grains. 

By  throwing  the  greater  part  of  the  weight  of 
the  card  to  its  rim  a  long  period  of  free  oscilla 
tion  and  consequent  steadiness  is  insured,  and, 
owing  to  the  small  pressure  on  the  pivot,  due  to 
the  lightness  of  the  card,  there  is  almost  absolute 
freedom  from  frictional  error.  There  is  a  hemi 
spherical  space  under  the  compass-case,  which 
being  nearly  filled  with  castor  oil,  serves  to  calm 
the  vibratio'ns  of  the  bowl. 

The  apparatus  for  correcting  the  error  of  the 
compass  consists  of  two  solid  or  hollow  iron 
globes  placed  on  proper  supports,  and  attached 
to  the  compass  on  two  sides  of  the  binnacle. 
These  are  for  the  purpose  of  correcting  the  quad- 
rantal  error,  or  that  caused  by  the  difference  of 
the  induced  magnetism  in  fore-and-aft  and 
thwartships  horizontal  iron.  This  adjustment 
having  been  once  made  remains  correct  in  all 
latitudes,  unless  there  is  some  change  in  the 
place  of  the  iron  near  the  compass.  To  make 
the  correction  the  globes  are  placed  at  a  certain 
distance  from  the  centre  of  the  compass,  accord 
ing  to  the  amount  of  the  deviation  to  be  cor 
rected. 

For  correcting  the  semicircular  deviation,  or 
that  caused  by  the  magnetism  of  the  ship  and 
the  induced  magnetism  of  her  vertical  iron, 
which  changes  with  lapse  of  time  and  with 
change  of  latitude,  sets  of  magnets  are  so  ar 
ranged  in  the  binnacle  as  to  neutralize  the  dis 
turbance  arising  from  this  cause,  as  well  as  that 
caused  by  the  heeling  error.  For  this  latter  a 
vertical  magnet,  adjustable  to  the  proper  height, 


in  a  line  perpendicular  to  the  deck,  through  the 
centre  of  the  compass  and  of  the  binnacle,  is 
used. 

The  inventor  has  also  applied  to  this  compass 
an  azimuth  mirror  on  the  principle  of  the  camera 
lucida,  by  which  the  bearings  of  objects  on  the 
horizon  can  be  taken,  even  if  the  highest  point 
of  the  globes  used  for  correcting  the  quadrantal 
deviation  rises  as  high  as  5  inches  above  the  glass 
of  the  compass-bowl.  By  means  of  this  mirror 
the  readings  are  taken  directly  on  the  card,  and 
it  possesses  the  advantage  of  not  requiring  any 
adjustment  of  the  instrument,  such  as  that  by 
which,  in  the  ordinary  azimuth  compass,  the  hair- 
is  made  to  exactly  cover  the  object. 

The  deviation  of  the  compass-needle  was  ob 
served  by  Mr.  Wales,  who  accompanied  Capt. 
Cook  as  astronomer,  in  the  latter  half  of  the 
18th  century,  but  no  effort  seems  to  have  been 
made  at  that  time  for  its  correction,  it  having 
probably  been  ascribed  to  the  imperfection  of  the 
instruments  then  employed. 

The  first  attempt  to  correct  the  deviation  ap 
pears  to  have  been  made  by  Capt.  Matthew 
Flinders,  who  observed  it  while  on  a  surveying 
expedition  to  Australia  in  the  beginning  of  the 
present  century.  He  suggested  the  introduction 
of  an  upright  iron  stanchion  so  placed  as  to 
counteract  the  ship's  attraction,  and  the  explana 
tion  which  he  then  gave  of  the  action  on  the 
needle  of  the  ship's  iron  has  formed  the  basis  of 
all  subsequent  investigation. 

The  Chinese  were  perhaps  the  first  people  who 
possessed  a  knowledge  of  the  properties  of  the 
magnetized  needle.  We  are  told  that  as  early  as 
2634  B.C.  these  people  possessed  an  instrument 
which  would  indicate  the  S.  point,  thus  distin 
guishing  the  four  cardinal  points.  Other  allu 
sions  to  the  compass  are  also  made  in  old  Chi 
nese  records,  proving  its  great  antiquity  among 
them. 

The  Chinese  compass  has  a  distinguishing 
mark  at  the  S.  pole  instead  of  at  the  N.,  as 
with  us.  The  needle  is  seldom  more  than  an 
inch  in  length,  and  is  less  than  a  line  in  thick 
ness.  It  is  peculiarly  poised,  with  its  point  of 
suspension  a  little  below  its  centre  of  gravity, 
and  is  very  sensitive.  The  card  has  but  twenty- 
four  points,  reckoned  from  the  S.  pole. 

The  improvement  of  the  mariner's  compass 
has  been  but  a  slow  process,  and  during  the  last 
forty  years  it  has  been  brought  to  a  greater  de 
gree  of  perfection  than  during  all  of  the  pre 
vious  period  in  which  it  has  been  known.  During 
the  last  few  years  the  introduction  of  iron  in 
the  construction  and  equipment  of  vessels  has 
stimulated  investigation  in  order  to  detect  the 
causes  of  the  vagaries  of  the  needle,  and  to 
apply  a  remedy  which  should  make  the  com 
pass  an  instrument  upon  which  reliance  could 
be  placed. 

Some  of  the  most  eminent  scientific  men  of  the 
present  day  have  devoted  their  energies  to  the 
task,  and  the  result  is  a  great  improvement  in 
our  knowledge  of  the  laws  of  magnetism  as 
affecting  the  compass-needle,  and  in  the  con 
struction  of  the  compasses  now  in  use. 

See  the  various  works  on  Magnetism  and  on 
Navigation.  Also,  "  English  Philosophical 
Transactions ;  Magnetism  of  Ships  and  Devia 
tion  of  the  Compass,"  republished  by  the  Bureau 
of  Navigation  in  1867,  especially  the  article  on 


COMPASS-TIMBEK 


160 


COMPOUND 


the  Mariner's  Compass  from  the  London  Quar 
terly  Review  for  October,  1865;  "Naval  Sci 
ence,"  vol.  ii.,  1873,  articles  on  Deviation  of  the 
Compass  ;  "  Elementary  Magnetism  and  Local 
Attraction  of  Ship's  Compasses,"  Sunderland, 
Thomas  Keed  &  Co. ;  "  Finding  of  the  Compass 
Error,"  by  B.  F.  Greene,  Professor  U.  S.  Navy; 
Towson  on  the  "  Deviation  of  the  Compass  in 
Iron  Ships  ;"  "  Encyclopaedia  Britannica,"  arti 
cle  Compass  ;  "  Keports  of  the  Liverpool  Com 
pass  Commission,"  republished  by  the  Bureau 
of  Navigation  in  1868,  etc. — Charles  H.  Black, 
'Lieutenant-  Commander  U, S.  N. 

COMPASS,  ADJUSTMENT  OF.  See  COMPASS, 
THE  MARINER'S. 

COMPASS,  AZIMUTH.  A  compass  of  superior 
construction  fitted  for  taking  bearings. 

COMPASS  BEARING.  The  bearing  of  an  object 
as  taken  by  the  compass.  It  is  distinguished 
from  the  true  bearing,  which  may  be  deduced 
from  it  by  applying  the  corrections  for  variation 
and  deviation.  See  BEARING. 

COMPASS  CORRECTIONS.  Those  quantities 
which  must  be  applied  to  directions  shown  by 
the  needle  to  give  the  true  directions.  There 
are  two  such  corrections :  the  variation  and  the 
deviation.  See  COMPASS,  THE  MARINER'S. 

COMPASS  COURSE.  The  angle  which  the  ship's 
track  makes  with  the  direction  of  the  magnetic 
needle  of  the  compass.  It  is  distinguished  from 
the  true  course,  which  may  be  deduced  from  it 
by  applying  the  corrections  for  variation  and  de 
viation.  The  correction  for  leeway  is  also  neces 
sary  to  deduce  the  course  made  good  from  the 
course  steered.  See  COURSE. 

COMPASS,  IMPERFECTIONS  OF.  1.  The  pivot 
must  be  in  the  centre  of  the  graduated  circum 
ference  of  the  card. 

2.  The  eye-vane  and  object-vane  must  each  be 
vertical. 

3.  The   direction   of    the  magnetism    of    the 
needle  must  be  parallel  to  the  longitudinal  line 
of  the  needle. 

4.  The  line  joining  the  eye-vane  and  object- 
vane  must  pas's  directly  over  the  centre  of  the 
card. 

The  effects  of  non-conformity  with  the  last 
two  requirements  can  be  ascertained  and  allowed 
for,  but  a  failure  to  meet  either  of  the  first  two 
should  cause  the  rejection  of  the  instrument. 

COMPASS,  STANDARD.  One  raised  above  the 
deck,  so  that  the  local  deviation  will  be  small 
and  the  compass  in  a  good  position  for  observing 
bearings. 

COMPASS,  STEERING.  The  compass  by  which 
the  vessel  is  steered.  The  course  is  given  as 
per  standard  compass,  and  the  proper  allowance 
for  the  difference  is  made  by  the  officer  of  the 
deck. 

Compass-timber.  Curved  or  crooked  tim 
ber. 

Complain.  When  the  masts,  timbers,  blocks, 
etc.,  creak,  and  thus  show  that  there  is  some  in 
ternal  defect,  they  are  said  to  complain. 

Complement.  The  number  of  men  composing 
a  ship's  crew. 

Composite  Sailing.  A  combination  of  paral 
lel  and  great-circle  sailing.  See  SAILINGS. 

Composite  Ship.  One  having  a  wooden  skin 
and  an  iron  frame- work.  Jordan's  system  is  as 
follows:  the  whole  outer  skin,  including  stem, 
keel,  stern-post,  and  planking,  is  of  wood ;  and 


the  frames,  beams,  kelson,  shelf-piece,  braces, 
etc.,  are  of  iron.  See  SHEATHED  SHIP. 

Compound  Engine.  A  modification  of  steam- 
engine  in  which  the  steam,  having  performed  a 
certain  amount  of  work  in  one  cylinder,  is  ad 
mitted  to  another  cylinder  of  larger  dimensions, 
where  additional  work  is  obtained  from  its  re 
maining  expansive  force.  The  primitive  method 
was  patented  by  Hornblower  in  the  year  1781, 
and  improved  by  Wolf  in  1804,  by  the  adoption 
of  higher  steam-pressure  applied  to  Watt's  ex 
pired  patents  of  the  double-acting  cylinder  and 
separate  condenser ;  and  the  principle  was  first 
introduced  on  a  large  scale  by  Randolph,  Elder 
&  Co.,  of  Glasgow,  under  their  patents  of  1856, 
in  the  steamships  "  Callao,"  "  Lima,"  and  "  Bo 
gota,"  of  the  Pacific  Steam  Navigation  Com 
pany.  Crude  as  the  design  was,  and  using  com 
paratively  low-pressure  steam,  the  economy  ob 
served,  which  was  1\  pounds  of  coal  per  hour 
per  indicated  horse-power  under  circumstances 
when  3|  pounds  consumption  was  considered  an 
excellent  performance,  caused  the  system  to 
gradually  grow  into  favor,  and  it  is  now  almost 
universally  adopted. 

In  the  year  1850  the  average  of  the  voyages 
of  the  Cunard  steamships  with  plain  engines  was 
13  days  outward  bound,  and  12  days,  16  hours 
homeward  bound ;  and  in  1877  the  average  of 
the  "  White  Star"  line,  with  compound  engines, 
was  8  days,  13  hours,  39  minutes  outward  bound, 
and  8  days,  10  hours,  30  minutes  homeward 
bound. 

The  "  Gallia,"  the  latest  steamer  of  the  Cunard 
line,  made  her  first  voyage  from  Queenstown  to 
New  York  in  7  days,  19  hours,  under  the  follow 
ing  conditions  : 

VESSEL. 

Length  of  keel 430  feet. 

Length  all  over.i 450    " 

Breadth  of  beam 44    " 

Depth  of  hold 36    " 

ENGINES. 

Number  cylinders,  one  H.  P.  and  two  L.  P.         3 
Diameter  of  H.  P.  cylinder 63  inches. 

"          "    each  L.  P.  cylinder 80      " 

Stroke  of  pistons ,         5  feet. 

Greatest  diameter  of  crank-shaft  journals..       21  inches. 
Cut-off  valves  on  high-pressure  cylinder. 

Condensing  surface 8,300  square  feet. 

Condenser  tubes,  ££  inch  diameter,  9  feet 

long. 
Independent  circulating  pumps  (Gwynne's). 

Propeller,  steel-bladed ;  weight 24  tons. 

BOILERS. 

Number  of  boilers 8 

Diameter      "         14  feet  6  inches. 

Length          "         9      "6      " 

Number  of  furnaces,  each 3 

Area  of  grates 538  square  feet. 

Diameter  of  boiler  tubes 3J^  inches. 

Length      "        "         "     7  feet. 

Area  of  heating  surface 13,000  square  feet. 

"        superheating  surface 400      " 

PERFORMANCE. 

Steam-pressure,  per  square  inch 75  pounds. 

Indicated  horse-power  (mean  of  trip) 5,261 

Coal  per  day 98  tons. 

Coal  per  hour  per  I.P 1.73  pounds. 

Speed 14.3  knots. 

"    at  measured  mile 16 

Greatest  day's  run 383      " 

Compound  engines  can  be  made  much  less 
complicated  than  plain  engines  of  equal  steam- 


COMPOUND 


161 


CONCLUDING-LINE 


expanding  power.  Expansion  can  readily  be 
carried  as  far  as  eight  times  the  original  volume 
without  the  use  of  cut-off  valves,  thus  dispensing 
with  a  great  deal  of  troublesome  machinery. 
The  strains  upon  the  running-gear  and  crank 
shaft  are  nearly  ^equal  throughout  the  stroke  of 
the  piston,  and  the  parts  can  be  made  lighter  than 
in  the  plain  engine,  where  they  must  be  strong 
enough  to  withstand  the  initial  pressure  of  the 
steam,  entailing  a  consequent  increase  of  friction. 
Steam  cannot  be  beneficially  expanded  more 
than  eight  times  its  volume ;  for  even  supposing 
the  expansion  curve  to  be  an  isothermal  line,  or 
to  follow  the  imaginary  law  of  Mariotte,  a  con 
dition  that  can  never  be  realized  in  practice,  the 
gain  by  expanding  to  sixteen  volumes  is  only 
four  and  seven-tenths  per  cent,  more  than  by  ex 
panding  eight  volumes.  To  expand  eight  vol 
umes  in  the  plain  engine  an  extremely  compli 
cated  apparatus  is  necessary.  See  EXPANSION 
OF  STEAM,  MARINE  STEAM-ENGINE. 

When  great  power  is  required,  it  is  customary 
to  construct  compound  engines  with  three  cylin 
ders,  one  being  high  pressure  and  two  low  press 
ure,  on  account  of  the  inconvenient  size  of  the 
low-pressure  cylinder  when  only  one  is  used. 
This  arrangement  also  gives  a  more  uniform 
strain  to  the  crank-shaft. 

The  ratio  of  volume  between  the  low-pressure 
and  high-pressure  cylinders  is  usually  between 
three  and  a  half  and  four  to  one. 

Steam-jacketing  and  high-pressure  steam — 
two  important  sources  6f  economy  in  modern 
engineering — may  be  applied  to  plain  engines  ; 
but  results  thus  far  observed  are  in  favor  of  the 
compound  engine. — Albert  Aston,  Chief  Engineer 
U.S.N. 

Compound  Screw.  Two  screws  of  different 
pitches  acting  together  on  the  same  axis.  In 
some  combinations  one  screw  is  within  the  other, 
the  outer  one  forming  the  nut  of  the  inner  one, 
in  which  case  the  inner  screw  does  not  revolve  ; 
or,  the  two  threads  may  be  cut  on  one  continuous 
piece,  one  being  provided  with  a  fixed  nut  and 
the  other  witli  a  movable  nut.  Suppose  both 
threads  to  be  either  right-handed  or  left-handed, 
the  resultant  motion  and  consequent  force  in 
direction  of  the  axis  is  represented  by  the  differ 
ence  between  the  pitches  of  the  screws.  The 
object  of  this  contrivance  is  to  obtain  a  slow  ad 
vance  due  to  fine  pitch,  together  with  the  strength 
of  large  threads. 

If  one  screw  is  right-handed  and  the  other 
left-handed,  the  resultant  motion  is  represented 
by  the  sum  of  the  two  pitches.  The  elevating 
screws  of  some  classes  of  ordnance  are  on  this 
principle.  The  ordinary  "  turn-buckle"  is  another 
example. — Albert  Aston,  Chief  Engineer  U.S.N. 

Comprador  (Sp.).  In  the  East,  one  who  con 
tracts  to  furnish  meat,  vegetables,  etc.,  for  a 
ship. 

Compressed-air  Engine.  An  engine  similar 
to  the  steam-engine,  compressed  air  being  the 
motive  force  instead  of  steam.  It  is  especially 
adapted  to  locomotive  purposes,  such  as  driving 
street  tramway-cars.  The  air  is  compressed  to 
any  desired  tension  by  large  stationary  engines, 
or  by  water-power,  and  then  heated  to  a  high 
temperature.  It  is  then  received  into  the  reser 
voirs  of  the  locomotive  or  street-car,  which  have 
sufficient  capacity  to  run  to  the  next  station. 

Compressor.     A  curved  lever  pivoted  so  as 
11 


to  permit  the  curve  to  sweep  the  lower  orifice  of 
the  deck-pipe.  To  the  end  is  hooked  a  small 
tackle.  When  the  compressor  is  hauled  to,  the 
chain  is  jammed  between  it  and  the  deck-pipe. 
A  mechanism  for  checking  the  recoil  of  a  gun. 

Comptroller's  Office,  Second.  A  bureau  of 
the  Treasury  Department.  Established  in  1817. 
It  is  the  duty  of  the  Comptroller  to  receive  and 
examine  all  accounts  settled  by  the  Second, 
Third,  and  Fourth  Auditors,  and  certify  the 
balances  arising  thereon  to  the  Secretary  of  the 
Department  in  which  the  expenditure  has  been 
incurred.  The  Comptroller's  jurisdiction  is  re 
visory  and  not  original,  but  in  all  cases  his  de 
cision  is  final  and  binding  upon  the  Auditor  who 
first  passes  upon  the  account  or  claim.  All  re 
quisitions  of  the  Secretaries  of  War  and  of  the 
Navy  on  the  Treasury  for  money  to  be  expended 
by  those  Departments  must  be  countersigned  by 
the  Second  Comptroller  ;  and  he  must  report  to 
those  Secretaries  the  official  forms  to  be  used  in 
the  different  offices  for  disbursing  the  public 
money  in  their  respective  Departments,  and  the 
manner  and  form  of  keeping  and  stating  the 
accounts  of  the  persons  employed  therein.  In 
case  of  the  death  of  any  petty  officer,  seaman,  or 
other  person  not  an  officer,  on  board  any  vessel 
in  the  employ  of  the  United  States,  which  has 
been  sunk  or  destroyed,  the  Comptroller  may 
prescribe  rules  to  govern  the  payment  of  arrears 
of  pay  due  such  person  to  the  persons  designated 
by  law  to  receive  the  same.  The  Comptroller  is 
the  custodian  of  the  official  bonds  of  all  dis 
bursing  officers  of  the  War  and  Navy  Depart 
ments,  and  all  contracts  made  by  virtue  of  any 
law,  and  requiring  the  advance  of  money,  or  in 
any  manner  connected  with  the  settlement  of 
public  accounts,  if  cognizable  by  the  Second 
Comptroller,  must  be  deposited  in  his  office 
within  ninety  days  after  their  respective  dates. 
The  Second  Comptroller  is  charged  with  the 
preservation  of  the  public  accounts  subject  to  his 
revision,  but  in  all  cases  such  accounts  after 
having  been  revised  are  returned  to  the  Auditor 
from  whom  they  were  received,  and  are  placed 
among  his  files.  The  office  of  the  Second  Comp 
troller  consists  of  the  Comptroller,  Deputy  Comp 
troller,  and  sixty  clerks,  and  is  organized  in  di 
visions,  as  follows:  army-pay,  navy-pay,  quar 
termaster's,  Indian,  law  and  miscellaneous,  army 
pension,  and  book-keepers. 

Concealment,  or  Suppressio  Veri.  Consists 
in  the  suppression  of  any  fact  or  circumstance  as 
to  the  state  of  the  ship,  the  nature  of  her  employ, 
and  the  time  of  sailing  or  expected  arrival,  ma 
terial  to  the  risk  of  insurance,  and  is  fatal  to  the 
insured.  But  it  is  held  immaterial  to  disclose 
the  secret  destination  of  privateers,  the  usages 
of  trade,  or  matters  equally  open  to  both  parties. 
Concentrated  Fire.  See  FIRE. 
Concentric  Engine.  An  instrument  used  in 
scroll  engraving,  particularly  bank-note  plate 
engraving. 

Conch.  A  large  univalve,  used  as  a  horn  by 
pilots,  fishermen,  etc.,  in  fogs  ;  a  strombus,  triton, 
or  sometimes  a  murex.  A  name  for  wreckers  of 
the  Bahama  reefs;  though  plunder  is  their _ ob 
ject,  the  Conchs  are  very~serviceable,  arid  evince 
both  courage  and  address  in  saving  the  lives  of 
the  wrecked.  A  nickname  for  the  inhabitants 
of  Key  West. 

Concluding-line.     A  small   rope  hitched   to 


CONCITSSION-FUZE 


162 


CONN 


the  middle  of  the  steps  of  the  stern-ladders. 
Also,  a  small  line  leading  through  the  centre  of 
the  steps  of  a  Jacob's  ladder. 

Concussion-fuze.     See  FUZE. 

Condemn.  To  determine,  judicially,  the 
question  of  title  to  a  captured  vessel  in  favor  of 
the  captor.  (See  PRIZE.)  To  declare  a  vessel 
unseaworthy  with  a  view  to  her  being  broken 
up.  To  pronounce  against  the  physical  capacity 
of  an  officer  or  enlisted  man.  To  declare  offi 
cially  that  stores  are  unfit  for  use. 

Condenser.  In  the  steam-engine,  the  vessel  or 
apparatus  in  which  the  steam  is  condensed  when 
expelled  from  the  cylinder  after  having  per 
formed  its  work,  and  m  which  a  partial  vacuum 
is  constantly  maintained  while  the  machinery  is 
in  operation,  the  steam  being  instantly  deprived 
of  its  latent  heat  and  a  portion  of  its  sensible 
heat,  either  by  direct  contact  with  cold  water 
injected  as  a  "spray,"  or  being  exposed  to  me 
tallic  surfaces  kept  cold  by  circulating  water. 
When  the  spray  or  jet  is  used,  and  the  water  of 
condensation  mixes  with  the  "  injection,"  or  re 
frigerating  water,  the  apparatus  is  called  a  "jet 
condenser"  ;  and  when  the  condensation  is  pro 
duced  by  contact  with  metallic  surfaces,  and  tho 
purity  of  the  water  of  condensation  preserved,  it 
is  called  a  "surface  condenser."  In  both  cases 
the  uncondensed  vapor,  the  quantity  of  which 
depends  upon  the  temperature  of  the  water  of 
condensation,  and  the  air  or  other  gas  mixed 
with  the  steam,  are  drawn  off  by  an  nir-pump. 

The  surface  condenser  consists  of  a  box  suffi 
ciently  strong  to  resist  the  atmospheric  pressure, 
usually  of  cast  iron  and  of  rectilinear  cross-sec 
tions,  filled  with  tubes  about  £  or  f  inch  diam 
eter,  packed  water-tight  at  both  ends,  the  steam 
being  exposed  to  one  surface  of  the  tube,  and  the 
refrigerating  water,  which  is  generally  forced 
f  through  by  a  pump,  called  a  circulating-pump, 
to  the  other. 

The  amount  of  tube-surface  exposed  to  the 
steam  should  be  about  one  square  foot  for  each 
pound  of  coal  consumed  per  hour.  This  will 
insure  a  good  vacuum  in  any  climate.  The 
quantity  of  refrigerating  water  may  be  computed 
by  the  formula  : 

«,(H-Tf) 

•--       ~ 


in  which  H  denotes  the  total  heat  of  the  steam 
discharged  into  the  condenser,  10  its  weight,  T0 
the  temperature  of  the  sea-water,  Tl  that  of  the 
discharge-water,  W  its  weight,  and  T2  the  tem 
perature  of  the  water  of  condensation.  From  this 
the  volume  for  any  given  time  may  be  easily 
computed.  With  a  jet  condenser  — 


The  value  of  T0  may  be  generally  considered 
about  80°  Fahr.  See  MARINE  STEAM-ENGINE. 
—  Albert  Aston,  Chief  Engineer  U.8.N. 

Condensing  Engine.'  A  steam-engine  in 
which  the  steam,  after  having  performed  its 
work,  instead  of  being  expelled  into  the  atmo 
sphere  as  in  a  locomotive-engine,  is  brought  in 
contact  with  cold  water  or  cold  metallic  surfaces 
in  an  apparatus  called  a  condenser,  where  it  is 
instantly  condensed,  thereby  producing  a  partial 
vacuum  and  relieving  the  piston  of  a  greater 
portion  of  the  atmospheric  pressure,  andj  at  the 


same  time,  reserving  the  pure  water  of  con 
densation  for  resupplying  the  boilers.  See  CON 
DENSER. 

An  engine  for  condensing  or  compressing 
matter  of  any  kind. 

Conder.  A  watcher  of  fishes,  the  same  as 
balker,  huer,  and  olpis.  His  employment  was 
to  give  notice  to  the  fishermen  from  an  eminence 
which  way  the  shoals  of  fish  were  going. 

Conductor.  A  metal  rod  or  wire  projecting 
above  the  truck  and  leading  thence  to  the  water. 
Its  use  is  to  protect  the  ship  from  lightning. 
See  ELECTRICITY. 

Cone-buoy.     See  BUOY. 

Cone  Valve.  A  rotating  or  oscillating  valve, 
the  bearing  surfaces  of  which  are  conical,  and 
which  is  similar  in  its  action  to  a  cock.  The 
device  has  never  been  successfully  adopted  on  a 
large  scale,  owing  principally  to  the  variable 
expansion  of  the  metal. 

Coney-fish.     A  name  of  the  burbot. 

Confederation,  Argentine.  The  navy  of  the 
Confederation  consists  of  26  steamers,  2  of  which 
are  ironclads,  and  they  are  manned  by  2900  sail 
ors  and  marines.  This  navy  is  commanded  by  2 
admirals  and  74  other  officers. 

Configuration.  Relative  position  or  aspect  of 
the  planets  ;  or  the  face  of  the  horoscope,  accord 
ing  to  the  relative  position  of  the  planets  at  any 
time. 

Confluent.  Flowing  together;  meeting  in  a 
common  current ;  as,  confluent  streams. 

Conger.  A  large  species  of  sea-eel,  of  the 
Anguilla  family  (Conger  of  some  naturalists). 
It  sometimes  attains  a  length  of  10  feet  and  a 
weight  of  100  pounds. 

Congress.  An  assembly  of  princes  or  pleni 
potentiaries  for  the  settlement  of  the  affairs  of 
peoples  or  states. 

Congress  of  the  United  States.  The  na 
tional  legislature.  For  its  constitution,  powers, 
and  relation  to  the  navy,  see  CONSTITUTION  OF 
THE  UNITED  STATES. 

Congreve-rocket.  A  powerful  rocket  in 
vented  by  Sir  William  Congreve. 

Conical  Valve.  A  valve  with  a  conical  bear 
ing  surface.  The  valve  may  either  lift  in  direc 
tion  of  the  axis  of  the  cone  or  rotate  about  it. 

Conic  Sections.  That  part  of  mathematics 
which  treats  .of  the  measurements,  properties, 
etc.,  of  the  sections  of  a  cone.  The  curves  formed 
by  the  cutting  of  a  cone  by  a  plane  are  the^a- 
rabola  (Gr.  paraballein,  to  place  side  by  side),  the 
ellipse  (Gr.  clleipein,  to  fall  short  of),  and  the 
hyperbola  (Gr.  huperballein,  to  exceed).  When 
the  cutting  plane  is  parallel  with  the  generating 
line  of  the  cone  a  parabola  is  formed  ;  when  the 
inclination  of  the  cutting  plane  to  the  base  is 
less  than  that  of  the  generating  line,  an  ellipse  is 
formed  ;  and  when  it  is  greater,  we  have  a  hyper 
bola. 

Conjee.     Gruel  made  of  rice. 

Conjunction.  Heavenly  bodies  are  in  con 
junction  when  they  have  the  same  longitude. 
The  inferior  conjunction  of  a  planet  is  its  posi 
tion  when  in  conjunction  on  the  side  of  the  sun 
nearest  the  earth  ;  its  superior  conjunction  is  its 
position  when  in  conjunction  on  the  side  of  the 
sun  farthest  from  the  earth.  The  superior  planets 
have  no  inferior  conjunction. 

Conn,  Con,  or  Cun.  This  word  is  derived 
from  the  Anglo-Saxon  conne,  connan,  to  know, 


CONNAISSANCE 


163 


CONSTITUTION 


to  be  skillful.  To  direct  the  course  of  a  ship. 
The  quartermaster  conns  the  ship  ordinarily,  hut 
on  special  occasions  it  is  done  by  the  pilot,  officer 
of  the  deck,  navigator,  or  commanding  officer. 
At  the  conn,  at  the  station  for  conning  the  ship. 

CONNINOS.     Reckonings. 

Connaissance  des  Temps.  The  French  work 
corresponding  to  the  "  Nautical  Almanac." 

Connecting  Rod.  A  rod  connecting  the  re 
ciprocating  parts  of  a  machine  with  the  rotating 
parts,  such  as  the  cross-head  or  beam  with  the 
crank  of  a  steam-engine.  The  ends  of  the  rod 
are  provided  with  adjustable  bearings  fitted  to 
the  journals  of  the  cross-head,  or  beam-centre, 
and  crank-pin.  When  the  length  of  the  rod  is 
great  in  comparison  to  its  diameter,  it  is  braced 
by  light  rods  stretched  over  "struts"  or  "out 
riggers." 

Consign.  To  commit  goods  to  a  shipmaster 
for  conveyance  and  delivery  to  the  person  to 
whom  they  are  addressed. 

CONSIGNEE.  The  person  to  whom  goods  are 
sent. 

CONSIGNOR.     The  person  who  sends  goods. 

Console-bracket.  A  bracket  or  ornament 
used  to  support  any  projections  on  the  outside  or 
inside  of  the  ship. 

Consort.  Any  vessel  in  company  with  another. 

Constant  Battery.    See  GALVANIC  BATTERY. 

Constantinople.  A  celebrated  city  of  Turkey 
in  Europe,  and  the  capital  of  the  Ottoman  Em 
pire,  in  lat.  41°  0'  18"  N.,  Ion.  28°  59'  15"  E., 
situated  on  a  declivity  or  series  of  gentle  hills  at 
the  eastern  extremity  of  a  triangular  promon 
tory  of  the  province  of  Roumelia,  having  the 
Sea  of  Marmora  and  the  Bosphorus  on  the  south 
and  east,  and  the  Golden  Horn,  an  inlet  of  the 
latter,  on  the  north.  It  is  thus  surrounded  by 
water  on  all  sides  except  the  west,  and  has  a  sea 
front  altogether  of  about  8  miles  in  extent.  The 
city  proper  comprises  several  quarters,  as  those 
for  the  Jews,  Armenians,  and  Greeks.  The 
Greek  quarter,  the  "  Fanar,"  extends  along  the 
shore  of  the  port,  or  the  Golden  Horn.  This  fine 
harbor  lies  between  the  city  and  its  suburbs 
Pera  and  Galata,  extending  for  about  4£  miles 
inland  in  a  northwesterly  direction,  and  varying 
in  breadth  from  1  to  4  furlongs.  It  is  deep 
enough  to  float  ships  of  the  largest  size,  and  is 
crossed  by  two  bridges  of  boats,  'which  unite 
the  Fanar  with  the  northern  suburbs.  Pop. 
700,000. 

Constellation  (Lat.  con,  together ;  stellatio,  a 
grouping  of  stars,  from  stella,  a  star).  A  group 
of  fixed  stars  to  which  a  name  has  been  given. 
These  names  have  mostly  their  origin  in  the 
mythology  of  the  Greeks,  derived  and  modified 
from  the  Egyptians  and  the  East ;  and  the  stars 
forming  each  configuration  are  ranged  and 
named  in  order  of  brilliancy.  The  districts  thus 
mapped  out  are  entirely  arbitrary,  and  in  general 
correspond  to  no  natural  grouping  of  the  stars. 
"Innumerable  snakes  twine  through  long  and 
contorted  areas  of  the  heavens  where  no  memory 
can  follow  them  ;  bears,  lions,  and  fishes,  large 
and  small,  northern  and  southern,  confuse  all 
nomenclature."  The  ancient  system  has,  how 
ever,  obtained  a  currency  from  which  it  would 
be  difficult  to  dislodge  it ;  and  it  serves  the  pur 
pose  of  briefly  naming  remarkable  stars, — an 
important  point  for  the  navigator.  The  follow 
ing  is  a  list  of  the  principal  constellations,  with 


the  right  ascension  and  declination  of  the  brightest 
star  in  each : 


Name. 


R.  A. 


h.  in. 

Andromeda,  Andromeda 0   2.2 

Antlia,  The  Air-Pump 10  21.7 

Apus,  The  Bird  of  Paradise 1433 

Aquarius,  The  Water-Bearer 21  59.6 

Aquila,  The  Eagle 19  43.9 

Ara,  The  Altar 17  22.6 

Argo,  The  Ship  Argo 6  21.3 

Aries,  The  Ram 2    0.4 

Auriga,  The  Wagoner 5    7.8 

Bootes,  The  Herdsman 14  10.2 

Cwlum,  The  Sculptor's  Toojs 4  36.7 

Cameleopardalis,  The  Giraffe 442.1 

Cancer,  The  Crab 851.9 

Canes  Venatici,  The  Hunting  Dogs 12  50.4 

Canis  Major,  The  Greater  Dog 6  39.9 

Canis  Minor,  The  Lesser  Dog 7  33 

Capricornus,  The  Sea-Goat 20  11.4 

Cassiopeia,  Cassiopeia 033.7 

Centaurus,  The  Centaur 14  81.6 

CephetUL  Cepheus 21  15.7 

Cetus,  The  Sea-Monster 2  56 

Chameleon,  The  Chameleon 8  21.6 

Circiinis,  The  Compass 14  32.8 

Coluniha,  Noah's  Dove 5  35.3 

Coma  Berenices,  Berenice's  Hair 13    4.2 

Corona  Australis,  The  Southern  Crown 19    1.3 

Corona  Borealis,  The  Northern  Crown 15  29.6 

Corvus,  The  Crow 12    2.2 

Crater,  The  Cup 10  53.9 

Crux,  The  Cross 12  19  9 

Cygnus,  The  Swan 2037.3 

Dt-lphinus,  The  Dolphin 20  34.1 

Dorado,  The  Sword-Fish 431.3 

Draco,  The  Dragon ....14    1.1 

Equuleus,  The  Little  Horse 21    9.8 

Eridanus,  The  River  Eridanus 1  33.3 

Fornax,  The  Furnace 244.1 

Gemini,  The  Twins 7  27 

Grus,  The  Crane 22    0.6 

Hercules,  Hercules 17    9.2 

Horologium,  The  Clock 4  10 

Hydra,  The  Sea-Serpent 9  21.7 

Hydrus,  The  Water-Snake 1  55 

Indus,  The  Indian 2029.1 

Lacerta,  The  Lizard 22  26.4 

Leo,  The  Lion 10    2 

Leo  Minor,  The  Lesser  Lion 10  21 

Lepus,  The  Hare 5  27.4 

Libra,  The  Balance 14  44.2 

Lnpns,  The  Wolf 14  34 

Lynx,  The  Lynx 9  13  8 

Lyra,  The  Lyre 18  32.9 

Mensa,  The  Table  Mountain 4  59.2 

Microscopinm,  The  Microscope 20  42.5 

Monoceros,  The  Unicorn 7  35.6 

Musca,  The  Bee 12  30 

Norma,  The  Rule 16  10.9 

Octans,  The  Octant 20  50.2 

Ophiuchus,  The  Serpent-Bearer 17  29.4 

Orion,  Orion 5  48.7 

Pavo,  The  Peacock 20  16.2 

Pegasus,  The  Winged  Horse 22  58.8 

Perseus,  Perseus 3  15.8 

Phu?nix,  The  Phoenix 0  20.4 

Pictor,  The  Painter's  Easel 6  47 

Pisces,  The  Fishes 1  55.9 

Piscis  Australis,  The  Southern  Fish 22  51 

Piscis  Volans,  The  Flying-Fish 9    0.6 

Reticulmn,  The  Net 4  12.9 

Sagitta,  The  Arrow 19  34.7 

Sagittarius,  The  Archer 18  16.2 

Scorpio,  The  Scorpion 16  22.1 

Sculptor,  The  Sculptor's  Workshop 0  52  8 

Serpens,  The  Serpent 15  38.4 

Sextans,  The  Sextant 10    1.8 

Taurus.  The  Bull 4  29 

Telescopium,  The  Telescope 18  18.1 

Toucan,  The  Toucan 22  10.3 

Triangula,  The  Northern  Triangles 1  4G..J 

Triangulum  Anstrale,  The  Southern  Triangle..l6  36 

Ursa  Major,  The  Greater  Bear 10  56.3 

Ursa  Minor,  The  Lesser  Bear 1  I1*-6 

Virgo,  The  Virgin 13  18.9 

Volans.    See  Piscis  Volans. 

Vulpecula,  The  Fox 19  23.7 


Dec. 
o  / 

28  26  N. 
30  27  S. 
78  32  S. 

0  54  S. 

833N. 
49  47  S. 
52  38  S. 
22  55  N. 

45  52  N. 
19  49  N. 
42  6S. 
66  8N. 
12  19  N. 
38  58  N. 

16  33  S. 
532N. 

12  55  S. 
55  53  N. 

60  20  S. 
62  5N. 

337N. 

76  32  S. 
64  278. 
34.  88. 
18  10  N. 
38  5  S. 
27  7N. 
24  38. 

17  40  S. 
62  26  S. 
44  51  N. 
15  29  N. 
55  18  S. 

64  57  N. 
445N. 

57  51  8. 
32  55  S. 
32  9  N. 
47  33  S. 
1432N. 
42  35  S. 
888. 
62  9S. 
47  43  N. 
49  40  S. 
12  33  N. 

37  19  N. 
17  55  S. 

15  32  S. 

46  52  S. 
34  54  N. 

38  40  N. 
75  88. 
34  14  S. 

9  16  S. 
68  28  S. 
49  52  S. 

77  29  S. 
12  39  N. 

724N. 
57  7S. 
14  34  N. 
49  26  N. 
42  58  S. 

61  49  S. 
2  11  N. 

30  16  S. 

65  55  S. 

62  47  S. 
17  44  N. 
34  20  S. 
26  10  S. 
30  0  S. 

6  48  N. 
0  13  N. 

16  16  N. 
46  28. 
60  51  S. 
29  ON. 
68  48  S. 
62  24  N. 
88  40  N. 
10  32  S. 

24  25  N. 


Constitution  (Lat.  cow,  together,  and  statuo, 
to  place).  The  collective  body  of  the  funda 
mental  laws  of  a  state,  whether  expressed  in 


CONSTITUTION 


164 


CONSTITUTION 


written  documents  or  established  by  prescriptive 
usage.  In  a  certain  sense,  all  states  in  which  the 
power  of  a  sovereign  over  his  people,  or  classes 
of  his  people,  is  limited  by  law  or  legal  usage  in 
any  particular,  may  be  said  to  possess,  to  that 
extent,  a  constitution  ;  but  in  ordinary  language 
only  a  government  in  which  the  power  of  legis 
lation,  or  that  of  granting  and  withholding  sup 
plies  to  the  sovereign,  is  vested  in  the  people  or 
a  body  of  representatives  elected  by  them,  or  by 
a  class  of  them,  is  termed  constitutional. 

.Constitution  of  the  United  States  of  America, 
with  Amendments.  We  the  people  of  the  United 
States,  in  Order  to  form  a  more  perfect  Union, 
establish  Justice,  insure  domestic  Tranquility, 
provide  for  the  common  defence,  promote  the 
general  Welfare,  and  secure  the  Blessings  of 
Liberty  to  ourselves  and  our  Posterity,  do  or 
dain  and  establish  this  CONSTITUTION  for  the 
United  States  of  America. 

ART.  1. — Sect.  I.  All  legislative  Powers  here 
in  granted  shall  be  vested  in  a  Congress  of  the 
United  States,  which  shall  consist  of  a  Senate 
and  House  of  Kepresentatives. 

Sect.  2.  The  House  of  Representatives  shall  be 
composed  of  Members  chosen  every  second  Year 
by  the  people  of  the  several  States,  and  the  Elec 
tors  in  each  State  shall  have  the  Qualifications 
requisite  for  Electors  of  the  most  numerous 
Braiich  of  the  State  Legislature. 

No  Person  shall  be  a  Representative  who  shall 
not  have  attained  to  the  Age  of  twenty-five 
Years,  and  been  seven  Years  a  Citizen  of  the 
United  States,  and  who  shall  not,  when  elected, 
be  an  inhabitant  of  that  State  in  which  he  shall 
be  chosen. 

Representatives  and  direct  Taxes  shall  be  ap 
portioned  among  the  several  States  which  may 
be  included  within  this  Union,  according  to  their 
respective  Numbers,  which  shall  be  determined 
by  adding  to  the  whole  number  of  free  Persons, 
including  those  bound  to  Service  for  a  Term  of 
Years,  and  excluding  Indians  not  taxed,  three- 
fifths  of  all  other  Persons.  The  actual  Enumera 
tion  shall  be  made  within  three  Years  after  the 
first  Meeting  of  the  Congress  of  the  United 
States,  and  within  every  subsequent  Term  of  ten 
Years,  in  such  Manner  as  they  shall  by  Law  di 
rect.  The  Number  of  Representatives  shall  not 
exceed  one  for  every  thirty  Thousand,  but  each 
State  shall  have  at  Least  one  Representative; 
and  until  such  enumeration  shall  be  made,  the 
State  of  New  Hampshire  shall  be  entitled  to 
chuse  three,  Massachusetts  eight,  Rhode-Island 
and  Providence  Plantations  one,  Connecticut 
five,  New- York  six,  New  Jersey  four,  Pennsyl 
vania  eight,  Delaware  one,  Maryland  six,  Vir 
ginia  ten,  North  Carolina  five,  South  Carolina 
five,  and  Georgia  three. 

When  vacancies  happen  in  the  Representation 
from  any  State,  the  Executive  Authority  thereof 
shall  issue  Writs  of  Election  to  fill  such  vacancies. 

The  House  of  Representatives  shall  chuse  their 
Speaker  and  other  Officers ;  and  shall  have  the 
sole  Power  of  Impeachment. 

Sect.  3.  The  Senate  of  the  United  States  shall 
be  composed  of  two  Senators  from  each  State, 
chosen  by  the  Legislature  thereof,  for  six  Years  ; 
and  each  Senator  shall  have  one  Vote. 

Immediately  after  they  shall  be  assembled  in 
Consequence  of  the  first  Election,  they  shall  be 
divided  as  equally  as  may  be  into  three  Classes. 


The  Seats  of  the  Senators  of  the  first  Class  shall 
be  vacated  at  the  Expiration  of  the  second  Year, 
of  the  second  Class  at  the  Expiration  of  the 
fourth  Year,  and  of  the  third  Class  at  the  ex 
piration  of  the  sixth  Year,  so  that  one-third  rnay 
be  chosen  every  second  Year  ;  and  if  Vacancies 
happen  by  Resignation,  or  otherwise,  during  the 
Recess  of  the  Legislature  of  any  State,  the  Ex 
ecutive  thereof  may  make  temporary  Appoint 
ments  until  the  next  Meeting  of  the  Legislature, 
which  shall  then  fill  such  Vacancies. 

No  person  shall  be  a  Senator  who  shall  not 
have  attained  to  the  Age  of  thirty  Years,  and 
been  nine  Years,  a  Citizen  of  the  United  States, 
and  who  shall  not,  when  elected,  be  an  inhabi 
tant  of  that  State  for  which  he  shall  be  chosen. 

The  Vice  President  of  the  United  States  shall 
be  President  of  the  Senate,  but  shall  have  no 
Vote,  unless  they  be  equally  divided. 

The  Senate  shall  chuse  their  other  Officers,  and 
also  a  President  pro  tempore,  in  the  Absence  of 
the  Vice  President,  or  when  he  shall  exercise  the 
Office  of  President  of  the  United  States. 

The  Senate  shall  have  the  sole  Power  to  try 
all  Impeachments.  When  sitting  for  that  Pur 
pose,  they  shall  be  on  Oath  or  Affirmation.  When 
the  President  of  the  United  States  is  tried,  the 
Chief  Justice  shall  preside:  And  no  Person  shall 
be  convicted  without  the  Concurrence  of  two- 
thirds  of  the  Members  present. 

Judgment  in  Cases  of  Impeachment  shall  not 
extend  further  than  to  removal  from  Office,  and 
disqualification  to  hold  and  enjoy  any  Office  of 
honor,  Trust  or  Profit  under  the  United  States  : 
but  the  Party  convicted  shall  nevertheless  be 
liable  and  subject  to  Indictment,  Trial,  Judg 
ment  and  Punishment,  according  to  Law. 

Sect.  4.  The  Times,  Places  and  Manner  of 
holding  Elections  for  Senators  and  Representa 
tives,  shall  be  prescribed  in  each  State  by  the 
Legislature  thereof,  but  the  Congress  may  at  any 
time  by  Law  make  or  alter  such  Regulations, 
except  as  to  the  Places  of  chusing  Senators. 

The  Congress  shall  assemble  at  least  once  in 
every  Year,  and  such  Meeting  shall  be  on  the 
first  Monday  in  December,  unless  they  shall  by 
Law  appoint  a  different  Day. 

Sect.  5.  Each  House  shall  be  the  Judge  of  the 
Elections,  Returns  and  Qualifications  of  its  own 
Members,  and*  a  Majority  of  each  shall  constitute 
a  Quorum  to  do  Business ;  but  a  smaller  Num 
ber  may  adjourn  from  day  to  day,  and  may  be 
authorized  to  compel  the  Attendance  of  absent 
Members,  in  such  Manner,  and  under  such  Pen 
alties  as  each  House  may  provide. 

Each  House  may  determine  the  Rules  of  its 
Proceedings,  punish  its  Members  for  disorderly 
Behaviour,  and,  with  the  Concurrence  of  two- 
thirds,  expel  a  Member. 

Each  House  shall  keep  a  Journal  of  its  Pro 
ceedings,  and  from  time  to  time  publish  the 
same,  excepting  such  Parts  as  may  in  their 
Judgment  require  Secrecy ;  and  the  Yeas  and 
Nays  of  the  Members  of  either  House  on  any 
question  shall,  at  the  Desire  of  one  fifth  of  those 
Present,  be  entered  on  the  Journal. 

Neither  House,  during  the  Session  of  Con 
gress,  shall,  without  the  Consent  of  the  other, 
adjourn  for  more  than  three  days,  nor  to  any 
other  Place  than  that  in  which  the  two  Houses 
shall  be  sitting. 

Sect.  6.  The  Senators  and  Representatives  shall 


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receive  a  Compensation  for  their  services,  to  be 
ascertained  by  Law,  and  paid  out  of  the  Treas 
ury  of  the  United  States.  They  shall,  in  all 
Cases,  except  Treason,  Felony  and  Breach  of 
the  Peace,  be  Privileged  from  Arrest  during 
their  Attendance  at  the  Session  of  their  respec 
tive  Houses,  and  in  going  to  and  returning  from 
the  same  ;  and  for  any  Speech  or  Debate  in  either 
House,  they  shall  not  be  questioned  in  any  other 
Place. 

No  Senator  or  Kepresentative  shall,  during 
the  Time  for  which  he  was  elected,  be  appointed 
to  any  civil  Office  under  the  Authority  of  the 
United  States,  which  shall  have  been  created,  or 
the  Emoluments  whereof  shall  have  been  en- 
creased  during  such  time ;  and  no  Person  hold 
ing  any  Office  under  the  United  States,  shall  be 
a  Member  of  either  House  during  his  Contin 
uance  in  office. 

Sect.  7.  All  Bills  for  raising  Kevenue  shall 
originate  in  the  House  of  Representatives ;  but 
the  Senate  may  propose  or  concur  with  Amend 
ments  as  on  other  Bills. 

Every  Bill  which  shall  have  passed  the  House 
of  Representatives  and  the  Senate,  shall,  before 
it  become  a  Law,  be  presented  to  the  President 
of  the  United  States ;  If  he  approve  he  shall 
sign  it,  but  if  not  he  shall  return  it,  with  his 
Objections  to  that  House  in  which  it  shall  have 
originated,  who  shall  enter  the  Objections  at 
large  on  their  Journal,  and  proceed  to  recon 
sider  it.  If  after  such  Reconsideration  two 
thirds  of  that  House  shall  agree  to  pass  the  Bill, 
it  shall  be  sent,  together  with  the  Objections,  to 
the  other  House,  by  which  it  shall  likewise  be 
reconsidered,  and  if  approved  by  two  thirds  of 
that  House,  it  shall  become  a  Law.  But  in  all 
such  Cases  the  Votes  of  both  Houses  shall  be 
determined  by  yeas  and  Nays,  and  the  Names 
of  the  Persons  voting  for  and  against  the  Bill 
shall  be  entered  on  the  Journal  of  each  House 
respectively.  If  any  bill  shall  not  be  returned 
by  the  President  within  ten  Days  (Sundays  ex- 
cepted)  after  it  shall  have  been  presented  to  him, 
the  Same  shall  be  a  Law,  in  like  Manner  as  if 
he  had  signed  it,  unless  the  Congress  by  their 
Adjournment  prevent  its  Return,  in  which  Case 
it  shall  not  be  a  Law. 

Every  Order,  Resolution,  or  Vote  to  which 
the  Concurrence  of  the  Senate  and  House  of 
Representatives  may  be  necessary  (except  on  a 
question  of  Adjournment)  shall  be  presented  to 
the  President  of  the  United  States ;  and  before 
the  Same  shall  take  Effect,  shall  be  approved  by 
him,  or  being  disapproved  by  him,  shall  be  re- 
passed  by  two-thirds  of  the  Senate  and  House 
of  Representatives,  according  to  the  Rules  and 
Limitations  prescribed  in  the  Case  of  a  Bill. 

Sect.  8.  The  Congress  shall  have  Power  To 
lay  and  collect  Taxes,  Duties,  Imposts  and  Ex 
cises,  to  pay  the  Debts  and  provide  for  the  com 
mon  Defence  and  general  Welfare  of  the  United 
States  ;  but  all  duties,  Imposts  and  Excises  shall 
be  uniform  throughout  the  United  States; 

To  borrow  Money  on  the  credit  of  the  United 
States ; 

To  regulate  Commerce  with  foreign  Nations, 
and  among  the  several  States,  and  with  the  In 
dian  Tribes  ; 

To  establish  an  uniform  Rule  of  Naturaliza 
tion,  and  uniform  Laws  on  the  subject  of  Bank 
ruptcies  throughout  the  United  States ; 


To  coin  Money,  regulate  the  Value  thereof,  and 
of  foreign  Coin,  and  fix  the  Standard  of  "Weights 
and  Measures ; 

To  provide  for  the  Punishment  of  counterfeit 
ing  the  Securities  and  current  Coin  of  the  United 
States ; 

To  establish  Post  Offices  and  post  Roads  ; 

To  promote  the  Progress  of  Science  and  useful 
Arts,  by  securing  for  limited  Times  to  Authors 
and  Inventors  the  exclusive  Right  to  their  re 
spective  Writings  and  Discoveries ; 

To  constitute  Tribunals  inferior  to  the  supreme 
Court ; 

To  define  and  punish  Piracies  and  Felonies 
committed  on  the  high  Seas,  and  Offences  against 
the  Law  of  Nations  ; 

To  declare  War,  grant  Letters  of  Marque  and 
Reprisal,  and  make  Rules  concerning  Captures 
on  Land  and  Water ; 

To  raise  and  support  Armies,  but  no  Appro 
priation  of  Money  to  that  Use  shall  be  for  a 
longer  Term  than  two  Years  ; 

To  provide  and  maintain  a  Navy  ; 

To  make  Rules  for  the  Government  and  Regu 
lation  of  the  land  and  naval  Forces  ; 

To  provide  for  calling  forth  the  Militia  to  ex 
ecute  the  Laws  of  the  Union,  suppress  Insurrec 
tions  and  repel  Invasions ; 

To  provide  for  organizing,  arming,  and  dis 
ciplining,  the  Militia,  and  for  governing  such 
Part  of  them  as  may  be  employed  in  the  Service 
of  the  United  States,  reserving  to  the  States  re 
spectively,  the  Appointment  of  the  Officers,  and 
the  Authority  of  training  the  Militia  according 
to  the  discipline  prescribed  by  Congress  ; 

To  exercise  exclusive  Legislation  in  all  Cases 
whatsoever,  over  such  District  (not  exceeding 
ten  Miles  square)  as  may,  by  Cession  of  particu 
lar  States,  and  the  Acceptance  of  Congress,  be 
come  the  Seat  of  the  Government  of  the  United 
States,  and  to  exercise  like  Authority  over  all 
Places  purchased  by  the  Consent  of  the  Legisla 
ture  of  the  State  in  which  the  Same  shall  be,  for 
the  Erection  of  Forts,  Magazines,  Arsenals, 
dock- Yards,  and  other  needful  Buildings ; — 
And 

To  make  all  Laws  which  shall  be  necessary 
and  proper  for  carrying  into  Execution  the  fore 
going  Powers,  and  all  other  Powers  vested  by 
this  Constitution  in  the  Government  of  the 
United  States,  or  in  any  Department  or  Officer 
thereof. 

Sect.  9.  The  Migration  or  Importation  of  such 
Persons  as  any  of  the  States  now  existing  shall 
think  proper  to  admit,  shall  not  be  prohibited 
by  the  Congress  prior  to  the  Year  one  thousand 
eight  hundred  and  eight,  but  a  Tax  or  duty  may 
be  imposed  on  such  Importation,  not  exceeding 
ten  dollars  for  each  Person. 

The  Privilege  of  the  Writ  of  Habeas  Corpus 
shall  not  be  suspended,  unless  when  in  Cases  of 
Rebellion  or  Invasion  the  Public  Safety  may 
require  it. 

No  Bill  of  Attainder  or  ex  post  facto  Law 
shall  be  passed. 

No  Capitation,  or  other  direct,  Tax  shall  be 
laid,  unless  in  Proportion  to  the  Census  or 
Enumeration  herein  before  directed  to  be  taken. 

No  Tax  or  Duty  shall  be  laid  on  Articles  ex 
ported  from  any  State. 

No  Preference  shall  be  given  by  any  Regula 
tion  of  Commerce  or  Revenue  to  the  Ports  of 


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166 


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one  State  over  those  of  another  ;  nor  shall  Vessels 
bound  to,  or  from,  one  State,  be  obliged  to  enter, 
clear,  or  pay  Duties  in  another. 

No  Money  shall  be  drawn  from  the  Treasury, 
but  in  Consequence  of  Appropriations  made  by 
Law ;  and  a  regular  Statement  and  Account  of 
the  Receipts  and  Expenditures  of  all  public 
Money  shall  be  published  from  time  to  time. 

No  Title  of  Nobility  shall  be  granted  by  the 
United  States ;  And  no  Person  holding  any 
Office  of  Profit  or  Trust  under  them,  shall,  with 
out  the  Consent  of  the  Congress,  accept  of  any 
present,  Emolument,  Office,  or  Title,  of  any 
kind  whatever,  from  any  King,  Prince,  or  for 
eign  State. 

Sect.  10.  No  State  shall  enter  into  any  Treaty, 
Alliance,  or  Confederation ;  grant  Letters  of 
Marque  and  Reprisal ;  coin  Money ;  emit  Bills 
of  Credit ;  make  any  Thing  but  gold  and  silver 
Coin  a  Tender  in  Payment  of  Debts  ;  pass  any 
Bill  of  Attainder,  ex  post  facto  Law,  or  Law 
impairing  the  Obligation  of  Contracts,  or  grant 
any  Title  of  Nobility. 

No  State  shall,  without  the  Consent  of  the 
Congress,  lay  any  Imposts  or  Duties  on  Imports 
or  Exports,  except  what  may  be  absolutely  neces 
sary  for  executing  its  inspection  Laws ;  and  the 
net  Produce  of  all  Duties  and  Imposts,  laid  by 
any  State  on  Imports  or  Exports,  shall  be  for 
the  Use  of  the  Treasury  of  the  United  States ; 
and  all  such  Laws  shall  be  subject  to  the  Revis 
ion  and  Controul  of  the  Congress. 

No  State  shall,  without  the  Consent  of  Con 
gress,  lay  any  Duty  of  Tonnage,  keep  Troops,  or 
Ships  of  War  in  time  of  Peace,  enter  into  any 
Agreement  or  Compact  with  another  State,  or 
with  a  foreign  Power,  or  engage  in  War,  unless 
actually  invaded,  or  in  such  imminent  Danger 
as  will  not  admit  of  delay. 

ART.  II. — Sect.  1.  The  executive  Power  shall 
be  vested  in  a  President  of  the  United  States  of 
America.  He  shall  hold  his  Office  during  the 
Term  of  four  Years,  and,  together  with  the  Vice 
President,  chosen  for  the  same  Term,  be  elected, 
as  follows. 

Each  State  shall  appoint,  in  such  Manner  as 
the  Legislature  thereof  may  direct,  a  Number 
of  Electors,  equal  to  the  whole  Number  of  Sena 
tors  and  Representatives  to  which  the  State  may 
be  entitled  in  the  Congress :  but  no  Senator  or 
Representative,  or  Person  holding  an  Office  of 
Trust  or  Profit  under  the  United  States,  shall  be 
appointed  an  Elector. 

The  Electors  shall  meet  in  their  respective 
States,  and  vote  by  Ballot  for  two  Persons,  of 
whom  one  at  least  shall  not  be  an  Inhabitant  of 
the  same  State  with  themselves.  And  they  shall 
make  a  List  of  all  the  Persons  voted  for,  and  of 
the  Number  of  Votes  for  each  ;  which  List  they 
shall  sign  and  certify,  and  transmit  sealed  to  the 
Seat  of  the  Government  of  the  United  States, 
directed  to  the  President  of  the  Senate.  The 
President  of  the  Senate  shall,  in  the  Presence 
of  the  Senate  and  House  of  Representatives,  open 
all  the  Certificates,  and  the  Votes  shall  then  be 
counted.  The  Person  having  the  greatest  Num 
ber  of  Votes  shall  be  the  President,  if  such  Num 
ber  be  a  Majority  of  the  whole  Number  of  Elec 
tors  appointed ;  and  if  there  be  more  than  one 
who  have  such  Majority,  and  have  an  equal 
Number  of  Votes,  then  the  House  of  Represen 
tatives  shall  immediately  chuse  by  Ballot  one  of 


them  for  President ;  and  if  no  Person  have  a 
Majority,  then  from  the  five  highest  on  the  List 
the  said  House  shall  in  like  Manner  chuse  the 
President.  But  in  chusing  the  President,  the 
Votes  shall  be  taken  by  States,  the  Representa 
tion  from  each  State  having  one  Vote ;  A  quo 
rum  for  this  Purpose  shall  consist  of  a  Member 
or  Members  from  two  thirds  of  the  States,  and  a 
Majority  of  all  the  States  shall  be  necessary  to  a 
Choice.  In  every  Case,  after  the  Choice  of  the 
President,  the  Person  having  the  greatest  Num 
ber  of  Votes  of  the  Electors  shall  be  the  Vice 
President.  But  if  there  should  remain  two  or 
more  who  have  equal  Votes,  the  Senate  shall 
chuse  from  them  by  Ballot  the  Vice  President. 

The  Congress  may  determine  the  Time  of 
chusing  the  Electors,  and  the  Day  on  which  they 
shall  give  their  Votes ;  which  Day  shall  be  the 
same  throughout  the  United  States. 

No  Person  except  a  natural  born  Citizen,  or  a 
Citizen  of  the  United  States,  at  the  time  of  the 
Adoption  of  this  Constitution,  shall  be  eligible 
to  the  Office  of  President ;  neither  shall  any  per 
son  be  eligible  to  that  Office  who  shall  not  have 
attained  the  Age  of  thirty  five  Years,  and  been 
fourteen  Years  a  Resident  within  the  United 
States. 

In  Case  of  the  Removal  of  the  President  from 
Office,  or  of  his  Death,  Resignation,  or  Inability 
to  discharge  the  Powers  and  Duties  of  the  said 
Office,  the  Same  shall  devolve  on  the  Vice  Presi 
dent,  and  the  Congress  may  by  Law  provide  for 
the  Case  of  Removal,  Death,  Resignation  or  In 
ability,  both  of  the  President  and  Vice  President, 
declaring  what  Officer  shall  then  act  as  Presi 
dent,  and  such  Officer  shall  act  accordingly,  until 
the  Disability  be  removed,  or  a  President  shall 
be  elected. 

The  President  shall,  at  stated  Times,  receive 
for  his  Services,  a  Compensation,  which  shall 
neither  be  encreased  nor  diminished  during  the 
Period  for  which  he  shall  have  been  elected,  and 
he  shall  not  receive  within  that  Period  any  other 
Emolument  from  the  United  States,  or  any  of 
them. 

Before  he  enter  on  the  Execution  of  his  Office, 
he  shall  take  the  following  Oath  or  Affirmation  : 
— "I  do  solemnly  swear  (or  affirm)  that  I  will 
faithfully  execute  the  Office  of  President  of  the 
United  States,  and  will  to  the  best  of  my  Abil 
ity,  preserve,  protect  and  defend  the  Constitution 
of  the  United  States." 

Sect.  2.  The  President  shall  be  Commander  in 
Chief  of  the  Army  and  Navy  of  the  United 
States,  and  of  the  Militia  of  the  several  States, 
when  called  into  the  actual  Service  of  the 
United  States ;  he  may  require  the  Opinion,  in 
writing,  of  the  principal  Officer  in  each  of  the 
executive  Departments,  upon  any  Subject  re 
lating  to  the  Duties  of  their  respective  Offices, 
and  he  shall  have  Power  to  grant  Reprieves  and 
Pardons  for  Offences  against  the  United  States, 
except  in  Cases  of  Impeachment. 

He  shall  have  Power,  by  and  with  the  Advice 
and  Consent  of  the  Senate,  to  make  Treaties, 
provided  two  thirds  of  the  Senators  present  con 
cur;  and  he  shall  nominate,  and  by  and  with 
the  Advice  and  Consent  of  the  Senate,  shall  ap 
point  Ambassadors,  other  public  Ministers  and 
Consuls,  Judges  of  the  supreme  Court,  and  all 
other  Officers  of  the  United  States,  whose  Ap 
pointments  are  not  herein  otherwise  provided 


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167 


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for,  and  which  shall  be  established  by  Law  ;  but 
the  Congress  may  by  Law  vest  the  Appointment 
of  such  inferior  Officers,  as  they  think  proper,  in 
the  President  alone,  in  the  Courts  of  Law,  or  in 
the  Heads  of  Departments. 

The  President  shall  have  power  to  fill  up  all 
Vacancies  that  may  happen  during  the  Recess 
of  the  Senate,  by  granting  Commissions  which 
shall  expire  at  the  End  of  their  next  Session. 

Sect.  3.  He  shall  from  time  to  time  give  to  the 
Congress  Information  of  the  State  of  the  Union, 
and  recommend  to  their  Consideration  such 
Measures  as  he  shall  judge  necessary  and  expe 
dient  ;  he  may,  on  extraordinary  Occasions,  con^ 
vene  both  Houses,  or  either  of  them,  and  in  Case 
of  Disagreement  between  them,  with  Respect  to 
the  Time  of  Adjournment,  he  may  adjourn  them 
to  such  Time  as  he  shall  think  proper  ;  he  shall 
receive  Ambassadors  and  other  public  Ministers  ; 
he  shall  take  Care  that  the  Laws  be  faithfully 
executed,  and  shall  Commission  all  the  Officers 
of  the  United  States. 

Sect.  4.  The  President,  Vice  President  and  all 
civil  Officers  of  the  United  States,  shall  be  re 
moved  from  Office  on  Impeachment  for,  and 
Conviction  of,  Treason,  Bribery,  or  other  high 
Crimes  and  Misdemeanors. 

ART.  III.— Sect.  1.  The  judicial  Power  of  the 
United  States,  shall  be  vested  in  one  supreme 
Court,  and  in  such  inferior  Courts  as  the  Con 
gress  may  from  time  to  time  ordain  and  estab 
lish.  The  Judges,  both  of  the  supreme  and  in 
ferior  Courts,  shall  hold  their  Offices  during 
good  Behaviour,  and  shall,  at  stated  Times,  re 
ceive  for  their  Services,  a  Compensation,  which 
shall  not  be  diminished  during  their  Continuance 
in  Office. 

Sect.  2.  The  judicial  Power  shall  extend  to  all 
Cases,  in  Law  and  Equity,  arising  under  this 
Constitution,  the  Laws  of  the  United  States,  and 
Treaties  made,  or  which  shall  be  made,  under 
their  authority ; — to  all  Cases  affecting  Ambas 
sadors,  other  public  Ministers  and  Consuls ; — 
to  all  Cases  of  admiralty  and  maritime  Juris 
diction  ; — to  Controversies  to  which  the  United 
States  shall  be  a  Party ; — to  Controversies  be 
tween  two  or  more  States  ; — between  a  State  and 
Citizens  of  another  State ; — between  Citizens  of 
different  States, — between  Citizens  of  the  same 
State  claiming  Lands  under  Grants  of  different 
States,  and  between  a  State,  or  the  Citizens 
thereof,  and  foreign  States,  Citizens  or  Subjects. 

In  all  Cases  affecting  Ambassadors,  other  pub 
lic  Ministers  and  Consuls,  and  those  in  which  a 
State  shall  be  a  Party,  the  supreme  Court  shall 
have  original  Jurisdiction.  In  all  the  other  Cases 
before  mentioned,  the  supreme  Court  shall  have 
appellate  Jurisdiction,  both  as  to  Law  and  Fact, 
with  such  Exceptions,  and  under  such  Regula 
tions  as  the  Congress  shall  make. 

The  Trial  of  "all  Crimes,  except  in  Cases  of 
Impeachment,  shall  be  by  Jury  ;  and  such  Trial 
shall  be  held  in  the  State  where  the  said  Crimes 
shall  have  been  committed  ;  but  when  not  com 
mitted  within  any  State,  the  Trial  shall  be  at 
such  Place  or  Places  as  the  Congress  may  by 
Law  have  directed. 

Sect.  3.  Treason  against  the  United  States, 
shall  consist  only  in  levying  War  against  them, 
or  in  adhering  to  their  Enemies,  giving  them 
Aid  and  Comfort.  No  Person  shall  be  convicted 
of  Treason  unless  on  the  Testimony  of  two  Wit 


nesses  to  the  same  overt  Act,  or  on  Confession  in 
open  Court. 

The  Congress  shall  have  Power  to  declare  the 
Punishment  of  Treason,  but  no  Attainder  of 
Treason  shall  work  Corruption  of  Blood,  or 
Forfeiture  except  during  the  Life  of  the  Person 
attainted. 

ART.  IV.— Sect.  1.  Full  Faith  and  Credit  shall 
be  given  in  each  State  to  the  public  Acts,  Rec 
ords,  and  judicial  Proceedings  of  every  other 
State.  And  the  Congress  may  by  general  Laws 
prescribe  the  Manner  in  which  such  Acts,  Rec 
ords  and  Proceedings  shall  be  proved,  and  the 
Effect  thereof. 

Sect.  2.  The  Citizens  of  each  State  shall  be 
entitled  to  all  Privileges  and  Immunities  of 
Citizens  in  the  several  States. 

A  Person  charged  in  any  State  with  Treason, 
Felony,  or  other  Crime,  who  shall  flee  from 
Justice,  and  be  found  in  another  State,  shall  on 
Demand  of  the  executive  Authority  of  the  State 
from  which  he  fled,  be  delivered  up,  to  be  re 
moved  to  the  State  having  Jurisdiction  of  the 
Crime. 

No  Person  held  to  Service  or  Labour  in  one 
State,  under  the  Laws  thereof,  escaping  into 
another,  shall,  in  Consequence  of  any  Law  or 
Regulation  therein,  be  discharged  from  such 
Service  or  Labour,  but  shall  be  delivered  up  on 
Claim  of  the  party  to  whom  such  Service  or  La 
bour  may  be  due. 

Sect.  3.  New  States  may  be  admitted  by  the 
Congress  into  this  Union ;  but  no  new  State 
shall  be  formed  or  erected  within  the  Jurisdic 
tion  of  any  other  State  ;  nor  any  State  be  formed 
by  the  Junction  of  two  or  more  States,  or  Parts 
of  States,  without  the  Consent  of  the  Legisla 
tures  of  the  States  concerned  as  well  as  of  the 
Congress. 

The  Congress  shall  have  Power  to  dispose  of 
and  make  all  needful  Rules  and  Regulations  re 
specting  the  Territory  or  other  Property  belong 
ing  to  the  United  States  ;  and  nothing  in  this 
Constitution  shall  be  so  construed  as  to  Prejudice 
any  Claims  of  the  United  States,  or  of  any  par 
ticular  State. 

Sect.  4.  The  United  States  shall  guarantee  to 
every  State  in  this  Union  a  Republican  Form  of 
Government,  and  shall  protect  each  of  them 
against  Invasion ;  and  on  Application  of  the 
Legislature,  or  of  the  Executive  (when  the  Leg 
islature  cannot  be  convened)  against  domestic 
Violence. 

ART.  V. — The  Congress,  whenever  two  thirds 
of  both  Houses  shall  deem  it  necessary,  shall 
propose  Amendments  to  this  Constitution,  or,  on 
the  Application  of  the  Legislatures  of  two  thirds 
of  the  several  States,  shall  call  a  Convention  for 
proposing  Amendments,  which,  in  either  Case, 
shall  be  valid  to  all  Intents  and  Purposes,  as 
Part  of  this  Constitution,  when  ratified  by  the 
Legislatures  of  three  fourths  of  the  several  States, 
or  by  Conventions  in  three  fourths  thereof,  as 
the  one  or  the  other  Mode  of  Ratification  may  be 
proposed  by  the  Congress ;  Provided  that  no 
Amendment  which  may  be  made  prior  to  the 
Year  One  thousand  eight  hundred  and  eight 
shall  in  any  Manner  affect  the  first  and  fourth 
Clauses  in  the  Ninth  Section  of  the  first  Article ; 
and  that  no  State,  without  its  Consent,  shall  be 
deprived  of  its  equal  Suffrage  in  the  Senate. 

ART.  VI. — All  Debts  contracted  and  Engage- 


CONSTITUTION 


168 


CONSTITUTION 


merits  entered  into,  before  the  Adoption  of  this 
Constitution,  shall  be  as  valid  against  the  United 
States  under  this  Constitution,  as  under  the 
Confederation. 

This  Constitution,  and  the  Laws  of  the  United 
States  which  shall  be  made  in  Pursuance  thereof; 
and  all  Treaties  made,  or  which  shall  be  made, 
under  the  Authority  of  the  United  States,  shall 
be  the  supreme  Law  of  the  Land  ;  and  the  Judges 
in  every  State  shall  be  bound  thereby,  any  Thing 
in  the  Constitution  or  Laws  of  any  State  to  the 
Contrary  notwithstanding. 

The  Senators  and  Kepresentatives  before  men 
tioned,  and  the  Members  of  the  several  State 
Legislatures,  and  all  executive  and  judicial  Offi 
cers,  both  of  the  United  States  and  of  the  several 
States,  shall  be  bound  by  Oath  or  Affirmation,  to 
support  this  Constitution ;  but  no  religious  Test 
shall  ever  be  required  as  a  Qualification  to  any 
Office  or  public  Trust  under  the  United  States. 

ART.  VII.— The  Katification  of  the  Conven 
tions  of  nine  States,  shall  be  sufficient  for  the 
Establishment  of  this  Constitution  between  the 
States  so  ratifying  the  Same. 

AMENDMENTS. 

ART.  I. — Congress  shall  make  no  law  respect 
ing  an  establishment  of  religion,  or  prohibiting 
the  free  exercise  thereof;  or  abridging  the  free 
dom  of  speech,  or  of  the  press ;  or  the  right  of 
the  people  peaceably  to  assemble,  and  to  petition 
the  Government  for  a  redress  of  grievances. 

ART.  II. — A  well  regulated  Militia,  being 
necessary  to  the  security  of  a  free  State,  the  right 
of  the  people  to  keep  and  bear  Arms  shall  riot  be 
infringed. 

ART.  III. — No  Soldier  shall,  in  time  of  peace, 
be  quartered  in  any  house,  without  the  consent 
of  the  Owner,  nor  in  time  of  war,  but  in  a  man 
ner  to  be  prescribed  by  law. 

ART.  IV.— The  right  of  the  people  to  be  secure 
in  their  persons,  houses,  papers,  and  effects, 
against  unreasonable  searches  and  seizures,  shall 
not  be  violated,  and  no  Warrants  shall  issue,  but 
upon  probable  cause,  supported  by  Oath v or  affir 
mation,  and  particularly  describing  the  place  to 
be  searched,  and  the  persons  or  things  to  be 
seized. 

ART.  V. — No  person  shall  be  held  to  answer 
for  a  capital,  or  otherwise  infamous  crime,  unless 
on  a  presentment  or  indictment  of  a  Grand  Jury, 
except  in  cases  arising  in  the  land  or  naval 
forces,  or  in  the  Militia,  when  in  actual  service 
in  time  of  War  or  public  danger ;  nor  shall  any 
person  be  subject  for  the  same  offence  to  be 
twice  put  in  jeopardy  of  life  or  limb ;  nor  shall 
be  compelled  in  any  Criminal  Case  to  be  a  wit 
ness  against  himself,  nor  to  be  deprived  of  life, 
liberty,  or  property,  without  due  process  of  law  ; 
nor  shall  private  property  be  taken  for  public 
use,  without  just  compensation. 

ART.  VI. — In  all  criminal  prosecutions,  the 
accused  shall  enjoy  the  right  to  a  speedy  and 
public  trial,  by  an  impartial  jury  of  the  State 
and  district  wherein  the  crime  shall  have  been 
committed,  which  district  shall  have  been  pre 
viously  ascertained  by  law,  and  to  be  informed 
of  the  nature  and  cause  of  the  accusation  ;  to  be 
confronted  with  the  witnesses  against  him ;  to 
have  compulsory  process  for  obtaining  Witnesses 
in  his  favor,  and  to  have  the  Assistance  of  Coun 
sel  for  his  defence. 


ART.  VII. — In  suits  at  common  law,  where 
the  value  in  controversy  shall  exceed  twenty 
dollars,  the  right  of  trial  by  jury  shall  be  pre 
served,  and  no  fact  tried  by  a  jury  shall  be 
otherwise  re-examined  in  any  Court  of  the  United 
States,  than  according  to  the  rules  of  the  com 
mon  law. 

ART.  VIII. — Excessive  bail  shall  not  be  re 
quired,  nor  excessive  fines  imposed,  nor  cruel  and 
unusual  punishments  inflicted. 

ART.  IX. — The  enumeration  in  the  Consti 
tution,  of  certain  rights,  shall  not  be  construed 
to  deny  or  disparage  others  retained  by  the 
people. 

ART.  X. — The  powers  not  delegated  to  the 
United  States  by  the  Constitution,  nor  prohib 
ited  by  it  to  the  States,  are  reserved  to  the  States 
respectively,  or  to  the  people. 

ART.  XI. — The  Judicial  power  of  the  United 
States  shall  not  be  construed  to  extend  to  any 
suit  in  law  or  equity,  commenced  or  prosecuted 
against  one  of  the  United  States  by  Citizens  of 
another  State,  or  by  Citizens  or  Subjects  of  any 
Foreign  State. 

ART.  XII.— The  Electors  shall  meet  in  their 
respective  States,  and  vote  by  ballot  for  Presi 
dent  and  Vice-President,  one^of  whom,  at  least, 
shall  not  be  an  inhabitant  of  the  same  State  with 
themselves,  they  shall  name  in  their  ballots  the 
person  voted  for  as  President,  and  in  distinct 
ballots  the  person  voted  for  as  Vice-President, 
and  they  shall  make  distinct  lists  of  all  persons 
voted  for  as  President,  and  of  all  persons  voted 
for  as  Vice-President,  and  of  the  number  of 
votes  for  each,  which  lists  they  shall  sign  and 
certify;  and  transmit  sealed  to  the  seat  of  the 
government  of  the  United  States,  directed  to 
the  President  of  the  Senate ; — The  President  of 
the  Senate  shall,  in  the  presence  of  the  Senate 
and  House  of  Representatives,  open  all  the  cer 
tificates  and  the  votes  shall  then  be  counted  ; — 
The  person  having  the  greatest  number  of  votes 
for  President,  shall  be  the  President,  if  such 
number  be  a  majority  of  the  whole  number  of 
Electors  appointed  ;  and  if  no  person  have  such 
majority,  then  from  the  persons  having  the  high 
est  numbers  not  exceeding  three  on  the  list  of 
those  voted  for  as  President,  the  House  of  Kepre 
sentatives  shall  choose  immediately,  by  ballot, 
the  President.  But  in  choosing  the  President, 
the  votes  shall  be  taken  by  States,  the  repre 
sentation  from  each  State  having  one  vote ;  a 
quorum  for  this  purpose  shall  consist  of  a  mem 
ber  or  members  from  two-thirds  of  the  States, 
and  a  majority  of  all  the  States  shall  be  neces 
sary  to  a  choice.  And  if  the  House  of  Repre 
sentatives  shall  not  choose  a  President  whenever 
the  right  of  choice  shall  devolve  upon  them,  be 
fore  the  fourth  day  of  March  next  following, 
then  the  Vice-President  shall  act  as  President, 
as  in  the  case  of  the  death  or  other  constitutional 
disability  of  the  President.  The  person  having 
the  greatest  number  of  votes  as  Vice-President, 
shall  be  the  Vice-President,  if  such  number  be 
a  majority  of  the  whole  number  of  Electors 
appointed,  and  if  no  person  have  a  majority, 
then  from  the  two  highest  numbers  on  the  list, 
the  Senate  shall  choose  the  Vice-President ;  a 
quorum  for  the  purpose  shall  consist  of  two- 
thirds  of  the  whole  number  of  Senators,  and  a 
majority  of  the  whole  number  shall  be  neces 
sary  to'  a  choice.  But  no  person  constitution- 


CONSTITUTION 


169 


CONTINENTAL 


ally  ineligible  to  the  office  of  President  shall  be 
eligible  to  that  of  Vice-President  of  the  United 
States. 

ART.  XIII. — Sect.  1.  Neither  slavery  nor  in 
voluntary  servitude,  except  as  a  punishment  for 
crime  whereof  the  party  shall  have  been  duly 
convicted,  shall  exist  within  the  United  States, 
or  any  place  subject  to  their  jurisdiction. 

Sect.  2.  Congress  shall  have  power  to  enforce 
this  article  by  appropriate  legislation. 

ART.  XIV. — Sect.  1.  All  persons  born  or  nat 
uralized  in  the  United  States,  and  subject  to  the 
jurisdiction  thereof,  are  citizens  of  the  United 
States  and  of  the  State  wherein  they  reside.  No 
State  shall  make  or  enforce  any  law  which  shall 
abridge  the  privileges  or  immunities  of  citizens 
of  the  United  States ;  nor  shall  any  State  de 
prive  any  person  of  life,  liberty,  or  property, 
without  due  process  of  law ;  nor  deny  to  any 
person  within  its  jurisdiction  the  equal  protec 
tion  of  the  laws. 

Sect.  2.  Eepresentatives  shall  be  apportioned 
among  the  several  States  according  to  their  re 
spective  numbers,  counting  the  whole  number 
of  persons  in  each  State,  excluding  Indians  not 
taxed.  But  when  the  right  to  vote  at  any  elec 
tion  for  the  choice  of  electors  for  President  and 
Vice  President  of  the  United  States,  Representa 
tives  in  Congress,  the  Executive  and  Judicial 
officers  of  a  State,  or  the  members  of  the  Legis 
lature  thereof,  is  denied  to  any  of  the  male  in 
habitants  of  such  State,  being  twenty-one  years 
of  age,  and  citizens  of  the  United  States,  or  in 
any  way  abridged,  except  for  participation  in  re 
bellion,  or  other  crime,  the  basis  of  representa 
tion  therein  shall  be  reduced  in  the  proportion 
which  the  number  of  such  male  citizens  shall 
bear  to  the  whole  number  of  male  citizens  twenty- 
one  years  of  age  in  such  State. 

Sect.  3.  No  person  shall  be  a  Senator  or  Repre 
sentative  in  Congress,  or  elector  of  President  and 
Vice  President,  "or  hold  any  office,  civil  or  mili 
tary,  under  the  United  States,  or  under  any 
State,  who,  having  previously  taken  an  oath,  as 
a  member  of  Congress,  or  as  an  officer  of  the 
United  States,  or  as  a  member  of  any  State  legis 
lature,  or  as  an  executive  or  judicial  officer  of  any 
State,  to  support  the  Constitution  of  the  United 
States,  shall  have  engaged  in  insurrection  or  re 
bellion  against  the  same,  or  given  aid  or  comfort 
to  the  enemies  thereof.  But  Congress  may  by  a 
vote  of  two-thirds  of  each  House,  remove  such 
disability. 

Sect.  4.  The  validity  of  the  public  debt  of  the 
United  States,  authorized  by  law,  including 
debts  incurred  for  payment  of  pensions  and 
bounties  for  services  in  suppressing  insurrection 
or  rebellion,  shall  not  be  questioned.  But  neither 
the  United  States  nor  any  State  shall  assume  or 
pay  any  debt  or  obligation  incurred  in  aid  of  in 
surrection  or  rebellion  against  the  United  States, 
or  any  claim  for  the  loss  or  emancipation  of  any 
slave  ;  but  all  such  debts,  obligations  and  claims 
shall  be  held  illegal  and  void. 

Sect.  5.  The  Congress  shall  have  power  to  en 
force,  by  appropriate  legislation,  the  provisions 
of  this  article. 

ART.  XV.— Sect.  1.  The  right  of  citizens  of 
the  United  States  to  vote  shall  not  be  denied  or 
abridged  by  the  United  States  or  by  any  State  on 
account  of  race,  color,  or  previous  condition  of 
servitude. 


Sect.  2.  The  Congress  shall  have  power  to  en 
force  this  article  by  appropriate  legislation. 

Construction  and  Repair,  Bureau  of.  The 
bureau  of  the  Navy  Department  which  has 
charge  of  dry-docks,  of  all  vessels  undergoing 
repairs,  and  of  the  designing,  building,  and 
fitting  out  of  vessels.  The  head  of  the  bureau 
is  the  chief  constructor  of  the  navy  and  ranks 
with  a  commodore. 

Consuls.  Commercial  agents  appointed  to 
reside  in  the  seaports  of  foreign  countries  with 
a  commission  to  watch  over  the  commercial 
rights  and  privileges  of  the  nation  deputing  them. 
Such  officers  appear  to  have  been  first  employed 
by  the  Italian  republics  to  protect  their  mer 
chants  engaged  in  trade  in  the  cities  of  the 
Levant.  They  have  been  multiplied  and  ex 
tended  to  every  part  of  the  world  where  naviga 
tion  and  commerce  can  successfully  penetrate, 
and  their  duties  and  privileges  are  now  generally 
limited  and  defined  in  treaties  of  commerce, 
or  by  the  statute  regulations  of  the  country 
which  they  represent.  The  laws  of  the  United 
States  respecting  consuls  authorize  them  to  re 
ceive  the  protests  of  masters  and  others  relating 
to  American  commerce,  and  they  declare  that 
consular  certificates  under  seal  shall  receive  faith 
and  credit  in  the  courts  of  the  United  States.  It 
is  made  their  duty,  where  the  laws  of  the  coun 
try  permit,  to  administer  on  the  personal  estates 
of  American  citizens  dying  within  their  con 
sulates  and  leaving  no  legal  representative,  and 
to  take  charge  of  and  secure  the  effects  of  stranded 
American  vessels,  in  the  absence  of  the  master, 
owner,  or  consignee ;  and  they  are  bound  to 
provide  for  destitute  seamen  within  their  con 
sulates,  and  to  send  them  at  the  public  expense 
to  the  United  States.  It  is  also  made  their  duty 
to  reclaim  deserters,  to  discountenance  insub 
ordination  and  to  lend  their  aid  to  the  local 
authorities  for  that  purpose,  and  to  discharge 
seamen  cruelly  treated.  No  representative  or 
diplomatic  character  attaches  to  consuls  except 
by  treaty,  nor  can  they  be  invested  with  judicial 
powers  except  with  the  consent  of  the  govern 
ment  of  the  country  in  which  they  reside. 

CONSULAR  AGENTS.  Subordinates  of  consuls, 
who  exercise  their  powers  at  ports  or  places  dif 
ferent  from  those  at  which  their  principals  are 
located. 

CONSUL-GENERAL.  A  consul  having  jurisdic 
tion  in  several  places,  or  over  several  consuls. 

DEPUTY-CONSULS.  Subordinates  of  consuls, 
who  exercise  their  powers  and  perform  their 
duties  at  the  same  ports  or  places  in  which  their 
principals  are  located.  See  COMMERCIAL 
AGENT. 

VICE-CONSULS.  Consular  officers  temporarily 
holding  the  place  of  consuls  during  the  absence 
of  the  latter,  or  when  they  have  been  relieved. 
The  vice-consul  has  no  powers  or  functions  when 
the  consul  is  present  at  his  post. 

Census.     A  title  of  Neptune. 

Contact.     A  touching  or  meeting  of  bodies. 

Contents.  A  document  which  the  master  of 
a  merchantman  must  deliver  to  the  custom-house 
searcher  before  he  can  clear  outwards ;  it  de 
scribes  the  vessel's  destination,  cargo,  and  all 
necessary  particulars. 

Continental  System.  In  modern  history,  the 
celebrated  plan  of  the  Emperor  Napoleon  for 
excluding  the  merchandise  of  England  from  all 


CONTINENTS 


CONTINENTS 


parts  of  the  continent  of  Europe.  It  was  com 
menced  by  the  decree  of  Berlin,  issued  Novem 
ber  21,  1806,  which  declared  the  British  islands 
in  a  state  of  blockade,  and  made  prisoners  of  war 
all  Englishmen  found  in  the  territories  occupied 
by  France  and  her  allies.  The  blockade  thus 
instituted  was  far  from  complete ;  and  in  the 
course  of  events  licenses  were  expressly  granted 
by  the  government  for  its  evasion,  and  became  a 
source  of  revenue.  Some  writers  have  affirmed 
that  British  commerce  lost  by  this  decree  and 
those  whicli  followed  it  more  than  sixty  millions 
sterling  in  eighteen  months,  but  this  is  an  enor 
mous  exaggeration. 

Continents.  Continents  are  the  natural  grand 
divisions  of  the  earth's  surface.  There  are  six 
continents;  viz.,  Asia,  Africa,  Europe,  North 
America,  South  America,  and  Australia.  To 
these  may  be  added,  provisionally,  the  Antarctic 
Continent,  lying  about  the  s'outh  pole. 

1.  Asia  is  the  largest,  and  was  the  first  civilized 
portion  of  the  globe.    It  extends  from  Singapore, 
in  lat.  1°  IT  N.,  to  Cape  Severo,  in  78°  N.,  and 
from  East  Cape,  in  Ion.  169°  W.,  to  Cape  Baba, 
in  26°  E.  Ion.,  covering  an  area  of  17,500,000 
square  miles.     It  is   nearly  square,  with  many 
outlying  peninsulas.     Its  shores  are  washed  by 
3  oceans,  and  it  has  numerous  gulfs,  bays,  and 
seas,  there  being  no  less  than  13  large  seas  wash 
ing  its  shores.     Many  islands  also  line  its  coast. 
Its  mountains  are  the  highest  in  the  world,  the 
Himalaya,    Hindoo    Koosh,    Thian-Shan,    and 
Yablonoi  ranges  being  the  principal  ones.     Its 
many  rivers  are  large,  the  Obi,  Yenisei,  Lena, 
Amoor,  Hoang-Ho,  Yang-tse-Kiang,  Cambodia, 
Irrawaddy,  Burramapootra,  Ganges,  Indus,  Ti 
gris,  and  Euphrates   being  chief  among  them. 
The  northern  part  consists  of  extensive  plateaus, 
sloping  to  the  Arctic,  the  central  of  elevated 
table-lands,  surrounded  by  high  mountain  chains, 
and  the  eastern  and  southern  portions  of  alluvial 
plains. 

The  great  desert  of  Gobi  extends  through  the 
centre,  and  much  of  Arabia  is  also  desert  land. 
The  predominating  races  that  inhabit  Asia  are 
of  the  Caucasian  and  Mongolian  families.  There 
are  780,500,000  people,  or  about  44  to  the  square 
mile.  China,  Kussia,  Persia,  Turkey,  and  Great 
Britain  are  the  predominating  powers.  The  en 
tire  coast  of  Asia  has  been  explored,  but  much 
of  the  interior  is  yet  unknown. 

2.  Africa  is  a  vast  peninsula,  connected  to  Asia 
by  the  Isthmus  of  Suez,   and  separated  from 
Europe  by  the  Mediterranean  and  the  Straits  of 
Gibraltar.     Its  northern  cape  is  Blanco,  in  lat. 
37°  21'  N.,  its  southerly,  Agulhas  Cape,  in  34° 
53'  S. ;  its  easterly  point,  Cape  Guardafui,  in  51° 
30'  E.,  and  its  westerly,  Cape  Verde,  in  17°  33' 
W.   Ion.     It  contains   some    12,000,000  square 
miles,  inhabited  by  80,000,000  people,  or  about  7 
to  the  mile.     It  is  a  solid  mass,  with  an  uninter 
rupted  coast-line,  there  being  few  indentations 
and  no  peninsulas.    The  Mediterranean,  the  Red 
Sea,  Indian  Ocean,  and  Atlantic  wash  its  coasts. 
Long  an  unknown  land,  it  is  the  field  of  modern 
exploration,  and  is  becoming  better  known.     Its 
uniform    coast-line    corresponds    with   its   uni 
formity  of  surface.      The  southern   table-land, 
from  3000  to  4000  feet  high,  is  separated  from 
the  coast  by  ranges  of  mountains.     From  15°  S. 
to  15°  N.  is  a  vast  table-land  with  a  depressed 
lake  region,  and  north  of  15°  is  the  great  Sahara 


Desert,  only  varied  by  the  fertile  lands  near  the 
coast  and  the  alluvial  plain  of  Egypt.  The 
principal  rivers  are  the  Nile,  Zambesi,  Orange, 
Congo,  Niger,  and  Senegal.  The  chief  moun 
tain  ranges  are  the  Atlas,  the  Kong,  Drachen- 
berg,  and  the  Sarnen  ranges.  Many  large  lakes 
exist,  the  Victoria  and  Albert  Nyanza,.  Ngami, 
and  Tchad  being  the  largest.  The  inhabitants 
belong  to  7  races,  negroes  predominating.  The 
most  powerful  rulers  are  the  Sultans  of  Morocco, 
Tunis,  and  Zanzibar,  the  king  of  Abyssinia, 
pacha  of  Egypt,  and  Great  Britain  and  France 
in  their  colonies  of  Cape  Colony  and  Algiers. 

3.  Europe  is  the  most  populous,  but,  next  to 
Australia,    the    least    continent    of    the    globe. 
It  extends   from   Cape  Tarifa,  lat.   36°  N.,  to 
Nordkyn,    in    71°  N.  lat.,    and   from   Cape  Da 
Koca,  9°  30'  W.  Ion.,  to  66°  E.  Ion.,  containing 
3,767,222  square  miles,  inhabited  by  280,000,000 
people,  or  75  to  the  mile.     These  are  of  the  Cau 
casian  race,  and  are  far  in  advance  of  others  in 
progress  and  civilization. 

Europe  is  penetrated  by  many  seas  and  gulfs, 
and  has  many  outlying  peninsulas,  giving  her 
an  extended  coast-line.  Many  large  and  im 
portant  islands  lie  near  the  coasts,  Great  Britain 
chief  among  them.  By  far  the  greater  part  of 
the  country,  including  Russia,  North  Germany, 
Belgium,  and  Holland,  is  a  fertile  plain  sloping 
to  the  ocean.  The  principal  mountain  ranges 
are  the  Alps,  Pyrenees,  Caucasus,  Ural,  and 
Scandinavian  Mountains.  There  are  no  deserts, 
but  the  arid  steppes  of  Russia  and  the  puztas  of 
Hungary  approach  them  in  character.  The  Vol 
ga,  Danube,  Dnieper,  Don,  Rhine,  Elbe,  Vis 
tula,  Loire,  Rhone,  Tagus,  and  Po  are  the  prin 
cipal  rivers,  and  there  are  numerous  large  lakes. 

4.  North  America  extends  from  Point  Barrow, 
in  lat.  72°  N.,  to  Cape  Mariato,  in  lat.  8°  30' 
N.,  and  from  York  Point,  Ion.  56°  W.,  to  Cape 
Prince    of    Wales,    156°    W.    Ion.,    containing 
7,400,000  square   miles,  with   a   population   of 
74,000,000,  or  10  to  a  mile.     Three  oceans  wash 
the  coasts,  and  numerous  large  seas,  gulfs,  and 
bays  indent  them.     All  the  natural  features  are 
on  a  large  scale.     The  rivers  are  the  largest  in 
the  world.     The  chief  ones  are  the  Yukon,  Mac 
kenzie,  St.  Lawrence,  Mississippi  and  its  tribu 
taries,    Eio   Grande   del   Norte,    Colorado,    and 
Columbia.  More  lakes,  and  larger  ones,  are  found 
in  North  America  than  in  any  other  country. 
The  chief  ones  are  those  of  the  great  St.  Law 
rence  basin,  but  the  country  north  of  this  con 
tains  great  numbers  of  very  large  ones.   The  great 
mountain  chains  are  the  Rocky  Mountains  in  the 
west  and  the  Alleghanies  in  the  east.     There  are 
many  volcanoes.     A  great  part  of  the  country 
consists  of  fertile  plains,  well  watered  and  fruit 
ful.     North   America   is   divided    between    the 
United  States,  Great  Britain,  Denmark,  Mexico, 
and  the  Central  American  States. 

5.  South  America  extends  from  the  southern 
limit  of  North  America,  to  which  it  is  connected 
by  the  Isthmus  of  Panama,  to  Cape  Fro  ward, 
54°  S.,  and  from  Ion.  35°  W.  to  83°  W.,  contain 
ing  6,500,000  square  miles.     It  much  resembles 
Africa  in  being  a  solid  mass,  with  few  indenting 
bays  and  outlying   islands.     It  possesses  many 
large  rivers,  the  Amazon,  La  Plata,  Para,  San 
Francisco,     Orinoco,     Negro,    and    Magdalena 
being  the  principal  ones.     It  has  a  high  range 
of  mountains,    the   Andes    traversing   it  from 


CONTINGENT 


in 


CONYNGHAM 


north  to  south,  leaving  a  narrow  coast  on  the 
west  side,  and  other  ranges  near  the  coast  of  Bra 
zil.  The  interior  consists  of  vast  well-watered 
plains,  called  pampas  and  llanos.  Much  of  it 
has  not  been  explored.  The  continent  is  sparsely 
inhabited  by  30,000,000,  or  5  to  a  mile,  of  Indians 
and  Europeans,  with  half-breeds. 

6.  Australia,  the  smallest  continent,  extends 
from  Cape  York,  10°  39'  S.,  to  Wilson's  pro 
montory,  39°  12/S.,  and  from  Cape  Byron,  Ion. 
113°' 5'  E.,  to  Steep  Point,  153°  16'  E.,  contain 
ing  some  3,000,000  square  miles,  inhabited  by 
1,336,000  people,  natives  of  the  peculiar  Papuan 
race,  and  European  settlers.    It  belongs  to  Great 
Britain.     The  largest  river  is  the  Murray.     A 
range  or  two  of  mountains  exist,  but  most  of 
the  elevations  are  detached.      Few  lakes  exist, 
and  they  are  of  a  peculiar   nature,   very  shal 
low,  and  disappearing  quickly  in  warm  seasons. 
Much  of  the  interior  "is  unexplored.    A  few  large 
cities  are  built  on  the  continent,  mostly  in  the 
southern  part. 

7.  Antarctic  Continent.    A  name  given  to  the 
tracts  of  land  seen  about  the  South  Pole,  named 
Adelie,  Enderby,  Ballemny,  Sabrina,  Victoria, 
Louis   Philippe,  Graham,    and   Wilkes   Lands. 
First  seen  by  Wilkes  in  1842  ;  its  highest  latitude 
yet  found  was  78°  S.,  by  Sir  James  Koss, — a  high 
mountainous  land,  fringed  by  ice. — F.  S.  Bassett, 
Lieutenant  U.S.N. 

Contingent.  The  quota  of  armed  men,  or 
pecuniary  subsidy  which  one  nation  gives  to  an 
other  in  pursuance  of  an  agreement. 

Continuous-service  Certificate.  All  men  who 
enlist  for  three  years,  except  officers'  cooks, 
stewards,  and  servants,  will  receive,  upon  the 
expiration  of  their  enlistments,  if  they  shall  so 
elect,  continuous-service  certificates  in  lieu  of 
the  ordinary  or  honorable  discharges. 

All  persons  holding  continuous-service  cer 
tificates  will  be  entitled  to  receive  for  each  con 
tinuous  re-enlistment  for  three  years,  within 
three  months  from  the  dat.e  of  their  discharge, 
one  dollar  per  month  in  addition  to  the  pay  pre 
scribed  for  their  several  ratings ;  but  a  person 
failing  to  re-enlist  within  three  months  from  the 
date  of  his  discharge  will  cease  to  derive  any 
advantage  from  his  previous  continuous  enlist 
ments. 

The  continuous-service  certificate  will  embrace 
all  the  advantages  of  an  honorable  discharge  in 
cases  where  persons  are  recommended  for  the 
same,  and  must  always  show,  in  the  column  for 
the  purpose,  whether  or  not  the  person  is  entitled 
to  an  honorable  discharge. 

Cont-line.  The  space  between  the  bilges  of 
two  casks  stowed  side  by  side.  The  space  be 
tween  the  strands  of  a  rope ;  when  a  rope  is 
served  this  space  is  filled  up  with  the  worming 
so  that  the  service  will  be  smooth. 

Contraband  (It.  contra,  against;  bando,  an 
edict  or  proclamation).  In  commercial  lan 
guage,  goods  exported  from  or  imported  into  a 
country  against  its  laws. 

CONTRABAND  OF  WAR.  Such  articles  as  a 
belligerent  has  by  the  law  of  nations  the  right 
of  preventing  a  neutral  from  furnishing  to  his 
enemy.  See  INTERNATIONAL  LAW. 

Contract.  Supplies  for  the  navy  are,  as  far  as 
practicable,  purchased  by  contract.  The  Secre 
tary  of  the  Navy  is  forbidden  by  law  to  make 
any  contract  except  under  a  law  authorizing  the 


same,  or  under  an  appropriation  adequate  to  its 
fulfillment,  and  excepting  also  contracts  for  sub 
sistence  and  clothing.  All  persons  employed  in 
the  navy  are  prohibited  from  having  any  interest 
whatever  in  purchases  or  contracts  for  supplies 
for  the  navy,  and  from  receiving,  directly  or  in 
directly,  any  emolument '  or  gratuity  from  any 
contractor  or  other  person  furnishing  supplies, 
and  from  acting  as  agent  or  attorney  for  any 
such  persons.  No  action  will  lie  against  an 
officer  upon  contracts  made  by  him  in  his  official 
capacity  for  public  purposes,  and  within  the 
legitimate  scope  of  his  duties. 

CONTRACT  OF  AFFREIGHTMENT.  See  CHAR 
TER-PARTY. 

Contribution.  A  tax  levied  upon  a  conquered 
country  in  lieu  of  confiscation  of  property,  and 
as  some  indemnity  for  the  expenses  of  maintain 
ing  order  and  affording  protection.  General 
average  (which  see).  The  ratable  proportion 
which  each  of  several  underwriters  pays  when 
more  than  one  insurance  has  been  effected  on  the 
same  risk. 

Controller.  A  cast-iron  block  with  depres 
sions  on  the  upper  surface  which  fit  the  links  of 
the  cable  and  prevent  its  running  out.  It  can  be 
thrown  out  of  gear  by  means  of  a  short  lever. 

Convict-ship.  A  ship  appropriated  to  the 
use  of  convicts,  or  one  chartered  to  convey  con 
victs  to  their  destination. 

Convoy.  A  merchant  vessel  or  fleet  of  mer 
chant  vessels  protected  by  an  armed  force.  The 
ship  or  ships  which  conduct  and  defend  merchant 
vessels  while  proceeding  to  their  destination. 

CONVOY-INSTRUCTIONS.  The  written  or  printed 
regulations  supplied  by  the  senior  officer  to  each 
ship  of  the  convoy. 

CONVOY-LIST.  A  register  of  the  ships  com 
posing  the  convoy. 

Conyngham,  Gustavus,  Captain.  A  native 
of  Ireland,  emigrated  to  the  United  Colonies 
about  the  year  1767 ;  became  an  apprentice  to 
Capt.  Henderson,  then  in  the  Antigua  trade,  and 
continued  with  him  as  sailor  and  mate  until,  by 
Capt..  Henderson's  death,  he  was  promoted  to 
the  command  of  the  vessel  in  which  he  had  been 
serving,  the  "Molly."  Capt.  Conyngham  con 
tinued  in  the  same  trade  until  the  commence 
ment  of  our  Kevolutionary  war,  when  he  went 
to  Europe  with  Mr.  Jonathan  Nesbit,  who  ob 
tained  for  him  a  commission  for  a  privateer  from 
Dr.  Franklin  and  Silas  Deane.  Having  re 
ceived  his  commission  he  proceeded  to  Dunkirk, 
where  a  vessel  was  purchased  and  fitted  out  for 
a  cruise  in  the  British  Channel.  This  was  one 
of  the  first  privateers  that  appeared  in  those  seas 
under  our  flag.  She  was  so  successful  in  cap 
turing  British  vessels  that  the  name  of  Conyng 
ham  became  a  terror  in  the  Channel.  He  gen 
erally  burnt  or  destroyed  his  prize-vessels.  In 
1778  he  was  captured,  and  treated  with  such  sev 
erity  that  Congress,  by  resolution  (July  17, 
1779),  directed  their  Secretary  to  write  in  their 
name  to  the  admiral  or  commanding  officer  of 
the  British  fleet  lying  in  the  harbor  of  New 
York  to  demand  the  reasons  of  his  being  treated 
"  in  a  manner  contrary  to  the  dictates  of  human 
ity  and  the  practice  of  Christian  civilized  na 
tions;"  and  they  directed,  in  the  event  of  a 
satisfactory  answer  not  being  given,  that  the 
Marine  Committee  should  "immediately  cause 
to  be  confined,  in  close  and  safe  custody,  such 


COOK 


172 


COOPEK 


and  so  many  persons  as  they  may  think  proper, 
in  order  to  abide  the  fate  of  the  said  Gustavus 
Conyngham."  On  the  13th  of  December  follow 
ing  Congress  refused  to  allow  Christopher  Hele, 
then  a  prisoner,  to  be  exchanged  or  to  go  upon 
his  parole,  declaring,  by  resolution,  that  he  must 
abide  the  fate  of  Capt.  Conyngham.  After  Capt. 
Conyngham  was  captured  a  print  was  exhibited 
in  London  as  his  exact  likeness,  and  thousands 
flocked  to  see  it.  This  print  represented  him  as 
a  man  of  gigantic  stature,  with  shoulders  of 
extraordinary  breadth,  and  his  whole  person  in 
dicating  great  strength,  with  a  countenance  fero 
cious  in  the  extreme,  holding  in  his  right  hand  a 
drawn  sword  at  least  six  feet  in  length.  Under 
neath  the  print  was  painted  in  large  letters, 
"  The  Arch  Kebel."  Admirable  likeness  !  Con 
yngham  was  short,  very  slender,  and  his  visage 
remarkably  thin,  but  he  was  very  active  and  full 
of  spirit.  His  health  suffered  greatly  during  his 
confinement,  of  which  he  complained  until  his 
death. 

Cook,  James,  Captain.  One  of  the  most  scien 
tific  and  adventurous  officers  in  the  British  navy. 
Deputed  to  the  South  Pacific,  in  1768,  to  observe 
the  transit  of  Venus,  he  seized  the  opportunity 
of  exploring  the  coast  of  New  South  Wales. 
Four  years  later  he  was  sent  to  find  a  land  sup 
posed  to  exist  in  high  southern  latitudes ;  but  he 
did  not  discover  any  territory  as  high  as  70°  S. 
lat.  He,  however,  came  on  an  island  which 
stands  on  the  charts  as  New  Caledonia.  In  1776, 
Cook  explored  Behring's  Strait,  and  in  the  fol 
lowing  year,  sailing  into  the  Pacific,  he  discov 
ered  the  Sandwich  Islands.  At  Hawaii  he  was 
set  upon  by  the  savages  and  killed. 

Cook.  To  concoct  or  prepare ;  hence  to  tam 
per  with  or  alter ;  as,  to  cook  a  sight,  that  is,  to 
so  change  the  data  as  to  make  the  final  result 
coincide  with  the  observer's  wishes. 

COOK,  MESS.  A  man  detailed  from  each  mess 
whose  duty  is  to  draw  from  the  paymaster  the 
food  to  which  his  mess  is  entitled,  to  prepare  it 
for  cooking  and  deliver  it  to  the  ship's  cook,  to 
receive  it  from  the  galley  when  it  is  cooked,  and 
to  attend  to  the  cleaning  and  arranging  of  the 
mess-gear.  He  is  generally  selected  from  the 
landsmen  of  the  mess,  and  ordinarily  receives 
from  the  members  of  his  mess  a  compensation 
equal  to  the  value  of  one  ration. 

COOK,  OFFICER'S.  The  cook  to  the  comman- 
der-in-chief,  cabin  cook,  wardroom  cook,  steer 
age  cook,  and  warrant-officer's  cook  do  the  cook 
ing  for  their  respective  messes.  They  are  not 
entitled  to  continuous-service  certificates,  nor  to 
the  benefit  of  an  honorable  discharge. 

COOK,  SHIP'S.  A  petty  officer  who  has  charge 
of  the  galley  and  superintends  the  cooking  for 
the  whole  ship's  crew.  He  brings  a  sample  of 
the  dinner  for  the  day  to  the  mast  at  seven  bells, 
where  it  is  inspected  by  the  officer  of  the  deck. 
In  early  days  the  position  of  ship's  cook  was  a 
lucrative  one ;  he  was  entitled  to  a  share  of  the 
slush-money,  and  received  an  allowance  for 
extra  cooking ;  as,  scouse,  early  coffee,  etc.  At 
present  the  early  coffee  is  authorized  by  the  gov 
ernment,  and  the  slush-money  is  devo'ted  to  the 
ship's  use. 

COOK-HOUSE.  The  caboose  containing  the 
cooking  apparatus. 

Coom.  The  crest  or  comb  of  a  wave.  See 
COMB. 


Cooming.     See  COAMING. 

Cooper,  George  H.,  Commodore  U.S.N.  Born 
in  New  York.  Appointed  from  New  York,  Au 
gust  14,  1837 ;  attached  to  fleet  operating  on 
coast  of  Florida,  1837,  and  was  constantly  em 
ployed  co-operating  with  the  army  in  boat  ex- 
ped'itions  against  the  Seminole  Indians  ;  frigate 
"Constitution,"  Pacific  Squadron,  1838-42; 
Naval  School,  Philadelphia,  1843. 

Promoted  to  passed  midshipman,  June.  23, 
1843;  schooner  "Flirt,"  Home  Squadron,  1846 

The  "  Flirt"  reported  for  duty  to  Gen.  Zachary 
Tajdor  in  March,  1846.  Passed  Midshipman 
Cooper  commanded  a  detachment  of  men  at 
Point  Isabel,  Texas,  under  Major  Monroe,  of 
the  U.  S.  army,  previous  to  and  after  the  battles 
of  May  8  and  9.  After  the  capture  of  Mon 
terey,  was  transferred  to  Commodore  Connor's 
squadron,  and  was  in  both  attacks  on  Tabasco, 
and  attacks  on  Alvarado  and  Tuspan.  Served 
in  the  squadron  until  the  reduction  of  the  capi 
tal.  Receiving-ship,  Norfolk,  1847-48;  naval 
station,  Norfolk,  1849-50;  steam-frigate  "  Sus- 
quehanna,"  East  India  Squadron,  1850-55. 

Commissioned  as  lieutenant,  May  8,  1851 ; 
rendezvous,  Norfolk,  1856  ;  ordnance  duty,  Nor 
folk,  1857;  steam-frigate  "Roanoke,"  Home 
Squadron,  1859-60;  navv-yard,  Portsmouth, 
N.  H.,  1861. 

Commissioned  as  commander,  July  16,  1862 ; 
commanding  steamer  "Massachusetts,"  supply- 
vessel,  Atlantic  Squadron,  1862 ;  commanding 
steamer  "Mercedita,"  South  Atlantic  Block 
ading  Squadron,  1863 ;  was  seven  weeks  in 
command  of  monitor  "Sangamon,"  inside  of 
Charleston  Roads,  employed  on  picket  duty,  and 
acting  in  concert  with  the  army,  constantly  shel 
ling  Fort  Sumter  and  the  batteries  on  Sullivan's 
Island ;  stationed  in  Stono  Inlet,  S.  C.,  as  senior- 
officer,  co-operating  with  the  army  in  expeditions 
against  the  enemy,  and  frequently  engaged  at 
short  range;  commanding  steamer  "Sonoma," 
South  Atlantic  Blockading  Squadron,  1863-64; 
commanding  steamer  "Glaucus,"  East  Gulf 
Blockading  Squadron,  1864-65;  commanding 
steamer  "  Winooski,"  special  service,  1866-67; 
navy-yard,  Norfolk,  1867-69. 

Commissioned  as  captain,  December  2,  1867 ; 
commanding  steam-frigate  "Colorado,"  Asiatic 
Squadron,  1870-71;  navy-yard,  Norfolk,  1872; 
commanding  "Roanoke,"  1873-74. 

Commissioned  as  commodore,  June  5,  1874 ; 
commandant  navy-yard,  Pensacola,  1875-76; 
light-house  inspector,  1876-77 ;  president  board 
of  inspection,  1877-78 ;  commandant  navy-yard, 
New  York,  1880. 

Cooper,  James  Fenimore,  novelist.  Born 
at  Burlington,  N.  J.,  September  15,  1789;  died 
at  Cooperstown,  N.  Y.,  September  14,  1851. 
He  studied  at  Yale,  but  did  not  graduate,  and 
in  1811,  after  six  years'  service  in  the  navy, 
married  a  Miss  De  Lancey,  and  settled  at  Ma- 
maroneck,  N.  Y.  His  first  work,  "  Precaution," 
published  anonymously  in  1821,  was  followed 
by  "  The  Spy,"  "The  Pioneers,"  1823.  and  the 
"  Leather-stocking  Tales,"  which  gave  him  great 
popularity.  This  was  increased  by  his  sea 
novels,  "The  Pilot,"  "Red  Rover,"  "Water- 
Witch,"  "  Two  Admirals,"  "  Wing  and  Wing," 
etc.,  and  by  "  The  Bravo,"  "  Heidenmaur,"  and 
"  Headsman,"  published  during  a  visit  to  Europe 


CO-ORDINATES 


173 


CORDAGE 


in  1826-33.  After  his  return  he  published  "  Let 
ters  to  his  Countrymen,"  "Homeward  Bound," 
and  "Home  as  Found,"  which  somewhat  lessened 
his  popularity.  Besides  his  works  of  fiction,  he 
wrote  a  "History  of  the  United  States  Navy," 
(2  vols.  8vo),  "Battle  of  Lake  Erie,"  1843, 
"  Lives  of  American  Naval  Oificers"  (2  vols. 
12mo),  6  vols.  of  "Gleanings  in  Europe," 
"  Sketches  of  Switzerland,"  and  a  comedy,  per 
formed  at  Burton's  theatre,  New  York,  in  1850. 
The  latter  part  of  his  life  was  imbittered  by 
quarrels  and  lawsuits  with  the  editorial  frater 
nity.  His  latter  productions  were  unworthy  the 
high  fame  which  Mr.  Cooper  justly  deserved  and 
enjoyed. 

Co-ordinates.  A  set  of  lines,  angles,  or  planes, 
or  a  combination  of  these,  which,  taken  together, 
define  the  position  of  a  point,  or  points.  There 
are  two  systems  of  co-ordinates,  the  rectilinear 
and  the  polar  system. 

CO-ORDINATES  FOR  THE  CELESTIAL  SPHERE. 

Ecliptic  System.     Latitude  and  Longitude. 

Equinoctial  System.  1.  Right  Ascension  and 
Declination.  2.  Hour-angle  and  Polar  Dis 
tance. 

Horizon  System.  Azimuth  and  Altitude. 

CO-ORDINATES  FOR  THE  TERRESTRIAL 
SPHERE. 

Latitude  and  Longitude. 

Coot.  A  water-fowl  of  the  genus  Fulica,  fre 
quenting  lakes  and  other  still  water.  The  com 
mon  coot  has  a  bald  forehead  and  a  black  body  ; 
the  toes  are  long  and  not  webbed,  but  bordered 
by  a  scalloped  membrane.  The  name  is  some 
times  applied  to  a  stupid  person. 

Cop,  or  Copt.     The  top  of  a  conical  hill. 

Cope.  An  old  word  for  cape.  To  cope  is  to 
bend  or  arch. 

Copeck.  A  Russian  copper  coin,  a  hundred 
of  which  make  a  rouble ;  it  is  worth  about 
three-quarters  of  a  cent. 

Copenhagen.  The  capital  of  Denmark,  and 
one  of  the  finest  cities  of  Northern  Europe, 
situated  on  the  sound,  chiefly  on  the  east  coast 
of  Seeland,  but  partly  on  the  island  of  Amager, 
which  is  separated  from  Seeland  by  a  narrow 
arm  of  the  sound,  which  forms  a  harbor,  spacious, 
deep,  and  secure.  Lat.  55°  40'  9"  N.  ;  Ion.  12° 
34/  y//  E.  The  shipping  of  Copenhagen  is  ex 
tensive,  nearly  all  the  heavy  trade  of  the  king 
dom  centring  there.  Pop.  198,000. 

Copernican  System.  Nicholas  Copernicus 
was  born  at  Thorn,  Prussia,  in  1473  ;  died  1543. 
A  few  days  before  his  death  the  printing  of  his 
book  on  the  "  Revolution  of  the  Celestial  Bodies" 
was  completed.  The  Copernican  system  repre 
sents  the  sun  to  be  at  rest  in  the  centre,  and  the 
planets  to  move  round  it  in  ellipses ;  in  other 
words,  it  is  that  which  we  now  know  to  be  the 
true  system  of  the  universe.  It  receives  its 
name  from  Copernicus,  but,  in  point  of  fact,  it 
may  be  described  as  being  a  growth  to  which 
he  was  only  one  of  many  contributors. 

The  merit  of  having  first  formed  the  general 
notion  of  the  system  seems  to  be  due  to  Pythag 
oras  ;  Copernicus  has  the  credit  of  having,  after 
the  lapse  of  centuries,  again  drawn  the  attention 
of  philosophers  to  it,  and  of  having  greatly  in 
creased  the  probability  of  its  truth  by  his  calcu 
lations  and  arguments.  The  most  valuable  part 
of  the  "De  Revolutionibus"  is  that  in  which  is 
explained,  for  the  first  time,  the  variation  of  the 


seasons,  the  precession  of  the  equinoxes,  and  the 
stations  and  retrogradations  of  the  planets.  In 
general,  the  explanations  are  right,  and  perfect 
as  to  the  general  nature  of  the  causes  of  the 
phenomena. 

Copill.  An  old  term  for  a  variety  of  the 
coble. 

Copper  (Lat.  cuprum,  a  corruption  of  Q/- 
prium,  from  the  island  of  Cyprus,  whence  it 
was  formerly  brought).  A  reddish,  malleable, 
tenacious,  ductile  metal,  of  which  the  symbol  is 
Cu ;  specific  gravity,  8.7  to  8.9;  fusing-point, 
about  2000°  Fahr.  It  is  found  native  and  in 
various  ores ;  as,  copper  pyrites,  copper  glance, 
red  oxide  of  copper,  and  malachite.  Its  salts 
are  generally  poisonous,  but  brilliant,  and  used 
extensively  in  the  arts.  Its  uses  are  various ; 
alloyed  with  tin  or  zinc,  it  is  used  in  bells,  ord 
nance,  and  machinery  ;  drawn  out  into  wires,  it 
is  used  for  lightning  conductors  and  electrical 
cables  ;  beaten  out  into  thin  sheets,  it  is  used  for 
sheathing  wooden  ships,  in  which  case  the  fasten 
ings  should  be  of  copper.  The  green  rust  which 
forms  on  the  sheathing  of  ships  is  a  carbonate  of 
copper,  and  is  very  poisonous. 

The  sulphate  of  copper,  or  blue  vitriol,  is  em 
ployed  in  the  preservation  of  timber  from  dry 
rot. 

COPPERED,  or  COPPER-BOTTOMED.  Having 
the  bottom  sheathed  with  thin  sheets  of  copper, 
to  protect  the  planking  from  mollusks,  cirripeds, 
and  weed. 

COPPER-FASTENED.  A  ship  is  copper-fastened 
when  the  bolts  are  of  copper  instead  of  iron  in 
that  part  immersed  in  the  water.  When  these 
bolts  are  of  iron,  galvanic  action  is  set  up  be 
tween  the  bolts  and  the  copper  sheathing. 

Coppers.  The  ship's  boilers  for  cooking ;  the 
name  is  used  even  when  the  boilers  are  made  of 
other  material  than  copper,  which  is  now  the 
case.  Hot  coppers  is  a  term  used  to  denote  a 
state  of  extreme  thirst,  particularly  when  it  is 
the  consequence  of  a  debauch. 

Corab.  A  sort  of  boat,  otherwise  called 
coracle. 

Coracle.  An  ancient  British  truckle  or  boat, 
constructed  of  wicker-work,  and  still  in  use 
among  Welsh  fishermen  and  on  the  Irish  lakes. 
It  is  covered  by  skins,  oil-cloth,  etc.,  which  are 
removed  when  out  of  use ;  it  is  of  an  oval  form, 
and  contains  one  man,  who,  on  reaching  the 
shore,  shoulders  his  coracle,  deposits  it  in  safety, 
and  covers  it  with  dried  rushes  or  heather.  The 
Arctic  baidar  is  of  similar  construction.  It  is 
probably  of  the  like  primitive  fabric  with  the 
cymba  sutiles  of  Herodotus. 

Coracora.     See  KORACORA. 

Coral.  A  name  applied  to  the  hard  calcareous 
support  or  skeleton  of  many  species  of  marine 
zoophytes.  The  coral-producing  animals  abound 
chiefly  in  tropical  seas,  sometimes  forming,  by 
the  aggregated  growth  of  countless  generations, 
reefs,  barriers,  and  islands  of  vast  extent.  The 
"red  coral"  (Corallium  rubrum)  of  the  Med 
iterranean  is  highly  prized  for  ornamental  pur 
poses. 

Coralan.  A  small  open  boat  for  the  Mediter 
ranean  coral-fishery. 

Cor  Carol!  (Lat.  "Charles'  Heart").  See 
CANES  VENATICI. 

Cordage.  A  general  term  for  the  ropes  on 
board  ship.  See  ROPE. 


CORDILLA 


174 


CORVETTE 


Cordilla.  The.  coarse  German  hemp,  other 
wise  called  torse, 

Cordlie.     A  name  for  the  tunny  fish. 

Cordovan.  Leather  made  from  seal-skin ; 
the  term  is  derived  from  the  superior  leather 
prepared  at  Cordova  in  Spain. 

Core.  The  internal  mold  which  forms  a  hol 
low  in  casting,  as  in  a  gun.  The  insulated 
wire  of  a  submarine  cable. 

Cor  Hydrse.  a  Hydros,  called  also  Alphard. 
See  HYDRA. 

Cork.  A  city  and  river  port  of  Ireland,  capi 
tal  of  the  county  of  Cork,  on  the  Lee,  11  miles 
above  the  entrance  of  Cork  harbor,  and  137 
miles  S.W.  of  Dublin.  The  city  proper  is  built 
on  an  island  formed  by  the  Lee,  which  river  is 
crossed  by  bridges.  Cork  communicates  by  steam 
with  London,  Dublin,  Bristol,  Liverpool,  and 
Glasgow.  Pop.  79,000. 

Corkir,  or  Cudbear.  The  Lecanora  tartarea, 
a  lichen  producing  a  purple  dye,  growing  on  the 
stones  of  the  Western  Isles  and  in  Norway. 

Cor  Leonis.  a  Leonis,  called  also  Regulus. 
See  LEO. 

Cormorant.  A  well-known  sea-bird  (Phala- 
crocorax  carbo]  of  the  family  Pelecanidce. 

Corned  Powder.  Powder  granulated  from 
the  mill-cakes  and  sifted. 

CORNS  OF  POWDER.     Small  grains  of  powder. 

Coromontine.  A  tribe  of  negroes  in  the  inte 
rior  of  Africa.  They  are  very  ferocious,  and 
when  sold  into  slavery  prove  very  troublesome 
to  their  masters. 

Corona.  A  peculiar  phase  of  the  aurora  bo- 
realis.  A  circle  around  the  moon  during  a  total 
eclipse  of  the  sun.  Frequently  when  there  is  a 
halo  encircling  the  moon,  there  is  a  small  corona 
more  immediately  around  it. 

Corona  Australis.     See  CONSTELLATION. 

Corona  Borealis  (Lat.  "  The  Northern 
Crown").  A  constellation  lying  between  a  Lyroe 
and  Arcturus.  a  Coronce  Borealis,  Alphecca. 

Corouse.  The  ancient  weapon  invented  by 
Duilius  for  boarding.  An  attempt  was  made  in 
1798  to  re-introduce  it  in  French  privateers. 

Corphoun.     A  name  for  ^he  herring. 

Corporal.  A  non-commissioned  officer  of 
marines,  next  in  rank  to  a  sergeant. 

CORPORAL,  LANCE.  A  private  marine  doing 
the  duty  of  a  corporal. 

CORPORAL,  SHIP'S.  A  petty  officer  to  assist 
the  master-at-arms  in  his  various  duties.  See 

MAST  ER-AT-ARMS. 

Corposant.     See  ST.  ELMO'S  FIRE. 

Corps.  A  body  of  officers,  or  officers  and  men  ; 
as,  the  medical  corps,  the  marine  corps,  etc. 

Corpse.  Jack's  term  for  the  marine  guard, — 
the  corps. 

Correction.  An  allowance  made  for  inac 
curacy  in  an  instrument ;  as,  compass  correction, 
chronometer  correction,  etc. 

Corryne-powder.  Corn-powder,  a  fine  kind 
of  gunpowder. 

Corsair.  A  pirate,  or  piratical  vessel.  The 
term  was  applied  more  particularly  to  the  pirati 
cal  cruisers  of  Algiers,  Tunis,  and  Tripoli. 

Cor  Scorpionis.  a  Scorpionis,  called  also  An- 
tares.  See  SCORPIO. 

Cortez,  Fernando.  The  history  of  Spanish 
discoveries  on  the  continent  of  America  reveals 
few  names  of  greater  celebrity  than  the  discov 
erer  and  conqueror  of  Mexico.  Accompanying 


Velasquez  on  his  expedition  to  Cuba,  he  recom 
mended  himself  by  his  talents  and  courage  to  his 
chief,  who  deputed  him  to  visit  'the  western 
coast  and  establish  colonies.  In  February,  1519, 
Cortez  coasted  the  peninsula  of  Yucatan,  and 
stopping  at  San  Juan  de  Ulloa,  received  informa 
tion  which  led  him  at  once  to  found  a  settlement 
at  Vera  Cruz  and  proceed  to  the  court  of  Monte- 
zuma.  Ultimately  he  conquered  the  whole 
kingdom  of  Mexico,  and  giving  it  the  name  of 
New  Spain,  annexed  it  to  the  Spanish  crown. 
Not  realizing  the  recompense  he  expected,  he 
abandoned  his  views  in  respect  to  the  military 
government  of  the  new  possession,  and  proceeded 
on  an  exploratory  voyage  northerly.  In  1536  he 
discovered  the  peninsula  of  California,  and  sur 
veyed  a  part  of  the  gulf  which  separates  it  from 
the  American  continent.  But  reaping  neither 
profit  nor  honor,  excepting  as  a  geographical 
discoverer,  he  returned  to  Spain  in  1540  to  die 
in  seclusion,  after  serving  Charles  V.  against  the 
Algerians. 

Corunna,  a  fortified  city  of  Spain,  capital  of 
the  province  of  Corunna,  is  situated  on  a  bay  of 
the  Atlantic,  320  miles  N.W.  of  Madrid.  Lat. 
43°  22'  5"  N. ;  Ion.  8°  22'  1"  W.  Its  harbor  is 
safe,  and  defended  on  the  east  by  Fort  San 
Diego  and  west  by  Fort  San  Antonio.  A  great 
part  of  its  population  is  employed  in  the  her 
ring-  and  pilchard-fishery.  Some  ship-building 
is  carried  on,  and  there  is  a  school  of  navigation. 
Pop.  30,000. 

Corvette.  (Lat.  corbita ;  Sp.  corbeta ;  Fr. 
courvette,  corvette).  A  name  common  in  the 
French  navy,  in  the  days  of  wooden  ships, 
to  a  class  of  vessels  of  war  ranking,  in  military 
value,  next  after  the  frigate,  to  which,  in  rig  and 
general  appearance,  they  bore  a  resemblance. 
The  equivalent  in  the  English  navy  was  a  "Jack- 
Ass"  frigate;  but  in  the  navy  of  the  United 
States  the  general  term  sloop-of-war  is  applied 
to  all  vessels  between  a  frigate  and  a  brig.  The 
French  corvette  of  the  first  class  had  a  covered 
battery  and  carried  guiis  on  the  forecastle  and 
quarter-deck.  The  razeed  frigates  of  the  "  Cum 
berland"  class  were  our  nearest  approach  to  the 
heavier  French  corvettes.  Thirty  years  ago,  the 
battery  of  a  French  corvette,  a  batterie  couverte  et 
d  galliards  armes,  varied  from  20  to  32  guns  ; 
that  of  a  corvette  d  batterie  barbette  (single- 
decked  sloop-of-war)  varied  from  14  to  24  guns. 

The  term  corvette  comes  from  corbita,  a  basket, 
the  sign  worn  at  the  mast-heads  of  the  Egyptian 
grain-ships  as  the  symbol  of  their  trade/  This 
gave  the  name  to  a  class  of  vessels,  originally 
vessels  of  burden  (naves  onerarice).  In  time  the 
name  came  to  be  applied  to  a  light  and  fast  gal 
ley  of  one  mast,  and  propelled  by\bolh  sails  and 
oars.  The  name  occurs  in  the  history  of  the 
Italian  navies  of  the  middle  ages}  It  made  its 
appearance  in  the  French  navy  about  the  year 
1687.  The  corvette  was  then  useq,  on  account 
of  its  lightness  and  speed,  as  a  look-out  ship  at 
tached  to  a  fleet,  and  for  carrying  dispatches. 

Corvette-aviso,  a  light,  fast  sloop-of-war  used 
in  more  modern  times  as  a  dispatch+vessel.  The 
name  has  sometimes  been  applied,  in  the  French 
navy,  to  a  certain  class  of  brigs-of-war. 

Corvette  de  charge,  a  store- vessel,  or  transport. 

The  term  corvette  has  never  been  adopted  in 
the  United  States  navy. — S.  B.  Luce,  Captain 
U.8.N. 


COEVUS 


175 


COURT-MARTIAL 


Corvus  (Lat.  "The  Crow")-  «  Oorvi,  Al- 
chiba. 

Cosier.     A  lubber ;  a  botcher. 

Cosmical.  Rising  and  setting  with  the  sun  ; 
the  opposite  of  achronical. 

Coss.  An  East  Indian  measure  of  distance, 
varying  from  one  to  one  and  a  half  miles. 

Costal.     Relating  to  the  coast. 

Cot.  A  wooden  frame  inclosed  in  canvas, 
and  suspended  from  the  beams  ;  it  is  used  as  a 
sleeping-place  by  invalids,  and  sometimes  by 
officers. 

Cote,  or  Cot.     An  old  term  for  a  small  boat. 

Cotter,  Cutter,  or  Key.  In  machinery,  a 
wedge-shaped  piece  of  metal,  usually  steel,  used 
for  adjusting  and  confining  bearings  to  jour 
nals.  It  is  generally  secured  in  position  by  a 
screw. 

Cotton,  Gun-.     See  EXPLOSIVES. 

Cottonina.  The  heavy  canvas  used  for  sails 
in  the  Levant. 

Coubais.  An  ornamental  Japanese  barge  of 
40  oars. 

Coud.     An-  old  word  for  conn. 

Coulter-neb.  A  name  of  the  puffin  (Prater- 
cula  arctica). 

Counter.  The  portion  of  a  ship  from  the 
water-line  to  the  knuckle  of  the  stern. 

COUNTER-RAIL.  The  ornamental  rails  across 
the  stern  into  which  the  counters  finish. 

COUNTER-TIMBERS.  Timbers  worked  on  each 
side  of  the  stern-post  in  all  round  and  elliptical 
sterned  ships  to  form  the  rake  and  contour  of 
the  stern. 

Counter-brace.  The  lee  fore-topsail  brace  is 
so  called  during  the  operation  of  tacking,  from 
its  being  hauled  in,  after  the  sails  catch  aback, 
to  flatten  the  sail  against  the  lee  side  of  the  top 
mast,  and  thus  increase  the  effect  of  the  wind 
in  forcing  the  ship's  head  around.  To  counter- 
brace  the  yards  is  to  brace  the  head-yards  up 
one  way  and  the  after-yards  the  other.  The 
yards  are  counter-braced  while  at  anchor  to  di 
minish  the  force  of  the  wind  acting  on  them ; 
they  are  sometimes  counter-braced  in  a  calm  to 
be  in  readiness  to  take  advantage  of  any  breeze 
that  may  spring  up ;  they  are  counter-braced 
while  under  way  to  check  the  headway  or  to 
heave-to. 

Counter-current.  A  current  running  in  the 
opposite  direction  to  the  main  current. 

Countermand.  To  revoke,  as  a  former  com 
mand  ;  to  annul,  or  prohibit  the  execution  of,  a 
previous  order. 

Counter-mold.  When  a  piece  of  timber 
molded  on  both  sides  as  a  breasthook,  is  intended 
to  come  to  its  place  accurately,  the  following 
operation  is  gone  through  with  : 

After  one  edge,  say  the  upper  one,  is  accurately 
shaped  to  the  mold,  the  bevelings  are  taken 
square  from  the  piece  and  applied  directly  to  the 
part  to  which  the  breasthook  is  to  be  fayed. 
Then  the  counter-mold  is  laid  upon  the  piece  to 
fit  the  spots  which  have  been  found  after  the 
bevels  and  square  spots  have  been  produced  upon 
the  other  face  of  the  breasthook  to  be  counter- 
molded  ;  they  agreeing,  the  piece  may  be  confi 
dently  trimmed  through  to  the  first  molding- 
edge. 

Counter-sea.  A  sea  running  in  an  opposite 
direction  from  the  wind. 

Countersign.  A  private  word  or  phrase  which 


is  given  out  by  the  commanding  officer  of  the 
marines  at  a  navy-yard;  everyone  who  enters 
the  yard  between  tattoo  and  reveille  is  required 
to  give  the  countersign  at  the  gate,  and  to  every 
sentry  by  whom  he  may  be  challenged.  See 
PAROLE. 

Countersunk.  Sunk  so  as  to  be  even  with  or 
below  the  surface  ;  as,  a  countersunk  bolt. 

Country.  That  portion  of  an  apartment  on 
board  ship  which  is  used  in  common  by  all  the 
officers  of  the  same  mess  ;  as,  the  wardroom 
country,  or  that  portion  of  the  wardroom  be 
tween  the  two  rows  of  state-rooms. 

Coup  d'osil.  That  talent  of  quick  observation 
by  which  a  person  by  a  single  glance  at  the  situ 
ation  of  affairs  detects  its  strong  and  weak  points, 
and  is  thereby  enabled  to  manoeuvre  to  the  best 
advantage. 

Coup  de  grace.     A  decisive  finishing  stroke. 

Coup  de  main.  A  sudden  attack  or  enter 
prise. 

Coupling.  In  mechanism,  any  device  for  join 
ing  separate  parts  together  so  that  they  may  be 
easily  disconnected,  such  as  sections  of 'shafting, 
piping,  or  hose.  The  coupling  of  shafting  is  ac 
complished  by  the  use  of  flanges,  either  wrought 
or  cast  upon  the  shaft  or  rigidly  attached  thereto, 
secured  by  bolts  and  keys.  Large  pipes  are 
coupled  by  flanges  and  bolts ;  small  ones  by 
screw  couplings  called  "  union  couplings."  Sec 
tions  of  hose  are  connected  by  screw  couplings. 
In  cases  where  instantaneous  coupling  or  un 
coupling  is  required,  the  "clutch"  or  "friction 
coupling"  is  used.  In  these  arrangements  one 
flange  is  free  to  slide  in  the  direction  of  the  axis 
of  the  shaft,  but  by  means  of  "  feathers"  rigidly 
compelled  to  turn  with  it,  the  sliding  motion 
being  controlled  by  levers.  In  the  clutch  the 
faces  of  the  flanges  have  interlocking  projections  ; 
in  the  friction  coupling  two  accurately  fitted 
conical  faces  are  forced  together. 

Coureau.  A  small  yawl' of  the  Garonne.  Also> 
a  narrow  strait  or  channel. 

Course.  The  angle  which  a  ship's  track  makes 
with  the  meridians,  this  angle  being  referred 
either  to  the  true  meridian  or  to  the  position  of 
the  magnetic  needle  by  which  the  ship  is  steered. 
The  former  is  the  true  course,  the  latter  the  com 
pass  course.  To  obtain  the  true  course,  the 
course  steered  must  be  corrected  for  leeway  and 
for  the  variation  and  deviation  of  the  compass. 
The  course  made  good  is  the  bearing  of  the  po 
sition  in  from  the  position  left. 

Courses.  The  sails  which  are  bent  to  the 
lower  yards ;  the  fore,  main,  and  mizzen  stay 
sails  are  sometimes  comprehended  under  this 
term. 

Courset.  The  paper  on  which  the  night's 
course  was  set,  as  a  memorandum  for  the  officer 
of  the  watch.  See  NIGHT  ORDERS. 

Coursey.  A  space  in  the  galley ;  a  part  of 
the  hatches. 

Court-martial,  n. ;  pi.  Courts-martial  ;  pro. 
cort-mar/-shal.  A  tribunal  composed  of  mili 
tary  or  naval  officers  appointed  for  the  trial  of 
offenders  against  military  or  naval  laws. 

Derivation. — COURT,  from  O.  Fr.  court  or  cort, 
and  N.  Fr.  cour,  from  Latin  chors,  chortis,  and 
cohorSj  cohortis,  meaning  an  inclosure,  court, 
crowd,  or  throng.  MARTIAL,  from  Lat.  mctrtialis, 
from  Mars,  the  god  of  war :  hence  pertaining  to 
war  ;  suited  to  war ;  military. 


COUKT-MAKTIAL 


176 


COUKT-MAKTIAL 


'The  word  court,  curia,  in  its  law  sense,  means 
the  place  where  justice  is  judicially  administered, 
and  as  well  the  assemblage  of  judges,  jury,  et  al.; 
and  this  employment  of  the  word,  which  in  its 
primitive  and  restricted  sense  meant  "an  in- 
closure  without  a  roof,"  and  then  "a  palace,  or 
residence  of  a  king,"  is  evidently  attributable  to 
the  fact  that  in  ancient  times  the  king,  as  chief 
magistrate  or  ruler,  was  regarded  as  the  foun 
tain  of  justice,  and  sometimes  the  dispenser,  sit 
ting  in  person  as  late  as  Edward  IV.  to  hear  and 
determine  causes.  The  palace  used  for  this  pur 
pose  became  known  as  "  the  court,"  which 
gradually  grew  to  denote  also  the  assembly. 

History.  —  The  court-martial  of  to-day  appears 
to  be  the  offspring  and  heir  of  the  old  Curia 
Militaris^  or  Court  of  Chivalry,  called  also  the 
Marshal's  Court,  which  at  one  time  was  the 
only  military  court  established  by  the  laws  of 
England.  In  the  beginning  it  was  held  before 
the  lord  high  constable  and  earl  marshal  jointly, 
but  after  the  attainder  of  Stafford,  Duke  of  Buck 
ingham,  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.,  and  the 
consequent  extinction  of  the  office  of  lord  high 
constable,  it  was,  with  respect  to  civil  matters, 
held  before  the  earl  marshal  only.  This  court, 
by  statute  (13  Kichard  II.,  c.  2),  had  cognizance 
of  "contracts  and  other  matters  touching  deeds 
of  arms  and  war,"  as  well  out  of  the  realm  as 
within  it,  and  was  in  great  reputation  in  the 
times  of  pure  chivalry,  and  later,  during  Eng 
land's  connection  with  the  continent  by  her  ter 
ritories  in  France.  It  was  a  military  court,  or 
court  of  honor,  when  held  before  the  earl  mar 
shal  only,  and  also  a  criminal  court  when  held 
before  the  lord  high  constable  ;  but  both  of  these 
parts  of  its  authority  had  fallen  into  disuse  early 
in  the  present  century,  on  account  of  the  feeble 
ness  of  its  jurisdiction  and  want  of  power  to 
enforce  its  judgments.  Not  being  a  court  of 
record,  it  could  neither  fine  nor  imprison,  and  an 
appeal  from  its  sentence  had  to  be  made  imme 
diately  to  the  king  in  person. 

The  modern  form  of  military  courts  was 
adopted  by  ordinance  in  the  time  of  Charles  I., 
when  English  soldiers  were  studying  the  Arti 
cles  of  War  of  Gustavus  Adolphus,  and  is  first 
recognized  by  statute  in  the  original  Mutiny 
Act,  1689  (1  William  and  Mary,  c.  5).*  By 
this  act,  annually  renewed  "  for  the  regulation 
of  the  army,"  the  sovereign  is  authorized  to  grant 
from  time  to  time  "  a  commission,  under  his  royal 
sign-manual,  to  any  officer  not  under  the  degree 
of  a  field-officer  for  holding  a  general  court- 
martial."  He  could  also  extend  by  warrant  to 
the  lord  lieutenant  of  Ireland,  the  governor  of 
Gibraltar,  or  of  any  of  "the  dominions  beyond 
the  seas,"  authority  to  appoint  courts-martial. 
Although  nearly  two  hundred  years  have  passed 
since  this  enactment,  it  remains  the  fountain  of 
military  law  ;  many  of  its  provisions  are  in  force 
unchanged,  and  nearly  all  have  been  adopted  in 
modified  form  into  the  codes  of  this  country. 
The  student  will  discover  many  interesting 
similarities  by  recurring  to  its  text. 

Naval  law,  and  military  law  proper,  seem 
always  to  have  possessed  wider  points  of  differ 
ence  than  the  varying  circumstances  call  for. 


*  Occasioned  by  a  mutiny  in  a  body  of  English  and  Scotch 
dragoons  and  infantry  ordered  to  Holland  to  replace  some 
Dutch  troops  transferred  to  England. 


The  early  naval  law  of  England,  which  is  styled 
"barbarous,"  was  long  intrusted  for  its  admin 
istration  to  the  discretion  of  commanders  acting 
under  instructions  from  the  Lord  High  Admiral, 
who  was  supreme  over  both  the  royal  and  mer 
chant  navy. 

In  1645  the  leaders  of  the  Long  Parliament 
secured  something  like  a  regular  tribunal  by 
passing  "An  Ordinance  and  Articles  of  Martial 
Law  for  the  Government  of  the  Navy."  Under 
this  authority  "general  and  ship  courts-martial 
with  written  records"  were  established;  the  one 
for  captains  and  commanders,  and  the  others  for 
subordinate  officers  and  men.  Of  the  latter,  the 
mates,  gunners,  and  boatswains  could  be  mem 
bers,  but  the  admirals  reserved  control  over  the 
more  serious  offenses.  A  later  law  (Act  13, 
Charles  II.,  c.  9)  again  gave  the  Lord  High  Ad 
miral  power  to  issue  commissions  to  hold  courts- 
martial,  which  power  continues  to  be  exercised 
by  the  Board  of  Admiralty.  The  court  of  the 
High  Admiral  had  civil  jurisdiction  in  all  mari 
time  causes,  and  in  criminal  cases  to  all  crimes 
committed  upon  the  seas,  on  fresh  water  "  within 
flood-mark,"  and  in  all  harbors,  creeks,  etc. 

In  1749,  through  the  exertions  of  Anson,  a 
very  stringent  act  was  passed,  in  which  the 
death  penalty  was  affixed  to  a  multitude  of  of 
fenses, — a  circumstance  which  no  doubt  accounts 
for  its  frequent  occurrence  to-day  in  our  naval 
code,  though  most  rarely  imposed  ;  so  rarely,  in 
deed,  that  a  yard  from  which  a  culprit  has  been 
hanged  becomes  historical,  and  is  followed,  in 
memory,  from  ship  to  navy-yard  and  from  navy- 
yard  to  ship  by  the  sailors  of  the  service. 

Administration. — The  important  matter  of 
administering  law  and  justice  by  means  of 
courts-martial  in  the  U.  S.  navy  has  until  re 
cently  been  lamely  and  imperfectly  conducted. 
There  is  still  lacking  a  corps  of  trained  judge- 
advocates,  such  as  is  possessed  by  the  army,  and 
it  has  happened  that  the  dignity  and  efficiency 
of  a  court,  and  the  character  and  value  of  the 
very  essential  office  of  judge-advocate,  have  all 
been  belittled  by  the  appointment  to  the  latter 
duty  of  officers  unwilling  and  wofully  incom 
petent.  There  was  also  a  scarcity  of  applicable 
knowledge,  properly  systematized  and  arranged, 
both  as  to  learned  treatises  and  manuals.  Until 
1846,  except  a  small  book  by  Major-General 
Macomb,  U.S.A.,  there  was  no  strictly  Ameri 
can  authority  on  courts-martial.  In  that  year 
Captain  Wm.  C.  De  Hart,  2d  U.  S.  Art.,  pub 
lished  a  work  on  "  Military  Law  adapted  to  the 
United  States  Army  and  Navy,"  which  con 
tained  much  of  value  and  is  still  quoted. 

Books  of  foreign  origin,  generally  English, 
were  previousty  employed,  and  the  practice  of 
our  courts-martial  was  often  both  inconsistent 
and  contradictory.  Errors  were  frequent ;  there 
was  no  settled  and  uniform  interpretation  of 
either  the  law  or  the  mode  of  procedure,  and 
hence  proceedings  were  often  disapproved  and 
set  aside  for  informalities  and  omissions.  The 
requirements  of  parliamentary  enactments  were 
confused  with  the  general  principles  of  law,  and, 
to  increase  the  difficulties,  our  own  statutes,  for 
unfathomable  reasons,  prescribed  differences  in 
practice  and  power  between  courts  of  the  army 
and  navy  of  the  same  degree  and  jurisdiction,  as 
to  rank  and  offense,  some  of  which  still  exist. 
Captain  De  Hart's  book,  as  well  as  that  of  Cap- 


COURT-MARTIAL 


177 


COURT-MARTIAL 


tain  (now  Brigadier-General)  S.  V.  Benet,  which 
followed,  were  more  especially  for  the  use  of  the 
army,  and  naval  officers  were  left  to  apply  their 
contents  as  their  best  intelligence  might  direct. 
This  did  not  tend  to  lessen  much  the  want  of 
uniformity  of  action,  although  the  books  did 
great  good  in  other  ways.  Perceiving  the  ne 
cessity  for  a  concise  compilation  of  the  laws, 
regulations,  and  customs  "distinctly  naval," 
Rear-Admiral  A.  A.  Harwood,  U.S.N.,  pre 
pared  (1867)  the  book  which  bears  his  name, 
and  it  is  now  a  generally  accepted  authority  as 
to  the  administration  of  law  in  the  navy. 

Constitution  and  Organization. — The  power 
"  to  make  rules  for  the  government  of  the  land 
and  naval  forces"  is  vested  in  Congress  by  the 
Constitution  (Art.  1,  Sec.  8)  and  the  Revised 
Statutes  (Sec.  1624),  and  the  acts  passed  subse 
quent  to  December  1,  1873,  are  "  the  laws  which 
define  the  powers  and  duties,  and  regulate  the 
organization  and  mode  of  procedure"  of  naval 
courts  and  boards.*  To  the  mandates  of  these 
laws  are  to  be  added  a  portion  of  the  Navy 
Regulations  (1876),  parts  of  a  Manual  for  the 
Administration  of  Law  and  Justice,  issued  by 
the  Navy  Department  (1870),  and  such  orders, 
regulations,  and  instructions  as  the  Secretary  of 
the  Navy  has  adopted,  "  with  the  approval  of 
the  President,"  subject  to  alterations  adopted  in 
the  same  manner,  all  of  which  have  been  given 
the  force  of  law  (Rev.  Stat,  Sec.  1547),  with  pen 
alty  in  case  of  failure  to  obey.  (Ibid.,  Art.  8  of 
Sec.  1624.)  No  court-martial  can  be  constituted 
or  can  claim  jurisdiction  except  in  direct  accord 
ance  with  these  laws. 

By  them  courts-martial  of  two  kinds  are  au 
thorized,  viz.,  general  and  summary.  The  first 
is  for  the  trial  of  offenses  committed  by  "any 
person  in  the  naval  service,"!  and  may  be  con 
vened  as  often  as  the  President  of  the  United 
States,  the  Secretary  of  the  Navy,  or  commander- 
in-chief  of  a  fleet  or  squadron  shall  deem  it  neces 
sary  ;  but,  in  the  waters  of  the  United  States,  no 
commander-in-chief  shall  convene  such  court- 
martial  "  without  express  authority  from  the 
President."  It  is  the  highest  naval  judicial  au 
thority,  and  must  consist  of  not  less  than  five 
nor  more  than  thirteen  commissioned  officers  as 
members;  "and  as  many  officers,  not  exceed 
ing  thirteen,  as  can  be  convened  without  injury 
to  the  service,  shall  be  summoned  on  every  such 
court."  In  no  case,  where  it  can  be  avoided 
without  injury  to  the  service,  shall  more  than 
one-half,  exclusive  of  the  president,  be  junior  to 
the  officer  to  be  tried.  The  convening  authority 
has  full  and  final  discretion  as  to  what  would 
cause  injury  to  the  service. 

The  number  and  rank  of  the  officers  selected  is 
usually  governed  by  the  grade  of  the  offender 
and  the  gravity  of  the  offense.  A  full  court  of 
thirteen  officers  is  very  seldom  convened.  Seven 

*  The  army  and  navy  are  governed  by  separate  and  special 
laws  as  distinct  communities,  the  code  of  the  former  being 
known  as  "  The  Articles  of  War,"  originally  101  in  number, 
approved  April  10, 1806 ;  and  that  of  the  latter  as  "  The  Articles 
fur  the  Better  Government  of  the  Navy,"  originally  25  in  num 
ber  (now  60),  approved  July  17,  1862,  and  all  incorporated  in 
the  Revised  Statutes.  The  first  rules  for  the  regulation  of  the 
navy  were  established  by  a  resolution  of  Congress,  November 
28,  1775.  These  were  succeeded,  March  2, 1779,  by  a  very  com 
plete  code  of  50  articles,  many  of  which  continue  operative. 

f  This  includes  members  of  the  marine  corps,  except  when 
nerving  with  the  army  by  order  of  the  President.  (Rev.  Stat., 
Sec.  1621.) 

12 


and  nine  are  the  most  frequent  numbers.  In  the 
British  navy  the  legal  maximum,  formerly  thir 
teen,  was,  in  1868,  reduced  to  nine  ;  the  minimum 
remaining  the  same, — five.  Custom  prescribes  in 
any  case  an  odd  number  upon  organization ;  but, 
if  the  original  detail  be  reduced  by  sickness,  de 
tachment,  or  casualty  pending  a  trial,  the  court 
continues  its  labors,  unless  otherwise  directed, 
until  fewer  than  five  assemble.  Should  the 
circumstances  of  a  case  demand  a  court  of  thir 
teen  to  be  assembled  and  maintained,  it  is  cus 
tomary  to  detail  supernumerary  officers,  neces 
sarily  juniors,  to  fill  vacancies  which  may  exist 
upon  organization  or  occur  later. 

The  mode  of  convening  a  court  is  by  a  written 
or  printed  order,  or  precept,  addressed  to  the 
senior  officer  named  in  the  detail,  who  presides 
by  virtue  of  his  rank.  The  precept  recites  the 
authority  by  which  it  issues  ;  fixes  the  day,  hour, 
and  place  of  assembly  ;  states  who  is  to  be  tried  ; 
and  names  the  officers  who  are  to  compose  the 
court  in  the  order  of  their  rank.  The  person 
who  is  to  act  as  judge-advocate  is  also  named, 
and  the  whole  is  signed  by  the  officer  ordering 
the  court,  with  his  rank  and  title.  A  separate 
written  appointment,  which  is  also  an  order  to 
report  to  the  presiding  officer  of  the  court,  is 
sent  to  each  member  and  to  the  judge-advocate. 
All  commissioned  officers  on  the  active  list  are 
eligible  to  membership,  but  subject  to  challenge 
by  both  the  accused  and  the  judge-advocate. 
The  latter,  having  no  vote,  cannot  be  challenged. 
If  an  officer  of  the  medical,  pay,  marine,  or  en 
gineer  corps  is  to  be  tried,  it  is  deemed  proper, 
if  the  exigencies  of  the  service  will  permit,  that 
at  least  one-third  of  the  court  shall  be  composed 
of  officers  of  the  same  corps.  When  thus  asso 
ciated  on  courts  or  boards,  line  and  staff  officers 
take  precedence  according  to  rank,  and  wear  the 
service-dress  uniform,  without  swords,  unless 
otherwise  specially  directed.  (N.  Reg.,  1876.) 
Other  officers  attending  courts-martial  as  wit 
nesses  or  in  any  capacity  wear  the  same.  For 
merly  the  full-dress  uniform  (cocked  hat,  epau 
lets,  and  sword)  was  customary,  and  a  court- 
martial  was  an  affair  of  much  state,  and  great 
discomfort.  Judge-advocates  are  appointed  by 
the  Secretary  of  the  Navy  only  (sec  JUDGE-AD 
VOCATE),  and  provost-marshals  by  the  president 
of  the  court.  See  PROVOST-MARSHAL. 

At  the  time  and  place  appointed  the  officers 
assemble,  and  present  their  orders  to  the  presid 
ing  officer,  who  indorses  them  "Reported," 
adding  the  date  and  signing  officially.  He  takes 
his  seat  at  one  end  of  a  long  table  prepared  for 
the  use  of  the  court,  and  assigns  the  others  their 
seats  according  to  rank,  the  first  on  his  right,  the 
second  on  his  left,  and  so  on  alternating  to  the 
junior.  The  judge-advocate  sits  at  the  opposite 
end,  and  the  accused,  who  has  previously  been 
placed  in  arrest  or  confinement,  is  introduced 
unfettered,  unless  violent,  or  escape  be  appre 
hended,  and  sits  on  his  right,  where  a  small 
table  is  placed  for  the  use  of  himself  and  counsel. 
A  chair  is  placed  on  the  left  of  the  judge-advo 
cate  for  witnesses,  and  others  are  furnished  for 
spectators,  all  courts-martial  being  public  except 
when  cleared  for  deliberation. 

The  order  convening  the  court  and  the  appoint 
ment  of  the  judge-advocate  are  then  read  aloud 
to  the  accused,  standing,  by  the  judge-advocnto, 
who  asks  if  he  objects"  to  any  officer  named  in 


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178 


COURT-MARTIAL 


the  order  sitting  on  his  trial.  If  yea,  the  objec 
tion  is  recorded,  and  the  challenged  party  with 
draws  until  the  objection  is  considered.  Should 
the  accused  demand  it,  the  member  may  be  put 
upon  his  voir  dire,  the  oath  being  administered 
by  the  judge-advocate.  Personal  interest  in  the 
case,  prejudice,  animosity,  an  expression  of  opin 
ion  for  or  against,  having  been  a  member  of  a 
court  of  inquiry  to  investigate  the  charges,  or 
having  preferred  the  charges,  are  good  grounds 
for  challenge.  All  objections  having  been  acted 
upon,  the  oaths,  or  affirmations,  prescribed  by 
law  are  administered  in  the  presence  of  the  ac 
cused.  First ,  by  the  presiding  officer  to  the 
judge-advocate;  second,  by  the  judge-advocate 
to  the  members  of  the  court  (see  OATHS),  and  the 
fact  so  recorded.  Failure  to  do  this  as  thus  de 
scribed  would  be  a  fatal  defect.  While  the  court 
is  being  sworn  all  in  the  room  stand,  and  the 
utmost  silence  prevails.  Each  member  who  does 
not  elect  to  affirm  places  his  right  hand,  ungloved, 
on  the  Holy  Bible,  and  the  judge-advocate,  hold 
ing  the  book,  and  addressing  each  by  name,  reads 
the  oath.  The  president  then  "  kisses  the  book," 
as  does  each  in  turn,  according  to  rank,  passing 
it  along.  All  are  sworn  to  secrecy  as  to  the  sen 
tence  and  the  vote  or  opinion  of  any  particular 
member ;  also  to  try  the  case  depending  im 
partially. 

Jurisdiction,  Poivers,  and  Duties. — The  court  is 
now  organized,  and  has  a  special  jurisdiction 
co-extensive  with  the  face  of  the  earth  ;  that  is, 
for  an  offense  committed  in  Brazil,  for  instance, 
the  offender  may  be  tried  by  a  court  convened 
in  Massachusetts,  or  in  the  waters  of  Africa. 
This  special  jurisdiction  embraces  all  naval  per 
sons  of  whatever  condition,  during  the  period  of 
their  obligation  to  serve,  and  in  some  cases 
longer,  and  all  crimes  or  acts  set  forth  in  the 
laws  and  regulations  for  the  navy,  or  which,  if 
not  specified,  may  be  prejudicial  to  good  order 
and  discipline.  Citizens,  as  a  general  rule,  are 
not  amenable,  although  they  may  become  so 
under  certain  circumstances.  A  court-rnartial 
has  no  power  to  award  pecuniary  damages  for 
injurious  conduct.  Its  jurisdiction  is  criminal, 
and  its  judgments  are  penal.  Bail  is  unknown. 
Any  person  who  refuses  to  give  evidence,  or 
prevaricates,  or  behaves  with  contempt  to  the 
court,  may  be  imprisoned  by  the  court  not  to 
exceed  two  months  ;  and  for  the  crime  of  perjury, 
or  subornation  of  perjury,  may  be  prosecuted  in 
any  court  of  justice  in  the  United  States.  All 
offenses  committed  while  on  shore  are  punishable 
in  the  same  manner  as  if  committed  at  sea.  Gen 
eral  courts  only  are  competent  to  try  capital 
offenses  and  commissioned  officers,  and  to  compel 
the  attendance  of  witnesses  who  are  subject  to 
the  authority  of  the  United  States. 

Every  accused  person  is  entitled  to  a  true  copy 
of  the  charge  and  specification  alleged  against 
him,  properly  authenticated,  at  least  twenty-four 
hours  before  he  is  brought  to  trial ;  and  should 
he  desire  counsel,  a  stenographer,  or  a  friend  to 
assist  in  his  defense,  they  are  admitted  and  men 
tioned  in  the  record.  He  is  also  entitled  to  a  list 
of  the  witnesses  who  are  to  appear  against  him, 
and  to  have  such  witnesses  summoned  as  are 
material  to  his  defense.  See  WITNESS. 

If  the  charges  are  found  to  be  correct,  and  the 
accused  is  prepared  for  trial,  they  are  read  to 
him,  and  he  is  called  upon  to  plead  "  Guilty"  or 


"  Not  Guilty."  Should  he  plead  not  guilty,  or 
stand  mute,  testimony  is  taken.  The  judge-ad 
vocate  summons  the  witnesses,  and  the  president 
administers  the  oath  to  them  "  in  the  presence  of 
the  accused."  (See  OATHS.)  They  are  examined 
first  by  the  party  calling  them,  then  cross-ex 
amined  by  the  opposite  party,  and,  finally,  the 
court  puts  such  questions  as  it  may  consider 
necessary.  All  questions  and  answers  must  be 
recorded  in  full,  and  the  evidence  of  each  wit 
ness  be  read  to  him  and  be  pronounced  by  him 
correct  before  he  is  discharged.  The  laws  of  evi 
dence  which  obtain  in  civil  courts  are  adhered  to 
in  the  main,  but  the  "numberless  niceties"  and 
minute  distinctions  are  not  always  regarded. 

The  proceedings  having  commenced,  the  court 
is  required  by  law  to  sit  from  day  to  day,  Sun 
days  excepted,  until  sentence  is  given,  unless 
temporarily  adjourned  by  the  authority  which 
convened  it;  and  no  member  can  absent  himself 
"  except  in  case  of  sickness,  or  of  an  order  to  go 
on  duty  from  a  superior  officer,  on  pain  of  being 
cashiered."  Testimony  taken  during  the  ab 
sence  of  a  member  must  be  read  to  him  when  he 
returns,  and  acknowledged  correct  by  the  wit 
ness,  before  he  can  resume  his  seat  in  that  par 
ticular  case.  The  president,  as  the  organ  of  the 
court,  is  empowered  to  preserve  order  and  de 
corum,  to  speak  and  act  for  the  court  in  all  cases 
provided  for  by  law,  custom,  or  its  own  resolution, 
and  requires  all  persons  called  before  it  to  be 
treated  in  a  becoming  manner.  In  all  delibera 
tions  the  members  are  equal ;  all  questions  are 
decided  by  a  majority  vote,  the  junior  voting 
first;  and  the  members  are  individually  and  col 
lectively  responsible  to  the  civil  judicature  1'or 
any  abuse  of  power,  illegal  or  corrupt  proceed 
ing.  A  court  has  no  po\yer  to  punish  its  own 
members,  and  for  disorderly  conduct  one  is  liable 
as  in  other  offenses  against  the  discipline  of  the 
service. 

The  prosecution  is  formally  closed  before  the 
defense  begins,  and  all  orders,  motions,  votes,  or 
rulings  of  the  court,  except  its  discussions,  and 
all  motions,  propositions,  arguments,  or  state 
ments  of  the  accused  or  judge-advocate, — in 
short,  every  fact  necessary  to  a  complete  his 
tory  of  the  case  and  a  correct  understanding 
by  the  reviewing  authority,  is  recorded.  Upon 
completion  of  the  evidence  the  accused  is  al 
lowed  time  to  prepare  and  submit  his  written 
defense,  to  which  the  judge-advocate  has  the 
right  to  reply. 

"The  courtls  then  cleared  for  deliberation,  and 
after  deciding  upon  its  finding,  or  verdict,  ad 
judges  sentence,  in  each  case  by  ballot.  The 
court  can  find  guilty  in  a  less  degree  than 
charged,  but  in  all  cases  of  conviction  must 
adjudge  punishment  adequate  to  the  ofiense. 
Every  member  must  vote  upon  a  sentence 
whether  he  believes  the  accused  guilty  or  not. 
A  sentence  of  death  requires  the  concurrence  of 
two-thirds  of  the  members  present,  but  all  others 
may  be  determined  by  a  majority  of  votes.  The 
discretion  of  a  naval  court-martial  as  to  punish 
ment  is  very  great,  only  "flogging,  branding, 
marking,  or  tattooing  on  the  body"  being  pro 
hibited  by  law.  Shaving  the  head,  drumming 
out  of  the  service,  extra  guard  duty,  and  ball 
and  chain,  though  lawful,  have  within  the  last 
fifteen  years  grown  into  disfavor  and  are  nearly 
obsolete.  Courts-martial  have  no  power  to  par- 


COURT-MARTIAL 


179 


COYE 


don  or  mitigate,  but  the  members  can  recom 
mend  a  convicted  person  to  clemency. 

The  record  and  judgment  of  the  court,  after 
being  signed  by  all  of  the  members  present  and 
the  judge-advocate,  is  sent  to  the  officer  who 
convened  it  for  review.  He  has  authority  to 
send  it  back  for  revision  and  amendment,  if 
needed,  or  can  approve  or  disapprove  it,  remit 
or  mitigate,  but  not  comniute,  the  sentence.  He 
can  also  execute  any  sentence  which  does  not 
extend  to  loss  of  life,  or  the  dismissal  of  a  com 
missioned  or  warrant  officer,  which  must  be  sub 
mitted  to  the  President.  All  proceedings  are 
now  (1880)  required  to  be  sent  direct  to  the 
judge-advocate-general  of  the  navy  to  be  re 
vised,  reported  upon-,  and  filed.  See  JUDGE- 
ADVOCATE-GENERAL. 

No  court  can  terminate  its  own  existence; 
therefore,  when  the  record  is  passed  upon  and 
the  action  of  the  reviewing  authority  written 
upon  it,  an  order  is  addressed  to  the  presiding 
officer  dissolving  the  court.  Another  order  may 
also  issue  announcing  to  the  service  the  result  of 
the  trial.  Since  February  4,  1879,  the  Navy  De 
partment  has  published  a  regular  series  of 
"court-martial  orders"  promulgating  trials  by 
general  courts,  which  are  of  much  value  as  a 
means  of  discipline  and  for  reference. 

Decisions. — An  officer  detailed  on  a  court  or 
board  of  any  kind  is  excused  from  other  duty 
while  so  serving.  An  officer  promoted  while  on 
a  court  gives  public  notice  thereof  to  the  court, 
and  the  fact  is  noted  in  the  record.  The  con 
vening  authority  may  direct  the  judge-advocate 
to  enter  a  nolle  prosequi  at  any  time  after  trial 
has  commenced.  A  mere  withdrawal  of  charges 
does  not  prevent  them  from  being  again  pre 
ferred.  The  power  to  remit  is  the  same  as  that 
to  pardon,  and  is  co-ordinate  with  that  to  exe 
cute.  It  is  essential  to  the  validity  of  a  pardon 
that  it  should  be  accepted.  (See  PARDONING 
POWER.)  A  crime  committed  during  desertion 
is  cognizable  by  a  court-martial.  An  adjourn 
ment  sine  die  does  not  prevent  a  court  from  re 
assembling. 

Exalted  rank  gives  no  additional  latitude  or 
privilege, — all  prisoners  are  equal  before  the  law. 
The  administration  of  justice  ceases  to  be  pure 
when  not  strictly  impartial.  "  Where  the  proper 
reviewing  officer  has  confirmed  the  sentence  of  a 
competent  court-martial,  of  which  the  proceed 
ings  were  regular,  and  has  dissolved  the  court, 
the  judgment  is  final ;  no  appeal  can  be  taken 
from  it,  or  new  trial  ordered  by  the  President." 
Relief  must  be  found  in  pardon. — Henry  C. 
Cochrane,  Cap-fain  U.S.M.C. 

Court-martial,  Summary.  "  Summary  courts- 
martial  were  established  for  the  trial  in  the 
navy  of  such  lesser  oifenses  as  the  comman 
ders  of  vessels  may  deem  deserving  of  greater 
punishment  than  they  are  by  law  authorized  to 
inflict  upon  petty  officers  and  persons  of  inferior 
rating  under  their  command,  but  not  sufficient 
to  require  trial  by  general  court-martial."  They 
have  no  power  to  try  commissioned  or  warrant 
officers,  nor  any  offense  the  proper  punishment 
of  which,  in  case  of  conviction,  would  be  more 
severe  than  they  are  authorized  to  impose.  Not 
withstanding  this  plain  provision,  commanders 
of  vessels  have  been  known  to  disregard  it  and 
to  refer  to  summary  courts  "the  grave  offense 
of  desertion,"  for  instance,  which  at  the  hands 


of  a  general  court  seldom  receives  less  than  one 
year's  imprisonment  with  loss  of  pay.  A  sum 
mary  court-martial  cannot  adjudge  more  than 
two  months  of  confinement. 

An  act  to  provide  a  more  efficient  discipline 
for  the  navy,  approved  March  2,  1855,  gave 
them  being,  and  a  subsequent  enactment  (1870) 
extended  to  commandants  of  navy-yards,  naval 
stations,  and  marine  barracks  the  authority  to 
convene  them.  The  person  to  be  tried  must  be 
long  to  the  command  of  the  officer  who  orders  the 
court,  and  the  court  must  consist  of  three  officers, 
not  below  the  rank  of  ensign,  as  members,  and 
a  recorder,  who  may  be  any  officer  of  the  com 
mand.  The  court  is  convened  by  a  brief  written 
order  addressed  to  the  senior  member,  who  pre 
sides,  stating  the  detail  and  the  time  and  place 
of  meeting,  and  by  verbal  orders  to  the  other1 
members  and  the  recorder.  Where  a  person  be 
longing  to  the  marine  corps  is  to  be  tried,  one  or 
more  marine  officers  are  to  be  on  the  court  if 


Before  proceeding  to  trial,  the  recorder  admin 
isters  an  oath  to  the  members  to  try  the  case  with 
out  prejudice  or  partiality,  and  the  senior  mem 
ber  swears  the  recorder  to  keep  a  true  record  of 
the  proceedings.  (See  OATHS.)  All  testimony 
is  given  orally  upon  oath  or  affirmation  admin 
istered  by  the  senior  member.  A  schedule  of  seven 
punishments  is  prescribed,  any  one  of  which 
may  be  inflicted,  and  to  it  may  be  added  "  extra 
police  duties  and  loss  of  pay  not  to  exceed  three 
months."  A  summary  court  may  also  disrate 
any  rated  person  for  incompetency.  Sentences 
are  not  executed  until  approved  by  the  officer 
ordering  the  court,  and  by  the  commander- in- 
chief  or  senior  officer  present,  and  a  sentence  in 
volving  "  loss  of  pay"  must  be  referred  to  the 
Secretar}^  of  the  Navy.  Sentences  can  be  re 
mitted  in  part  or  altogether,  but  cannot  be  com 
muted,  and  where,  in  the  opinion  (in  writing) 
of  the  senior  medical  officer  of  the  command,  the 
execution  of  a  sentence  would  seriously  injure 
the  health  of  a  prisoner,  the  case  can  be  sub 
mitted  again  without  delay  to  the  same  or 
another  court,  which  can,  upon  the  testimony 
already  taken,  change  the  punishment  to  some 
other  of  those  authorized. 

The  proceedings  are  to  be  conducted  with  as 
much  conciseness  and  precision  as  may  be  con 
sistent  with  the  ends  of  justice,  and  under  forms 
and  rules  prescribed  by  the  Secretary  of  the 
Navy,  with  the  approval  of  the  President.  Sum 
mary  courts  are  required  to  follow  the  same  forms 
of  procedure  and  rules  of  evidence  as  are  ob 
served  by  general  courts,  so  far  as  applicable, 
and  their  proceedings  must  be  transmitted  to  the 
Navy  Department.  The  court  is  dissolved  by 
the  authority  which  ordered  it  to  convene.  No 
statistics  of  summary  courts  are  available,  but  it 
is  known  that  in  some  commands  they  are  very 
frequent,  and  in  others  of  rare  occurrence,  de 
pending  almost  entirely  upon  the  judgment  or 
caprice  of  commanding  officers.  Judiciously 
employed,  they  are  undoubtedly  valuable  ad 
juncts  of  discipline.—  Henry  C.  Cochrane,  Cap 
tain  U.S.M.C 

Cove.  An  inlet  in  a  coast ;  a  recess  in  the  sea 
shore  ;  a  shelter,  a  cover. 

The  arch  molding  sunk  in  at  the  lower  part 
of  the  taffrail.  My  cove,  a  familiar  friendly 
term. 


COVENTRY 


180 


CRANE 


Coventry.  To  send  to  Coventry,  to  ostracize ; 
to  banish  from  society  ;  to  cut  off  from  social  in 
tercourse  for  a  mean  or  ungentlemanly  action. 

Cover.  Anything  that  is  spread  above  or 
about  another  ;  as,  a  boom-cover,  wheel-cover, 
etc.  Under  cover,  sheltered  from  the  elements  or 
from  the  flre  of  an  enemy.  To  cover,  to  protect, 
defend,  or  support ;  as,  to  cover  a  retreat,  or  a 
boarding-party. 

COVERING-BOARD  A  term  used  in  the  build 
ing  of  schooners  and  fishing-vessels.  It  is  the 
water-way  and  plank-sheer  combined  in  one 
piece  of  timber,  and  covers  both  the  inner  and 
outer  planking,  the  stanchions  cutting  through 
these  pieces  of  timber.  It  is  sometimes  called 
the  "  plank-sheer." 

Cow.  The  female  whale.  To  cow,  to  depress 
with  fear. 

Cowan.     A  fishing-boat  of  Scotland. 

Cow-hitch.  A  slippery  or  lubberly  hitch. 
Two  half-hitches  in  which  the  end  parts  come 
out  parallel  and  in  the  same  direction  ;  used  for 
securing  the  hauling  part  of  the  laniards  of  lower 
and  topmast  rigging. 

Cowhorn.     Jack's  name  for  the  coehorn. 

Cowie.     A  Scotch  name  for  the  porpoise. 

Cowl.     The  cover  of  a  funnel. 

Cowrie.  Small  shells,  Cyprcea  moneta,  used 
for  money  or  barter  in  Africa  and  the  East 
Indies. 

Cox's  Traverse.  Up  one  hatchway  and  down 
another,  to  elude  duty.  See  TOM  Cox. 

Coxswain,  or  Cockswain.  Derived  from  cock, 
a  small  boat,  and  swan,  a  swain  or  servant.  A 
person  who  has  charge  of  a  boat  and  crew  in  the 
absence  of  officers.  In  double-banked  boats  he 
steers,  but  in  single-banked  boats  he  pulls  the 
stroke  oar,  the  boat  being  generally  fitted  with 
a  yoke  and  steered  by  an  officer. 

COXSWAIN 'S-BOX.  The  space  comprised  be 
tween  the  back-board  and  the  stern  of  a  boat. 

Crab.  A  species  of  windlass  or  capstan.  An 
animal  of  the  class  Crustacea,  having  the  body 
covered  with  a  shell  called  the  carapax.  To 
crab,  to  drift  sideways  ;  to  make  a  great  deal  of 
leeway  ;  from  the  peculiar  motion  of  a  crab.  To 
catch  a  crab,  see  CATCH. 

Crabbe,  Thomas,  Rear-Admiral  U.S.N. 
Born  in  Maryland.  Appointed  midshipman 
from  Pennsylvania,  November  15,  1809.  En 
gaged  in  an  attack  by  a  squadron  of  gunboats  on 
three  British  frigates  in  Hampton  Roads,  June 
20,  1813;  also  in  repelling  an  attack  made  on 
Craney  Island  by  the  British  forces,  under  com 
mand  of  Sir  Sidney  Beckwith  and  Admiral 
Cockburn,  June  22,  1813. 

Commissioned  as  lieutenant,  February  4, 1815. 

Commissioned  as  commander,  March  3,  1835. 
Commanding  sloop-of-war  "  Vandalia,"  West 
India  Squadron,  1836-37.  While  in  command 
of  the  "  Vandalia,"  Fort  Brook,  Tampa  Bay  was 
given  in  charge  of  the  navy  for  defense,  in  the 
absence  of  the  army  operating  in  the  interior 
against  the  Seminole  Indians.  Commander 
Crabbe  received  the  following  commendatory 
letter  from  Gen.  Jessup  on  this  occasion  : 

"  In  dissolving  the  official  relations  in  which 
we  have  stood  to  each  other,  so  much  to  my  sat 
isfaction,  for  several  months  past,  I  cannot  avoid 
the  expression  of  the  great  obligations  I  am 
under  to  you  and  your  command  for  the  uni 
form,  steady,  and  efficient  support  which  you 


have  at  all  times  given  to  me, — a  support  most 
auspicious  in  its  effects  upon  the  results  of  the 
campaign,  and  which  I  shall  always  remember 
with  the  liveliest  gratitude." 

Commissioned  as  captain,  September  8,  1841. 
Ordered  to  command  frigate  "  Brandywine," 
Brazil  Squadron.  Commander  of  steam-sloop 
"San  Jacinto,"  Mediterranean  Squadron,  1852- 
53.  Commander  Crabbe  served  in  the  frigates 
"  President,"  "  Constellation,"  "  United  States," 
and  "Java,"  line-of-battle  ship  "Delaware," 
sloop-of-war  "Peacock."  Commanded  squad 
ron  on  coast  of  Africa,  in  flag-ship  "James 
town,"  1855-57. 

Commissioned  as  commodore,  July  16,  1862. 
Prize  Commissioner,  Eastern  District  Pennsyl 
vania,  1864-65. 

Commissioned  as  rear-admiral,  July  25,  1866. 
Died  in  1873. 

Crabbier.    See  KRABLA. 

Crack.  Of  superior  excellence;  as,  a  crack 
ship.  To  crack  on,  to  carry  a  press  of  sail. 

Crack-brained.     Having  a  defective  intellect. 

Crack-hemp,  or  Crack-rope.  A  wretch  des 
tined  to  be  hanged. 

Cradle.  The  framing  which  is  built  upon 
the  launching-ways,  in  which  the  ship  rests  as 
in  a  cradle,  while  in  the  process  of  launching. 
Supports  for  boats  carried  on  the  rail. 

Craft  (Ang.  Sax.  crceft,  a  trading-vessel).  A 
general  term  for  all  kinds  of  vessels.  Small  cra/t, 
small  vessels. 

Crag.  A  rugged  precipitous  rock  or  cliff, 
whose  strata,  if  vertical,  subdivide  into  points. 

Crager.     An  old  name  for  a  small  lighter. 

Craig-flock.    The  smear-dab,  or  rock-flounder. 

Cramp.  A  spasmodic  contraction  of  the  nius- 
cles,  frequently  experienced  in  bathing  or  swim 
ming. 

CRAMPER.  A  yarn  worn  around  the  leg  as  a 
preventive  of  cramp. 

Cramp-fish.  The  torpedo,  or  electric  ray,  the 
touch  of  which  gives  a  light  shock  of  electricity. 

Crampings.     The  fetters  of  a  prisoner. 

Crampit.  The  piece  of  metal  at  the  tip  of  a 
sword-scabbard. 

Crampoon.    See  CREEPER. 

Crance.     A  boom-iron. 

Crane,  William  Montgomery,  Commodore 
U.S.N.  Born  at  Elizabeth  town,  N.  J.,  Feb 
ruary  1,  1784;  died  at  Washington,  March  18, 
1846.  His  father,  General  William,  severely 
wounded  at  Quebec,  and  a  colonel  in  the  Revolu 
tionary  army,  died  at  Elizabethtown,  July  30, 
1814.  Midshipman,  May  23,  1799;  lieutenant, 
July  20,  1803;  commander,  March  4,  1813; 
captain,  November  22,  1814.  Commanding  the 
brig  "Vixen,"  he  distinguished  himself  in  the 
attack  on  Tripoli,  and  was  in  the  "  Chesapeake" 
when  attacked  by  the  "  Leopard."  In  July, 
1812,  while  commanding  the  brig  "Nautilus," 
he  was  taken  by  the  "Southampton"  frigate. 
On  his  exchange  he  was  ordered  to  the  lake?, 
where,  in  command  of  the  "  Madison"  and 
"  Pike"  in  Chauncey's  squadron,  he  served  with 
distinction  for  the  remainder  of  the  war.  In 
1827,  in  the  flag-ship  "Delaware,"  he  com 
manded  the  Mediterranean  Squadron,  acting  as 
joint  commissioner  with  Mr.  Offley,  U.  S.  con 
sul  at  Smyrna,  to  open  negotiations  with  the 
Ottoman  government.  Appointed  Navy  Com 
missioner  in  1841,  and  in  1842  chief  of  the  Bureau 


CRANE 


181 


CRAVED 


of  Ordnance  and  Hydrography.     He  died  by  his 
own  hand  ;  cause  unknown. 

Crane.  A  machine  for  raising  or  lowering 
great  weights,  and,  while  holding  them  in  sus 
pension,  transporting  them  through  a  limited 
horizontal  distance.  In  its  primitive  form  it 
consists  essentially  of  an  upright  post,  pivoted 
so  as  to  swing  freely  on  its  vertical  axis ;  a  hori 
zontal  arm  or  "  jib"  projecting  from  the  top  of 
the  post  and  strongly  braced  from  near  the  bot 
tom  by  a  diagonal  brace,  and  to  which  the  pul 
leys  and  weights  are  suspended;  pulleys  rove 
with  rope,  wire-rope,  or  chain ;  a  winding  bar 
rel  for  the  rope  or  chain,  and  guys  for  control 
ling  the  horizontal  position  of  the  weight.  The 
upper  pulley  may,  by  means  of  a  "  traveler,"  be 
moved  to  any  desired  position  on  the  arm  or 
"jib."  Modern  cranes  are  very  elaborate  in 
structure,  and  enable  weights  to  be  placed  in 
position  with  great  accuracy.  Derricks  are  mod 
ifications  of  the  crane. 

CRANAGE.  The  liberty  of  using,  and  the 
money  paid  for  using,  a  crane. 

CRANE-BARGE.  A  low  flat-floored  boat  fitted 
with  a  crane,  for  raising  anchors,  etc. 

Crane-line  (Obs.).  A  line  from  the  sprit- 
sail  topmast  to  the  forestay  to  steady  the  for 
mer  ;  also,  a  line  to  keep  a  lee  backstay  from 
chafing  against  the  yards  when  braced  sharp  up. 
Crang.  The  carcass  of  a  whale  after  the 
blubber  is  stripped  off. 

Crank.  In  machinery,  the  simplest  and  most 
efficient  device  for  transmitting  a  reciprocating 
rectilinear  movement  to  a  rotary  motion.  It 
was  patented  in  the  year  1780  by  Mr.  Pickard, 
of  Birmingham,  England,  as  "a  method  of  de 
riving  a  rotary  motion  from  a  fire-engine  by  the 
intervention  of  a  crank,"  but  was  rejected  by  the 
leading  engineers  of  that  day,  including  Boulton 
and  Watt,  on  the  ground  that  it  caused  great 
loss  in  economic  effect;  but  it  shortly  super 
seded  the  famous  "  sun-and-planet  motion"  of 
Watt,  and  all  "ratchet"  devices,  and  is  now 
familiar  to  all. 

The  theory  of  its  action,  showing  that  there  is 
no  loss  in  the  transmission  of  power,  may,  by 
neglecting  friction,  including  that  due  to  the 
oblique  action  of  the  connecting-rod,  and  which 
is  about  equal  in  all  combinations,  be  repre 
sented  as  follows : 

Let  L  represent  the  length  of  stroke  of  piston ; 
r  the  length  of  the  crank  =  J  L  ; 
p  the  total  pressure  on  the  piston  ; 
pl  the  resultant  force  of  p  at  right  angles  to 
crank ; 

6  any  angular  motion  of  the  crank  ; 
w  work  done  during  an  infinitely  small  motion 
of  crank  ; 

W  the  amount  of  work  done  during  one 
stroke. 

Then  the  tan 
the  crank  may 


mtial  moment  tending  to  turn 
i  represented  by 


Pi  = 


(1) 


and  the  work  done  through  an  infinitely  small 
change  in  position  by 


-.p1dO=pr  sin  Odd 


(2) 


This,  if  integrated  between  the  limits  9  =  0 
and  9  =  180°,  will  give  the  amount  of  work  done 
during  one  stroke  of  the  piston,  and 


W  =prl          sin  Odd  =p  ver.  sin  180°  —  0  = 

p2r=p~L        .         .     (3) 
—Albert  Aston,  Chief  Engineer  U.S.N. 

CRANK-AXLE.  In  "inside  connected"  loco 
motive-engines,  the  axle  of  the  forward  driving- 
wheels,  upon  which  the  cranks  are  forged. 

CRANK-HATCH.  In  side-wheel  steamers,  a 
hatch  around  or  above  the  cranks. 

CRANK-PIN.  A  cylindrical  piece  of  metal 
fitted  to  or  wrought  upon  the  end  of  a  crank, 
forming  a  journal  for  the  connecting-rod.  Fitted 
pins  are  usually  made  of  steel. 

CRANK-SHAFT.  In  screw-propeller  engines,  a 
section  of  the  shafting  containing  the  main  jour 
nals,  cranks,  and  crank-pins.  It  may  be  forged 
of  wrought  iron  or  cast  of  steel  in  one  solid  piece, 
or,  when  the  cranks  have  sufficient  length,  they 
and  their  pins  may  be  made  separately  and  fitted 
together,  making  what  is  called  a  "  built-up" 
crank-shaft. 

CRANK-WHEEL.  A  cast-iron  wheel  carrying 
a  crank-pin,  and  used  as  a  substitute  for  a 
crank. 

Crank,   or   Crank-sided.     That  quality  in  a 
vessel  which   renders  it  incapable  of  carrying 
sail  without  danger  of  capsizing.    It  may  be  the 
consequence  of  a  faulty  construction,  or  of  an 
injudicious  stowing  of  the  ballast  and  cargo. 
CRANKY.     Crank.     Touchy ;  easily  irritated. 
Crappo,  Johnny  Crappo,  or  General  Crappo. 
Jack's  appellation  for  a  Frenchman. 

Crare,  or  Crayer.  An  unwieldy  trading-ves 
sel  of  olden  times. 

Crater  (Lat.  "The  Cup"),  a  Orateris,  Alkes. 
Craven,  Thomas  T.,  Rear-Admiral  U.S.N., 
was  born  in  the  District  of  Columbia.  Ap 
pointed  from  New  Hampshire,  JVIay  1,  1822; 
promoted  to  passed  midshipman,  May  24,  1828; 
commissioned  as  lieutenant,  May  27,  1830 ;  com 
missioned  as  commander,  December  16,  1852. 

Commissioned  as  captain,  June  7,  1861 ;  com 
manding  sloop-of-war  "Brooklyn,"  Home 
Squadron,  1861-62;  while  in  cornmand  of  the 
"Brooklyn,"  participated  in  the  attack  upon 
and  passage  of  Forts  Jackson  and  St.  Philip. 
In  this  action,  Capt.  Craven's  vessel  became  en 
tangled  in  the  hulks  and  rafts  which  sustained 
the  chain  barricade  of  the  river,  and,  while  in 
this  situation,  received  a  severe  fire  from  Fort 
St.  Philip,  and  was  attacked  by  one  of  the  en 
emy's  rams  and  a  large  rebel  steamer ;  the  latter 
received  a  broadside  from  the  "  Brooklyn,"  at 
sixty  yards,  so  well  delivered  as  to  end  the  con 
flict,  so  far  as  the  steamer  was  concerned. 

The  ram  struck  the  "Brooklyn"  at  the  star 
board  gangway,  but  the  chain-armor  proved  a 
perfect  protection.  By  this  time  the  "Brook 
lyn"  had  swung  clear  of  the  obstructions,  and 
passed  on  up  the  river.  Capt.  Craven  continued 
in  command  of  the  "  Brooklyn,"  taking  part  in 
all  the  engagements  along  the  Mississippi  River, 
up  to  and  including  that  of  Vicksburg,  until 
late  in  the  summer  of  1862,  when  he  was  de 
tached  and  ordered  North. 

Commissioned  as  commodore,  July  10,  1862; 
commanding  steam-frigate  "Niagara,"  special 
service,  European  waters,  1864-65. 

Commissioned  as  rear-admiral,  October  10, 
1866 ;  commandant  of  navy-yard,  Mare  Island, 


CRAVEN 


182 


CROOK 


California,  1867-68 ;  commanding  North  Pacific 
Squadron,  1869.     Retired  Dec.  1869. 

Craven,  Tunis  Aug.  Macdonough,  Com 
mander  U.S.N.  Born  in  Portsmouth,  N.  H.  ; 
killed  in  the  ironclad  "  Tecumseh,"  destroyed 
by  a  torpedo  in  Mobile  Bay,  August  5,  1864. 
Midshipman,  February  2, 1829  ;  lieutenant,  1841 ; 
commander,  April  24,  1861.  He  had  twenty 
years'  sea-service,  and  eight  years  in  the  coast 
survey,  and  during  the  civil  war  commanded 
the  "Crusader,"  the  "Tuscarora,"  and  the 
"Tecumseh." 

Craw-fish,  or  Cray-fish.  A  lobster-like  crus 
tacean  (Astacus  fluviatilis) ,  found  in  fresh  water. 

Crawl.  A  sort  of  pen,  formed  by  a  barrier  of 
stakes  and  hurdles  on  the  sea-coast,  to  contain 
fish  or  turtle.  A  pen  for  slaves  awaiting  ship 
ment. 

Crawling  Off.  "Working  off  a  lee  shore  by 
slow  degrees. 

Crazy.     Shattered  ;  rickety. 

Creak.  The  noise  made  by  a  sheave  when  a 
heavy  strain  is  brought  upon  it ;  also,  the  noise 
made  by  masts,  ladders,  and  bulkheads  when 
rolling  heavily. 

Crear.     A  kind  of  Scotch  lighter. 

Creek.     A  narrow  inlet  of  the  sea  ;  it  differs 
from  a  cove  in  being   narrower,   deeper,   and 
longer.     A  brook  or  small  river. 
•    Creel,  or  Crue.     See  KREEL. 

Creep.     To  drag  an  anchor  or  cable. 

Creeper.  A  small  grapnel  used  in  searching 
for  objects  at  the  bottom  of  a  harbor. 

Creighton,  Johnston  B.,  Commodore  U.S.N. 
Born  in  Rhode  Island.  Appointed  from  Rhode 
Island,  February  10,  1838 ;  attached  to  sloop-of- 
war  "  Levant,"  frigate  "Constellation,"  sloop- 
of-war  "Natchez,"  and  frigate  "  Macedonian," 
in  West  Indies,  1840  ;  frigate  "  Columbia,"  Bra 
zil  Squadron,  1843. 

Promoted  to  passed  midshipman,  May  20, 
1844;  brig  "Truxtun,"  coast  of  Africa,  1844-46; 
sloop  "  Dale,"  Pacific  Squadron,  1846-47  ;  store- 
ship  "Lexington,"  Pacific  Squadron,  1848-50; 
steamer  "Michigan,"  on  the  lakes,  1850-52; 
frigate  "  Cumberland,"  Mediterranean  Squad 
ron,  1852-55. 

Commissioned  as  lieutenant,  October  9,  1853 ; 
navy-yard,  Boston,  1856-58  ;  steam-frigate  "  Ro- 
anoke,"  Home  Squadron,  1859-60  ;  commanding 
steamer  "  Ottawa,"  South  Atlantic  Blockading 
Squadron,  1862. 

Commissioned  as  commander,  September  20, 
1862 ;  special  duty,  1863 ;  commanding  steamer 
"  Mahaska,"  South  Atlantic  Blockading  Squad 
ron,  1863-64;  from  August  8  to  21,  1863,  bom 
barding  Forts  Wagner  and  Gregg,  Morris  Island, 
6.  C.,  while  in  command  of  the  "Mahaska"; 
commanding  the  steamer  "  Mingo,"  South  At 
lantic  Blockading  Squadron,  1864-65;  took  pos 
session  of  Georgetown,  S.  C.,  and  endeavored  to 
communicate  with  General  Sherman, — held  it 
until  relieved  by  army ;  ordnance  duty,  New 
York,  1866-67  ;  commanding  steam-sloop  "Onei- 
da,"  Asiatic  Squadron,  1867-69. 

Commissioned  as  captain,  November  26, 1868 ; 
special  duty,  New  York,  1870-71  ;  commanding 
"  Guerriere,"  European  Squadron,  1871-72 ; 
member  Board  of  Examiners,  1873-74. 

Commissioned  as  commodore,  November  9, 
1874;  commandant  navy-yard,  Norfolk,  Va., 
1876-79. 


Creng.     See  CRANG. 

Crengle,  or  Crenkle.     See  CRINGLE. 

Creole.  One  born  within  the  tropics.  One 
born  in  America  or  the  West  Indies  of  European 
ancestors. 

Crepusculum.  A  circle  parallel  to  and  about 
18°  below  the  horizon ;  during  twilight  the  sun 
is  above  this  circle  and  below  the  horizon. 
Twilight. 

Crespie.  A  term  for  a  small  whale  or  gram 
pus. 

Cresset.     A  beacon  light  on  a  watch-tower. 

Crest.     The  summit  of  a  wave. 

Crew.  The  men  who  man  a  ship,  boat,  or 
gun.  The  word  crew  in  law  includes  every  per 
son  attached  to  a  ship ;  when  it  is  intended  to 
exclude  the  officers  the  context  shows  it.  The 
term  is  also  applied  to  certain  gangs  of  men  on 
board  ship ;  as,  the  carpenter's  crew,  gunner's 
crew,  etc.,  but  they  are  generally  called  gangs. 

Crib.  A  small  berth.  A  small  raft.  A  struc 
ture  of  logs  filled  with  stones,  etc.,  and  used  as  a 
dam,  pier," ice-breaker,  etc. 

Crick.     A  small  jack-screw. 

Crimp.  A  term  applied  to  a  man  who  decoys 
seamen,  plies  them  with  liquor,  induces  them  to 
sign  articles  while  intoxicated,  and  presents  ex 
tortionate  claims  for  money  advanced,  board- 
and  lodging-money,  etc. 

Cringle.  An  eye  or  grommet  in  the  head, 
leech,  or  clew  of  a  sail.  It  is  generally  worked 
around  a  metal  thimble,  and  serves  as  a  conven 
ient  means  of  attaching  the  bowline-bridles,  ear- 
ings,  etc.,  to  the  sail. 

Croaker.  A  grumbler ;  one  who  habitually 
forebodes  evil ;  an  alarmist.  A  tropical  fish 
which  makes  a  peculiar  noise. 

Croaky.  A  term  applied  to  a  plank  when  it 
curves  much  in  a  short  length. 

Crochert.  An  ancient  hagbut  or  hand-cannon. 

Crocodile.  A  reptile  of  the  genus  Crocodilus. 
It  attains  a  length  of  18  feet,  and  is  found  in 
Africa,  Asia,  and  America.  The  American 
crocodile  is  properly  an  alligator.  The  men 
who  served  with  Lord  Keith  in  Egypt  were 
called  crocodiles. 

.CROCODILE  TEARS.  False  tears  ;  hypocritical 
sorrow.  A  term  derived  from  the  tales  of  trav 
elers,  who  represented  the  crocodile  as  shedding 
tears  over  its  prey. 

Cronstadt.  A  seaport  town  of  Russia,  20 
miles  W.  of  St.  Petersburg,  on  the  long,  flat, 
and  arid  island  of  Kotlin,  near  the  eastern  ex 
tremity  of  the  Gulf  of  Finland.  Lat.  59°  59' 
42"  N. ;  Ion.  29°  W  SO"  E.  The  town  is  on 
the  southeastern  extremity  of  the  island,  oppo 
site  the  mouth  of  the  Neva,  and  is  strongly  for 
tified  on  all  sides.  It  is  intersected  by  two  canals, 
which  have  their  sides  of  granite,  and  are  both 
deep  and  wide  enough  to  admit  the  largest  ves 
sels.  The  one  is  used  as  a  repairing-dock  and 
the  other  for  commercial  purposes.  Between  the 
two  canals  stands  a  handsome  palace,  built  by 
Prince  Mentchikof,  now  occupied  as  a  naval 
school,  and  attended  by  300  pupils.  The  other 
public  buildings  deserving  of  notice  are  the  ma 
rine  hospital,  the  churches,  the  British  seamen's 
hospital,  the  exchange,  custom-house,  admiralty, 
arsenal,  barracks,  cannon-foundry,  etc.,  and  the 
small  palace  in  which  Peter  the  Great  resided. 
Pop.  48,000. 

Crook.     A  crooked  timber.     A  natural  crook 


CROOKED-CATCH 


183 


CKOSBY 


is  formed  by  the  trunk  of  a  tree  and  its  branch, 
or  by  a  large  branch  and  a  smaller  one. 

Crooked-catch.  An  iron  implement  bent  in 
the  form  of  the  letter  S. 

Crooner.  The  gray  gurnard  (Trivia  gurnar- 
dus],  so  called  on  account  of  the  creaking  noise 
it  makes  after  being  taken. 

Crosby,  Peirce,  Commodore  U.S.N.  Born 
in  Delaware  Co.,  Pa.  Appointed  midshipman 
from  Pennsylvania,  June  5,  1838;  attached  to 
line-of-battle  ship  "  Ohio,"  from  1838  until  the 
summer  of  1841,  while  flag-ship  in  the  Mediter 
ranean  ;  attached  to  receiving- vessel  "Experi 
ment,"  at  Philadelphia;  afterward  attached  to 
steamer  "  Mississippi,"  on  her  trial-trip  with  the 
"Missouri,"  from  New  York  to  Washington. 
In  1842,  was  attached  to  the  frigate  "  Congress," 
and  sailed  \vith  her  from  Portsmouth,  N.  H.,  to 
the  Mediterranean ;  served  in  her  six  months ; 
was  then  transferred  to  the  sloop  "  Preble,"  and 
returned  to  the  United  States  in  the  fall  of  1843, 
and  was  then  attached  to  the  Naval  School  at 
Philadelphia. 

Promoted  to  passed  midshipman,  May,  1844; 
coast  survey  from  summer  of  1844  to  summer  of 
1846,  when  he  was  ordered  to  the  sloop  "  Deca- 
tur,"  and  served  in  her  six  months  in  the  Gulf 
of  Mexico,  during  the  Mexican  war ;  partici 
pated  in  the  attack  and  capture  of  Tuspan  and 
Tabasco.  Was  then  transferred  to  the  gunboat 
"Petrel,"  and  served  in  her  one  year,  until 
peace  was  declared  in  the  summer  of  1848  ;  after 
ward  was  attached  to  the  store-ship  "  Relief,"  in 
1849,  carrying  supplies  to  the  Mediterranean  and 
Coast  of  Africa  Squadron,  until  the  summer  of 
1850;  attached  to  Philadelphia  Navy-Yard  from 
fall  of  1850  to  1852,  inclusive,  and  then  trans 
ferred  to  receiving-ship  stationed  at  Philadel 
phia,  until  spring  of  1853;  became  attached  to 
the  frigate  "  Sacramento,"  then  fitting  for  sea  at 
Norfolk ;  was  soon  detached  from  her  and  placed 
on  waiting  orders. 

Commissioned  as  lieutenant,  September  3, 
1853  ;  in  the  winter  of  1853,  was  ordered  to  sloop 
"  Germantown,"  and  sailed  in  her  in  the  spring 
of  1854,  from  Boston  to  the  coast  of  Brazil,  and 
returned  to  the  United  States  in  February,  1857  ; 
attached  to  receiving-ship  at  Philadelphia  until 
the  latter  part  of  1858 ;  sailed  in  the  sloop 
"  Saratoga,"  in  the  fall  of  1858,  for  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico,  and  with  the  exception  of  forty  days  on 
board  the  "  Brooklyn,"  under  Capt.  (late  Ad 
miral)  Farragut,  served  two  years,  and  returned 
to  the  United  States  in  the  "  Saratoga,"  in  1860  ; 
attached  to  the  receiving-ship  at  Philadelphia 
from  1860  to  the  spring  of  1861 ;  in  the  spring 
and  summer  of  1861,  served  in  Chesapeake  Bay, 
keeping  open  communication  between  Annapolis 
and  Havre  de  Grace,  capturing  and  destroying 
rebel  vessels  in  the  bay,  and  cutting  off  rebel 
supplies  and  communications.  In  the  summer 
of  1861,  received  orders,  and  was  attached  to  the 
frigate  "Cumberland";  was  detailed  for  duty 
on  shore  at  Fortress  Monroe ;  transported  the 
troops  across  Hampton  Creek,  on  the  night  prior 
to  the  battle  of  Big  Bethel,  also  transported  them 
on  their  return  after  their  unsuccessful  attempt 
to  take  that  place.  Volunteered  and  took  the 
steamer  "  Fannie"  (a  canal-boat),  secured  her 
boilers  temporarily  down  to  the  deck  with 
chains,  and  proceeded  with  her,  in  company 
with  the  squadron,  to  the  attack  on  Forts  Hat- 


teras  and  Clarke,  in  order  to  have  a  light-draft 
vessel  to  operate  in  landing  troops  at  that  place; 
superintended  the  landing  of  troops,  until  the 
heavy  surf  swamped  and  broke  up  the  boats  and 
dashed  them  on  the  beach,  when  Lieut.  Crosby 
took  a  ship's  heavy  launch  and  landed  two  more 
boat-loads  of  troops,  until  the  sea  became  s'o 
heavy  that  it  threw  the  launch  upon  the  beach, 
dashing  all  the  crew  out  of  her  on  to  the  shore. 
After  thus  having  landed  three  hundred  men 
and  officers,  the  squadron  and  transports,  on  ac 
count  of  the  bad  weather,  stood  off  seaward, 
leaving  the  troops  landed  on  the  shore  until  the 
following  day,  when  the  squadron  returned, 
opened  tire,  and  captured  the  forts,  which  were 
garrisoned  by  over  seven  hundred  men,  who  had 
been  led  to  believe,  by  the  display  made  by  the 
troops  landed,  that  their  force  was  over  two 
thousand  strong.  In  this  way  the  rebels  were 
deceived,  and  our  troops  were  saved  from  attack 
and  probable  capture,  as  nearly  all  the  ammuni 
tion  was  wet,  and  the  volunteer  troops,  being  in 
a  disorganized  state,  could  not,  in  all  probability, 
have  successfully  opposed  double  their  number. 
Lieut.  Crosby  "succeeded  in  getting  a  strong 
picket  thrown  across  the  point  in  front  of  the 
enemy's  batteries,  thus  preventing  their  making 
a  reconnoissance  or  ascertaining  the  actual  force 
of  the  Union  troops,  when  the  squadron  returned 
on  the  following  day,  and  relieved  them  from 
their  critical  position.  Was  especially  men 
tioned  in  Gen.  Butler's  official  report  of  the  ex 
pedition.  Captured  several  schooners  running 
the  blockade,  they  not  knowing  the  forts  had 
surrendered. 

In  the  fall,  and  shortly  after  the  capture  of  these 
forts,  was  ordered  to  the  command  of  the  gunboat 
"  Pembina,"  fitting  out  at  New  York  ;  but  was 
taken  dangerously  ill  with  typhoid  fever,  brought 
on  by  constant  exposure,  privations,  and  fatigue 
in  the  performance  of  his  duties.  In  the  winter 
of  1861,  took  command  of  the  gunboat  "  Pinola," 
at  Baltimore;  took  her  to  Washington,  received 
her  battery,  and  sailed  for  the  Gulf  Squadron, 
joining  Admiral  Farragut's  command  in  the 
spring  of  1862.  While  on  his  way  to  join  the 
squadron,  captured  the  schooner  "  Cora,"  loaded 
with  cotton,  and  sent  her  North  as  a  prize. 
Commanded  the  "Pinola"  on  the  memorable 
night  when  she  co-operated  with  the  "  Itasca"  in 
breaking  through  the  chain  barrier  across  the  Mis 
sissippi,  at  Forts  Jackson  and  St.  Philip.  The 
"  Itasca"  successfully  slipped  the  end  of  the 
cable  on  the  opposite  shore  to  Fort  Jackson,  and 
in  so  doing  ran  hard  and  fast  aground,  but 
through  the  skillful  exertions  of  Commander 
Crosby,  was  rescued  from  her  critical  position, 
at  about  two  o'clock  in  the  morning.  The 
"  Pinola's"  duty  on  this  occasion  was  to  blow 
up  with  torpedoes  the  vessels  holding  the  chain 
barrier,  and  anchored  directly  under  Fort  Jack 
son's  guns, — which  was  twice  tried.  The  vessels 
were  boarded,  which  immediately  drew  the  fire 
of  Fort  Jackson  ;  torpedoes  were  placed  in  the 
hold,  also  outside  of  the  vessels,  and  everything 
carefully  arranged ;  but  owing  to  the  mass  of 
floating  timber  around  the  vessels,  the  strong 
current  and  dark  night,  the  wires  attached  to 
the  galvanic  battery  and  torpedoes  were  broken 
just  as  the  attempt  was  made  to  explode  them. 
When  the  third  attempt  was  about  being  made, 
a  boat  arri  ved  alongside,  announcing  the  ' '  Itasca ' ' 


CEOSS 


184 


CROTCHET 


ashore,  and  in  want  of  the  "  Pinola's"  assistance 
to  get  her  afloat ;  the  attempt  to  blow  up  the 
vessels  was  reluctantly  given  up  for  the  time,  to 
assist  the  "Itasca,"  and  in  going  to  her  assist 
ance  again  drew  the  fire  of  Fort  Jackson.  In  the 
first  attempt  to  pull  the  "Itasca"  afloat,  two 
hawsers  broke,  but  succeeded  with  an  11-inch 
hawser  the  second  time  in  pulling  her  off;  and 
in  doing  this,  the  "Pinola"  passed  well  up 
through  the  barrier  under  Fort  St.  Philip,  far 
enough  to  prove  that  the  road  was  clear,  but 
owing  to  the  heavy  bombardment  of  the  mortar- 
fleet,  was  not  heard  or  seen. 

Participated  in  the  bombardment  and  passage 
of  Forts  Jackson  and  St.  Philip,  Chalmette  bat 
teries,  and  capture  of  New  Orleans ;  also  in  the 
bombardment,  passage,  and  re-passage  of  bat 
teries  at  Vicksburg,  and  engagement  with  the 
rebel  ironclad  "  Arkansas."  Blockaded  off  Mo 
bile  in  the  fall  of  186*2;  was  ordered  North  to 
command  the  ironclad  "Sangamon." 

Was  promoted  to  commander,  September  3, 
1862;  detached  from  "Sangamon,"  and  ap 
pointed  fleet-captain,  North  Atlantic  Squadron, 
under  Rear-Admiral  S.  P.  Lee;  commanded  an 
expedition  up  the  York  River,  co-operating  with 
Gen.  Dix,  in  command  of  the  army  corps  at  the 
White  House.  In  the  winter  of  1863,  took  com 
mand  of  the  "  Florida,"  destro\^ed  two  blockade- 
runners  at  Masonboro'  Inlet,  "while  attempting 
to  run  the  blockade,  just  at  the  break  of  day, 
and  in  so  doing  drew  the  sharp  fire  of  flying 
batteries  on  shore ;  was  transferred  to  the  com 
mand  of  the  "Keystone  State"  in  1864;  cap 
tured  five  blockade-runners  while  in  command 
of  her,  and  caused  many  others  to  throw  over 
board  their  cargoes  in  order  to  escape.  Detached 
from  "Keystone  State,"  and  ordered  to  the 
"Muscoota";  detached  from  the  "  Muscoota," 
and  ordered  to  the  "  Metacomet,"  1864-65; 
blockaded  off  Galveston,  Texas,  and  commanded 
her  in  the  attack  on  Mobile.  Planned  and  di 
rected  the  construction  of  torpedo-nets,  and 
spread  them  from  shore  to  shore  of  the  Blakely 
River,  which  caught  all  the  floating  torpedoes 
sent  down  to  destroy  the  vessel ;  also  planned 
torpedo  drag-nets,  superintended  the  removal  of 
one  hundred  and  forty  torpedoes,  and  success 
fully  cleared  the  track  so  as  to  allow  the  squad 
ron  to  pass  up  safely  to  the  city  of  Mobile.  Oc 
cupied  Forts  Huger  and  Tracy  on  the  night  of 
the  evacuation  by  the  rebel  forces ;  was  espe 
cially  commended  by  Admiral  Thatcher  in  his 
official  report  of  the  naval  operations  at  that 
port;  was  detached  from  the  "  Metacomet,"  on 
her  return  to  Philadelphia,  in  August,  1865,  at 
the  close  of  the  war.  In  September,  1865,  re 
ceived  orders  to  command  the  "Shamokin"; 
sailed  in  her  for  the  coast  of  Brazil,  where  he 
remained  until  1868. 

Promoted  to  captain,  May  27,  1868,  and  de 
tached,  returning  to  the  United  States  by  the 
mail-steamer.  While  in  command  of  the 
"  Shamokin"  conveyed  Minister  Washburn  to 
Paraguay.  At  Norfolk  Navy- Yard  as  inspector 
of  ordnance,  1869-70;  navy-yard,  Philadelphia, 
1871-72;  navy-yard,  Washington,  1872-74. 

Commissioned  as  commodore,  October  3,  1874; 
commanding  naval  station,  League  Island,  since 
1878. 

Cross.     See  HAWSE. 

Cross-bar  Shot.   A  projectile  specially  adapted 


for  cutting  the  enemy's  rigging  ;  when  folded  it 
presented  a  complete  bar  or  shot,  but  when  it 
left  the  gun  it  expanded,  forming  a  cross  with  a 
quarter  ball  at  the  end  of  each  arm. 

Cross-beam.  A  beam  extending  across  the 
ship  from  side  to  side. 

Cross-bearings.     See  BEARING. 

Cross-fish.  A  name  for  the  star-fish,  from 
the  Norwegian  kors-fak.  Also,  the  Uraster 
rubens. 

Cross-head.  A  strong  beam  of  iron  or  steel, 
confined  to  rectilinear  motion  by  slides  or  by  a 
"parallel  motion,"  to  which  the  outer  ends^of 
piston-rods  are  firmly  secured.  In  back-acting 
engines  with  single  piston-rods  it  is  provided 
with  eyes,  to  which  side  rods  are  rigidly  secured, 
and  which  extend  outside  of  the  cranks  to  corre 
sponding  eyes  on  a  second  cross-head  running  in 
slides,  and  on  which  is  the  connecting-rod  jour 
nal.  When  two  cross-heads  are  used  they  are 
called,  respectively,  the  "piston-rod  cross-head" 
and  "connecting-rod  cross-head."  In  direct- 
acting,  beam-,  or  side-lever  engines,  the  piston- 
rod  cross-head  is  provided  with  journals  for  the 
connecting-rod,  links,  or  side  rods,  as  the  case 
may  be. 

Cross-jack  (Pro.  c?-ojek).  The  sail  which,  in 
the  merchant  service,  is  bent  to  the  cross-jack 
yard,  or  lower  yard  on  the  mizzen-mast.  In  the 
navy  a  sail  is  never  bent  to  this  yard.  The 
cross-jack  braces  are  the  braces  by  which  the 
cross-jack  yard  is  moved  about,  but  the  term 
also  includes  all  the  braces  on  the  mizzen. 

Cross-sea  A  sea  which  does  not  set  in  the 
direction  toward  which  the  wind  is  blowing. 
During  a  cyclone  the  wind  changes  rapidly,  and 
each  change  in  the  wind  tends  to  produce  a 
change  in  the  set  of  the  sea,  so  that  in  a  part  of 
the  sea  which  has  experienced  all  the  changes 
of  one  of  these  gales,  the  sea  runs  up  in  pyra 
mids,  sending  the  tops  of  the  waves  up  into  the 
air. 

Cross-spalls.  Pieces  of  plank  that  keep  the 
frame  to  the  proper  breadth  until  the  beams 
are  in. 

Cross-swell.  The  same  as  a  cross-sea,  ex 
cept  that  the  waves  undulate  without  breaking 
violently. 

Cross-tail.  In  side-lever  engines,  a  strong 
beam  of  iron  or  steel  to  which  one  end  of  the 
connecting-rod  and  of  the  links  connecting  with 
the  end-centres  of  the  beams  are  rigidly  attached. 

Cross-timbers.  The  pieces  of  timber  bolted 
athwartships  to  the  bitts,  for  taking  turns  with 
the  cable  or  belaying  ropes  to.  Also,  a  rack 
with  belaying-pins  through  it  extending  over 
the  windlass  of  a  merchant  ship. 

Cross-trees.  Timbers  athwart  the  lower  and 
topmast  trestle-trees  to  support  the  frame  of  the 
top  and  give  spread  to  the  topgallant  shrouds. 
Each  athwartship  timber  is  called  a  horn. 

Cross-wires.  Spider-wires  placed  in  the  focus 
of  the  object-glass  of  an  astronomical  telescope. 
In  this  position  they  become  visible  by  stopping 
pencils  of  rays,  which  there  converge  to  points. 
In  this  focus,  also,  the  image  of  a  heavenly  body 
as  it  passes  over  the  field  of  view  is  simultane 
ously  seen,  and  its  place  is  noted  by  referring  it 
to  the  cross- wires. 

Crotch.     See  CRUTCH. 

Crotchet.  A  crotch.  Also,  an  old  spelling 
of  cross-jack. 


CROW 


185 


CURRENTS 


Crow,  or  Crow-bar.  An  iron  lever  with  a 
sharp  point  or  edge  for  moving  heavy  weights. 

Crowd.  To  crowd  sail  is  to  carry  an  extraor 
dinary  press  of  canvas  ;  as,  in  chasing. 

Crow-foot.  A  combination  of  small  lines 
rove  through  an  euphroe  and  secured  to  the 
hack-bone  of  an  awning.  To  this  is  hooked  the 
crow-foot  halliards,  by  which  the  midship  part 
of  an  awning  is  kept  from  sagging  down. 

Crown.  The  round  up  of  the  deck  from  a 
straight  or  level  line.  The  decks  of  nearly  all 
ships  are  higher  in  the  centre  than  at  the  s'ides, 
in  order  to  shed  the  water.  An  English  silver 
coin  of  the  value  of  five  shillings, — about  $1.20. 
The  external  arch  of  an  anchor,  upon  which  it 
falls  when  let  go  perpendicularly.  The  most 
violent  part  of  a  gale.  To  crown  a  knot  is  to 
finish  it  up  by  laying  the  ends  of  the  strands 
over  and  under  each  other,  so  that  they  will 
bind  and  keep  the  knot  from  unlaying.  To 
double  crown  a  knot  is  to  follow  the  parts  of  the 
single  crown  a  second  time  with  the  ends  of  the 
strands. 

Crown-rope.  A  line  used  in  the  cable-tiers 
to  keep  the  fakes  in  place. 

Crow-purse.     The  egg-capsule  of  a  skate. 

Crow-shell.     A  fresh-water  mussel. 

Crow's  Nest.  A  perch  for  the  look-out  at  the 
mast-head  ;  used  particularly  in  whalers. 

Croy.  An  inclosure  for  catching  fish.  "When 
the  tide  flows  the  fishes  swim  over  the  wattles, 
but  are  left  by  the  ehbing  of  the  water. 

Crue.     See  KREEL. 

Crue-herring.     The  shad  (Clupea  alosa}. 

Cruer.     See  OR  ARE. 

Cruise.  To  sail  on  the  ocean  ;  as,  in  search 
of  an  enemy,  for  the  protection  of  others,  or  in 
quest  of  pleasure  or  plunder.  A  voyage  made 
in  various  directions  in  search  of  an  enemy,  etc. 

CRUISER.  Any  armed  vessel  that  cruises. 
Formerly,  a  small  fast  vessel  to  harass  the  enemy 
and  protect  the  commerce  of  its  own  country. 

Cruive.  An  inclosed  space  in  a  dam  or  weir 
for  taking  salmon. 

Crummy.     Fleshy  or  corpulent. 

Crupper.  An  old  name  for  the  train-tackle 
bolt  in  a  gun-carriage. 

Crupper-chain.  A  chain  for  confining  the 
jib-boom  to  the  bowsprit. 

Crusado.     See  CRUZADO. 

Crutch.  A  stanchion  of  wood  or  iron,  whose 
upper  part  is  forked  for  receiving  and  support 
ing  a  mast,  yard,  boom,  etc. 

Crux  (Lat.  "The  Cross").  A  constellation 
which,  with  Centaurus,  constitutes  a  bright 
group  in  the  southern  hemisphere,  in  a  line  with 
Arcturus  and  Spica. 

Cruzado.     See  MONEY. 

Cubbridge  Heads.  The  old  bulkheads  of  the 
forecastle  and  half-decks,  wherein  were  placed 
the  "  murderers,"  or  guns  for  clearing  the  decks 
when  boarded. 

Cub-house,  or  Cubboos.     See  CABOOSE. 

Cubiculatae.  Koman  ships  furnished  v/ith 
cabins. 

Cuckold's-knot,  or  Cuckold's-neck.  A  hitch 
by  which  a  rope  is  secured  to  a  spar, — the  two 
parts  of  the  rope  cross  each  other,  and  are  seized 
together. 

Cudbear.     See  CORKIR. 

Cudberduce.  The  cuthbert-duck,  a  bird  of 
the  Farn  Isles,  off  Northumberland. 


Cuddie,  or  Cuddin.  One  of  the  many  names 
for  the  coal-fish. 

Cudding.     A  name  for  the  char. 

Cuddy.  A  small  cabin.  A  sort  of  cabin  or 
cook-room,  generally  in  the  fore  part,  but  some 
times  near  the  stern,  of  barges  and  lighters. 

Cuddy-legs.     A  name  for  large  herrings. 

Culagium.  A  law-term  for  the  laying"  up  of 
a  ship  in  the  dock  for  repairs. 

Culch.     Stone,  shells,  etc.     See  OYSTEU-BED. 

Cullock.  A  species  of  bivalved  mollusk  (Tel- 
Una  rhomboides}. 

Culminate  (Lat.  culmen,  the  top,  ridge).  The 
heavenly  bodies  in  their  diurnal  revolution, 
when  they  attain  their  greatest  and  their  least 
altitude  above  the  horizon,  are  said  to  culminate  ; 
this  happens  when  they  cross  the  meridian.  All 
those  bodies  which  are  within  the  circle  of  per 
petual  apparition  visibly  come  to  the  meridian 
twice  in  every  diurnal  revolution,  once  above  and 
once  below  the  elevated  pole.  These  are  respect 
ively  called  their  Upper  and  Lower  Culminations. 
Other  bodies  which  show  themselves  culminate 
but  once. 

Culring.     An  old  corruption  of  culverin. 

Culverin.  An  ancient  cannon,  so  called  be 
cause  it  was  ornamented  with  serpents  (Coluber, 
a  snake). 

Culver-tailed.     Dove-tailed. 

Culward.     The  archaic  term  for  a  coward. 

Cumulo-cirro-stratus.  The  nimbus,  or  rain- 
cloud.  See  CLOUD. 

Cumulo-stratus.  The  twain-cloud,  so  called 
because  the  cumulus  blends  with  the  stratus. 
See  CLOUD. 

Cumulus.  The  day-  or  summer-cloud.  See 
CLOUD. 

Cund.  To  give  notice  of  the  direction  of  a 
shoal  of  fish. 

Cunn.     See  CONN. 

Cunneng.     A  name  for  the  lamprey. 

Cup.  A  solid  piece  of  cast  iron  in  which  the 
spindle  of  a  capstan  works. 

Cuppy.  A  defect  sometimes  found  in  timber, 
where  a  portion  of  the  heart  has  separated  from 
the  outside;  probably  caused  by  lightning  or 
severe  frosts. 

Cur.     A  name  for  the  bull-head. 

Cur-fish.     A  small  kind  of  dog-fish. 

Curl-cloud.     See  CLOUD. 

Curlew.  A  coast  bird  with  a  long,  curved  bill 
( Numenius  arquatus ) . 

Currach.  A  skiff  formerly  used  on  the  Scot 
tish  coasts. 

Curra-curra.  A  peculiarly  fast  boat  in  the 
Malay  Islands. 

Currents.  The  surface  of  the  ocean  is  fur 
rowed  and  its  depths  traversed  by  streams  of 
running  water,  forming  a  S}^stem  of  circulation 
as  complete,  more  regular,  but  intimately  con 
nected  with,  the  currents  of  the  air.  These  cur 
rents  are  due  to  two  primary  causes, — the  action 
of  the  winds  and  the  heat  of  the  sun.  As  water 
is  a  non-conductor,  when  a  portion  of  the  sur 
face  of  the  sea  is  heated,  that  part  only  becoming 
subject  to  the  evaporative  effects  of  the  sun  be 
comes  heavier  and  sinks,  its  place  being  supplied 
by  colder  currents  from  the  bottom  or  from  other 
localities.  But  these  vertical  currents  are  modi 
fied  by  the  action  of  the  prevailing  winds  and 
the  motion  of  the  earth  on  its  axis.  The  per 
manent  winds,  blowing  in  a  westerly  direction, 


CURRENTS 


186 


CURRENTS 


wh'ere  the  water  is  hottest,  at  the  tropics,  impel 
the  waters  westward  in  their  course.  Were  it 
not  for  the  continents  we  should  thus  have  a 
westerly  current  around  the  globe  at  the  equator. 
But  this  westerly  current,  crossing  the  two  oceans, 
strikes  the  continents,  turns  to  the  northward, 
until  it  is  impelled  in  an  easterly  direction  by 
the  centrifugal  force  generated  by  the  revolution 
of  the  earth  on  its  axis,  and  flows  into  itself  again, 
being  divided  or  modified  as  it  impinges  on  con 
tinents  or  islands  in  its  track.  The  spaces  thus 
vacated  by  the  hotter  waters  of  the  globe  are 
filled  partly  by  a  compensating  system  of  cold 
surface  currents,  but  principally  by  under-cur- 
rents  of  cold  water  flowing  from  the  frozen  regions 
of  the  globe.  The  influence  of  the  superficial 
currents  is  not  felt  at  any  great  depth  below 
the  surface,  extending  only  from  300  to  500 
fathoms. 

Besides  these  primary  causes  of  the  general 
currents  of  the  globe,  they  are  also  caused  by 
the  tide,  by  storms,  and  by  the  gradual  or  rapid 
fall  of  streams  of  water  from  higher  portions  of 
the  earth,  and  rivers  sometimes  prolong  their 
action  far  into  the  waters  fed  by  them. 

The  great  currents  of  the  ocean  are  of  the  ut 
most  importance,  modifying  the  climates  of  the 
globe,  aiding  navigation  in  the  great  commercial 
waters,  and  distributing  the  animals  of  warmer 
seas  over  colder  regions ;  and  the  navigator  is 
particularly  interested  in  them. 

Currents  exist  all  over  the  ocean,  very  slight 
in  some  places  and  strong  in  others.  We  may 
divide  them  into  great  currents,  lesser  currents, 
tidal  currents,  storm  currents,  and  river  currents. 
The  former  only  need  claim  our  attention  to  any 
extent.  The  warm  currents  of  the  two  oceans 
are  divided  into  many,  all,  however,  offshoots  or 
parts  of  the  same  general  streams.  In  the  At 
lantic,  the  northeast  trade-wind  blows  the  warm 
waters  of  the  tropics  into  the  heated  basins  of  the 
Caribbean  Sea  and  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  These 
tepid  waters,  pouring  from  the  narrow  straits 
of  Florida,  form  the  mighty  Gulf  Stream.  Simi 
larly,  in  the  Pacific,  the  waters  of  the  equatorial 
region  form  the  Kuro  Si  wo,  or  Japan  stream. 
These  mighty  rivers  of  heated  water  resemble 
each  other  in  their  prominent  features.  The 
Gulf  Stream  is  from  forty  to  several  hundreds 
of  miles  wide,  is  a  deep  indigo  blue  in  color,  is 
from  ten  to  twenty  degrees  hotter  than  the  sur 
rounding  waters  of  the  ocean,  is  swifter  at  its 
commencement  and  in  the  centre,  is  traversed 
by  various  currents  of  cold  water,  throws  off 
streams  of  hot  water  from  its  banks,  that  recurve 
in  an  opposite  direction  to  it.  Its  velocity  is 
from  one  to  five  miles  an  hour,  and  is  less  in  its 
northerly  portions  by  reason  of  friction  and  the 
slower  rotation  of  those  portions  of  the  earth. 
Its  banks  are  well  defined,  ripples  being  often 
seen,  and  sudden  changes  of  temperature  an 
nouncing  it.  They  vary  with  the  season,  follow 
ing  the  sun  in  its  course,  and  with  the  prevail 
ing  winds.  Its  temperature  varies  from  62°  in 
winter  to  82°  in  summer.  Its  waters  teem  with 
animal  life,  and  its  banks  are  enshrouded  in 
clouds,  fogs,  and  storms.  On  reaching  the  east 
ern  basin  of  the  Atlantic  it  divides  into  two 
branches,  one  flowing  south,  past  the  shores  of 
Spain  and  North  Africa,  until,  in  the  region  of 
Cape  Verde,  it  again  divides,  part  flowing  west 
to  become  again  a  portion  of  the  main  stream, 


and  a  branch  going  to  the  southward  along  the 
African  coast,  under  the  name  of  the  Guinea 
current.  The  other  branch  of  the  main  stream 
flows  to  the  northeastward,  tempering  the  win 
ters  of  Norway. 

The  southeast  trade-wind  also  forms  its  cur 
rent,  which  is  called  the  Equatorial  current. 
Flowing  to  the  northwestward,  across  the  ocean, 
it  divides  on  reaching  the  continent  of  South 
America,  one  branch  flowing  into  the  Caribbean 
Sea  and  feeding  the  Gulf  Stream,  and  the  other, 
turning  to  the  southwestward,  called  the  Brazil 
current,  loses  itself  in  the  cold  currents  of  the 
Southern  Ocean.  These  warm  currents  are  partly 
balanced  by  the  cold  currents,  the  Arctic  and  the 
Cape  Horn  currents,  both  bearing  icebergs  from 
the  frozen  regions.  The  Arctic  current,  flowing 
from  the  eastward  of  Greenland,  is  joined  by  the 
Hudson  Bay  current,  and  united  they  form  the 
Labrador  current,  flowing  down  inside  the  Gulf 
Stream  along  the  American  coast  until  it  dips 
under  the  Gulf  Stream  and  is  lost  in  the  equa 
torial  waters.  The  Cape  Horn  current  is  a 
branch  of  the  Antarctic  drift. 

The  current  circulation  of  the  Pacific  resem 
bles  that  of  the  Atlantic.  A  north  equatorial 
drift-current  is  here  impelled  to  the  westward 
by  the  northeast  trade-winds,  a  Gulf  Stream 
formed  in  the  Kuro  Siwo,  furrowed  by  hot  and 
cold  streams,  as  the  Gulf  Stream,  like  it  hotter 
by  several  degrees  than  the  surrounding  ocean, 
and  diminishing  in  velocity  to  the  eastward. 
Its  color  is  dark  blue,  and  it  is  joined  during 
certain  seasons  by  the  monsoon  drift-currents  of 
the  China  Sea.  About  the  latitude  of  40°  N.,  it 
divides  into  two  branches,  one  flowing  to  the 
northward,  warming  the  bleak  Kamschatkan 
coast,  and  passing  through  Behring  Straits, 
losing  itself  in  the  Arctic  Ocean.  The  other 
flows  to  the  eastward,  then  south  down  the 
American  coast,  and  again  is  caught  by  the 
trade-wind,  and  blown  across  the  ocean,  a  part 
of  it,  however,  still  flowing  down  the  Mexican 
coast  as  far  as  the  equator.  The  southeast  trade 
also  here  causes  its  equatorial  current,  and 
this,  flowing  across  the  Pacific,  throws  off  two 
branches  about  178°  W.,  one  curving  to  the 
northward  and  eastward,  and  losing  itself  in  the 
counter-current,  the  other  turning  to  the  south 
ward  and  eastward  until  it  meets  with  a  cold  cur 
rent,  and  the  main  stream  loses  itself  among  the 
islands.  A  cold  current  flows  from  the  Arctic 
regions,  through  Behring's  Straits,  and  down 
the  Asiatic  coast.  The  Southern  Pacific  has  also 
a  cold  current,  Humboldt's,  or  the  Penwan,  flow 
ing  to  the  northward  along  the  South  American 
coast,  part  of  it  entering  into  the  trade  drift,  and 
a  part  of  it  flowing  as  far  north  as  the  equator. 

The  currents  of  the  Indian  Ocean  are  so  affected 
by  the  prevailing  monsoon  as  not  to  be  constant 
in  direction  during  the  whole  year.  There  is, 
however,  one  warm  current — the  Agulhas  cur 
rent — which  flows  from  the  equator  in  a  south 
westerly  direction,  between  the  coast  of  Africa 
and  Madagascar.  It  throws  off  a  branch  to  the 
eastward,  soon  lost  in  the  cold  current,  and  its 
main  body  passes  around  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope  into  the  Atlantic,  joining  the  southeast 
trade  drifts  there. 

The  warm  currents  thus  impelled  from  equa 
torial  regions  are  fed  by  streams  of  cold  water, 
welling  up  from  Antarctic  regions.  The  great 


CUKKENTS 


187 


GUSHING 


Antarctic  drift-current,  coming  from  the  frozen 
regions  near  the  south  pole,  are  deflected  to  the 
eastward  by  the  westerly  winds  that  here  blow 
around' the  globe.  The  offshoots  of  this  great 
current,  known  as  Humboldt's,  and  the  Cape 
Horn  current,  have  been  alluded  to.  Besides 
these,  the  great  southern  connecting  current 
flows  on  past  the  southern  point  of  Africa  and 
through  the  Indian  Ocean,  until  it  arrives  on  the 
west  coast  of  Australia.  It  there  divides  into 
two  branches,  one  flowing  to  the  northward,  a 
part  of  it  working  through  Macassar  Straits,  and 
forming  a  great  counter-current  across  the  Pa 
cific  Ocean^  and  a  part  curving  to  the  westward 
across  the  Indian  Ocean,  joining  the  warm 
Agulhas  current  at  Mozambique.  The  south 
ern  branch  is  the  Southern  Australian  current, 
which,  after  passing  south  of  that  great  conti 
nent,  throws  off  an  offshoot — the  East  Austra 
lian  current — to  the  northeastward,  and,  con 
tinuing  east  with  its  parent  stream, — the  Ant 
arctic  drift, — it  curves  westward  again,  recrossing 
the  Pacific  about  the  tropic  of  Capricorn,  and  is 
lost  in  tropical  waters. 

"in  the  calm  spaces  formed  by  these  currents, 
in  bays  and  inlets  near  the  coast,  in  interior 
lakes,  etc.,  there  are  often  currents,  depending 
on  wind  or  tide,  or  other  cause.  The  storms, 
whether  circular  or  translatory.  carry  with  them 
a  storm  wave  and  appreciable  current.  The 
tidal  wave,  in  its  passage  about  the  earth,  car 
ries  a  powerful  current  with  it.  The  great  rivers 
of  the  earth,  as  they  emerge  from  their  banks, 
carry  their  discolored  streams  far  into  the  waters. 
The  Amazon,  La  Plata,  and  other  great  rivers 
make  their  currents  felt  hundreds  of  miles  from 
the  coast.  The  investigation  of  currents  has 
been  greatly  forwarded  by  the  labors  of  Maury, 
by  the  Coast  Survey,  and  deep-sea  sounding 
vessels,  and  by  the  recent  "  Challenger"  voyage 
of  exploration  of  sea  depths.  Much  remains  yet 
to  be  known,  and  the  great  current  charts  need 
to  be  revised,  added  to,  and  corrected  constantly. 
The  exact  determination  and  measurement  of 
a  current  are  important  problems  in  scientific 
navigation.  It  is  somewhat  difficult  to  deter 
mine  the  velocity  and  direction  of  a  current  in 
mid-ocean,  from  having  no  fixed  point  as  a  basis. 
The  usual  method  employed  by  navigators,  suf 
ficiently  exact  for  their  purpose,  is  to  compare 
the  positions  of  the  ship  from  time  to  time,  as 
from  one  noon  to  the  other,  obtained  by  measure 
ment  of  her  speed,  with  those  found  by  astronom 
ical  means,  or,  as  sailors  say,  position  by  dead- 
reckoning  with  position  by  observation.  If  the 
measuring  instrument  were  not  affected  by  the 
current  this  would  give  the  exact  force  of  the 
current  during  the  interval,  but  the  logship  is 
affected  by  the  current,  and  hence  this  does  not 
give  the  exact  current.  The  following  exam 
ple  illustrates  this  method  of  finding  the  current : 

Lat.,  dead  reckoning...  51°  N.    Lon.,  dead  reckoning..  76°  W. 
Lat.,  by  obs.  of  sun 49°  N.    Lon.,  observation  75°  W. 


Difference 2°  N. 


Difference 1°  W. 


But  this  sixty  minutes  of  longitude  represents, 
in  lat.  50°,  38. 6'.  With  this  departure,  and  the 
difference  of  latitude,  we  find  the  difference  due 
to  currents,  from  tables,  to  be  126',  and  its  course 
to  be  S.  18°  E.  This  is  the  set  of  the  current, 
4  and  the  distance  126'  is  its  drift.  The  set  is  al 
ways  in  the  direction  of  the  true  position  from 


the  estimated.  Hence  the  sei  and  drift  of  the 
current  are  the  course  and  distance  correspond 
ing  to  the  difference  of  latitude  and  departure 
between  the  two  positions.  To  fin!  the  effect  of 
a  current  upon  a  course  and  rate  of  speed,  a  re 
verse  operation  is  performed.  When ^course  is 
to  be  laid  down  for  a  port,  the  current,  it  known, 
must  be  allowed  for.  This  is  usually  done£raph- 
ically  on  a  chart.  But  it  may  be  done  by  Calcu 
lation.  The  correction  is  found  by  its  sine,  w^h 
is  equal  to  the  rate  of  the  current  x  by  the  difkr' 
ence  between  its  set  and  the  course,  divided  b$ 

r  sin  (c  —  s] 
the  distance  to  be  sailed,  or  sin  a?== ^ — 

Then  the  correct  course  would  be  C  =c  —  x.  In 
beating  to  windward,  the  current  is  also  to  be 
considered,  that  tack  on  which  it  helps  being  the 
best,  or  "  long  tack."  The  currents  of  the  depths 
of  the  ocean  are  less  easily  obtained.  The  tem 
peratures  obtained  in  sounding  are  sometimes  a 
guide  to  the  currents,  and  they  may  be  measured 
by  a  fan  attached  to  a  buoy,  when  a  fixed  point 
from  which  to  observe  the  course  of  the  buoy 
can  be  obtained  ;  but  this  is  rarely  the  case,  and 
such  currents  will  long  remain  but  partially 
known.— .P.  S.  Bassett,  Lieutenant  U.S.N. 

Currier.  A  small  musketoon  mounted  on  a 
swivel. 

Cursa.     The  star  (3  Eridani. 

Curtail,  or  Curtald.  An  ancient  piece  of  naval 
ordnance. 

Curtle-ax.     An  old  name  for  a  cutlass. 

Cuseforne.  A  long,  open  whale-boat  of  Japan. 

Gushing,  W.  B.,  Commander  U.S.N.  Wil 
liam  B.  Cushing  was  born  in  Delafield,  Wis., 
November  4,  1842  ;  entered  the  Naval  Academy 
at  Annapolis,  Md.,  September  25,  1857;  resigned 
March  23,  1861,  and  as  soon  as  possible  there 
after  entered  the  naval  service  afloat  as  an  acting 
master's  mate.  His  disposition  and  temperament 
would  not  permit  him  to  remain  at  a  naval  school 
in  time  of  war ;  he  would  not  have  been  able  to 
give  a  single  thought  to  theoretical  study. 

Ir.  the  following  October  he  was  restored  to 
his  rank  as  midshipman.  March  27  he  was  de 
tached  from  the  "  Cambridge"  sick,  and  granted 
one  month's  leave.  The  following  May  he  was 
ordered  to  the  "  Minnesota,"  and  was  promoted 
to  the  rank  of  lieutenant  from  the  16th  of  July, 
with  a  large  number  of  young  officers,  made 
necessary  to  supply  the  demands  of  the  service 
growing  out  of  the  civil  war. 

Henceforth,  for  a  period  of  nearly  three  years, 
his  career  was  singularly  conspicuous  in  deeds  of 
daring,  in  a  service  where  a  lack  of  gallantry 
would  have  brought  disgrace. 

When  in  command  of  a  small  steamer  engaged 
in  blockading,  he  sought  opportunities  of  visiting 
the  inland  waters  of  the  enemy  in  his  boats, 
usually  after  night,  and  would  sometimes  lie 
concealed  during  the  following  day,  always  hav 
ing  in  view  some  definite  object,  whether  com 
mensurate  with  the  risks  involved  or  otherwise. 
At  other  times  in  narrow  waters,  in  the  vessel 
he  commanded,  he  would  find  himself  fiercely 
engaged  with  the  field-batteries  of  the  enemy. 

When  blockading  the  coast  near  New  Topsail 
Inlet  he  discovered  a  schooner  within,  and  made 
a  reconnoissance  in  his  boats,  but  soon  found 
himself  under  fire  of  the  enemy's  field-pieces  and 
small-arms,  in  the  hands  of  a  considerable  force 
guarding  the  inlet.  He  retired,  but  determined 


188 


CUSTOM 


to*  destroy  the  s<#oon-ep  }  >       some  miles  from 
the  guarded  poj£t  of  entrance. 

Persons  fam^]iar  with  inlets  in  marshy  countries 
know  that  %uai}y  they  are  very  tortuous,  and 

nftckn      laorl   f*  .1  -•  i  « 

ouen  ieau/for  mi}es  along  or  near  sand-spits 
which  s^arate  the  channels  from  the  ocean, 
buch  w£s  tne  configuration  of  New  Topsail  In 
let.  J^ate  jn  the  evening,  August  22,  1863, 
•Lle%  Gushing  anchored  the  "Shokokon"  close 
fco  4;he  beach  abreast  the  schooner,  and  several 
"Yiles  distant  from  the  entrance  to  the  inlet. 
/He  sent  two  boats  with  crews  on  shore,  the 
/  larger  one  to  act  as  a  support.  The  men  hauled 
1  the  smaller  boat  across  the  sand  beach  and 
launched  it  in  the  stream.  Acting  Ensign  James 
C.  Coney  was  sent  in  this  boat  with  a  force  of 
six  men  to  destroy  the  schooner.  They  pulled 
along  until  within  a  short  distance  from  the  ves 
sel  of  the  enemy,  where  they  landed  and  sent  a 
man  to  reconnoitre,  who  brought  the  information 
that  some  twenty  men  with  a  small  piece  of 
artillery  were  guarding  the  vessel.  A  charge 
was  made,  the  enemy  routed,  ten  prisoners,  one 
howitzer,  and  eighteen  small-arms  captured  ;  the 
schooner  and  adjacent  salt-works  were  destroyed, 
and  the  expedition  rejoined  the  vessel  without 
loss. 

In  the  winter  of  1864,  when  blockading  the 
Cape  Fear  River,  Gushing  determined  to  pay  a 
visit  to  Smithville  in  a  boat  having  a  crew  of 
but  six  men.  In  entering  the  river  he  had  to 
pass  Fort  Caswell,  mounting  heavy  guns,  and  at 
Smithville,  his  destined  point,  two  miles  above, 
he  knew  there  was  a  battery  of  five  guns  and  a 
considerable  garrison.  He  landed  one  hundred 
yards  above  the  battery,  came  ^into  the  village, 
and  across  the  street  into  Gen.  Hebert's  house, 
a  large  building  with  a  piazza  ;  the  hour  was 
about  11  P.M.  Major  Hardeman  and  Capt. 
Kelly,  of  the  general's  staff,  were  down-stairs 
and  about  retiring,  when  the  former  hearing 
footsteps  on  the  piazza  and  supposing  his  ser 
vant  was  there,  threw  up  a  window,  when  a 
navy  pistol  was  thrust  in  his  face  and  a  demand 
made  to  surrender.  He  instantly  pushed  the 
pistol  aside,  and  escaped  through  a  back-door, 
calling  upon  Kelly,  his  companion,  to  follow,  as 
the  enemy  were  upon  them.  The  latter  failed 
to  comprehend,  and  was  taken  prisoner  and  car 
ried  off  by  Gushing,  who  embarked  at  once, 
knowing  that  an  alarm  would  immediately  be 
given.  In  speaking  of  this  occurrence,  Gushing 
said  that  it  was  a  beautiful,  bright  moonlight 
night,  and  that  he  counted  upon  a  lack  of 
vigilance  of  the  enemy  from  that  fact.  The 
soldiers  were  quartered  in  the  immediate  vicinity 
where  his  prisoner  was  captured. 

An  army  officer  who  was  at  the  capture  of 
Newbern  mentioned  that  Gushing  in  command 
of  navy  howitzers  passed  along  with  his  sailors, 
aided  by  soldiers,  dragging  the  pieces.  In  land 
ing  in  the  marsh  Gushing  had  lost  his  shoes  and 
in  the  bushes  his  hat.  Pressing  on  bareheaded 
and  barefooted,  he  encountered  the  servant  of 
Capt.  Johnson,  of  the  army,  who  had  a  pair  of 
spare  boots  slung  over  his  shoulder.  Gushing 
asked  the  servant  the  name  of  the  owner  of  the 
boots,  and  said,  "Tell  the  captain  that  Lieut. 
Gushing,  of  the  navy,  was  barefooted  and  has 
borrowed  them  for  the  day,"  and  in  spite  of  the 
remonstrances  of  the  servant  put  the  boots  on  in 
haste  and  pursued  his  way. 


In  the  destruction  of  the  plated  ram  "  Albe- 
marle"  we  see  Gushing  in  a  true  heroic  light. 
The  press  correspondents  had  for  a  month  or 
more  apprised  the  public  and  the  enemy  that 
Gushing  was  on  his  way  from  the  North  with  a 
torpedo-boat  to  blow  up  the  "  Albemarle."  No 
method  could  have  been  taken  that  would  seem 
more  efficacious  to  render  her  destruction  im 
possible.  The  enemy  was  apprised  of  the  arrival 
of  the  torpedo-boat  in  the  adjacent  waters ;  the 
"Albemarle"  was  secured  to  a  wharf  at  Ply 
mouth  ;  a  cordon  of  logs  was  placed  around  her 
at  a  distance  of  about  thirty  feet ;  a  company  of 
soldiers  with  small-arms  and  howitzers  were  on 
the  wharf  to  defend  her,  and  her  crew  on  board 
to  make  use  of  her  guns.  The  enemy  was  vigi 
lant  and  Cushing's  approach  was  discovered. 
Yet  he  pushed  forward  amidst  a  shower  of  bul 
lets  and  the  fire  from  the  howitzers  stationed  on 
the  wharf,  forced  his  way  in  over  the  cordon  of 
logs,  lowered  his  torpedo  and  blew  the  vessel  up 
at  the  very  instant  when  a  shell  from  one  of  the 
heavy  guns  of  the  "  Albemarle"  struck  the  tor 
pedo-boat  and  she  went  down  swamped  by  the 
column  of  water  and  spray,  which  rose  high  in 
the  air  when  the  torpedo  exploded. 

For  this  act  of  heroism  Gushing  was  advanced 
to  the  grade  of  lieutenant-commander. 

His  entire  career  was  filled  with  daring, 
cleverly  planned  and  admirably  executed  ;  hence 
his  unvarying  success  in  what  he  undertook. 

Cushing's  life  in  war  was  active  and  heroic  in 
the  extreme ;  in  peace  he  seemed  to  suffer  as  it 
were  from  inanity,  or,  more  property  speaking, 
from  the  apparent  lack  or  absence  of  a  strong 
purpose. 

After  the  close  of  the  war  he  was  for  some  two 
years  the  executive-officer  of  the  "  Lancaster,"  a 
position  which  required  close  attention  and  study 
to  fulfill  its  duties  in  the  best  manner. 

Afterwards  he  served  three  years  in  command 
of  the  "  Maumee,"  on  the  Asiatic  station.  He 
was  promoted  in  regular  order  of  vacancies  to 
commander  January  31,  1872,  and  soon  after 
was  ordered  to  the  command  of  the  "  "Wyom 
ing,"  on  the  home  station,  and  was  relieved  at 
the  end  of  a  year,  the  vessel  being  put  out  of 
commission. 

In  the  spring  of  1874  he  was  ordered  to  the 
Washington  Navy-Yard,  and  the  following 
August  he  was  detached  at  his  request.  He 
then  seemed  in  impaired  health,  and  expressed 
a  desire  to  go  South  ;  after  the  lapse  of  a  few 
days  he  showed  symptoms  of  insanity  and  was 
removed  to  the  government  hospital,  where  he 
died  December  17,  1874,  at  the  age  of  32  years 
and  13  days. — Daniel  Ammen,  Rear- Admiral 
U.S.N. 

Cushion.  A  term  applied  when  the  exhaust- 
valve  of  a  steam-engine  closes  before  the  piston 
has  reached  the  end  of  its  stroke,  thus  compress 
ing  the  remaining  steam.  It  causes  the  engine 
to  run  smoothly,  and  its  resistance  to  the  piston 
is  compensated  by  the  compressed  steam  filling 
the  clearance  and  port,  which  would  otherwise 
have  to  be  filled  with  fresh  steam  from  the 
boilers. 

Cusk.     A  fine  table-fish  taken  in  cod-schools. 

Cusp.     A  projecting  point  or  horn. 

Custom.  Long-established  practice  or  usage, 
having  the  force  of  law  by  reason  of  the  general 
consent  which  it  implies.  The  customs  of  ike 


CUSTOMS 


189 


CUSTOMS 


service  constitute  the  unwritten  part  of  the  law 
military. 

Customs.  Duties  or  imposts  laid  on  the  im 
portation  or  exportation  of  certain  commodities. 
Such  duties  were  levied  in  ancient  times,  and 
have  continued  to  form  an  important  part  of  the 
revenue  of  most  modern  states.  (See  TARIFF.) 

CUSTOMS,  COLLECTION  OF.  The  collection  of 
custom  duties  in  the  United  States  is  part  of  the 
business  of  the  Treasury  Department,  and  is  con 
fided  to  a  hureau  of  that  department,  presided 
over  by  a  Commissioner  of  Customs.  To  this 
bureau  pertain  the  examination  of  all  questions 
arising  under  the  tariff  laws  upon  appeals  from 
decisions  of  Collectors  of  customs  involving  the 
rates  and  amount  of  duties  on  imports  ;  the  con 
sideration  of  cases  involving  errors  in  invoices 
and  entries,  refund  and  abatement  of  duties, 
drawback  of  customs,  duties  on  articles  manu 
factured  in  the  United  States  out  of  imported 
material,  and  establishing  the  rates  of  draw 
back  ;  also  the  consideration  of  all  questions 
arising  upon  the  construction  of  the  customs 
laws,  and  the  general  regulations  thereunder 
in  regard  to  the  entry,  appraisal,  and  delivery 
of  merchandise,  and  payment  of  duties  thereon. 
It  also  conducts  correspondence  with  consular 
officers,  through  the  Department  of  State,  in  re 
gard  to  dutiable  values,  invoices,  etc.  It  exer 
cises  supervision  over  Appraisers  in  securing  uni 
formity  of  valuation  of  dutiable  merchandise  at 
the  various  ports,  and  in  respect  of  compromises 
in  customs  cases.  It  has  also  supervision  of  the 
seal-fisheries  in  Alaska,  and  such  other  matters 
in  that  Territory  as  are  placed  by  law  in  charge 
of  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury.  There  are  131 
collection  districts  and  ports,  to  the  more  im 
portant  of  which,  viz.,  Boston,  New  York, 
Philadelphia,  Baltimore,  New  Orleans,  and  San 
Francisco,  a  Collector,  a  Naval  Officer,  and  a 
Surveyor  are  appointed.  Of  the  lesser  districts 
and  ports  some  have  a  Collector  only ;  some  a 
Surveyor  only.  At  each  of  the  ports  having  the 
three  officers  it  is  the  duty  of  the  Collector  to  re 
ceive  all  reports,  manifests,  and  documents  to  be 
made  or  exhibited  on  the  entry  of  any  ship  or 
vessel,  according  to  law  and  regulations;  to 
record  in  books,  to  be  kept  for  that,  purpose,  all 
manifests;  to  receive  the  entries  of  all  ships  or 
vessels,  and  of  the  goods,  wares,  and  merchan 
dise  imported  in  them  ;  to  estimate,  together  with 
the  Naval  Officer,  the  amount  of  the  dues  payable 
thereupon,  indorsing  such  amount  upon  the  re 
spective  entries;  to  receive  all  moneys  paid  for 
duties,  and  take  all  bonds  for  securing  the  pay 
ment  thereof;  to  grant  all  permits  for  the  un 
lading  and  delivery  of  goods;  to  employ,  with 
the  approval  of  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury, 
proper  persons  as  weighers,  gangers,  measurers, 
and  inspectors  at  the  several  ports  within  his 
district;  to  provide,  with  the  like  approval,  at 
the  public  expense,  store-houses  for  the  safe 
keeping  of  goods,  and  such  scales,  weights,  and 
measures  as  may  be  necessary.  At  ports  to 
which  a  Collector  and  Surveyor  only  are  ap 
pointed,  the  Collector  alone  executes  all  the 
duties  in  which  the  co-operation  of  the  Naval 
Officer  is  requisite  at  the  ports  where  a  Naval 
Officer  is  appointed.  And  he  acts  in  like  man 
ner  in  case  of  the  disability  or  death  of  the  Naval 
Officer  until  a  successor  is  appointed,  unless 
there  is  a  deputy  duly  authorized,  under  the 


hand  and  seal  of  the  Naval  Officer,  who  in  that 
case  continues  to  act  until  an  appointment  is 
made.  At  ports  to  which  a  Collector  only  is 
appointed,  the  Collector  alone  executes  all  the 
duties  in  which  the  co-operation  of  the  Naval 
Officer  is  requisite  at  ports  where  a  Naval  Offi 
cer  is  appointed  ;  and  he  also,  as  far  as  'may  be, 
performs  all  the  duties  prescribed  for  Surveyors 
at  ports  where  Surveyors  are  authorized. 

At  ports  to  which  there  are  appointed  a  Col 
lector,  a  Naval  Officer,  and  a  Surveyor,  it  is  the 
duty  of  the  Naval  Officer  to  receive  copies  of  all 
manifests  and  entries  ;  to  estimate,  together  with 
the  Collector,  the  duties  on  all  merchandise  sub 
ject  to  duty,  and  no  duties  shall  be  received  with 
out  such  estimates  ;  to  keep  a  separate  record  of 
such  estimates  ;  to  countersign  all  permits,  clear 
ances,  certificates,  debentures,  and  other  docu 
ments  to  be  granted  by  the  Collector  ;  to  examine 
the  Collector's  abstracts  of  duties  and  other  ac 
counts  of  receipts,  bonds,  and  expenditures,  and 
certify  the  same  if  found  correct. 

At  ports  to  which  there  are  appointed  a  Col 
lector,  Naval  Officer,  and  Surveyor,  it  is  the 
duty  of  the  Surveyor,  who  is  in  all  cases  subject 
to  the  direction  of  the  Collector,  to  superintend 
and  direct  all  inspectors,  weighers,  measurers, 
and  gaugers  within  his  port ;  to  report  once  in 
every  week  the  name  or  names  of  all  inspectors, 
weighers,  gaugers,  or  measurers  who  are  absent 
from  or  neglect  to  do  their  duty  ;  to  visit  or  in 
spect  the  vessels  which  arrive  in  his  port,  and 
make  a  return  in  writing  every  morning  to  the. 
Collector  of  all  vessels  which  have  arrived  from 
foreign  ports  during  the  preceding  day,  specify 
ing  the  names  and  denominations  of  the  vessels, 
the  masters'  names,  from  whence  arrived, 
whether  laden  or  in  ballast,  to  what  nation  be 
longing,  and,  if  American  vessels,  whether  the 
masters  thereof  have  or  have  not  complied  with 
the  law,  in  having  the  required  number  of  mani 
fests  of  the  cargo  on  board,  agreeing  in  substance 
with  the  provisions  of  the  law  ;  to  put  on  board 
each  of  such  vessels  one  or  more  inspectors  im 
mediately  after  their  arrival  in  his  port ;  to  ascer 
tain  the  "proof,  quantities,  and  kind  of  distilled 
spirits  imported,  rating  such  spirits  according  to 
their  respective  degrees  of  proof,  as  defined  by 
the  laws  imposing'duties  on  spirits ;  to  examine 
whether  the  goods  imported  in  any  vessel,  and 
the  deliveries  thereof  agreeably  to  the  inspectors' 
returns,  correspond  with  the  permits  for  the 
landing  of  the  same;  and  if  any  error  or  dis 
agreement  appears,  to  report  the  same  to  the 
Collector,  and  to  the  Naval  Officer,  if  any ;  to 
superintend  the  lading  for  exportation  of  all 
goods  entered  for  the  benefit  of  any  drawback, 
bounty,  or  allowance,  and  examine  and  report 
whether  the  kind,  quantity,  and  quality  of  the 
goods  so  laden  on  board  any  vessel  for  exporta 
tion  correspond  with  the  entries  and  permits 
granted  therefor;  to  examine,  and  from  time  to 
time,  and  particularly  on  the  first  Mondays  of 
January  and  July  in 'each  year,  try  the  weights, 
measures,  and  other  instruments  used  in  ascer 
taining  the  duties  on  imports,  with  standards  to 
be  provided  by  each  Collector  at  the  public  ex 
pense  for  that  purpose  ;  and  where  disagreements 
or  errors  are  discovered,  to  report  the  same  to 
the  Collector;  and  to  obey  and  execute  such 
directions  as  he  may  receive  for  correcting  the 
same,  agreeably  to  the  standards. 


CUT 


190 


CUTTER 


At  ports  to  which  Collectors  and  Surveyors 
only  are  appointed,  the  Surveyor  performs  all 
the  duties  enjoined  upon  Surveyors  by  the  pre 
ceding  clauses,  and  also  receives  and  records 
the  copies  of  all  manifests  transmitted  to  him 
by  the  Collector;  records  all  permits  granted  by 
the  Collector,  distinguishing  the  gauge,  weight, 
measures,  and  quality  of  goods  specified  there 
in  ;  and  takes  care  that  no  goods  be  unladen 
or  delivered  from  any  ship  or  vessel  without  a 
proper  permit  for  that  purpose. 

Surveyors,  at  certain  ports  to  which  no  Col 
lector  or  Naval  Officer  is  appointed,  perform  all 
the  duties  which  would  be  required  of  a  Collector. 

Every  Collector,  Naval  Officer,  and  Surveyor 
is  authorized,  with  the  approval  of  the  Secretary 
of  the  Treasury,  in  case  of  his  sickness  or  un 
avoidable  absence,  to  exercise  and  perform  his 
functions,  powers,  and  duties  by  deputy  duly 
constituted  under  his  hand  and  seal. 

Cut.  To  separate  or  divide.  Shape;  style; 
fashion  ;  as,  the  cut  of  a  sail.  A  passage,  chan 
nel,  or  canal.  A  short  cut,  a  cross  route,  which 
shortens  the  distance  to  be  sailed.  To  cut,  to 
adjust  or  turn  around  a  spar,  cask,  etc.  ;  also,  to 
strike  with  the  edge  of  a  sword.  To  cut  stick,  to 
make  off  clandestinely.  To  cut  and  run,  to  make 
off  suddenly  and  rapidly  ;  from  the  necessity  of 
cutting  the  cable  when  getting  under  way  in  an 
emergency.  To  cut  off,  to  intercept  a  vessel  or 
vessels.  To  cut  out,  to  seize  and  remove  from 
under  the  guns  of  an  enemy  ;  as,  a  ship  from  a 
convoy,  or  a  vessel  from  a  "harbor.  (See  CUT 
TING  OUT.)  To  cut  down,  to  take  a  deck  off  a 
vessel,  thus  converting  a  line-of-battle  ship  into 
a  frigate,  a  frigate  into  a  sloop,  etc. ;  also,  to  cut 
the  laniard  of  a  hammock  and  let  the  occupant 
down  to  the  deck.  A  ship  cuts  a  feather  when 
her  bow  is  so  sharp  as  to  make  the  spray  feather 
in  cleaving  the  water. 

•  CUT-OFF.  A  term  applied  when  the  admis 
sion  of  steam  to  a  cylinder  is  stopped  before  the 
piston  has  completed  its  stroke,  the  remaining 
portion  of  the  stroke  being  accomplished  by  the 
expansive  force  of  the  steam.  The  term  is  also 
applied  to  the  various  mechanical  devices  for 
effecting  such  stoppage,  such  as  the  Stephenson 
link  combined  with  the  "lap'-'  of  a  plain  slide- 
valve,  "tripping"  a  counter-weighted  valve  or 
poppet-valve  by  means  of  cams,  springs,  and 
catches,  and  by  independent  cut-off  valves.  See 
EXPANSION  OF  STEAM. 

CUT-OFF  VALVE.  A  valve  used  for  effecting 
a  cut-off,  which,  with  its  mechanism,  is  inde 
pendent  of  the  main  valves  and  their  gear. 

CUT  OF  THE  JIB.  The  general  appearance  of 
a  ship  or  person. 

CUTTING-DOWN  LINE.  A  curve  bounding 
the  inside  of  the  timbers  of  the  ship  at  the  cen 
tre-line. 

CUTTING  OUT.  The  exploit  of  capturing  and 
removing  or  destroying  a  vessel  protected  by  the 
guns  of  a  fort  or  fleet. 

When  a  vessel  is  to  be  cut  out  from  a  convoy, 
a  favorable  opportunity  is  waited  for,  the  vessel 
is  boarded,  and  the  crew  confined ;  if  able  to  do 
this  without  creating  a  noise  or  otherwise  attract 
ing  the  attention  of  the  armed  vessels,  it  is  pos 
sible  to  remove  the  ship  from  the  convoy  and 
take  her  into  port  as  a  prize.  When  impossible 
to  remove  the  vessel,  her  crew  is  sent  into  her 
boats,  and  she  is  fired. 


When  it  has  been  determined  to  cut  out  a 
vessel  at  anchor,  from  under  the  guns  of  a  fort 
or  fleet,  the  boats  are  provided  with  essentials 
only,  and  extra  men  are  carried  if  considered 
necessary.  The  crews  are  specially  instructed 
in  their  various  duties,  some  of  them  being  pro 
vided  with  combustible  material  for  setting  the 
I  vessel  on  fire.  The  men  are  armed  with  cut 
lasses  and  revolvers,  and  some  means  of  identi 
fication  in  the  dark  is  decided  upon. 

Taking  advantage  of  wind,  weather,  darkness, 
and  the  state  of  the  tide,  the  oars  are  muffled, 
and  the  boats  are  rowed  noiselessly  towards 
their  destination.  If  discovered,  the  boats  make 
a  dash  for  the  vessel,  the  men  are  thrown  on 
board,  the  enemy's  crew  is  overpowered  or 
driven  below,  and  the  vessel  is  fired  in  several 
places.  If  not  discovered,  the  boats  are  rowed 
alongside  quietly,  and  the  vessel  is  boarded  in 
silence,  the  hatches  are  guarded  to  keep  the 
enemy's  crew  below,  and  the  ship  is  fired,  the 
boarding-party  remaining  by  her  until  assured 
that  the  fire  cannot  be  extinguished. 

Cute.     Sharp  ;  crafty  ;  cunning. 

Cuth.  A  name  for  the  coal-fish  before  it  is 
fully  grown. 

Cutlass.  The  short,  heavy  sword  supplied  to 
the  navy  ;  called  cutlash  by  Jack. 

Cut-line.  The  space  between  the  bilges  of 
casks  stowed  chine  and  chine. 

Cutt.     An  old  horse-ferry  boat. 

Cutter,  George  F.,  Paymaster-General 
U.S.N.  Entered  the  navy  as  captain's  clerk  to 
Commander  John  Percival,  April  18,  1838,  on 
board  the  sloop-of-war  "  Cyane,"  Mediterranean 
Squadron;  discharged  May  18,  1841. 

Commissioned  as  purser,  June  5,  1844 ;  or 
dered  to  brig  "Truxtun,"  African  Squadron, 
June  18,  1844;  detached  December,  1845.  Or 
dered  to  brig  "Perry,"  West  India  Squadron, 
April  24,  1846;  detached  May  15,  1846,  and 
ordered  same  day  to  brig  "Truxtun,"  West 
India  Squadron  (Mexican  war).  Wrecked  and 
taken  prisoner,  August,  1846  ;  released  on  parole, 
September,  1846,  and  exchanged  November,  1846. 
Ordered  to  receiving-ship  "Franklin,"  navy- 
yard,  Boston,  December  4,  1846,  and  detached 
May  1,  1847.  Ordered  to  sloop-of-war  "Albany," 
West  India  Squadron,  August  12,  1847  (Mexi 
can  war) ;  detached  September  11,  1850.  Ordered 
to  receiving-ship  "Ohio,"  navy-yard,  Boston, 
|  April  1,  1851 ;  detached  April  1,  1854.  Ordered, 
April  25,  1854,  to  steamer  "  Massachusetts,"  Pa^ 
cific  Squadron  ;  detached  August,  1857.  During 
the  cruise  was  eighteen  months  in  Puget  Sound, 
Washington  Territory,  during  the  Indian  war 
there.  Ordered,  October  7,  1857,  to  navy-yard, 
Portsmouth,  N.  H.,  and  detached  September  1, 
1860,  and  ordered  to  the  steamer  "  Eichmond," 
flag-ship  Mediterranean  Squadron,  September 
10,  1860.  When  the  Rebellion  broke  out  the 
I  "  Richmond"  was  ordered  to  the  Mexican  Gulf 
|  Squadron,  and  in  her  was  present  at  the  pas 
sage  of  the  forts  below  New  Orleans,  capture  of 
that  city,  the  attack  on  Vicksburg,  running 
the  batteries,  and  the  general  operations  on  the 
Mississippi  River,  attack  on  the  forts  at  en 
trance  of  Pensacola  Harbor,  and  on  blockade 
duty;  detached  from  the  "  Richmond,"  October 
20,  1862.  Ordered  North,  and  was  ordered  as 
fleet  paymaster  North  Atlantic  Squadron,  but 
before  taking  charge  of  duty  was  detached,  and 


CUTTER 


191 


CYMBA 


ordered,  April  2, 1863,  as  fleet  paymaster  East 
ern  Gulf  Squadron,  flag-ship  "San  Jacinto" ; 
detached  December  1,  1863.  Ordered  North, 
and  March  7,  1864,  ordered  as  inspector  in 
charge  of  stores,  navy-yard,  Boston ;  detached 
April  1,  1867.  Ordered  as  purchasing  paymas 
ter,  New  York,  June  24,  1887 ;  detached  Sep 
tember  2,  1867.  Ordered,  October  1,  1867,  to 
flag-ship  "  Piscataqua,"  as  fleet  paymaster  of 
Asiatic  Squadron ;  detached  July  23,  1869,  and 
ordered  home.  January  1,  1870,  ordered  as  in 
spector  in  charge  of  stores,  navy-yard,  Boston. 
Received  commission  as  pay  director  March  3, 
1871.  Detached,  as  inspector,  October  1,  1872, 
and  ordered  as  paymaster  of  New  York  Navy- 
Yard  ;  detached  February  12,  1873,  and  ordered 
as  purchasing  and  disbursing  paymaster,  New 
York ;  detached  March  5,  1877,  and  appointed 
general  inspector,  Bureau  of  Provisions  and  Cloth 
ing  ;  detached  November  17, 1877,  and  appointed 
paymaster-general  U.  S.  navy,  Washington, 
D.  C.,  where  now  on  duty. 

Cutter.  A  single-masted,  sharp-built  vessel, 
furnished  generally  with  a  running-in  bowsprit, 
and  carrying  a  fore-and-aft  mainsail,  gaff-top 
sail,  stay-foresail,  and  jib.  There  is  no  jib-stay, 
the  jib  hoisting  and  hanging  by  the  halliards 
alone.  The  name  is  derived  from  its  fast  sail 
ing.  The  name  cutter  is  also  given  to  the  small 
steamers  in  our  revenue  marine  service.  Pull 
ing  boats  called  cutters  are  the  medium-sized 
boats  supplied  to  the  navy.  They  are  square- 
sterned,  double-banked,  and  pull  10  to  12  oars. 
See  SAILS,  BOAT'S. 

CUTTER-BRIO.  A  square-rigged  vessel  with  a 
jigger  and  a  fore-and-aft  mainsail. 

CUTTER-STAY  FASHION.  A  method  of  turn 
ing  in  dead-eyes,  so  called  because  originally 
used  for  the  forestays  of  cutters.  The  end  part 
of  the  shroud  or  stay  is  taken  around  the  stand 
ing  part  and  stopped  back  to  its  own  part.  This 
plan  allows  a  sail  to  be  hauled  close  down.  The 
method  is  sometimes  used  for  lower  rigging;  it 
presents  a  neat  appearance,  but  is  not  so  strong 
as  the  ordinary  mode. 

Cuttie.  A  name  for  the  black  guillemot 
( Uria  grille). 

Cuttle-fish.  A  common  marine  animal  of 
the  genus  Sepia  and  class  Cephalopoda.  When  in 
danger  it  ejects  a  black  inky  substance,  which 
discolors  the  water  for  some  distance;  hence 
sometimes  called  the  ink-fish. 

CUTTLE-BONE.  The  oval,  internal,  calcareous 
shell  of  the  cuttle-fish. 

Cutty.  A  short-stemmed  pipe.  A  loose  wo 
man. 

Cut-water.  That  part  of  a  vessel  forward  of 
the  stem  ;  it  divides  the  column  of  water  through 
which  the  vessel  passes. 

Cycle.  A  periodical  space  of  time  marked  by 
the  recurrence  of  something  peculiar.  The  cycle 
of  the  sun,  or  solar  cycle,  is  a  period  of  28  years, 
after  which  the  same  days  of  the  week  recur  on 


the  same  days  of  the  year.  The  cycle  of  the 
moon,  or  Metonic  cycle,  is  a  period  of  19  solar 
years,  after  which  the  new  and  full  moon  fall  on 
the  same  day  of  the  year  that  they  did  19  years 
before.  The  cycle  of  indiction,  or  Roman  indic- 
tion,  a  period  of  15  years,  employed  in  Roman 
and  ecclesiastical  chronology.  Calippus  cycle,  a 
period  of  76  years,  proposed  by  Calippus  as  an 
improvement  on  the  Metonic  cycle.  Cycle  of 
eclipses,  a  period  of  about  6586  days,  the  time  of 
revolution  of  the  moon's  node, — called  Saros  by 
the  Chaldseans. 

Cycloid.  A  curve  generated  by  a  point  in 
the  plane  of  a  circle  rolled  along  a  straight  line. 
When  the  generating  point  is  on  the  circumfer 
ence  of  the  circle  the  curve  is  a  common  cycloid ; 
when  it  is  within  the  circumference  the  curve 
is  &  prolate,  or  inflected  cycloid ;  when  without, 
the  curve  is  called  a  curtate  cycloid. 

Cyclone.     A  revolving  storm  (which  see). 

Cygnus  (Lat.  "The  Swan").  A  constellation 
between  Lyra  and  Pegasus,  a  Cygni,  Arided, 
Deneb  Adige.  /3  Cygni,  Albireo. 

Cylinder.  A  right  prism  whose  bases  are  cir 
cles.  That  portion  of  a  gun  between  the  base  and 
reinforce.  That  part  of  a  steam-engine  in  which 
the  steam  acts  upon  the  piston.  As  its  name  im 
plies,  it  is  cylindrical  in  form.  The  ends  are 
closed,  and  the  piston,  though  closely  fitted,  and 
so  kept  by  packing,  is  free  to  move,  in  direction 
of  its  axis,  from  end  to  end,  the  piston-rod  passing 
though  a  stuffing-box  on  the  cylinder-head.  The 
material  is  of  cast  iron,  and  in  the  same  casting 
are  contained  the  "  ports"  for  the  admission  and 
ejection  of  the  steam,  the  necessary  brackets  for 
securing  it  to  the  frame,  and  flanges  for  securing 
the  cylinder-covers  and  valve-chests.  Steam- 
jacketed  cylinders  have  a  double  shell,  live 
steam  being  admitted  to  the  annular  space.  In 
modern  practice,  the  inner  shell,  in  which  the 
piston  runs,  is  made  separately,  of  very  hard 
material,  and  secured  by  bolting  and  packing. 
Slide-valve  seats  are  made  of  steel  and  bolted  on. 
The  cylinder  casting  also  contains  various  brack 
ets  and  projections  for  securing  some  lighter 
parts  of  the  machinery. 

CYLINDER  COVER.  The  end  of  a  cylinder 
which  is  bolted  on  and  easily  removable.  It  is 
usually  made  with  a  double  shell,  the  two  shells 
being  supported  by  ribs,  and  the  space  between 
the  shells  is  filled  either  with  live  steam  or  some 
non-heat-conducting  material. 

CYLINDER  ESCAPE-VALVE.  A  valve,  gov 
erned  by  a  weight  or  spring,  for  relieving  the 
cylinder  of  such  water  as  may  result  from  con 
densation  or  from  priming  of  the  boilers. 

CYLINDER  HEAD,  or  BOTTOM.  The  end  of  a 
cylinder  which  forms  part  of  the  cylinder  cast 
ing  ;  it  has  a  double  shell  containing  non-radi 
ating  material.  In  screw-propeller  engines  the 
piston-rod  stuffing  boxes  are  attached  to  the 
head. 

Cymba.     A  Phoenician  row-boat. 


192 


DAHLGREN 


D. 


D.  An  abbreviation  on  the  paymaster's  books 
for  discharged.  In  the  log-book  d  denotes  driz 
zling  rain. 

Dab.  The  sea-flourider.  An  old  term  for  a 
flat-fish  of  any  kind,  but  usually  appropriated  to 
the  Platessa  limanda.  The  word  is  familiarly 
applied  to  one  who  is  expert  in  anything. 

Dabberlack.     A  kind  of  long  sea- weed. 

Dab-chick.  The  little  grebe,  Podiceps  minor. 
A  small  diving-bird  common  in  lakes  and  rivers. 

Dace.     A  small  river  fish  of  the  carp  variety. 

Dacoits.  Robbers  in  India;  also,  the  pirates 
who  infested  the  rivers  between  Calcutta  and 
Burhampore. 

Dactylopterus.  A  genus  of  fishes  contain 
ing  two  species,  of  which  the  most  remarkable 
is  ^he  flying -gurnard. 

Daggar.     An  old  term  for  a  dog-fish. 

Dagger.  A  term  given  to  any  timber  lying 
diagonally. 

DAGGER-KNEE.  Any  hanging-knee  which  is 
inclined  forward  or  aft. 

Dagges.  An  old  term  for  pistols  or  hand 
guns. 

Dahlgren,  John  A.,  Rear-Admiral  U.S.N., 
was  born  in  Philadelphia,  Pa.  Appointed  mid- 
sbipman  from  Pennsylvania  February  1,  1826, 
and  made  his  first  cruise  in  the  frigate  "Mace 
donian,"  Brazil  Squadron,  in  1827-29;  attached 
to  sloop  "  Ontario,"  Mediterranean  Squadron, 
in  1830-32. 

Promoted  to  passed  midshipman,  April  20, 
1832  ;  served  on  the  coast  survey  1836-42. 

Commissioned  as  lieutenant,  March  8,  1837 ; 
cruised  in  frigate  "  Cumberland,"  Mediterranean 
Squadron,  1844-45;  on  ordnance  duty  from 
1847-57,  during  which  time  he  perfected  the  in 
vention  of  the  famous  Dahlgren  heavy  guns,  in 
troduced  howitzers  for  use  afloat  and  ashore,  and 
wrote  several  works  relating  to  ordnance. 

Commissioned  as  commander,  September  14, 
1855;  commanded  ordnance  practice-ship  "Ply 
mouth,"  1858-59;  on  ordnance  duty  at  navy- 
yard,  Washington,  1860-61. 

On  the  22d  of  April,  1861,  a  few  days  after 
the  attack  of  the  Baltimore  mob  on  the  Massa 
chusetts  regiment,  all  the  officers  of  the  Wash 
ington  Navy- Yard  resigned  and  left,  except  Com 
mander  Dahlgren,  Lieut.  Wainwright  (who  was 
absent  sick),  and  the  boatswain.  The  officers 
who  left  were  the  commodore  commandant,  a 
commander,  two  lieutenants,  the  surgeon,  and 
paymaster  ;  their  resignations  not  being  accepted, 
they  were  dismissed.  The  command,  therefore, 
devolved  on  Commander  Dahlgren,  and  vigorous 
measures  were  taken  to  defend  the  yard.  After 
the  alarm  had  subsided  and  the  danger  passed 
away,  it  was  suggested  that  an  old  law  (27th 
March,  1804)  required  a  captain  to  command  the 
yard.  He  was  only  a  commander,  and  applica 
tions  were  made  for  his  place ;  but  the  President 


refused  to  listen  to  them,  and  on  August  2,  1861, 
Congress  passed  an  act  enabling  him  to  retain 
the  command. 

Commissioned  as  captain,  July  16,  1862,  and 
shortly  afterward  appointed  chief  of  Bureau  of 
Ordnance. 

Promoted  to  rear-admiral,  February  7,  1863, 
and  in  the  summer  following  ordered  to  the  com 
mand  of  theSouth  Atlantic  Blockading  Squadron, 
relieving  Rear-Admiral  Du  Pont,  July  6,  1863. 
A  combined  operation  of  naval  and  army  forces, 
the  latter  under  Gen.  Gillmore,  was  instituted 
for  the  occupation  and  possession  of  Morris 
Island,  on  the  south  side  of  the  entrance  into 
Charleston  harbor.  After  a  long  and  severe 
struggle,  the  army  operating  upon  land,  with 
the  efficient  co-operation  of  the  monitors,  the 
new  "  Ironsides,"  and  other  vessels  of  the  squad 
ron,  Morris  Island  with  all  its  batteries  was  cap 
tured,  and  Fort  Sumter  was  soon  made  a  pile 
of  ruins  by  the  fierce  artillery  fire  of  the  com 
bined  forces. 

The  fleet  of  Admiral  Dahlgren  remained  in 
side  the  bar,  and  after  the  capture  of  Morris 
Island,  blockade-running,  as  far  as  Charleston 
was  concerned,  was  at  an  end. 

In  February,  1864,  a  successful  expedition, 
commanded  by  Admiral  Dahlgren  in  person,  as 
cended  the  St.  John's  Eiver  to  aid  a  military 
force  intended  to  be  thrown  into  Florida. 

Early  in  July,  1864,  a  concerted  move  was 
made  up  the  Stono  River  by  Gen.  Foster  and 
Admiral  Dahlgren.  The  military  force  was, 
however,  too  small.  On  this  occasion  Fort  John 
son,  the  principal  work  defending  Charleston  on 
the  south  side  of  the  harbor,  was  surprised  by 
an  adroit  attack  detached  from  the  right,  and 
the  leading  companies  of  a  column  headed 
by  Col.  Hoyt  actually  got  into  the  work,  but 
not  being  supported  were  made  prisoners.  Gen. 
Foster  in  promulgating  by  General  Order  the 
finding  of  a  court  of  inquiry,  stated  that  "the 
expedition  was  well  planned,  and  would  have 
succeeded  had  it  not  been  for  the  absence  of 
the  commanding  officer  and  the  want  of  spirit 
and  energy  on  the  part  of  many  of  his  subordi 
nates." 

On  the  12th  of  December,  1864,  Gen.  Sher 
man  having  successfully  accomplished  his  march 
to  the  sea,  reached  the  vicinity  of  Savannah,  and 
communication  between  him  and  Admiral  Dahl 
gren  was  immediately  established.  The  latter 
made  the  best  possible  disposition  of  the  vessels 
then  under  his  command  to  assist  the  army  in 
attaining  possession  of  Savannah,  which  was 
occupied  by  Gen.  Sherman  on  the  21st  of  De 
cember. 

On  the  18th  of  February,  1865,  the  city  of 
Charleston  was  evacuated,  and  Admiral  Dahl 
gren  at  once  moved  his  vessels  up  to  the  city. 

The  evacuation  of  Charleston  was  followed  by 


DAHM 


193 


DARNING 


that  of  Georgetown,  and  on  the  26th  of  February, 
the  place  itself  was  occupied  by  the  admiral.  On 
the  1st  of  March,  immediately  after  the  surrender, 
his  flag-ship  was  blown  up  and  sunk  by  a  tor 
pedo. 

In  1866,  Rear- Admiral  Dahlgren  was  ordered 
to  the  command  of  the  South  Pacific  Squadron ; 
and  returning  from  that  service  in  1868,  was  for 
the  second  time  appointed  chief  of  Bureau  of 
Ordnance.  In  the  fall  of  1869  was  relieved  from 
the  bureau  at  his  own  request,  and  ordered  to 
the  command  of  the  Washington  Navy- Yard, 
where  he  died  in  1870. 

DAHLGREN  GUN.     See  ORDNANCE. 

Dahm.     An  Arab  or  Indian  decked  boat. 

Dairs.     Small  unsalable  fish. 

Dak-boat.     See  DAWK-BOAT. 

Dale,  Richard,  Commodore  U.S.N.,  was  born 
November  6,  1756,  near  Norfolk,  Va.  He  went 
to  sea  at  twelve  years  of  age,  and  rose  to  first 
mate  in  1775.  Served  as  lieutenant  in  a  Vir 
ginia  cruiser  in  1776,  and  was  captured  by  the 
British  and  confined  in  a  prison-ship  in  Nor 
folk  harbor ;  was  there  induced  to  join  the 
enemy,  but  returned  to  his  allegiance  on  being 
captured  by  Capt.  Barry.  Appointed  midship 
man  in  the  navy,  July,  1776 ;  served  in  the 
"  Lexington,"  and  when  that  vessel  was  cap 
tured  was  instrumental  in  her  recapture.  Ap 
pointed  master's  mate,  and  sailed  again  in  the 
"  Lexington,"  in  1777,  and  cruised  in  Commodore 
Wicke's  squadron  in  Irish  waters.  Captured  by 
the  "Alert, "on  the  19th  September,  he  was 
thrown  into  Mill  Prison,  Plymouth,  England. 
After  an  ineffectual  attempt,  he  escaped  to  France 
in  February,  1779,  and  there  joined  Jones,  and 
was  named  first  lieutenant  of  the  "  Bon  Homme 
Richard"  ;  sailed  in  that  vessel  July,  1779,  and 
in  her  participated  in  the  action  with  the  "  Se- 
rapis."  He  was  the  first  to  board  that  ship,  and 
was  severely  wounded,  September  19,  1779 ; 
served  with  Jones  in  the  "  Alliance,"  and  re 
turned  home  in  the  "  Ariel"  in  October,  1780, 
receiving  his  commission  as  lieutenant.  Sailed  in 
the  "Trumbull,"  and  captured  in  her  by  the 
"Iris"  and  "General  Monk,"  August  8,  1781. 
Sailed  in  merchant  vessels,  commanding  some 
of  the  finest  Indiamen  until  the  reorganization 
of  the  navy  in  1794 ;  was  then  named  fourth 
captain  on  the  list,  furloughed,  and  in  the  mer 
chant  service  until  1798.  He  commanded  the 
"Ganges,"  20,  the  first  ship  under  the  new  or 
ganization.  Furloughed  again  until  1800.  May, 
1801,  sailed  in  command  of  the  European  Squad 
ron,  in  the  "  President,"  44;  blockaded  Tripoli, 
and  returned  home  July,  1802.  Was  again  or 
dered  to  the  Mediterranean,  but,  becoming  dis 
satisfied,  resigned.  He  died  at  Philadelphia, 
February  26,  1826,  aged  69.— .F.  S.  Bassett, 
Lieutenant  U.S.N. 

Dale.  A  trough  or  spout  to  carry  off"  water  ; 
usually  named  from  the  office  it  has  to  perform  ; 
as,  a  pump-dale,  etc. 

Dallop.  A  heap  or  lump  in  a  clammy  state. 
A  large  quantity  of  anything. 

Dam.  A  barrier  of  stones,  stakes,  or  rubble 
constructed  to  stop  or  impede  the  course  of  a 
stream. 

Damascened.     The  mixing  of  various  metals 
in   the   Damascus    blades,   the    kris,    or    other 
weapons  ;  sometimes  by  adding  silver  to  produce 
a  watered  effect. 
13 


Damascus  Blade.  Swords  famed  for  the 
quality  and  temper  of  the  metal  as  well  as  the 
beauty  of  the  jowhir,  or  watering  of  the  blades. 
Damask.  Steel  worked  in  the  Damascus  style, 
showing  the  wavy  lines  of  the  different  metals  ; 
usually  termed  watered  or  twisted. 

Damber.     An  old  word  for  lubberly  rogue. 
Damelopre.      An   ancient   flat-floored   vessel 
belonging   to  Holland,  and   intended   to   carry 
heavy  cargoes  over  their  shallow  waters. 

Dammah.  A  kind  of  turpentine  or  resin, 
from  a  species  of  pine,  which  is  used  in  the  East 
Indies  for  the  same  purposes  to  which  turpentine 
and  pitch  are  applied.  It  is  exported  in  large 
quantities  from  Sumatra  and  Bengal,  and  other 
places,  where  it  is  much  used  for  paying  seams 
and  the  bottoms  of  vessels,  for  which  latter  pur 
pose  it  is  often  mixed  with  sulphur,  and  answers 
admirably  in  warm  climates. 

Dampier,  William.  Born  in  Somersetshire, 
England,  1652.  Beginning  life  before  the  mast 
and  involved  during  the  earlier  part  of  his  career 
in  many  questionable  enterprises,  Dampier  sailed 
about  in  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  Oceans  until 
1699,  when  he  was  taken  into  the  service  of  the 
king  of  England  and  sent  out  on  a  voyage  of 
discovery.  He  was  chiefly  engaged  in  exploring 
the  northern  coast  of  New  Holland  and  the 
islands  in  the  East  Indian  Archipelago.  The 
results  of  his  explorations  and  voyages  were  pub 
lished  and  are  still  extant.  The  most  notable  is 
entitled  "  A  Voyage  round  the  World." 

Damsel.     A  name  for  the  skate-fish. 

Dancers,  The  Merry.  See  AURORA  BOREALIS. 

Dandies.  The  rowers  of  the  budgerow  boats 
on  the  Ganges. 

Dandy.  A  sloop  or  cutter  with  a  jigger,  on 
which  a  lug-sail  is  set. 

Dank.     Moist ;  moldy. 

Danskers.     Natives  of  Denmark. 

Dantzic.  Capital  of  the  government  of  the 
same  name,  province  of  West  Prussia,  situated 
on  the  left  bank  of  the  Vistula,  3£  miles  from 
its  mouth.  The  river  is  here  joined  by  the  Mott- 
lau  and  Radaune.  Lat.  54°  2V  4"  N. ;  Ion.  18° 
39'  34"  E.  The  city  is  nearly  of  circular  form, 
and  ranks  as  a  fortress  of  the  first  class,  being 
surrounded  by  walls  and  bastions,  defended  by  a 
citadel  and  outworks,  and  provided  with  the 
means  of  laying  a  part  of  the  surrounding 
country  under  water.  Among  the  public  edifices 
are  a  school  of  navigation,  navy-yard,  and  an 
arsenal.  Vessels  drawing  eight  or  nine  feet  of 
water  can  reach  the  city  ;  others  lie  in  the  Neu- 
fahrwasser,  at  the  mouth  of  the  river,  or  in  the 
roads,  which  afford  good  anchorage  for  vessels 
of  any  burden.  The  proper  port  of  Dantzic  is 
Neufahrwasser,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Vistula,  the 
number  of  sand-banks  which  encumber  the  river 
immediately  above  seriously  obstructing  the 
navigation.  Pop.  98,000. 

Dar.  A  fish  of  the  genus  Leuciscus ;  called 
also  dace  and  dart. 

Darbies.  A  cant  word  for  irons,  or  hand 
cuffs. 

Dark,  or  Colored  Glasses.  Shades  fitted  to 
instruments  of  reflection  for  preventing  the 
bright  rays  of  the  sun  from  hurting  the  eye  of 
the  observer. 

Darks.  Nights  on  which  the  moon  does  not 
shine, — much  looked  to  by  smugglers. 

Darning  the  Water.     A  term  applied  to  the 


DARSENA 


194 


DAWK-BOAT 


action  of  a  fleet  cruising  to  and  fro  before  a 
blockaded  port. 

Darsena.  An  inner  harbor  or  wet-dock  in 
the  Mediterranean. 

Dart.  A  sort  of  fish  ;  the  dace  (Leuciscus  vul- 
garis).  See  DAR. 

Dartmouth.  A  town  of  England,  county  of 
Devon,  on  the  west  side  of  the  estuary  of  the 
Dart,  32  miles  S.W.  of  Exeter.  The  town  is 
picturesquely  built  on  a  steep  bank,  forming  a 
succession  of  terraces,  and  its  dock-yard  and 
quay  project  into  the  river.  The  Dart  is  de 
fended  at  its  mouth  by  a  castle  and  strong  bat 
teries,  and  is  navigable  to  the  town.  Pop.  5500. 

Dash.  The  present  with  which  bargains  are 
sealed  on  the  coast  of  Africa. 

Dash-board.  A  term  sometimes  applied  to 
a  screen  placed  at  the  bow  of  a  steam-launch,  to 
throw  off  the  spray  when  running  rapidly  through 
rough  water.  A  spray-board. 

Dash-pot.  A  device  for  easing  a  cut-off 
valve  of  a  steam-engine  to  its  seat  when  it  is 
"tripped"  or  detached  from  the  positive  motion 
of  the  valve-gear  and  allowed  to  return  to  its 
seat  or  position  of  rest  by  the  force  of  weights, 
springs,  steam,  or  atmospheric  pressure.  The 
liquid  dash-pot  consists  of  a  cylindrical  vessel 
fitted  with  an  air-tight  plunger  or  piston,  which 
is  attached  to  the  cut-off  valve  and  moves  with 
it,  and  when  near  the  end  of  its  descent,  or  posi 
tion  of  rest,  after  being  "tripped,"  impinges 
upon  water  or  other  liquid,  the  escape  of  which 
is  so  regulated  as  to  permit  the  valve  to  settle 
gently  to  its  seat,  avoiding  destructive  shocks. 
When  the  plunger  is  withdrawn  from  the  cham 
ber  by  action  of  the  valve-gear  a  partial  vacuum 
is  formed,  and  when  it  is  released  by  the  cut-off 
gear  the  atmospheric  pressure  causes  its  instan 
taneous  return.  In  the  Corliss  engine  an  air- 
cushion  is  used,  the  valve  being  closed  by  the 
action  of  powerful  springs.  See  CUT-OFF. 

Data  (Lat.  from  dare,  to  give).  Things  given 
or  admitted.  In  problems  the  data  are  the 
known  quantities  from  which  are  to  be  found  the 
unknown  quantities. 

Datoo.  The  west  wind  in  the  Strait  of  Gi 
braltar.  A  Malay  name  for  each  one  of  the 
four  officers  who  form  the  council  of  the  sultan 
of  the  Malaya  Islands. 

David's  Staff.  A  kind  of  quadrant  formerly 
used  in  navigation. 

Davie.     An  old  term  for  davit. 

Davis,  Charles  Henry,  Rear-Admiral  U.S.N. 
Born  in  Boston,  Mass.,  .January  16,  1807.  Ap 
pointed  midshipman,  August  12,  1823;  com 
missioned  as  lieutenant,  March  3,  1834 ;  com 
mander,  June  12,  1854;  captain,  November  15, 
1861  ;  commodore,  July  16,  1862 ;  chief  of  Bu 
reau  of  Navigation,  July  17,  1862;  rear-ad 
miral,  February  7,  1863.  From  1844  to  1849 
he  was  engaged  in  the  IT.  S.  Coast  Survey.  In 
1846-49,  while  surveying  the  waters  about  Nan- 
tucket,  he  discovered  the  New  South  Shoal  and 
several  smaller  shoals  directly  in  the  track  of 
ships  sailing  between  New  York  and  Europe, 
end  of  coasting-vessels  from  Boston.  He  was 
subsequently  engaged  in  examining  the  state  of 
the  harbors  of  Boston,  New  York,  Charleston, 
etc.  These  investigations  led  him  to  the  study 
of  the  laws  of  tidal  action.  See  his  "  Memoir 
upon  the  Geological  Action  of  the  Tidal  and 
other  Currents  of  the  Ocean"  (Memoirs  of  the 


American  Academy,  new  series,  vol.  iv.),  and 
"  The  Law  of  Deposit  of  the  Flood-Tide"  (Smith 
sonian  Contributions,  vol.  iii.).  He  founded  the 
"American  Nautical  Almanac,"  superintending 
it  from  1849  to  1856,  when  he  was  ordered  to 
naval  service  in  the  Pacific,  in  command  of  the 
sloop-of-war  "St.  Mary's."  He  was  fleet-cap 
tain  in  Dupont's  expedition  against  Port  Royal, 
and  second  in  command,  and  was  assigned  to  the 
Mississippi  Flotilla.  May  9,  1862,  he  was  ap 
pointed  flag-officer  of  the  flotilla,  and  on  the  llth 
repulsed  an  attack  by  the  rebel  fleet.  June  8, 
he  attacked  the  rebel  fleet  opposite  Memphis, 
capturing  or  destroying  all  but  one  vessel.  The 
surrender  of  Memphis  immediately  followed. 
He  then  joined  Admiral  Farragut,  and  was  en 
gaged  in  the  various  operations  above  Vicks- 
burg.  With  Gen.  Curtis,  he  operated  up  the 
Yazoo  in  August,  1862,  with  complete  success. 
Superintendent  Naval  Observatory,  Washing 
ton,  1865-67  ;  commanded  South  Atlantic  Squad 
ron,  1867-69;  LL.D.,  Harvard  College,  1868; 
superintendent  Naval  Observatory,  1870-77. 
Died  at  Washington,  D.  C.,  in  1877.  Author 
of  an  English  translation  of  Gauss's  "Theoria 
Motus  Corporum  Coelestium,"  Boston,  1858,  and 
of  some  shorter  translations  and  articles  on 
mathematical  astronomy  and  geodesy. 

Davis,  John,  an  eminent  navigator  of  the 
latter  part  of  the  16th  century,  was  born  at 
Sandridge,  near  Dartmouth,  and  is  principally 
distinguished  for  having,  between  1585  and  1588, 
undertaken  three  voyages  to  the  northern  seas 
in  search  of  the  northwest  passage.  In  the  first 
voyage  he  sailed  as  far  north  as  the  73d  degree 
of  latitude,  and  discovered  the  strait  which  bears 
his  name.  He  afterwards  made  five  voyages  to 
the  East  Indies,  in  the  last  of  which  he  was  killed 
in  a  fight  with  some  Japanese  on  the  coast  of 
Malacca  in  1605.  "  The  World's  Hydrographical 
Description,  wherein  is  proved  that  the  World  in 
all  its  Zones,  Climates,  and  Places  is  Habitable 
and  Inhabited,  and  the  Seas  likewise  universally 
Navigable"  (London,  1595),  and  "  The  Seaman's 
Secrets,  wherein  is  taught  the  Three  Kinds  of 
Sailing,  Horizontal,  Paradoxal,  and  Sailing 
upon  a  Great  Circle"  (London,  1595),  are  the 
two  principal  works  written  by  Davis,  but  he 
was  also  the  author  of  several  others. 

Davits.  The  boat-davits  are  pieces  of  iron  or 
wood  projecting  over  the  side  or  stern  ;  to  them 
are  attached  the  falls  for  hoisting  the  boats. 
They  are  supported  by  guys,  spans,  topping-lifts, 
and  strong-backs,  and  are  fitted  in  a  variety  of 
ways  that  the  boats  may  be  landed  on  the  rail, 
swung  in  on  deck,  topped  up  to  be  secured  for 
sea,  rigged  out  for  lowering,  etc.  They  are 
sometimes  so  fitted  that  one  pair  supports  two 
boats.  A  fish-davit  was  formerly  used  in  fishing 
the  anchor.  It  was  a  perpendicular  spar  tem 
porarily  stepped  abaft  the  bill-board,  and  was 
supported  by  guys,  bill-tackle,  topping-lift,  and 
jiggers. 

Davy  Jones.  The  spirit  of  the  sea ;  a  sea- 
devil. 

DAVY  JONES'S  LOCKER.  The  ocean,— the  com 
mon  receptacle  for  all  things  thrown  overboard. 
Gone  to  Davy  Jones's  locker,  dead,  buried  at  sea. 

Daw-fish.  The  Scyllium  catalus,  a  small  dog 
fish. 

Dawk-boat  or  Dak-boat.  An  East  Indian 
mail-boat. 


DAY 


195 


DEAD  CENTEE 


Day.  The  time  occupied  by  a  complete  revo 
lution  of  the  earth  on  its  axis.  Some  point  must 
be  chosen  to  mark  the  commencement  of  a  day, 
and  the  choice  gives  rise  to  several  different 
days  which  differ  from  each  other  slightly  in 
length.  The  scientific  term  "day"  is  never  used 
in  the  sense  of  day  opposed  to  night. 

DAY,  ASTRONOMICAL.  The  day  used  by  as 
tronomers  to  which  to  refer  their  observations, 
being  distinguished  from  the  civil  day  which 
regulates  the  ordinary  business  of  life.  The  as 
tronomical  day  begins  at  noon  and  ends  at  noon, 
its  hours  being  reckoned  from  Oh  to  24h  ;  the  civil 
day  begins  at  midnight  and  ends  at  midnight, 
its  hours  being  reckoned  through  twice  12.  The 
astronomical  is  later  than  the  civil  day  by  12 
hours.  The  cause  of  this  inconvenient  differ 
ence  in  the  modes  of  reckoning  is,  that  astrono 
mers  carry  on  their  observations  chiefly  at  night, 
and  if  they,  therefore,  adopted  the  civil  method 
of  reckoning,  they  would  have  to  change  the 
date  at  midnight,  the  former  and  latter  portions 
of  every  night's  observations  belonging  to  two 
differently  numbered  civil  days  of  the  month.  It 
has,  however,  been  questioned  whether  this  in 
convenience  would  be  as  great  as  that  resulting 
from  the  present  neglect  of  uniformity  in  reckon 
ing  time.  According  to  the  point  of  definition 
chosen  the  astronomical  day  is  either  a  sidereal 
day,  an  apparent  solar  day,  a  mean  solar  day, 
or  a  lunar  day ;  the  term,  when  used  alone,  is 
usually  understood  to  refer  to  the  mean  solar 
day.  Reckoning  in  mean  solar  time,  which  is 
the  same  as  civil  time,  a  mean  solar  day  is  24h,  a 
sidereal  day  23h  56m  4.09s,  and  a  lunar  day,  24h 
Om  54*,. 

DAY,  CIRCUMNAVIGATOR'S.  A  ship  sailing 
westward  runs  away  from  the  sun  in  his  diurnal 
course,  and,  when  she  has  circumnavigated  the 
globe,  the  sun  will  evidently  have  crossed  her 
meridian  once  less  frequently  than  if  she  had  re 
mained  stationary.  On  the  contrary,  a  ship  sail 
ing  eastward  meets  the  sun  in  his  diurnal  course, 
and,  when  she  has  circumnavigated  the  globe, 
the  sun  will  evidently  have  crossed  her  meridian 
once  more  frequently  than  if  she  had  remained 
stationary.  Hence  a  westwardly  circumnavigator 
loses  a  day  in  his  reckoning,  an  eastwardly  cir 
cumnavigator  gains  a  day.  The  alteration  of 
the  date,  by  inserting  a  day  or  leaving  out  one, 
in  the  ship's  log-book  should  be  made  on  cross 
ing  the  meridian  of  180°. 

DAY,  CIVIL.  The  day  used  for  the  ordinary 
purposes  of  life.  The  motion  of  the  sun  in  the 
heavens,  bringing  the  alternations  of  light  and 
darkness,  determines  generally  our  social  arrange 
ments,  and  time  being  kept  by  mechanism,  the 
day  must  be  of  invariable  length.  Hence  the 
civil  is  of  the  same  length  as  the  mean  solar  day. 
It  differs,  however,  from  the  astronomical  mean 
solar  day  in  the  following  points.  The  astro 
nomical  day  begins  at  noon  and  ends  at  noon,  its 
hours  being  reckoned  from  Oh  to  24h ;  the  civil 
day  begins  at  midnight,  and  its  hours  are  reck 
oned  through  twice  12,  from  midnight  to  noon 
(ante  meridiem,  A.M.),  and  then  from  noon  to 
midnight  (post  meridiem,  P.M.).  The  commence 
ment  of  the  astronomical  day  is  placed  12  hours 
later  than  that  of  the  civil  day. 

DAY,  INTERCALARY.  The  day  that  is  inter 
calated  or  inserted  in  the  calendar  in  leap-year 
to  make  up  for  the  odd  hours,  minutes,  and 


seconds  of  the  tropical  year  which  have  been  left 
out  in  making  the  civil  year  to  consist  of  365  in 
teger  days.  See  CALENDAR. 

DAY,  LUNAR.  The  time  elapsed  between  two 
successive  transits  of  the  moon  over  the  merid 
ian. 

DAY,  NAUTICAL,  or  SEA.  This  begins  at 
noon,  12  hours  before  the  civil  day  and  24  hours 
before  the  astronomical  day.  It  is  now  little 
used. 

DAY,  SIDEREAL.  The  interval  between  two 
successive  transits  of  the  first  point  of  Aries  over 
the  same  meridian.  This  is  called  a  sidereal  day, 
although  not  strictly  determined  by  the  stars ; 
but  the  very  slow  motion  of  the  first  point  of 
Aries  relatively  to  the  stars  makes  this  day 
practically  the  same  as  if  a  fixed  star  had  been 
taken,  for  if  two  clocks  be  set,  the  one  on  the 
first  point  of  Aries,  the  other  on  the  fixed  star, 
so  as  always  to  mark  Oh  Om  0s  when  the  point  or 
the  star  respectively  comes  to  the  meridian,  the 
difference  of  the  two  clocks  would  only  be  about 
3s  in  a  whole  year.  The  length  of  the  sidereal 
day  in  mean  solar  time  (which  is  the  same  as 
civil  time)  is  23h  56111  4.09s. 

DAY,  SOLAR.  The  interval  between  two  suc 
cessive  transits  of  the  sun's  centre  over  the  same 
meridian.  The  apparent  solar  day  is  the  interval 
between  two  successive  transits  of  the  actual  sun's 
centre  over  the  same  meridian ;  it  begins  when 
that  point  is  on  the  meridian.  The  apparent  solar 
day  is  variable  in  length  from  two  causes  :  first, 
the  sun  does  not  move  uniformly  in  the  ecliptic, 
— its  apparent  path  sometimes  describing  an  arc 
of  57X,  and  at  other  times  an  arc  of  61X  in  a  day  ; 
secondly,  the  ecliptic  twice  crosses  the  equinoc 
tial, — the  great  circle  whose  plane  is  perpendicular 
to  the  axis  of  rotation, — and  hence  is  inclined 
differently  to  it  in  its  different  parts ;  at  the 
points  of  intersection  the  inclination  is  about 
23°  27',  at  two  other  limiting  points  they  are 
parallel.  A  uniform  measure  of  time  is  obtained 
by  the  invention  of  the  mean  solar  day,  which  is 
the  interval  between  two  successive  transits  of 
the  mean  sun  over  the  meridian.  This  fictitious 
body  is  conceived  to  move  in  the  equinoctial  with 
the  mean  motion  of  the  actual  sun  in  the  ecliptic. 
The  length  of  the  mean  solar  day  is  the  average 
length  of  the  apparent  solar  days  for  the  space 
of  a  solar  year. 

DAY-BOOK.     An  old  name  for  the  log-book. 

DAY'S  WORK.  The  work  of  computation  re 
quired  in  navigating  a  ship  for  every  twenty- 
four  hours ;  the  term  is  generally  restricted  to 
the  dead-reckoning.  At  each  noon  the  latitude, 
longitude,  and  the  course  and  distance  made 
good  are  wanted,  together  with  the  compass 
course  to  be  steered  during  the  next  twenty-four 
hours.  The  data  for  this  work  are  the  latitude 
and  longitude  at  the  preceding  noon ;  the  com 
pass  courses  and  distance  run  on  each  course 
during  the  twenty-four  hours  ;  the  variation  and 
deviation  of  the  compass;  particulars  of  the 
force  and  direction  of  the  wind  and  the  conse 
quent  leeway,  and  the  set  and  drift  of  the  current. 

D-block  (obs.).  An  oak  block  of  the  shape 
of  the  letter  D,  bolted  to  the  ship's  side  in  the 
channels  for  the  lower  lifts. 

Dead-calm.  A  total  cessation  of  wind  ;  a  fiat- 
calm. 

Dead  Centre  or  Dead  Point.  In  single  steam- 
engines,  a  position  of  the  moving  parts  when  the 


DEAD-DOOR 


196 


DEATH 


piston  is  at  either  extreme  end  of  its  stroke,  and 
the  axis  of  the  connecting-rod,  crank-pin,  and 
shaft  lie  in  the  same  plane.  From  this  position 
it  is  impossible  to  start  an  engine  at  rest  by  pis 
ton-pressure,  and  it  becomes  necessary  to  "jack" 
or  turn  some  rotative  part  by  external  force. 
When  the  engine  is  once  in  motion  these  points 
are  passed  by  the  momentum  of  the  rotating 
parts.  Double  engines  are  connected  by  cranks 
placed  at  such  an  angle  one  with  the  other  that 
one  only  can  arrive  at  the  dead  point  at  the  same 
instant. 

Dead-door.  A  door  fitted  to  the  outside  of  the 
quarter  of  a  ship,  to  keep  out  the  sea  in  case  the 
quarter-gallery  should  be  carried  away. 

Deaden.  To  retard,  or  render  less  ;  as,  to 
deaden  a  ship's  headway. 

Dead-eye,  or  Dead  Man's  Eye.  A  piece  of 
hard  wood  of  oblate  form  having  three  holes, 
through  which  is  rove  the  laniard  for  setting  up 
the  backstays  and  lower  and  topmast  rigging. 
The  laniard  is  rove  through  two  dead-eyes,  form 
ing  a  threefold  purchase  ;  the  lower  dead-eye  is 
shackled  to  the  chain-plate,  and  the  upper  one  is 
secured  to  the  shroud.  There  are  several  ways 
of  securing  the  dead-eye  to  the  shroud,  viz. : 
splicing,  turning  in  by  the  old  method,  turning 
in  cutter-stay  fashion,  and  turning  in  by  the 
present  mode,  in  which,  instead  of  being  taken 
around  the  dead-eye  itself,  the  shroud  is  taken 
around  a  heavy  iron  thimble  bolted  to  the  iron 
strap  of  the  dead-eye. 

Dead-flat.  In  ship-building,  the  name  of  the 
widest  frame  in  the  ship. 

Dead-freight.  The  sum  to  which  a  merchant 
is  liable  for  freight  which  he  has  failed  to  ship. 

Dead-head.  A  rough  block  of  wood  used  as 
an  anchor-buoy. 

Dead-headed.  A  word  applied  to  trees  which 
have  ceased  to  grow. 

Dead-horse.  Wages  paid  before  they  are 
earned.  In  some  merchant  ships  when  the 
dead-horse  has  been  worked  off,  i.e.,  when  the 
men  have  served  long  enough  to  earn  the  money 
advanced,  they  perform  the  ceremony  of  drag 
ging  the  effigy  of  a  horse  around  the  deck,  run 
ning  him  up  to  the  yard-arm  and  cutting  him 
adrift  to  fall  into  the  sea. 

Dead-lift.  The  lifting  of  a  thing  at  the  ut 
most  disadvantage. 

Dead-lights.  Strong  wooden  shutters  made 
exactly  to  fit  the  cabin  ports,  into  which  they 
are  fixed  on  the  approach  of  a  storm,  the  glass 
sashes  being  taken  out. 

Dead-lown.     Dead-calm. 

Dead-men.  The  ends  of  gaskets  and  points 
left  dangling  under  the  yards,  which  should 
have  been  tucked  in  when  the  sail  was  furled. 

Dead  Men's  Effects.  When  a  seaman  dies 
on  board  or  is  drowned  his  effects  are  sold  at 
the  mast  by  auction,  and  the  produce  charged 
against  the  purchasers'  names  on  the  ship's 
books. 

Dead  Months.     A  term  for  winter. 

Dead-on-end.  A  term  applied  to  the  wind 
when  it  comes  exactly  from  the  point  to  which 
the  ship  is  to  steer. 

Dead-pay.     See  DEAD-SHARE. 

Dead-reckoning.  The  method  of  determining 
the  ship's  position  without  the  aid  of  astronomi 
cal  observations. 

Dead-rise.     The  rise  of  the  floor  of  the  ship 


from  a  level,  usually  taken  on  the  midship  frame 
in  inches  or  degrees  from  the  centre  line. 

DEAD-RISING.  An  elliptical  line  drawn  on 
the  elevation  plan,  or  profile  of  the  ship,  to  de 
termine  the  sweep  of  the  floor-heads  throughout 
the  ship's  length.  Sometimes  called  rising-line. 

Dead-rope.  Ropes  which  do  not  run  through 
any  block. 

Dead-share  (Eng.}.  An  allowance  formerly 
made  to  the  officers  of  the  fleet  from  fictitious 
numbers  borne  on  the  books,  varying  from  fifty 
shares  for  an  admiral  to  half  a  share  for  the 
cook's  mate. 

Dead-sheave,  or  Dumb-sheave.  An  aper 
ture  in  which  a  rope  travels,  and  which  has  no 
sheave. 

Dead  Steam.  Steam  possessing  sufficient  heat 
to  retain  it  in  a  state  of  vapor  at  any  tension, 
but  incapable  of  performing  work  without  con 
densation  ;  this  may  be  observed  in  boilers  with 
"  banked"  or  very  low  fires. 

The  exhaust  steam  from  a  non-condensing  en 
gine  when  used  for  heating  purposes. 

Dead-water.  The  eddy -water  under  the  coun 
ter  of  a  ship  under  way ;  so  called  because  it 
passes  away  slower  than  the  water  alongside. 

Dead-weight.  A  vessel's  lading  when  it  con 
sists  of  heavy  goods  ;  particularly  such  as  pay 
freight  according  to  weight. 

Dead-wood.  That  part  of  the  ship  which  is 
built  forward  and  abaft  the  square  frames  of  the 
ship,  in  wooden  ships,  upon  which  the  cants  are 
stepped  and  secured.  It  is  firmly  bolted,  both  to 
the  keel  and  stern-post  aft,  and  to  the  keel  and 
stem  forward. 

DEAD-WOOD-KNEE  is  the  first  piece  of  the  after 
dead-wood,  and  is  placed  as  a  large  knee  (in 
wooden  ships),  with  the  arm  against  the  stern- 
post  and  the  body  upon  the  keel,  and  it  is  secured 
to  both  with  heavy  bolts. 

Dead-works.  All  that  part  of  the  ship  above 
water  when  she  is  laden. 

Deal.  A  town  of  England,  county  of  Kent,  a 
member  of  the  Cinque-port  of  Sandwich,  from 
which  town  it  is  5  miles  S.E.,  on  the  shore  of 
the  North  Sea,  near  the  S.  extremity  of  the 
Downs,  8  miles  N.N.E.  of  Dover.  The  principal 
buildings  are  a  court-house,  naval  store-house, 
barracks,  hospital,  and  custom-house.  At  the 
S.  and  N.  extremities  of  the  town  are  W aimer 
and  Sandown  Castles,  and  intermediate  is  Deal 
Castle,  built  by  Henry  VIII.  The  inhabitants 
are  mostly  connected  with  maritime  traffic,  and 
the  skill  and  boldness  of  Deal  pilots  are  pro 
verbial.  Pop.  8100. 

Deal.     Pine  and  fir  boards  or  thin  plank. 

Deal  Beach  (Eng.).  This  beach  consists  of 
gravelly  shingle ;  a  man  who  is  pock-marked  is 
said  to  have  rolled  on  Deal  beach.  See  CHOP- 
DOLLAR. 

Deal-ends.  Deal-planks  under  6  feet  in 
length. 

Death.  If  the  commander-in-chief  be  killed 
in  battle  he  is  succeeded  by  the  line-officer  next 
in  rank  on  board  the  flag- ship,  until  the  senior 
officer  of  the  fleet  announces  that  he  has  assumed 
command.  The  flag  of  the  deceased  is  kept  fly 
ing  until  the  battle  is  decided. 

If  the  commanding  officer  die,  he  is  succeeded 
by  the  line-officer  next  in  rank,  until  relieved  by 
orders  from  the  commander-in-chief,  or  Navy 
Department,  even  though  there  be  officers  on 


DEATH 


197 


DECK 


board,  as  passengers,  of  higher  rank.  On  the 
death  of  the  paymaster  of  a  vessel  or  station  the 
commanding  officer  appoints  a  suitable  person 
to  take  charge  of  the  money,  books,  and  stores, 
and  to  perform  the  duties  of  the  paymaster  until 
otherwise  directed  by  competent  authority. 

On  the  death  of  any  person  in  the  naval  ser 
vice  the  medical  officer  is  required  to  make  a  re 
port,  in  which  is  stated  distinctly  the  circum 
stances  under  which  the  death  occurred,  and 
whether  or  not  in  the  line  of  duty.  See  FUNERAL 
HONORS. 

Death,  or  Money  Boats  (Eng.}.  Long  narrow 
boats  used  by  smugglers  in  the  English  Channel. 

Death-wound.  A  law-term  for  the  springing 
of  a  fatal  leak.  A  ship  had  received  her  death- 
wound,  but  by  pumping  was  kept  afloat  till  three 
days  after  the  time  for  which  she  was  insured  ;  it 
was  decided  that  the  risk  was  at  an  end  before 
the  loss  happened,  and  that  the  insurer  was  not 
liable. 

Debark.     To  land  ;  to  go  ashore. 

Decatur,  Stephen,  son  of  Capt.  Stephen  Deca- 
tur,  was  born  on  the  5th  of  January,  1779,  at 
Sinnepunxit,  Md.  Entered  the  navy  in  March, 
1797,  as  a  midshipman,  and  joined  the  "  United 
States,"  Capt.  Barry,  cruising  in  the  West  Indies. 
Promoted  to  lieutenant  in  1799,  and  cruised  in 
the  brig  "  Norfolk,"  18,  returning  to  the  frigate 
"  United  States"  in  1800.  Sailed  as  first  lieu 
tenant  of  the  "Essex, "in  Dale's  squadron  to 
Algiers,  in  1801-2,  returned,  and  ordered  to  the 
"New  York,"  36,  again  going  to  the  Mediter 
ranean.  In  the  fall,  on  his  return,  took  the 
"Argus"  out  to  the  same  squadron,  and  was 
transferred  to  the  command  of  the  "  Enterprise." 
Had  command  of  the  force  that  destroyed  the 
"Philadelphia,"  taking  the  ketch  "Intrepid," 
which  he  had  captured.  For  valor  in  this  was 
promoted  to  captain  in  1804,  and  a  sword  given 
him.  Commanded  a  division  of  boats  in  an  at 
tack  on  Tripolitan  gunboats,  August,  1805, 
where  he  was  wounded  in  a  personal  combat,  but 
captured  two  prizes.  Commanded  the  "  Consti 
tution,"  and  engaged  in  attacks  of  28th  of  Au 
gust  and  3d  of  September.  In  November  trans 
ferred  to  the  "Congress,"  sent  to  interview  the 
Bey  of  Tunis,  and  carried  to  the  United  States 
his  minister.  Employed  on  shore  1806-7,  and 
given  command  of  the  "  Chesapeake,"  super 
seding  Barren.  But  in  1811  he  hoisted  his  broad- 
pennant  in  the  "United  States,"  44,  and  cap 
tured  the  English  sloop  "  Macedonian,"  October 
25,  1812,  in  a  brilliant  engagement.  Entering 
New  York  with  his  prize,  he  was  blockaded, 
and  his  ship  laid  up,  when  he  was  given  the 
"President,"  44.  He  sailed  in  January,  1815, 
but  was  captured  by  an  English  fleet  on  the 
14th.  Commanded  a  fleet  sent  to  Algiers  in 
May,  1815,  in  the  "  Guerriere,"  44,  and  on  the 
17th  of  June  captured  the  "  Mashouda"  with  the 
Algerian  admiral.  Arrived  home  November  12, 
1815,  having  obtained  reparation  from  the  Bar- 
bary  powers.  Was  a  Commissioner  of  the  Navy 
from  1817  to  1819.  He  having  opposed  Barren's 
having  a  command,  a  difficulty  ensued,  and  a 
duel  was  fought,  March  22,  1820,  when  Decatur 
was  mortally  wounded,  and  died  the  same  day, 
aged  41.— F.  S.  Bassett,  Lieutenant  U.S.N. 

Decimetre  (Fr.}.  One-tenth  of  a  metre,  and 
equal  to  3.937  English  inches. 

Deck.     The  planking  placed  upon  the  deck 


framing  which  makes  a  continuous  platform, 
fore  and  aft  the  ship.  The  deck  is  said  to  be 
a  Thasian  invention,  and  was  at  first  used  as  a 
protection  for  the  rowers.  A  deck  may  extend 
from  the  stem  to  the  stern;  as,  the  gun-deck; 
or  be  but  partial ;  as,  the  deck  of  a  topgallant 
forecastle.  The  upper,  or  spar-deck  extends 
from  stern  to  stem  ;  the  part  of  the  spar-deck 
from  the  mainmast  aft  is  the  quarter-deck; 
when  there  is  a  poop-cabin,  the  deck  which  pro 
tects  it  is  called  the  poop,  or  poop-deck;  it  ex 
tends  from  the  mizzen-mast  aft.  A  gun-deck  is 
a  deck  below  the  spar-deck  on  which  guns  are 
carried.  The  berth-deck  is  a  deck  next  below  the 
gun-deck,  on  which  are  stowed  the  bags,  etc., 
and  on  which  are  swung  the  hammocks  of  one 
watch.  The  orlop-deck  is  the  deck  on  which  the 
cables  are  stowed ;  it  is  below  the  water-line. 
The  half-deck  is  that  portion  of  the  deck  next 
below  the  spar-deck,  from  the  mainmast  to  the 
cabin-bulkheads.  In  a  three-decker,  the  three 
gun-decks  are  called  the  main,  middle,  and  lower 
decKs.  In  river-steamers  the  boiler-deck  is  the 
one  on  which  the  boilers  are  placed,  and  the 
hurricane-deck  is  the  upper  deck. 

DECK-BEAM.  One  of  the  heavy  pieces  of  tim 
ber  extending  across  the  ship  on  which  the 
decks  are  laid. 

DECK-BEAM  KNEE.  Any  one  of  the  knees  in 
the  deck  framing,  either  a  lodge  or  a  lap  knee, 
which  is  secured  to  the  beam  by  its  arm. 

DECK-CARGO.     See  DECK-LOAD. 

DECKER.  According  to  the  number  of  gun- 
decks  a  vessel  has,  she  is  distinguished  as  a 
single-decker,  two-decker,  or  three-decker. 

DECK,  FLUSH.  One  in  which  there  is  no 
break. 

DECK-HOOK.  A  large  knee  either  forward  or 
aft,  which  is  placed,  as  a  part  of  the  deck  fram 
ing,  at  the  extremities,  and  secures  both  sides  of 
the  ship  to  each  other. 

DECK-LOAD.  Merchandise  carried  on  the 
upper  deck. 

DECK-PIPE.  The  aperture  in  the  deck  through 
which  the  cable  passes  from  the  chain-locker  to 
the  anchor. 

DECK-PUMP.  A  pump  used  for  pumping 
water  for  washing  decks  ;  it  is  worked  by  hand. 

DECK-SEAM.  The  interstices  between  deck- 
planks. 

DECK-SHEET.  Lower  and  topmast  stun'sails 
are  fitted  with  two  sheets ;  the  one  leading  di 
rectly  to  the  deck  is  called  the  deck-sheet. 

DECK-STANDARD  KNEE.  A  large  knee  of  oak 
or  iron  fayed  on  the  deck  and  against  the  side 
of  the  ship.  The  arm  being  placed  upon  the 
deck,  is  bolted  through  the  beam  and  clinched 
underneath,  and  the  other  arm  is  bolted  to  the 
ship's  side.  Their  use  was  to  strengthen  the 
sides.  They  are  sometimes  used  upon  wooden 
merchant  ships,  aft  on  the  middle  deck,  one  arm 
being  bolted  to  the  deck  and  the  other  arm  of 
the  knee  fayed  against  the  transoms,  to  which  it 
is  securely  bolted. 

DECK-STOPPER.    See  STOPPER. 

DECK-TACKLE.  A  heavy  luff"  or  twofold  pur 
chase  used  for  rousing  in  the  cable,  or  other 
heavy  work. 

DECK-TRANSOM.  The  transom  which  comes 
to  the  same  level  or  height  of  the  deck  at  the 
after-end,  and  to  which  the  framing  of  the  deck 
is  secured. 


DECLARATION 


198 


DEEP-SEA 


•  Declaration  of  War.  See  INTERNATIONAL 
LAW. 

Declare.  To  make  a  full  statement  of  goods, 
etc.,  for  the  purpose  of  paying  custom-house 
duties. 

Declination.  The  angular  distance  of  a  heav 
enly  hody  from  the  equinoctial ;  it  is  reckoned 
from  0  to  90°  north  or  south.  The  complement 
of  the  declination  is  the  polar  distance. 

DECLINATION,  CIRCLE  OF.     See  CIRCLE. 

DECLINATION,  PARALLEL  OF.  A  circle  of 
the  celestial  sphere  parallel  to  the  equinoctial. 

DECLINATION  OF  THE  COMPASS-NEEDLE.  A 
term  sometimes  used  for  the  magnetic  variation 
of  the  compass-needle. 

Decoy.  The  appearance  of  a  man-of-war  is 
sometimes  changed  by  striking  topmasts,  setting 
ragged  sails,  painting,  etc.,  to  induce  a  vessel 
of  inferior  force  to  chase,  and  thus  come  within 
gunshot. 

Decres,  Denis.  This  distinguished  French 
naval  officer  was  born  in  1762,  and  died  in  1820. 
Entering  the  French  navy  at  the  age  of  17,  he 
first  served  in  the  fleet  of  Count  de  Grasse,  and 
in  the  battle  of  April  12,  1782,  in  the  West  In 
dies,  he  won  his  promotion  to  ensign,  although 
the  fortune  of  the  day  was  against  the  French. 

From  this  time  his  promotion  was  rapid,  as  he 
distinguished  himself  in  the  frigate  squadron 
which  France  sent  to  the  East  Indies. 

In  1793  he  was  a  "  capitaine  de  vaisseau,"  but 
was  deprived  of  his  rank,  and  imprisoned  by  the 
revolutionists  because  he  was  a  noble.  Escaping 
more  easily  than  thousands  of  others,  he  was  at 
last  released,  and  restored  to  his  rank  in  the 
navy,  in  1795.  In  1798  he  had  reached  the 
rank  of  rear-admiral,  and  in  that  capacity  as 
sisted  in  the  capture  of  Malta. 

After  this  he  served  at  the  battle  of  Aboukir, 
and  led  back  to  Malta  the  few  French  vessels 
which  escaped  from  that  action,  and  these  were 
soon  blockaded  by  the  English  in  the  harbor  of 
Yaletta.  Decres,  in  conjunction  with  Gen.  Vau- 
bois,  conducted  the  defense  of  Malta,  which 
lasted  seventeen  months.  In  March,  1800,  pro 
visions  falling  short,  and  much  sickness  appear 
ing  in  the  French  garrison,  Decres  embarked 
about  1200 men  onboard  the  "  Guillaume  Tell," 
and  forced  the  blockade.  The  English  frigate 
"Penelope"  followed  him,  and  next  day  the 
"  Guillaume  Tell"  fell  in  with  the  English  ship 
"  Lion,"  64,  a  sanguinary  action  ensuing, 
during  which  Decres  boarded  the  "  Lion"  twice, 
but  was  each  time  driven  off.  The  "  Lion"  at 
last  hauled  off  to  repair  damages,  and  just  then 
the  English  "  Foudroyant,"  86,  came  up,  and 
the  "  Tell"  sustained  an  hour's  fight  with  her, 
the  "Lion"  coming  again  into  the  action. 
Decres  tried  boarding  the  "Foudroyant,"  but 
unsuccessfully,  and  the  "Guillaume  Tell"  was 
obliged  to  surrender.  Decres  was  wounded  by 
an  explosion,  as  were  his  captain  and  several  of 
his  officers,  while  nearly  half  his  crew  were 
killed  or  wounded.  The  frigate  "  Penelope"  was 
able  to  take  the  dismasted  "Tell"  in  tow,  and 
reached  Syracuse,  while  the  two  larger  English 
ships  with  great  difficulty  got  to  Mahon.  For 
this  hard-fought  action  Decres  received  a  sword 
of  honor  from  the  First  Consul,  and  the  English 
"Naval  Chronicle"  states  that  his  was  the 
warmest  resistance  ever  made  by  a  foreign  man- 
of-war  against  a  superior  British  force.  Decres, 


upon  his  return  from  captivity  in  England,  was 
successively  appointed  prefect  maritime,  com 
mandant  of  the  western  fleet,  and  minister  of 
marine.  He  continued  to  act  in  the  latter  capa 
city  as  long  as  the  empire  lasted,  showing  great 
administrative  ability. 

During  his  administration  the  great  works  at 
Cherbourg  were  materially  advanced,  as  well  as 
those  at  Nieuwe-Diep,  and  Flushing,  while  the 
docks  and  ship-yards  of  Antwerp  were  wholly 
created.  He  managed  to  keep  up  and  even  in 
crease  the  strength  of  the  French  navy  in  spite 
of  their  great  losses  at  sea,  and  collected  the  great 
flotilla  of  Boulogne  which  events,  however,  ren 
dered  useless.  Napoleon,  who  made  him  in 
succession  a  count,  grand  cross  of  the  Legion  of 
Honor,  and  finally  a  duke,  recalled  him  to  his 
old  position  during  the  Hundred  Days,  and 
when  the  emperor  finally  fell,  he  was  retired 
by  the  Bourbon  government. 

Duke  Decres  survived  many  bloody  battles  to 
be  at  last  assassinated  by  his  valet.  This  man, 
who  had  for  a  long  time  been  robbing  him, 
placed  a  quantity  of  powder,  with  a  slow  match, 
between  his  mattresses.  Stealing  into  the  duke's 
bedroom  in  the  night,  he  blew  him  up.  The 
valet,  in  his  fright  and  perturbation  at  what  he 
had  done,  threw  himself  out  of  the  window  and 
was  killed  ;  his  master  died  a  few  days  after, 
aged  58  years. — E.  Shippen. 

Deep.  Lying  far  below  the  general  level ;  of 
great  perpendicular  dimension,  conceived  of  as 
measured  downward.  The  word  is  figuratively 
applied  to  the  ocean;  as,  "Neptune,  the  mon 
arch  of  the  deep."  A  vessel  is  loaded  deep  when 
her  cargo  causes  her  to  be  much  immersed  in  the 
water ;  she  sails  deep  when  her  expenses  run 
high.  See  MARKS  AND  DEEPS. 

DEEPEN.  The  water  deepens  in  running  from 
shoal  into  deep  water. 

DEEP-SEA  LEAD.  The  sounding-lead  used  in 
deep  water.  See  LEAD. 

DEEP-SEA  LINE.  The  line  attached  to  the 
deep-sea  lead.  See  LEAD. 

Deep-sea  Sounding.  From  the  beginning 
"when  the  waters  were  gathered  together  unto 
one  place,"  until  within  the  latter  half  of  the 
19th  century,  the  depth  of  the  sea  has  been  a 
mystery  which  in  every  phase  and  epoch  of  civ 
ilization  baffled  the  skill  and  patience  of  the  sea 
man,  the  quest  and  genius  of  the  philosopher, 
the  curiosity  of  the  idler,  and  the  impracticability 
of  the  dreamer ;  but  so  great  has  been  the  fasci 
nation  of  the  problem  that  probably  no  one  ever 
got  on  blue  water,  however  careless  of  other 
aspects  of  nature,  who  did  not  dream  and  pon 
der  over  the  seemingly  impenetrable  mystery 
that  lay  below,  and  long  for  the  seal  to  be  broken, 
that  a  glimpse  at  the  secret  of  the  ages  might  be 
given  him.  Indeed,  so  great  and  continuous  had 
been  the  failure  of  skilled  and  experienced  sea 
men,  of  every  name  and  nation,  to  fathom  the 
depths  and  get  answer  to  their  anxious  question 
ing,  that  it  had  come  to  be  a  popular  belief  the 
ocean  was  quite  bottomless  in  some  places  ;  that 
the  weight  and  pressure  of  the  superincumbent 
water  increased  the  density  of  the  lower  strata 
to  such  a  degree  that  things  thrown  into  the 
sea  floated  at  different  levels,  according  to  their 
specific  gravity ;  that  below  a  certain  depth  a 
temperature  of  39°  F.  was  uniformly  found  ;  and 
that  no  animal  life  could  exist  on  the  lower 


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199 


DEEP-SEA 


planes  and  valleys  of  the  ocean-bed.  And,  when 
it  is  considered  that  the  pressure  for  every  mile 
below  the  surface  is  a  ton  per  square  inch,  it  is 
not  to  be  wondered  at  that  such  notions  prevailed 
in  the  general  mind,  prone  to  forget  that  water 
is  practicably  incompressible. 

The  great  difficulty  of  sounding  in  "blue 
water"  arose  from  the  fact  that,  as  the  plummet 
descended,  the  weight  of  the  line,  and  its  run 
ning  out,  retarded  by  the  attendant  and  ever-in 
creasing  friction,  and  diverted  by  the  action  and 
freaks  of  submarine  currents,  neutralized,  as  it 
were,  the  momentum  of  the  lead,  playing  havoc 
with  its  indications,  and  making  it  impossible  to 
tell  with  any  degree  of  certainty  the  moment  of 
touch  bottom  beyond  a  depth  of  800  or  1000 
fathoms;  especially  as  the  line,  made  doubly 
heavy  by  its  absorption  of  water,  would  con 
tinue  to  run  out  simply  from  its  own  weight 
long  after  the  sinker  had  buried  itself  in  the 
ocean-bed,  and,  with  the  life  stretched  out  of  it, 
often  broke  in  hauling  back  ;  hence  the  work 
of  hours  on  such  occasions  appeared  only  to  de 
monstrate  the  seeming  impossibility  of  getting 
at  the  depths,  and  the  most  extraordinary  results 
were  reported  and  accepted,  as,  for  instance, 
where  Capt.  Denham,  R.N.,  assumed  that  he 
had  made  a  reliable  sounding  at  a  depth  of  more 
than  8  statute  miles  in  the  South  Atlantic ;  or 
where  Lieut.  Parker,  U.S.N.,  reported  an  at 
tempt  made  in  the  same  ocean  oft"  the  coast  of 
Brazil  with  50,000  feet  run  off  the  reel-sounding 
from  a  boat,  without,  as  he  thought,  getting  bot 
tom  ;  or  where  Capt.  Ringgold,  U.S.N.,  reported 
finding  a  depth  of  9  statute  miles  in  the  Indian 
Ocean,  1855,  using  the  apparatus  known  as  the 
Brooke. 

In  these  efforts  to  measure  the  depths,  distin 
guished  naval  officers  of  the  principal  maritime 
powers  vied  with  one  another  in  their  endeavors 
to  penetrate  the  secrets  of  the  ocean-bed,  but  the 
impartial  student,  of  whatever  nation,  will  ac 
cord  the  U.  S.  naval  service  and  Coast  Survey 
merited  prominence  in  diligent  and  persistent 
effort,  inventive  appliance,  and  intelligent  adap 
tation  of  ideas  and  methods,  from  whatever 
source,  towards  the  satisfactory  solution  of  the 
problem.  It  was  the  good  fortune,  however,  of 
Sir  William  Thomson,  of  Glasgow  University, 
distinguished  in  many  fields  of  science,  and 
especially  for  his  inventions  making  practicable 
ocean  telegraphy,  to  conceive  the  best  and  sim 
plest  means  of  measuring  the  depths ;  and  to 
day,  thanks  to  his  genius,  it  is  as  easy  for  the 
questioning  seaman  or  scientist  to  bring  back 
answer  from  the  depth  of  five  miles  as  it  formerly 
was  from  a  depth  of  a  quarter  of  a  mile.  The 
general  mistake  made  by  the  indefatigable  seek 
ers  was  in  allowing  the  line  to  run  out  too  freely 
as  the  plummet  descended,  as  will  be  seen  farther 
on.  It  was  difficult,  too,  to  keep  the  old  sailing- 
craft  in  position,  owing  to  drift,  heave  of  sea,  and 
constant  motion  of  the  vessel,  obstacles  well- 
nigh  overcome  in  these  later  days  of  research, 
when  steam  has  come  to  the  aid  of  the  laborer  in 
every  field ;  and  nowhere  does  the  masterful 
power  of  that  fierce  agent  find  better  illustration 
than  in  its  triumphs  on  the  restless  and  turbu 
lent  sea,  enabling  the  seaman  to  do  now  with 
ease  and  certainty  what  would  have  been  re 
garded  as  impossible  and  visionary  half  a  cen 
tury  ago.  In  a  paper,  prepared  by  the  writer 


for  the  American  United  Service  magazine  in 
1879,  it  was  stated  that  the  first  attempt  made  to 
sound  with  wire  was  from  H.  M.  S.  "  Thunder," 
Capt.  Barnett,  R.N.,  August,  1849.  This  was 
an  error ;  most,  if  not  all  the  vessels  of  the  U.  S. 
Exploring  Expedition,  which  sailed  from  Nor 
folk,  Ya.,  in  1888,  under  command  of  the  late 
Rear-Admiral  Charles  Wilkes,  then  a  lieutenant, 
were  supplied  with  copper  wire,  about  3.32  of  an 
inch  in  circumference,  the  splices  twisted  and 
soldered. 

In  trying  the  wire  on  board  the  "  Belief"  of 
that  expedition,  it  parted  when  some  500  fathoms 
were  out;  on  board  the  flag-ship  "  Vincennes" 
the  soundings  were  somewhat  deeper,  but  the 
results  were  generally  unsatisfactory,  owing  to 
constant  losses  of  wire ;  and  before  the  expedi 
tion  was  on  its  homeward  route,  1842,  its  use  was 
abandoned.  The  wire  used  on  board  the  "  Thun 
der"  was  of  iron,  varying  in  size  from  Nos.  1  to 
5,  the  sinker  weighing  61  pounds.  Only  one 
trial  was  made,  and  the  wire  broke  at  2000 
fathoms.  It  had  run  out  in  twenty  minutes, 
fifty-three  seconds ;  rapid  work,  indicating  that 
no  restraint  had  been  put  upon  the  reel,  and  the 
break  was  doubtless  due  to  the  parting  of  a  splice, 
or  a  jerking  strain  caused  by  the  rolling  of  the 
ship ;  this  attempt  was  made  between  the  banks  of 
Newfoundland  and  the  Western  Islands.  Three 
months  later,  the  same  year,  1849,  the  U.  S. 
schooner  "Taney,"  Lieut.  J.  C.  Walsh  com 
manding,  experimented  with  steel  wire  in  the 
vicinity  of  the  Bermudas.  The  wire  broke  when 
5700  fathoms  had  run  out,  and  Walsh  reported 
no  bottom  at  that  great  depth ;  the  fact  was  that 
bottom  had  been  struck  when  half  the  wire  had 
run  out,  as  subsequent  soundings  have  shown. 
The  wire  was  of  three  sizes,  Nos.  5,  7,  and  8,  Bir 
mingham  gauge,  and  its  average  weight  in  water 
about  180  pounds  to  the  mile.  It  was  wound  on 
an  iron  reel,  controlled  by  brakes  and  friction- 
bands,  and  swivels  were  fitted  next  the  sinker 
and  at  every  thousand  fathoms,  to  counteract 
the  tendency  to  twist.  The  lengths  were  marked 
with  copper  labels,  and  the  sinker  weighed  only 
10  pounds ;  but  6  pounds  more  should  be  added 
for  the  weight  of  the  registering-machine  devised 
by  Maury  and  used  on  this  occasion.  The 
sinker  was  obviously  too  light,  for  with  less 
than  200  fathoms  out,  the  weight  of  the  wire, 
the  No.  5  size  being  0.22  inch  in  diameter,  would 
already  exceed  that  of  the  lead,  and  the  momen 
tum  and  influence  of  the  latter  be  swallowed  up, 
as  it  were.  Had  the  sinker  weighed  400  pounds, 
which  the  size  and  strength  of  the  wire  seemed 
to  admit,  the  trial  would  doubtless  have  been 
successful,  taking  it  for  granted  that  the  descent 
was  controlled  by  the  friction-brakes. 

Other  trials  were  made  from  the  "  Taney," 
but  with  no  better  results,  the  wire  generally 
parting  at  2000  fathoms.  Walsh  does  not  seem 
to  have  mentioned  the  cause  of  these  repeated 
losses,  and  in  the  midst  of  his  experiments  he 
found  the  vessel  unseaworthy  and  had  to  return 
home,  under  convoy  of  the  U.  S.  brig  "Por 
poise,"  1850,  the  present  Rear-Admiral  B.  F. 
Sands,  U.S.N.,  commanding,  the  writer  serving 
on  board  his  first  cruise  as  midshipman,  little 
dreaming  that  he  himself  was  to  become  some 
what  identified  with  deep-sea  exploration  later 
on.  These  experiments  with  wire  in  our  own 
and  the  English  service,  seem  to  have  convinced 


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200 


DEEP-SEA 


the  naval  mind  of  the  uselessness  of  further  at 
tempt  in  that  direction,  and  the  idea  slumbered 
until  awakened  by  the  magic  touch  of  Sir  Wil 
liam  Thomson's  hand  twenty-three  years  later, 
transforming  failure  into  pre-eminent  success. 

Nothing  daunted  at  these  repeated  failures, 
the  U.  S.  Coast  Survey,  under  the  able  super 
intendence  of  the  learned  and  energetic  Bache, 
kept  actively  at  work  surveying  the  coasts  of 
the  Atlantic,  Pacific,  and  Gulf  of  Mexico,  ex 
ploring  the  Gulf  Stream  for  depths  and  tempera 
ture,  and  devising  new  methods  and  appliances 
for  the  advancement  of  hydrographic  science ; 
while  Maury,  the  father  of  the  science  of  the 
physical  geography  of  the  sea  systematically 
pursued,  and  superintendent  of  the  National 
Observatory,  and  in  charge  of  all  matters  per 
taining  to  navigation  under  the  cognizance  of 
the  Bureau  of  Ordnance  and  Hydrography  at 
that  period.  1850,  stimulated  effort  on  the  part 
of  the  naval  service. 

Be  it  said  in  passing  that  as,  with  the  excep 
tion  of  the  period  embraced  by  the  civil  war,  the 
greater  part  of  the  hydrographic  work  of  the 
Coast  Survey  has  been  done  by  naval  officers, 
both  branches  of  the  service  may  be  considered 
as  twin  sisters  in  that  regard;  and,  indeed,  the 
navy  claims  to  be  the  elder  of  the  twain  in  all  that 
pertains  to  the  prestige  of  skilled  achievement, 
inventive  genius  shown,  and  well-earned  reputa 
tions  made,  in  the  conduct  of  that  great  national 
work  which  maps  the  way  for  the  mariner  all 
along  a  magnificent  coast-line  of  more  than 
13,000  miles,  and  puts  into  the  hands  of  the  sci 
entist  the  data  which,  in  some  measure,  tell  the 
earth's  ancient  story. 

Now  discarding  both  wire  and  rope,  the  U.  S. 
naval  service,  at  the  instance  of  Maury,  adopted 
the  use  of  flax  twine  of  exceptional  strength, 
weighing  a  little  less  than  9  pounds  to  the  statute 
mile,  wound  on  light  running  reels  in  lengths 
of  10,000  fathoms.  32-pounder  shot  were  selected 
for  sinkers  as  available  in  every  ship  of  war  at 
that  period,  1850.  These  reels  of  twine  were  sup 
plied  every  cruiser  asking  for  them,  but  the  first 
approach  to  success  with  such  appliances  was  on 
board  the  U.S.S.  "  Albany,"  Commander  Platt, 
in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  and  under  the  supervision 
of  Lieut,  (now  Rear-Admiral)  Wm.  Rogers 
Taylor. 

Taylor  tried  and  adopted  the  method  of  time 
intervals  as  a  help  in  interpreting  the  time  of 
the  arrival  of  the  lead  on  the  bottom,  and  though 
much  ^discouragement  resulted  from  frequent 
losses  of  twine,  he  was  pretty  confident  of  having 
measured  the  depths  with " tolerable  accuracy; 
but  no  sinkers  had  been  hauled  back,  owing  bo'th 
to  weak  places  in  the  twine  and  the  wonderful 
retarding  influence  of  friction,  which,  though 
somewhat  diminished  by  waxing  the  twine,  was 
not  enough  to  more  than  partially  overcome  the 
difficulty. 

Some  question  has  arisen  as  to  who  originated 
the  method  of  "time  intervals,"  but  it  would 
seem  that  Capt.  James  F.  Ross,  R.N.,  noted 
the  intervals  March,  1840,  sounding  the  Cape  of 
Good  Hope  from  H.  M.  S.  "Erebus"  in  2677 
fathoms.  The  cast  seems  to  have  been  made 
from  boats,  the  reel  of  5000  fathoms  line  prob 
ably  rigged  between  them.  The  first  length  of 
line  of  437  fathoms  next  the  sinker,  which 
weighed  540  pounds,  was  of  a  single  strand  of 


whale-line,  the  rest  of  two  strands  of  spun 
yarn.  Capt.  Crozier  kept  the  time  of  descent. 
"When  the  wpight  struck  bottom,"  says  Ross,  "  it 
stopped  so  suddenly  that  the  boat's  crew  all 
called  out  'it  is  down.'  "  The  great  weight  of 
the  sinkers  in  proportion  to  the  size  of  line  was 
a  notable  step  towards  the  solution  of  the  prob 
lem,  and  it  is  surprising  that  later  explorers  did 
not  follow  more  closely  this  experience  in  that 
regard.  The  noting  of  the  intervals  does  not 
seem  to  have  been  with  a  view  to  the  interpreta 
tion  of  the  final  result;  the  great  weight  of  the 
lead  was  depended  upon  for  that ;  and,  continues 
Ross,  with  pardonable  glow,  "nothing  could  be 
more  satisfactory  than  this  sounding,  and  it  is 
the  more  so  that  we  have  the  means  of  getting 
soundings  however  deep  the  sea  may  be."  Yet 
despite  this  rose-colored  view  how  much  dis 
couragement  subsequently  resulted  to  other 
workers !  The  fault  seems  to  have  been  in  a 
lack  of  system,  which  did  not  give  sufficient 
heed  to  the  experience  of  explorers  of  different 
nationalities  and  at  various  periods.  Capt.  Bar- 
nett,  too,  of  the  "  Thunder,"  marked  the  inter 
vals,  sounding  in  the  North  Atlantic,  1849,  but 
Taylor  seems  to  have  been  the  first  officer  to  de 
duce  from  the  rate  of  descent  a  rule  whereby  to 
signal  with  some  degree  of  accuracy  the  arrival 
of  the  lead  on  the  bottom,  which  rule  observed 
by  Lee  and  Berry  man,  and  perfected  by  Spratt 
and  Brooke,  has  been  the  main  reliance  m  deter 
mining  the  accuracy  of  deep-sea  work  until  the 
Thomson  machine  superseded  and  rendered  such 
method  practically  obsolete.  A  notable  excep 
tion  to  this,  however,  has  been  the  continued 
use  of  the  time-interval  interpretation  by  the 
"  Challenger"  in  her  recent  famous  expedition 
around  the  world. 

But  to  return.  Tables  were  constructed  for 
different  weights  of  sinkers  and  sizes  of  lines, 
showing  the  rate  of  descent  of  each  100  fathoms, 
and  any  marked  or  disproportionate  increase  in 
the  intervals  of  time  would  indicate  the  reaching 
of  bottom  ;  but  the  observer  would  need  to  watch 
the  line  sharply  and  become  very  familiar  with 
all  the  indications  to  interpret  correctly  the  mo 
ment  of  touch ;  hence  a  good  deal  of  line  often 
ran  out  before  it  was  discovered  that  the  lead 
was  on  the  bottom,  and  some  of  the  soundings 
reported  by  Lee  and  Berryman  were  in  excess 
of  the  actual  depth  as  subsequent  research  has 
shown.  While  these  experiments  on  board  the 
"  Albany"  were  still  in  progress,  Lieut,  (now 
Rear- Admiral)  S.  P.  Lee  sailed  from  New  York, 
October,  1851,  in  the  "Dolphin"  brigantine, 
having  been  detailed  for  the  special  duty  of 
"  testing  new  routes  and  perfecting  the  discoveries 
made  by  Lieut.  Maury  in  the  course  of  his  in 
vestigations  of  the  winds  and  currents  of  the 
ocean,"  and  he  was  instructed  to  make  deep-sea 
soundings  in  favorable  weather.  The  sounding 
apparatus  supplied  was  similar  to  that  tried  on 
board  the  "  Albany,"  modified  and  improved  by 
the  experience  of  that  vessel  ;  but  Lee  adopted 
the  idea  of  sounding  from  a  boat  instead  of  from 
the  deck  of  the  brig,  believing  that  by  means  of 
her  oars  the  boat  could  be  readily  kept  over  the 
line  and  give  a  plumb  sounding,  a  thing  quite 
impossible  from  a  ship  not  controlled  by  steam. 
Small  waxed  fishing-line  was  used,  with  32- 
pound  shot  for  sinker.  The  line  ran  through  a 
small  bull's-eye,  held  in  one  hand  by  a  quarter- 


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201 


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master,  who  gave  line  with  the  other  when  ne 
cessary  to  relieve  the  sinker  from  the  resistance 
of  the  reel.  The  reel  was  mounted  on  a  stand 
placed  at  the  stern  of  the  boat,  and  turned  on 
friction-rollers.  "  When  the  shot  struck  bot 
tom,"  says  Lee,  "stopped  pulling,  let  the  boat 
settle,  and  tried  the  currents  ;  if  the  line  did  not 
part,  then  cut  the  line."  No  attempt  was  made 
to  haul  back  the  sinker  ;  the  principal  thing  con 
sidered  was  to  ascertain  the  depth  without  refer-1 
ence  to  the  character  of  the  bottom.  The  verifi 
cation  of  the  sounding  and  the  gratification  of 
response  from  the  ocean-bed  was  lacking  to  com 
plete  the  effort,  and  such  work  could  only  be 
done  in  good  weather,  with  smooth  sea  and  all 
favoring  circumstances.  The  "  Dolphin"  cruised 
eight  months  and  made  89  deep  casts,  but  the 
line  parted  in  34  of  them,  and  doubt  hung  over 
the  results  in  some  others  ;  still,  it  was  considered 
good  work  had  been  done,  and  that  the  brush  of 
difficulty  had  in  a  measure  been  cleared  away. 

Lieut.  O.  H.  Berryman  now  succeeded  Lee 
in  command,  and  continued  the  work  of  ex 
ploration  in  the  North  Atlantic,  1852-53 ;  and 
though  some  of  his  soundings  were  in  excess  of 
the  actual  depths,  as  has  since  been  shown,  the 
general  results,  as  with  Lee,  were  regarded  as 
the  most  satisfactory  and  accurate  that  had 
hitherto  been  obtained. 

The  "  Dolphin's"  soundings  developed  a  ridge 
about  one-third  across  the  Atlantic  to  the  east 
ward  of  the  Antilles,  with  a  depth  of  from.  1900 
to  2000  fathoms  over  it,  which  has  been  called 
the  Dolphin  Rise.  This  "rise"  seems  to  be  a 
continuation  in  a  south-southwesterly  direction 
from  the  Azores  of  what  is  known  as  the  tele 
graphic  plateau  discovered  by  Berryman.  "While 
Berryman  was  yet  exploring  in  the  "  Dolphin," 
Mr.  Cyrus  W.  Field  was  beginning  to  interest 
himself  in  the  subject  of  ocean  telegraphy,  and 
it  was  to  be  the  good  fortune  of  Berryman  to 
link  his  name  with  that  of  Mr.  Field  in  connec 
tion  with  the  first  and  most  important  great 
ocean  cable  laid.  In  the  latter  part  of  1853,  Mr. 
Field's  aid  was  solicited  towards  the  completion 
of  the  submarine  line  between  St.  John's  and 
Newfoundland ;  and,  enlarging  the  horizon  of 
that  scheme,  Mr.  Field  obtained  the  grant  of 
a  charter  for  himself  and  associates  to  connect 
Europe  and  America  by  submarine  cable  via 
Newfoundland. 

The  needs  of  the  age  demanded  submarine 
communication,  and  the  demand,  given  living 
form  and  embodiment,  as  it  were,  by  the  ener 
getic  and  prescient  action  of  Mr.  Field,  quick 
ened  and  stimulated  effort  to  measure  the  depths; 
but  not  only  the  depth  was  required,  but  the 
character  of  the  bottom  also,  for  a  cable  made  to 
rest  on  bed  of  ooze,  sand,  or  clay  would  not  do 
for  rocky  ridge  or  pebbly  plain. 

At  this  juncture,  Passed  Midshipman  John  M. 
Brooke,  U.S.N.,  now  Professor  Brooke,  Military 
Institute,  Lexington,  Va. ,  came  forward  with 
his  beautiful  and  timely  invention  for  leaving 
the  sinker  on  the  bottom  and  bringing  back  a 
specimen  of  the  soil  from  the  ocean-bed.  The 
invention  consisted  of  a  light  iron  rod,  terminat 
ing  in  a  cup  at  one  end  and  with  trigger  fitted 
at  the  other,  the  rod  passing  through  a  hole, 
bored  or  cast,  in  a  cannon-ball  or  shot  of  the  de 
sired  weight. 

In  descending,  the  shot  hung  from  the  trig 


gers  by  means  of  slings,  and  was  upheld  by  the 
line  made  fast  to  the  triggers  above  the  ends  of 
the  slings.  The  moment  bottom  was  struck  the 
line  would  slacken,  and  the  weight  of  the  shot 
pulling  down  the  triggers  would  cause  the  slings 
to  slip  off,  releasing  the  shot  and  leaving  it  be 
hind.  The  cup  of  the  rod  had  quills  fastened  in 
it  for  the  purpose  of  bringing  up  specimens  of 
the  bottom  soil.  Though  the  apparatus  was 
first  brought  prominently  forward  in  1854, 
Passed  Midshipman  (now  Commodore)  Earl 
English,  U.S.N.,  was  the  first  person  to  test  its 
capabilities  in  deep  water,  sounding  from  one 
of  the  "Dolphin's"  boats,  the  brig  still  under 
Berryman's  command,  August  22,  1853  ;  lat. 
50°  N..  Ion.  14°  W.,  in  1580  fathoms,  or  a  depth 
of  nearly  two  miles,  bringing  up  a  good  speci 
men  of  yellowish-white  chalky  clay.  This  was 
undoubtedly  the  first  time  a  specimen  had  been 
brought  up  from  so  great  a  depth,  and  English 
states  that  "during  the  remainder  of  the  cruise 
the  Brooke  machine  was  almost  exclusively  used, 
with  perfectly  satisfactory  results." 

Prior  to  that  sounding  the  casts  had  been 
made  as  heretofore  described, — the  time-interval 
method,  with  no  attempt  to  haul  back  the  line, 
— "which  process,"  English  continues,  "he 
never  regarded  as  satisfactory  or  conclusive." 

Other  devices  had  been  tried  for  bringing  up 
specimens  from  as  great  depths  as  it  had  hitherto 
been  possible  to  sound  with  rope,  but  Brooke's 
idea  of  leaving  the  sinker  on  the  bottom  seems 
to  have  been  the  first  successful  invention  to 
wards  that  end.  Sir  John  Ross,  R.N.,  had  in 
Baffin's  Bay,  1818,  brought  up  specimens  from 
1050  fathoms  with  a  "  deep-sea  clamm,"  invented 
by  himself;  arid  the  late  Rear- Admiral  Chas.  H. 
Davis,  U.S.N.,  had  in  1845  brought  up  greenish 
mud  from  1350  fathoms,  in  the  North  Atlantic, 
using  a  Stellwagen  lead,  called  a  "  cup-lead"  in 
the  English  service,  and  the  invention  of  Lieut. 
Stellwagen,  U.S.N.  These  were  non-detachable 
leads,  however,  and  would  not  work  in  the  deeper 
water.  Some  four  years  after  Brooke's  inven 
tion, — 1857, — Lieut,  (now  Rear- Admiral)  B.  F. 
Sands,  U.S.N.,  brought  forward  another  ingen 
ious  detaching  apparatus  which  has  been  pre 
ferred  by  some  workers  to  that  of  Brooke.  The 
Sands  cup,  indeed,  has  long  been  in  use  both 
in  the  naval  service  and  Coast  Survey. 

The  next  important  departure  in  deep-sea  work 
was  the  equipment — at  the  instance  of  Mr.  Field 
and  associates,  1856 — of  the  first  steam-vessel 
fitted  for  such  purpose, — the  U.  S.  S.  "  Arctic," 
under  Berryman's  command, — for  the  surveying 
of  the  route  for  the  proposed  submarine  cable. 
The  "  Arctic"  was  fitted  with  a  steam-reel,  which 
held  10,000  fathoms  of  line  an  inch  in  diameter, 
and  the  sounding  was  done  from  the  bow.  The 
Brooke  was  used  for  bottom  specimens ;  but 
Berryman  modified  the  apparatus  by  substituting 
a  conical  lead-sinker,  weighing  from  100  to  150 
pounds,  for  the  round  shot.  Massey's  self-regis 
tering  machine  was  used  as  a  check  on  the  line 
for  vertical  depth  instead  of  noting  the  time-in 
tervals  of  descent. 

This  machine  is  simply  a  small  brass  propeller 
fixed  in  a  protecting  metal  frame,  which,  in  de 
scending,  turns  by  action  of  the  water,  commu 
nicating  its  motions  to  the  indices  of  several  dial- 
plates  marked  in  units,  tens,  and  hundreds  of 
fathoms,  and  so  on.  The  machines  furnished 


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202 


DEEP-SEA 


the  "  Arctic"  had  their  dials  improved  by  Mr. 
Saxton,  of  the  Coast  Survey,  to  register  21,000 
fathoms  without  re-adjustment.  Similar  ma 
chines  had  been  made  by  M.  Lecontre,  Walker, 
and  Trowbridge  ;  but  their  use,  except  in  shoaler 
soundings,  has  been  abandoned,  owing  to  doubt 
ful  results  in  deep  water  and  their  liability  to 
get  out  of  order.  Berryman,  however,  instanced 
one  cast  in  2070  fathoms,  as  indicated  by  the 
"  Massey,"  where  only  2150  fathoms  of  line  ran 
out;  and,  as  the  Brooke  brought  up  a  specimen, 
there  could  be  no  doubt  of  the  value  of  the 
sounding  as  things  went  then. 

The  "Arctic"  was  twenty-two  days  in  cross 
ing  the  Atlantic  from  the  banks  of  Newfound 
land  to  the  Irish  coast,  making  24  casts  in  all, 
the  deepest  of  which  was  2700  fathoms. 

The  soundings  had  sometimes  to  be  repeated 
owing  to  breakage  of  the  line,  and  two  hours 
was  the  average  time  occupied  at  each  cast. 

Notwithstanding  this  good  work,  the  discard 
ing  of  the  use  of  time  intervals,  carelessness  in 
preparing  profile  chart  of  the  bottom,  and  the 
publication  of  the  results  in  England  before  re 
port  was  made  to  the  Navy  Department,  engen- 
der,ed  differences — personal  and  official — between 
Berryman  and  Maury,  which  led  the  latter  to  so 
discredit  the  "Arctic's"  work  as  to  cause  the 
British  Admiralty  to  detail  H.  M.  S.  "  Cyclops," 
Lieut.  Dayman,  R.N.,  to  make  a  supplementary 
survey.  Dayman  had  similar  appliances  to  those 
used  on  board  the  "Arctic,"  but  discarding  the 
quills,  fitted  a  valve  in  the  specimen  cup,  and 
substituted  wire  for  the  rope  or  cord  slings  orig 
inally  designed  by  Brooke.  Brooke  subsequently 
modified  the  rod  so  as  to  have  only  one  trigger, 
insuring  more  certainty  in  its  working.  The 
same  route  was  gone  over,  and  the  34  casts 
made  substantially  agreed  with  those  made  by 
Berryman.  The  "Cyclops's"  deepest  cast  was 
2424  fathoms.  Maury  was  obliged  to  accept  the 
results  of  this  survey,  though  it  interfered  with 
a  theory  he  had  put  forth  in  his  "  Physical 
Geography  of  the  Sea,"  "  that  there  is  at  the 
bottom  of  this  sea,  between  Cape  Race  and  Cape 
Clear,  a  remarkable  steppe,  already  known  as 
the  telegraphic  plateau,  .  .  .  and  the  sea  is  prob 
ably  nowhere  more  than  10,000  feet  deep," 
whereas  the  depth  was  found  to  be  considerably 
greater,  and  the  bottom  not  so  regular  as  had 
been  thought.  In  fact,  the  so-called  plateau  is 
not  so  uniform  in  contour  as  the  bed  of  the 
Pacific  between  San  Diego  and  the  Hawaiian 
Islands,  or  from  Cape  Flattery,  across  the  Gulf 
of  Alaska,  to  a  point  near  the  Aleutian  chain. 

Subsequently,  Dayman,  in  the  "Gorgon," 
sounded  another  route  via  the  Azores,  using  non- 
detachable  sinkers  weighing  188  pounds,  andstout 
albacore  line,  which  he  cut  on  reaching  bottom. 
Then  followed  Sir  Leopold  McClintock  in  the 
"  Bull-dog,"  who,  in  1860,  sounded  on  a  more 
northerly  route  than  either  of  the  others.  Sir 
Leopold  adopted  the  novel  plan  of  first  finding 
the  depth  with  stout  cod-line  and  iron  sinkers 
of  100  pounds,  which  he  cut  away  on  reach 
ing  bottom ;  then  sending  down  with  stouter 
line  for  specimen  a  detachable  lead  of  clumsy 
construction,  known  as  the  bull-dog  machine. 
Other  British  officers  took  part  in  these  surveys 
in  the  North  Atlantic,  notably  Capt.  Hoskyn 
in  the  "  Porcupine"  and  Lieut.  Johnson  in  the 
"Greenwood." 


Meanwhile,  Brooke  had  been  testing  his  appa 
ratus  satisfactorily  in  the  North  Pacific,  in 
depths  ranging  from  2000  to  3400  fathoms.  His 
first  experiment  was  in  January,  1854,  sound 
ing  from  one  of  the  "  Vincennes's"  boats,  using 
fifteen-thread  twine  .07  inch  in  diameter,  and 
sinker — a  shot — of  40  pounds  weight.  It  was 
an  anxious  day  for  the  enthusiastic  inventor,  but 
everything  worked  smoothly,  and  he  had  the 
great  satisfaction  of  leaving  the  shot  on  the 
bottom,  and  bringing  back  a  specimen  from  2150 
fathoms, — the  first  soil  that  delighted  the  eyes 
of  the  persistent  seeker  from  so  great  a  depth. 
Four  years  later,  and  now  a  lieutenant,  and  in 
command  of  the  schooner  "  Fenimore  Cooper," 
he  continued  his  experiments  in  the  same  ocean. 

Following  up  some  extended  and  suggestive 
experiments  by  Capt.  F.  Spratt,  R.N.,  made 
in  the  Mediterranean,  1857,  of  weighing  the 
line  when  the  lead  was  thought  to  "be  on  the 
bottom,  and  tested  by  Trowbridge's  demonstra 
tion  of  the  laws  governing  the  descent  of  line 
in  water,  Brooke  deduced  a  rule  of  standard 
casts,  which  led  to  very  accurate  results,  as  is 
now  put  beyond  question  by  the  close  approxi 
mation  of  the  "  Cooper's"  soundings  to  those  of 
the  U.  S.  S.  "  Tuscarora"  in  the  same  region 
of  the  Pacific,  between  California  and  the  Ha 
waiian  group,  and  establishing  beyond  doubt  the 
superiority  of  his  apparatus  to  that  of  any  other 
invented  up  to  that  time  for  measuring  the 
depths;  indeed,  all  other  contrivances  for  leaving 
the  sinker  behind  and  bringing  up  specimens  of 
bottom  soil — and  there  have  been  many — may 
be  said  to  be  modifications  of  the  Brooke  appa 
ratus. 

The  next  extended  and  important  ..exploration 
of  the  depths  was  made  in  1868  by  Capt.  (now 
Rear- Admiral)  F.  P.  Shortland,  R.N.,  in  H.  M.  S. 
"  Hydra,"  who  was  ordered  by  the  Admiralty  to 
survey  a  cable-route  from  Aden  across  the  Ara 
bian  Sea  to  Bombay.  Shortland  seems  to  have 
had  a  genius  for  deep-sea  work,  and  his  ship  was 
undoubtedly  better  equipped  for  the  purpose  than 
any  vessel  hitherto  engaged- in  such  service. 

The  modification  of  the  Brooke  apparatus, 
known  as  the  "  Hydra"  machine,  and  improved 
by  Staff  Commander  Baillie,  R.N.,  is  now  the 
favorite  machine  in  the  British  service.  "  The 
original  machine,"  says  Capt.  Shortland,  "was 
a  combination.  Her  blacksmith,  Gibbs,  in 
vented  the  detaching  spring ;  a  tube  used  by 
Capt.  Spratt  when  sounding  in  the  Mediterra 
nean  suggested  the  tube  part.  The  piston  was  a 
contrivance  of  mine  in  order  to  lessen  the  shock 
of  the  strike  in  hard  bottom,  and  to  prevent  the 
machine  from  turning  over  on  its  side,  in  which 
case  the  suspending  wire  did  not  slack  suffi 
ciently  to  be  disengaged."  One  admirable  feat 
ure  of  the  "Hydra"  is  that  the  sinker  consists 
of  several  iron  disks  of  an  average  weight  of  100 
pounds  each,  "toothed  and  notched,"  so  as  to 
form  a  compact  mass  when  put  together.  The 
obvious  advantage  is  that  the  weight  can  be  in 
creased  or  diminished  at  pleasure.  The  tube  for 
specimen  and  bottom  water  passes  through  the 
sinker,  as  in  the  Brooke,  and  is  divided  into  four 
chambers  fitted  with  valves  opening  upward, 
the  lower  end  having  a  butterfly-valve.  In  the 
upper  chamber  travels  a  piston,  carrying  a  rod, 
to  which  is  bent  the  sounding-line.  *The  slings 
of  the  sinker  depend  from  a  stud  projecting  from 


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203 


DEEP-SEA 


the  upper  end  of  the  rod,  and  an  arched  steel 
spring,  with  a  slit  directly  over  the  stud,  is  fast 
ened  to  the  rod  longitudinally,  the  ends  having 
play  so  that  the  spring  can  be  readily  pressed  in 
ward.  When  the  sinker  is  suspended  the  spring 
is  pressed  in,  and  from  the  stud,  now  outside  the 
spring,  the  slings  are  hung,  the  weight  holding 
the  spring  back. 

Commander  Baillie's  modification  does  away 
with  the  stud  and  spring,  and  substitutes  a  sliding 
"  catch,1'  the  bight  or  loop  of  the  slings  passing 
over  it,  and  when  bottom  is  struck  the  "catch" 
drops  over  a  conical  end,  the  slings  fly  off,  re 
leasing  the  sinker.  Shortland  seems  to  have 
made  the  first  use  of  the  accumulator  to  relieve 
sudden  strain  in  a  sea-way  and  to  indicate  roughly 
the  amount  of  strain  as  the  line  runs  out.  This 
consists  of  two-score  or  more  of  rubber  springs 
rove  through  stout  wooden  disks,  placed  two  or 
three  feet  apart,  with  appropriate  fastenings. 
The  lower  end  of  the  accumulator  is  fastened  to 
a  short  pendant  hooked  into  an  eyebolt  in  the 
deck,  and  to  the  upper  end  is  spliced  a  longer 
pendant,  passing  through  a  fair-leader  on  the 
sounding-derrick,  and  having  a  block  turned  in 
at  its  other  end,  through  which  the  sounding-line 
is  rove.  The  upper  pendant  is  fitted  long  enough 
to  permit  the  accumulator  to  stretch  more  than 
double  its  length,  but  arranged  to  keep  it  within 
breaking  limits. 

The  sounding-lines  of  the  "Hydra"  were  of 
Kos.  1,  2,  and  3,  wound  on  a  reel  commanded  by 
a  brake,  and  in  all  the  later  work  of  the  vessel 
the  descent  of  the  line  was  retarded.  Capt. 
Shortland  was  perhaps  the  first  to  enunciate  the 
idea  "  that  a  sounding  line  should  not  be  permitted 
to  run  free,  but  should  be  resisted  by  a  force  equal 
to  the  weight  in  water  of  a  length  of  the  line  equal 
to  the  depth  to  be  determined.'1  Then  noting  the 
time  intervals  the  problem  seemed  easy  of  solu 
tion. 

The  "Hydra"  was  a  paddle-steamer,  and  in 
sounding  was  kept  before  the  wind,  the  line  run 
ning  down  from  the  stern,— a  method  first  tried 
by  Capt.  Spratt  in  the  Mediterranean.  The 
sinkers  weighed  from  200  to  400  pounds,  accord 
ing  to  expected  depth.  The  deepest  water  found 
in  the  Arabian  Sea  was  2160  fathoms,  but  a  cast 
made  in  the  South  Atlantic  gave  a  specimen  from 
2830  fathoms.  Prof.  Sir  Wyville  Thomson,  in 
his  "  Depths  of  the  Sea,"  describes  a  sounding 
made  from  the  "  Porcupine,"  Capt.  Calver,  R.N., 
in  2435  fathoms,  which  he  considers  as  "  proba 
bly,  the  deepest  sounding  up  to  that  time  which 
was  thoroughly  reliable,"  but  Brooke's  work, 
long  before,  in  the  Pacific,  in  much  deeper  water, 
has  been  proved  to  be  perfectly  reliable,  nor  is 
there  reason  to  doubt  the  results  obtained  by 
Koss  twenty-nine  years  previously ;  and  Capt. 
Shortland,  in  a  note  to  the  writer,  says,  "  If  Sir 
"Wyville  Thomson  had  been  with  us  on  the  21st 
August,  1868,  when  we  took  our  last  sounding 
in  the  Bay  of  Biscay, — 2600  fathoms,  with  bottom 
water,  and  gray  sand  and  shells  brought  up, — 
he  would  probably  have  considered  it  reliable. 
We  all  thought  it  perfectly  so,  and  I  inserted  it 
on  the  Admiralty  chart  The  '  Porcupine' 
ought  to  have  had  and  no  doubt  did  have  it  on 
her  chart,  as  well  as  some  copies  of  the  '  Hy 
dra's'  sounding  voyage  on  board,  and  it  is 
strange  all  this  should  have  escaped  the  profes 
sor's  notice." 


The  writer,  when  ordered  to  do  similar  work 
in  the  Pacific,  derived  much  information  from 
the  "  Hydra's"  published  report,  and  an  impar 
tial  examination  of  extended  deep-sea  work  up 
to  the  advent  of  the  "  Challenger"  and  "  Tu'sca- 
rora"  expeditions,  will  award  the  palm  for  accu 
racy,  originality,  and  inventive  grasp  to  Brooke 
and  Shortland. 

The  genius  of  Brooke  in  devising  the  appa 
ratus  for  bringing  up  specimens  of  bottom  soil, 
delighting  the  eyes  of  the  earnest  seekers  and 
lending  fresh  interest  to  the  revelations  of  the 
microscope,  in  the  variety  and  richness  of  new 
forms  disclosed,  but  whetted  the  appetites  of  the 
naturalist  and  geologist,  and,  like  Oliver  of  the 
story,  they  cried  for  more,  or  for  larger  speci 
mens  than  the  quills  and  cups  would  bring  up ; 
and  the  dredge,  which  had  hitherto  been  re 
garded  as  only  practicable  for  gathering  up  the 
fauna  of  the  shoaler  water  along  the  coasts,  was 
improved  for  the  exploration  of  the  wider,  nay, 
illimitable  fields  of  the  "abyssal  regions"  where 
the  darksome  organisms,  biological  milestones 
under  the  waters,  had  lain  hidden  from  the 
creation.  Marine  zoology  became  suddenly  in 
vested  with  fresh  and  surpassing  interest,  and, 
says  Prof.  Verrill,  "Dr.  Wallich  led  off  in  this 
new  era, — 1860, — establishing  the  fact  that  the 
deep  sea  had  its  own  peculiar  fauna  at  depths  far 
greater  than  life  had  previously  been  supposed 
to  exist,  unless  in  the  lowest  forms,  such  as  the 
Rhizopods."  Milne-Edwards  confirmed  these 
observations — 1861 — "  in  finding  living  mollusca 
and  corals  adhering  to  telegraph-cable  in  the 
Mediterranean,"  which  had  been  hauled  up  from 
a  depth  of  1577  fathoms  for  repairs.  The  same 
year  followed  the  "Swedish  expedition  to  Spitz- 
bergen,  and  the  extensive  explorations  of  Prof. 
Sars  at  the  Loffoden  Islands  and  on  the  Scandi 
navian  coast  in  depths  down  to  450  fathoms;" 
but  the  first  more  extended  and  systematic  dredg 
ing  expedition  was  conducted  by  Count  L.  F. 
de  Pourtales,  under  the  instructions  of  Superin 
tendent  Peirce  of  the  U.  S.  Coast  Survey,  begun 
in  1867  and  continued  until  1869.  These  ex 
plorations  were  made  in  the  Florida  Channel  of 
the  Gulf  Stream,  and  extended  to  depths  of  700 
fathoms  with  great  success,  resulting  in  the  ob- 
tainment  of  "  large  and  remarkable  collections 
embracing  numerous  representatives  of  nearly 
all  classes  of  animals."  The  first  season's  work 
was  interrupted  by  the  advent  of  yellow  fever 
on  board,  but  enough  was  done  "  to  disclose  the 
interesting  fact,"  says  Pourtales,  "  that  animal 
life  exists  at  great  depths  in  as  great  an  abundance 
as  in  shallow  water." 

This  first  year's  exploration  of  Pourtales,  so 
short,  yet  so  rich  in  its  yield  of  new  forms,  and 
so  important  in  the  grand  fact  of  nature  estab 
lished,  undoubtedly  "  stimulated  to  a  great  ex 
tent,"  says  Mr.  Alexander  Agassiz,  "the  Eng 
lish  expeditions  of  the  '  Lightning'  and  '  Por 
cupine,'  in  1868,  1869,  and  1870,"  which  were 
fitted  out  by  the  Admiralty  at  the  solicitation 
of  Dr.  W.  B.  Carpenter,  Mr.  Gwyn  Jeffreys, 
and  Prof,  (now  Sir)  C.  Wyville  Thomson. 

The  "Lightning,"  Commander  May,  R.N., 
used  for  specimens  the  Fitzgerald  machine,  an 
apparatus  with  detachable  sinker,  devised  for 
large  quantity,  but  of  heavy,  unwieldy  con 
struction  and"  uncertain  in  its  working.  The 
"Porcupine,"  Capt.  Calver,  R.N.,  was  equipped 


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204 


DEEP-SEA 


wth  sounding  apparatus  similar  to  that  used  by 
the  "  Hydra," — for  in  dredging  the  depth  must 
first  be  found,  to  do  the  work  intelligently, — and 
supplied  with  appliances  for  trawling  and  dredg 
ing,  improved  as  the  experience  of  the  "  Light 
ning"  had  suggested. 

The  great  achievement  of  these  cruises  was 
the  successful  dredging  in  2435  fathoms  in  the 
Bay  of  Biscay,  July  22,  1869 ;  an  unparalleled 
feat  up  to  that  time.  The  machine  with  which 
the  preliminary  sounding  was  made  was  the 
"  Hydra,"  weighted  with  sinker  of  336  pounds, 
and  the  line  of  Italian  hemp,  with  circumference 
of  0.8  inch.  "  The  line  was  given  off  the  reel  as 
fast  as  the  weight  would  take  it,  so  there  might 
not  be  the  slightest  check  or  strain."  Capt. 
Shortland's  method  of  resisting  the  descent  of 
the  line  in  some  measure,  was  abandoned, — an 
undoubted  mistake.  The  voyages  of  these  two 
vessels  yielded  such  happy  results  that  the  dis 
tinguished  explorers,  who  had  in  turn  taken  sci 
entific  direction  of  the  work,  sought  still  further 
favor  of  the  Admiralty,  which  resulted  in  the 
equipment  of  H.  M.  S.  ''Challenger"  for  a  four 
years'  cruise  round  the  world  for  the  further 
prosecution  of  those  interesting  researches  in  the 
great  domain  of  the  deep  ;  but  of  this  more  anon. 

The  civil  war  intervening  had  interrupted 
these  researches  by  American  officers,  and  four 
years  of  strife  made  them  rusty  in  deep-sea  work. 
The  Coast  Survey  was  the  first  to  re-enter  the 
field,  and  in  1866  we  find  the  steamer  "  Corwin," 
Master  Platt,  sounding  in  the  Florida  Channel, 
under  the  direction  of  Mr.  Henry  Mitchell, 
Superintendent  Coast  Survey.  Then  followed  the 
U.  S.  S.  "  Yantic,"  Commander  (now  Captain) 
John  Irwin,  sounding  for  cable-line  in  the  waters 
of  the  West  Indies  and  Caribbean  Sea.  About 
this  period,  too,  the  Coast  Survey  steamer 
"  Hassler,"  Commander  (now  Captain)  P.  C. 
Johnson,  TJ.S.N  ,  with  Prof.  Agassiz  on  board 
as  passenger,  sailed  for  the  Pacific,  with  instruc 
tions  to  make  soundings  en  route.  The  fittings 
of  these  vessels  seem  to  have  been  crude  and 
clumsy,  unsatisfactory  in  their  working,  and  un 
reliable  in  their  results  ;  in  short,  not  in  keeping 
with  the  knowledge  acquired,  experience  gained, 
and  position  won  by  the  service  prior  to  the  war. 
The  inspiring  presence  of  Professor  and  Mrs. 
Agassiz  could  not  counterbalance  the  fatal  defect 
of  rotten  lines  and  other  sounding  appliances, 
far  inferior  to  those  used  by  the  "  Hydra"  and 
"  Porcupine,"  which  had  been  furnished  the 
"Hassler";  and  candor  compels  the  admission 
that  the  work  of  English  officers  at  this  period 
was  much  more  satisfactory  than  that  attempted 
by  our  own  service, — albeit,  both  the  navy  and 
Coast  Survey  are  now  in  advance,  in  the  writer's 
opinion,  in  all  that  pertains  to  ease  and  perfec 
tion  in  deep-sea  exploration. 

So  matters  stood  until  Sir  William  Thomson 
brought  forward  the  machine  destined  to  revo 
lutionize  deep-sea  work,  and  which  it  was  the  lot 
of  our  service  to  put  to  the  test  almost  before  its 
inventor  could  perfect  its  working  or  demon 
strate  its  success  under  all  conditions  and  in  all 
depths.  Sir  William  proceeded  on  the  principle 
that  a  the  art  of  deep-sea  sounding  is  to  put  such 
a  resistance  on  the  reel  as  shall  secure  that  at 
the  moment  the  weight  reaches  bottom  the  reel 
will  stop."  Here  was  the  solution  in  a  nut 
shell:  Captain  Shortland's  practice  carried  to 


its  legitimate  and  more  perfect  conclusion  ;  but 
the  time-interval  interpretation  was  rejected, — 
the  reel  was  to  stop,  and  does  stop  the  moment 
bottom  is  struck,  or  within  a  second  of  time. 

The  apparatus  was  first  tried,  29th  June,  1872, 
in  the  Bay  of  Biscay.  "I  sounded,"  says  Sir 
William,  "from  the  '  Lalla  Rookh'  schooner- 
yacht  with  a  lead  weight  of  30  pounds  (unde- 
tachable),  hung  by  nineteen  fathoms  of  cod-line 
from  another  lead  weight  of  4  pounds,  attached 
to  one  end  of  a  three-mile  coil  of  piano-forte 
wire,  the  lengths  spliced  and  wound  on  a  light 
wheel  about  a  fathom  in  circumference,  made 
of  thin  tinned  iron  plate.  The  weight  was 
allowed  to  run  directly  from  the  reel  into  the 
sea,  and  a  resistance  exceeding  the  weight  in 
water  of  the  length  of  the  wire,  actually  sub 
merged  at  each  instant,  was  applied  tangentially 
to  the  circumference  of  the  wheel  by  the  friction 
of  a  cord  wound  round  a  groove  in  the  circum 
ference,  and  kept  suitably  tightened  by  a  weight." 
The  experiment  was  so  successful  that  the  in 
ventor  did  not  doubt  the  solution  of  the  problem 
had  been  demonstrated  ;  albeit,  the  crushing  and 
accumulative  force  of  reeling  in  had  disclosed 
great  weakness  in  the  wheel  or  reel,  which  would 
have  to  be  remedied  before  the  machine  could 
be  put  satisfactorily  forward  to  do  the  work  re 
quired,  and  which  caused  much  trouble  and 
anxiety  in  hauling  back  the  wire  and  lead.  Bot 
tom  had  been  reached  at  about  2500  fathoms, 
and  the  stopping  of  the  revolutions  of  the  reel 
was  so  sudden  and  marked  that  the  crew  thought 
something  had  broken,  nor  did  they  feel  assured 
to  the  contrary  until  the  cup  came  up  filled  with 
soft  gray  ooze.  The  wire  used  was  piano-forte 
wire  No.  22,  Birmingham  gauge,  weighing  about 
pounds  in  air  to  the  nautical  mile,  and  bear- 


ness  of  the  area  and  the  smoothness  of  the  sur 
face  which  the  wire  presents,  in  contrast  with 
the  greatness  of  the  surface  and  its  roughness 
when  rope  with  a  comparable  degree  of  strength 
is  used." 

The  "  Challenger"  was  fitting  out  for  her 
famous  cruise  around  the  globe  at  the  time  this 
experiment  was  made,  and,  not  doubting  that 
11  the  difficulties  which  had  seemed  to  make  the 
idea  of  sounding  by  wire  a  mere  impracticable 
piece  of  theory  had  been  altogether  got  over," 
Sir  William  hastened  to  lay  the  result  before 
the  Admiralty,  and  suggest  the  use  of  the  appa 
ratus  in  the  expedition.  Its  use  was  declined, 
however,  "  until  the  machine  could  be  perfected," 
and  Capt.  (now  Sir  George)  Nares  seems  to 
have  acquiesced  in  that  decision.  Nevertheless 
the  ship  was  supplied  with  the  original  machine 
and  wire,  and  their  working  explained  by  the 
inventor  to  the  executive-officer,  Commander 
Maclean,  R.N.  The  inventor,  too,  had,  "  as  one 
of  the  committee  of  the  Royal  Society,  been  in 
vited  to  make  suggestions  with  regard  to  scien 
tific  matters  connected  with  the  expedition." 
Yet  the  practical  suggestion  he  offered  for  con 
sideration  was  neglected,  and  the  vessel  pro 
ceeded  on  her  unmatched  errand,  equipped  with 
every  instrument  and  appliance  that  art  and 
science,  mechanical  skill,  and  seaman's  experi 
ence  could  devise  or  suggest,  and  yet  discarded 
the  use  of  the  incomparable  machine  that  could 


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205 


DEEP-SEA 


not  only  have  rendered  her  work  more  accurate, 
but  would  have  lessened  the  labors  of  the  cruise 
more  than  one  half,  especially  if  wire  rope  had 
been  used  for  dredging,  which  the  beautiful 
working  of  the  wire  in  sounding  would  naturally 
have  suggested.  The  line  used  by  the  "  Chal 
lenger"  was  of  the  best  Italian  hemp,  and  the 
No.  1  size — mostly  used — was  one  inch  in  cir 
cumference,  with  breaking  strain  of  14  cwt. 

This,  coupled  with  the  fact  of  the  use  of  heavy 
sinkers, — 400  pounds  weight  in  deep  casts, — was 
a  great  help  in  the  matter  of  easy  and  accurate 
working,  but  not  comparable  with  the  facility 
and  perfectness  of  action  of  wire  only  0.028  inch 
in  diameter,  or  considerably  smaller  in  size  than 
the  wire  used  for  ladies'  hair-pins.  The  time- 
interval  method  was  used,  and  be  it  remembered, 
that  was  the  only  means  the  experts  of  the  ship 
had  of  interpreting  the  arrival  of  the  lead  on 
the  bottom.  The  sounding  was  done  from  the 
gangway,  the  vessel  kept  head  to  wind  and  sea, 
the  line  marked  at  every  25  fathoms  was  kept  on 
reels  on  the  forecastle,  "and,"  says  Navigating 
Lieutenant  Tizard,  "  the  weights  are  allowed  to 
take  it  freely  as  they  descend  ;  the  reel  occasion 
ally  moves  faster  than  the  weights  take  the  line, 
and  consequently  there  is  a  danger  of  its  fouling  ; 
to  prevent  this  one  end  of  the  reel  has  a  circular 
disk  of  wood  attached  to  it  like  a  large  sheave, 
over  this  a  gasket  is  placed  and  a  man  stationed 
to  attend  it ;  should  the  line  unreel  faster  than 
the  weights  take  it,  he  is  able  to  check  it  at  once 
by  tightening  the  gasket.  From  the  reel  the  line 
is  led  aft  through  a  block  to  the  engine,  then  up 
through  the  block  at  the  mainyard  and  down  to 
the  water,"  with  the  "  Baillie-Hydra"  rod  and 
sinker,  as  well  as  water-bottle  and  thermometer 
attached  for  specimen  of  bottom  water  and  bot 
tom  temperature.  "The  sounding  alone,"  con 
tinues  Tizard,  "  at  a  depth  of  2500  fathoms  oc 
cupies  three  hours  (including  heaving  in  the 
line),  the  dredge  requires  three  hours  to  sink,  one 
hour  at  the  bottom,  and  three  hours  to  heave  in." 
Compare  the  three  hours  occupied  by  the  "  Chal 
lenger"  in  making  a  cast  at  2500  fathoms  with 
the  average  of  one  hour,  twelve  minutes  of  the 
"  Tuscarora's"  time  in  getting  answer  from  that 
depth,  and  what  a  saving  of  time  results  ! 

The  "  Challenger"  put  to  sea  December,  1872, 
and  a  few  months  later,  or  in  April,  1873,  the 
IT.  S.  S.  "Tuscarora,"  under  the  writer's  com 
mand,  then  serving  in  the  South  Pacific,  was 
ordered  to  San  Francisco  to  prepare  for  the  spe 
cial  duty  of  "  making  soundings  between  the 
western  coast  of  the  United  States  and  the  east 
coast  of  Japan  for  scientific  purposes,  and  for  the 
purpose  of  determining  the  practicability  of  lay 
ing  a  telegraph-cable  between  these  shores."  As 
has  been  seen,  neither  the  naval  service  nor  the 
Coast  Survey  had  recovered  the  ground  lost 
during  the  war  in  deep-sea  work,  and  the  ap 
pliances  in  use  were  not  comparable  to  those  sup 
plied  the  "Challenger."  But  all  this  was  soon 
to  be  changed,  and  the  forefront  in  adaptive 
equipment  and  skilled  use  of  appliances  was  to 
be  resumed.  Commodore  (now  Rear-Admiral) 
Daniel  Ammen,  himself  an  inventor,  with  broad 
and  sympathetic  views  concerning  the  testing 
and  the  introduction  of  new  inventions  of  prac 
tical  promise  into  the  service,  was  chief  of 
Bureau  of  Navigation,  and,  regardless  of  the 
action  of  the  English  Admiralty,  and  despite 


the  discouragement  received  in  quarters  where 
he  had  reason  to  look  "for  more  practical  views, 
he  ordered  one  or  more  of  the  Thomson  machines 
and  a  supply  of  wire  as  soon  as  he  heard  of  the 
promising  experiment  in  the  Bay  of  Biscay. 
The  machine  was  still  in  an  imperfect  state,  but 
the  chief  of  bureau  gave  no  heed  to  that ;  he 
knew  that  while  genius  conceives,  creates,  the 
less  brilliant  mind  can  improve  and  modify, 
and  that  the  spirit  of  our  service  is  second  to 
none  in  its  welcome  to  new  ideas,  and  in  its  earn 
est,  persistent  effort  to  improve  upon  them. 

The  modest  little  Thomson  machine  in  its 
snug  iron  tub  and  180-pound  package  of  wire 
seemed  absurd  in  contrast  with  the  heavy  iron 
reel  and  dynamometer,  donkey-engine,  and  the 
forty-odd  miles  of  rope,  of  varying  sizes,  sup 
plied  the  "  Tuscarora"  ;  but,  like  David  and  Go 
liath  of  sacred  story,  the  little  drum,  which  with 
four  miles  of  wire  weighed  hardly  130  pounds, 
was,  as  steadily  improved,  to  be  the  easy  victor. 

The  machine  simply  consisted  of  a  hollow 
drum  of  thin  galvanized  iron,  a  fathom  in  cir 
cumference  and  three  inches  wide,  revolving  on 
an  iron  shaft.  The  disks  forming  the  sides  were 
enough  larger  than  the  drum  tp  form  rims,  like 
the  rim  of  a  car-wheel,  two  or  more  inches  deep, 
and  a  third  rim  projected  from  one  side  forming 
a  V-groove ;  on  one  side  of  the  shaft  a  ratchet- 
wheel  was  fitted  to  receive  a  pawl,  and  the  other 
had  a  wormed  brass  wheel  by  which  its  motion 
was  communicated  to  the  cog-wheels  of  a  coun 
ter,  having  three  dials  to  register  the  revolutions. 
The  shaft,  fitted  at  each  end  for  cranks,  revolved 
on  metal  standards  bolted  to  a  stout  oak  plank 
3£  feet  in  length  and  15  inches  in  width.  The 
weight  of  the  drum,  including  the  shaft,  was 
hardly  more  than  60  pounds.  The  dynamom 
eter-wheel  revolving  in  an  iron  crotch,  was 
placed  in  rear  of  and  close  to  the  drum,  and  in 
a  line  with  the  V-groove ;  it  had  one  groove  in 
its  rim  wide  enough  to  take  two  parts  of  rope, 
and  another  much  narrower,  to  receive  a  cord. 
The  dynamometer  was  simply  a  spring  balance 
with  scale  and  index  hand,  fastened  to  the  bed 
of  the  machine,  and  connected  with  the  dyna 
mometer-wheel  by  a  cord  which  lay  in  the  nar 
row  groove  of  its  rim,  and  passing  down  through 
a  hole  in  the  wheel,  was  made  fast  to  the  rod 
attached  to  the  springs  of  the  dynamometer. 
Now  any  strain  brought  to  bear  on  the  dyna 
mometer-wheel  to  make  it  turn  would  be  indi 
cated  on  the  scale  by  the  pointer. 

When  making  the  machine  ready  for  use,  an 
endless  rope  of  the  proper  size — soft  albacore 
line  was  used  on  board  the  "Tuscarora" — is 
placed  in  the  V-groove  of  the  drum,  and  the 
lower  part  or  bight  is  placed  over  a  grooved  iron 
pulley-wheel  and  kept  taut  by  means  of  a  pend 
ant  run  through  a  stationary  block,  the  lower 
part  of  the  pendant  having  a  number  of  hooks 
from  which  to  suspend  weights  of  different  sizes 
as  required.  The  machine,  as  received,  was  fitted 
with  a  tackle  to  tauten  the  endless  rope;  the 
pendants  and  weights  were  substituted  after  the 
first  trial  of  the  apparatus  at  sea.  It  will  be 
understood  that  the  endless  rope  runs  freely 
round  the  V-groove  as  the  drum  turns,  but 
being  kept  taut,  the  friction  of  the  line  restrains 
the  action  of  the  drum,  and  passing  round  the 
dynamometer-wheel  communicates  the  amount 
of  tension  on  the  wire  to  the  dynamometer,  which 


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DEEP-SEA 


is  at  once  shown  on  the  scale  by  the  movements 
of  the  pointer.  Now  bearing  in  mind  that,  when 
sounding,  the  resistance  applied  frictionally  is 
always  to  be  in  excess — say  by  ten  pounds — of 
the  weight  of  the  wire  in  water,  of  the  amount 
out  at  every  moment  of  the  sounding,  it  follows 
that  when  bottom  is  struck  the  reel  or  drum  will 
stop,  for,  released  from  the  weight  of  the  sinker, 
the  descent  of  the  wire  is  now  restrained  by  a 
force  greater  than  the  weight  of  the  ivire  out,  and 
must  stoj)  and  does  stop  almost  instantly.  As  the 
weight  of  the  wire  in  water  is  hardly  more  than 
12  pounds  to  the  1000  fathoms,  it  is  a  very 
simple  matter  to  know  what  resistance  to  apply 
from  time  to  time,  by  watching  the  counter 
which  registers  every  turn  of  the  drum.  On 
board  the  "  Tuscarora,"  working  in  deep  water, 
it  was  the  practice  to  restrain  the  wire  consider 
ably  at  the  beginning  of  a  cast,  then  to  take 
off  most  of  the  weights  applied  to  the  dyna 
mometer,  and  let  the  wire  run  freely.  As 
bottom  was  thought  to  be  neared,  the  proper 
weights  were  restored,  always  with  the  happiest 
results. 

The  inventor's  idea  had  been  to  haul  back  a 
30-pound  lead  with  valve-cup  for  specimen  ;  but 
this  imposed  extra  labor,  besides  bringing  un 
necessary  strain  on  the  drum— already  too  weak 
— as  well  as  on  the  wire ;  and,  in  fact,  was  not 
in  keeping  with  the  other  features  of  his  appa 
ratus  nor  the  ideas  of  deep-sea  work  at  this 
stage.  Sir  William  himself  subsequently  adop 
ted  the  use  of  detachable  leads.  A  lot  of  Brooke 
rods  supplied  the  ship  were  fitted  with  a  modi 
fication  of  the  Sands  cup,  but  their  stems  were 
so  slight  they  often  broke  off  in  use,  and  the 
specimen  brought  up  was  small.  The  rod  itself 
when  properly  constructed  seemed  to  be  the 
best  detacher  yet  devised :  simple,  easily  made, 
and  as  sure  in  its  working,  when  properly  han 
dled,  as  anything  made  by  man  can  be.  'There 
was  no  need  to  go  outside  our  own  service  for 
any  other  device;  the  only  thing  needed  was  an 
improvement  looking  towards  the  bringing  up 
of  a  larger  specimen,  and  to  go  with  a  heavier 
sinker  than  the  32-pounder  shot. 

After  much  experiment  both  at  sea  and  in 
port,  three  different  cups  or  cylinders,  2}  inches 
in  diameter,  were  devised  to  go  with  8-inch  shot 
bored  through  to  receive  them,  which  subserved 
the  purpose  satisfactorily ;  the  No.  2,  as  was  ex 
pected,  proving  to  be  the  best  for  general  use. 
The  weight  of  the  bored  shot  was  55  pounds,  but 
in  depths  beyond  3000  fathoms  a  heavier  sinker 
was  found  advisable,  and  a  lead  casting  of  15  or 
20  pounds'  weight  was  added  when  working  in 
the  deeper  water.  New  rods  were  made  and 
forged  as  lightly  as  possible  consistent  with 
strength,  so  that  the  weight  to  haul  back  would 
be  no  greater  than  absolutely  necessary,  the  ad 
vantage  of  which  precaution  was  readily  seen 
when  working  in  depths  of  4000  fathoms  and 
upwards. 

When  the  fittings  of  the  ship  were  completed  a 
short  run  was  made  outside  the  Heads  of  San 
Francisco  to  test  the  apparatus  and  appliances, 
and  familiarize  the  officers  and  men  with  their 
working.  This  experimental  trip  at  once  de 
monstrated  the  superiority  of  wire  over  rope  for 
the  purpose  in  hand ;  but  the  drum  proved  to  be 
too  weak  for  the  strain  imposed  upon  it,  and 
other  defects  were  disclosed,  which  had  to  be 


remedied  before  the  ship  could  proceed  with  con 
fidence  on  her  mission.  Meanwhile,  Sir  William 
himself  was  experimenting  with  the  machine, 
endeavoring  to  correct  faults  of  construction  and 
improve  its  working,  so  that  it  would  stand  the 
demands  likely  to'be  made  upon  it.  His  idea 
was  to  retain  the  original  lightness  of  the  drum 
and  keep  down  its  inertia,  and  he  devised  an 
auxiliary  pulley  fixed  to  the  bed  of  the  machine, 
with  a  castor-pulley  to  receive  the  wire  from 
outboard  in  coming  in.  Cranks  were  fitted  to 
pulley  and  drum,  so  that  either  two  or  four  men 
could  work  them,  and  the  wire  was  so  led  over 
the  castor-pulley  and  round  the  auxiliary  pulley 
that  the  drum  was  relieved  from  two-thirds  to 
nine-tenths  of  the  strain  originally  imposed  upon 
it.  He  also  did  away  with  the  d}rnamometer  and 
its  wheel,  which  had  been  fitted  to  the  machine 
furnished  the  "  Tuscarora,"  and  went  back  to 
the  simple  friction-brake,  such  as  he  had  used  in 
the  Bay  of  Biscay,  but  now  controlled  by  weights, 
which  could  be  put  off  and  on  at  pleasure  as  the 
depth  required. 

The  method  pursued  on  board  the  "  Tus 
carora"  was  in  the  direction  of  preserving  the 
features  of  the  simple  reel  and  dynamometer. 
The  experimental  cruise  and  all  subsequent  ex, 
perience  demonstrated  the  fact  that  the  weight 
could  be  increased  to  250  pounds,  if  necessary, 
without  affecting  the  sensitiveness  of  its  indica 
tions,  and  there  was  no  time  to  dream  and  ponder 
over  radical  changes  ;  the  work  was  laid  out  and 
seasons  would  not  wait ;  it  was  expected  that 
the  survey  would  proceed  with  the  means  already 
in  hand,  and  every  effort  was  bent  towards 
strengthening  the  drum  in  its  original  simplicity. 
The  drum  which  had  been  badly  crushed  in  the 
experimental  cruise  was  restored  in  outline  and 
strengthened,  and  a  new  one  made  of  heavier 
iron,  with  wider  face  to  give  more  room  for  the 
wire.  The  new  reel  would  easily  carry  six  miles 
of  wire ;  the  V-groove  was  deepened,  and  the 
wide  groove  in  dynamometer-wheel  widened  to 
lessen  the  probability  of  the  endless  rope  flying 
out  in  rapid  working.  The  heavy  iron  reel  and 
dynamometer  which  had  been  placed  on  the  top 
gallant  forecastle  for  sounding  with  rope,  was 
also  improved  as  experience  had  suggested,  and 
other  modifications  in  the  appliances  which  the 
trial  at  sea  had  seemed  to  make  imperative. 

The  ship  now  put  to  sea  to  begin  the  work  as 
signed, — of  running  a  line  of  soundings  from 
Cape  Flattery  to  Yokohama,  Japan,  via  the 
Aleutian  Islands;  and  after  a  reconnoissance  in 
the  waters  of  Puget  Sound  for  a  suitable  place 
to  land  a  cable,  departure  was  taken  from  Cape 
Flattery,  September  17,  1873. 

Lieut. -Commander  T.  F.  Jewell  was  assigned 
charge  of  the  heavy  reel  forward  and  an  extra 
wire  apparatus  for  taking  serial  temperatures; 
Lieut.  G.  A.  Norris  was  given  the  management 
of  the  Thomson  machine,  operated  in  the  gang 
way  ;  selected  petty  officers  acted  as  assistants, 
so  that  the  machines  were  always  attended  by 
the  same  persons,  who  gaining  experience  all 
the  while  came  to  know  how  to  meet  every 
phase  of  difficulty  attendant  upon  the  ever- 
varying  conditions  at  sea ;  for  simple  as  is  the 
working  of  the  wire  machine,  "  personal  equa 
tion"  should  not  be  overlooked,  as  great  care 
and  attention  to  details  is  necessary,  and  the 
apparatus  needs  to  be  managed  as  deftly  and 


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207 


DEEP-SEA 


carefully  as  a  sextant  or  chronometer  to  make 
sure  of  good  results. 

Intending  to  sound  alternately  with  the  rope 
and  the  wire,  the  use  of  the  former  was  aban 
doned  after  the  twelfth  cast ;  it  occupied  so  much 
more  time  than  wire,  though  the  albacore  line 
used  was  about  the  size  of  the  "  Challenger's" 
rope  No.  1.  It  had  not  near  the  strength  of  that 
carefully-prepared  line,  however,  and  was  apt  to 
break  after  two  or  three  casts. 

The  weather  was  such  that  steam  had  to  be 
used  most  of  the  time,  and  after  a  run  of  1100 
miles  the  ship  put  back  to  Puget's  Sound  for  coal. 
Twenty-five  casts  had  been  made  with  the  wire 
in  deep  water  with  marvelous  ease,  and  with  the 
original  drum,  though  now  it  began  to  show 
signs  of  distress.  The  last  and  deepest  cast  was 
in  2534  fathoms,  and  after  passing  a  ridge  some 
200  miles  west  of  Cape  Flattery,  the  average 
descent  had  been  a  fathom  to  a  mile.  The 
time  occupied  in  the  deepest  cast  was  one  hour, 
forty-four  minutes.  This  was  good  for  a  be 
ginning,  but  the  "  Tuscarora"  came  to  regard 
a  cast  of  2500  fathoms  as  an  ordinary  matter 
whatever  the  state  of  weather  and  sea,  and  with 
a  further  saving  of  half  an  hour  in  time. 

The  season  was  now  so  far  advanced  that  the 
Department  ordered  the  ship  to  return  to  San 
Francisco,  sounding  en  route  "  off  and  on"  to 
ascertain  the  true  continental  outline,  a  work 
Prof.  Agassiz  had  long  had  at  heart.  Eighty- 
three  soundings  were  made,  and  some  of  the 
lines  extended  seaward  200  miles.  More  abrupt 
in  its  descent  than  the  shores  of  the  American 
North  Atlantic,  a  run  off  the  coast  of  70  miles 
would  sometimes  show  a  fall  of  2^  miles. 

Complications  with  Spain  threatening  war,  the 
ship's  battery,  which  had  been  taken  out  of  her 
to  make  room  for  extra  coal  and  heavy  sounding- 
gear,  was  restored,  and  the  heavy  reel  and  great 
stores  of  rope  were  landed.  The  whole  wire  ap 
paratus  took  up  little  more  space  than  a  division- 
tub,  and  the  ship  was  now  ready  to  take  part 
either  in  the  stern  demands  of  war,  or  to  continue 
her  beneficent  mission  of  peace.  Meanwhile  the 
appliances  were  improved,  and  two  new  drums 
were  made  of  heavy  sheet-iron, — one  of  them, 
filled  in  with  wood  to  help  resist  the  crushing 
pressure  in  reeling  in  ;  and  about  the  middle  of 
December,  the  clouds  of  war  having  blown  over, 
the  ship  was  ordered  to  proceed  to  San  Diego, 
continuing  the  soundings  for  ''continental  out 
line,"  and  to  take  departure  from  that  port  in 
running  a  line  across  the  central  North  Pacific 
via  the  Hawaiian  and  Bonin  groups.  Fifty-eight 
casts  were  made  en  route,  the  deepest  in  2165 
fathoms,  and  the  original  drum  did  all  the  work. 
The  same  outline  was  developed,  and  a  retreat 
of  the  waters  would  show  a  continent  buttressed 
and  bastioned  like  an  immense  fortress. 

Having  filled  bunkers  and  deck  with  coal,  the 
ship  left  San  Diego,  January  6, 1874,  and  twenty- 
seven  days  after  anchored  in  the  harbor  of  Hono 
lulu.  Sixty  casts  had  been  made,  the  deepest  in 
3054  fathoms ;  the  apparatus  had  worked  beauti 
fully,  no  accident  had  occurred  to  dampen  the 
ardor  of  the  surveyors,  and  the  machine,  as  sen 
sitively  perfect  at  three  miles  as  in  lesser  depths, 
showed,  whether  sounding  by  night  or  by  day, 
results  equally  accurate  and  indisputable.  The 
action  of  the  dynamometer,  the  stopping  of  the 
drum,  the  detachment  of  the  sinker  and  the  bring 


ing  up  of  bottom  soil,  all  gave  undoubted  proofs 
of  accuracy.  The  original  drum  supplied,  as  will 
ing  as  the  little  donkey-engine  on  board  the 
"Porcupine,"  whose  pantings  excited  the  pity 
ing  comments  of  Sir  Wyville  Thomson  in  his 
"  Depths  of  the  Sea,"  had  still  done  much  of  the 
work  on  this  line,  but  was  now  remanded  to 
the  forecastle  for  the  taking  of  serial  tempera 
tures. 

During  the  passage  a  temporary  apparatus 
was  contrived  to  relieve  the  crew  somewhat  in 
the  labor  of  reeling  in  the  wire,  which  had  hith 
erto  been  done,  hand  over  hand,  by  means  of  the 
endless  rope ;  and  at  Honolulu  an  iron  fly-wheel 
400  pounds  in  weight  was  cast,  to  which  was 
fastened  a  grooved  wooden  disk  to  take  one 
bight  of  the  endless  rope.  The  wheel  was 
mounted  on  standards,  placed  on  a  flying-bridge 
thrown  across  the  ship  from  gangway  to  gang 
way,  and  cranks  were  fitted  on  each  end  of  the 
shaft,  with  room  for  four  men  to  work  them. 
This  economized  both  time  and  labor,  and  with 
the  large  crew  of  a  man-of-war  the  writer  would 
prefer  it  to  an  engine  for  the  purpose  in  ques 
tion.  A  new  reel  was  also  constructed  of  light 
boiler-iron,  and  since  experience  has  shown  that 
the  weight  of  the  drum  might  be  materially  in 
creased  without  detriment  to  accuracy,  it  was 
suggested  to  the  Bureau  of  Navigation  that  a 
steel  drum  might  be  cast  strong  enough  to  with 
stand  any  strain  likely  to  be  imposed  upon  it. 
Such  reels  are  now  in  use  in  the  service,  and  Com 
mander  W.  S.  Schley,  U.S.N.,  was  the  first  to 
thoroughly  test  one  of  them  in  sounding  across 
the  South  Atlantic  in  the  "Essex,"  from  St. 
Paul  de  Loando  to  Cape  Frio.  The  soundings 
were  about  100  miles  apart,  several  in  depths  of 
over  300  fathoms,  and  the  reels  stood  the  test 
admirably. 

The  soundings  from  the  "  Tuscarora"  were 
made  from  the  gangway, — the  ship  brought  stern 
to  wind  and  sea,  all  sails  furled  except  jib,  the 
yards  laid  as  circumstances  of  wind  and  sea  re 
quired,  and  the  vessel,  under  easy  steam,  kept  in 
position  by  working  the  engines  as  necessary. 
Sometimes  the  heavy  sea  in  the  strong  trade  re 
gion  would  board  the  vessel  over  the  poop,  and 
soundings  were  made  at  times  when  a  well-found 
ship  would  stagger  under  treble-reefed  topsails. 
So  continued  the  work  week  after  week,  sound 
ing  at  night  as  well  as  by  day,  and  in  all  sorts 
of  weather ;  yet  one  never  tired  watching  the 
working  of  the  reel,  so  noiseless  and  perfect  in 
its  action,  and  the  wire  so  fine  that  it  could 
hardly  be  seen  from  the  poop-deck  in  cloudy 
weather  or  when  passing  clouds  threw  shadows 
over  the  ship.  Sometimes  at  the  approach  of 
evening  the  writer  stood  in  the  cabin  doorway 
watching,  in  the  deepening  twilight,  the  move 
ments  of  the  drum,  and  could  detect  instantly 
the  moment  of  striking  bottom,  although  the 
revolutions  could  only  be  distinguished  by  cer 
tain  discolorations  on"  the  sides  of  the  drum  as 
they  met  the  eye  in  passing  round.  At  night, 
too,  the  gleams  of  the  lantern  flashing  on  the 
drum — only  needed  for  the  reading  of  the  counter 
and  the  noting  of  the  splices  —  recording  tho 
amount  of  wire  out,  revealed  its  motions  and  in 
dications  at  the  far  ends  of  the  ship  equally  well. 
One  of  the  supposed  drawbacks  in  the  use  of  wire 
was  in  the  making  of  safe  splices,  but  the  diffi 
culty  was  purely'imaginary ;  made  with  long 


DEEP-SEA. 


208 


DEEP-SEA 


jawed  twist,  two  feet  in  length,  the  ends  and  one 
or  two  points  in  the  middle  lightly  soldered,  and 
the  whole  served  with  waxed  twine,  no  splice 
ever  failed,  nor  did  any  break  ever  occur  at  a 
splice.  When  a  sounding  was  completed,  the 
machine  was  unrigged — the  work  of  but  a  few 
minutes — and  the  reel  put  in  a  tub  containing  a 
solution  of  caustic  soda  to  preserve  the  wire  from 
rust.  The  writer  has  in  possession  several  pieces 
of  the  wire  taken  from  the  reels,  which,  after  all 
the  work  in  sea  weather  and  six  years'  exposure 
to  the  air,  show  hardly  any  signs  of  rust.  The 
under-currents  sometimes  played  strange  freaks 
with  what  was  called  the  stray-line, — a  line  of 
soft  rope  25  fathoms  in  length,  placed  between 
the  sinker  and  the  end  of  the  wire  to  prevent  the 
wire  from  touching  bottom ;  for,  relieved  from 
strain,  the  end  of  the  wire  would  be  apt  to  fly 
upward,  kink,  and  break.  To  prevent  the  pos 
sibility  of  this,  a  small  lead  of  4  pounds  weight 
was  made  fast  to  the  bend  joining  wire  and  stray- 
line,  so  that  when  the  sinker  struck  bottom  the 
wire  would  still  be  kept  at  a  tension  by  this 
smaller  weight.  On  one  occasion  when  the  cur 
rents  made  havoc  with  calculation,  the  sinker 
had  to  be  hauled  back  from  1900  fathoms ;  the 
slings  had  been  freed  from  the  trigger,  but  the 
stray-line  had  taken  half  a  dozen  turns  round 
slings  and  rod  and  hitched  itself,  the  slings  thus 
lashed  to  the  rod  there  was  no  possibility  of  get 
ting  rid  of  the  sinker.  To  overcome  such  difficulty 
a  rod  of  heavy  wire  a  fathom  in  length  was  fitted 
with  an  eye  in  each  end  to  go  between  detacher 
and  stray-line;  the  idea  being  that  the  rod  in 
falling  would  carry  the  line  clear  of  the  sinker, 
which  device  worked  to  a  charm.  The  first  600 
miles  from  San  Diego  taking  the  depth  of  1900 
fathoms  at  the  beginning  of  the  ocean-bed 
proper,  the  depth  increases  in  varying  curves 
494  fathoms ;  then  a  distance  of  1050  miles  the 
water  deepens  only  286  fathoms;  the  next  500 
miles  shows  a  gradual  descent  to  a  depth  of 
3054  fathoms,  when,  after  an  intervening  ridge 
3500  feet  in  height,  the  bed  suddenly  rises  to  a 
depth  of  937  fathoms  18  miles  from  the  Ha 
waiian  group. 

The  run  to  the  Bonin  group  from  Honolulu 
occupied  twenty-nine  days^  and  the  results  were 
of  a  most  interesting  character.  The  story  told 
by  the  lead  shows  that  were  the  waters  of  the 
Pacific  drained,  six  mountains,  varying  from 
7000  feet  to  12,600  feet  in  height,  would  stand 
revealed  between  the  two  groups  in  bold  and 
rugged  outline,  clothed  on  their  sides  and  tops 
with  coral  limestone,  sand,  and  lava,  and  solid 
rock,  with  yellowish-brown  soil  in  their  valleys. 
Fifty-nine  casts  had  been  made,  18  of  them 
in  over  3000  fathoms.  The  deepest  water  found 
was  3267  fathoms,  and  near  the  Bonins.  Twelve 
casts  were  made  between  the  Bonins  and  Japan, 
the  deepest  in  2435  fathoms ;  and  Yokohama 
was  reached  on  the  22d  of  April,  1874, — a  wel 
come  haven  of  rest  after  much  hard  work  and 
anxiety, — and  it  was  a  great  satisfaction  to  cable 
the  Department,  via  China  and  India,  that  the 
mid  North  Pacific  line  had  been  completed. 

The  "Challenger"  was  now  and  then  heard 
from,  and  it  seemed  strange  she  did  not  use  the 
wire  for  sounding  as  well  as  wire  rope  for 
dredging.  So  complete  had  been  the  demon 
stration  in  favor  of  wire  in  the  soundings  to 
wards  the  Aleutians,  September,  1873,  that  had 


the  scope  of  the  "  Tuscarora"  expedition  justified 
dredging,  steel-wire  rope  would  at  once  have 
been  asked  for.  Such  rope  is  now  used  in  the 
Coast  Survey,  and  was  first  introduced  on  board 
the  "  Blake"  in  1878,  at  the  urgent  instance  of 
Mr.  Alexander  Agassiz,  who,  as  a  mining  en 
gineer,  had  seen  the  advantages  of  wire  rope  so 
early  as  1868,  which  fact  he  broached  to  Pour- 
tales  on  his  return  in  the  "  Bibb"  from  his  second 
expedition  to  the  Florida  Channel  that  year. 
Mr.  Agassiz  had  also  in  the  winter  of  1869 
asked  the  attention  of  Prof.  Wyville  Thomson 
to  the  advantages  possessed  by  wire  rope  over 
the  heavy  hempen  lines,  but  the  "  British  navy 
men"  interposed  the  objections  of  want  of  pli 
ability,  the  liability  to  kink  and  break,  and  so 
on,  as  they  did  later  in  the  case  of  wire  for 
sounding,  forgetting  that  careful  management, 
more  than  repaid  by  the  results  obtained,  readily 
overcomes  all  such  imaginary  difficulties.  Mr. 
Agassiz  himself  first  tried  the  wire  rope  on  a 
small  scale  dredging  from  a  boat  off  Nahant  in 
1871. 

The  wire  rope  first  supplied  the  u  Blake"  was 
of  galvanized  steel,  1J  inches  in  circumference, 
with  hemp  core  ;  its  breaking  strain,  8600  pounds. 
Economy  of  space  was  gained  as  well  as  a  great 
saving  of  time  and  labor,  enabling  several  hauls 
of  the  dredge  to  be  made  in  a  day,  "  while  in 
the  '  Challenger,'  "  says  Mr.  Agassiz,  "  the  best 
part  of  the  day  was  generally  consumed  in  mak 
ing  a  haul  at  a  depth  of  1500  fathoms." 

While  resting  the  crew  and  waiting  the  ad 
vent  of  summer  at  Yokohama  before  proceeding 
to  finish  the  northern  line  of  soundings,  new 
drums  of  still  heavier  boiler-iron  were  made, 
strengthened  by  every  device  that  experience 
and  skill  could  suggest ;  for  practical  as  were 
the  results  of  the  expedition,  the  work  of  the 
cruise  was  experimental  from  beginning  to  end, 
and  at  no  time  during  the  survey  was  the  need 
of  best  appliances  more  necessary  than  on  the 
homeward  route  via  the  Aleutians. 

Yokohama  Bay  was  left  on  the  9th  of  June, 
and  two  days  later,  and  at  a  distance  of  only  100 
miles  from  the  coast,  the  depth  indicated  was 
3427  fathoms,  the  water  having  deepened  1833 
fathoms  in  a  run  of  30  miles.  The  next  cast 
was  still  more  startling,  when  at  4643  fathoms 
the  wire  broke  without  bottom  having  been 
reached  ;  it  was  in  the  KuroSiwo  or  black  stream 
of  Japan,  and  the  current  so  strong  that  the 
wire,  in  spite  of  all  that  previous  experience  in 
management  could  suggest,  was  swept  under  the 
ship,  finally  parting  under  the  strain.  The  pur 
poses  of  the  survey  and  amount  of  wire  on  hand 
would  not  admit  "of  continued  experiment,  nor 
was  it  believed  a  cable  could  be  laid  in  such  deep 
water  encountering  so  strong  a  current.  There 
fore  the  ship  was  headed  in  shore  to  run  up  the 
coast  and  begin  a  new  line.  The  great  circle  to 
wards  Tanaga,  of  the  Aleutian  chain,  was  taken 
up  again  in  lat.  40°  N.,  but  here  the  water  deep 
ened  markedly,  and  at  the  third  cast  from  the 
initial  curve  of  departure  the  lead  sunk  to  3493 
fathoms,  followed  up  by  depths  of  3587  fathoms 
and  3057  fathoms  40  and  80  miles  farther  on. 
Then,  in  the  next  40  miles,  the  bed  was  found  to 
drop  to  the  extraordinary  depth  of  4340  fathoms, 
and  the  Miller-Casella  thermometer  for  bottom 
temperature  came  up  a  perfect  wreck  !  The  next 
six  casts  were  in  4356,  4234,  4120, 4411,  and  4655 


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209 


DEEP-SEA 


fathoms  respectively.  Good  specimens  had  been 
brought  up  from  four  of  these  depths,  and  in  one 
other  the  cup  had  struck  solid  rock.  At  the  last 
two  and  deepest  casts  the  wire  had  parted  ;  in 
the  first  instance  the  accident  was  due  to  care 
lessness  in  reeling  in,  but  in  the  last  and  deepest 
cast  the  wire  fairly  pulled  in  two,  being  part  of 
a  new  batch  not  so  strong  as  the  wire  originally 
furnished.  In  view  of  these  losses  and  the  re 
markable  depth  developed,  it  was  determined  to 
run  back  to  Hakodadi  for  a  fresh  supply  of  coal ; 
then  to  skirt  the  Kuriles  for  some  distance  before 
heading  over  for  the  Aleutians.  These  deep  casts 
had  been  made  under  exceptionally  favorable 
conditions, — light  wind,  smooth  sea,  and  gentle 
swell.  No  pi  urnmet  could  have  dropped  straighter 
into  well  than  the  wire  ran  down  in  these  four- 
and  five-mile  depths  ;  and  the  indications  of  the 
dynamometer  were  as  wondrously  perfect  as 
ever.  There  could,  indeed,  be  no  mistaking  the 
moment  of  touch,  and  the  demonstration  seemed 
clear  and  indisputable  that  any  system  of  show 
ing  when  bottom  is  struck,  based  on  intervals 
of  descent,  must  be  crude  and  unsatisfactory  as 
compared  with  the  perfect  and  unmistakable  in 
dications  given  by  the  Thomson  apparatus  and 
wire.  These  are  the  deepest  soundings  yet  made, 
and  the  one  in  4120  fathoms  occupied  but  lh  47m 
42s  from  beginning  to  end. 

The  "  Challenger"  subsequently  made  one 
cast  in  4475  fathoms  between  the  Caroline  and 
Ladrone  Islands,  bringing  up  a  bottom  speci 
men,  the  only  «depth  in  over  4000  fathoms  she 
sounded  during  her  voyage  of  four  years.  "  Of 
this  cast,"  says  Lieut.  Campbell,  K.N.,  "we 
had  to  sound  twice  to  make  sure,  as  the  weights 
were  not  sufficient  in  this  case."  Concerning 
these  deep  soundings,  Dr.  Wild,  of  the  scientific 
staff  of  the  "  Challenger"  expedition,  says,  in  his 
"  Thalassa,"  "  that  the  greatest  of  all  depths  of 
which  we  have  reliable  evidence  was  found  by 
the  '  Challenger'  on  the  23d  of  March,  1875,  in 
lat.  11°  24X  N..,  Ion.  143°  16'  E.,  and  amounted 
to  4475  fathoms,  or  about  five  miles  and  a  quar 
ter.  Several  soundings  exceeding  4000  fathoms 
were  obtained  by  the  '  Tuscarora'  to  the  east 
ward  of  Niphon  and  Yesso,  and  another  close  to 
the  most  westerly  of  the  Aleutians.  Two  of 
these  soundings  are  over  4600  fathoms,  but  as  it 
appears  that  no  sample  of  the  bottom  was  brought 
up,  there  is  no  evidence  of  the  bottom  having 
been  reached."  Lieut.  Campbell  and  Mr.  Spry 
both  give  the  same  opinion  in  their  entertaining 
volumes  descriptive  of  the  "Challenger's"  cruise; 
and  now  Dr.  Carpenter  comes  forward  with  an 
article  on  the  "Deep  Sea  and  its  Contents,"  in 
the  Nineteenth  Century  magazine,  in  which  he 
says,  "the  deepest  trustworthy  sounding  yet 
made  was  in  4475  fathoms,  from  the  '  Chal 
lenger.'  "  "What  are  the  facts,  remembering 
that  not  one  of  these  gentlemen  has  ever  seen 
the  Thomson  machine  operated?  Plainly  that, 
using  the  time-interval  method  at  great  depths, 
the  soundings  can  never  be  regarded  as  satisfac 
tory  unless  a  sample  of  bottom  is  brought  up ; 
but  that  working  with  wire  and  the  Thomson 
apparatus,  there  can  be  no  more  mistaking  when 
bottom  is  reached,  the  reel  suddenly  stopping, 
pulled  back  by  an  irresistible  force  the  instant 
the  sinker  strikes  bottom,  than  the  emphatic  fact 
shown  by  the  sudden  bringing  up  of  a  ship  in 
harbor  when  the  anchor  is  let  go.  The  chain 
14 


might  snap,  but  there  would  be  no  doubt  the 
anchor  struck  bottom.  In  short,  here  was  a 
machine,  the  invention  of  a  distinguished  British 
scientist,  which  the  conservatism  of  British  offi 
cers  rejected  without  trial,  being  operated  with 
the  happiest  results  on  board  an  American  cruiser, 
yet  having  the  indisputably  good  work  achieved, 
questioned,  and  denied  by  the  same  spirit  of 
prejudice  and  conservatism  which  was  content 
to  rest  under  the  delusion  that  no  advance  could 
be  made  over  the  time-interval  method,  using 
rope  and  letting  it  run  freely  from  the  reel. 
"But,"  said  Sir~Wyville  Thomson,  director  of 
the  Civilian  Scientific  Staff,  and  the  master 
spirit  of  the  "  Challenger"  expedition,  in  an  ad 
dress  before  the  Asiatic  Society  of  Japan,  June, 
1875,  "since  we  started  Capt.  Belknap  has  sent 
me  an  extraordinary  series  of  soundings,  which 
none  of  us  have  the  slightest  doubt  of  being 
absolutely  correct,  which  give  depths  with 
which  we  were  previously  unacquainted."  And 
in  a  note  to  the  writer  he  further  says,  "  Of 
course  now  none  of  us  would  dream  of  anything 
but  wire  for  either  sounding  or  dredging."  To 
these  opinions  may  be  added  the  fact  that  the 
Geographical  Society  of  Berlin  has  officially  ac 
cepted  the  "  Tuscarora's"  work  as  being  "the 
deepest  sea  measurement  on  record."  Were  the 
lists  to  be  entered,  indeed,  as  to  the  question  of 
accuracy  as  between  the  soundings  of  the  "  Chal 
lenger"  and  the  "Tuscarora,"  there  would  be 
little  doubt  in  the  minds  of  those  who  had  seen 
the  working  of  both  rope  and  wire  in  deep  water 
as  to  their  verdict. 

Hakodadi  was  left  on  the  30th  of  June,  and 
skirting  the  Kuriles  until  latitude  48°  N.  was 
reached,  the  course  was  laid  across  to  Aggatou, 
of  the  Aleutian  group.  Deepening  rapidly 
again,  a  depth  of  3754  fathoms  was  found  about 
110  miles  east  of  Cape  Lopatka,  whence  the  bed 
rises  and  forms  a  ridge  'between  that  point  and 
the  Aleutians,  like  the  "  Dolphin  Kise"  in  the  At 
lantic,  the  trough  next  the  latter  group  having 
a  depth  of  4037  fathoms.  Arrived  at  Tanaga 
Island,  a  survey  was  made  of  Glory  of  Russia 
Bay,  then  the  line  was  continued  on  through 
Behring's  Sea  to  Oonalaska,  where  mails  and 
coal  were  awaiting  the  ship.  After  a  stay  of 
nine  days  the  ship  put  to  sea  again,  and  on  the 
21st  of  August  the  survey  was  completed,  and 
all  sail  crowded  for  San  Francisco. 

Another  deep  trough-  was  developed  by  the 
soundings  to  the  eastward  of  Ooneemak  Pass,  in 
the  Gulf  of  Alaska,  running  parallel  with  the 
Aleutians,  in  which  the  greatest  depth  found  was 
in  3664  fathoms,  and  which  presumably  continues 
along  the  whole  Pacific  side  of  the  chain. 

When  the  experience  of  the  "  Tuscarora"  had 
established  beyond  cavil  or  doubt  the  feasibility 
of  using  wire"  for  soundings,  the  Coast  Survey 
took  it  up,  and  Lieut.-Commander  C.  D.  Sigs- 
bee,  U.S.N.,  commanding  the  "  Blake,"  _  set 
about  to  master  its  details  in  earnest.  Sigs- 
bee  was  fortunate  in  having  ample  time  for 
his  experiments,  and  the  earnest  co-operation 
and  support  of  the  superintendent  of  the  Coast 
Survey,  Mr.  Carlisle  P.  Patterson.  Sigsbee  in 
vented  a  bottle  for  bringing  up  specimens  of 
water  from  the  bottom,  the  construction  of  which 
would  do  credit  to  the  genius  of  an  Edison,  and, 
besides  remodeling  and  improving  the  appliances 
for  dredging,  rendering  those  used  by  the  "  Chal- 


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210 


DEEP-SEA 


lenger"  practically  obsolete,  he  made  a  sounding- 
machine  on  the  principle  of  the  Thomson  appa 
ratus,  hut  differing  from  the  constructive  ideas 
of  Sir  William  and  the  methods  of  the  "  Tusca- 
rora."  His  machine  is  now  exclusively  used  in 
the  Coast  Survey  ;  but,  whatever  the  advantages 
claimed  for  it  over  the  original  machine  as  im 
proved,  it  is  considerably  more  expensive  and 
cumbersome  than  the  simple  steel  reel  supplied 
our  ships  of  war  by  the  Bureau  of  Navigation, — 
inexpensive,  portable,  taking  but  little  room  for 
stowage,  readily  put  together,  easily  manipulated, 
and  as  perfect'in  its  working  at  4600  fathoms  as 
at  100  fathoms.  The  simpler  the  machines  and 
instruments,  and  the  fewer  the  parts  of  their 
mechanism  for  use  on  shipboard,  the  better.  The 
idea  of  Sigsbee  was  to  eliminate  "  personal  equa 
tion"  in  the  use  of  the  apparatus, — i.e.,  to  make 
a  machine  that  would  work  without  fail,  however 
carelessly  handled, — a  thing  exceedingly  difficult 
to  do,  as  the  factors  of  "personal  equation"  un 
consciously  enter  into  every  incident  and  effort 
of  human  life  and  affairs,  controlling  the  methods 
of  success  as  well  as  dominating  the  causes  of 
defeat.  Sigsbee  claims  in  brief  the  following- 
named  advantages  for  his  latest  improved  ma 
chine,  viz. : 

"  1st.  To  have  the  effect  of  a  dynamometer  to 
make  known  the  strain  on  the  wire  at  all  times 
in  reeling-in. 

"  2d.  To  have  the  effect  of  a  governor  on  the 
action  of  the  reel  when  the  vessel  is  rolling  or 
pitching. 

"  3d.  To  get  an  automatically  increased  resist 
ance  on  the  reel — to  stop  it — at  the  instant  of 
getting  bottom.  (The  original  reel  does  this  in 
accordance  with  the  main  intent  of  the  machine.) 

"  4th.  To  get  a  record  of  the  amount  of  wire 
paid  out,  so  as  not  to  require  interpolation. 

"  5th.  To  apply  resistance  to  the  reel,  without 
using  the  inventor's  unhandy  lead  or  iron  weights. 

"6th.  To  get  generally  a  machine  which  is 
easier  of  manipulation  than  the  original  Thom 
son  machine." 

The  Sigsbee  machine  works  admirably,  and  for 
vessels  constantly  engaged  in  hydrographic  work 
it  is  perhaps  better  adapted  for  their  use  as  per 
manent  fittings  than  the  more  simple  reel  used 
by  the  cruisers;  which  reel,  simple  as  it  is, 
speaks  for  itself  in  the  work  of  the  "  Tusca- 
rora,"  "  Narragansett,"  "Gettysburg,"  "Essex," 
"  Wachusett,'-'  "Alaska,"  and  "Saratoga,"  in 
the  most  extended  deep  soundings  on  record. 

Sigsbee  himself  made  from  the  "  Blake"  958 
soundings  with  wire  in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico 
and  Florida  Channel ;  203  were  in  1500  fathoms 
and  upwards,  and  the  deepest  in  2119  fathoms. 
Commander  John  R.  Bartlett,  U.S.N.,  com 
manding  that  vessel,  made  in  the  winter  of 
1878-79  in  the  Caribbean  Sea  and  passages  664 
wire  soundings,— the  deepest  in  3138  fathoms,  but 
a  great  proportion  of  them  in  less  than  1500 
fathoms. 

In  running  the  two  lines  across  the  Pacific 
and  in  making  the  soundings  for  "continental 
outline,"  all  of  which  was  done  before  the  "  Chal 
lenger"  entered  the  North  Pacific,  the  "  Tus- 
carora"  had  traversed  16,600  miles  of  ocean  and 
made  483  casts,  while  the  "  Challenger's"  sound 
ings  during  her  four  years'  voyage  numbered 
but  384.  One  hundred  and  sixty  of  the  "  Tus- 
<;arora's"  casts  were  in  depths  of  2000  fathoms 


and  upwards,  32  in  more  than  3000  fathoms, 
and  9  in  depths  of  from  4000  to  4655  fathoms. 
Shortly  after  arrival  at  San  Francisco  (Septem 
ber,  1874),  the  writer  relinquished  command  of 
the  vessel  to  Commander  (now  Capt.)  Henry 
Erben,  U.S.N.,  who  in  November  of  that  year 
sounded  from  San  Francisco  to  Honolulu,  making 
62  casts,  the  deepest  in  3252  fathoms.  Pretty 
much  the  same  contour  was  developed  as  had 
been  found  on  the  San  Diego  line,  but  Erben 
discovered  a  submarine  mountain  about  one- 
third  the  way  across  from  the  coast  of  Cali 
fornia,  11,000  feet  in  height,  its  peak  of  solid 
rock.  Subsequently,  Commander  J.  N.  Miller 
took  the  ship,  and  ran  a  line  from  Honolulu  to 
Brisbane,  Australia,  via  the  Phoenix  group  and 
the  Fejees.  He  made  107  casts,  18  in  upwards  of 
3000  fathoms,  and  the  deepest  in  3448  fathoms. 
Until  recently  Commander  John  W.  Philip, 
U.S.N.,  has  been  doing  deep-sea  work  in  the 
vessel  off  the  west  coast  of  Mexico  and  Central 
America.  So  far  as  heard  from  his  deepest  cast 
was  in  2921  fathoms,  near  Acapulco.  Comman 
der  Geo.  Dewey  in  the  "  Narragansett"  used  the 
apparatus  in  his  survey  of  the  Gulf  of  California, 
— the  first  officer  to  sound  with  wire  after  the 
return  of  the  "  Tuscarora"  from  Japan,  making 
a  cast  in  2000  fathoms  in  fifty-five  minutes  to 
start  off  with, — and  Capt.  Geo.  Brown  in  the 
"Alaska"  found  no  difficulty  as  a  regular  cruiser 
in  stopping  to  sound  at  the  same  depth  en  route 
to  the  Pacific. 

Lieut  -Commander  F.  M.  Green  had  an  inter 
esting  experience  in  the  "Gettysburg" — 1876 — 
in  running  a  line  from  the  vicinity  of  Porto  Rico, 
and  passing  over  some  of  the  "Challenger's" 
work.  That  vessel  had  made  a  cast  in  3875 
fathoms,  the  deepest  yet  found  in  the  Atlan 
tic,  some  80  miles  north  of  St.  Thomas,  and 
Green  got  bottom  in  3595  fathoms,  11  miles 
south  of  the  "Challenger's"  position,  and  3697 
fathoms  130  miles  north  of  it.  Lieut.-Com- 
niander  H.  H.  Gorringe  then  took  the  ship,  and 
sounded  from  the  Azores  to  Gibraltar,  discover 
ing  an  extensive  bank  of  pink  and  white  coral 
130  miles  to  the  westward  of  Cape  St.  Vincent, 
the  water  suddenly  shoaling  from  2781  fathoms. 
One  of  the  most  important  of  the  lines  sounded 
across  the  ocean  was  run  by  Commander  W.  S. 
Schley  in  the  U.  S.  S.  "  Essex,"— 1877-78  — 
from  St.  Paul  de  Loando,  Africa,  to  Cape  Frio, 
Brazil,  via  St.  Helena,  in  which  he  made  39 
casts,  the  deepest  in  3284  fathoms,  the  deepest 
water  yet  found  in  the  North  Atlantic.  No 
accident  marred  the  result  of  his  work ;  it  was 
admirably  done  in  every  respect,  and  assured  the 
value  of  the  improved  steel  reel  beyond  question. 
The  "Saratoga"  training-ship  (old  sailing-sloop), 
Commander  R.  D.  Evans,  U.S.N.,  has  made 
some  soundings  with  wire,  but  at  what  depths 
the  writer  is  not  informed.  The  latest  extensive 
deep-sea  work  done  by  our  service  was  that  of 
the  U.  S.  S.  "Wachusett,"  Commander  Byron 
Wilson,  en  route  to  the  Brazils,  October  and 
November,  1879,  in  that  portion  of  the  Atlantic 
embraced  between  lat.  42°  19'  N.,  Ion.  42°  34' 
W.,  and  lat.  28°  40/  N.,  Ion.  42°  34'  W.  Com 
mander  Wilson  made  41  soundings  in  all,  the 
deepest  in  3284  fathoms.  In  short,  many  of  our 
cruisers,  besides  the  vessels  detailed  for  special 
service,  are  now  furnished  with  the  Thomson 
apparatus,  and  have  but  to  seek  the  depth  to 


DEEP-SEA 


211 


DEEP-SEA 


find  it ;  and  in  time,  with  international  co-oper 
ation,  the  features  of  the  ocean-bed  may  be 
almost  as  accurately  delineated  as  the  physical 
aspects  of  the  dry  land;  but  here  "personal 
equation"  steps  in,  and  only  those  commanding 
officers  interested  in  the  spell  of  the  depths  will 
ever  attempt  to  break  the  seal  for  fresh  glimpses 
at  the  secrets  hidden  beneath  the  waters,  except 
under  the  stress  of  the  most  positive  orders. 

The  "  Tuscarora"  and,  presumably,  the  other 
ships  generally,  got  the  bottom  and  intermediate 
or  serial  temperatures,  besides  specimens  of  the 
bottom  soil.  Unfortunately,  no  adequate  pro 
vision  was  made  for  the  examination  of  speci 
mens,  which  involves  much  time,  labor,  and  ex 
pense,  and  but  little  progress  has  been  made  in 
giving  results  to  the  world,  leaving  the  "  Chal 
lenger"  a  clear  field  in  the  promulgation  of  her 
discoveries. 

Automatic  machines  have  been  devised  from 
time  to  time  for  finding  the  depth  independently 
of  line,  but  none  of  them  could  be  depended  upon 
sufficiently  to  warrant  their  adoption.  The 
latest  of  these,  perhaps,  is  an  apparatus  recently 
presented  by  Sr.  Henrique  de  Lima  e  Cunha  to 
the  Lisbon  Academy  of  Sciences,  the  principle 
of  which  is  based  on  the  effects  of  atmospheric 
pressure.  u  It  consists  of  a  cone  of  sheet-copper, 
having  for  its  base  a  diaphragm  of  the  same 
metal,  and  which  screws  into  the  bottom  of  the 
cone  so  that  it  may  be  readily  removed  when 
necessary.  In  this  movable  base  there  are  six 
small  holes,  one  millimetre  in  diameter,  which 
allow  the  ingress  of  the  sea  to  the  interior  of  the 
cone  ;  and  to  the  centre  of  its  upper  surface  there 
is  soldered  a  vertical  wire  of  pure  silver  two  mil 
limetres  in  diameter,  and  which  occupies  the 
axis  of  the  cone. 

"To  prepare  the  apparatus  for  use  the  silver 
wire  is  moistened  with  nitric  acid,  which  results 
in  the  production  of  a  thin  film  of  nitrate  of 
silver.  The  base  being  screwed  on,  the  cone  is 
suspended  by  means  of  a  ring  at  its  apex,  and 
sunk  by  means  of  two  separate  weights  or  stones 
suspended  by  cords  or  chains  depending  from 
three  rings  attached  to  the  perimeter  of  the  cone. 
To  insure  a  vertical  position  to  the  apparatus, 
and  to  prevent  it  from  being  easily  turned  from 
its  course,  a  small  float  is  attached  just  above  the 
suspension-ring  at  the  apex  of  the  cone.  As  the 
apparatus  sinks  into  the  sea,  the  water  penetrates 
into  it  through  the  orifices  of  the  diaphragm, 
and  gradually  rises  in  proportion  as  the  pressure 
increases  during  the  descent ;  the  salt  water  acts 
on  the  thin  coating  of  nitrate  of  silver  on  the 
wire,  and  turns  it  perfectly  white  by  the  produc 
tion  of  chloride  of  silver  as  far  as  immersion  has 
taken  place.  By  this  means,  therefore,  is  deter 
mined  to  what  height  the  water  has  risen  in  the 
cone,  and  consequently  what  the  pressure  has 
been;  and  from  these  data  the  depth  to  which 
the  instrument  has  descended  is  easily  determined 
by  simple  formulae.  The  author  suggests  that 
by  suspending  the  lower  weight  by  means  of  an 
apparatus  which  would  detach  i't  on  striking 
bottom,  the  apparatus  would  ascend  to  the  sur 
face  of  itself,  thus  dispensing  with  the  use  of  a 
line." 

It  is  to  be  feared  this  machine  makes  better 
showing  on  paper  than  it  would  in  actual  prac 
tice.  Taking  into  account  the  inevitable  drift 
of  ship,  the  easy  hiding  of  small  objects  at  sea, 


and  the  vagaries  of  submarine  currents,  where 
would  one  look  for  the  apparatus  after  its  return 
from  a  voyage  to  the  depths  in  3000  fathoms  ? 
Let  the  wind-tossed  balloon  answer,  for  the  un- 
der-currents  would  act  as  potently  in  the  one 
case  as  the  wind  in  the  other  1 

When  two-thirds  of  the  "Challenger's"  voy 
age  had  been  completed,  Capt.  Sir  Geo.  S. 
Nares,  R.N.,  was  directed  to  return  home  and 
assume  command  of  the  Arctic  expedition  which 
the  Admiralty  dispatched  towards  the  pole  in 
1875,  and  Capt.  Frank.  T.  Thomson,  K.N.,  took 
command  of  the  "  Challenger" ;  and  while  the 
world  accords  every  tribute  of  admiration  and 
appreciation  to  Sir  "Wyville  Thomson  and  his 
able  corps  of  civilian  coadjutors,  let  it  not  be 
forgotten  that  the  labor,  care,  skill,  and  respon 
sibility  of  the  actual  deep-sea  work  of  the  expe 
dition  devolved  upon  those  able  captains,  sec 
onded  by  the  untiring  efforts  of  the  officers  of 
the  ship.  "At  each  of  the  observing  stations  of 
the '  Challenger,  '"as  succinctly  stated  by  Dr.  Car 
penter  in  a  paper  on  "The  Deep  Sea  and  its  Con 
tents"  in  a  recent  number  of  Nineteenth  Century, 
"a  sounding  was  taken  for  the  determination 
of  the  exact  depth;  the  bottom  temperature  was 
accurately  ascertained  ;  a  sample  of  bottom  water 
was  obtained  for  chemical  and  physical  exami 
nation  ;  and  a  sample  of  the  bottom  itself  was 
brought  up.  .  .  .  At  most  of  the  stations  serial 
temperatures  also  were  taken,  so  as  to  enable 
'  sections'  to  be  constructed,  giving  what  may 
be  called  the  thermal  stratification  of  the  entire 
mass  of  ocean-water  along  the  different  lines 
traversed,  and  samples  of  sea- water  were  also 
obtained  from  different  depths.  At  most  of  the 
stations  a  fair  sample  of  the  bottom  fauna  was 
procured  by  means  of  dredge  or  trawl,  while 
the  swimming  animals  of  the  surface  and  of 
intermediate  depths  were  captured  by  the  use 
of  a  'tow-net,'  adjusted  to  sweep  through  the 
waters  in  any  desired  plane.  And  while  the 
direction  and  route  of  any  surface-current  were 
everywhere  determined  by  methods  which  the 
skillful  navigator  can  now  use  with  great  pre 
cision,  attempts  were  made  to  determine  the 
direction  and  rate  of  movement  of  the  water  at 
different  depths,  wherever  there  was  any  special 
reason  for  doing  so."  In  addition  to  all  this — 
the  special  work  of  the  expedition — the  usual 
meteorological  and  magnetic  observations  noted 
and  recorded  on  board  every  well-ordered  ship 
of  war  were  made. 

Extensive  as  were  the  "  Challenger's"  explo 
rations,  much  unexplored  ocean  remains  to  be 
examined,  for  while  she  crossed  the  North  At 
lantic  twice,  between  the  parallels  of  20°  and 
40°  N.,  and  traversed  its  length  between  those 
parallels  three  times,  and  ran  a  line  from  the 
Canaries  to  the  Cape  de  Verdes,  thence  south 
wardly  to  and  along  the  meridian  passing  close 
to  Sierra  Leone,  Ascension,  and  Tristan  da 
Cunha,  and  crossed  the  South  Atlantic  from 
a  point  near  Sierra  Leone  to  Pernambuco,  and 
from  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  to  Monte  Video, 
she  left  the  heart  of  the  great  Indian  Ocean  un 
touched,  and  crossed  the  Pacific  only  once  and 
a  half,  traversing  its  length  in  the  central  and 
western  portions  twice  between  the  parallels  of 
40°  north  and  40°  south  latitude  respectively. 

The  lines  run  by  the  "Tuscarora"  under  the 
successive  command  of  Belknap,  Erben,  and 


DEEP-WAISTED 


212 


DENSITY 


Miller,  crossed  the  Pacific  three  times,  and 
Schley's  line,  in  the  "  Essex,"  ran  through  the 
heart  of  the  South  Atlantic ;  but  much  yet  re 
mains  to  be  done,  and  as  the  great  mass  of 
deep-sea  exploration  has  been  conducted  by  Great 
Britain  and  the  United  States,  what  more  ap 
propriate  than  that  our  government  should  dis 
patch  an  expedition  to  match  that  of  the  "  Chal 
lenger,"  and,  entering  "  fresh  fields  and  pastures 
new,"  gather  up  more  threads  of  the  warp  and 
weft  of  nature  for  the  weaving  of  the  geologist, 
the  naturalist,  and  the  hydrographer  ? — Geo.  E. 
Belknap,  Captain  U.S.N. 

Deep-waisted.  A  vessel  is  deep-waisted 
when  the  poop  and  forecastle  are  much  elevated 
above  the  general  level. 

De  facto  (Lat.}.  Literally,  from  the  fact. 
Used  generally  to  signify  what  actually  is,  in 
opposition  to  that  which  has  the  right  to  be. 
See  DE  JURE. 

Degree.  The  360th  part  of  the  circumference 
of  a  circle, — the  unit  of  measure  for  angles  and 
arcs.  See  LATITUDE  and  LONGITUDE. 

De  jure  (Lat.}.  Literally,  from  the  law,  by 
right.  Used  generally  in  contradistinction  to 
de facto  (which  see). 

Dekoyts.     See  DACOITS. 

Del  a  bit.  Not  a  bit ;  a  phrase  which  has 
been  corrupted  to  "devil  a  bit." 

Del  Credere.  A  percentage  on  a  cargo  under 
particular  circumstances  of  trust.  Also,  the  com 
mission  under  which  brokers  sometimes  guar 
antee  to  the  insured  the  solvency  of  the  under 
writers. 

Delfyn.     The  old  manner  of  spelling  dolphin. 

Delivered.  When  the  harpoon  has  been  im 
bedded  in  the  body  of  a  whale  so  that  the  barbs 
hold  fast  it  is  said  to  be  delivered. 

Deliverer.  An  artificer  employed  in  early 
ships  of  war  in  constructing  the  castles. 

Delivery,  Outboard.  A  hole  through  a 
vessel's  side,  at  or  about  the  load  water  line, 
protected  by  a  valve,  through  which  the  refrig 
erating  water,  uncondensed  vapor,  etc.,  are 
ejected  from  the  condenser  by  means  of  the  cir 
culating-pump  and  air-pump. 

Delivery-valve,  Discharge-valve.  The  valve 
of  a  pump  through  which  a  fluid  is  forced  by 
action  of  the  plunger  or  piston,  and  which  by 
its  action,  automatic  or  otherwise,  prevents  a 
return  of  the  fluid. 

A  valve  for  regulating  or  permitting  the 
escape  of  a  fluid  from  a  reservoir. 

Delphinus.  a  Delphini,  Svalocin.  See  CON 
STELLATION. 

Delta.  A  name  given  by  the  Greeks  to  the 
alluvial  tract  inclosed  between  the  bifurcating 
branches  of  the  Nile  and  the  sea-coast.  Kivers 
which  deposit  great  quantities  of  matter  very 
Dften  separate  into  two  or  more  branches  pre 
vious  to  their  discharge  into  the  sea,  thus  form 
ing  triangular  spaces,  aptly  termed  deltas,  from 
their  resemblance  to  the  Greek  letter  A. 

All  deltas  appear  by  their  section  to  be  formed 
of  matter  totally  different  from  that  of  the  adja 
cent  country.  "They  are  the  creation  of  the 
rivers  themselves,  which,  having  brought  down 
with  their  floods  vast  quantities  of  mud  and 
sand  from  the  upper  lands,  deposit  them  at  the 
margin  of  the  sea  where  the  current  ceases. 

Demi-cannon.  An  ancient  name  for  a  gun 
carrying  a  ball  of  33  pounds  weight,  with  a 


length  of  from  12  to  14  feet,  and  a  diameter  of 
bore  of  6|  inches ;  its  point-blank  range  was  es 
timated  at  102  paces,  and  its  random  one  at 
2000. 

Demi-culverin.  An  ancient  cannon  which 
threw  a  ball  of  9  pounds  weight,  was  about  9 
feet  long,  and  4  inches  in  diameter  of  bore ;  its 
point-blank  range  was  called  174  paces,  and  its 
random  one  about  1800. 

Demihag.  A  long  pistol,  much  used  in  the 
16th  century. 

Demonstration-ships.  Ships  kept  in  a  cer 
tain  state  of  preparation  for  war,  though  on  a 
peace  establishment. 

Demurrage.  A  term  applied  to  the  detention 
of  a  vessel  beyond  the  stipulated  or  usual  time 
for  loading,  delivering  cargo,  or  sailing.  The 
compensation  due  to  a  ship-owner  from  a  freighter 
for  unduly  delaying  the  vessel  in  port  beyond  the 
time  specified  in  the  charter-party  or  bill  of  lad 
ing.  A  ship  unjustly  detained,  as  a  prize,  is  en 
titled  to  demurrage. 

Den  (Eng.)  A  sandy  tract  near  the  sea,  as 
at  Exmouth  and  other  places. 

Den  and  Strond.  A  liberty  for  ships  or  ves 
sels  to  run  or  come  ashore.  Edward  I.  granted 
this  privilege  to  the  barons  of  the  Cinque-ports. 
*  De  Nautico  Fcenore.  Of  nautical  usury ; 
bottomry. 

Deneb.  An  Arabic  word  signifying  the  tail. 
It  is  used  to  designate  a  bright  star  in  the  tail  of 
some  of  the  constellations.  Thus  a  Cygni  is 
called  Deneb,  (3  Leonis  is  called  Denebola,  or  sim 
ply  Deneb,  and  there  is  also  Deneb  Algedi  in 
Capricornus. 

Denmark,  Navy  of.  From  the  days  of  the 
Vikings,  when  the  Danes  ravaged  the  shores  of 
Britain  and  Belgium,  to  the  present  hour,  Den 
mark  has  always  possessed  a  navy.  The  shores 
of  the  Baltic  supply  timber  in  abundance,  and 
the  natives  of  the  kingdom  are  peculiarly  adapted 
to  a  sea-life.  Brave  in  temperament,  of  strong, 
muscular  frames,  and  capable  of  much  endurance 
and  great  self-sacrifice,  the  Danes  combine  the 
skill  of  navigators  with  the  properly  combative 
properties  of  seamen  of  men-of-war.  But  Den 
mark  has  not  been  fortunate  in  modern  times.  If 
not  formidable  in  herself,  she  has  been  sufficiently 
strong  to  be  coveted  as  an  ally  of  Sweden,  Rus 
sia,  and  France.  On  the  first  occasion  of  her 
confederacy  with  Sweden  and  Russia,  to  curb 
the  naval  power  of  Great  Britain,  she  experienced 
a  heavy  check  from  Sir  Hyde  Parker,  assisted 
by  Lord  Nelson.  And  later,  in  1807,  when  there 
was  reason  to  believe  that  Denmark  was  in  alli 
ance  with  the  French  emperor  to  damage  the 
English,  the  latter  sent  a  squadron  to  Copen 
hagen,  and  in  anticipation  of  the  purposes  of  the 
Danes  destroyed  their  fleet.  Since  then  no 
scope  for  the  employment  of  a  navy  has  presented 
itself.  The  hostile  movements  of  Austria  and 
Prussia  within  the  last  decade  robbed  her  of  the 
possession  of  Schelswig-Holstein,  but  the  struggle 
with  the  German  powers  was  limited  to  military 
operations  on  the  land.  But  the  energy  of  the 
government  has  been  unceasingly  employed  to 
give  strength  to  the  nation  by  raising  up  a  suffi 
cient  navy,  and  she  now  possesses  a  fleet  of  30 
steamers,  12  of  which  are  ironclads,  manned  by 
2880  seamen,  engineers,  and  officers. 

Density  (Lnt.  dcnsus,  thick).  A  term  used 
in  physics  to  denote  the  quantity  of  matter  which 


DENTAL 


213 


DETROIT 


a  body  contains  under  a  given  or  determinate 
surface ;  for  example,  a  cubic  foot.  The  quantity 
of  matter  in  any  body  is  called  its  mass,  and  is 
measured  by  the  weight  of  the  body  to  which  it 
is  always  proportional.  Hence  the  density  of  any 
body  is  great  in  proportion  as  its  weight  is  great 
and  its  volume  small ;  or,  the  density  of  bodies 
are  directly  as  their  masses  and  inversely  as  their 
volumes.  It  follows  also  from  the  definition 
that  if  two  bodies  have  the  same  volume  their 
densities  are  directly  as  their  masses  or  weights ; 
and  that  if  two  bodies  have  the  same  mass  or 
weight,  their  densities  are  respectively  in  the 
inverse  ratio  of  their  volumes.  The  density 
of  a  body  is  also  proportional  to  its  specific 
gravity. 

Dental.  A  small  shell-fish  of  the  genus  Den- 
talium. 

Dentalium.  A  genus  of  gasteropods  having 
a  conical,  slender  shell,  open  at  both  ends. 

Dentice.  An  excellent  fish,  so  named  from 
being  well  furnished  with  teeth.  It  is  of  the 
Sparidce  family,  and  frequents  the  Adriatic. 

Department.  A  part  or  branch  of  the  gov 
ernment;  as,  the  legislative,  the  executive,  and 
the  judicial.  Also,  a  part  or  branch  of  the  ex 
ecutive  power ;  as,  the  Department  of  State,  of  the 
Navy,  etc. 

The  heads  of  the  principal  executive  depart 
ments  are  the  Secretary  of  State,  the  Secretary 
of  the  Treasury,  the  Secretary  of  War,  the  Sec 
retary  of  the  Navy,  the  Secretary  of  the  Interior, 
the  Postmaster-General,  and  the  Attorney-Gen 
eral.  These,  by  custom,  constitute  the  Presi 
dent's  cabinet.  They  are  appointed  by  the 
President,  by  and  with  the  advice  and  consent 
of  the  Senate,  and  are  removable  at  pleasure. 

MILITARY  DEPARTMENTS  are  territorial  divis 
ions  embracing  several  posts ;  as,  the  Department 
of  the  East,  of  the  Platte,  etc. 

Departure.  The  easting  or  westing  made  by 
a  ship,  or  the  distance  in  nautical  miles  which  a 
ship  makes  to  the  east  or  west. 

When  the  two  positions  are  on  the  same  side 
of  the  equator  and  do  not  differ  very  much  in 
latitude,  the  departure  is  practically  equal  to  the 
distance  between  the  two  meridians,  measured 
on  the  parallel  of  middle  latitude. 

The  departure  is  connected  with  the  course 
and  distance  by  the  relation,  departure —distance 
y^sin.  course.  When  the  ship  steers  due  east 
or  due  west,  sin.  course  is  equal  to  1,  and  the 
departure  is  identical  with  the  distance;  when 
the  course  is  due  north  or  due  south,  sin.  course 
is  equal  to  zero,  and  the  departure  is  equal  to 
zero. 

DEPARTURE,  To  TAKE  A.  To  determine  the 
exact  position  of  the  ship  preparatory  to  starting 
on  a  voyage.  This  point  may  be  determined  by 
cross-bearings  or  by  two  bearings  of  three  ob 
jects.  When  the  land  or  lights  are  not  visible, 
as  in  a  fog,  the  position  may  be  determined 
approximately  by  soundings,  or  by  the  sound  of 
fog-horns,  etc. 

Depressed  Pole.  The  pole  below  the  horizon 
of  the  observer. 

Depression  of  the  Horizon.     See  DIP. 

Depth  of  a  Sail.  The  extent  of  a  square- 
sail  from  the  head-rope  to  the  foot-rope,  or  the 
length  of  the  after-leech  of  a  stay-sail  or  boom- 
sail. 

Depth  of  the  Hold.    The  perpendicular  height 


from  the  top  of  the  ceiling  in  any  ship  to  the 
top  of  the  main  deck,  or  upper  beams  at  tho 
centre  of  the  ship  ;  in  single-decked  vessels  it  is 
the  total  depth.  In  large  merchant  steamers 
(with  three  and  more  decks),  the  upper  or  saloon- 
decks  are  not  counted  in  the  depth  of  the  ship  as 
a  rule. 

Derelict  (Lat.  derelictus,  abandoned).  Any 
thing  abandoned  at  sea.  A  ship  is  derelict  either 
by  consent  or  by  compulsion^  stress  of  weather, 
etc.,  and  yet,  to  save  the  owner's  rights,  if  any 
cat,  dog,  or  other  'domestic  animal  be  found  on 
board  alive,  the  ship  is  not  forfeited.  The  owner 
may  yet  recover,  on  payment  of  salvage,  within 
a  year  and  a  day, — otherwise  the  whole  may  be 
awarded.  See  SALVAGE. 

Derrick.  A  perpendicular  spar  supported  by 
guys,  and  having  a  purchase  attached  for  hoisting 
heavy  weights. 

Descending  Squall.  A  fitful  gust  of  wind 
issuing  from  clouds  which  are  formed  in  the 
lower  parts  of  the  atmosphere.  It  is  usually  ac 
companied  with  heavy  showers,  and  the  weather- 
wise  observe  that  the  squall  is  seldom  so  violent 
when  it  is  followed  as  when  it  is  preceded  by 
rain.  See  WHITE  SQUALL. 

Descent.  The  landing  of  troops  for  the  pur 
pose  of  invasion.  The  passage  down  a  stream. 

Descriptive-list*  A  document  which  accom 
panies  men  when  transferred  or  discharged.  In 
it  are  noted  the  name,  previous  naval  service 
and  rating  when  last  discharged,  place  of  birth, 
age,  trade  or  occupation,  and  a  complete  per 
sonal  description  of  each  man.  When  sent  from 
a  rendezvous  it  is  signed  by  the  commanding 
officer,  but  when  sent  from  a  vessel  it  is  signed 
by  both  the  executive  and  commanding  officers. 

Desert.  To  quit  one's  vessel,  station,  or  duty 
without  leave,  and  with  the  manifest  intention 
not  to  return. 

DESERTER.  One  who  deserts.  See  DESER 
TION. 

DESERTION.  The  gist  of  this  offense  is  the  in 
tention  not  to  return.  Absence  without  leave, 
with  a  probability  that  the  party  does  not  intend 
to  desert,  is  at  first  to  be  regarded  as  straggling, 
and  at  the  expiration  of  ten  days,  if  the  absence 
continue,  as  desertion.  In  either  case  the  com 
manding  officer  is  to  decide  the  point  of  inten 
tion,  and  to  cause  the  offender  to  be  entered  on 
the  log  and  marked  on  the  books  of  the  pay- 
officer.  In  the  merchant  service  an  absence  of 
forty-eight  hours  without  leave  is  made  conclu 
sive  evidence  of  desertion. 

Detach.  To  relieve  an  officer,  permanently, 
from  any  duty  in  which  he  may  be  engaged. 
In  the  army  the  word  relieve  has  the  significa 
tion  just  given  for  detach,  but  in  the  navy  relieve 
is  applied  generally  to  a  temporary  relief  from 
duty.  See  KELIEVE. 

DETACHED  SQUADRON.  A  squadron  separated 
from  the  body  of  the  fleet  and  sent  on  special 
service. 

Detaching  Apparatus.     See  LIFE-BOATS. 

Detail.  The  body  of  officers  or  men  ordered 
to  any  particular  duty.  To  order  to  any  special 
service. 

Detonation.     See  EXPLOSIVES. 

Detroit  is  a  port  of  entry,  finely  situated  on 
the  Detroit  River,  opposite  Windsor  (in  Canada), 
18  miles  above  Lake  Erie,  and  7  miles  below 
Lake  St.  Glair.  Lat.  42°  19/  50"  N. ;  Ion.  82°  58' 


DEVELOPMENT 


214 


DIAGONAL 


W.  The  river  is  here  a  half-mile  wide,  deep  and 
clear,  and  serves  admirably  for  harbor  purposes. 
Pop.  119,700. 

Development.  In  naval  architecture,  the  art 
of  delineating  a  plan  of  a  ship  in  detail.  In  the 
mold-loft,  the  laying  down  of  the  ship  from  the 
plan  ready  for  the  mold-makers. 

Deviation.  The  deflection  of  the  compass 
from  the  magnetic  meridian,  due  to  local  attrac 
tion.  A  voluntary  departure  from  the  usual 
course  of  the  voyage  without  any  necessary  or 
justifiable  cause, — a  step  which  discharges  the 
insurers  from  further  responsibility.  Liberty  to 
touch,  stay,  or  trade  in  any  particular  place  not 
in  the  usual  course  of  the  voyage  must  be  ex 
pressly  stated  in  the  contract,  and  even  this  is 
subordinate  to  the  voyage.  The  causes  of  neces 
sity  which  justify  deviation  are  (1)  stress  of 
•weather ;  (2)  urgent  want  of  repairs  ;  (3)  to 
join  convoy ;  (4)  succoring  ships  in  distress ; 
(5)  avoiding  capture  or  detention  ;  (6)  sickness  ; 
(7)  mutiny  of  the  crew.  It  differs  from  a  change 
of  voyage,  which  must  have  been  resolved  upon 
before  the  sailing  of  the  ship.  See  COMPASS, 
THE  MARINER'S. 

Devil.  A  sort  of  priming  made  by  damping 
and  bruising  gunpowder. 

Devil-bolts.  Bolts  with  false  clinches,  often 
introduced  into  contract-built  ships. 

Devil-fish.  The  Lophius  piscatorius,  a  hideous 
creature,  which  has  also  obtained  the  name  of 
fish-frog,  monk-fish,  bellows-fish,  sea-devil,  etc. 
There  is  also  a  powerful  Raia,  which  grows  to  an 
immense  size  in  the  tropics,  known  as  the  devil 
fish,  the  terror  of  the  pearl-divers.  The  Mania 
of  Spaniards. 

Devil's-claw.  A  very  strong  kind  of  split 
hook  made  to  grasp  a  link  of  a  chain-cable,  and 
used  as  a  stopper. 

Devil's  Smiles.  Gleams  of  sunshine  among 
dark  clouds,  either  in  the  heavens  or  in  the 
captain's  face. 

Devil's  Table-cloth.     See  TABLE-CLOTH. 

Devil  to  Pay  and  no  Pitch  Hot.  The  seam 
which  margins  the  water-ways  was  called  the 
"  devil,"  and  the  workmen  found  it  difficult  to 
calk.  The  phrase  means  "  a  difficulty  to  be 
overcome  and  no  means  of  doing  it." 

Dew.  When  the  temperature  in  the  evening 
falls  below  the  dew-point  (which  see),  the  vapor 
which  can  no  longer  be  held  in  suspension  is 
deposited  on  the  surface  of  the  earth,  and  is 
sometimes  to  be  seen  falling  in  a  fine  mist. 
This  form  of  the  phenomenon  of  dew  is  termed 
by  the  French  serein,  but  there  is  another  which 
they  call  rosee.  The  surface  of  the  earth  is  con 
stantly  parting  with  its  heat  by  radiation  ;  when 
the  sky  is  covered  with  clouds,  the  radiation 
sent  back  from  the  clouds  nearly  supplies  an 
equivalent  for  the  heat  thus  parted  with  ;  but  if 
the  sky  be  clear,  no  equivalent  is  supplied,  and 
the  surface  of  the  earth  becomes  colder  than  the 
atmosphere.  If  the  night  be  also  calm,  the  small 
portion  of  air  contiguous  to  the  earth's  surface 
will  be  cooled  below  the  dew-point,  and  its 
moisture  deposited  on  the  surface  in  the  form 
of  dew.  If  this  moisture  be  chilled  below  32° 
F.,  the  dew  becomes  frozen  and  is  called  hoar 
frost. 

DEW-POINT.  The  minimum  temperature  at 
which  any  assigned  quantity  of  aqueous  vapor 
can  be  held  in  suspension  in  the  atmosphere. 


Dholl.  A  kind  of  dried  split  pea  supplied  in 
India  to  ships. 

Dhony,  or  Dhoney.  A  country  trading-craft 
of  India  from  50  to  150  tons  ;  mostly  flat-bot 
tomed.  See  DONEY. 

Dhow.  The  Arab  dhow  is  a  vessel  of  about 
150  to  250  tons  burden  by  measurement, — grab- 
built,  with  10  or  12  ports  ;  about  85  feet^long 
from  stem  to  stern,  20  feet  9  inches  broad,  and  11 
feet  6  inches  deep.  Of  late  years  this  description 
of  vessel  has  been  well  built  at  Cochin,  on  the 
Malabar  coast,  in  the  European  style.  They 
have  a  great  rise  of  floor;  are  calculated  for 
sailing  with  small  cargoes ;  and  are  fully  pre 
pared,  by  internal  equipment,  for  defense, — many 
of  them  are  sheathed  on  2^-inch  plank  bottoms, 
with  1-inch  board,  and  a  preparation  of  chu- 
nam  and  oil,  called  galgal,  put  between  ;  causing 
the  vessel  to  be  very  dry  and  durable,  and  pre 
venting  the  encroachments  of  the  worm,  or  Teredo 
navalis.  The  worm  is  one  of  the  greatest  enemies 
in  India  to  timber  in  the  water,  as  the  white  ant 
(termites]  is  out  of  it.  On  the  outside  of  the  sheath- 
ing-board  there  is  a  coat  of  whitewash,  made  from 
the  same  materials  as  that  between  the  sheath 
ing  and  planks,  and  renewed  every  season  they 
put  to  sea.  They  have  generally  one  mast  and 
a  lateen-sail.  The  yard  is  the  length  of  the 
vessel,  and  the  mast  rakes  forward,  for  the 
purpose  of  keeping  this  ponderous  weight  clear 
in  raising  and  lowering.  The  tack  of  the  sail  is 
brought  to  the  stem-head,  and  sheets  aft  in  the 
usual  way.  The  halliards  lead  to  the  taffrail, 
having  a  pendant  and  treble  purchase-block, 
which  becomes  the  backstay,  to  support  the  mast 
when  the  sail  is  set.  This,  with  three  pairs  of 
shrouds,  completes  the  rigging,  the  whole  made 
of  coir  rope.  Several  of  these  vessels  were  fitted 
as  brigs,  after  their  arrival  in  Arabia,  and  armed 
by  the  Arabs  for  cruising  in  the  Eed  Sea  and 
Arabian  Gulf,  as  piratical  vessels.  It  was  of 
this  class  of  vessel  that  Tippo  Sultan's  navy  at 
Onore  consisted.  The  large  dhows  generally 
make  one  voj'age  in  the  season,  to  the  south 
ward  of  Arabia  ;  taking  advantage  of  the  north 
east  monsoon  to  come  down,  and  the  southwest 
to  return  with  an  exchange  cargo.  The  Arabs 
who  man  them  are  a  powerful,  well-grown  peo 
ple,  and  very  acute  and  intelligent  in  trade. 
They  usually  navigate  their  ships  to  Bengal  in 
perfect  safety,  and  with  great  skill. 

Diacle.     An  old  term  for  a  boat-compass. 

Diagonal  Brace.  A  wooden  or  iron  brace 
placed  in  a  diagonal  direction. 

Diagonal  Framing  and  Stays.  A  system 
of  framing  in  which  "struts"  and  "tie-rods" 
are  arranged  at  such  angles  that  the  greatest 
stress  upon  them  must  be  in  direction  of  their 
length.  In  inverted-cylinder  engines,  diagonal 
stays  are  much  used  to  connect  the  cylinders 
with  the  lower  portions  of  the  frame. 

In  wooden  ship-building,  diagonal  trussing, 
consisting  of  flat  wrought-iron  bars  arranged  in 
a  lattice  form,  is  secured  to  the  upper  portions 
of  the  frames  and  to  the  deck-beams  of  the  mid 
dle  body  of  the  vessel.  In  many  vessels  diagonal 
stays  extend,  between  the  stanchions,  from  the 
deck-beams  to  the  keelson. 

Diagonal  Lines.  The  lines  cutting  the  body 
plan  diagonally  from  the  timbers  to  the  middle 
line. 

Diagonal  Ribband.     A  narrow  plank  made 


DIAGONAL 


215 


DIP 


to  a  line  formed  in  the  half-breadfh  plan  of  a 
ship  on  the  mold-loft  floor ;  by  taking  the  in 
tersections  of  the  diagonal  line  with  the  timbers 
in  the  body  plan  to  where  it  cuts  the  middle  line 
in  the  diagonal  direction,  and  applying  it  to 
their  respective  stations  or  frame-lines  in  the 
half-breadth  plan,  and  to  mark  a  spot  at  each 
station,  to  which  spots  a  batten  is  bent,  and  a 
curve  is  formed,  to  which  a  ribband  can  be 
made  as  far  as  the  cant  bodies  extend,  and  the 
square  frame  adjoining. 

Diagonal  Trussing.  Sir  Robert  Seppings,  in 
his  "  Improvement  for  Ships  of  War,"  about  the 
year  1800,  recommended  that,  instead  of  laying 
the  interior  planking  on  horizontal  lines,  the 
work  should  be  laid  diagonally  ;  and  in  one  of  his 
plans  he  recommends  a  truss-frame  of  wood,  in 
outline  similar  to  the  diagonal  iron-strapping  of 
to-day,  in  wooden* ship-building. 

Diameter,  Apparent.  The  angle  which  the 
diameter  of  a  heavenly  body  subtends.  The 
true  is  the  real  diameter,  commonly  expressed  in 
miles. 

Diamond-knot.  An  ornamental  knot  worked 
with  the  strands  of  a  rope,  used  on  the  foot-ropes 
of  jib-booms,  man-ropes,  etc. 

Dibbs.  A  galley-term  for  ready  money.  Also, 
a  small  pool  of  water. 

Dice.     Thus.     See  STEER. 

Dichotomized.  A  term  applied  to  the  moon 
when  her  longitude  differs  90°  from  that  of  the 
sun,  in  which  position  only  half  her  disk  is  illu 
minated. 

Dicky  Sam.  A  cant  term  applied  to  an  in 
habitant  of  Liverpool. 

Diego.     A  very  strong  and  heavy  sword. 

Die  on  the  Fin.  An  expression  applied  to 
whales,  which  when  dying  rise  to  the  surface 
with  one  side  uppermost. 

Dieppe.  A  seaport  town  of  France,  Seine- 
In  ferieu re,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Arques,  on  the 
English  Channel,  and  33  miles  N.  of  Rouen. 
Lat.  of  light-house,  49°  55'  1"  N. ;  Ion.  1°  5'  2" 
E.  The  port,  inclosed  by  two  jetties  and  bor 
dered  by  quays,  was  small  and  inconvenient,  but 
has  been  much  enlarged  and  improved,  so  that 
it  is  now  one  of  the  best  on  the  Channel.  It  has 
several  spacious  wet-docks.  Pop.  19,500. 

Difference  of  Latitude.     See  LATITUDE. 

Difference  of  Longitude.     See  LONGITUDE. 

Differences,  Second.  The  differences  in  the 
successive  values  of  a  varying  quantity  (cor 
responding  to  equal  intervals  of  time),  if  the 
quantity  do  not  vary  uniformly,  exhibit  differ 
ences  among  themselves, — these  are  called  Second 
Differences.  Thus,  in  a  series  of  altitudes  ob 
served  at  equal  intervals  of  time  (since  the  alti 
tude  does  not  vary  at  the  same  rate  at  the  begin- 
ing,  middle,  and  end  of  the  interval),  the  differ 
ences  between  them,  taken  in  succession,  will  gen 
erally  exhibit  second  differences.  So  again  with 
the  elements  tabulated  in  the  Nautical  Alma 
nac.  If  these  quantities  varied  uniformly  in  the 
interval  between  the  dates  for  which  their  values 
are  given,  an  intermediate  value  could  be  cor 
rectly  interpolated  by  a  simple  proportion.  The 
method  of  u  proportional  parts"  would  give  the 
actual  change  in  the  interval  between  the  date 
of  one  of  the  tabulated  values  and  that  for  which 
we  wish  to  interpolate.  But  the  rate  of  varying 
itself  varies  during  the  interval,  and  hence,  when 
great  accuracy  is"  required,  the  necessity  for  a 


correction  to  the  change  found  by  proportional 
parts,  which  correction  is  called  the  "  Equation 
of  Second  Differences."  The  question  of  finding 
the  second  difference  is  simply  the  finding  the 
rate  at  which  the  rate  of  varying  varies.  This 
may  be  done  by  taking  the  two  values  from  the 
table  on  each  side  the  required  one,  and  setting 
them  down  in  order :  then  add  together  the  1st 
and  4th  and  the  2d  and  3d,  observing  which  sum 
is  the  greater:  half  the  difference  of  the  two 
sums  is  the  second  diiference.  The  equation  of 
second  differences  is  found  by  the  help  of  a  table. 
This  correction  is  of  the  most  importance  when 
the  quantity  under  consideration  attains  a  max 
imum  between  two  times  given  in  the  table. 
The  greatest  error  that  can  arise  in  any  case 
from  neglecting  it  is  one-eighth  of  the  whole 
second  difference. 

Dight.  To  set  things  in  order ;  to  dress  and 
prepare  for  inspection. 

Digit.  A  twelfth  part  of  the  diameter  of  the 
sun  or  moon ;  a  term  employed  to  denote  the 
magnitude  of  an  eclipse;  as,  so  many  digits 
eclipsed. 

Dike.     See  DYKE. 

Dill.  An  edible  dark-brown  sea- weed,  torn 
from  the  rocks  at  low  water. 

Dillosk.  The  dried  leaves  of  an  edible  sea 
weed.  See  DULSE  and  PEPPER-DULSE. 

Dilly-wreck.  A  corruption  of  derelict  (which 
see). 

Diminishing  Plank.  A  plank  which  is  smaller 
at  one  end  than  at  the  other. 

Diminishing  Strake.  A  strakeof  plank  which 
is  continually  narrowing  in  width  as  it  comes  to 
the  ends  of  the  ship. 

Diminishing  Stuff.   Tapering  plank  or  boards. 

Dimsel.  A  piece  of  stagnant  water,  larger 
than  a  pond  and  less  than  a  lake. 

Dinghey,  Dinghy,  or  Dingy.  A  small  boat 
of  India,  propelled  by  paddles,  arid  fitted  with  a 
settee-sail,  the  mast  raking  forward.  The  small 
est  boat  that  a  man-of-war  carries  ;  it  is  used  for 
the  light  rough  work. 

Dingle.  A  sort  of  boat  used  in  Ireland ;  a 
coracle. 

Dinnage.     See  DUNNAGE. 

Dip.  To  lower.  To  dip  the  colors  is  to  run 
them  down  as  a  salute.  An  object  is  said  to 
dip  when  it  disappears  below  the  horizon.  A 
heavenly  body  is  said  to  dip  when  it  passes  over 
the  meridian. 

DIP  OF  THE  HORIZON.  The  angle  through 
which  the  visible  horizon  is  depressed  below  the 
sensible  horizon  in  consequence  of  the  elevation 
of  the  eye  of  the  observer  above  the  surface  of 
the  earth.  This  dip  is  a  correction  which  must 
be  applied  to  all  altitudes  taken  at  sea,  and  is 
calculated  for  all  elevations  likely  to  be  used, 
and  the  results  are  arranged  in  tables.  When 
the  sea-horizon  is  hidden  by  land,  the  altitude 
has  to  be  taken  from  the  shore-line.  The  dis 
tance  of  this  shore-line  is  estimated,  and  the  dip 
is  found  by  referring  to  a  table  of  which  the 
arguments  are,  "  distance  of  the  land"  and 
"  height  of  the  eye."  The  amount  of  dip  is  af 
fected  by  refraction,  which  raises  the  visible  hor 
izon;  but  the  amount  of  consequent  correction 
cannot  be  very  accurately  determined  on  account 
of  the  complication  of  the  law  of  refraction  near 
the  horizon. 

DIP  or  THE  NEEDLE.     When  the  needle  is 


DIPPER 


216 


DISTEMPER 


free  to  move  vertically  it  forms  an  angle  with 
the  horizontal ;  this  angle  is  called  the  dip,  or 
inclination  of  the  needle.  The  dip,  like  the 
variation,  undergoes  a  cycle  of  change,  and  has 
also  diurnal  oscillations. 

DIPPING  NEEDLE.  An  instrument  for  meas 
uring  the  inclination  of  the  needle  to  a  horizon 
tal  plane. 

DIP-SECTOR.  An  ingenious  instrument  for 
measuring  the  true  dip  of  the  horizon. 

Dipper.  A  name  for  the  water-ousel  (Cinclus 
aquaticus).  A  bird  of  the  Passerine  order,  but 
an  expert  diver,  frequenting  running  streams  in 
mountainous  countries. 

Dipping-net.  A  hand-net  used  for  taking 
small  fish  out  of  the  water. 

Direct  Acting  Engine.  A  term  applied  to  an 
engine  in  which  the  motion  of  the  piston  is 
transmitted  to  a  crank  or  pump  plunger  without 
the  intervention  of  beams  or  levers,  and  distin 
guishing  particularly  the  type  in  which  the  con 
necting-rod  with  its  cross-head  is  between  the 
cylinder  and  crank. 

Direct  Fire.     See  FIRE. 

Direction.  The  direction  of  the  wind  is 
named  after  the  point  of  the  compass  from 
which  it  blows.  The  direction  of  a  current  or 
stream  is  named  after  the  point  towards  which 
it  sets.  A  swell  is  named  after  the  point  from 
which  the  waves  proceed,  like  the  wind  that 
produces  them. 

Dirk.  A  dagger  or  short  sword  worn  by 
midshipmen. 

Dirt-gabbard.     A  large  ballast-lighter. 

Dirty  Aulin.     See  AULIN. 

Disable.  To  deprive  of  ability  or  strength  ; 
to  render  unfit  for  service  by  the  infliction  of 
wounds  or  injury,  —  applied  to  persons  and 
things. 

Disarm.  To  deprive  of  weapons;  to  render 
harmless. 

Disc,  or  Disk.  The  face  of  the  sun,  moon,  or 
planet  as  it  appears  projected  on  the  sky. 

Discarcare  (ItaL).  An  old  term  meaning  to 
unload  a  vessel. 

Discourse.  An  old  sea-term  meaning  to 
traverse  to  and  fro  off  the  proper  course. 

Disembark.  The  opposite  of  embark ;  the 
landing  of  men  from  any  vessel  or  boat. 

Disembogue.  The  fall  of  a  river  into  the  sea  ; 
the  word  has  also  been  used  for  the  passage  of 
vessels  across  the  mouth  of  a  river  and  out  of  one. 

Disguise.  Ships  in  all  times  have  been  per 
mitted  to  assume  disguise  to  impose  upon  ene 
mies,  and  obtain  from  countries  in  their  posses 
sion  commodities  of  which  they  stand  in  need. 

Disinfectants.  These  substances  are  of  va 
rious  kinds  and  act  in  various  ways.  Air  and 
Tvater  are  nature's  great  purifiers ;  but  when 
these  cannot  act  advantageously,  it  is  necessary 
to  apply  some  of  the  many  powerful  chemical 
agents  which  are  available.  The  most  conve 
nient  and  efficacious  are  carbolic  acid  and  its 
preparations,  Condy's  fluid,  chloride  of  lime, 
and  Burnett's  solution.  Chlorine  is  the  most 
effective  agent  for  fumigating  a  ship  ;  it  may  be 
evolved  from  chloride  of  lime  by  moistening  it 
with  water  or  dilute  sulphuric  acid  ;  it  may  also 
be  obtained  by  pouring  4  parts  of  hydrochloric 
acid  on  1  part  of  binoxide  of  manganese  placed 
in  a  shallow  vessel  and  gently  heated. 

In  many  cases  the  burning  of  sulphur  will  be 


found  a  simple  and  efficacious  means  of  disin 
fecting  a  room.  Infected  clothing  may  be  dis 
infected  by  plunging  in  boiling  water,  or  by 
heating  in  an  oven.  Cloths  saturated  with  a 
solution  of  chloride  of  lime  may  be  hung  up  in 
an  inhabited  room  to  disinfect  the  air. 

Disk.     See  Disc. 

Di-slyng.     See  SLYNG. 

Dismantled.  The  state  of  a  ship  unrigged, 
and  all  her  stores,  guns,  etc.,  taken  out,  in  readi 
ness  for  her  being  laid  up  in  ordinary,  or  going 
into  dock,  etc. 

Dismasted.  State  of  a  ship  deprived  of  her 
masts  by  accident  or  by  design. 

Dismount.    To  remove  a  gun  from  its  carriage. 

Dispart.  The  difference  between  the  semi- 
diameters  of  those  parts  of  a  gun  on  which  the 
sights  are  placed.  To  dispart  a  gun  is  to  bring 
the  line  of  sight  parallel  to  th'e  axis  of  the  bore. 
This  is  done  by  erecting  at  some  point  on  the  gun 
forward  of  the  base-ring  a  dispart  sight,  which 
is  equal  in  height  to  the  dispart  plus  the  height 
of  the  rear  sight.  A  wooden  dispart  sight  was 
formerly  sometimes  lashed  on  the  reinforce. 
Guns  which  are  cylindrical  for  a  certain  dis 
tance  give  at  once  a  line  of  sight  parallel  to  the 
axis  of  the  bore.  Sights  are  now  so  fitted  that 
when  the  head  of  the  rear  sight  rests  on  the 
sight-box,  the  line  of  sight  is  parallel  to  the  axis 
of  the  bore.  In  using  a  dispart  it  is  necessary 
to  point  a  certain  distance  above  the  target  to 
make  allowance  for  the  fall  of  the  projectile  by 
the  action  of  gravity;  this  distance,  therefore, 
depending  upon  the  time  of  flight  of  the  pro 
jectile. 

Dispatch-boat.  A  small,  swift  vessel  for 
carrying  dispatches. 

Displacement.  The  weight  of  the  water  dis 
placed  by  the  immersed  sides  and  bottom  of  a 
vessel. 

Disrate.  To  reduce  to  a  lower  rating ;  to 
break  a  petty  officer.  See  RATE. 

Distance.  The  length  in  nautical  miles  of  the 
rhumb-line  joining  any  two  places  on  the  surface 
of  the  earth.  On'Mercator's  chart  the  rhumb  is 
represented  as  a  straight  line. 

DISTANCE,  SHORTEST.  The  length  in  nautical 
miles  of  the  arc  of  a  great  circle  passing  through 
any  two  points  on  the  earth's  surface. 

DISTANCE  BETWEEN  TWO  HEAVENLY  BODIES. 
This  is  not  the  absolute  linear  distance  between 
the  two  bodies,  but  their  angular  distance  meas 
ured  on  the  arc  of  a  great  circle  passing  through 
both  bodies.  The  observed,  distance  is  the  reading 
of  the  instrument  by  which  the  measurement  is 
made.  This  being  cleared  of  "  index  error"  and 
"semi-diameters"  is  the  apparent  distance.  The 
apparent  distance  being  cleared  of  "refraction" 
and  "parallax"  is  reduced  to  the  true  distance, 
or  the  angle  which  is  formed  by  two  straight 
lines  joining  the  bodies  and  the  centre  of  the 
earth. 

DISTANCE,  LUNAR.  The  angular  distance 
between  the  moon  and  any  other  heavenly  body. 
See  LUNAR  DISTANCE. 

Distemper.  A  preparation  of  opaque  or  body 
colors  with  size  instead  of  oil.  White  distemper 
is  used  instead  of  whitewash  (whiting  40  pounds, 
glue  6  pounds).  Yellow  distemper  is  used  for 
smoke-stacks  (whiting  40  pounds,  glue  6  pounds, 
yellow  ochre  80  pounds).  The  glue  is  made  into 
size  and  added  hot  to  the  whiting  and  yellow 


DISTILLER 


217 


DIVING 


ochre,  and  sufficient  water  is  added  to  give  it 
the  proper  consistency. 

Distiller.  A  name  commonly  applied  to  the 
condenser  of  a  distilling  apparatus. 

Distilling  Apparatus.  An  apparatus  for  ex 
tracting  a  liquid  from  its  non-volatile  impurities, 
such  as  may  be  held  in  solution  or  suspension,  by 
means  of  evaporation  and  condensation.  It 
consists  principally  of  a  retort,  evaporator,  or 
boiler,  in  which  the  pure  liquid  is  vaporized,  by 
heat,  leaving  behind  the  non-volatile  substances, 
and  a  condenser  in  which  the  vapor  is  brought 
in  contact  with  cold  metallic  surfaces  and  con 
densed  to  liquid  again.  The  condenser  is  a 
vessel  containing  a  "  worm,"  or  "  nest  of  tubes," 
kept  cold  by  the  circulation  of  cold  water  on  one 
surface  while  the  other  is  exposed  to  the  vapor. 
In  large  distillers  the  circulation  of  the  refriger 
ating  water  is  generally  accomplished  by  a  pump. 
The  non-volatile  substances  are  drawn  from  the 
boiler  before  the  contained  solution  reaches  the 
point  of  saturation.  By  this  process  sea-water 
is  converted  into  fresh  water,  which,  however, 
is  not  considered  potable  until  it  has  regained 
its  normal  quantity  of  air  held  in  suspension, 
much  of  which  escapes  if  the  water  leaves  the 
distiller  at  a  high  temperature.  It  is  impossible 
to  obtain  absolutely  pure  water  by  a  single  distil 
lation,  as  some  impurities  are  carried  mechani 
cally  with  the  vapor,  particularly  if  the  boiler 
"foams."  Volatile  matter,  the  vapor  of  which 
condenses  at  about  the  same  temperature  as  that 
of  water,  cannot  be  eradicated  by  this  process. 
In  many  steamships  the  steam  used  in  the  dis 
tiller  is  drawn  from  the  main  boilers,  but  it  is 
desirable  that  the  whole  apparatus  be  indeppn- 
dent  of  the  main  machinery.  Distillers  are 
generally  provided  with  filters. 

Distinguishing  Pennant.  Each  vessel  in  a 
fleet  is  represented  by  a  pennant  which,  hoisted 
with  a  signal,  denotes  the  special  vessel  to  which 
the  signal  is  made.  See  SIGNALS. 

Distress  Signals.  When  a  vessel  is  in  immi 
nent  danger,  she  hoists  her  colors  upside-down, 
fires  guns,  lets  fly  topgallant-sheets,  and  if  at 
night,  sends  up  rockets,  burns  signals, — in  short, 
does  anything  to  attract  attention. 

Ditty-bag.  The  name  is  derived  from  the 
dittis,  or  Manchester  stuff  of  which  it  was  form 
erly  made.  See  BAG. 

Ditty-box.  A  small  box  to  hold  a  sailor's 
thread,  needles,  brushes,  combs,  etc.  As  ditty- 
boxes  lumber  up  the  decks,  they  are  not  gener 
ally  allowed  on  board  a  man-of-war. 

Diurnal  Arc.  That  part  of  a  circle  described 
by  a  heavenly  body  from  its  rising  to  its  setting. 

Dive.  To  plunge  head  foremost  into  the 
water. 

Diver.  One  versed  in  the  art  of  descending 
under  water  to  considerable  depths  and  abiding 
there  a  competent  time  for  several  purposes,  as 
to  recover  wrecks  of  ships,  fish  for  pearls,  sponges, 
corals,  etc. 

Divergent.  A  stream  flowing  laterally  out 
of  a  river,  contradistinguished  from  convergent. 

Divie-goo.  A  northern  term  for  the  Larus 
marinuSj  or  black-backed  gull. 

Divine  Service.  See  ARTICLES  FOR  THE  GOV 
ERNMENT  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES  NAVY  (2,  3). 

Diving.  The  subject  of  diving  has  not  re 
ceived  the  attention  which  it  merits  in  our  ser 
vice.  The  necessary  apparatus  has  at  times 


found  a  place  in  the  store-room  equipment  of 
our  ships,  but  its  practical  use  has  been  very  in 
frequent.  Want  of  trained  divers  has  been  our 
drawback.  A  good  diver  can  command  too  good 
wages  in  civil  life  to  allow  of  his  enlisting  in 
the  navy,  where  if  he  were  not  a  seaman  he 
could  only  receive  the  rating  of  landsman. 
Diving  is  becoming  every  day  of  'greater  im 
portance.  In  peace  times  hardly  a  month  goes 
by  in  a  cruising-ship  that  her  safety,  efficiency, 
or  construction  expenditure  account  might  not 
be  benefited  by  the  presence  on  board  of  a  few 
good  divers.  A  valve  becomes  unseated,  a  leak 
is  sprung  and  its  location  cannot  be  traced  from 
inboard,  a  propeller  is  fouled,  a  cable  is  un 
shackled  and  an  anchor  lost,  a  steam-launch  is 
dropped  from  the  davits  and  sunk,  a  rifle  or 
pistol  is  dropped  overboard,  sheets  of  copper 
become  displaced  or  worn,  the  bottom  becomes 
foul, — in  all  these  cases  a  service  diver  might 
have  been  of  great  use  and  have  prevented  either 
loss,  the  borrowing  of  divers  from  foreign  men- 
of-war  or  from  the  shore,  or  the  docking  of  the 
ship.  In  war  times  divers  become  almost  in 
dispensable;  besides  the  duties  already  sug 
gested,  they  become  invaluable  for  torpedo  work. 

Ours  is  the  only  service  known  to  the  writer 
where  attention  has  not  been  paid  to  this  valu 
able  branch  of  the  personnel. 

In  the  British  navy  seamen-divers  are  trained 
on  board  the  gunnery-ships  "  Excellent"  and 
"Cambridge;"  when  qualified  they  receive  2 
cents  a  day  additional  pay, — for  the  time  that 
they  are  actually  employed  under  water  they  re 
ceive  48  cents  an  hour, — this  is,  of  course,  in  ad 
dition  to  the  pay  they  may  receive  for  the  ship's 
rating  they  hold.  Besides  the  seaman-divers 
there  is  a  class  of  mechanical  divers  taken  from 
the  engineer's  and  carpenter's  crews.  These 
receive  2  cents  a  day  like  the  seamen,  and 
when  employed  under  water  62J  cents.  The 
number  of  divers  varies  with  the  complement, 
ranging  from  2  to  6  seamen-,  and  about  the  same 
number  of  mechanical  divers.  The  "  Triumph," 
flag-ship  of  the  Pacific  Squadron,  had  6  sea 
men-  and  4  mechanical  divers.  All  ships  com 
manded  by  post-captains  carry  one  diving  appa 
ratus,  flag-ships  two.  Vessels  fitted  for  spe 
cial  service  as  many  as  may  be  thought  neces 
sary.  Each  apparatus  will  supply  air  to  two 
men  under  water  at  a  depth  not  exceeding  10 
fathoms.  The  men  who  are  placed  under  in 
struction  are  selected  from  among  volunteers, 
great  attention  being  given  to  their  physical 
condition,  as  perfect  health  is  required  for  diving. 
Officers  are  instructed  at  their  own  request,  and 
are  allowed  additional  compensation  for  the  ac 
complishment.  It  can  readily  be  understood 
that  it  would  be  of  the  utmost  importance  in 
some  cases  to  be  able  to  use  the  eyes  and  intel 
ligence  of  an  officer. 

"in  the  French  service  divers  ar'e  instructed 
aboard  the  receiving-ships  in  each  of  the  naval 
ports.  The  men  for  instruction  are  drawn  from 
the  engineer's,  carpenter's,  and  seamen  divisions, 
being  ^first  subjected  to  a  rigorous  physical  ex 
amination.  After  the  regular  course  of  instruc 
tion  they  are  forced  to  keep  themselves  in  con 
stant  practice,  and  are  examined  at  stated  inter 
vals.  Prizes  are  offered  for  different  feats  of 
diving  at  the  yearly  prize  contests,  which  take 
place  aboard  every  vessel  in  commission.  There 


DIVISION 


218 


DOCK 


is'  no  continuous  additional  pay,  but  each  time 
that  a  man  is  em'ployed  under  water  he  re 
ceives  60  cents  plus  1  cent  for  every  minute 
employed.  Every  screw-vessel  carries  a  com 
plete  apparatus,  and  additional  ones  are  allowed 
when  it  is  thought  proper.  The  "  Victorieuse," 
flag-ship  of  the  Pacific  Station,  had  14  divers. 
It  may  be  interesting  to  note  that  her  bottom 
was  thoroughly  cleaned  by  four  of  her  own  men 
in  three  days  at  a  cost  to  the  government  of 
$72.75,  whereas  at  the  same  time  it  was  found 
that  to  clean  the  "  Pensacola's"  bottom  would 
have  cost  our  government  nearly  $1000,  she 
having  no  divers. 

In  the  Italian  service  there  is  a  regular  corps 
of  torpedo  men,  whose  education  as  machinists 
and  seamen  combined  fits  them  for  submarine 
work.  These  men  are  all  divers,  being  instructed 
at  the  Royal  Torpedo  School.  They  receive  from 
40  to  80  cents  for  each  hour  of  work,  according 
to  their  rating  and  proficiency.  The  frigate 
"Garibaldi,"  "of  the  Pacific  Station,  had  14 
divers. 

In  the  German  service  there  are  diving-schools 
at  Kiel  and  Wilhelmhaven,  where  a  large  num 
ber  of  machinists  and  artificers  are  instructed. 
The  instruction  is  very  thorough.  These  men 
receive  about  60  cents  for  each  hour  of  submarine 
work.  No  continuous  remuneration.  The  iron 
clad  corvette  "  Hansa,"  Pacific  Station,  had  on 
board  12  trained  divers. 

The  Chilian  service  is  supplied  with  divers 
from  the  English  service,  and  during  the  present 
war  has  found  them  of  the  greatest  use. 

The  Peruvian  service  had  no  divers  until  the 
loss  of  the  u  Huascar"  caused  them  to  see  the 
great  necessity  of  clean  bottoms ;  they  have  now 
supplied  the  deficiency  with  foreigners. 

The  Denayrouze  apparatus  is  used  in  all  the 
services  cited.  It  consists  of  an  air-pump,  a  re 
ceiver  and  reducer,  a  diving  costume,  and  the 
necessary  hose,  signal-tubes,  ropes,  weights,, 
ladders,  and  tools.  A  submarine  lamp  is  also 
provided.  A  new  form  of  the  apparatus  adopted 
in  the  Italian  service  allows  the  diver  to  dis 
connect  himself  from  the  pump,  carrying  a  sup 
ply  of  condensed  air  in  a  magazine  on  his  back. 
This  is  a  valuable  accessory  for  torpedo  work. — 
Theo.  B.  M.  Mason,  Lieutenant  U.S.N. 

DIVING-BELL.  A  hollow  vessel,  sometimes 
bell-shaped,  in  which  a  person  may  descend  and 
remain  for  a  time  below  the  surface  of  the  water  ; 
it  is  said  to  have  been  used  by  the  Phoenicians 
320  B.C. 

Division.  A  secondary  group  of  ships  in  a 
fleet.  (See  F L K ET  TACTICS.)  A  sub-classification 
of  the  ship's  company  ;  as,  the  powder  division, 
master's  division,  the  gun  divisions,  etc. 

Doa.     A  Persian  trading-vessel. 

Doasta.  An  inferior  spirit,  often  drugged  or 
doctored  for  unwary  sailors  in  the  pestiferous 
dens  of  filthy  Calcutta  and  other  seaports  in 
India. 

Dob.  The  animal  inhabiting  the  razor-shell 
(Snl.en),  used  as  a  bait  by  fishermen. 

Dobber.     The  float  of  a  fishing-line. 

Dobule.  A  fresh-water  fish,  allied  to  the 
roach. 

Dock.  An  artificial  basin  or  inclosure  for 
the  reception  of  shipping,  either  for  the  purpose 
of  loading,  unloading,  building,  or  repairing. 

Docks  may  be  divided  into  two  general  classes 


— wet  and  dry.  Wet-docks  are  constructed  for 
the  purpose  of  facilitating  the  lading  and  un 
lading  of  vessels,  and  for  the  better  preservation 
and  storage  of  merchandise.  They  also  afford  a 
place  of  safety  in  which  vessels  can  lie  without 
exposure  to  the  dangers  of  an  open  roadstead, 
the  rapid  current  of  rivers,  or  extreme  changes 
of  tide.  In  ports  which  occupy  central  commer 
cial  positions,  but  which  enjoy  but  few  natural 
advantages,  such  improvements  in  the  accommo 
dation  of  shipping  give  them  greater  importance 
and  encourage  maritime  enterprise. 

Vessels  are  admitted  into  wet-docks  through  a 
gate  at  high  tide,  which,  being  closed,  the  water 
within  is  retained  at  a  constant  depth,  not  being 
affected  by  the  changes  of  tide  without. 

The  most  extensive  systems  of  wet-docks  in  the 
world  are  found  in  England.  At  Liverpool  37 
wet-docks  have  been  constructed ;  the  whole 
dock  water-space  covering  an  area  of  239  acres, 
while  the  quay-space  is  16  miles  in  extent.  At 
Birkenhead,  on  the  southwest  side  of  the  Mersey, 
directly  opposite  to  Liverpool,  docks  have  been 
constructed  with  a  water  area  of  165  acres,  and 
an  extent  of  nearly  11  miles  of  quay.  These 
docks  are  connected  one  with  another,  and  most 
of  them  have  connections  with  the  Mersey. 

The  docks  of  the  Thames  are  built  upon  both 
sides  of  the  river,  and  cover  an  area  of  235  acres. 
Hydraulic  power  is  used  in  the  docks  of  London 
and  Liverpool,  by  which  the  cranes,  capstans, 
and  gates  are  moved,  and  warehouses  of  mag 
nificent  construction  and  dimensions  are  built 
upon  the  quays.  Stringent  rules  are  enforced 
regarding  the  use  of  fire  on  board  the  vessels  as 
a  precaution  against  conflagrations.  Wet-docks 
of  less  extent  are  found  in  all  of  the  important 
sea-ports  of  Great  Britain,  in  the  French  ports 
of  Havre,  Brest,  Toulon,  and  Cherbourg,  and 
in  many  ports  of  the  Baltic  Sea. 

The  Atlantic  dock,  at  Brooklyn,  L.  I.,  is 
another  example  of  a  wet-dock.  The  whole 
area  occupied  is  about  80  acres,  42  of  which  is 
water-surface.  The  basin  is  inclosed  by  piers 
150  feet  wide,  and  that  pier  which  divides  it 
from  the  East  River  has  an  entrance  200  feet  in 
width.  Warehouses  are  built  upon  the  piers, 
and  in  some  portions  the  depth  of  water  is  25 
feet  at  low  tide. 

Dry -docks  include  all  structures  which  are 
used  for  the  examination,  repairing,  or  building 
of  vessels,  as  graving-docks,  floating-docks,  hy 
draulic-docks,  etc.  The  graving-dock  at  the 
navy-yard,  in  Brooklyn,  is  one  of  the  largest 
in  the  United  States.  It  is  of  granite,  and  was 
completed  in  1851,  having  been  ten  years  in 
building.  The  main  chamber  is  286  feet  long 
and  30^feet  wide  at  the  bottom,  and  307  feet 
long  and  98  feet  wide  at  the  top.  The  width 
of  the  entrance  is  68  feet,  and  depth  of  water  at 
high  tide  26  feet.  The  entrance  is  closed  by  a 
floating-gate  or  caisson  66  feet  long,  16  feet 
beam,  and  30  feet  in  depth,  which  is  held  in 
position  by  the  keel  at  each  end  entering  a 
vertical  groove  in  the  masonry  at  each  side  of 
the  entrance.  It  is  lowered  or  raised  by  admit 
ting  the  water  or  pumping  it  out. 

Turning-gates  are  also  used  in  addition  to  the 
caisson,  when  circumstances  require,  but  if  they 
are  left  open,  an  additional  length  of  52  feet  can 
be  obtained  for  dock  room.  The  engines  for 
emptying  this  dock  are  of  sufficient  power  to 


DOCK 


219 


DOCK 


pump  610,000  gallons  of  water  in  two  hours  and 
ten  minutes. 

The  graving-docks  at  the  Boston  and  Norfolk 
navy-yards  are  similar  to  that  above  described, 
but  are  of  less  dimensions,  the  floors  of  the  main 
chambers  being  228  feet  long  and  30  feet  wide. 
By  using  the  space  between  the  caisson  and  turn 
ing-gates,  a  total  length  of  306  feet  can  be  ob 
tained. 

Two  graving-docks  have  been  built  at  South 
Brooklyn,  L.  I.  No.  1  is  500  feet  long,  with  a 
width  at  the  bottom  of  60  feet,  and  can  admit 
vessels  at  high  water  drawing  18  feet.  No.  2  is 
447  feet  long,  and  admits  vessels  at  high  water 
drawing  22  feet,  and  at  low  water,  17  feet.  The 
latter  dock  may  be  divided  in  two  parts  by 
means  of  a  central  gate,  serving  the  purpose  of 
two  separate  docks.  These  docks  are  emptied 
by  a  horizontal  engine  of  100  horse-power,  con 
nected  with  a  double  centrifugal  pump  capable 
of  ejecting  40,000  gallons  of  water  per  minute, 
and  by  two  oscillators,  which  are  used  for  drain 
age,  having  an  average  capacity  of  1000  gallons 
per  minute. 

Floating  balance  dry-docks  have  been  built  at 
the  Portsmouth  and  Pensacola  navy-yards,  and 
there  is  a  floating  sectional  dry-dock  at  the  navy- 
yard  at  Mare  Island,  Cal.  The  latter  consists 
of  10  sections,  each  100  feet  long,  32  feet  broad, 
and  11  feet  9  inches  high,  with  two  end-floats  to 
each  section,  each  26  feet  8  inches  long,  15  feet 
wide,  and  8  feet  high.  There  is  also  a  stone 
basin  and  two  marine  railways  extending  from 
one  side.  The  sections  can  be  used  as  two  sepa 
rate  docks,  6  sections  being  sufficient  to  lift  a 
ship  of  the  largest  class  in  the  navy,  while  a 
smaller  one  can  be  docked  upon  the  four  remain 
ing  sections.  A  ship  of  the  largest  class  can  also 
be  received  upon  each  of  the  railways,  thus 
making  the  dock  capable  of  receiving  four  vessels 
at  once.  The  displacement  of  this  dock  is  11,040 
tons,  and  its  lifting  capacity  about  5000  tons. 

Balance-docks  are  so  called  on  account  of  the 
means  which  are  provided  for  retaining  them  at 
an  exact  level  by  pumping  water  out  or  letting 
it  into  the  compartments  of  the  side  chambers. 
The  balance-docks  at  the  Portsmouth  and  Pen 
sacola  navy-yards  are  a  combination  of  the 
caisson  and  camel,  and  are  alike,  except  that  the 
latter  is  provided  with  extra  fixtures  for  steady 
ing  vessels  when  it  is  used  as  a  camel  for  carry 
ing  vessels  across  the  bar.  They  are  350  feet 
long,  105  feet  4  inches  wide,  and  38  feet  deep. 
The  interior  width  is  reduced  to  90  feet  by  the 
chambers  on  each  side,  which  have  a  width  of  7 
feet  8  inches.  These  docks  are  capable  of  lifting 
ships  of  the  largest  size.  Preparatory  to  re 
ceiving  a  ship  the  dock  is  sunk  by  pumping 
water  into  it  until  it  is  full  to  the  deck,  and  then 
into  the  chambers,  the  water  operating  as  bal 
last  and  sinking  the  dock  to  the  required  depth. 
To  sink  it  sufficiently  to  receive  a  ship  of  2000 
tons  displacement,  it  is  necessary  to  pump  240 
tons  of  water  into  each  side  chamber.  When 
the  ship  is  in  position  for  lifting,  the  water  bal 
last  is  drawn  off  by  opening  valves  in  the  lower 
side  chambers,  causing  the  dock  to  rise  until  it 
touches  the  bottom  of  the  ship.  The  water  is 
then  pumped  out  of  the  side  chambers  and  bot 
tom  tank,  and  the  dock  rises  with  its  load.  The 
time  required  for  docking  a  ship  of  2000  tons 
displacement  is  about  two  hours. 


A  new  iron  sectional  dock  is  in  process  of  con 
struction  by  John  Roach  &  Sons,  of  Chester,  Pa., 
to  replace  the  balance-dock  at  Pensacola. 

Sectional,  balance,  and  docks  of  other  descrip 
tions  have  been  constructed  in  all  of  the  im 
portant  seaports  of  the  United  States.  The 
Sectional  Dock  Co.  of  New  York  owns  18  sec 
tions,  any  number  of  which  may  be  used  for  a 
single  ship  as  required. 

The  largest  floating-dock  in  the  world  is  at 
Bermuda,  where  it  was  towed  from  England  in 
June,  1864.  It  has  an  extreme  length  of  381 
feet,  and  an  inside  length  of  333  feet.  Width 
over  all,  123  feet  9  inches,  and  inside  width,  83 
feet  9  inches.  Its  depth  is  74  feet  9  inches,  and 
weight  8350  tons.  It  is  capable  of  lifting  the 
largest  class  of  armored  vessels.  It  is  a  balance- 
dock,  having  the  space  between  the  two  skins 
divided  into  48  water-tight  compartments,  by 
means  of  which,  with  the  side  chambers,  the 
structure  is  sunk  or  raised,  and  retained  in  a 
level  position. 

The  "Simpson  docks,"  which  have  been  con 
structed  at  Portland,  East  Boston,  New  York, 
Baltimore,  and  Chester,  are  similar  to  the  grav 
ing-dock,  but  are  built  of  wood  instead  of  stone. 
By  the  use  of  this  material  these  docks  can  be 
enlarged  as  the  future  needs  of  shipping  may  re 
quire  at  a  comparatively  small  expense,  while 
the  first  cost  of  construction  is  much  less. 

The  most  modern  system  of  dry-docks  is  that 
which  has  been  constructed  at  Nicolaieff,  Kussia, 
by  Messrs.  Clark,  Stanfield  &  Co.,  upon  the  rec 
ommendation  of  Admirals  Lesovsky  and  Popoff, 
of  the  Russian  navy. 

The  lifting  portion  of  this  dock  consists  of  14 
pontoons  attached  to  a  lateral  side.  To  this  side 
a  floating  outrigger  is  attached  to  give  it  greater 
stability.  The  side  is  composed  of  three  parts, 
any  two  of  which,  with  its  corresponding  num 
ber  of  pontoons,  is  capable  of  lifting  a  vessel  of 
the  smaller  class,  or  the  remaining  third  section 
if  it  should  require  repairs.  For  vessels  of  great 
length  all  of  these  sections  can  be  used  ;  but  for 
vessels  of  extreme  breadth  of  beam,  as  the  circu 
lar  ironclads  of  the  Russian  navy,  the  pontoons  at 
the  extremities  of  the  dock  can  be  detached  and 
joined  to  the  ends  of  the  pontoons  which  remain 
fixed  to  the  structure,  thus  forming  an  area  cor 
responding  in  shape  t'o  that  of  the  vessel.  A 
number  of  transverse  apertures  are  made  in  the 
dock,  to  allow  of  the  entrance  of  corresponding 
rows  of  piling  in  the  landing-stage  or  dock  upon 
which  the  vessel  is  to  be  deposited.  The  vessel 
having  been  lifted  and  placed  in  position  over 
the  landing-stage,  the  floating-dock  is  sunk  and 
removed,  and  can  then  be  used  for  docking  other 
vessels. 

The  great  advantages  of  this  system  are  that 
it  is  capable  of  being"  extended  for  lifting  vessels 
of  any  size  or  model,  and  that  the  acQpmmoda- 
tions  for  docking  vessels  are  only  limited  by  the 
extent  of  the  pilings  upon  which  the  vessels  are 
placed.— J£.  T.  Strong,  Lieutenant  U.S.N. 

DOCK-DUES.  The  charges  made  upon  ship 
ping  for  the  use  of  docks. 

DOCK  HERSELF.  When  a  ship  is  on  the  ooze 
and  swaddles  a  bed,  she  is  said  to  dock  herself. 

DOCKING  A  SHIP.  The  act  of  drawing  her  into 
dock  and  placing  her  properly  on  blocks,  in  order 
to  give  her  the  required  repair,  cleanse  the  bot 
tom,  and  cover  it  anew.  See  BREAMING. 


DOCK   TIP 


220 


DOLPHIN 


DOCK-YARDS.  Arsenals  containing  all  sorts 
of  naval  stores  and  timber  for  ship-building.  In 
England  the  royal  dock-yards  are  at  Deptford, 
Woolwich,  Chatham,  Sheerness,  Portsmouth, 
Devonport,  Pembroke.  Those  in  her  colonies 
are  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  Gibraltar,  Malta, 
Bermuda,  Halifax,  Jamaica,  Antigua,  Trinco- 
malee,  and  Hong-Kong.  There  her  majesty's 
ships  and  vessels  of  war  are  generally  moored 
during  peace,  and  such  as  want  repairing  are 
taken  into  the  docks,  examined,  and  refitted  for 
service.  These  yards  are  generally  supplied  from 
the  north  with  hemp,  pitch,  tar,  rosin,  canvas, 
oak-plank,  and  several  other  species  of  stores. 
The  largest  masts  are  usually  imported  from 
New  England.  Until  1831  these  yards  were 
governed^by  a  commissioner  resident  at  the  port, 
who  superintended  all  the  musters  of  the  officers, 
artificers,  and  laborers  employed  in  the  dock-yard 
and  ordinary  ;  he  also  controlled  their  payment, 
examined  their  accounts,  contracted  and  drew 
bills  on  the  Navy  Office  to  supply  the  deficiency 
of  stores,  and,  finally,  regulated  whatever  be 
longed  to  the  dock-yard.  In  1831  the  commis 
sioners  of  the  navy  were  abolished,  and  ad 
mirals  and  captains  superintendent  command  the 
dock-yards  under  the  Controller  of  the  Navy  and 
the  Admiralty.  See  ESTABLISHMENTS,  NAVAL. 

Dock  Up,  or  Duck  Up.  To  clew  up  a  corner 
of  a  sail  that  hinders  the  helmsman  from  seeing. 

Doctor.     A  medical  officer.     See  SURGEON. 

DOCTOR'S  LIST.     See  SICK-LIST. 

Dodman.  A  shell-fish  with  a  hod-like  lump. 
A  sea-snail,  otherwise  called  hodmandod. 

Do  For.  A  double-barreled  expression,  mean 
ing  alike  to  take  care  of  or  provide  for  an  indi 
vidual,  or  to  ruin  or  kill  him. 

Dog.  The  hammer  of  a  firelock  or  pistol ; 
that  which  holds  the  flint,  called  also  dog-head. 
A  sort  of  iron  hook  or  bar  with  a  sharp  fang  at 
one  end,  so  as  to  be  easily  driven  into  a  piece  of 
timber,  and  drag  it  along  by  means  of  a  rope 
fastened  to  it,  upon  which  a  number  of  men  can 
pull.  Dog  is  also  an  iron  implement  with  a 
fang  at  each  end,  to  be  driven  into  two  pieces  of 
timber  to  support  and  steady  one  of  them  while 
being  dubbed,  hewn,  or  sawn.  Span-dogs.  A 
pair  of  dogs  linked  together,  and  being  hooked 
at  an  extended  angle,  press  home  with  a  great 
strain.  To  dog  a  rope  is  to  fasten  it  to  a  spar  or 
cable  in  a  peculiar  manner,  causing  the  parts  to 
bind  on  each  other  and  thus  prevent  slipping. 

Dog-bitch-thimble.  An  excellent  contri 
vance  by  which  the  topsail-sheet  block  is  pre 
vented  making  the  half  cant  or  turn  so  fre 
quently  seen  in  the  clew  when  the  block  is 
secured  there. 

Dog-bolt.  A  round  piece  of  iron  driven  into 
a  hole  which  has  been  bored  for  the  purpose,  and 
the  wedges  are  driven  against  this  bolt ;  they  are 
used  in  planking  wooden  ships. 

Dog-drave.  A  kind  of  sea-fish  mentioned  in 
early  charters. 

Dog-fish.  A  name  commonly  applied  to  sev 
eral  small  species  of  the  shark  family. 

Dogg.  A  small  silver  coin  of  tlie  West  In 
dies,  six  of  which  make  a  bit. 

Dogger.  A  Dutch  smack  of  about  150  tons, 
navigated  in  the  German  Ocean.  It  is  mostly 
equipped  with  a  main-  and  a  mizzen-mast,  and 
somewhat  resembles  a  ketch  or  a  galliot.  It  is 
principally  used  for  fishing  on  the  Dogger  Bank. 


DOGGER-FISH.  Fish  bought  out  of  the  Dutch 
doggers. 

DOGGER-MEN.  The  sea-faring  fishermen  be 
longing  to  doggers. 

Dogs.  The  last  supports  knocked  away  at 
the  launching  of  a  ship. 

Dog's-body.     Dried  pease  boiled  in  a  cloth. 

Dog's-ear.  A  small  bight  made  in  the  leech- 
rope  of  a  sail  in  reefing,  making  up,  etc.  See 
AWNING. 

Dog-shore.  A  piece  of  timber  which  used  to 
be  placed  at  the  forward  end  of  the  launching- 
ways  ;  it  was  intended  to  hold  the  ship  until  all 
was  ready  for  launching.  It  was  placed  in  a 
diagonal  position,  with  one  end  to  the  ground  or 
immovable  ways.  Both  ends  were  rounded  so 
that  it  could  be  readily  knocked  out  when  the 
word  was  given. 

Dog-sleep.  The  uncomfortable  fitful  naps 
taken  when  all  hands  are  kept  up  by  stress. 

Dog's  Tail.  A  name  for  the  constellation 
Ursa  Minor,  or  Little  Bear. 

Dog-star.  The  popular  name  of  a  Canis  Ma- 
joris.  See  SIRIUS. 

Dog-stopper.  A  stopper  put  on  before  all  to 
enable  the  men  to  bitt  the  cable,  or  to  fleet  the 
messenger. 

Dog-tongue.  A  name  assigned  to  a  kind  of 
sole. 

Dog-vane.  A  small  vane  made  of  thread, 
cork,  and  feathers,  or  bunting,  fastened  on  the 
end  of  a  half-pike,  and  placed  to  windward, 
so  as  to  be  readily  seen,  and  show  the  direction 
of  the  wind.  The  term  is  also  familiarly  ap 
plied  to  a  cockade. 

Dog-watch.  The  half-watches  of  two  hours 
each,  from  4  to  6,  and  from  6  to  8,  in  the  even 
ing.  By  this  arrangement  an  uneven  number  of 
watches  is  made, — seven  instead  of  six  in  the 
twenty-four  hours  ;  otherwise  there  would  be  a 
succession  of  the  same  watches  at  the  same  hours 
throughout  the  cruise.  See  WATCH. 

Dog-whelk.  The  name  given  by  fishermen 
to  the  Nassa  reticulata,  a  common  species  of  uni 
valve  shells. 

Doit.  A  small  Dutch  coin,  valued  at  about 
half  a  farthing. 

Doldrums.  Those  parts  of  the  sea  where 
calms  are  known  to  prevail.  They  exist  be 
tween  and  on  the  polar  sides  of  the  trade-winds, 
but  vary  their  position  in  the  course  of  the  year, 
depending  upon  the  sun's  declination.  Also  ap 
plied  to  a  person  in  low  spirits. 

Dole.  A  stated  allowance ;  but  applied  to  a 
scanty  share  or  portion. 

Doling.  A  fishing-boat  with  two  masts,  on 
the  coasts  of  Sussex  and  Kent ;  each  of  the  masts 
carries  a  sprit-sail. 

Do-little,  or  Do-little  Sword.  The  old  term 
for  a  dirk. 

Dollop.  An  old  word  for  a  lump,  portion,  or 
share.  From  the  Gaelic  diolab. 

Dolphin.  Naturalists  understand  by  this  word 
numerous  species  of  small  cetaceous  animals  of 
the  genus  Delphinus,  found  in  nearly  all  seas. 
They  greatly  resemble  porpoises,  and  are  often 
called  by  this  name  by  sailors ;  but  they  are  dis 
tinguished  by  having  a  longer  and  more  slender 
snout.  The  word  is  also  generally,  but  less  cor 
rectly,  applied  to  a  fish,  the  dorado  (Coryphcena 
hippuris),  celebrated  for  the  changing  hues  of 
its  body  when  dying.  A  small  light  ancient 


DOMESTIC 


221 


DORIA 


boat,  which  gave  rise  to  Pliny's  story  of  the  boy 
going  daily  to  school  across,  the  Lucrine  Lake  on 
a  dolphin.  In  old  ordnance,  especially  brass 
guns,  two  handles  nearly  over  the  trunnions  for 
lifting  the  guns  by.  A  French  gold  coin  (dau- 
phine),  formerly  in  circulation.  A  stout  post 
on  a  wharf  or  beach  to  which  hawsers  are  made 
fast.  A  kind  of  wreath  or  strap  of  plaited  cord 
age.  A  permanent  fender  around  a  heavy  boat 
just  below  the  gunwale.  The  name  is  also  given 
to  a  spar  or  block  of  wood,  with  a  ring-bolt  at 
each  end,  through  which  a  hawser  can  be  rove, 
for  vessels  to  ride  by ;  the  same  as  wooden 
buoys. 

DOLPHIN-STRIKER.  A  short  perpendicular 
spar  under  the  bowsprit,  giving  spread  to  the 
upper  head-stays. 

Domestic  Navigation.  The  coasting  and  in 
land  trade. 

Domicile.  A  residence  at  a  particular  place, 
accompanied  by  positive  or  presumed  proof  of 
an  intention  to  remain  there  for  an  unlimited 
time.  The  residence  to  create  it  may  be  short 
or  long,  according  to  circumstances ;  the  deter 
mining  consideration  is  the  intention  of  remain 
ing,  or  the  contrary.  The  original  domicile  of  a 
person  always  continues  until  he  has  fairly 
changed  it  for  another,  and  to  effect  such  change 
there  must  be  a  union  of  intention  and  act. 
Domicile  may  arise  either  from  birth,  from  the 
domestic  relations,  or  from  election.  The  domi 
cile  of  birth  remains  until  a  subsequent  one  is 
acquired.  A  woman  on  marriage  takes  the 
domicile  of  her  husband.  The  husband's  change 
of  domicile  changes  that  of  his  wife,  and  the 
parent  also  possesses  the  power  of  changing  the 
domicile  of  his  minor  child  by  changing  his  own. 
The  necessarily  migratory  lives  of  naval  and  mili 
tary  men  makes  the  subject  of  domicile  of  pecu 
liar  interest  to  them.  The  disposition,  distribu 
tion,  and  succession  of  personal  property  are 
governed  by  the  law  of  the  owner's  or  intestate's 
domicile  at  the  time  of  his  death,  and  not  by 
the  conflicting  laws  of  the  various  places  where 
the  goods  happen  to  be  situated.  See  INTERNA 
TIONAL  LAW. 

Don.  A  general  name  for  Spaniards.  To  don, 
to  put  on. 

Donaldson,  Edward,  Rear-Admiral  U.S.N. 
Born  in  Maryland.  Appointed  midshipman, 
October,  1834,  and  went  to  West  Indies  in  "  St. 
Louis,"  and  returned  following  year  in  the 
"  Falmouth"  ;  went  out  in  the  fall  of  1835  to  the 
West  Indies,  in  the  "Warren";  transferred  to 
the  "  Vandalia,"  and  continued  until  1838;  in 
frigate  "  Columbia,"  East  Indies,  1839-40 ;  while 
attached  to  her,  took  part  in  the  attacks  on  forts 
on  the  coast  of  Sumatra,  1839. 

Promoted  to  passed  midshipman,  June  22, 
1841  ;  in  McLaughlin's  Mosquito  Fleet,  in  Flor 
ida,  1841-42  ;  in  brig  "  Truxtun,"  1843-44  ;  sloop 
"  Erie,"  coast  of  Africa,  1845 ;  on  the  coast  sur 
vey  in  1846;  cruise  in  sloop  "Plymouth,"  East 
Indies,  1847-48. 

Commissioned  as  lieutenant,  October  23, 1847  ; 
in  brig  "Dolphin,"  East  Indies,  1849-50;  at 
rendezvous,  Baltimore,  1852;  in  steamer"  Water- 
Witch,"  river  La  Plata,  1853-54;  steam-frigate 
"  Merrimac,"  special  service,  1856-57  ;  receiving- 
ship  at  Baltimore,  1858-59;  in  steamer  "San 
Jacinto,"  coast  of  Africa,  1860-61 ;  rendezvous, 
Philadelphia,  1861  ;  commanding  steam-gunboat 


"Scioto,"  West  Gulf  Squadron,  1861-62;  bom 
bardment,  etc.,  of  Forts  Jackson  and  St.  Philip, 
and  capture  of  New  Orleans,  April,  1862,  and 
other  operations  in  the  river. 

Commissioned  as  commander,  July  16,  1862  ; 
commanding  receiving-ship  at  Philadelphia  in 
1862-63;  steamer  "Keystone  State"  in  trip  to 
the  West  Indies  in  search  of  the  "  Sumter"  ; 
commanding  steamer  "  Keystone  State,"  North 
Atlantic  Squadron,  1863-64;  commanded  the 
steam-sloop  "  Seminole"  at  the  battle  of  Mobile 
Bay,  August  5, 1864  ;  ordnance  duty,  Baltimore, 
1865. 

Commissioned  as  captain,  July  25, 1866  ;  com 
manding  receiving-ship  at  Baltimore,  1866-68; 
at  New  York  Navy-Yard,  March,  1869,  to  Feb 
ruary,  1870. 

Commissioned  as  commodore,  1871. 

Commissioned  as  rear-admiral,  1876,  and  re 
tired  the  following  year. 

Donderbass.     A  Dutch  name  for  bombard. 

Doney.  The  doney  of  the  Coromandel  coast 
is  about  70  feet  long,  20  feet  broad,  and  12  feet 
deep ;  with  a  flat  bottom  or  keel  part,  which  at 
the  broadest  place  is  7  feet,  and  diminishes  to  10 
inches  in  the  siding  of  the  stem  and  stern-post. 
The  fore  and  after  bodies  are  similar  in  form  from 
midships.  Their  light  draft  of  water  is  about 
4  feet,  and  when  loaded  about  9  feet.  These  un 
shapely  vessels  trade  from  Madras  and  Ceylon, 
and  many  of  them  to  the  Gulf  of  Manar,  as  the 
water  is  shoal  between  Ceylon  and  the  southern 
part  of  the  continent.  They  have  only  one  mast, 
and  are  navigated  by  the  natives  in  the  rudest 
way,  their  means  for  finding  the  latitude  being 
a  little  square  board,  with  a  string  fast  to  the 
centre,  at  the  other  end  of  which  are  certain 
knots.  The  upper  edge  of  the  board  is  held  by 
one  hand  so  as  to  touch  the  north  star,  and  the 
lower  edge  the  horizon.  Then  the  string  is 
brought  with  the  other  hand  to  touch  the  tip  of 
the  nose,  and  the  knot  which  comes  in  contact 
with  the  tip  of  the  nose  tells  the  latitude. 

Donkey-engine.  A  small  auxiliary  steam- 
engine  for  performing  other  work  than  that  of 
propulsion,  such  as  supplying  power  to  blowers, 
lathes,  steam-winches,  capstans,  etc.  It  is  gen 
erally  provided  with  an  independent  boiler  suit 
able  to  its  size ;  but,  on  shipboard,  its  steam  is 
sometimes  drawn  from  the  main  boilers. 

Donkey-pump.  An  auxiliary  pump  indepen 
dent  of  the  main  engines,  used  for  feeding  boil 
ers,  extinguishing  fire,  for  which  purpose  nozzles 
for  connecting  fire-hose  are  attached,  circulating 
water  through  a  distilling  apparatus,  and  pump 
ing  water  from  the  bilge  of  a  ship. 

Donny.     A  small  fishing-net. 

Doolah.   A  passage-boat  on  the  Canton  River. 

Dooted.  Timber  rendered  unsound  by  fis 
sures. 

Dorado.  The  Coryphcena  hippuris,  an  oceanic 
fish,  often  called  "dolphin."  See  CONSTELLA 
TION. 

Dorey.  A  flat-floored  cargo-boat  in  the  West 
Indies  named  after  the  fish  "John  Dory." 

Doria,  Andrea,  was  born  in  Oneglia,  of  which 
his  family  were  princes,  in  1468.  Descended 
from  one  of  the  noblest  Genoese  houses,  which 
had  been  celebrated  for  many  generations,  the 
great  admiral  numbered  among  his  ancestors  the 
Admiral  Lamba  Doria,  who  gained  the  bloody 
victory  of  Curzola,  over  the  Venetians,  under 


DORIA 


222 


DOUSE 


DuncK.lo,  in  1298;  Philippi  Doria,  a  distin 
guished  naval  commander,  whose  name  was, 
howe\  ar,  stained  by  political  crimes  ;  and  Paga- 
nino  Doria,  a  great  admiral  (1351),  who  repeat 
edly  defeated  the  Venetians,  under  Pisani. 
Lastly  came  Peter  Doria,  who  was  killed  in  ac 
tion  vvith  the  Venetian  fleet. 

Andrea  Doria,  the  greatest  seaman  the  state 
of  Genoa  ever  produced,  was  forced,  when  a 
young  man,  by  the  banishment  of  his  family 
from  Genoese  territory,  to  enter  the  service  of 
the  Pope,  from  which  he  passed  into  that  of 
several  other  Italian  princes.  Having  gained 
military  and  political  experience,  he  became  a 
knight  of  St.  John  of  Jerusalem,  and  made  a 
pilgrimage  there,  upon  his  return  espousing  the 
cause  of  Charles  VIII.  against  the  Spaniards. 

The  latter  were  commanded  by  Gonsalvo  de 
Cordova,  who  so  much  admired  Doria's  prowess 
that  he  tried,  in  vain,  to  draw  him  over  to  the 
Spanish  side. 

At  last  Doria  was  enabled  (by  the  withdrawal 
of  the  decree  of  banishment)  to  enter  the  ser 
vice  of  his  own  country.  After  subduing  a 
formidable  rebellion  in  Corsica,  he  was  given 
command  of  the  Genoese  navy,  which  he 
thoroughly  reorganized.  After  this  he  was 
active  in  repressing  the  Barbary  corsairs, — the 
terror  of  all  nations  at  that  time.  Once  more 
banished  from  Genoa,  he  again  entered  the  ser 
vice  of  France, — Francis  I.  making  him  "gen 
eral  of  the  galleys  of  France."  In  this  capa 
city  he  fought  the  Imperial  fleet,  raising  the 
blockade  of  Marseilles,  and  having  other  suc 
cesses.  After  the  battle  of  Pavia  he  pursued 
the  Spanish  fleet  which  carried  Francis  a  pris 
oner  ;  but  the  latter  sent  him  word  to  desist 
from  attack,  as  he  had  given  his  parole  not  to 
escape. 

Doria  next,  in  the  name  of  Francis,  seized 
Genoa, — which  was  torn  by  factions, — and  estab 
lished  peace  there.  Francis  wishing  to  make  of 
Savona  a  rival  port  to  Genoa,  Doria  protested 
against  it,  and  the  king  ordered  his  arrest;  but, 
strong  in  the  fleet,  Doria  easily  escaped,  and  sent 
his  commission  to  the  French  king.  Irritated 
by  this  injustice,  he  then  passed  over  to  the  ser 
vice  of  the  Emperor  Charles  V.,  and  was  the 
means  of  destroying  the  vestige  of  French  power 
in  Italy,  delivering  Genoa  in  1528. 

A  general  peace  soon  followed,  and  Doria 
busied  himself  in  composing  the  troubles  in  his 
native  land,  refusing  the  title  of  doge,  and  abol 
ishing  the  life-tenure  of  that  office.  He  might 
then  have  had  absolute  power  in  Genoa  had 
he  chosen.  Unfortunately,  the  oligarchy  was 
strengthened  by  his  actions,  and,  under  the  name 
of  a  republic,  existed  until  Napoleon's  time. 

Charles  V.  loaded  Doria  with  honors  and 
riches  ;  gave  him  the  order  of  the  Golden  Fleece ; 
made  him  Prince  of  the  Empire,  and  General  of 
the  Marine,  with  absolute  authority.  He  con 
tinued  to  serve  against  the  Turks,  the  Algerines, 
and  the  French,  occupying  the  very  foremost 
place  in  all  the  great  events  of  the  time. 

As  a  seaman  he  was,  without  doubt,  the  first 
of  his  period;  and,  although  he  had  been  a  free 
lance,  and  had  served  many  masters,  he  has 
never  been  charged  with  betraying  any  one  of 
them. 

Genoa  owed  her  existence  as  a  state  to  him, 
and  recognized  the  obligation  by  voting  him 


"The  Father  and  Liberator  of  his  Country." 
In  his  latter  days,  however,  fresh  troubles  and 
dissensions  arose,  and  Doria  became  the  object 
of  great  haired  and  dangerous  conspiracies  by 
some  of  the  oligarchy,  so  that  the  latter  part  of 
his  life  was  stained  by  lamentable  cruelty  and 
bloodshed.  He  died  in  1560,  at  the  great  age  of 
92. — E.  Shippen. 

Dornicle.    A  name  for  the  viviparous  blenny. 

Dorra.     From  the  Gaelic  dorga ;  a  crab-net. 

Dorsal  Fin.  The  median  fin  placed  upon  the 
back  of  fishes. 

Dory.  A  fish,  Zeus  faber,  commonly  known 
as  "John  Dory,"  or  truly  jaune  doree,  from  its 
golden  hues. 

Double.  Two  of  a  sort  taken  together ;  hav 
ing  two  similar  parts.  To  increase  by  the  addi 
tion  of  the  same  quantity.  To  cover  a  portion 
of  the  ship  with  an  extra  planking, — applied 
only  when  the  extra  planking  is  not  less  than 
two  inches  thick.  To  double  a  cape,  to  sail  round 
it.  To  double  on  the  tub,  to  get  twice  one's  share 
by  sharp  practice.  To  double  upon,  in  a  naval 
engagement  is  to  inclose  a  portion  of  the  enemy's 
fleet  between  two  fires. 

DOUBLE-ACTION.     See  ACTION. 

DOUBLE  ALTITUDE.     See  ALTITUDE. 

DOUBLE-BANK.  To  double-bank  a  rope  is  to 
clap  men  on  both  sides  of  it.  See  BANK. 

DOUBLE-BITT.  To  take  two  turns  of  the  cable 
around  the  bitts. 

DOUBLE-BLOCK.    A  block  having  two  sheaves. 

DOUBLE-CAPSTAN.  A  capstan  so  constructed 
as  to  be  worked  from  both  decks. 

DOUBLE-CROWN.     See  CROWN. 

DOUBLE-DECKER.  A  man-of-war  having  two 
gun-decks. 

DOUBLE  DUTCH  COILED  AGAINST  THE  SUN. 
Gibberish  ;  unintelligible  language. 

DOUBLE-EAGLE.     A  gold  coin  of  20  dollars. 

DOITBLE-FUTTOCKS.     Two  futtocks  in  one. 

DOUBLE-HEADED  MAUL.  A  maul  with  two 
faces. 

DOUBLE-HEADED  SHOT.  Two  whole  balls  con 
nected  by  a  bar.  See  BAR-SHOT. 

DOUBLE-IRONS.  Fetters  for  both  hands  and 
legs.  See  IRONS. 

DOUBLE-JACK.     See  JACK-SCREW. 

DOUBLE- LAND.  The  appearance  of  the  coast 
when  the  sea-line  is  bounded  by  parallel  ranges 
of  hills  rising  inland,  one  above  the  other. 

DOUBLE-SIDED.  A  double-decked  ship  painted 
so  as  to  show  both  rows  of  ports  ;  or,  a  merchant 
vessel  painted  to  resemble  a  double-decker. 

DOUBLE  SPANISH  BURTON.  See  SPANISH 
BURTON. 

DOUBLE-STAR.  Two  stars  so  close  together 
that  the  angle  between  them  is  inappreciable 
except  by  means  of  a  telescope. 

DOUBLE-STRAP.  .  See  STRAP. 

DOUBLE-TIDES.  Working  double-tides,  doing 
extra  duty. 

DOUBLE  WALL-KNOT.     See  WALL-KNOT. 

DOUBLING.  Planking  ships'  bottoms  twice 
with  two  thicknesses  of  plank.  That  portion  of 
two  masts  included  between  the  trestle-trees  and 
cap  is  termed  the  doublings  of  the  masts. 

Doubloon.  A  Spanish  gold  coin.  See 
MONEY. 

Dough-boy.  A  hard  dumpling  boiled  in  salt 
water, — a  corruption  of  dough-ball. 

Douse.     To  plunge  into  the  water ;   to  dip. 


DOUSING-CHOCK 


223 


DKAKE 


To  lower ;  as,  to  douse  sail.     To  cover  up  or  ex 
tinguish  ;  as,  to  douse  a  light. 
DOUSER.     An  extinguisher. 
Dousing-chock.      A   piece   fayed   across   the 
apron,  and  lapped  in  the  knight-heads,  or  inside 
planking,  above  the  upper  deck. 
Dout.     To  put  out  a  light. 
DOUTER.     An  extinguisher. 
Dover.     A  town  of  England,  county  of  Kent, 
one  of  the  Cinque  Ports,  on  the  N.W.  side  of 
Dover   Strait,   66   miles   E.S.E.    from    London. 
Lat.  51°  1'  8"  N. ;  Ion.  1°  19'  5"  E.    The  harbor 
consists  of  three  basins,  the  outer  one  inclosed 
between  two  piers  150   feet   apart.     Dover  has 
been  made  a  harbor  of  refuge  by  throwing  out 
jetties  of  great  magnitude,  and  a  granite  pier 
one-third  of  a  mile  long,  and  still  unfinished, 
into   the  sea.      Dover  being   one  of  the  chief 
ports  of  communication  between  England  and 
the  continent,  has  continual  intercourse  by  steam 
boats  with  Calais  and  Boulogne.    Ship-building, 
sail-  and  rope-making  employ  many  of  the  popu 
lation.     Dover  is   the  principal  of  the  Cinque 
Ports.     Pop.  29,000. 

Dovetail.  A  score  in  the  end  of  a  piece  of 
wood  resembling  a  dove's  tail,  and  into  which  a 
corresponding  piece  is  fitted,  for  the  purpose  of 
securing  two  pieces,  which  are  placed  at  right 
angles  with  each  other. 

Dowbrek.  A  name  for  the  spirling,  or  smelt. 
Dowel.  A  method  of  coaking  by  the  use  of 
a  round  piece  of  hard  wood,  instead  of  an  oblong 
piece,  one-half  the  length  of  the  dowel  being  let 
into  each  piece ;  when  two  pieces  of  timber,  as 
in  the  frame  of  a  ship,  are  to  be  secured  together, 
the  fastenings  are  sometimes  driven  through  the 
dowels. 

Down !  To  come,  take,  put,  or  haul  down. 
To  bring  the  sun  down  is  to  bring  in  contact  the 
horizon  and  the  image  of  the  sun  reflected  in  a 
sextant. 

DOWN  BAGS  !  The  order  from  the  boatswain's 
mate  for  the  men  to  stow  away  their  bags  in  the 
proper  place. 

DOWN  BOOMS  !  The  order  to  lower  the  stun'- 
sail  booms  when  the  sails  are  furled. 

DOWN  FROM  ALOFT  !  The  order  for  the  men 
to  come  down  after  furling,  reefing,  etc.  No 
manoeuvre  is  completed  until  the  last  man  is  on 
deck. 

DOWN-HAUL.  A  rope  to  haul  down,  or  assist 
in  hauling  down,  a  sail.  A  stay-sail  down-haul 
is  secured  to  the  head  cringle  of  the  sail,  and 
leads  thence  through  the  hanks,  and  a  leading- 
block  at  the  tack,  to  the  deck.  A  try-sail  down- 
haul  is  made  fast  to  the  upper  after-corner  of 
the  sail,  and  leads  thence  through  a  block  at  the 
jaws  of  the  gaff  to  the  deck.  A  gaff-topsail 
down-haul  (and  clewline)  is  made  fast  to  the 
clew,  and  leads  thence  through  a  block  at  the 
head  to  the  deck.  A  topgallant  studding-sail 
down-haul  is  bent  to  the  yard-arm,  and  leads 
abaft  into  the  top.  A  topmast  studding-sail  down- 
haul  is  bent  to  the  outer  yard-arm,  and  reeves 
thence  through  a  thimble  in  the  leech  and  a 
block  at  the  tack,  forward  of  all,  to  the  deck. 
DOWN  HELM  !  Put  the  helm  a-lee  ! 
DOWN  IN  THE  MOUTH.  Low-spirited ;  dis 
heartened. 

DOWN  KILLICK  !  Let  go  the  killick  or  anchor ! 
DOWN  WIND,  DOWN  SEA.     A  proverbial  ex 
pression  among  seamen  in  the  tropics,  where  the 


wind  soon  gets  up  a  sea,  which  soon  goes  down 
when  the  wind  abates. 

Downs.  An  accumulation  of  drifted  sand, 
which  the  sea  gathers  along  its  shores.  The 
name  is  also  applied  to  the  anchorage  or  sea- 
space  between  the  eastern  coast  of  Kent  and  the 
Goodwin  Sands,  the  well-known  roadstead  for 
ships-,  stretching  from  the  South  to  the  North 
Foreland,  where  both  outward-  and  homeward- 
bound  ships  frequently  make  some  stay,  and 
squadrons  of  men-of-war  rendezvous  in  time  of 
war.  It  is  defended  by  the  castles  of  Sandwich, 
Deal,  and  Dover. 

D.  R.     Dead-reckoning. 

Drabler.  A  piece  of  canvas  laced  on  the  bon 
net  of  a  sail  to  give  it  more  drop.  "  As  the 
bonnet  is  to  the  course,  so  in  all  respects  is  the 
drabler  to  the  bonnet."  It  is  only  used  when 
both  course  and  bonnet  are  not  deep  enough  to 
clothe  the  mast. 

Draco  (Lat.  "  The  Dragon").  A  winding  con 
stellation,  which,  commencing  from  between 
Ursa  Major  and  Ursa  Minor,  extends  to  Lyra. 
The  two  principal  stars,  7  and  /3,  form  a  con 
spicuous  pair,  situated  nearly  on  the  line  joining 
a  Lyrce  and  a  Ursce  Majoris;  the  line  which  joins 
a  Cygni  and  /3  Bootis  also  passing  near  them,  y 
Draconis,  also  called  Rastaban,  is  the  nearest  one 
to  Lyra ;  it  is  of  historical  interest  as  being  the 
star  used  by  Bradley  in  the  discovery  of  aberra 
tion. 

Dracunculus.      A   species   of    fish   about   10 
inches  long,  of  a  reddish-brown  color  above,  and 
white  beneath  ;  sordid  dragonet ;  sculpin  ;  Cal- 
lionymus  dracunculus. 
Draft.     See  DRAUGHT. 

Drag.  Anything  towing  in  the  water  to  re 
tard  a  ship's  progress,  or  to  keep  her  head  up  to 
the  wind.  A  drag-rope.  A  sea-anchor.  A 
creeper. 

To  drag  for  an  anchor  or  chain  is  to  endeavor 
to  pick  it  up  by  means  of  a  grapnel  or  bight  of  a 
rope.  A  ship  drags  her  anchor  when  the  wind, 
tide,  or  current  causes  her  to  go  astern,  trailing 
the  anchor  over  the  bottom. 

DRAG-NET.  A  trawl  or  net  to  draw  on  the 
bottom  for  flat-fish. 

DRAG-ROPE.     The  rope  by  which  are  hauled 
about  Gatlings,  howitzers,  etc.,  on  field-carriages. 
Dragoman.     The  name  for  a  Turkish  inter 
preter ;  it  is  corrupted  from  tarij-man. 
Dragon.     An  old  name  for  a  musketoon. 
Dragonet.      A  sea-fish,  the   gowdie,  or   Cal- 
lionymus  lyra. 

Dragon-volant.  An  old  name  for  a  gun  of 
large  calibre. 

Drag-saw.  A  cross-cut  saw. 
Drake,  Sir  Francis.  Born  in  1539,  on  the 
banks  of  the  Javy,  in  Devonshire,  England.  A 
sea-rover  in  the  seryice  of  Queen  Elizabeth  of 
England.  Plunder  and  prize-money  had  greater 
charms  for  Drake  than  honor  and  glory.  The 
earliest  mention  made  of  him  refers  to  a  voyage 
in  1572,  when,  reaching  the  Caribbean  Sea,  he 
landed  on  the  Isthmus  of  Darien,  and  beholding 
the  Pacific  from  a  lofty  eminence,  he  prayed  that 
the  Almighty  would  grant  him  life  and  leave  to 
sail  once  an  English  ship  on  that  sea.  His  prayer 
was  heard.  Four  years  later  he  sailed  from  Eng 
land  with  five  ships,  and  passing  along  the  coast 
of  South  America,  he  plundered  all  who  were 
incapable  of  resistance,  and  going  around  Cape 


DRAKE 


224 


DRIFT 


Horn  he  steered  northerly,  visited  and  sacked 
Chili  and  Peru,  and  took  possession  of  San  Fran 
cisco.  From  that  point  Drake  crossed  to  Java  and 
the  Moluccas,  enriching  himself  at  every  step;  and 
this  marauding  course  he  continued  until  1580, 
when  he  returned  home  via  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope.  In  the  following  year,  however,  his  ser 
vices  were  required  for  a  nobler  purpose  than 
mere  pillage.  The  Spanish  Armada  threatened 
England.  To  anticipate  its  attack,  Drake,  who 
had  now  been  knighted  by  Queen  Elizabeth  for 
his  voyage  round  the  world, — the  first  of  the 
kind  ever  made  by  an  Englishman, — sailed  to 
Cadiz,  passed  the  batteries  under  a  heavy  fire, 
destroyed  100  ships,  and  inflicted  the  usual  dam 
age  on  the  adjoining  coasts.  Making  his  way 
back,  he  was  appointed  to  aid  Lord  Howard  in 
repelling  the  Armada,  and  when  that  exploit 
had  been  performed  he  proceeded  to  the  West 
Indies,  where  he  died,  December  27,  1595. 

Drake.     Aru  early  piece  of  brass  ordnance. 

Drakkar.  A  Norman  pirate  boat  of  former 
times. 

Draught.  A  small  allowance  for  waste  on 
goods  sold  by  weight.  A  detachment  transferred 
from  one  ship  to  another.  A  drawing,  made  to 
scale,  of  a  structure  or  machine. 

The  current  of  air  through  a  furnace,  which 
causes  combustion  of  the  fuel.  Natural  draught 
is  created  by  a  pressure  due  to  the  difference  in 
weight  of  the  column  of  heated  and  rarefied  gases 
in  the  chimney,  and  that  of  a  similar  column  of 
the  surrounding  atmosphere.  Its  intensity  varies 
as  the  square 'root  of  the  height  of  the  chimney. 
Artificial  draught  is  a  forced  current  created  by 
mechanical  means,  such  as  blowers  acting  be 
neath  the  tires,  or  by  the  rapid  expulsion  of  the 
chimney  gases  by  a  "  steam-jet." 

The  depth  of  the  bottom  of  a  vessel's  keel  be 
low  the  surface  of  the  water. 

Draw.  To  pull ;  to  attract ;  to  procure.  To 
procure  anything  on  requisition  or  official  de 
mand.  A  sail  draws  when  it  is  filled  with  the 
wind.  A  ship  draws  so  many  feet  of  water,  ac 
cording  to  the  depth  of  her  immersed  body.  To 
draw  upon  a  ship  is  to  gain  upon  a  vessel  in  a 
chase.  To  let  draw  the  jib  is  to  cease  from  flat 
tening  in  the  sheet.  To  draw  off,  to  move  away. 
To  draw  the  guns,  to  draw  the  charges. 

DRAW-NET.     See  DRAG-NET. 

Drayton,  Percival,  Captain  U.S.N.  Born  in 
South  Carolina,  August  25,  1812  ;  died  at  Wash 
ington,  D.  C.,  August  4,  1865.  Son  of  Hon. 
William  Drayton,  M.C.  Midshipman,  Decem 
ber,  1827;  lieutenant,  February  28,  1838;  was 
attached  to  the  observatory,  Washington,  in 
1852;  commander,  September  14,  1855;  joined 
the  Paraguay  expedition  in  1858,  and  from 
1800  until  the  outbreak  of  the  civil  war  was 
on  ordnance  duty  at  Philadelphia.  Though 
strongly  bound  by  family  ties  to  the  seceding 
States,  he  remained  loyal  to  the  national  flag, 
and  in  the  expedition  to  Port  Royal  com 
manded  the  steamer  "  Pocahontas"  ;  his  brother, 
Gen.  T.  F.  Drayton,  commanded  at  the  same 
time  the  Confederate  troops  at  Hilton  Head 
Island.  He  was  afterward  transferred  to  the 
"Pawnee,"  and  July  16,  1862,  was  promoted  to 
captain,  and  ordered  to  the  new  Ericsson  iron 
battery  "Passaic."  He  was  in  the  bombard 
ment  of  Fort  McAllister  ;  in  the  attack  on  Sum- 
ter  by  Dupont ;  fleet-captain  of  the  West  Gulf 


Squadron,  under  Farragut,  and  was  in  the 
"  Hartford"  at  the  fight  with  and  capture  of  the 
rebel  fleet  in  Mobile  Bay,  August  5,  1864.  He 
was  particularly  distinguished  as  Farragut 's 
chief-of-staff.  Appointed  chief  of  the  Bureau 
of  Navigation,  April  28,  1865. 

Dredge.  An  instrument  for  scraping  up 
oysters  or  specimens  of  the  bottom.  To  fish  by 
dragging  the  dredge.  To  remove  the  mud,  etc., 
from  the  bottom  of  a  harbor  or  channel. 

DREDGING  MACHINE.  A  large  flat-bottomed 
boat  equipped  with  a  steam-engine  and  ma 
chinery  for  removing  mud,  etc.,  from  a  harbor 
or  channel. 

DREDGY.     The  ghost  of  a  person  drowned. 

Dreint.     An  old  word  for  drowned. 

Dress  Ship.  To  ornament  the  ship  by  hoist 
ing  the  national  colors  at  the  peak  and  mast 
heads,  and  setting  the  jack  forward.  When  the 
ship  is  to  be  dressed  full,  the  national  flags  are 
hoisted  as  before,  and  the  signal-flags  and  pen 
nants  are  arranged  according  to  taste.  When  the 
signal-flags  form  a  line  from  the  water  to  the 
flying-jib-boom,  over  the  mast-heads,  to  the  end 
of  spanker-boom  and  water,  they  are  said  to  be 
arranged  rainbow-fashion.  When  the  ship  is 
dressed  in  honor  of  a  foreigner,  person,  or  fete, 
the  foreign  national  flag  is  given  the  place  of 
honor, — the  main.  Aside  from  this,  foreign 
flags  are  not  used  in  dressing  ship,  as  foreigners 
sometimes  take  offense  if  their  flag  is  not  given 
the  prominence  which  they  conceive  to  be  due 
to  it. 

Drew.  A  name  for  the  Fucus  lorcus,  a  nar 
row,  thong-shaped  sea-weed. 

Dribble.     Drizzling  showers  ;  light  rain. 

Dries.  A  term  opposed  to  rains  on  the  west 
coast  of  Africa. 

Drift.  The  deviation  of  a  projectile  from  the 
plane  of  fire,  due  to  the  rifling  of  the  gun  ;  for  a 
given  range  and  calibre  it  depends  upon  the 
velocity  of  rotation  as  compared  with  that  of 
translation,  the  weight  and  form  of  the  projec 
tile,  and  the  position  of  its  centre  of  gravity. 
The  drift  is  with  the  rifling,  and  is  allowed  for 
by  directing  the  axis  of  the  bore  sufficiently  to 
the  opposite  side  of  the  target  to  compensate  for 
the  deflection.  Practically,  this  result  is  accom 
plished  by  a  drift-piece  attached  to  the  rear 
sight,  or  by  inclining  the  bar  at  a  certain  fixed 
angle  to  the  left  of  the  plane  of  fire.  The  angle 
at  which  the  bar  is  set  is  called  the  "  permanent 
drift  angle." 

An  instrument  to  enlarge  or  clear  a  hole  in 
metal.  In  wooden  ship-building,  the  difference 
between  the  size  of  the  bolt  and  the  hole  into 
which  it  is  to  be  driven ;  for  instance,  if  a  bolt 
is  made  one-eighth  of  an  inch  larger  than  the 
hole  into  which  it  is  to  be  driven,  the  bolt  is 
said  to  have  one-eighth  of  an  inch  drift;  the 
same  is  applicable  to  a  hoop  which  is  to  be  driven 
on  a  mast. 

The  distance  through  which  a  current  flows  in 
a  given  time.  Drift  =  time  X  rate. 

To  be  driven  along  on  the  water.  To  gather 
into  heaps. 

DRIFT-BOLT.  A  long  punch  used  for  backing 
out  other  bolts. 

DRIFT-ICE.     The  debris  of  the  main  pack. 

DRIFT-MUD.  Argillaceous  earth  brought  down 
by  streams  and  deposited  in  banks. 

DRIFT-SAIL.    A  sail  used  as  a  drag  (which  see). 


DRIFTS 


225 


DROWN 


DRIFT  WOOD.  Wood  floating  on  the  surface 
of  the  water. 

Drifts.  Those  parts  where  the  sheer  is  raised 
according  to  the  heights  of  the  decks,  and  where 
the  rails  are  cut  off  and  ended  by  scrolls. 

DRIFT-PIECE.  A  solid  piece  fitted  at  the  drifts 
to  form  the  scrolls. 

Drill.  Practice  at  the  various  military  and 
nautical  exercises. 

Drive.  A  ship  drives  when  her  anchor  trips 
or  will  not  hold  ;  she  drives  to  leeward  when  be 
yond  control  of  sails  or  rudder;  and  if  under 
bare  poles,  may  drive  before  the  wind.  To  strike 
home  bolts,  tree-nails,  etc. 

Driver.  A  large  sail  formerly  used  with  the 
wind  aft  or  quartering.  It  was  a  square-sail  cut 
like  a  studding-sail,  and  set  with  a  great  yard  on 
the  end  of  the  spanker-boom,  across  the  taifrail. 
The  name  is  sometimes  applied  to  the  spanker 
(which  see).  Formerly,  the  foremost  spur  on  the 
bilge-ways,  the  keel  of  which  was  fayed  to  the 
foreside  of  the  foremost  poppet ;  it  was  cleated 
on  the  bilge-ways,  and  the  sides  of  it  stood  fore 
and  aft. 

Driving  Piles.  The  motion  of  a  ship  bobbing 
in  a  head  sea,  compared  to  the  vertical  fall  of 
monkeys  on  pile-heads. 

Drogher.  A  small  craft  in  the  West  India 
Islands,  to  take  off  sugars,  rum,  etc.,  to  the  mer 
chantmen.  Lumber-drogher  is  a  vessel  built 
solely  for  burden,  and  for  transporting  cotton 
and  other  articles  coastwise. 

DROGHING.  The  carrying  trade  of  the  West 
India  coasts. 

Drogue.     A  drag  (which  see). 

Droits  of  Admiralty  ( Eng. }.  Rights,  or  rather 
perquisites,  which  flowed  originally  from  the 
king  by  grant  or  usage,  and  now  reserved  to  the 
crown  by  commission.  They  are  of  two  kinds, 
viz.,  the  civil,  or  those  arising  from  wrecks  of 
the  sea,  flotsam,  jetsam,  and  lagan,  royal  fishes, 
derelicts,  and  deodands,  ejectamenta  maris,  and 
the  goods  of  pirates,  traitors,  felons,  suicides, 
and  fugitives  within  the  admiralty  jurisdiction  ; 
and  the  prize  droits,  or  those  accruing  in  the 
course  of  war,  comprehending  all  ships  and  goods 
taken  without  commission,  all  vessels  improperly 
captured  before  hostilities  have  been  formally 
declared,  or  found  or  by  accident  brought  within 
the  admiralty,  salvage  for  all  ships  rescued,  and 
all  ships  seized,  in  any  of  the  ports,  creeks,  or 
roads  of  the  United  Kingdom  of  Great  Britain 
and  Ireland,  before  any  declaration  of  war  or 
reprisals  by  the  sovereign. 

Dromond.  A  Saracen  term  for  a  large  man- 
of-war. 

Droop.    See  HOGGED. 

Drop.  The  depth  of  a  square-sail ;  but  gen 
erally  applied  to  the  courses  only,  hoist  being 
the  corresponding  term  for  the  other  square- 
sails.  To  drop  a  vessel  is  to  distance  her  in  a 
race  or  chase.  To  drop  astern,  to  fall  behind  so 
as  to  suifer  another  vessel  to  pass  beyond. 

•Drop -dry.     Water-tight. 

Droud.  A  fish  of  the  cod  kind,  frequenting 
the  west  coast  of  Scotland. 

Drouge.  A  piece  of  board,  or  kind  of  drogue, 
sometimes  attached  to  the  harpoon-line,  to  check 
in  some  degree  the  speed  of  the  whale. 

Drow.  An  old  term  for  a  severe  gust  of  wind 
accompanied  with  rain. 

Drown.  To  suffocate  in  water.  To  deluge 
15' 


with  water.  Drowning  was  an  early  naval  pun 
ishment.  Richard  I.  enacted  that  whoever  killed 
a  man  on  shipboard  "  should  be  bound  to  the 
corpse  and  thrown  into  the  sea." 

DROWNED,  DIRECT  METHOD  OF  RESTORING 
THE  APPARENTLY. — This  method  is  recom 
mended  by  Dr.  Howard : 

1.  Arouse  the  patient. — Unless  in  danger  of 
freezing  do  not  move  the  patient  an  inch  ;  but 
instantly  expose  the  face  to  a  current  of  fresh 
air ;  wipe  dry  the  mouth  and  nostrils ;  rip  the 
clothing  so  as  to  expose  the  chest  and  waist,  and 
give  two  or  three  smarting  slaps  on  the  stomach 
with  the  open  hand. 

If  the  patien  t  does  not  revive,  then  proceed  thus : 

2.  To  draw  off  the  water,  etc. ,  from  the  stomach 
and  chest. — Turn  the  patient  on  his  face,  a  large 
bundle  of  tightly-rolled  clothing  being  placed 
beneath  his  stomach,  and  press  heavily  over  it 
for  half  a  minute,  or  so  long  as  fluid  flows  from 
the  mouth. 

3.  To  produce   breathing. — Place  the  patient 
on  his  back,  the  roll  of  clothing  being  so  placed 
as  to  raise  the  pit  of  the  stomach  above  the  level 
of  any  other  part  of  the  body.     If  there  be 
another  person  present,  let  him,  with  a  piece  of 
dry  cloth,  hold  the  tip  of  the  tongue  out  of  one 
corner  of  the  mouth,  and  with  the  other  hand 
grasp  both  wrists  and  keep  the  arms  forcibly 
stretched  back  above  the  head.     (This  position 
prevents    the    tongue    from    falling    back  and 
choking    the  •  entrance   to    the    windpipe,    and 
increasing  the  prominence  of  the  ribs  tends  to 
enlarge  the  chest.     It  is  not,  however,  essential 
to  success.) 

Kneel  beside  or  astride  the  patient's  hips,  and 
with  the  balls  of  the  thumbs  resting  on  either 
side  of  the  pit  of  the  stomach,  let  the  fingers  fall 
into  the  grooves  between  the  short  ribs,  so  as  to 
afford  the  best  grasp  of  the  waist.  Now,  using 
your  knees  as  a  pivot,  throw  all  your  weight 
forward  on  your  hands,  and  at  the  same  time 
squeeze  the  waist  between  them,  as  if  you  wished 
to  force  everything  in  the  chest  upwards  out  of 
the  mouth.  Deepen  the  pressure  while  you  can 
count  slowly  one,  two,  three,  and  then  sud 
denly  let  go  with  a  final  push,  which  springs  you 
back  to  your  first  kneeling  position.  Remain 
erect  on  your  knees  while  you  can  count  one, 
two ;  then  repeat  the  same  motions  as  before,  at 
a  rate  gradually  inci  eased  from  4  or  5  to  15  times 
a  minute,  and  continue  thus  this  bellows  move 
ment  with  the  same  regularity  that  is  observable 
in  the  natural  motions  of  breathing,  which  you 
are  imitating. 

Continue  thus  from  one  to  two  hours,  or  until 
the  patient  breathes.  For  a  while  after,  carefully 
deepen  the  first  short  gasps  into  full  breaths,  and 
continue  the  drying  and  rubbing,  which  should 
be  unceasingly  practiced  from  the  beginning. 

4.  After-treatment.— A.S  soon  as  the  breathing 
has  become  established,  strip  the  patient,  warm 
him  in  blankets  only,  put  him  in  a  bed  comfort 
ably  warm,  but  with  a  free  circulation  of  fresh 
air,  and  leave  him  to  perfect  rest.     Give  a  lit 
tle  hot  brandy  and  water,  or  other  stimulant, 
every  10  or  15  minutes  during  the  first  hour, 
and   as  often   thereafter  as  may  be  deemed  ex 
pedient. 

DROWNED,  TREATMENT  OF  THE  APPARENT 
LY. — This  method 'is  recommended  by  the  Royal 
National  Life-Boat  Institution  of  Great  Britain : 


DROWN 


226 


DROWN 


*Send  immediately  for  medical  assistance, 
blankets,  and  dry  clothing,  but  proceed  to  treat 
the  patient  instantly  on  the  spot,  in  the  open  air, 
with  the  face  downwards,  whether  on  shore  or 
afloat ;  exposing  the  face,  neck,  and  chest  to  the 
wind,  except  in  severe  weather,  and  removing  all 
tight  clothing  from  the  neck  and  chest,  especially 
the  braces. 

The  points  to  be  aimed  at  are, — first,  the  res 
toration  of  breathing ;  and,  secondly,  after  breath 
ing  is  restored,  the  promotion  of  warmth  and 
circulation. 

The  efforts  to  restore  breathing  must  be  com 
menced  immediately  and  energetically,  and 
persevered  in  for  one  or  two  hours,  or  until  a 
medical  man  has  pronounced  that  life  is  extinct. 
Efforts  to  promote  warmth  and  circulation,  be 
yond  removing  the  wet  clothes  and  drying  the 
skin,  must  not  be  made  until  the  first  appearance 
of  natural  breathing;  for  if  circulation  of  the  blood 
be  induced  before  breathing  has  recommenced, 
the  restoration  to  life  will  be  endangered. 

To  clear  the  throat,  place  the  patient  on  the 
floor  or  ground  with  the  face  downwards,  and 
one  of  the  arms  under  the  forehead,  in  which 
position  all  fluids  will  more  readily  escape  by 
the  mouth,  and  the  tongue  itself  will  fall  for 
ward,  leaving  the  entrance  into  the  windpipe 
free.  Assist  this  operation  by  wiping  and  cleans 
ing  the  mouth. 

If  satisfactory  breathing  commences,  use  the 
treatment  described  below,  to  promote  warmth. 
If  there  be  only  slight  breathing,  or  no  breath 
ing,  or  if  the  breathing  fails,  then  : 

To  excite  breathing,  turn  the  patient  well  and 
instantly  on  the  side,  supporting  the  head,  and 
excite  the  nostrils  with  snuff,  hartshorn,  and 
smelling-salts,  or  tickle  the  throat  with  a  feather, 
etc.,  if  they  are  at  hand.  Rub  the  chest  and 
face  warm,  and  dash  cold  water,  or  cold  and  hot 
water  alternately,  on  them.  If  there  be  no  suc 
cess,  lose  not  a  moment,  but  instantly : 

To  imitate  breathing,  replace  the  patient  on 
the  face,  raising  and  supporting  the  chest  well 
on  a  folded  coat  or  other  article  of  dress.  Turn 
the  body  very  gently  on  the  side,  and  a  little  be 
yond,  and  then  briskly  on  the  face,  back  again, 
repeating  these  measures  cautiously,  efficiently, 
perseveringly,  about  fifteen  times  in  a  minute, 
or  once  every  four  or  five  seconds,  occasionally 
varying  the  side. 

( By  placing  the  patient  on  the.  chest,  the  weight 
of  the  body  forces  the  air  out ;  when  turned  on  the 
side,  the  pressure  is  removed,  and  air  enters  the 
chest] 

On  each  occasion  that  the  body  is  replaced  on 
the  face,  make  uniform  but  efficient  pressure, 
with  brisk  movement,  on  the  back,  between  and 
below  the  shoulder-blades,  or  bones  on  each  side, 
removing  the  pressure  immediately  before  turn 
ing  the  body  on  the  side. 

During  the  whole  of  the  operations  let  one  per 
son  attend  solely  to  the  movements  of  the  head 
and  of  the  arm  placed  under  it. 

(The first  measure  increases  the  expiration,  the 
second  commences  inspiration.} 

Whilst  the  above  operations  are  being  pro 
ceeded  with,  dry  the  hands  and  feet,  and  as  soon 
as  dry  clothing  or  blankets  can  be  procured  strip 
the  body,  and  cover  or  gradually  reclothe  it, 
taking  care  not  to  interfere  with  the  efforts  to 
restore  breathing. 


Should  these  efforts  not  prove  successful  in  the 
course  of  from  two  to  five  minutes,  proceed  to 
imitate  breathing  by  Dr.  Silvester's  method,  as 
follows : 

Place  the  patient  on  his  back  on  a  flat  surface, 
inclined  a  little  upwards  from  the  feet ;  raise  and 
support  the  head  and  shoulders  on  a  small  firm 
cushion,  or  folded  articles  of  dress  placed  under 
the  shoulder-blades. 

Draw  forward  the  patient's  tongue,  and  keep 
it  projecting  beyond  the  lips ;  an  elastic  band 
over  the  tongue  and  under  the  chin  will  answer 
this  purpose,  or  a  piece  of  string  or  tape  may  be 
tied  round  them,  or  by  raising  the  lower  jaw,  the 
teeth  may  be  made  to  retain  the  tongue  in  that 
position.  Remove  all  tight  clothing  from  about 
the  neck  and  chest,  especially  the  braces. 

Standing  at  the  patient's  head,  grasp  the  arms 
just  above  the  elbows  ;  draw  the  arms  gently 
and  steadily  upwards  above  the  head,  and  keep 
them  stretched  upwards  for  two  seconds.  (By 
this  means  air  is  drawn  into  the  lungs.}  Then 
turn  down  the  patient's  arms,  and  press  them 
gently  and  firmly  for  two  seconds  against  the 
sides  of  the  chest.  (By  this  means  air  is  pressed 
out  of  the  lungs.} 

Repeat  these  measures  alternate^,  deliber 
ately,  and  perseveringly,  about  fifteen  times  in  a 
minute,  until  a  spontaneous  effort  to  respire  is 
perceived,  immediately  upon  which,  cease  to  imi 
tate  the  movements  of  breathing,  and  proceed  to 
induce  circulation  and  warmth. 

To  promote  warmth  and  circulation. — Com 
mence  rubbing  the  limbs  upwards  with  firm, 
grasping  pressure  and  energy,  using  handker 
chiefs,  flannels,  etc.  (By  this  measure  the  blood 
is  propelled  along  the  veins  towards  the  heart. }  The 
friction  must  be  continued  under  the  blanket  or 
over  the  dry  clothing.  Promote  the  warmth  of 
the  body  by  the  application  of  hot  flannels, 
bottles  or  bladders  of  hot  water,  heated  bricks, 
etc.,  to  the  pit  of  the  stomach,  the  armpits,  be 
tween  the  thighs,  and  to  the  soles  of  the  feet. 

If  the  patient  has  been  carried  to  a  house  after 
respiration  has  been  restored,  be  careful  to  let 
the  air  play  freely  about  the  room. 

On  the  restoration  of  life,  a  teaspoonful  of 
warm  water  should  be  given  ;  and  then  if  the 
power  of  swallowing  have  returned,  small  quan 
tities  of  wine,  warm  brandy  and  water,  or  cof 
fee  should  be  administered.  The  patient  should 
be  kept  in  bed,  and  disposition  to  sleep  encour 
aged. 

General  observations. — The  above  treatment 
should  be  persevered  in  for  some  hours,  as  it  is 
an  erroneous  opinion  that  persons  are  irrecover 
able  because  life  does  not  soon  make  its  appear 
ance.  There  is  an  authentic  account  of  recovery 
after  submersion  for  20  minutes. 

Appearances  which  generally  accompany  death. 
— Breathing  and  the  action  of  the  heart  cease  en 
tirely  ;  the  eyelids  are  half  closed ;  the  pupils 
dilate  ;  the  tongue  approaches  to  the  under  edge 
of  the  lips,  and  the  lips  and  nostrils  are  covered 
with  a  frothy  mucus.  Coldness  and  pallor  in 
crease. 

Ca,utions. — Prevent  unnecessary  crowding  of 
persons  around  the  patient.  Avoid  rough  usage, 
and  do  not  allow  the  patient  to  remain  on  his 
back  unless  the  tongue  be  secured.  Under  no 
circumstances  hold  the  body  up  by  the  feet.  On 
no  account  place  the  body  in  a  warm  bath  unless 


DKOWN 


227 


DKY-KOT 


under  medical  direction,  and  even  then  it  should 
only  be  done  as  a  momentary  excitant. 

DROWNING  PERSONS,  INSTRUCTIONS  FOR  SAV 
ING. 

1.  "When  you  approach  a  drowning  person  in 
the  water,  assure  him,  in  a  loud  voice,  that  he  is 
safe. 

2.  Before  jumping  in  to  save  him-,  divest  your 
self,  as  far   and   as  quickly  as   possible,  of  all 
clothes  ;  tear  them  off  if  necessary  ;  but  if  there 
is  no  time,  loose,  at  all  events,  the  foot  of  your 
drawers  if  they  are  tied,  as,  if  you  do  not  do  so, 
they  will  fill  with  water  and  drag  you. 

3.  On  swimming  to  a  person  in  the  sea,  if  he 
be  struggling,  do  not  seize  him  then,  but  keep 
off  for  a  few  seconds  till  he  gets  quiet,  for  it  is 
sheer  madness  to  take  hold  of  a  man  when  he 
is  struggling  in  the  water ;  if  you  do,  you  run  a 
great  risk. 

4.  Then  get  close  to  him  and  take  fast  hold  of 
the  hair  of  his  head,  turn  him  as  quickly  as  pos 
sible  on  to  his  back,  give  him  a  sudden  pull  and 
this  will  cause  him  to  float,  then  throw  yourself 
on  your  back  also  and  swim  for  the  shore,  both 
hand*  having  hold  of  his  hair,  you  on  your  back 
and  he  also  on  his,  and  of  course  his  back  to 
your  stomach.     In  this  way  you  will  get  sooner 
and  safer  ashore  than  by  any  other  means,  and 
you  can  easily  thus  swim  with  two  or  three  per 
sons  ;    the  writer  has   even,  as  an  experiment, 
done  it  with  four,  and  gone  with  them  forty  or 
fifty  yards  in  the  sea.     One  great  advantage  of 
this  method  is  that  it  enables  you  to  keep  your 
head  up,  and  also  to  hold  the  person's  head  up 
you  are  trying  to  save.     It  is  of  primary  im 
portance  that  you  take  fast  hold  of  the  hair, 
and  throw  both  the  person  and  yourself  on  your 
backs.     After  many  experiments   it   is  usually 
found  preferable  to  all  other  methods.    You  can, 
in  this   manner,    float    nearly   as   long   as   you 
please,  or  until  a  boat  or  other  help  can  be  ob 
tained. 

5.  It  is  believed  there  is  no  such  thing  as  a 
death-grasp,  at  least  it  is  very  unusual  to  witness 
it.     As  soon  as  a  drowning  man  begins  to  get 
feeble  and  to  lose  his  recollection,  he  gradually 
slackens  his  hold  until  he  quits  it  altogether. 
No  apprehension  need  therefore  be  felt  on  that 
head   when   attempting   to   rescue   a   drowning 
person. 

6.  After  a  person  has  sunk  to  the  bottom,  if 
the  water  be  smooth,  the  exact  position  where 
the  body  lies  may  be  known  by  the  air-bubbles, 
which  will  occasionally  rise  to  the  surface,  al 
lowance  being  of  course  made  for  the  motion  of 
the  water  if  in  a  tide-way  or  stream,  which  will 
have  carried  the  bubbles  out  of  a  perpendicular 
course  in  rising  to  the  surface.     A  body  may  be 
often  regained  from  the  bottom  before  too  late 
for  recovery  by  diving  for  it  in  the  direction  in 
dicated  by  these  bubbles. 

7.  On  rescuing  a  person  by  diving  to  the  bot 
tom,  the  hair  of  the  head  should  be  seized  by 
one  hand  only,  and  the  other  used  in  conjunc 
tion  with  the  feet  in  raising  yourself  and  drown 
ing  person  to  the  surface. 

8.  If  in  the  sea,  it  may  sometimes  be  a  great 
error  to  try  and  get  to  land.    If  there  be  a  strong 
outsetting  tide,  and  you  are  swimming  either  by 
yourself,  or  having  hold  of  a  person  who  cannot 
swim,  then  get  on  your  back  and  float  till  help 
comes. 


9.  These  instructions  apply  alike  to  all  cir 
cumstances,  whether  the  roughest  sea  or  smooth 
water. 

DROWNING  THE  MILLER.  Adding  too  much 
water  to  wine  or  spirits. 

Drub.     To  beat. 

Drugger.  A  small  vessel  which  formerly  ex 
ported  fish  from  Dieppe  and  other  Channel 
ports,  and  brought  back  from  the  Levant  spices 
and  drugs. 

Drum-fish.  A  genus  of  fishes  (Pogonias) 
which  make  a  peculiar  drumming  or  grunting 
noise  under  water. 

Drum-head.  That  portion  of  a  capstan  in 
which  the  bars  are  inserted. 

Drumler.  An  ancient  transport.  (See  DRO 
MOND.)  Also,  a  small  piratical  vessel  of  war. 

Drummer.  The  marine  who  beats  the  drum. 
Also,  a  singular  fish  of  the  corvinas  kind,  which 
has  the  faculty  of  emitting  musical  noises,  whence 
it  has  acquired  the  name  of  crocros. 

Druxy.  Timber  in  a  state  of  decay,  the  con 
dition  of  which  is  manifested  by  veins  or  spots 
of  a  whitish  tint. 

Dry-bulb  Thermometer.  The  readings  of 
this  instrument,  when  compared  with  those  of  a 
wet-bulb  thermometer,  indicate  the  amount  of 
moisture  in  the  air. 

Dry-dock.  An  artificial  receptacle  for  exam 
ining  and  repairing  vessels.  See  DOCKS. 

Dry-ducking.  Suspending  a  person  by  a  rope 
above  the  surface  of  the  water. 

Dry-flogging.  Punishing  over  the  clothes  of 
a  culprit. 

Dry-gales.  Those  storms  which  are  accom 
panied  with  a  clear  sky,  as  the  northers  of  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico,  the  harmattan  of  Africa,  etc. 

Dry  Holy-stoning.     See  HOLY-STONE. 

Dry-pipe.  A  prolongation  or  system  of 
branches  of  the  main  steam-pipe,  extending 
within  a  steam-boiler  at  the  highest  point  possi 
ble,  by  which  the  steam  is  drawn  through  nu 
merous  small  holes  or  narrow  slits  in  its  upper 
side  equally  from  all  parts  of  the  boiler.  Its 
object  is  to  prevent  priming  and  collect  the 
steam  in  a  dry  state. 

Dry-rot.  This  is  the  result  of  the  growth  of  a 
parasitic  fungus  (Polyporus  hybridus*  and  other 
species  of  Polyporus)  within  the  substance  of 
wood,  whereby  it  loses  its  elasticity  and  firm 
ness,  becomes  brittle,  and  finally  crumbles  into 
dust.  This  result  follows  from  the  nutrition  of 
the  plant,  which  withdraws  from  the  wood  por 
tions  of  its  carbon  and  nitrogen,  and  so  alters  its 
composition.  The  fungus  consists  mainly  of 
minute  branching  white  threads  (mycelium), 
which  penetrate  between  the  fibres  of  the  wood, 
and  are  nourished  at  their  expense.  It  may  ex 
tend  to  all  parts  of  a  ship  without  producing 
fruit  (spores),  undermining  the  interior  parts  of 
timber,  but  avoiding  the  light  and  air,  under 
cover  of  a  thin  shell  of  sound  wood  which  con 
ceals  its  ravages.  It  flourishes  in  dark,  damp, 
and  confined  places,  such  as  the  frame-spaces  of 
ships,  and  the  inner  parts  of  the  planking  which 
covers  them.  When  the  Polyporus  fruits  (which 
is  seldom)  it  seeks  the  light  and  develops 
its  spore-bearing  organ  (pileus),  resembling  a 
crust  of  dried  white  paint  at  the  surface.  On 
the  external  side  of  this  crust  are  innumerable 


*  Nat.  Ord.  Hymenomycette,  Fam.  Polyporei. 


DUB 


228 


DUGUAY-TROUIN 


minute  pores,  within  which  the  spores  are  to 
be  found,  growing  in  fours  on  the  summits  of 
slender  stalks  (basidia),  easily  visible  under  a 
magnifying  power  of  about  200  diameters.  The 
mycelium  may,  however,  be  detected  with  the 
naked  eye  as  white  threads  lying  between  the 
bundles  of  woody  fibre  and  parallel  with  them. 
Under  the  microscope,  the  mycelium  is  seen  to 
consist  of  very  minute  branching  filaments,  mat 
ted  or  felted  together. 

Since  the  dry-rot  fungus  nourishes  only  under 
the  conditions  of  moisture,  darkness,  and  con 
fined  air,  its  growth  may  probably  be  prevented 
on  shipboard  by  such  a  system  of  construction 
as  shall  afford  free  ventilation  of  the  bilges, 
frame-spaces  (by  boring  through  filling-chocks 
and  by  openings  on  the  spar-deck),  spaces  be 
neath  store-room  floors,  and  recesses  behind  bulk 
heads  ;  by  forced  ventilation,  as  now  practiced 
in  the  U.  S.  S.  "Richmond";  and  by  keeping 
the  holds  and  lower  decks  dry.  Extensive  ex 
periments  are  now  (1880)  being  prosecuted  by 
the  Navy  Department  with  a  view  to  the  preser 
vation  of  ship-timber  from  decay,  by  impregna 
tion  under  pressure  with  carbolic  acid  ("  Bur- 
nettizing"),  and  with  barium  sulphate  (the 
"  Thilmany  process"),  from  which  good  results 
are  hoped  for. 

Besides  the  pecuniary  loss  resulting  from  the 
ravages  of  dry-rot,  it  appears  to  afford  a  pecu 
liarly  favorable  nidus  for  the  development  of 
the  yellow  fever  poison,  and  the  preservation  of 
its  vitality  against  the  unfavorable  influence  of 
cold  weather.  See  YELLOW  FEVER. 

Other  fungi,  such  as  a  cobweb-like  growth  on 
the  under  side  of  wet  planks  (Helminthosporium), 
molds,  and  patches  of  surface  discoloration,  are 
common  on  shipboard,  but  do  not  appreciably 
influence  the  decay  of  wood. — J.  H.  Kidder,  Sur 
geon  U.S.N. 

Dub.  A  term  for  a  pool  of  deep  smooth  water 
in  a  rapid  river. 

Dubb.  To  cut  off  and  smooth  with  an  adze  the 
superfluous  wood.  To  dub b  a  vessel  bright,  is  to 
remove  the  outer  surface  of  the  plank  completely 
with  an  adze.  Spotting  with  the  adze  to  examine 
planks  is  also  dubbing. 

Dubbah,  or  Dubber.  A  coarse  leathern  ves 
sel  for  holding  liquids  in  India. 

Dubhe.  A  standard  nautical  star  in  the  Great 
Bear,  a  Ursce  Mnjoris. 

Dublin.  The  capital  city  of  Ireland,  on  the 
Liffey,  close  to  its  entrance  into  Dublin  Bay, 
Irish  Sea,  66  miles  W.  of  Holyhead,  and  135 
miles  W.  of  Liverpool.  Lat.  53°  23'  2"  N.  ; 
Ion.  6°  20'  5"  W.  The  harbor  has  been  latterly 
much  improved,  and  near  the  mouth  of  the 
Liffey  are  the  Grand  Canal  and  the  custom 
house  docks,  the  latter  occupying  8  acres ;  depth 
at  low  water  12  feet,  at  high  tides  24  feet.  The 
bay  is  noble  and  picturesque,  and  esteemed  one 
of  the  finest  in  the  United  Kingdom  ;  it  is  about 
7  miles  in  breadth  at  its  entrance,  between 
Howth  Head,  on  the  north,  and  Kingston,  on 
the  south.  Pop.  246,300. 

Ducat.  A  well-known  coin  in  most  parts  of 
Europe.  See  MONEY. 

Ducatoon.  A  coin  of  the  Dutch  Oriental 
Isles,  value  about  $1.70.  Also,  a  silver  coin  of 
Venice,  value  about  $1.10. 

Duck.  To  dive,  or  immerse  another  under 
water.  The  finest  canvas  for  small  sails  is  some 


times  called  duck  •  but  it  is  really  a  lighter  cloth 
than  canvas,  and  is  much  used  by  seamen  and 
soldiers  in  hot  climates  for  frocks  and  trousers. 

DUCKING.  A  penalty  which  veteran  sailors 
inflict  on  those  who,  for  the  first  time,  pass  the 
tropics,  the  equator,  or  formerly  even  the  Strait 
of  Gibraltar,  and  usually  performed  in  a  tub  or 
half-butt,  with  the  assistance  of  a  few  buckets  of 
water ;  the  usual  fine,  however,  generally  pre 
vents  the  penalty  being  inflicted. 

DUCKING  AT  THE  YARD-ARM.  A  marine 
punishment  formerly  inflicted  by  the  French  for 
grave  offenses  ;  the  criminal  was  placed  astride  a 
short  thick  batten,  fastened  to  the  end  of  a  rope 
which  passed  through  a  block  at  the  yard-arm. 
Thus  fixed  he  was  hoisted  suddenly  up  to  the 
yard,  and  the  rope  being  then  let  go  he  was 
plunged  into  the  sea.  This  operation  was  re 
peated  several  times,  conformable  to  the  sen 
tence  ;  a  gun  advertised  the  other  ships  of  the 
fleet  that  their  crews  might  become  spectators. 
If  the  offense  was  very  great  he  was  drawn  un 
derneath  the  keel  of  the  ship,  which  was  called 
keel-hauling.  See  KEEL-HAULING. 

DUCKS.  "The  general  name  for  a  sailor's  dress 
in  warm  climates. 

Duck  Up.  To  raise  the  clew  of  the  mainsail 
or  foresail  when  it  interferes  with  the  steering  by 
shutting  out  the  landmarks. 

Dudgeon  Wrath.  An  old  word  for  the  box- 
handle  of  a  dirk. 

Duds.  A  cant  term  for  clothes  or  personal 
property.  The  term  is  old,  but  still  in  common 
use,  though  usually  applied  to  clothing  of  an  in 
ferior  quality. 

Duel.  In  former  days  duels  were  of  frequent 
occurrence  in  the  navy,  but  latterly  they  are  al 
most  unknown.  It  is  forbidden  by  the  regula 
tions  to  send  or  accept  a  challenge  to  fight  a  duel 
or  act  as  second  in  a  duel,  and  courts-martial  are 
empowered  to  inflict  any  punishment  for  this 
offense,  except  death,  flogging,  or  imprisonment 
at  hard  labor. 

Duff.     A  sort  of  pudding.     The  posterior. 

Duffer.  A  low  peddler.  A  woman  who  as 
sists  smugglers.  A  stupid  or  cowardly  fellow. 

Dugong.  An  herbivorous  mammal  of  the 
East  Indian  seas,  intermediate  between  the 
Cetacea  and  the  Pachydermata,  having  an  elon 
gated  body,  with  flippers  near  the  head,  and 
terminated  by  a  crescent-shaped  tail. 

Dug-out.     A  canoe  hewn  from  one  tree. 

Duguay-Trouin,  Rene,  one  of  the  most  illus 
trious  of  French  sailors,  was  born  at  Saint  Malo, 
10th  of  June,  1673,  and  died  at  Paris,  27th  of 
September,  1736. 

He  came  from  a  family  of  sailors,  but  was 
himself  destined  from  childhood  to  be  an  eccle 
siastic,  going  early  to  the  College  of  Rennes, 
where  he  donned  the  soutane,  and  received  the 
tonsure,  with  a  view  to  succeeding  to  a  rich 
benefice  which  friends  of  his  family  had  in  their 
gift. 

His  father  died  when  he  was  only  fifteen,  and 
he  was  then  sent  to  Caen  to  study  philosophy. 
Here  his  sanguine  temperament  and  love  of 
pleasure  caused  him  to  break  bounds,  and  he 
neglected  his  studies  for  the  dissipations  of  a 
large  city.  His  escapades  at  last  became  quite 
notorious,  and  he  was  forced  by  his  family  to  re 
turn  to  Saint  Malo,  whence  he  was  soon  sent  to 
sea  in  the  corsaire  "La  Trinite,"  in  which  his 


DUGUAY-TROUIN 


229 


DUMFOUNDER 


family  had  a  large  interest.  This  was  in  1689. 
He  remained  in  this  vessel  for  two  years,  under 
going  considerable  hardship,  but  always  distin 
guished  for  his  conduct  in  numerous  engage 
ments  with  English  and  Dutch  vessels. 

After  this  apprenticeship,  he  went  to  sea  in 
another  vessel,  of  18  guns,  when  he  showed  so 
much  courage  and  conduct  that  he  was  given  a 
command,  being  then  only  18  years  of  age. 
After  this  he  continually  distinguished  himself 
by  attacks  upon  the  English  shipping,  both  in 
privateers  and  in  vessels  of  the  state.  In  1694, 
while  in  command  of  the  "  Diligente,"  a  40-gun 
frigate,  he  was  surrounded  by  an  English  squad 
ron  of  six  men-of-war,  under  Admiral  Sir  David 
Mitchell.  After  fighting  for  twelve  hours,  his 
crew  were  nearly  all  killed  or  wounded,  he  him 
self  was  wounded,  and  his  ship  on  the  point  of 
sinking,  so  he  was  obliged  to  surrender.  He 
was  imprisoned  at  Plymouth,  where  he  man 
aged  to  make  a  friend  of  a  pretty  bumboat 
woman,  and  with  her  assistance  escaped  in  a 
small  boat,  with  his  lieutenant,  his  surgeon,  the 
boatswain,  and  a  servant.  After  forty-eight 
hours  of  very  rough  weather  they  managed  to 
reach  the  coast  of  Brittany. 

He  was  soon  at  sea  again,  in  a  ship  of  48  guns, 
in  which  he  took  two  English  men-of-war  of 
superior  force,  one  of  which  he  brought  in.  For 
this  action  he  received  a  sword  of  honor,  and 
was  invited  to  join  the  fleet  of  the  Marquis  de 
Nesmond,  where  he  had  his  usual  success  in 
making  prizes. 

After  this  cruise  he  went  to  Paris,  to  be  pre 
sented  to  Louis  Quatorze,  and  received  many 
honors  while  there.  He  did  not  remain  long, 
however,  returning  to  his  sea-life,  and  had  com 
mand  of  several  small  squadrons,  which  he 
handled  with  his  accustomed  ability,  having 
been  made  capitaine  de  fregate  of  the  royal 
marine. 

After  the  peace  of  Ryswick  he  passed  four 
years  of  enforced  idleness  ;  but  upon  the  breaking 
out  of  the  war  of  the  Spanish  succession,  he  was 
again  promptly  at  sea,  serving  against  the  Hol 
landers  and  the  English,  in  which  he  passed 
through  many  battles  and  many  perils.  In  1705, 
when  thirty-two  years  of  age,  he  was  made  cap 
itaine  de  vaisseau,  and  very  shortly  after,  in  con 
sequence  of  continued  successes  against  the  Por 
tuguese,  English,  and  others,  he,  with  his  elder 
brother  (two  younger  ones  had  been  killed  while 
serving  under  him),  received  letters  of  nobility. 

In  1711  he  sailed,  in  command  of  a  fleet  of  7 
line-of-battle  ships,  8  frigates,  and  2  bomb-ves 
sels,  with  nearly  6000  men,  for  Rio  de  Janeiro. 
He  entered  the  bay  under  the  fire  of  the  Portu 
guese  batteries,  and  the  next  day  disembarked 
his  force.  After  some  slight  resistance  the  city 
was  abandoned  by  its  inhabitants.  Duguay- 
Trouin  then  threatened  to  utterly  destroy  the 
place  unless  a  handsome  ransom  was  paid.  This 
was  done,  and  he  then  set  out  on  his  return  to 
Brest,  but  lost  two  of  his  largest  vessels  on  the 
voyage, — sunk  in  a  hurricane.  For  this  action 
he  received  a  pension  of  2000  crowns  and  the  title 
of  commandant  of  the  marine  of  Saint  Malo ; 
and  in  1715,  at  Versailles,  he  received  the  com 
mission  of  admiral  of  the  fleet. 

Louis  XIV.  died  soon  after  this,  and  Duguay- 
Trouin  remained  at  Saint  Malo  in  retirement 
until  1723,  when,  under  the  regency,  he  was 


made  a  councillor  for  India.  In  1728  he  was 
made  commander  of  the  order  of  St.  Louis  and 
lieutenant-general.  The  next  year  he  was  made 
commandant  of  marine  of  Brest  and  of  the  coasts 
of  Brittany.  In  1731  he  commanded  a  fleet 
fitted  out  to  punish  the  Barbary  corsairs,  but  the 
appearance  of  the  force  so  imposed  upon  the 
Moors  that  they  gave  every  satisfaction  without 
any  fighting.  Although  he  continued  in  service, 
this  was  his  last  active  employment.  His  labors 
and  exposure  had  undermined  a  naturally  vigor 
ous  constitution,  and  he  died  in  Paris  at  63  years 
of  age. 

Duguay-Trouin  was  so  disinterested  and  gen 
erous  that,  in  spite  of  his  many  captures,  he  died 
comparatively  poor.  His  officers  and  sailors 
fairly  worshiped  him,  not  only  on  account  of 
his  intrepidity,  but  because  of  his  liberality  in  re 
gard  to  prize-money.  A  statue  of  him  is  erected 
in  the  "  Place  Duguay-Trouin,"  at  Saint  Malo. 

A  portrait  of  this  intrepid  sailor  is  in  the  city 
hall,  and  in  the  museum  at  Versailles  is  a  statue 
of  him  in  black  marble.  The  portrait  repre 
sents  him  in  a  rich  military  costume,  decor 
ated  with  the  order  of  the  Holy  Ghost.  On 
his  bandolier  are  the  arms  granted  him  by 
Louis  XIV., — two  fleur-de-lis  and  an  anchor. 
He  holds  a  pistol  in  his  right  hand,  while  the 
left  grasps  the  hilt  of  his  sword.  His  hat  is 
ornamented  with  plumes,  which,  in  our  day,  is 
not  considered  naval.  There  is  also  a  statue 
of  Duguay-Trouin  in  the  Bourse,  at  Nantes, 
and  there  are  two  other  well-known  oil-paint 
ings  of  him.  He  is  represented  with  a  youthful 
and  animated  countenance,  wears  a  huge  wig, 
and  a  coat  above  his  cuirass. 

His  arms  appear  upon  the  picture  (given  by 
Louis  XIV.),— the  fleur-de-lis  and  anchor, — and 
the  legend,  "Didit  haec  insignia  virtus."— E. 
Shippen. 

Duke  of  York  (Eng.).  A  nickname  for  a 
peculiar  storm-trysail  used  in  the  northern  seas. 

Dulce,  Dulse,  Delse.  One  of  the  edible  fuci, 
Iridea  dulce.  It  is  plentiful  on  the  rocky  coasts 
of  Ireland  and  western  England.  It  probably 
derived  its  name  from  being  sweet  and  pleasant, 
not  requiring  cooking. 

Duledge  Plate.  An  old  name  for  the  tire  or 
iron  plate  on  the  circumference  of  the  wheel  of 
a  field-piece.  Duledge  was  also  used  for  dowel, 
the  wooden  pin  connecting  the  felloes. 

Dull'd.   Fallen  or  moderated  ;  said  of  the  wind. 

Duluth.  A  city  and  port  of  entry  of  Minne 
sota,  the  capital  of  St.  Louis  Co.,  is  finely  sit 
uated  at  the  W.  end  of  Lake  Superior,  and  is 
the  eastern  terminus  of  the  Northern  Pacific 
Railroad.  Lat.  46°  48'  N. ;  Ion.  92°  6'  W. 
Duluth  has  a  very  advantageous  position  for  a 
commercial  city,  being  at  the  head  of  navigation 
on  the  great  lakes.  Pop.  3300. 

Dumb-chalder.  A  metal  cleat  bolted  to  the 
back  of  the  stern-post  for  one  of  the  pintles  to 
rest  upon,  to  lessen  both  strain  and  friction. 

Dumb-craft.  Lighters,  lumps,  or  punts,  not 
having  sails.  A  name  for  the  screws  used  for 
lifting  a  ship  on  the  slip. 

Dumb-pintle.     A  peculiar  rudder-strap. 

Dumb-scraping.  Scraping  wet  decks  with 
blunt  scrapers. 

Dumb-sheave.  An  aperture  without  a  sheave, 
through  which  is  rove  a  rope. 

Dumfounder.     To  confuse  or  perplex. 


DUMMY 


230 


DUPONT 


.Dummy.  A  wood  frame  landing-place  in 
front  of  a  pier. 

Dump-bolt.  A  short  bolt,  not  driven  through 
two  pieces  of  timber ;  sometimes  called  a  blunt- 
bolt.  Also,  in  wooden  ship-building,  a  fictitious 
bolt,  sometimes  driven  into  knees, — merely  a 
short  piece  of  iron  with  a  head  on  it  to  make  the 
fastenings  appear  regular. 

Dumps.  Nearly  synonymous  with  down  in 
the  mouth. 

Dunbar  Medlar.     A  salted  herring. 

Duncan,  Admiral  (Lord  Camperdown).  Born 
in  1731,  at  Dundee,  Scotland;  entered  the  navy 
as  midshipman  in  1746;  became  lieutenant  in 
1755,  and  in  1761  commander  of  the  "  Valiant," 
of  74  guns  ;  in  1789  appointed  rear-admiral  of  the 
blue,  and  in  1793  vice-admiral  of  the  blue. 

Although  this  truly  good  and  gallant  man  saw 
much  service  under  Admiral  Keppel  and  Lord 
Howe  in  Africa,  America,  and  the  Mediter 
ranean,  it  was  not  until  he  obtained  independent 
command  in  the  North  Sea  that  he  had  a  chance 
of  distinguishing  himself.  By  the  exercise  of 
patience,  constancy,  and  cool  courage  he  was 
enabled  to  draw  an  immense  Dutch  fleet  out  of 
the  Texel,  and  after  a  long  and  severe  en 
counter,  in  October,  1797,  to  completely  beat  his 
enemy  and  capture  nine  large  line-of-battle 
ships  (including  that  of  the  famous  De  Wister) 
and  two  frigates.  For  a  victory  so  acceptable  to 
the  nation  Duncan  was  created  a  viscount,  with 
a  pension  of  £2000  a  year,  and  his  title  (Lord 
Camperdown)  was  derived  from  the  locality  of 
the  fight.  Died  August  4,  1804. 

Dunderhead.  A  term  used  for  a  stupid  fel 
low. 

Dun-diver.  A  name  for  the  goosander  (Mer- 
ffus  merganser)  in  immature  plumage. 

Dundonald,  Earl.  Born  December  14,  1775. 
While  still  a  boy  obtained  a  commission  in  the 
104th  Regiment.  At  the  age  of  17,  however,  he 
joined  the  "  Hind"  corvette,  commanded  by  his 
uncle,  Capt.  Sir  Alexander  Cochrane,  and  began 
the  career  in  which  he  was  destined  to  win  so 
much  renown. 

In  April,  1809,  a  French  fleet  having  assem 
bled  in  Basque  Roads  for  the  purpose  of  protect 
ing  Martinique,  then  threatened  by  an  English 
force,  Admiral  Gambier  was  deputed  to  blockade 
the  French  in  the  roads.  In  this  enterprise  he 
was  assisted  by  Lord  Cochrane,  afterwards  Earl 
of  Dundonald,  an  officer  of  singular  intrepidity. 
To  prevent  the  ingress  of  the  British  ships  of 
war  the  French  admiral  caused  a  barrier  to  be 
constructed  of  booms  and  spars  lashed  together 
and  anchored  at  either  end.  With  twelve  fire- 
ships  Lord  Cochrane  dashed  through  the  obstruc 
tion  and  advanced  towards  the  fleet  of  the  enemy. 
Those  of  the  French  fleet  that  escaped  being 
burnt  or  blown  up  were  run  ashore  by  the 
French  admiral.  Thus  was  the  purpose  of  the 
French  utterly  frustrated.  Commander-in-chief 
on  the  North  American  and  West  India  Station. 
In  1851  he  was  vice-admiral  of  the  white,  and 
in  1854  rear-admiral  of  the  United  Kingdom,  a 
distinction  which  he  held  to  his  death.  He  died 
October  31,  1860. 

Dunes.  An  Anglo-Saxon  word  still  in  use, 
signifying  mounds  or  ridges  of  drifted  sands. 
See  DOWNS. 

Dun-fish.  A  peculiar  preparation  of  cod,  by 
which  it  retains  a  dun  or  dark  yellow  color. 


Dungaree.  A  kind  of  blue  cotton  stuff  used 
for  working-clothes  by  the  cooks,  and  for  facings 
for  collars  and  cuffs.  At  present  the  regulations 
require  that  the  cuffs  and  collars  shall  be  of  blue 
flannel. 

Dungaree-duck.  A  name  given  to  a  small 
dried  fish  in  Bombay. 

Dungiyah.  A  broad-beamed  flat-bottomed 
Arabian  coaster  trading  between  the  Red  Sea, 
Gulf  of  Persia,  and  the  Malabar  coast. 

Dunkirk.  A  fortified  seaport  town,  and  the 
northernmost  of  France,  department  of  Nord,  on 
the  Strait  of  Dover,  40  miles  N.W.  of  Lille,  and 
45  miles  E.  of  Dover,  at  the  junction  of  three 
canals  and  of  several  railways.  It  has  a  heavy 
trade  and  important  fishery.  It  has  two  harbors, 
with  extensive  docks,  a  breakwater,  and  other 
artificial  improvements.  Pop.  35,100. 

Dunkirks.  The  well-known  name  for  pirates 
who  sailed  out  of  Dunkirk. 

Dunlin.  The  name  of  a  species  of  sandpiper 
(Tr/.nga  cinclus). 

Dunn,  Edward  T.,  Paymaster-General 
U.S.N.  Born  in  District  of  Columbia.  Ap 
pointed  from  District  of  Columbia,  February  21, 
1831  ;  attached  to  sloop  "John  Adams,"  Medi 
terranean  Squadron,  1833-34;  schooner  "  Boxer," 
Pacific  Squadron,  1835;  sloop  "Vincennes," 
Pacific  Squadron,  1836;  frigate  "Macedonian," 
West  India  Squadron,  1837-40;  receiving-ship, 
Norfolk,  1845;  frigate  "Columbus,"  East  India 
Squadron,  1846,  and  in  the  Pacific  Squadron 
during  the  Mexican  war;  navv-yard,  New 
York,  1850-51;  frigate  "Columbia,"  Home 
Squadron,  1852-55;  navy-yard,  Norfolk,  1857- 
60;  sloop  "St.  Mary's,"  Pacific  Squadron,  1861- 
63;  Fleet-paymaster,  West  Gulf  Blockading 
Squadron,  1863-65;  paymaster  at  Baltimore, 
1866-69;  chief  of  Bureau  of  Provisions  and 
Clothing,  1870-73.  Commissioned  as  paymaster- 
general  in  1871 ;  placed  on  retired  list  in  Janu 
ary,  1873 ;  detached  from  the  bureau  in  Febru 
ary,  1873,  and  ordered  on  special  duty  to  Naval 
Station,  New  Orleans,  and  navy-yards  at  Pen- 
sacola  and  Mare  Island ;  returned  to  Washing 
ton  in  August,  1873 ;  retired,  having  attained 
the  age  of  62,  in  1874. 

Dunnage.  Loose  wood  or  other  substances, 
as  horns,  rattan,  coir,  etc.,  to  stow  among  casks 
and  other  cargo  to  prevent  their  motion.  See 
STOWAGE. 

DUNNAGE  BATTENS.  An  extra  floor  in  a 
merchantman  to  preserve  the  cargo  from  wet  in 
the  event  of  leakage. 

DUNNAGE-GRATINGS.  Gratings  on  which 
cargo  is  stowed. 

Dunter.     A  name  for  the  porpoise. 

Dupont,  Samuel  Francis,  Rear-Admiral 
U.S.N.  Born  at  Bergen  Point,  N.  J.,  Septem 
ber  27, 1803 ;  died  in  Philadelphia,  June  23,  1865 ; 
grandson  of  P.  S.  Dupont  Nemours.  Midshipman 
in  the  navy  at  12 ;  lieutenant,  April  26,  1826 ; 
commander,  October  28,  1842'.  In  1845  he  was 
ordered  to  the  Pacific  in  command  of  the  frigate 
"Congress,"  and  during  the  Mexican  war  saw 
much  active  service  on  the  Californian  coast. 
In  the  "  Cyane,"  he  captured  San  Diego; 
cleared  the  Gulf  of  California  of  Mexican  ves 
sels  ;  took  La  Paz,  the  capital  of  Lower  Cali 
fornia ;  assisted  in  the  capture  of  Mazatlan  in 
November,  1847,  and  defended  Lower  California 
against  the  Indians  and  Mexicans.  In  Feb- 


DUQUESNE 


231 


DUQUESNE 


ruary,  1848,  he  landed  at  San  Jose  with  a  hun 
dred  marines  and  sailors  and  defeated  and  dis 
persed  a  Mexican  force  five  times  as  great.  Cap 
tain,  September  14,  1855.  Having  recommended 
the  occupation  of  Port  Koyal  as  a  central  har 
bor  or  depot  on  the  southern  coast,  he  was  given 
the  command  of  the  South  Atlantic  Block 
ading  Squadron,  and  intrusted  with  the  at 
tack  on  that  place.  Sailing  from  Fortress 
Monroe,  October  29,  1861,  in  the  "Wabash," 
with  a  fleet  of  50  sail  of  war  vessels  and  trans 
ports,  conveying  Gen.  Sherman's  troops,  he 
arrived  off  Port  Royal  November  4  and  5,  after 
a  violent  storm,  and  on  the  7th  attacked  and 
captured  two  strong  forts  on  Hilton  Head  and 
Bay  Point,  which"  defended  the  harbor.  He 
followed  up  this  advantage  vigorously,  and  his 
operations  along  the  southern  coast  were  inva 
riably  successful.  He  also  succeeded  in  making 
the  blockade  more  effective  than  before.  July 
16,  1882,  he  was  made  a  rear-admiral  on  the 
active  list.  In  April,  1863,  he  commanded  the 
fleet  which  unsuccessfully  attacked  Charleston. 
He  was  soon  after  relieved  of  the  command  of 
the  South  Atlantic  Blockading  Squadron,  and 
subsequently  held  no  active  command.  Admiral 
Dupont  aided  in  organizing  the  naval  school  at 
Annapolis,  and  is  the  author  of  a  report  on  the 
use  of  floating-batteries  for  coast  defense,  which 
has  been  republished  and  highly  commended  in 
England  by  Sir  Howard  Douglas  in  his  work 
on  naval  gunnery. 

Duquesne,  Abraham,  Marquis,  lieutenant- 
general  of  the  sea  forces,  and  one  of  the  greatest 
seamen  France  ever  produced,  was  born  at 
Dieppe  in  1610.  Entering  the  navy  early,  he 
soon  rose  to  the  command  of  a  small  vessel,  in 
which  he  joined  in  the  recapture  of  some  of  the 
French  islands  from  the  Spaniards,  for  which 
service  he  was  reported  most  favorably  to  Riche 
lieu.  During  the  operations  he  learned  of  the 
death  of  his  father,  in  action  with  the  Spaniards, 
and  Duquesne  seems  to  have  ever  after  enter 
tained  the  most  lively  dislike  for  that  nation, 
causing  them  to  feel  the  effects  of  his  resentment 
on  numberless  occasions.  In  1638  he,  under  cir 
cumstances  of  great  difficulty  and  peril,  rescued 
from  under  the  guns  of  St.  Sebastian  several 
French  vessels  which  had  been  stranded  there. 
The  same  year,  at  the  battle  of  Gattari,  Du 
quesne  decided  the  victory  by  blowing  up  the 
Spanish  admiral's  flag-ship  by  means  of  a  fire- 
vessel. 

In  1639  he  served  in  the  naval  operations  on 
the  Biscayan  coast,  and  at  the  capture  of  Laredo 
and  Santona.  At  the  latter  place  he  was  dan 
gerously  wounded  by  a  bullet  in  the  jaw  while 
boarding  a  galleon. 

During  1641  he  served  in  the  Mediterranean 
against  the  Spaniards,  was  constantly  engaged, 
and  again  wounded.  Two  years  afterwards  he 
was  again  actively  engaged  on  the  coast  of 
Spain,  participating  in  the  battles  off  Cape  de 
Gatte  (where  he  was  again  wounded)  and  at 
Carthagena. 

Richelieu  having  died1,  the  French  navy  fell 
into  neglect,  and  Duquesne  took  temporary  ser 
vice  under  the  Swedish  crown,  which  was  then 
engaged  in  a  naval  warfare  with  Denmark. 
Queen  Christina  received  him  very  cordially, 
giving  him  at  first  the  rank  of  major-general, 
and  afterwards  that  of  vice-admiral. 


In  the  latter  capacity  he  bore  a  part  in  the 
naval  engagement  of  1644,  under  Nicolas  Flem- 
ming  and  Torstensen,  against  the  old  king 
Christian  IV.  of  Denmark.  He  also  served  in 
the  naval  battle  off  the  island  of  Fremeren,  un 
der  the  command  of  Admiral  Wrangel,  the 
Danish  fleet  being  commanded  by  Admiral  Pros- 
mond. 

Peace  between  Sweden  and  Denmark  being 
shortly  after  this  concluded,  Duquesne  retired 
from  the  Swedish  service  and  returned  to  France. 
In  1645  he  was  again  actively  employed  against 
Spain,  and  in  the  following  year  was  once  more 
wounded,  in  a  naval  battle  upon  the  coast  of 
Italy. 

In  1647,  being  then  a  capitaine  de  vaisseau, 
he  was  sent  to  Sweden  to  purchase  four  vessels 
of  the  line  for  the  French  navy,  after  which  he 
assumed  command  of  the  squadron  of  Dunkirk, 
in  French  Flanders,  which  position  he  retained 
for  five  years. 

In  1653  occurred  the  naval  operations  of  the 
Duke  de  Vendome  about  the  mouth  of  the  Gi- 
ronde,  consequent  upon  the  civil  war  of  the 
Fronde.  The  French  navy  had  by  this  time  so 
decreased  that  the  duke,  in  summoning  Duquesne 
from  the  North  Sea  to  his  assistance,  was  obliged 
to  ask  the  latter  to  man  and  equip  some  of  the 
vessels  at  his  own  expense.  On  his  way  down 
the  channel  to  join  the  duke,  Duquesne  met  an 
English  squadron,  which  summoned  him  to 
strike  his  flag, — a  token  of  submission  at  that 
time  imposed  upon  all  foreigners  by  the  English, 
if  within  Ushant  or  even  Finisterre.  To  the 
demand  Duquesne  returned  a  haughty  refusal, 
whereupon  a  very  close  and  murderous  engage 
ment  took  place,  which  resulted  in  the  English 
(although  quite  equal  in  guns  to  the  French) 
being  put  to  flight.  On  arriving  off  the  Gironde 
a  Spanish  squadron,  operating  in  connection 
with  the  insurgents,  attempted  to  bar  his  pro 
gress  ;  but  he  drove  them  oft*  and  succeeded  in 
joining  the  Duke  de  Venddme,  and  greatly  as 
sisted  in  the  reduction  of  Bordeaux  and  all 
Guyenne. 

In  recognition  of  his  services  Anne  of  Austria 
bestowed  upon  Duquesne  a  chateau  and  estate  in 
Brittany,  with  a  promise  of  further  reimburse 
ment  for  his  expenses  in  fitting  out  his  squadron. 
The  peace  of  the  Pyrenees,  signed  in  1659,  for  a 
time  relegated  Duquesne  to  civil  life.  But  Col 
bert,  during  this  cessation  of  arms,  had  the  wis 
dom  to  imitate  Richelieu  in  fostering  and  re 
building  the  navy  of  France,  so  that  when  war 
broke  out,  in  1672,  between  France  and  Holland, 
the  former  was  able  to  at  once  send  to  sea  a  for 
midable  fleet. 

During  this  same  year  Duquesne  took  part, 
with  a  high  command,  in  the  great  naval  battles 
which  took  place  in  the  North  Sea;  particularly 
those  off  Southwood,  where  Vice-Admiral  d'Es- 
trees  was  opposed  to  the  Dutch  Admiral  Ben- 
kae'rt,  and  the  two  battles  where  the  combined 
French  and  English  fleets,  under  Prince  Rupert, 
Admiral  Spragg,  and  D'Estrees,  fought  the  Hol 
landers  under "Ruyter,  Cornells  Tromp,  and  Ben- 
kaert. 

England  suddenly  made  peace  with  Holland, 
but  France  continued  the  war,  with  the  alliance 
of  Spain,  Germany,  and  the  Two  Sicilies.  An 
insurrection  occurring  in  Sicily,  Louis  XIV.  re 
solved  to  sustain  the  revolutionists,  and  Du- 


DUQUESNE 


232 


DUQUESNE 


qjiesne,  who  was  by  this  time  lieutenant-general 
of  the  naval  forces  of  France,  sailed  from  Tou 
lon,  in  January,  1675,  in  command  of  a  strong 
fleet,  destined  for  Sicily. 

In  sight  of  the  coast  of  that  island  he  was 
attacked  by  a  Spanish  fleet  much  his  superior 
in  force,  which  he  not  only  succeeded  in  repel 
ling,  but  actually  drove  his  opponents  to  take  re 
fuge  at  Naples,  and  successfully  conducted  to  a 
safe  harbor  in  Messina  a  large  convoy,  with 
provisions  and  munitions  of  war. 

He  soon  returned  to  France  for  provisions  and 
stores,  so  necessary  to  the  French  in  their  opera 
tions  in  Sicily,  and  while  at  Toulon,  preparing 
to  return,  learned  that  the  celebrated  Admiral  de 
Ruyter  had  entered  the  Mediterranean,  with  the 
purpose  of  operating  in  conjunction  with  the 
Spaniards,  and  soon  after  received  orders  to 
take  command  of  a  strong  fleet  and  to  go  to 
meet  the  great  Dutch  admiral. 

Duquesne  was  now  about  64  years  of  age.  He 
sailed  in  December,  1675,  with  a  fleet  of  20  ships 
of  the  line  and  6  fire-ships,  direct  for  Messina. 
Ruyter  no  sooner  learned  that  he  was  at  sea  than 
he  used  all  means  to  encounter  him,  giving  out 
that  his  purpose  was  to  fight  and  conquer  the 
brave  Duquesne.  Par  nobile  fratrum. 

The  opposing  fleets  met  off  the  Lipari  Islands, 
on  the  7th  of  January,  1676,  and  passed  the  entire 
day  in  manoeuvring,  and  the  succeeding  night  in 
working  for  the  weather-gage. 

Next  morning  Duquesne  found  himself  to 
windward,  and  bore  down  to  engage  Ruyter. 
The  French  fleet  was  in  three  divisions,  the  cen 
tre  commanded  by  Duquesne,  in  the  "Saint 
Esprit."  The  Dutch  fleet  was  also  in  three  di 
visions,  and  consisted  of  24  sail  of  the  line,  2 
ships  armed  en  flute,  and  4  fire-ships. 

The  French  fleet  came  down  in  perfect  order, 
and  the  battle  opened  at  9  A.M.,  the  engagement 
soon  becoming  general.  It  was  stubbornly  con 
tested,  and  lasted,  with  varying  fortunes,  for 
four  hours  and  a  half,  the  result  being  that 
the  Dutch  fleet,  which  had  intended  to  bar  Du- 
quesne's  passage,  was  so  handled  that  the  French 
admiral  was  able  to  anchor  in  Messina  on  the 
next  day.  During  this  action  the  two  flag-ships 
exchanged  many  broadsides,  in  which  encounters 
the  Dutch  had  rather  the  advantage. 

Both  fleets  having  been  refitted  and  reinforced, 
they  met  again  on  April  22,  1676;  Duquesne 
having  30  ships  of  the  line  and  8  fire-ships,  and 
Ruyter  29  ships  of  the  line,  9  galleys,  and  4  fire- 
ships. 

When  the  action  became  general  the  admirals' 
ships  engaged  each  other,  and  Ruyter  was  wound 
ed  in  several  places.  After  a  tremendous  battle 
the  Dutch  vice-admiral,  De  Haan,  drew  off  his 
forces  at  sunset,  and  took  refuge  in  the  close 
port  of  Syracuse,  Duquesne  keeping  the  sea  on 
the  site  of  the  battle,  with  his  battle-lanterns 
burning.  Next  day  he  appeared  off  Syracuse,  but 
without  being  able  to  draw  out  his  opponents. 

Ruyter  died  of  his  wounds  within  a  few  days, 
and  the  whole  operation  was  a  great  victory  for 
Duquesne.  On  May  26  of  the  same  year  the 
French  fleet  attacked  the  allied  fleet  in  the  Bay 
of  Palermo,  and  the  fire-ships  of  Duquesne  blew 
up  twelve  Dutch  and  Spanish  vessels,  and  with 
them  Admiral  De  Haan,  Admiral  Don  Diego 
Ibarra,  and  others ;  the  French  loss  being  com 
paratively  small. 


Upon  his  return  from  this  action  Duquesne 
met  the  "Concordia,"  which  ship  was  carrying 
back  to  Holland  the  remains  of  the  illustrious 
De  Ruyter.  Giving  her  free  passage,  he  saluted 
the  remains  in  an  appropriate  manner.  Louis 
XIV.  ordered  all  the  forts  and  batteries  in  sight 
of  which  the  Dutch  vessel  bearing  his  remains 
passed  to  salute.  See  RUYTER. 

When  it  came  to  recompensing  Duquesne  for 
all  his  long  and  arduous  and  distinguished  ser 
vices,  Louis  XIV.  required  him  to  renounce  the 
Protestant  faith,  promising  him  a  marshal's 
baton  and  other  honors.  Duquesne  simply  re 
plied  that  if  he  was  a  Protestant  his  services 
were  Catholic.  He  received  the  domain  of  Du 
Bouchet,  and  was  made  marquis  by  letters  dated 
February,  1681. 

He  continued  to  serve  at  sea,  though  now  an 
old  man.  Among  other  exploits  of  this  date,  he 
burned  some  Spanish  vessels  in  the  harbor  of 
Barcelona. 

After  the  peace  of  Nimeguen  he  kept  very 
quiet,  and  seldom  went  to  court, — an  unusual 
thing  in  those  days,  especially  for  those  who  had 
claims  to  distinction. 

In  1682  he  was  sent  with  a  fleet  against  the 
Moors  of  Algiers,  which  city  he  bombarded  for 
several  days  with  great  effect,  but  was  forced  by 
the  weather  to  return  and  winter  at  Toulon.  In 
June,  1683,  he  appeared  before  Algiers  again, 
completely  reducing  the  place,  so  that  the  popu 
lation  rose  against  the  dey.  The  French  slaves 
were  given  up,  but  Mezzo  Morto,  who  had  suc 
ceeded  to  the  dey  slain  by  the  insurgents,  re 
newed  the  defense,  when  the  bombardment  was 
continued  by  Duquesne  to  an  extent  which  ren 
dered  the  Algerines  harmless  for  a  long  time,  by 
destroying  all  their  vessels  and  naval  stores. 

Two  years  afterwards — 1684 — Duquesne  com 
manded  the  French  fleet  which  bombarded  Genoa, 
and,  at  different  times,  inflicted  so  much  damage 
as  to  oblige  the  doge  and  four  senators  to  come 
to  Versailles,  to  beg  pardon,  in  person,  from  the 
king.  It  was  on  this  occasion  that  the  doge  was 
asked  what  he  found  most  surprising  in  Ver 
sailles,  and  answered  "that  it  was  to  find  him 
self  there."  The  Genoese  expedition  was  Du- 
quesne's  last  service.  He  had  served  sixty  years. 
The  revocation  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes  distressed 
the  veteran  seaman  beyond  measure.  He  alone 
of  all  the  Protestants  of  France  was  excepted 
from  proscription,  and  retained  his  rank  and 
honors,  but  his  children  and  friends,  his  relatives 
and  co-religionists,  were  banished,  and  this  had 
a  most  depressing  effect  upon  the  veteran  ad 
miral,  and,  no  doubt,  hastened  his  death. 

He  died  at  Paris  on  February  2,  1688,  aged 
78  years.  By  his  last  words  he  implored  his 
eldest  son  not  to  serve  against  his  country,  as 
many  of  the  exiled  Huguenots  were  then  doing. 
So  great  was  the  feeling  at  the  time  of  his  death 
that  his  remains  were  privately  buried,  his  son's 
request  to  have  them  sent  to  him,  in  Switzer 
land,  being  "refused ;  but  he  erected  a  tablet  to 
his  memory.  This  was  a  great  contrast  to  the 
splendid  obsequies  and  tomb  given  by  Holland 
to  his  adversary,  Ruyter. 

Louis  XVI.  afterwards  made  some  reparation 
for  this  treatment  of  a  great  French  naval  hero, 
by  placing  Duquesne's  portrait  in  the  royal 
apartments  at  Versailles,  and  in  1844  the  city  of 
Dieppe  erected  u  bronze  statue  in  his  honor. 


DUR-MAST 


233 


EAR 


One  of  the  large  vessels  of  the  French  navy  is 
generally  called  u  Duquesne." — E.  Shippen. 

Dur-mast.  An  inferior  kind  of  oak  of  rapid 
growth. 

Dust.     Broken  particles  of  hard  bread. 

Dutch.  The  people  of  Holland.  The  lan 
guage  spoken  in  Holland ;  hence  any  gibberish 
or  language  which  Jack  does  not  understand. 

DUTCH-CAPER.  A  light-armed  vessel  of  the 
17th  century,  adapted  for  privateering,  and 
much  used  by  the  Dutch. 

DUTCH  CONSOLATION.     Negative  consolation. 

DUTCH  COURAGE.  The  excitement  inspired 
by  drinking  spirits  ;  false  energy. 

DUTCH  EEL-SKUYT.  A  flat-bottomed  cutter- 
rigged  sea-boat,  carrying  lee-boards,  fitted  with 
two  water-tight  bulkheads,  making  a  well  for 
keeping  live  fish  in,  the  water  being  admitted 
through  perforated  plates  fastened  on  inside  the 
ribs. 

DUTCHIFYINO.  A  term  used  for  converting 
square  sterns  to  round  ones. 

DUTCHMAN'S  BREECHES.  The  patch  of  blue 
sky  often  seen  when  a  gale  is  breaking  is  said 
to  be,  however  small,  "  enough  to  make  a  pair 
of  breeches  for  a  Dutchman."  Others  assign  the 
habiliment  to  a  Welshman,  but  give  no  author 
ity  for  the  assumption. 

DUTCH  PLAICE.  The  Pleuronectes  platessa. 
When  small,  it  is  called  fleak  ;  when  large,  Dutch 
plaice. 

DUTCH  PUMP.     A  punishment  so  contrived 


that,  if  the  prisoner  would  not  pump  hard,  he 
was  drowned. 

DUTCH  RECKONING.  A  bad  day's  work,  all 
in  the  wrong. 

DUTCH  REDS.  High-smoked  herrings  pre 
pared  in  Holland. 

Duttees.     Coarse  brown  calicoes  of  India. 

Duty.  The  exercise  of  those  functions  which 
belong  to  the  service,  and  are  carried  out  from 
the  highest  to  the  lowest.  See  CUSTOMS. 

D -valve.  A  slide-valve  provided  with  semi- 
cylindrical  ends  around  which  steam-tight  pack 
ing  is  placed,  thus  relieving  the  valve-faces  and 
valve-seat  of  the  steam-pressure  to  which  the  un 
balanced  plain  slide-valve  is  subjected.  The 
friction  of  the  packing,  however,  when  insur 
ing  a  steam-tight  joint,  is  about  equal  to  that 
due  to  the  steam-pressure,  and  the  device  is  now 
obsolete.  It  was  formerly  in  extensive  use  in 
British  steam-engines. 

Dyce,  or  Thyst.     See  DICE. 

Dyelle.  A  kind  of  mud-drag  used  for  clean 
ing  rivers. 

Dying  Man's  Dinner.  A  snatch  of  refresh 
ment  when  the  ship  is  in  extreme  danger. 

Dyke.  From  the  Anglo-Saxon  die,  a  mound 
or  bank. 

Dyke-cam.     A  ditch-bank. 

Dynamite.     See  EXPLOSIVES. 

Dynamometer.  An  instrument  for  measuring 
force  or  power,  especially  that  of  animals  or 
machines. 


E. 


Eager,  or  Eagre.  The  whole  of  the  flood-tide 
moving  up  a  river  in  one  tidal  wave,  or  in  two 
or  three  successive  waves.  The  name  seems  to 
be  derived  from  the  Anglo-Saxon  edgor,  water, 
or  JEgir,  the  Scandinavian  god  of  the  sea.  See 
BORE. 

Eagle,  Henry,  Commodore  U.S.N.  Born  in 
New  York.  Appointed  midshipman  from  that 
State,  January  1,  1818. 

Commissioned  as  lieutenant,  March  3,  1827 ; 
in  sloop  "  Natchez,"  West  Indies,  1827  ;  frigate 
"  Hudson,"  Brazil,  1829-31 ;  receiving-ship,  at 
New  York,  1833-34;  sloop  "Erie,"  Brazil, 
1835-37 ;  rendezvous,  New  York,  1840 ;  sloop 
"Yorktown,"  Pacific,  1841-42;  commanding 
schooner  "Shark,"  Pacific,  1843-44. 

Commissioned  as  commander,  June  4,  1844 ; 
superintended  the  construction  of  Stevens's  iron 
ship,  Hoboken,  N.  J.,  for  three  years,  to  1846  ; 
inspector,  etc.,  at  New  York,  1846  ;  commanding 
bomb-vessel  "^tna,"  and  a  division  of  the 
squadron  of  five  vessels  during  the  Mexican 
war ;  stationed  at  Tabasco,  also  civil  and  mili 
tary  governor  of  the  province,  and  collector  of 
the  port,  1847-48 ;  special  service,  1851 ;  com 
manding  steamer  "  Princeton,"  Home  Squadron, 
1854-55. 

Commissioned  as  captain,  September  14,  1855 ; 
volunteered  for  the  command  of  gunboat  "  Mon- 


ticello,"  in  April,  1861,  and  was  in  command  of 
her  during  the  attack  on  Se well's  Point  Battery, 
Virginia,  May  19,  1861 ;  commanding  frigate 
"Santee,"  Gulf  Squadron,  1861-62.  The  boats 
of  the  "  Santee"  captured  the  privateer  "  Royal 
Yacht,"  Galveston  harbor. 

Commissioned  as  commodore,  July  16,  1862; 
prize  commissioner,  New  York,  1864-65 ;  light 
house  inspector,  1865-66.  Retired  January  1, 
1863. 

Eagle.  The  standard  of  the  eagle  was  first 
borne  by  the  Persians  ;  and  the  Romans  carried 
figures  of  the  eagle,  as  ensigns,  in  silver  and 
gold,  and  sometimes  represented  with  a  thunder 
bolt  in  its  talons,  on  the  point  of  a  spear ;  they 
adopted  the  eagle  in  the  consulate  of  Marius,  102 
B.C.  When  Charlemagne  became  master  of  the 
whole  of  the  German  empire,  he  added  the  second 
head  to  the  eagle  for  his  arms,  to  denote  that  the 
empires  of  Rome  and  Germany  were  united  in 
him,  A.D.  802.  The  eagle  was  the  imperial  stand 
ard  of  Napoleon  ;  and  is  that  of  Austria,  Russia, 
and  Prussia.  It  is  also  the  national  emblem  of 
the  United  States  of  America. 

A  gold  coin  of  the  value  of  f  10.  See  SPREAD- 
EAGLE. 

Eagle-ray.  A  large  species  of  ray-fish  (Myil- 
obatis  aquila]  ;  called  also  miller. 

Ear.     A  lug  cast  on  old  projectiles  of  great 


BAKING 


234 


ECHINEIS 


weight,  for  convenience  in  handling.  Ears  of  a 
boat,  an  old  term  for  the  knee-pieces  at  the  bow 
on  the  outside  at  the  gunwale  height. 

Earing.  A  small  line  used  to  fasten  >the  upper 
corners  of  a  sail  to  the  yard  or  gatf,  or  the  cor 
ners  of  an  awning  to  the  rigging  or  stanchions. 
Those  at  the  upper  corners  of  a  square-sail  are 
called  head-earings  to  distinguish  them  from  the 
reef-earings. 

EARING,  BULL-.  An  earing  to  haul  out  the 
edge  of  an  awning.  An  earing  composed  of  two 
ropes  spliced  into  each  other  and  marled  to 
gether,  forming  an  eye,  which  goes  over  the  top 
sail  yard-arm;  used  for  the  first  and  second 
reefs. 

EARING-CRINGLE.  The  cringle  through  which 
an  earing  is  passed. 

EARING,  HEAD-.     See  EARING. 

EARING,  REEF-.     See  REEF-EARING. 

Earne,  or  Erne.     The  sea-eagle. 

Earth.  The  globe  which  we  inhabit.  It  is 
the  third  planet  in  order  from  the  sun,  and  the 
largest  within  the  belt  of  the  planetoids.  It  is 
in  form  an  oblate  spheroid,  the  equatorial  diam 
eter  being  7925.6  miles,  and  the  polar  7899.1 
miles, — the  polar  compression  being  about  -fa  of 
the  diameter.  The  surface  of  the  earth  contains 
nearly  150,000,000  square  miles.  The  earth 
moves  around  the  sun  in  an  ellipse,  the  journey 
being  performed  in  about  365^  days.  The  least  dis 
tance  of  the  earth  from  the  sun  is  over  94,000,000 
miles,  and  the  greatest  is  over  96,000,000,  the 
mean  distance  being  about  95,000,000.  The  ve 
locity  of  the  earth  in  its  orbit  is  about  19  miles 
per  second.  The  earth  has  also  a  daily  motion 
on  its  axis,  the  velocity  increasing  from  the  pole, 
being  about  1440  feet  per  second  at  the  equator. 

The  globular  form  of  the  earth,  the  five  zones, 
some  of  the  principal  circles  of  the  sphere,  the 
opacity  of  the  moon,  and  the  true  cause  of  lunar 
eclipses,  were  taught,  and  an  eclipse  predicted, 
by  Thales  of  Miletus,  about  640  B.C.  Its  mag 
nitude  was  calculated  from  measuring  an  arc  of 
the  meridian  by  Eratosthenes,  240  B.C.  The 
Greeks  taught  the  sphericity  of  the  earth,  and 
the  popes  believed  it  to  be  a  plane,  and  gave  all 
towards  the  west  to  the  kings  of  Spain.  Py 
thagoras  demonstrated  from  the  varying  altitudes 
of  the  stars  by  change  of  place,  that  the  earth 
must  be  round ;  that  there  might  be  antipodes 
on  the  opposite  part  of  the  globe  ;  that  Venus 
was  the  morning  and  evening  star;  that  the 
universe  consisted  of  twelve  spheres, — the  sphere 
of  the  earth,  the  sphere  of  the  water,  the  sphere 
of  the  air,  the  sphere  of  fire,  the  spheres  of  the 
moon,  the  sun,  Venus,  Mercury,  Mars,  Jupiter, 
Saturn,  and  the  sphere  of  the  stars,  about  506 
B.C.  Aristarchus,  of  Samos, .  maintained  that 
the  earth  turned  on  its  own  axis,  and  revolved 
about  the  sun;  which  doctrine  was  held  by  his 
contemporaries  as  so  absurd,  that  the  philosopher 
had  nearly  lost  his  life  to  his  theory,  280  B.C. 

The  notion  of  its  magnetism  was  started  by 
Gilbert  in  1576.  The  experiments  of  M.  Richer, 
in  1672,  led  Newton  to  prove  the  earth  to  be  in 
the  shape  of  an  oblate  spheroid.  The  variation 
of  its  axis  was  discovered  by  Dr.  Bradley  in  1737. 
The  first  voyage  round  the  globe  was  performed 
by  Picaro,  commanding  a  ship  of  Magellan's 
squadron,  1520-24.  The  first  English  navigator 
who  performed  the  same  enterprise  was  Sir 
Francis  Drake,  1577. 


Ease.  To  ease  away  or  to  ease  off  is  to  slack 
off  a  rope  carefully.  To  ease  the  helm  is  to  put 
the  helm  more  nearly  amidships,  to  lessen  its 
effect  on  the  ship,  or  to  lessen  the  strain  on  the 
wheel  rope.  Ease  her,  applied  to  the  engine, 
means  to  reduce  the  speed. 

East  (Aug. -Sax.  y'st).  The  cardinal  point 
in  that  part  of  the  horizon  where  the  heavenly 
bodies  rise.  The  east  and  west  points  are  the 
points  in  which  the  prime  vertical  intersects  the 
horizon ;  and  they  are  the  origins  whence  am 
plitudes  are  reckoned. 

EASTING.  The  distance  in  nautical  miles  which 
a  ship  makes  to  the  eastward ;  it  is  the  departure 
when  sailing  eastward. 

Eastport.  A  port  of  entry  of  "Washington 
Co.,  Me.,  on  Moose  Island,  in  Passamaquoddy 
Bay,  25  miles  S.S.E.  of  Calais,  and  100  miles  E. 
of  Bangor.  The  tide  rises  about  25  feet,  and 
prevents  the  ice  from  obstructing  the  harbor. 
The  town  is  on  the  eastern  frontier  of  the  United 
States ;  principally  supported  by  the  fisheries, 
lumber  business,  and  coast  trade.  Pop.  3200. 

Easy.  A  ship  rolls  easy  when  she  rolls  slowly 
and  smoothly  without  sudden  jerks.  Easy 
draft  is  the  same  as  light  draft. 

Eat.  To  make  progress  against  a  difficulty  by 
slow  degrees  ;  as,  to  eat  to  windward.  To  eat  the 
wind  out  of  a  vessel  is  to  gain  to  windward  of  her 
by  close  attention  to  the  helm,  and  developing 
the  sailing  powers  to  the  utmost. 

Ebb.  The  running  out  of  the  tide, — from  the 
Anglo-Saxon  ep-fod~  See  TIDE. 

EBB,  LINE  OF.  The  strip  of  beach  left  dry 
by  the  tide. 

Eburna.  A  genus  of  gasteropodous  mollusks, 
having  a  smooth  shell  covered  with  a  shining 
enamel. 

Eccentric.  A  circular  disk  keyed  on  and  re 
volving  with  a  shaft,  with  the  axis  of  which  its 
centre  does  not  coincide.  It  is  used  to  convert  a 
rotary  motion  to  reciprocating  motion,  as  in  tho 
valve-gear  of  steam-engines,  and  is  equivalent  to 
a  crank  having  the  distance  between  the  crank- 
pin  and  shaft  axis  the  same  as  the  distance  be^ 
tween  the  centre  of  the  eccentric  disk  and  the 
axis  of  the  shaft.  This  device  can  be  applied  to 
shafts  of  all  diameters  without  impairing  their 
strength. 

ECCENTRIC-HOOK.  A  hook  or  notch  in  one 
end  of  an  eccentric-rod,  by  means  of  which  the 
eccentric  motion  is  readily  connected  with  or  de 
tached  from  the  remaining  portion  of  the  valve- 
gear,  thus  enabling  the  valves  of  an  engine  to  be 
worked  by  the  starting-bar  and  hand-gear.  It 
is  sometimes  called  a  gab. 

ECCENTRIC-HOOF,  or  STRAP.  An  adjustable 
band  encircling  an  eccentric,  which  revolves 
within  it,  and  to  which  the  eccentric-rod  is 
rigidly  attached. 

ECCENTRIC-ROD.  A  rod  or  bar,  one  end  of 
which  is  rigidly  secured  to  an  eccentric  strap  or 
hoop,  and  the  other  end  connected  with  such  re 
ciprocating  parts  of  machinery  as  a  Stephenson 
link,  valve-stem  cross-head,  or  rock-shaft  arm  of 
the  valve-gear  of  a  steam-engine.  In  engines 
that  require  to  be  worked  by  hand  in  starting, 
the  end  of  the  eccentric-rod  is  connected  to  the 
other  valve-gear  by  an  easily  detached  hook. 
See  ECCENTRIC-HOOK. 

Echineis.  A  genus  of  fishes,  including  the 
sucking-fish,  or  remora. 


ECHINUS 


235 


EGYPTIAN  HERKING 


Echinus.  A  genus  of  Echinoderms ;  sea- 
urchin  (Echinus  esculentus)  ;  sea-hedgehog. 

Eclipse  (Gr.  ekleipsis,  from  ekleipein,  to  leave 
out ;  to  suffer  a  disappearance).  The  disappear 
ing,  in  whole  or  in  part,  of  a  heavenly  body  in 
consequence  of  the  intervention  of  another  body. 

A  lunar  eclipse  takes  place  when  the  moon  is 
in  opposition,  or  on  the  opposite  side  of  the 
earth  from  the  sun  (and  when,  therefore,  it  is 
full  moon),  provided  she  is  at  the  same  time  very 
near  one  of  her  nodes,  or  the  points  where  her 
orbit  crosses  the  plane  of  the  ecliptic.  If  the 
full  moon  is  in  the  node,  it  will  also  be  in  the 
axis  of  the  earth's  shadow,  and  the  eclipse  will 
be  central,  possibly  continuing  for  two  hours,  as 
the  breadth  of  the  shadow  where  the  moon 
crosses  it  is  about  2|  the  moon's  diameter  ;  when 
the  full  moon  is  so  near  the  node  as  to  be  wholly 
immersed  in  the  shadow,  the  eclipse  will  be 
total ;  and  when  only  a  part  of  the  disk  is  im 
mersed,  the  eclipse  will  be  partial. 

Instead  of  the  earth  and  moon,  we  may  con 
template  any  other  planet  that  has  a  satellite. 
The  satellite  is  eclipsed  in  the  shadow  of  the 
planet,  such  phenomenon  being  to  a  spectator  on 
the  surface  of  the  planet  a  lunar  eclipse.  We 
observe  also  the  shadow  of  the  satellite  passing 
over  the  disk  of  the  planet.  By  a  spectator  on  a 
portion  of  the  surface  of  the  planet  in  such  a 
case,  a  solar  eclipse  would  be  experienced ;  but 
as  viewed  from  the  earth,  such  a  phenomenon  is 
described  as  a  transit  of  the  shadow  of  the  sat 
ellite. 

The  second  case  is  where  a  body  is  eclipsed  by 
the  spectator  passing  through  the  shadow  of  the 
intervening  body,  the  appearance  being  different 
according  to  the  position  of  the  spectator.  This 
occurs  in  solar  eclipses.  When  the  moon  is  in 
conjunction  —  i.e.,  in  the  same  part  of  the 
heavens  with  the  sun  (and  when,  therefore,  it  is 
new  moon) — the  intersection  of  the  moon's 
conical  shadow  with  the  earth's  surface  pro 
duces  a  black  spot  which  sweeps  over  the  illu 
minated  hemisphere  of  the  earth  from  west  to 
east,  and  resembles  in  its  effects  a  cloud  carried 
by  a  west  wind  which  hides  the  sun  from  the 
places  nearly  below  it.  To  places  over  which 
the  umbra  passes,  there  will  be  a  total  eclipse ; 
those  places  which  the  penumbra  reaches  will 
experience  a  partial  eclipse.  In  case  the  umbra 
of  the  moon  does  not  extend  as  far  as  the  earth 
— or,  in  other  words,  when  the  moon's  apparent 
diameter  is  less  than  that  of  the  sun — a  spectator 
below  the  centre  of  the  umbra  will  see  an  annu 
lar  eclipse,  the  dark  disk  of  the  moon  being  sur 
rounded  by  a  luminous  "  ring"  of  the  sun's  disk. 

There  is  another  class  of  phenomena  analogous 
to  eclipses,  and  which  are  sometimes  included  in 
the  term.  These  are  occupations  and  transits. 
An  occultation  is  the  hiding  of  a  heavenly  body 
from  view  by  an  apparently,  larger  body  inter 
vening  between  it  and  the  spectator.  Thus  the 
moon  interposes  and  causes  occultations  of  fixed 
stars  and  planets ;  the  planets  hide  from  view 
their  satellites.  A  transit  is  the  passing  of  a 
small  body  across  the  disk  of  a  larger  one.  Thus, 
we  have  transits  of  the  inferior  planets,  Mercury 
and  Venus,  across  the  face  of  the  sun ;  and  of 
this  character,  strictly  speaking,  is  an  annular 
eclipse  of  the  sun  by  the  moon.  We  have  also 
transits  of  Jupiter's  satellites  across  his  disk. 

The  theory  of   eclipses  was    known    to  the 


Chinese  at  least  120  B.C.  An  eclipse  was  sup 
posed  by  most  of  the  Eastern  nations  to  be  the 
effect  of  magic ;  hence  the  custom  among  them 
of  drumming  during  its  continuance.  The  first 
eclipse  recorded  happened  March  19,  721  B.C., 
according  to  Ptolemy  ;  it  was  lunar,  and  was 
observed  with  accuracy  at  Babylon.  The  revo 
lution  of  eclipses  was  first  calculated  by  Calippus, 
the  Athenian,  336  B.C.  The  Egyptians  say  they 
had  accurately  observed  373  eclipses  of  the  sun, 
and  832  of  the  moon,  up  to  the  period  from 
Vulcan  to  Alexander,  who  died  323  B.C. 

Ecliptic  (Gr.  ekleiptikos,  pertaining  to  an 
eclipse).  So  called  because,  that  an  eclipse  of 
the  moon  may  be  possible,  she  must  be  in  or  near 
the  path  which  the  sun  appears  to  describe  an 
nually  in  the  heavens,  round  the  earth  as  centre, 
from  west  to  east,  in  consequence  of  the  revolu 
tion  of  the  earth  in  her  orbit  round  the  sun  in 
the  same  direction. 

The  ecliptic  is  the  natural  equator  of  the 
heavens,  and  is  the  primitive  circle  in  one  of  the 
systems  of  co-ordinates  for  defining  points  of  the 
celestial  sphere,  and  indicating  their  positions 
relatively  to  each  other,  the  co-ordinates  being 
longitude  and  latitude.  The  ecliptic  is  divided 
into  twelve  parts  called  "signs,"  each  contain 
ing  30°,  and  receiving  their  names  from  constel 
lations  which  were  situated  in  them  at  the  time 
the  names  were  given.  These  divisions  com 
mence  from  the  vernal  equinocti^point,  or  first 
point  of  Aries. 

Eddy.  A  current  of  air  or  water  having  a 
circular  motion ;  the  back-curl  of  the  water 
under  the  stern.  An  eddy  of  wind  may  be 
caused  by  its  striking  against  a  bluff,  sail,  or 
other  obstacle ;  an  eddy  in  the  water  by  a  shoal, 
rock,  point  of  land,  etc. 

Edge.  To  edge  away  or  to  edge  off  is  to  move 
off  by  slow  degrees.  To  edge  down  is  to  approach 
an  object  by  slow  degrees,  more  particularly  ap 
plicable  to  a  sailing-vessel  approaching  an  object 
in  an  oblique  direction  from  to  windward. 

Eduction-pipe.     See  EXHAUST-PIPE. 

Eduction-port.     See  EXHAUST-PORT. 

Eel.  A  species  of  Anguilla,  or  of  Murcena, 
etc.,  genera  of  soft-finned,  snake-like  fishes,  be 
longing  to  the  order  Apodes. 

The  "common  eel  of  the  eastern  United  States 
is  the  Anguilla  tenuirostns ;  the  conger-eel  is  the 
Murcena  conger.      The  electrical  eel  of  tropical 
South  America  belongs  to  the  genus  Gymnotus. 
-    EEL-FARES.     A  brood  of  eels. 

EEL-GRASS.     The  sea-wrack  (Zostera  marina}. 

EEL-POUT.  A  name  for  the  burbot  (Molva 
lota). 

EEL-SKUYT.     See  DUTCH  EEL-SKUYT. 

EEL-SPEAR.  A  sort  of  trident  for  spearing 
eels. 

Effects.     Personal  property. 

Effluent.  A  stream  which  runs  out  of  a  lake, 
or  another  stream. 

Eft.  A  saurian  reptile,  the  Lacerta  seps  of 
Linnaeus  ;  a  salamander,  or  newt,  especially  the 
common  smooth  newt. 

Egg.  To  egg  on,  to  provoke,  to  urge  on, — from 
the  Anglo-Saxon  eggion. 

Egmont  Fowls.  The  large  Antarctic  gulls 
with  dark-brown  plumage;  called  also  shoe 
makers. 

Egyptian  Herring.  A  name  for  the  gow- 
danook,  saury-pike,  or  Scomberesox  saurus. 


EIDER-DUCK 


236 


ELECTRICITY 


•  Eider-duck.  The  Somateria  mollissima,  a 
large  duck  of  the  northern  seas ;  the  down  on 
the  breast  is  valuable  on  account  of  its  softness 
and  lightness. 

Eighen.     The  index  of  the  early  quadrant. 

Ejectamenta  Maris.  Sea-products  thrown  on 
the  beach.  See  JETSOM. 

Eking.  Making  good  any  deficiency  in  the 
length  of  a  piece  of  timber  by  scarfing  or  but 
ting,  as  at  the  ends  of  hooks  or  knees.  It  is  also 
a  piece  of  carved  work  under  the  lower  part  of 
the  quarter-gallery  of  a  ship. 

Elbing.  A  fortified  seaport  of  West  Prussia, 
34  miles  E.S.E.  of  Dantzic.  It  consists  of  an 
old  town,  a  new  town,  and  suburbs,  and  was 
until  lately  inclosed  by  walls,  of  which  small 
portions  remain.  The  manufactories  of  woolen 
cloths,  refined  sugar,  vitriol,  pearl-ash,  tobacco, 
sail-cloth,  etc.,  are  very  extensive.  It  has  a  very 
large  trade.  Pop.  36,000. 

Elbow.  A  sudden  change  in  the  direction 
of  a  stream  or  channel.  A  promontory.  See 
HAWSE. 

Electrical  Eel.  A  fish,  or  eel,  of  the  genus 
Gymnotus  (G.  electricus),  from  2  to  5  feet  in 
length,  capable  of  giving  a  violent  electric  shock. 

Electricity.  The  theory  most  readily  under 
stood,  and  which  most  satisfactorily  explains  the 
various  electrical  phenomena,  is  as  follows : 

"  That  every  substance  and  every  atom  of  the 
world  is  pervaded  by  a  peculiar,  subtle,  impon 
derable  fluid  which  is  termed  Electricity,  but 
which  is  not  known  to  exist,  or  remains  in  a 
state  of  electrical  equilibrium,  until  evoked  by 
certain  causes." 

The  effect  of  causing  a  disturbance  of  this 
equilibrium  is  to  increase  the  normal,  or  natural, 
electricity  in  some  particles,  and  to  equally  de 
crease  it  in  other  particles,  i.e.,  what  one  loses 
the  other  gains.  An  excess  of  natural  electricity 
is  denoted  by  the  term  positive,  or  mathematical 
symbol  (-f-)>  while  a  deficiency  is  denoted  by  the 
term  negative,  or  symbol  ( — ). 

Like  electricities  repel  each  other. 

That  is  to  say,  two  bodies  charged  with  an  ex 
cess  of,  or  positive  electricity,  being  brought  to 
gether  repel  each  other,  neither  wishing  to  in 
crease  the  excess  that  has  been  evoked  in  them. 

Similarly  in  the  case  of  two  bodies  charged 
with  a  deficiency  of,  or  negative,  electricity, 
neither  wish  to  add  to  the  deficiency  already 
there. 

In  both  these  cases  there  can  be  no  tendency 
to  electrical  equilibrium,  which  is  the  principle 
at  work.  In  the  former  case,  there  being  already 
too  much,  more  will  but  increase  the  disturbance. 

In  the  latter  case,  further  deficiency  will  but 
add  to  the  irregularity. 

Unlike  electricities  attract  each  other. 

That  is  to  say,  if  two  bodies,  one  charged  with 
positive,  or  having  an  excess  of  electricity,  the 
other  charged  with  negative,  or  having  a  de 
ficiency  of  electricity,  be  brought  together,  they 
will  attract  each  other;  both  being  desirous  of 
altering  their  existing  state,  the  one  by  decreas 
ing  its  excess,  and  the  other  by  decreasing  its 
deficiency  of  electricity. 

In  this  case  there  will  be  a  tendency  to  equi 
librium,  caused  by  attraction.  The  earth  is  sup 
posed  to  be  a  vast  reservoir  of  electricity,  from 
which  a  quantity  can  be  drawn  to  fill  up  a  de 
ficiency,  and  which  is  always  ready  to  receive  an 


excess  from  other  bodies.  Every  body  in  nature 
has  its  own  natural  quantity  of  electricity,  and 
when  an  object  is  negatively  electrified,  or  has  a 
deficiency  in  its  normal  quantity,  there  is  a  tend 
ency  to  receive  a  supply  from  any  convenient 
source.  Such  an  object  would  receive  electricity 
from  the  earth  if  means  were  afforded ;  and  a 
body  positively  electrified  would  tend  to  part 
with  its  excess  in  the  same  manner.  Where  such 
facilities  for  establishing  electrical  equilibrium 
are  afforded,  the  result  is  the  passage  of  a  current 
of  electricity. 

Conductors. — Sensible  effects  can  be  produced 
by  electricity  at  great  distances  from  the  source, 
provided  there  be  a  medium  of  communication, 
that  is,  good  conductors  to  transfer  it.  When  a 
glass  rod  is  rubbed  with  a  piece  of  silk,  it  be 
comes  charged  with  an  excess  of,  or  positive, 
electricity,  and  at  the  same  time  the  silk  becomes 
charged  with  negative  electricity. 

The  glass  rod  will  retain  the  positive  electricity 
upon  it  for  some  time,  unless  touched  with  the 
wet  hand,  a  wet  cloth,  a  metal,  etc.,  when  it  will 
instantly  cease  to  be  electrified.  The  electricity 
is  then  said  to  have  been  conducted  away,  and 
the  bodies  which  allow  it  to  run  off  the  glass  are 
called  conductors  of  electricity.  Metals,  water, 
the  human  body,  charcoal,  damp  wood,  and 
many  other  bodies  are  conductors. 

Those  bodies  which  conduct  electricity  hardly 
at  all,  such  as  the  air,  silk,  glass,  sealing-wax, 
gutta-percha,  india-rubber,  etc. ,  are  termed  non 
conductors  or  insulators. 

Strictly  speaking,  all  substances  conduct  elec 
tricity  in  some  degree,  and  a  non-conductor  is 
merely  a  bad  conductor. 

In  the  following  table  the  bodies  are  arranged 
in  their  order  of  conductivity,  i.e.,  each  sub 
stance  conducts  better  than  that  which  precedes 
it;  the  first-named  body  is  the  best  insulator, 
and  the  last-named  one  is  the  best  conductor. 


Dry  air. 

Ebonite. 

Paraffin. 

Resin. 

Sulphur. 

Sealing-wax. 

Glass. 

Silk. 

Wool. 

Dry  paper. 

Porcelain. 

Dry  wood. 

Stone. 

Pure  water. 

Rarefied  air. 

Sea-water. 


Shellac. 

India-rubber. 

Gutta-percha. 

Saline  solutions. 

Acids. 

Charcoal,  or  Coke. 

Mercury. 

Lead. 

Tin. 

Iron. 

Platinum. 

Zinc. 

Gold. 

Copper. 

Silver. 


Though  two  substances  are  near  one  another 
in  the  above  list,  they  do  not  necessarily  ap 
proach  one  another  in  their  power  of  conducting. 
For  instance,  taking  the  conducting  power  of 
pure  silver  as  represented  by  the  number  100, 
then 

Pure  Copper  will  be  equal  to  99.9, 

Gold  will  be  equal  to  78.0, 
while  Zinc  will  be  only  equal  to  29.0, 

and  pure  water,  which  is  half-way  down  the  list, 
will  offer  6754  millions  more  resistance  than  sil 
ver  to  the  passage  of  the  electric  current. 
The  metals  being  the  best-known  conductors, 


ELECTRICITY 


237 


ELECTRICITY 


are  usually  employed  as  the  means  of  trans 
ferring  the  electric  current  from  one  place  to 
another. 

Electric  Circuit. — The  conditions  attending 
this  operation  are  diiferent  from  those  of  any 
other  known  method  of  transmission. 

A  complete  circuit  must  always  be  formed  by 
the  electric  current,  i.e.,  it  cannot  start  from  one 
place  A,  travel  to  another  place  B,  and  cease 
there,  but  the  current  must  be  completed  before 
it  can  be  said  to  have  reached  B.  There  cannot 
be  a  current  of  electricity  without  a  means  of 
recombination,  which  recombination  must  be  at 
the  source,  or  place  of  original  disturbance. 

This  "  place  of  disturbance"  or  source  must  be 
considered  as  having  two  sides,  i.e.,  at  some  spot 
the  normal  or  natural  electrical  equilibrium  is 
disturbed,  and  electricity  is  separated  into  too 
much  (positive)  on  one  side,  and  too  little  (nega 
tive)  on  the  other  side.  If  then  no  means  of  re 
combination  be  afforded,  the  electricities  remain 
separated,  and  no  current  exists ;  but  if  a  con 
ductor  be  made  to  connect  the  two  sides,  elec 
tricity  is  set  in  motion,  and  a  current  established. 
Originally,  to  form  a  circuit  between  two  stations 
A  and  B,  a  conducting  wire  and  a  return  wire 
were  necessary,  but  in  1837  Steinway  discovered 
that  the  earth  itself  answered  all  the  purposes  of 
a  return  wire,  in  fact,  under  favorable  conditions, 
much  better.  Thus,  to  form  a  circuit  between  A 
and  B,  a  conducting- wire  is  required,  and  a 
buried  metal  plate  at  A  and  B,  the  earth  by 
these  means  taking  the  place  of  the  return  wire. 

The  aforesaid  metal  plates  are  technically 
termed  earth-plates.  The  greater  the  size  of 
the  earth-plates  (up  to  certain  limits),  the  deeper 
they  are  buried,  and  the  better  the  conducting 
power  of  the  soil  surrounding  them,  the  better 
conductors  the  plates  become,  or  the  less  resist 
ance  the  earth  portion  of  the  circuit  offers.  If 
either  plate  be  not  in  communication  with  the 
earth,  or  else  be  separated  from  the  wire,  the 
circuit  is  not  complete,  or,  as  it  is  termed,  "it  is 
broken,"  and  no  current  will  flow,  the  signal  not 
made,  torpedo  not  fired,  etc. 

"  Short"  Circuit. — Due  to  the  fact  that  recom 
bination,  or  a  tendency  to  equilibrium,  is  always 
at  work  when  electricity  has  been  evoked,  the 
conducting  path  along  which  the  electric  current 
flows  must  be  covered  with  a  non-conducting  sub 
stance,  or,  as  it  termed,  "insulated,"  or  else  the 
current  would  not  perform  its  duty,  but  escape 
to  earth,  and  so  form  what  is  termed  a  "short" 
circuit. 

A  current  of  electricity  always  chooses  the 
easiest  path  to  effect  recombination,  or  electrical 
equilibrium. 

Insulators,  etc. — On  land,  telegraph-wires  are, 
as  a  rule,  laid  above  the  ground,  and  therefore 
require  supporting  at  every  few  yards;  this  is 
done  by  means  of  posts,  and  as  these  are  formed 
of  substances  which  are  conductors  of  electricity, 
the  wires  require  to  be  insulated  from  them. 
The  insulators  generally  employed  for  such  pur 
poses  are  cup-shaped  pieces  of  porcelain,  or  pot 
tery,  fixed  to  the  head  of  the  telegraph-posts. 
By  means  of  these  insulators,  the  current  of  elec 
tricity  is  prevented  from  escaping  to  the  earth  by 
the  post-conductors. 

A  certain  amount  of  leakage,  or  loss  of  elec 
tricity,  must  occur  at  each  of  these  posts,  as  there 
is  no  such  thing  as  a  perfect  insulator.  When 


the  wires  are  laid  on  the  ground  or  underground, 
or  under  water,  they  are  insulated  by  covering 
them  with  gutta-percha,  india-rubber,  etc.,  and 
any  loss  of  current  is  thus  prevented. 

"Methods  of  generating  Electricity. — For  the 
purposes  of  torpedo  warfare  there  are  two 
methods  of  evoking  electricity,  viz. : 

1.  By  chemical  action. 

2.  By  friction. 

By  Chemical  Action. — Chemical  action  is  the 
chief  source  of  free  electricity,  the  representa 
tive  of  which  is  the  galvanic,  or  Voltaic,  bat 
tery. 

The  electricity  s6  generated  is  also  termed  dy 
namical  electricity,  due  to  there  being  a  constant 
electric  current,  so  long  as  the  poles  of  the  bat 
tery  producing  it  are  kept  closed ;  the  electricity 
being  thus  in  a  dynamic  or  moving  state. 

By  chemical  action  is  signified  that  which  oc 
curs  when  two  or  more  substances  so  act  upon 
one  another  as  to  produce  a  third  substance  dif 
fering  altogether  from  the  original  ones  in  its 
properties,  or  when  one  substance  is  brought  un 
der  such  conditions  that  it  forms  two  or  more 
bodies  differing  from  the  original  ones  in  their 
properties. 

Definition  and  Properties  of  a  Voltaic  Cell. — • 
The  Voltaic  cell  consists  of  an  insulating  jar, 
containing  a  liquid,  in  which  are  placed  two 
plates  or  pieces  of  dissimilar  metals ;  the  liquid 
must  be  composed  of  two  or  more  chemical  ele 
ments,  one  of  which  at  least  tends  to  combine 
with  one  or  other  of  the  metals,  or  with  both  in 
different  degrees. 

By  a  Voltaic  battery  is  meant  a  number  of 
cells  above  one ;  this  term,  however,  is  often  ap 
plied  to  a  single  cell  when  working  by  itself. 

A  "  simple  Voltaic  cell,"  "element,"  or 
"couple,"  consists  of  two  metals  placed  in  a 
conducting  liquid.  If  two  metals — for  instance, 
zinc  and  copper — are  placed  in  water  slightly 
acidulated,  without  touching  each  other,  no 
effect  is  apparent ;  but  if  they  be  made  to  touch, 
bubbles  of  hydrogen  gas  are  formed  over  the 
copper  plate,  and  continue  forming  there  until 
the  plates  are  separated.  After  being  in  contact 
for  some  time,  the  copper  plate  will  be  found  un 
altered  in  weight,  but  the  zinc  plate  will  have 
lost  weight,  and  the  portion  so  lost  will  be  found 
in  the  liquid  in  the  form  of  sulphate  of  zinc. 
The  same  effects  are  also  produced  by  connecting 
the  two  plates  by  means  of  some  conducting  sub 
stance  instead  of  placing  them  in  contact. 

Zinc  is  invariably  employed  as  one  of  the 
metal  plates,  on  account  of  the  ease  with  which 
it  dissolves  in  dilute  acids  ;  and  the  greatest  re 
sults  are  obtained  when  the  second  metal  plate 
is  not  acted  upon  at  all  by  the  liquid,  for  then 
the  whole  effect  due  to  the  oxidation  of  the  zinc 
plate  is  obtained  ;  but  when  the  second  plate  is 
also  chemically  acted  upon,  then  only  the  effect 
due  to  the  difference  between  the  two  chemical 
actions  is  obtained,  for  they  each  act  in  directly 
opposite  directions. 

Voltaic  Current.— The  Voltaic  current  makes 
its  appearance  under  the  general  laws  of  elec 
trical  action. 

When  a  body  charged  with  an  excess  of,  or 
positive,  electricity,  is  connected  with  the  earth, 
electricity  is  transferred  from  the  charged  body 
to  the  earth  ;  and  similarly  when  a  body  charged 
with  a  deficiency  of,  or  negative,  electricity,  ft 


ELECTKICITY 


238 


ELECTRICITY 


connected  with  the  earth,  electricity  is  transferred 
from  the  earth  to  the  body. 

Generally,  whenever  two  conductors  in  differ 
ent  electrical  conditions  are  put  in  contact,  elec 
tricity  will  flow  from  one  to  the  other.  That 
which  determines  the  direction  of  the  transfer 
is  the  relative  potential  of  the  two  conductors. 
Electricity  always  flows  from  a  body  at  higher 
potential  to  one  at  lower  potential,  when  the  two 
are  in  contact,  or  connected  by  a  conductor. 
When  no  transfer  of  electricity  takes  place  un 
der  these  conditions,  the  bodies  are  said  to  be  at 
the  same  potential,  which  may  be  either  high  or 
low.  The  potential  of  the  earth  is  assumed  to  be 
zero. 

Definition  of  Potential. — "The  potential  of  a 
body  or  point",  is  the  difference  between  the  poten 
tial  of  the  body  or  point,  and  the  potential  of  the 
earth." 

Difference  of  potential  for  electricity  is  analo 
gous  to  difference  of  level  for  water.  Now, 
since,  when  a  metal  is  placed  in  a  vessel  con 
taining  a  liquid,  electricity  is  produced,  the 
liquid  becomes  of  a  different  potential  to  the 
metal,  each  being  electrified  in  an  opposite  way ; 
and  therefore,  as  above  stated,  there  being  a 
difference  of  potentials,  electricity  will  tend  to 
flow  from  one  to  the  other. 

This  is  evidence  of  a,  force  being  in  action,  for 
there  can  be  no  motion  without  some  force  to 
produce  it. 

Electro-motive  Force.- — Electro-motive  force  is 
the  name  given  to  a  peculiar  force  to  which  is 
due  the  property  of  producing  a  difference  of 
potential.  "When  it  is  said  that  zinc  and  water 
produce  a  definite  electro-motive  force,  what  is 
meant  is,  that  by  their  contact  a  certain  definite 
difference  of  potentials  is  produced. 

The  electro-motive  force  of  a  Voltaic  element 
may  be  termed  its  working  power,  in  the  same 
Way  as  the  pressure  of  steam  is  the  working 
power  of  a  steam-engine,  though  this  is  not  to 
be  considered  as  the  real  source  of  power,  which, 
as  will  be  seen,  is  uncertain.  Due  to  the  differ 
ence  of  potential  of  the  metal  and  the  liquid,  a 
current  of  electricity  will  flow  from  one  to  the 
other,  causing  the  chemical  decomposition  of  the 
liquid,  and  the  reaction  may  be  taken  as  the 
origin  of  the  power  employed. 

But  while  the  expenditure  of  energy  (which 
is  necessary  to  produce  a  force]  is  accounted  for 
by  taking  the  chemical  action  as  the  source  of 
power,  the  preceding  cause  of  this  chemical  ac 
tion,  viz.,  the  flowing  of  the  current  of  electricity 
due  to  the  difference  of  potential  of  the  metal 
and  the  liquid,  must  also  have  first  involved  the 
expenditure  of  energy ;  thus  the  real  source  of 
power  is  very  uncertain. 

Electrolytes. — As  before  stated,  a  Voltaic  cell 
consists  of  two  plates  of  dissimilar  metals,  which 
must  be  immersed  in  a  liquid  composed  of  two 
or  more  chemical  elements,  one  of  which  at  least 
will  combine  with  one  or  other  of  the  metals,  or 
both  in  a  different  degree.  Those  liquids  which 
are  thus  decomposed  by  the  passage  of  a  current 
of  electricity  are  termed  electrolytes. 

The  elements,  then,  forming  the  electrolyte 
may  have  chemical  affinity  for  both  metals, 
though  in  a  greater  degree  for  one  than  the 
other. 

"Oxygen"  is  the  most  important  element  of 
an  electrolyte,  and  to  the  affinity  for  oxygen  of 


the  metals  is  the  magnitude  of  the  result  and 
effect. 

Terms  Electro-positive  and  Electro-negative. — 
All  metals  have  a  definite  relation  to  each  other 
as  to  the  potential  which  any  one  may  have 
when  brought  into  contact  with  another.  Thus, 
when  zinc  is  brought  into  contact  with  copper, 
the  former  has  a  potential  positive  to  the  latter, 
i.e.,  a  current  of  electricity  will  tend  to  flow 
from  the  zinc  to  the  copper.  The  metals  may 
be  so  placed  in  a  list  that  each  one  would  be 
positive  to  any  of  those  that  follow  it ;  it  is  then 
said  to  be  electro-positive  to  them,  and  they  are 
electro-negative  to  it.  As  those  metals  which 
are  electro-positive  to  others  have  a  greater  af 
finity  for  oxygen,  and  those  that  are  electro 
negative  to  others  a  less  affinity  for  this  element, 
the  terms  electro-positive  and  electro-negative 
signify,  in  effect,  greater  or  less  affinity  for  this 
element.  Conversely,  oxygen  will  combine 
more  readily  with  the  former  than  with  the 
latter. 

The  following  list  shows  the  commoner  metals 
arranged  in  electro-chemical  order: 
-f  Zinc. 
Lead. 
Tin. 
Iron. 

Antimony. 
Copper. 
Silver. 
—Gold. 

Take  the  case  of  a  Voltaic  cell  composed  of 
zinc  and  copper  plates  immersed  in  water. 

The  passage  of  electricity  through  the  water 
will  decompose  it  into  its  elements  hydrogen  and 
oxygen,  the  latter  having  an  affinity  for  both 
the  plates,  but  considerably  more  so  for  the  zinc 
plate. 

Then,  an  electro-motive  force  will  be  gener 
ated  at  each  metal,  and  these  forces  will  act  in 
opposition  to  each  other,  but  the  greater  strength 
of  the  one  will  overcome  the  weaker,  and  "the 
real  power  of  the  electric  current  will  be  the 
difference  between  the  two. 

Definition  of  "  Elements." — The  battery-plates 
are  termed  the  positive  and  negative  elements. 
A  Voltaic  battery  has  two  poles, — a  positive  and 
a  negative, — which  are  the  terminations  of  the 
plates. 

Direction  of  Current. — The  course  of  the  cur 
rent  in  a  Voltaic  cell  is  as  follows  :  Within  it 
leaves  the  electro-positive  plate  (or  element), 
and  flows  to  the  electro-negative  plate,  but  out 
side  the  cell  (or  as  it  were  on  its  return  path)  it 
flows  from  the  positive  pole  to  the  negative  pole. 
The  current  always  leaves  the  battery  by  the 
positive  pole,  and  thus  the  copper  is  the  negative 
element,  but  the  positive  pole,  because  the  cur 
rent  leaves  the  battery  by  it ;  and  the  zinc  is  the 
positive  element  because  the  current  begins  there, 
within  the  cell,  and  the  negative  pole  because  it 
ends  there,  outside. 

The  positive  pole  is  the  terminal  of  the  nega 
tive  plate,  and  vice  versa.  There  is  but  one  cur 
rent  from  a  battery,  viz.,  a  positive  one  ;  what 
is  called  a  negative'current  is  merely  the  positive 
current  passing  in  the  reverse  direction  from  the 
same  pole,  that  is,  the  positive  pole. 

Single  and  Double  Fluid  Batteries. — Galvanic 
batteries  may  be  divided  into  single  fluid  and 
double  fluid  batteries.  The  simplest  form  of 


ELECTRICITY 


239 


ELECTRICITY 


galvanic  cell  practically  in  use  is  a  single  fluid 
cell,  consisting  of  a  zinc  and  a  copper  element, 
immersed  in  water  slightly  acidulated  by  the 
addition  of  a  little  sulphuric  acid.  In  a  battery 
of  several  cells,  the  zinc  and  copper  plates  are 
generally  soldered  together  in  pairs,  and  placed 
in  a  long  stoneware  or  glass  trough  divided  into 
separate  cells  by  means  of  partitions.  By  fill 
ing  the  cells  with  sand,  this  battery  is  made 
more  portable,  the  plates  being  thus  supported, 
and  the  liquid  prevented  from  splashing  about 
during  transit. 

In  this  form  it  is  called  the  common  sand  bat 
tery. 

Action  in  a  Single  Fluid  Cell. — The  following 
process  goes  on  in  the  single  fluid  cell  when  the 
circuit  is  closed, — that  is,  when  the  battery  is  set 
to  work. 

The  water  (composed  of  hydrogen  and  oxygen) 
is  decomposed  by  the  passage  of  the  electric  cur 
rent,  and  oxide  of  zinc  is  formed.  The  oxygen 
of  the  water  having  greater  affinity  for  the  zinc, 
leaves  the  hydrogen.  The  zinc  during  the  pro 
cess  is  being  consumed,  as  coal  is  consumed 
when  it  burns,  while  combining  with  the  oxygen 
of  the  air.  This  oxide  of  zinc  combines  with  the 
sulphuric  acid,  and  forms  sulphate  of  zinc  ;  this 
salt  is  found  to  accumulate  in  solution  in  the 
liquid  of  the  cell.  At  the  same  time  the  hydro 
gen  of  the  water  goes  to  the  negative  or  copper 
plate,  and  gathers  over  it  in  bubbles. 

The  process  will  be  better  seen  by  the  accom 
panying  plan  of  the  chemical  decomposition  and 
recombinations. 

Sulphuric  acid )  Sulphate  of  zinc  found 

ZhlC-"f  Oxygen }  Oxide  of  zinc.  /     at  positive  plate. 

Water  \  Hydrogen Hydrogen     found    at 

negative  plate. 

No  single  fluid  cell  can  give  a  constant  electro 
motive  force,  because  of  the  polarization  of  the 
plates. 

Definition  of  the  term  "Polarization." — The 
word  polarization  means  that  the  plates  become 
coated  with  the  products  of  the  decomposition  of 
the  electrolyte,  producing  a  diminution  of  current. 
In  the  above-described  battery,  the  hydrogen 
gathers  on  the  surface  of  the  copper  plate,  and 
an  electro-motive  force  is  set  up  which  counter 
acts  the  electro-motive  force  producing  the  cur 
rent, — the  copper  plate  is  said  to  be  polarized. 
By  the  bubbles  of  hydrogen  collecting  on  the 
face  of  the  negative  plate,  the  surface  in  contact 
with  the  liquid  is  gradually  decreased ;  thus  the 
plate  becomes  practically  smaller,  and  a  single 
fluid  cell  which  at  starting  gave  a  good  current 
soon  shows  that  it  is  really  weakened.  The  con 
sequence  is  that  the  zinc  is  consumed  extrava 
gantly,  as  well  as  the  acid,  and  the  cell  works 
with  poor  results.  Also  the  resistance  of  the 
cell  is  increased,  due  to  the  sulphuric  acid,  which 
is  added  to  the  water  to  increase  its  conductivity, 
being  gradually  used  up,  by  combining  with  the 
oxide  (see  plan)  and  forming  sulphate  of  zinc. 
Liquids  are  very  bad  conductors  of  electricity ; 
the  greater  part  of  the  ordinary  internal  resist 
ance  of  a  battery  arises  from  this  cause.  The 
common  sand  battery  is  the  worst  of  all  batteries 
as  regards  constancy*  of  electro-motive  force,  the 
polarization  being  greater  in  this  battery  than 
any  other,  because  the  gas  cannot  readily  escape. 
The  common  copper  and  zinc  cell  is  the  next  in 


order  of  demerit.  The  Smee  single  fluid  cell,  in 
which  the  negative  plate  is  a  platinum  instead  of 
a  copper  one,  is  better  than  the  copper  zinc  cell, 
because  the  free  hydrogen  does  not  stick  to  the 
rough  surface  of  the  platinum  plate  so  much  as 
to  the  copper. 

Double  Fluid  Batteries. — All  the  defects  of  the 
single  fluid  battery,  which  are  as  follows : 

1.  Diminution  of  electro-motive  force, 

2.  Inconstancy, 

3.  Increase  of  internal  resistance, 

are  remedied  in  the  double  fluid  battery,  of  which 
the  Daniell  cell  was  the  first  invented,  and  is  a 
good  example.  Of  this  kind  of  cell  many  forms 
are  in  use,  but  the  principle  is  the  same  through 
out.  There  is  a  positive  and  negative  element, 
and  the  cell  is  divided  into  two  receptacles  for 
the  two  fluids.  In  the  most  constant  form  of 
Daniell  cell,  the  zinc  is  plunged  into  a  semi- 
saturated  solution  of  sulphate  of  zinc,  the  cop 
per  in  a  saturated  solution  of  sulphate  of  copper, 
and  these  two  solutions  are  separated  either  by  a 
porous  barrier,  or  by  taking  advantage  of  the 
different  specific  gravities  of  the  two  solutions. 
By  a  saturated  solution  is  meant  a  liquid  which 
has  dissolved  as  much  of  the  substance  as  it  pos 
sibly  can. 

The  Chemical  Action  of  a  Daniell  Cell.— The 
chemical  action  of  this  form  of  Daniell  cell  is  as 
follows : 

The  zinc  electrode  combines  with  oxygen  ;  the 
oxide  thus  formed  combines  with  sulphuric  acid 
and  forms  sulphate  of  zinc.  Oxide  of  copper  is 
separated  from  the  sulphate;  and  the  copper  in 
this  oxide  is  separated  from  the  oxygen.  The 
oxygen  of  the  water  is  separated  at  the  zinc  elec 
trode  from  the  hydrogen,  and  at  the  other  elec 
trode  this  hydrogen  recombines  with  the  oxygen 
from  the  oxide  of  copper.  This  alternate  de 
composition  and  recombination  of  the  elements 
of  water  can  neither  increase  nor  decrease  the 
E.M.F.  of  the  cell,  the  actions  being  equal  and 
opposite.  The,  result  of  the  series  of  actions 
above  described  is  that  the  sulphuric  acid  and 
oxygen  of  the  sulphate  of  zinc  are  transmitted 
to  the  zinc,  combine  with  it,  and  form  fresh  sul 
phate  of  zinc  ;  the  sulphuric  acid  and  oxygen  of 
the  sulphate  of  copper  are  transmitted  to  the 
zinc  set  free  by  the  above  process,  and  reconvert 
it  into  sulphate  of  zinc ;  the  copper  of  the  sul 
phate  of  copper  is  transmitted  to  the  copper 
electrode,  and  remains  adhering  to  it.  The 
whole  result  is  therefore  the  substitution  of  a 
certain  quantity  of  sulphate  of  zinc  for  an  equiv 
alent  quantity  of  sulphate  of  copper,  together 
with  a  deposition  of  copper  on  the  copper  or 
negative  electrode.  The  following  is  a  plan  of 
the  process : 


Zinc. 


(Sulphate  of  zinc 
found  at  p°si' 


Oxide  of  /inc- 


Sulphate  of  1  ""'P""™  ™u  -VoxygL         j  Waten 
copper.     |0x.do  Qf  copper  J  c^er  --    ,  c 

The  Circuit. — In  connection  with  the  manipu 
lation  of  batteries,  there  is  one  important  item 
to  consider,  viz.,  the  resistance  in  the  circuit, 
which  may  be  divided  into  external  and  in 
ternal. 

Resistances. — The  external  resistance  in  prac- 


ELECTRICITY 


240 


ELECTRICITY 


tice  is  that  which  exists  in  the  conducting-line, 
and  the  various  instruments  connected  with  it. 

The  internal  resistance  is  that  which  exists  in 
the  battery  itself.  All  known  conductors  oppose 
a  sensible  resistance  to  the  passage  of  an  electric 
current,  and  the  strength  of  the  current,  or  in 
other  words,  the  quantity  of  electricity  passing 
per  second  from  one  point  to  another,  when  a 
constant  difference  of  potentials  is  maintained 
between  them,  depends  on  the  resistance  of  the 
wire  or  the  conductor  joining  them.  A  bad  con 
ductor  does  not  let  the  electricity  pass  so  rap 
idly  as  a  good  conductor,  that  is,  it  offers  more 
resistance. 

Resistance  in  a  wire  of  constant  section  and 
material  is  directly  proportional  to  the  length, 
and  inversely  proportional  to  the  area  of  the  cross- 
section. 

The  electrical  resistance  of  a  conductor  must 
not  be  considered  as  analogous  to  mechanical  re 
sistance,  such  as  the  friction  which  water  experi 
ences  in  passing  through  a  pipe,  for  this  frictional 
resistance  is  not  constant  when  different  quanti 
ties  of  water  are  being  forced  through  the  pipe, 
whereas  electrical  resistance  is  constant  what 
ever  quantity  of  electricity  be  forced  through  the 
conductor. 

Application  of  Ohm's  Law. — Ohm's  law,  which 

governs  the  strength  of  the  current,  is  expressed 
y  the  equation 


or  R 


E 

or  E=CR. 


Where  C  is  the  strength  of  the  current ; 

E  is  the  E.M.F.,  or  difference  of  potentials  ; 

and  R  is  the  resistance  of  the  circuit. 

In  words,  Ohm's  law  means  that  the  strength 
of  the  current  is  directly  proportional  to  the 
E.M.F.,  and  inversely  proportional  to  the  resist 
ance  of  the  circuit. 

As  before  stated,  the  resistance  of  the  circuit 
consists  of  an  external  and  an  internal  resistance, 
therefore  when  these  resistances  .are  separately 

J^A 

considered,   the  equation  C  =  j>  must  be  eon- 

E 

verted  into  C  =  -        >}  where  x  is  the  external, 

and  r  the  internal,  resistance. 

The  resistance  of  the  battery  or  the  internal 
resistance  depends  on  the  size  of  the  plates  and 
the  distance  between  them ;  that  is,  it  is  directly 
proportional  to  the  distance,  and  inversely  pro 
portional  to  the  size. 

The  electro-motive  force  of  a  battery  is  depend 
ent  generally  on  the  number  of  cells  joined  in 
series,  and  not  on  the  size  of  the  plates.  The 
cells  of  a  battery  may  be  joined  in  two  ways,  as 
follows : 

1.  In  series :  that  is,  by  connecting  the  nega 
tive  element  of  one  cell  to  the  positive  ele 
ment  of  another,  and  so  on. 

2.  In   multiple  arc:    that  is,  by  connecting 
negative  to  negative,  and  positive  to  posi 
tive;  which  is  the  same  as  increasing  the 
size  of  the  cells. 

If  the  conductor  between  the  battery  poles  be 
such  that  the  external  resistance  x  may  be  prac- 
TT 

tically  left  out,  then  C  = — ,  and   no    change 

in  the  strength  of  the  current  will  be  effected  by 
adding  any  number  of  cells  in  series,  as  r  will 


increase  equally  with  E,  and  therefore  C  will  re 
main  the  same  ;  but  if  under  the  same  conditions 
the  cells  be  joined  in  multiple  arc,  then  rwill  de 
crease  as  E  increases,  and  therefore  C  will  be  in 
creased. 

Thus  with  a  short  circuit  of  small  external  re 
sistance,  the  strength  of  the  current  will  be  in 
creased  by  increasing  the  size  of  the  plates,  or  by 
joining  the  cells  in  multiple  arc,  but  not  in 
series. 

If  the  conductor  between  the  poles  of  the  bat 
tery  be  such  that  the  external  resistance  x  be 


E 


-,  where  x  is 


comes  very  great,  then  C  = 

M  -f-  7- 

very  great  compared  to  r.  By  joining  the  cells 
in  multiple  arc  r  is  decreased,  but  E  and  x  re 
main  the  same,  and  therefore  C  is  not  materially 
altered,  as  x  is  very  great  compared  to  r.  By 
connecting  the  cells  in  series,  r  is  increased,  and 
so  is  E,  but  as  r  is  still  very  small  compared  to 
x,  the  strength  of  the  current  C  is  increased. 

Thus  with  a  long  circuit  of  great  external  re 
sistance,  the  strength  of  the  current  will  be  in 
creased  by  joining  the  cells  in  series,  but  not  in 
multiple  arc. 

When  the  external  resistance  x  is  neither  very 
large  nor  very  small  in  comparison  with  the  bat 
tery  or  internal  resistance  r,  then  the  strength 
of  the  current  C  will  be  increased  by  adding  the 
cells  in  series,  and  also  in  multiple  arc.  By  the 
former  process  the  E.M.F.  E  is  increased  more 
than  the  resistance  of  the  circuit  R  or  (x  -{-•  r}, 
and  by  the  latter  process  the  E.M.F.  E  is  un 
altered,  whilst  the  circuit  resistance  (x  -f-  r)  is 
decreased.  All  the  above  may  be  practically 
demonstrated  by  the  employment  of  suitable 
galvanometers. 

Frictional  Electricity. — Frictional  electricity 
is  produced  by  the  friction  of  two  insulators. 
There  is  no  difference  whatever  in  kind  between 
"Voltaic"  and  "frictional"  electricity. 

Comparison  with  Voltaic  Electricity. — The  elec 
tricity  generated  by  friction  possesses  a  great 
electro-motive  force,  producing  on  even  a  small 
conductor  a  large  charge,  whereas  the  electricity 
generated  by  the  galvanic  cell  possesses  a  very 
small  electro-motive  force,  and  produces  only  a 
small  charge  on  a  small  conductor.  But  when 
the  conductor  is  large,  the  electricity  produced 
by  the  galvanic  cell  will  almost  instantaneously 
charge  the  conductor  to  the  maximum  potential 
it  can  produce,  the  galvanic  cell  developing  an 
immense  quantity  of  electricity  by  the  chemical 
reaction ;  whereas  the  quantity  developed  by 
friction  between  two  insulators  is  so  small,  that 
if  it  be  diffused  over  a  large  conductor  the  poten 
tial  of  the  conductor  will  be  very  little  increased. 

The  late  Professor  Faraday  has  proved  that  one 
cell  of  a  Voltaic  pile  possesses  the  same  quantity 
of  electricity  as  an  ordinary-sized  frictional  ma 
chine  after  being  wound  round  800,000  times, 
thus  showing  the  contrast  between  the  qualities 
of  frictional  and  Voltaic  electricity. 

The  electricity  of  the  frictional  machine  and 
that  of  the  galvanic  battery  maybe  made  to  pro 
duce  the  same  effect,  there  being  no  difference  in 
kind  between  them.  Frictional  electricity  can 
be  made  to  pass  in  a  current,  but  it  is  com 
paratively  feeble.  Again,  Voltaic  electricity  can 
be  made  to  produce  a  spark,  but  under  ordinary 
circumstances  it  scarcely  amounts  to  anything. 

Description  of  a  Frictional  Electric  Machine. — 


ELECTRICITY 


241 


ELECTRICITY 


A  frictional  electrical  machine  consists  of  a  vul 
canite  or  glass  disk  or  cylinder,  which  is  made  to 
revolve  between  cushions  or  rubbers  of  leather 
or  silk.  By  the  friction  the  (silk)  rubbers  be 
come  negatively,  and  the  glass  disk  or  cylinder 
positively,  electrified.  The  revolving  disk  im 
mediately  after  contact  with  the  fixed  rubbers 
passes  close  by  a  series  of  brass  points,  which  are 
connected  with  a  condenser.  These  points  col 
lect  the  positive  electricity  of  the  glass,  the  rub 
bers  being  put  to  earth.  The  positive  electricity 
which  the  glass  loses  is  supplied  through  the 
rubber;  a  stream  of  negative  electricity  flows 
from  the  rubbers  to  the  earth  during  the  charg 
ing  of  the  conductor  or  condenser ;  in  other 
words,  the  positive  electricity  flows  from  the 
earth  to  the  rubber,  whence  it  crosses  to  the 
glass  disk  and  so  to  the  condenser. 

Definition  of  a  "  Condenser." — A  condenser  is 
an  arrangement  for  accumulating  a  large  quan 
tity  of  electricity  on  a  comparatively  small 
surface. 

The  ll  Leyden  Jar" — The  Ley  den  jar,  which 
is  the  original  type  of  the  condenser,  or  accumu 
lator,  consists  of  a  glass  jar  coated  inside  and 
out,  up  to  within  a  few  inches  of  the  mouth, 
with  tin-foil  pasted  on,  but  having  no  connection 
with  each  other.  The  mouth  is  usually  closed 
by  means  of  a  wooden  stopper,  through  which 
a  brass  rod  passes,  to  the  head  of  which  is  af 
fixed  a  brass  knob,  etc.,  the  rod  and  knob  being 
metallically  connected  with  the  inner  coating  by 
means  of  a  chain. 

The  "Leyden  jar"  may  be  charged  either  by 
connecting  the  outer  coating  to  earth  (the  rub 
bers  of  the  machine  being  also  to  earth),  and 
the  inner  coating  to  the  conductor  of  the  ma 
chine;  or  else  by  connecting  the  outer  coating 
to  the  rubbers,  and  the  inner  coating  to  the  con 
ductor,  a  complete  circuit  being  necessary  to 
charge  the  jar  as  highly  as  the  frictional  elec 
trical  machine  will  admit  of. 

The  conductor  of  the  machine  being  charged, 
also  forms  a  kind  of  Leyden  jar,  the  conductor 
in  this  case  being  the  inner  coating,  the  air,  the 
dielectric,  and  the  nearest  surrounding  conduct 
ors,  such  as  the  walls  of  the  room,  etc.,  being 
the  outer  coating. 

Meaning  of  "Dielectric." — By  dielectric  is 
meant  a  non-conducting  medium,  which  in  the 
case  of  the  "  Leyden  jar"  is  the  glass. 

Frictional  Electricity  very  little  used  for  Tor 
pedo  Purposes. — Frictional  electricity  is  now 
seldom  used  in  connection  with  torpedo  warfare, 
as  on  account  of  its  very  great  power,  or  electro 
motive  force,  a  very  perfectly  insulated  cable  must 
be  employed,  which  is  somewhat  difficult  to  ob 
tain  ;  it  is  also  necessary  to  employ  a  condenser, 
which  requires  a  certain  time  to  charge.  For 
these  and  other  reasons,  frictional  electricity  has 
been  abandoned  for  the  far  more  practical  Vol 
taic  electricity. 

Magnetism. — A  magnet  is  a  piece  of  steel, 
which  has  the  peculiar  property,  among  others, 
of  attracting  iron  to  its  ends. 

Certain  kinds  of  iron  ore,  termed  the  loadstone, 
have  the  same  properties.  The  word  "magnet" 
is  taken  from  the  country  Magnesia,  where  the 
loadstone  was  first  discovered. 

Magnetism  in  a  body  is  considered  to  be  a 
peculiar  condition  caused  by  electrical  action. 
Both  electricity  and  magnetism  have  the  power 
16 


of  communicating  their  properties  to  other  bod 
ies  without  being  in  contact  with  them,  i.e.,  in 
ducing  the  power,  which  on  the  bodies  being 
placed  far  apart  becomes  insensible. 

The  "  Poles"  of  a  Magnet. — Every  magnet  has 
two  poles,  called  the  north  and  south  poles.  A 
magnetic  steel  needle  if  pivoted  on  an  upright 
point,  or  suspended  from  its  centre,  will  fix 
itself,  pointing  north  and  south ;  in  England  the 
end  of  the  needle  pointing  to  the  north  is  termed 
the  north  pole,  but  in  France  it  is  termed  the 
south  pole.  The  reason  of  this  difference  is 
owing  to  the  fact  that  the  north  pole  of  one 
magnet  attracts  the  south  pole  of  another,  and 
therefore,  as  the  earth  is  considered  as  one  vast 
magnet,  the  end  of  the  magnetic  needle  at 
tracted  to  the  north  pole  of  the  earth  should  be 
the  south  pole  of  the  magnet ;  thus  the  French 
south  pole  in  a  magnet  is  the  English  north  pole, 
and  vice  versa. 

Permanent  Magnets. — A  piece  of  steel  when 
magnetized  is  termed  a  permanent  magnet,  be 
cause  it  retains  its  magnetism  for  a  considerable 
length  of  time ;  but  soft  iron  cannot  be  perma 
nently  magnetized. 

A  piece  of  soft  iron  rendered  magnetic  by  in 
duction  retains  a  portion  of  its  magnetism  for 
some  time  after  it  has  been  removed  from  the 
magnetic  field,  by  reason  of  what  is  called  its 
coercive  force.  This  remnant  of  magnetization 
is  called  residual  magnetism. 

Effect  of  an  Electrical  Current  on  a  Magnetic 
Needle. — A  magnetic  bar  or  needle  pivoted  on  its 
centre  will  point  north  and  south,  but  if  an 
electric  current  is  caused  to  flow  along  a  wire 
parallel  to  and  either  over  or  under  the  mag 
netic  needle,  the  latter  will  be  turned  from  its 
position,  and  remain  so  as  long  as  the  current 
continues ;  on  the  current  ceasing  the  needle 
will  resume  its  original  position. 

The  magnetic  needle  can  be  turned  either  to 
the  east  or  the  west,  according  to  the  direction 
and  course  of  the  electrical  current. 

Thus: 

Current  from  S.  to  N.  over  deflects  to  W. 
Current  from  N.  to  S.  under  deflects  to  "W. 
Current  from  N.  to  S.  over  deflects  to  E. 
Current  from  S.  to  N.  under  deflects  to  E. 

The  Galvanometer,  the  "  Mirror,"  and 
"Thomson's  Reflector"  all  depend  on  this  prin 
ciple  for  their  usefulness. 

The  Electro-Magnet. — If  a  piece  of  insulated 
wire  be  coiled  round  a  rod  of  soft  iron,  and  a 
current  of  electricity  be  made  to  pass  through 
the  coil,  the  iron  core  becomes  magnetic  as  long 
as  the  current  passes ;  when  the  current  ceases 
the  magnetism  disappears. 

During  the  passage  of  the  electric  current,  the 
iron  core  possesses  "all  the  properties  of  a  mag 
net.  Therefore  if  a  piece  of  iron  were  placed 
near  its  poles  it  would  be  attracted  and  released 
from  attraction  as  often  as  the  current  passed  or 
ceased  ;  and  supposing  such  a  piece  of  iron,  to  be 
retained  by  a  spring,  etc.,  a  series  of  movements, 
attraction,  and  drawing  back  would  be  effected. 

A  piece  of  iron  so  arranged  is  termed  an 
armature,  and  the  instrument  is  called  an  electro 
magnet. 

the  coil  of  wire  must  be  carefully  insulated, 
or  else  the  electric  current  will  pass  through  the 
iron  core  to  earth,  instead  of  performing  its 
proper  work. 


ELECTRO-BALLISTICS 


242 


ELECTRO-BALLISTICS 


*  An  electro-magnet  is  much  more  powerful 
than  a  steel  magnet  of  equal  dimensions,  and 
depends  on  the  strength  of  the  current  by  which 
the  magnetism  is  induced,  and  the  number  of 
turns  of  wire  round  the  core.  The  north  and 
south  poles  of  an  electro-magnet  are  determined 
by  the  direction  in  which  the  current  flows 
through  the  wire. 

At  the  south  pole  the  current  passes  with  the 
hands  of  a  watch,  and  at  the  north  pole  against 
the  hands  of  a  watch. 

Definition  of  the  "  Ohm." — The  "ohm"  is  the 
standard  used  for  electrical  resistance ;  it  is  ob 
tained  by  observing  what  effect  is  produced  by  a 
current  of  electricity  on  a  certain  conductor  in  a 
certain  time. 

The  ohm  is  a  small  coil  of  German  silver 
wire  representing  the  resistance  overcome  by  a 
current  in  a  certain  time.  See  TORPEDOES. 

Electro-ballistics.  In  the  earlier  days  of 
gunnery  the  accurate  determination  of  the  ve 
locity  of  a  projectile  was  a  most  perplexing 
problem,  and  taxed  the  ingenuity  of  some  of 
the  most  scientific  minds.  The  celebrated  Ben 
jamin  Robins,  about  the  middle  of  the  18th 
century,  produced  his  ballistic  pendulum,  and 
both  he  and  Count  Rumford  directed  attention 
to  the  gun  pendulum  as  a  means  for  determining 
the  initial  velocity  of  projectiles.  Each  of  these 
devices  was  extensively  experimented  with,  by 
Hutton,  in  England,  1775-91;  at  Metz,  1839- 
40;  and  by  Mordecai  in  this  country,  1843-48. 

In  1840,  Professor  Wheatstone  first  proposed 
the  employment  of  electricity  in  determining 
the  velocity  of  projectiles,  and  his  suggestion 
was  tested  practically  with  satisfactory  results. 
Subsequent  researches  by  the  late  Professor 
Henry,  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution,  led  to  im 
proved  modes  of  determining  the  most  difficult 
problems  in  gunnery  by  means  of  electricity, 
and  to  him  belongs  the  credit  of  having  first 
proposed  the  use  of  the  spark  from  what  is  now 
known  as  the  Ruhmkorff  coil,  which  has  since 
been  employed  in  the  most  successful  instru 
ments. 

The  mode  of  determining  the  velocity  of  pro 
jectiles  by  means  of  electricity  may  be  stated,  in 
general  terms,  as  follows :  Two  wire  screens,  or 
targets,  forming  part  of  a  galvanic  circuit,  are 
so  placed  as  to  intercept  the  flight  of  the  pro 
jectile,  which,  as  it  passes  through  them,  breaks 
the  circuit.  The  instant  of  rupturing  the  target- 
wire  is  recorded  by  means  of  the  electrical  in 
strument  employed,  various  ingenious  designs 
of  which  exist,  some  of  which  are  enumerated 
below.  In  this  way  the  time  occupied  by  the 
projectile  in  passing  from  the  first  to  the  second 
target  is  obtained;  dividing  the  distance  be 
tween  the  targets  by  this  time,  the  velocity  of 
the  projectile  at  a  point  midway  between  the 
targets  is  found.  In  order  to  get  the  muzzle, 
or  initial  velocity,  it  is  necessary  to  calculate 
the  loss  due  to  the  resistance  of  the  air  over  the 
space  from  the  gun  to  the  midway  point  between 
the  targets. 

The  following  are  the  electro-ballistic  ma 
chines  chiefly  used  by  ordnance  officers  in  this 
country : 

Benton's  "West  Point  machine,  which  consists 
of  a  bed-plate  of  metal  supporting  an  arc  placed 
in  a  perpendicular  position  and  graduated.  Sus 
pended  perpendicular  to  the  plane  of  this  arc 


are  two  pendulums,  having  a  common  axis  of 
motion  passing  through  the  centre.  Two  elec 
tro-magnets  are  attached  to  the  horizontal  limt 
of  the  arc  to  hold  up  the  pendulums  when  they 
are  deflected  through  angles  of  90°.  There  is 
also  an  apparatus  which  records  the  point  at 
which  the  pendulums  pass  each  other,  when 
they  fall  by  the  breaking  of  the  currents  which 
excite  the  magnets.  The  velocity  of  the  electric 
currents  being  considered  instantaneous,  and  the 
loss  of  the  power  of  the  magnets  simultaneous 
with  the  rupture  of  the  currents,  it  follows  that 
each  pendulum  begins  to  move  at  the  instant 
that  the  projectile  cuts  the  wire,  and  that  the  in 
terval  of  time  corresponds  to  the  difference  of 
the  arcs  described  by  the  pendulums  up  to  the 
time  of  meeting. 

The  Navez-Leurs  chronoscope,  in  which  two 
similar  pendulums — chronometer  and  register — 
having  the  same  axis  of  suspension,  their  bobs 
supported  at  the  extremities  of  a  graduated  arc 
of  180°  by  electro-magnets,  are  successively  re 
leased  upon  the  rupture,  by  the  projectile,  of 
the  conducting-wires  of  their  respective  mag 
nets.  An  index-needle  oscillating  by  frictional 
attachment  with  the  chronometer  pendulum,  au 
tomatically  clamped  at  the  instant  of  passing  to 
the  graduated  arc,  affords  the  means  of  deter 
mining  the  interval.  Here  may  be  mentioned 
the  remarkable  application  by  Col.  Benton, 
in  his  velocimeter,  of  the  principle  "that  the 
loosening  effect  of  cutting  a  taut  thread  is  trans 
mitted  to  equal  distances  along  the  thread  from 
the  point  of  rupture  in  equal  or  sensibly  equal 
times."  This  velocimeter,  operated  by  a  single 
person,  who  may  also  fire  the  gun,  gives  results 
sufficiently  accurate  for  all  the  practical  pur 
poses  of  proving  powder  and  making  ballistic 
calculations. 

Le  Boulenge's  chronograph,  in  which  two 
weights  supported  by  electro-magnets  fall  suc 
cessively.  The  first,  a  long  cylindrical  rod 
(chronometer),  falls  at  the  rupture  of  the  first 
wire;  the  second  (registrar)  falls,  at  the  rupture 
of  the  second  wire,  upon  a  trigger,  releasing  a 
spring-cutter,  which  indents  the  chronometer- 
rod.  From  the  difference  of  the  spaces  described 
the  interval  of  time  is  computed. 

The  Schultz  chronoscope,  in  which  upon  the 
lamp-smoked  surface  of  a  metal  cylinder,  having 
helical  motion,  a  vibrating  fork  traces  a  time- 
scale.  The  rupture  by  a  projectile  of  the  pri 
mary  wire  of  a  Ruhmkorff  coil,  with  an  inde 
pendent  battery,  induces  in  the  secondary  wire, 
one  end  of  which  is  connected  with  the  cylinder, 
the  other  carefully  insulated,  near  it  and  just 
over  the  fork,  a  current ;  a  spark  projected  to 
the  surface  of  the  cylinder  leaves  a  bright  spot 
at  that  point,  indicating  the  instant  of  rupture. 
For  the  Foucault  contact-breaker,  has  been  sub 
stituted,  at  West  Point,  with  apparent  advan 
tage,  Russell's  electric  interrupter,  in  which  a 
simple  spring  makes  the  fork  its  own  inter 
rupter. 

The  Bashforth  chronograph,  in  which,  with 
the  aid  of  a  clock,  a  time-scale  is  traced  upon 
a  cylinder,  rotating  about  a  vertical  axis,  by  a 
marker  at  end  of  a  lever  actuated  by  an  electro 
magnet  and  an  opposing  spring  attached  to  a 
plate,  having  a  nearly  uniform  motion  of  trans 
lation  in  a  vertical  plane  parallel  to  the  axis  of 
the  cylinder.  The  helical  path  described  by  the 


ELEPHANTER 


243 


EMBEZZLEMENT 


marker  is  interrupted  at  each  second  by  a  move 
ment  of  the  lever.  A  second  lever  and  marker 
with  electro-magnet  and  spring,  also  attached  to 
the  plate  but  connected  with  the  screens,  records 
the  passage  of  the  projectile.  The  markers  being 
in  close  proximity  the  intervals  are  readily  de 
termined. 

The  Noble  chronoscope,  with  which  time  rec 
ords  have  been  obtained  for  distances  of  2.4 
inches  in  the  bore  of  a  10-inch  gun,  while  the 
total  time  to  reach  the  muzzle,  a  distance  of 
100  inches,  when  fired  with  a  full  charge,  is 
about  the  one-hundredth  part  of  a  second.  In 
this  instrument  metal  disks,  covered  on  the  edge 
with  white  paper  coated  with  lamp-black,  rotat 
ing  with  high  velocity,  are  connected  with  one 
end  of  the  secondary  wire  of  an  induction  coil, 
the  other,  carefully  insulated,  is  brought  to  a 
discharger  opposite  the  end  of  its  corresponding 
disk,  just  clear  of  it.  A  spark  perforates  the 
paper  at  the  instant  of  disruption  of  the  primary 
wire,  which,  introduced  by  means  of  hollow  steel 
plugs  into  holes  bored  through  the  walls  of  the 
gun,  is  severed  by  a  cutter  under  pressure  of  the 
passing  projectile.  The  angular  velocity  of  the 
disks  is  determined  by  means  of  a  stop-cock, 
which  can  be  connected  with  the  shaft.  The 
linear  velocity  usually  obtained  is  1000  inches 
per  second.  By  a  vernier,  reading  to  the  one- 
thousandth  part  of  an  inch,  intervals  of  time  as 
minute  as  the  one-millionth  part  of  a  second 
may  be  measured. 

In  the  electric  clepsydra,  invented  by  Le  Bou- 
lenge,  the  flow  of  mercury  from  a  reservoir 
through  a  fine  orifice,  opened  or  closed  by  levers 
actuated  by  electro-magnets,  upon  the  breaking 
of  the  electric  current  by  the  projectile,  affords 
the  means  of  determining  the  interval  with 
great  precision.  See  BALLISTIC  PENDULUM,  GUN 
PENDULUM. 

Elephanter.  A  heavy  periodical  rain  of 
Bombay. 

Elephant-fish.  The  Chimcera  callorynchus, 
so  called  because  of  a  protuberance  on  its  nose. 

Elevate.  In  pointing  a  gun,  to  elevate  was  to 
raise  the  muzzle  higher ;  the  orders  are  now 
given  in  regard  to  the  breech  instead  of  the  muz 
zle,  so  that  the  command  lower  corresponds  to 
the  old  word  elevate. 

Elevated  Pole.  The  pole  which  is  above  the 
horizon  of  the  spectator. 

Elevation,  Angle  of.     See  SIGHT,  ANGLE  OF. 

Eligug.  An  aquatic  bird  of  passage  of  the 
auk  kind  ;  called  also  razor-bill. 

Elleck.     A  name  for  the  Trigla  cuculus. 

Elliott,  Jesse  Duncan,  Commodore  U.S.N. 
Jesse  D.  Elliott  was  born  in  Maryland  in  1782. 
He  entered  the  navy  as  a  midshipman  in  1804. 
Served  in  several  vessels,  and  was  promoted  to 
lieutenant  in  April,  1810.  Was  ordered  to  Com 
modore  Chauncey's  squadron  on  Lake  Ontario 
in  1812.  Having  been  sent  to  Lake  Erie  to 
gather  ships,  he  captured  the  English  brigs 
"  Detroit"  and  "  Caledonia"  in  a  boat  expedi 
tion.  For  this,  the  first  naval  success  on  the 
lakes,  he  was  awarded  a  sword  by  Congress. 
Commanded  the  "Conquest"  in  Chauncey's 
squadron,  and  led  in  the  brilliant  attack  on  the 
enemy  at  Kingston,  on  the  8th  of  November. 
He  next  commanded  the  "  Madison,"  24,  in  the 
capture  of  York,  Canada,  April  19, 1813,  and  at 
tack  on  Fort  George,  May  25.  Was  promoted 


to  master  commandant  in  July,  1813.  In  Au 
gust  he  was  transferred  to  Lake  Erie,  under 
Perry.  Commanded  the  "Niagara,"  20,  and 
participated  in  the  victory  on  that  lake,  Sep 
tember  10,  1813.  For  bravery  in  that  action  he 
received  a  gold  medal.  Received  the  command 
from  Perry  on  the  25th  of  October.  Commanded 
the  "Ontario,  "22,  in  Decatur's  squadron  to  Tunis 
and  Algiers,  sailing  May  20, 1815,  and  returning 
the  same  year.  Promoted  to  captain,  March  27, 
1818.  From  1817-24  was  a  commissioner  to 
select  sites  for  light-houses,  and  fortifications  for 
North  Carolina.  Commanded  Brazil  Squadron, 
1825-28 ;  West  India  Squadron,  1829-32 ;  Charles- 
town  Navy- Yard,  1832-35 ;  and  Mediterranean 
Squadron,  in  the  "Constitution,"  1835-38. 
From  1839-40  was  waiting  orders,  and  under 
suspension  from  1841-43  for  various  irregular 
ities  in  his  conduct.  Waiting  orders,  1844 ; 
navy-yard,  Philadelphia,  1845 ;  and  died  there, 
December  10,  1845,  aged  63.  Was  energetic, 
brave,  and  reliable,  but  fitful  in  temper. — F.  S. 
Bassett,  Lieutenant  U.S.N. 

Elliott-eye.  An  eye  worked  over  a  thimble 
in  the  end  of  a  cable  or  hawser. 

Ellipse  (Gr.  elleipsis,  a  falling  short  of).  A 
curve  such  that  the  sum  of  the  distances  to  any 
point  from  two  given  points,  called  the  /oci,  is 
constant.  The  orbits  of  the  planets  are  ellipses, 
as  are  the  terrestrial  meridians.  See  CONIC  SEC 
TIONS. 

Ellison,  Francis  B.,  Commodore  U.S.N. 
Born  in  New  York.  Appointed  from  New 
York,  May  28,  1819. 

Commissioned  as  lieutenant,  May  17,  1828; 
schooner  "Porpoise,"  Mediterranean  Squadron, 
1827-29;  receiving-ship,  New  York,  1833-34; 
navy-yard,  1837;  frigate  "  Brandywine,"  1840; 
store-ship  "  Lexington,"  Mediterranean  Squad 
ron,  1845 ;  navy-yard,  New  York,  1847-48. 

Commissioned  as  commander,  May  29,  1850; 
inspector,  etc.,  New  York,  1853-54;  command 
ing  sloop  "Jamestown,"  coast  of  Africa,  1855. 

Commissioned  as  captain,  March  2,  1857. 

Commissioned  as  commodore,  July  16,  1862 ; 
light-house  inspector,  1866-68.  Retired  October 
1,  1864. 

Ellsworth,  a  city  and  port  of  entry,  capital  of 
Hancock  Co.,  Me.,  is  on  the  Union 'River,  a  few 
miles  from  the  ocean,  and  28  miles  S.E.  of  Ban- 
gor.  The  prosperity  of  this  place  is  mainly  de 
rived  from  the  lumber  business,  navigation,  and 
ship-building.  Pop.  5500. 

Elmo's  Fire,  St.     See  ST.  ELMO'S  FIRE. 

Elops.  A  fish  inhabiting  the  seas  of  America 
and  the  West  Indies;  the  Elops  saurus,  or 
saury. 

Elver.     A  young  conger-  or  sea-eel. 

Embargo.  A  prohibitory  order,  issued  by  the 
government  of  a  state  to  prevent  the  sailing  of 
foreign  (or,  in  certain  exigencies,  home)  shipping 
from  its  ports.  A  willful  breach  of  embargo 
discharges  the  underwriters  from  liability. 

Embark.  To  go  on  board,  or  to  put  on  board 
a  vessel. 

EMBARKATION.  The  shipping  of  goods,  troops, 
and  stores. 

Embarment.  An  old  term,  meaning  an  em 
bargo. 

Ember-goose.  A  name  for  the  great  north 
ern  diver  or  loon  (Colymbus  glacialis). 

Embezzlement.     The  fraudulent   appropria- 


EMBOUCHURE 


244 


EMERGENCIES  AT  SEA 


tion  to  one's  own  use  of  money  or  property 
intrusted  to  one's  care  or  management. 

In  the  merchant  service  mariners  are  bound 
to  contribute  out  of  their  wages  for  embezzle 
ments  of  the  cargo.  If  the  embezzlement  be 
fixed  on  any  individual,  he  alone  is  responsible. 
If  it  has  arisen  from  the  fault,  fraud,  connivance, 
or  negligence  of  any  particular  portion  of  the 
crew,  they  are  bound  to  contribute  to  the  repa 
ration  of  the  loss  in  proportion  to  their  wages ; 
and  when  the  circumstances  of  the  case  create  a 
strong  presumption  of  guilt  against  the  whole 
crew,  all  must  contribute.  Where  no  reasonable 
presumption  against  their  innocence  is  shown, 
the  loss  must  be  borne  exclusively  by  the  owner 
or  master. 

Embouchure.  A  French  word  adopted  as 
signifying  the  mouth  of  a  river,  by  which  its 
waters  are  discharged,  or  by  which  it  is  entered. 

Emden,  or  Embden.  A  fortified  seaport  town 
of  Prussia,  near  the  Dollart,  14  miles  S.W.  of 
Aurich.  The  town  is  intersected  by  canals  con 
nected  with  the  harbor,  and  is  a  railway  termi 
nus.  Principal  edifices,  the  council  and  custom 
houses,  barracks,  school  of  navigation,  etc.  The 
port  is  shallow,  but  the  roadstead  is  deep  enough 
for  vessels  of  any  size.  Large  ship-building 
docks  are  located  here.  Pop.  13,000. 

Emeralders.  A  term  for  the  natives  of  Ire 
land,  from  its  evergreen  verdure. 

Emergencies  at  Sea.  Emergencies  at  sea  are 
those  sudden  and  unforeseen  occurrences  which 
require  the  promptest  action  to  avert  disaster. 
The  most  common  of  these  are  an  alarm  of  fire, 
collision  with  another  vessel,  running  suddenly 
into  very  shoal  water,  or  getting  ashore,  spring 
ing  a  leak,  being  struck  by  a  squall  while  under 
sail,  and  losing  a  man  overboard.  Whenever  a 
sudden  demand  is  made  upon  a  ship's  company 
for  putting  forth  their  utmost  energy  and  skill, 
much  depends  upon  the  example  of  the  officers, 
and  much  on  the  normal  state  of  discipline.  If 
the  officers  have  the  skill  and  experience  which 
only  come  with  devotion  to  one's  profession, 
and,  retaining  their  self-possession,  they  issue 
their  orders  with  decision,  their  example  com 
municates  itself  to  the  crew,  and  order,  even  in 
the  face  of  appalling  danger,  prevails.  If  the 
crew  have  been  faithfully  exercised  at  the  various 
manoeuvres  likely  to  claim  their  attention,  there 
is  a  ready  and  intelligent  effort  on  the  part  of  all 
to  secure  their  common  safety  ;  or,  in  the  last  ex 
tremity,  a  steadfast  purpose  to  meet  their  fate 
like  men. 

Inexperienced  officers,  and  such  as  have  made 
their  profession  a  secondary  consideration,  and 
an  undisciplined  crew,  are  apt  to  be  thrown  into 
confusion  at  the  very  first  alarm  ;  panic  ensues, 
and  the  danger  is  enhanced  by  misguided  men 
seeking  their  personal  safety,  or  misapplying 
their  efforts. 

An  alarm  of  fire  at  sea  is  enough  to  appal  the 
stoutest  heart.  To  meet  this  emergency  every 
ship  has  a  regular  fire-bill,  in  which  each  offi 
cer  and  man  has  his  appropriate  station  and 
duty.  The  first  step  is  to  assemble  the  crew  at 
quarters,  where  they  are  divided  up  into  small 
groups  of  gun's  crews  under  their  proper  officers. 
This  prevents  panic  at  once,  and  renders  the 
crew  more  manageable.  Every  available  pump 
is  put  in  requisition ;  the  hose  are  led  out ;  a 
wrecking-party  is  supplied  with  axes,  etc.,  and 


a  smothering-party  with  wet  blankets.  Means 
are  employed  to  prevent  unnecessary  currents  of 
air ;  the  ship's  course  is  changed  with  reference 
to  the  wind,  that  the  latter  may  be  the  least 
favorable  for  spreading  the  fire ;  the  magazines 
are  furnished  with  flood-cocks,  by  which  they 
may  be  filled  with  water;  sentries  are  posted 
over  the  boats  to  prevent  their  being  lowered 
without  orders.  These  means,  particularly  the 
use  of  the  powerful  steam-pumps  of  our  modern 
ships,  have  been  found  adequate,  while  pre 
serving  the  utmost  order,  to  control  any  ordinary 
fire.  The  best  preventive  against  panic  is  to  be 
found  in  constantly  drilling  the  crew  at  their 
stations,  and  from  time  to  time  by  sounding 
false  alarms  when  the  crew  are  least  prepared. 

Should  the  fire  gain  the  mastery,  the  boats  are 
resorted  to,  a  raft  constructed  of  spare  spars, 
provisions  distributed,  and  the  ship  at  the  last 
moment  abandoned.  It  is  then  that  officers 
find  their  reward  in  the  previous  care  bestowed 
upon  the  boats  and  their  equipments.  It  is  cus 
tomary  now  to  have  a  regular  station-bill  for 
"abandoning  ship,"  and  the  crew  exercised  by 
it.  The  total  loss  by  fire  of  the  United  States 
steam-frigate  "Missouri,"  in  the  Bay  of  Gi 
braltar,  in  1843,  is  a  memorable  example  in 
point. 

Collisions. — These  generally  occur  in  a  fog, 
during  the  night,  or  in  a  crowded  harbor.  The 
Rules  of  the  Road,  as  recently  revised  (which 
see),  are  sufficient  to  enable  ships  to  avoid  each 
other  on  all  ordinary  occasions.  But  there  are 
times  when  it  would  seem  as  if  no  human  care 
were  sufficient  to  prevent  collision. 

The  lights  of  one  ship  may  be  burning 
brightly,  and  yet,  from  some  unsuspected  cause, 
may  be  screened  to  the  look-out  of  another  ves 
sel.  This  has  no  doubt  led  to  many  collisions  at 
night.  No  rules  will  supply  the  want  of  careful 
attention  to  the  running  lights,  the  keeping  of  a 
good  look-out,  and  the  exercise  of  good  judgment 
in  the  management  of  the  ship.  The  running 
down  and  sinking  of  the  United  States  steamer 
"Oneida,"  Commander  E.  P.  Williams,  United 
States  navy,  by  the  British  mail  steamer  "Bom 
bay,"  Capt.  Eyre,  January  23,  1870,  by  which 
120  lives  were  lost,  furnishes  a  melancholy  illus 
tration  of  this  class  of  emergencies. 

Getting  on  shore,  or  grounding,  may  some 
times  happen  even  with  the  utmost  care.  The 
vessel  may  have  been  carried  out  of  her  course 
by  unknown  currents  ;  continued  fogs  may  have 
prevented  observations  of  the  sun ;  or,  she  may 
be  brought  up  suddenly  by  some  rock  or  shoal 
hot  laid  down  on  the  charts.  Than  this  there 
are  few  emergencies  at  sea  which  make  greater 
demands  upon  the  skill,  resources,  energies,  and 
endurance  of  both  officers  and  crew.  Sails  must 
be  instantly  laid  aback,  or  the  engines  reversed. 
Should  this  means  fail,  anchors  must  be  sent 
out  astern,  a  good  strain  be  brought  upon  the 
cables,  and  the  ship  lightened,  and  hove  off. 

It  is  related  that  an  English  64-gun  ship 
having  parted  her  cables  in  a  gale,  was  drifting 
helplessly  on  shore,  when  the  captain  ordered  the 
flood-cocks  to  be  opened  and  the  ship  filled  as 
much  as  possible  with  water.  By  this  means  the 
ship's  draft  was  increased  one  foot  before  she  took 
the  bottom.  On  the  return  of  good  weather  the 
water  was  pumped  out,  and  the  ship  hove  off. 

Springing  a  leakj  happily  of  rare  occurrence 


EMERGENCIES  AT  SEA 


245 


EMMONS 


to  a  man-of-war,  calls  for  prompt  and  intelligent 
action.  In  1859  the  Russian  line-of-battle  ship 
"Csesarevitch,"  while  cruising  in  the  Mediter 
ranean,  sprung  a  leak.  Cables  and  hawsers  were 
passed  round  and  round  her,  and  hove  taut  to 
bind  her  together.  She  finally  put  into  Malta  for 
repairs,  leaking  so  fast  that  her  crew  were  well- 
nigh  exhausted  by  their  efforts  to  keep  her  afloat. 

Eighteen  hundred  years  before  that,  St.  Paul, 
while  at  sea  in  a  corn-ship  of  Alexandria,  was 
caught  in  an  equinoctial  gale  (A.D.  September  23, 
60),  when  the  mariners  were  obliged  to  "  under- 
gird  the  ship,"  and  subsequently  to  run  her  on 
shore  on  the  same  island, — Malta. 

Struck  by  a  squall  while  under  sail  calls  for 
good  seamanship  on  the  part  of  the  officer  in 
charge  of  the  deck.  By  putting  the  helm  up 
the  long  ship  of  the  present  day  is  apt  to  go  off 
far  enough  to  bring  the  wind  abeam,  and  stick 
there.  This  is  a  most  dangerous  position,  and  one 
to  be  avoided.  The  better  plan  is  to  keep  a  sharp 
look-out,  and  get  the  ship  before  the  wind  and 
under  short  canvas  before  the  squall  reaches 
you.  If  this  is  not  practicable,  then  take  your 
chances  of  luffing  through  it,  reducing  sail  as 
speedily  as  possible.  No  written  directions  can 
possibly  supply  the  place  of  good  seamanship 
acquired  in  the  school  of  practice.  Even  in  this 
school  close  observation  and  reflection  are  essen 
tial.  The  one  supplies  mental  pabulum ;  the 
other  furnishes  the  digestive  process  by  which 
the  intellectual  food  is  assimilated  and  converted 
into  the  very  bone  and  fibre  of  the  system. 

Man  overboard!  Few  alarms  so  startle  "the 
little  warlike  world  within"  as  this.  Sympathy 
and  curiosity  impel  every  one  to  rush  at  once  to 
the  scene,  and  the  direst  confusion  ensues.  By 
making  out  a  regular  station-bill  for  a  "  man 
overboard,"  and  by  frequent  false  alarms,  in 
which  a  buoy  should  be  dropped  and  the  life 
boat  lowered,  the  chances  of  panic,  as  with  false 
alarms  of  fire,  are  reduced  to  a  minimum. 

In  a  steamer,  the  life-buoy  must  be  dropped  as 
near  to  the  man  overboard  as  possible,  the 
engines  stopped,  the  life-boat  lowered,  and  the 
man  picked  up. 

Sailing  on  a  wind,  a  ship  should  be  hove  about, 
lowering  the  boat,  and  leaving  the  mainyard 
square,  in  stays.  Going  large  with  the  yards 
well  squared  in,  the  ship  should  be  rounded  to, 
with  head-yards  aback,  sail  being  reduced  as  ex- 
peditiously  as  possible. 

The  following  points  should  be  considered : 

First,  the  quickest  and  most  effectual  means 
of  checking  the  ship's  way  and  keeping  her  as 
near  the  man  as  possible. 

Secondly,  to  preserve  order,  enforce  prompt 
obedience,  and  discourage  fool-hardy  volunteer 
ing. 

Thirdly,  to  see  that  the  life-boat  is  in  all 
respects  ready  for  use,  and  her  crew  at  hand. 

Fourthly,  that  the  boat  be  not  lowered  with 
stern-board  on. 

Fifthly,  to  have  persons  stationed  to  keep  the 
man  in  sight,  and  by  motions  to  direct  the  course 
of  the  life-boat ;  at  night  to  display  a  good  light. 

Finally,  to  insure  success  the  officer  in  charge 
of  the  deck  must  be,  in  every  sense,  master  of 
the  situation. 

Sailing  in  squadron,  there  is  no  alternative  but 
to  go  about  at  once,  and  at  night  to  display  the 
position  lights,  to  prevent  your  second  astern 


from  piling  upon  you.  In  the  daytime  there 
should  be  a  preconcerted  signal,  by  which  the 
commander-in-chief,  and  the  rest  of  the  squad 
ron,  may  know  what  has  happened. 

In  the  French  signal-book  there  is  a  special 
rule  laid  down  for  this  emergency. 

In  very  bad  weather,  the  question  may  present 
itself  as  to  how  far  it  would  be  justifiable  to  risk 
the  lives  of  the  seven  or  nine  men  of  a  boat's 
crew  for  the  doubtful  chances  of  saving  one.  In 
this  conflict  between  feeling  and  discretion  one's 
own  judgment  must  decide. 

The  loss  of,  or  injury  to,  a  rudder  is  an  emer 
gency  of  rare  occurrence  in  these  days.  On 
taking  the  ground,  however,  a  ship  may  thump 
her  rudder  off;  or,  through  defective  workman 
ship  or  decayed  wood,  it  may  be  lost  in  a  gale, 
or  it  may  be  shot  away  in  action. 

The  readiest  and  simplest  substitute  for  a  rud 
der  is  a  hemp  cable,  or  hawser,  paid  out  over  the 
stern,  after  the  manner  of  a  drag.  To  this  are 
bent,  well  out  from  the  ship,  guys,  of  smaller 
hawsers,  which  are  led  in  through  blocks  on 
either  quarter.  Heavy  luffs  are  clapped  on  to 
the  guys,  and  the  ship  steered  by  bringing  the 
strain  on  either  guy  as  may  be  required.  Hav 
ing  made  this  temporary  provision,  a  jury-rud 
der  may  be  constructed  on  the  plan  proposed 
some  years  ago  by  Capt.  Pakenham  of  the  Eng 
lish  navy.  This  consisted  of  a  spare  topmast,  to 
form  the  rudder-stock,  and  other  spare  spars 
secured  to  it,  and  trimmed  off  in  such  lengths  as 
to  present,  when  boarded  over,  the  general  ap 
pearance  of  a  rudder.  A  spare  lower-cap  serves 
as  a  gudgeon ;  the  round  hole  embracing  the 
topmast ;  the  square  one  being  cut  away  so  as  to 
be  adjusted  to  the  stern-post,  where  it  is  held  in 
place  by  guys  taken  well  forward  and  hard  taut. 

An  order  issued  by  the  English  Admiralty  in 
1840  required  that  ships  should  be  furnished  with 
a  spare  rudder-stock  fitted  with  pintles.  To 
the  stern-post  were  fitted,  while  the  ship  was  in 
dock,  spare  gudgeons.  With  these  arrange 
ments  a  jury-rudder  could  readily  be  constructed. 
In  the  event  of  wrenching  off  the  rudder-head  im 
mediate  resort  would  be  had  to  the  rudder-chains, 
which  are  kept  for  the  purpose. 

In  regard  to  emergencies  in  general,  the  habit 
cannot  be  too  often,  or  too  earnestly  recom 
mended  to  officers  placed  in  positions  of  responsi 
bility,  whether  at  sea  or  in  port,  of  constantly 
presenting  to  themselves  the  various  cases  which 
might  arise  demanding  their  prompt  and  vigor 
ous  action. 

By  this  method  they  school  themselves  for  the 
hour  of  trial,  and  pass  through  any  ordeal  they 
may  be  subjected  to  with  the  glory  of  success. — 
S.  B.  Luce,  Captain  U.S.N. 

Emersion.  The  reappearance  of  an  occulted 
body. 

Emmons,  George  F.,  Rear-Admiral  U.S.N. 
Native  of  Vermont,  from  which  State  he  was 
appointed  midshipman,  April  1,  1828;  at  Naval 
School,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  1828;  thence  to  steam- 
frigate  "Fulton,"  in  which  he  remained  until 
she  blew  up,  June  4,  1829;  then  in  frigate 
"Brandywine,"  on  special  service  to  West  In 
dies,  1830  ;  and  in  Mediterranean,  1830-33. 

Promoted  to  passed  midshipman,  July  14, 
1834  ;  brig  "  Consort,"  on  our  coast,  1836  ;  bark 
"  Pioneer,"  West  Indies,  1837,  carrying  out 
Gen.  Santa  Anna,  after  his  defeat  in  Texas  ;  in 


EMMONS 


246 


ENGINEER,  CIVIL 


frigate  "  Macedonian"  (as  master)  on  our  coast, 
1837 ;  joined  the  sloop-of-war  "  Peacock,"  and 
was  commissioned  as  "  lieutenant  during  the  ex 
ploring  expedition"  of  Capt.  Wilkes,  serving  in 
her  from  1838  to  July,  1841,  when  she  was  lost  on 
the  bar  at  the  mouth  of  Columbia  Kiver,  Oregon. 

Regularly  commissioned  as  lieutenant,  Feb 
ruary  25,  1841 ;  was  occasionally  in  command  of 
schooner  "Flying-Fish,"  and  while  engaged 
in  surveying  and  boat  expeditions  among  the 
Pacific  islands,  was  frequently  engaged  with  the 
natives. 

After  the  loss  of  the  "Peacock,"  had  charge 
of  a  party  consisting  of  the  scientific  corps, 
officers,  sailors,  marines,  and  some  hunters  and 
trappers,  to  explore  the  country  south  of  the 
Columbia  to  the  head-waters  of  the  Sacramento, 
and  thence  through  California  to  San  Francisco, 
where  the  party  arrived,  after  several  skirmishes 
with  hostile  natives,  but  without  loss ;  in  Nov 
ember,  1841,  joined  the  "  Vincennes,"  flag-ship 
of  the  Exploring  Expedition,  and  came  home  in 
her  via  the  East  Indies,  in  1842 ;  receiving-ship 
and  recruiting  duty  in  Baltimore  in  1843 ;  in 
sloop-of-war  "  Boston"  and  frigate  "  Raritan," 
Brazil  Squadron,  in  1843-46  ;  during  the  Mexi 
can  war,  in  the  "Ohio";  1847-48,  in  Gulf  of 
Mexico,  Brazil,  and  Pacific ;  was  frequently  em 
ployed  on  shore  in  Upper  and  Lower  California, 
and  once  sent  to  the  Sierra  Nevada  as  bearer  of 
dispatches  to  Gen.  Mason;  in  sloop  "Warren" 
and  "Southampton,"  Pacific,  in  1849;  on  bureau 
duty,  Navy  Department,  "Washington,  1851-52; 
in  frigate  "Savannah,"  Brazil  Squadron,  1854- 
56  ;  during  the  last  year  was  in  command  of  her 
as  the  flag-ship  of  Commodore  Mercer. 

Commissioned  as  commander,  January  28, 
1856 ;  bureau  duty  and  member  of  Light- House 
Board  in  1861  ;  during  the  Rebellion,  was  gener 
ally  employed  on  blockade  duty  in  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico  and  on  the  Mississippi  River  in  com 
mand  of  the  steamers  "  Hatteras,"  "  R.  R.  Cuy- 
ler,"  "  Monongahela,"  and  "Brooklyn";  while 
in  command  of  the  first  named  captured  Cedar 
Keys  and  Pass  Christian,  and  some  twenty  prizes, 
nearly  all  of  which  were  under  English  colors. 

Commissioned  as  captain,  February  7,  1863 ; 
was  fleet-captain  under  Admiral  Dahlgren,  off 
Charleston,  in  1863,  while  Fort  Sumter  was 
being  reduced  ;  afterward  commanded  the  steam- 
sloop  "Lackawanna"  and  a  division  of  block 
ading  vessels  (from  five  to  fifteen)  in  the  Gulf 
of  Mexico,  to  the  close  of  the  war ;  while  com 
manding  afloat  at  New  Orleans,  assisted  in 
destroying  the  rebel  ram  "Webb"  and  cap 
turing  her  officers  and  crew ;  upon  two  occa 
sions  successfully  repelled  and  thwarted  the  at 
tempts  of  the  enemy  to  burn  the  shipping  and 
city  by  fire-rafts  and  boats  laden  with  hay  and 
combustibles,  whereby  millions  of  property  were 
saved;  commanded  the  steam-sloop  "  Ossipee" 
to  the  Pacific  and  Alaska,  in  1866-68,  carrying 
thither  our  Commissioners  and  hoisting  the 
American  flag  over  our  new  possessions.  Dur 
ing  the  return  trip  to  San  Francisco,  the  ship 
came  near  being  lost  in  a  hurricane  which  she 
encountered  off  Sitka. 

Commissioned  as  commodore,  September  20, 
1868;  appointed  senior  member  of  Ordnance 
Board  in  Washington,  1869,  and  subsequently 
given  charge  of  the  Hydrographic  Office ;  com 
manding  Naval  Station,  Philadelphia,  1870-72. 


Commissioned  as  rear-admiral,  November  5, 
1872.  Total  sea  service,  23  years ;  shore  or 
other  duty,  11  years.  Retired  August  23,  1873. 

Emprise.  An  attempt  or  undertaking  of  dan 
ger  ;  enterprise. 

Emptions.     Stores  purchased. 

Encircling  Reef.  A  name  given  to  a  form  of 
coral  reef. 

End  for  End.  To  shift  an  object  end  for  end 
is  to  turn  it  through  an  angle  of  180°.  To  shift 
a  fall  end  for  end  is  to  reeve  it  the  opposite  way, 
so  that  the  hauling  part  becomes  the  standing 
part. 

End-on.  Bow  foremost ;  the  opposite  of 
broadside-on. 

Enemy.  In  the  military  and  naval  sense,  the 
opposing  force. 

Energy.  The  energy  or  vis  viva  of  a  shot  is 
the  amount  of  work  stored  up  in  it,  and  is  ex- 

w  v'2 
pressed  by  the  formula  =  foot-tons 


32.16  X  4880 
of  energy,  w  representing  weight  of  shot,  and  v 
the  velocity  of  impact. 

The  above  formula  classes  projectiles  in  regard 
to  their  mashing  or  racking  effect,  but  to  find 
the  punching  effect  the  energy  must  be  divided 
by  the  number  of  inches  of  the  shot's  circum 
ference. 

Enfield  Rifle.  A  rifled  musket  which  took 
its  name  from  Enfield,  in  England,  the  place  of 
its  manufacture.  It  was,  in  the  days  of  muzzle- 
loading  small-arms,  a  serviceable  and  valuable 
weapon,  but  has  now  been  superseded  by  arms  of 
the  breech-loading  system. 

Engagement.     A  battle  or  general  action. 

Engine.  A  machine  for  applying  any  of  the 
mechanical  powers  or  principles ;  especially  a 
machine  for  applying  steam  to  propel  vessels, 
railroad  trains,  etc.  See  MARINE  STEAM-EN 
GINE. 

ENGINE-BEARER,  or  ENGINE-KEELSON.  Strong 
timbers  or  girders,  built  in  the  bottom  of  a  ship, 
on  which  the  engines  rest,  and  to  which  they  are 
secured. 

ENGINEER.  One  who  plans  structures  or 
machines  and  superintends  their  construction, 
or  surveys  land  or  water  for  the  location  of 
structures.  The  term  is  applicable  to  those 
skilled  in  designing  military  or  naval  works,  or 
machines  of  offense  and  defense,  or  in  surveying 
and  planning  aqueducts,  canals,  railways,  docks, 
etc. 

One  who  is  skilled  in  engineering,  or  the 
management  of  engines. 

ENGINE-ROOM.  The  space  allotted  to  steam- 
engines  and  their  appurtenances  in  ships  or 
buildings. 

ENGINE-ROOM  TELEGRAPH.  An  electrical 
or  mechanical  device  for  communicating  signals 
from  the  deck  of  a  vessel  to  the  engine-room. 
These  signals  may  appear  either  in  words,  by 
sound  of  a  gong,  or  by  a  combination  of  both. 

Engineer,  Civil.  There  are  10  civil  engineers 
on  the  active  list,  one  being  stationed  at  each 
navy-yard  and  naval  station. 

The  civil  engineer  supervises  the  erection  and 
the  repairs  of  all  buildings,  docks,  and  wharves 
in  the  navy-yards,  and,  if  required  to  do  so,  of 
magazines,  or  other  naval  structures  outside  the 
yards.  He  has  the  immediate  supervision  and 
direction  of  the  architect,  when  one  is  employed 
at  the  same  yard  with  himself,  and  of  all  fore- 


ENGINEER   CORPS 


247 


ENGINEERING,   BUREAU  OF 


men  and  other  workmen  employed  on  said  works, 
and  recommends  their  respective  wages,  and  is 
responsible  for  the  proper  distribution  and  em 
ployment  of  all  materials  for  said  work.  He 
prepares  plans  of  any  proposed  improvements, 
and  estimates  of  cost,  with  bills  of  materials  and 
schedules  for  advertisements,  which  may  be 
necessary  for  such  works.  He  supervises  the 
inspection  and  measurement  of  all  materials 
under  his  charge,  and  he  is  responsible  for  the 
waste  or  improper  use  of  all  material  by  those 
under  his  general  supervision. 

Engineer  Corps.  Though  engineer  is  not  a 
modern  title  in  the  military  establishment,  it  is 
new  to  the  navy. 

The  first  officer  of  this  name  was  placed  on  the 
official  list  of  the  British  navy  January,  1837,  and 
the  first  appointment  of  an  engineer  in  the  navy 
of  the  United  States  was  in  1838  ;  but  the  corps 
was  not  regularly  organized  and  incorporated  in 
the  navy  register  until  1843. 

November  7,  1837,  the  Secretary  of  the  Navy 
wrote  Capt.  M.  C.  Perry  that  the  "  Fulton"  was 


allowed,  as  recommended  by  the  Commissioners 
of  the  N 
ment, — 


of  the  Navy  and  approved 


)y  tne  \ 
by  tLu 


Navy  Depart- 


2  first-class  engineers  at  $800  per  annum  each. 
2  second-class  engineers  at  $500  per  annum 
each. 

4  coal-heavers  at  $15  per  month  each. 

8  firemen  at  $25  to  $30  per  month  each. 

This  was  the  germ  of  the  engineer  corps  of  the 
U.  S.  navy,  which  at  present  consists  of  an  active 
list  of— 

1  engineer-in-chief,  having  the  relative  rank 
of  commodore. 

9  chief  engineers,  having  the  relative  rank  of 
captain. 

15  chief  engineers,  having  the  relative  rank  of 
commander. 

45  chief  engineers,  having  the  relative  rank  of 
lieutenant-commander. 

90  passed  assistant  engineers,  having  the  rela 
tive  rank  of  lieutenant. 

6  passed  assistant  engineers,  having  the  relative 
rank  of  master. 

42  assistant  engineers,  having  the  relative  rank 
of  ensign. 

54  cadet  engineers,  having  the  relative  rank  of 
cadet  midshipman. 

On  the  re  ired  list  there  are  7  chief  engineers,  18 
passed  assistant  engineers,  and  23  assistant  engi 
neers. 

This  increase,  from  4  officers  in  1837  to  over 
300  in  1880,  shows  the  rapid  development  of 
steam  as  an  adjunct  in  naval  warfare.  See  STAFF- 
OFFIOERS. 

Enginesring,  Bureau  of  Steam.  This  bureau 
directs  the  designing,  running,  and  repairing 
of  engines,  boilers,  and  appurtenances  afloat 
and  at  navy-yards  and  naval  stations.  The 
chief  of  the  bureau  is  the  engineer-in-chief  and 
has  the  relative  rank  of  commodore.  See  NAVY 
DEPARTMENT. 

ENQINEER-IN-CHIEF.  See  ENGINEERING, 
BUREAU  OF  STEAM. 

ENGINEER,  FLEET-.  The  senior  chief  engineer 
on  a  station  is  detailed  to  discharge  the  duties  of 
engineer  of  the  fleet.  He  is  attached  to  the  flag 
ship,  and  his  duties  are  as  follows  : 

1.  To  exercise  a  general  supervision  over  all 
the  engineers  of  the  fleet  or  squadron. 


2.  To  acquaint  himself  with  the  different  kinds 
of  engines  in  use  in  the  squadron,  and  to  recom 
mend  the  means  to  keep  them  in  the  highest  state 
of  efficiency. 

3.  To  make  quarterly  inspections  of  machinery, 
and  to  decide  upon  all  ordinary  repairs.  If  alter 
ations  or  additions  to  the  machinery  are  pro 
posed,  a  special  report  must  be  made,  stating 
their  probable  cost  and  the  time  necessary  for 
their  execution. 

4.  To  recommend  surveys  when  imperfections 
or  accidents  are  serious,  and  to  make  report  where 
carelessness  is  known  or  suspected. 

5.  To  see  that  every  vessel  is  provided  with 
the  necessary  tools,  stores,  and  spare  parts  of 
machinery,  and  that  every  engine  and  boiler  is 
properly  cared  for.     As  the  strictest  economy  is 
required  in  the  expenditure  of  stores,  he  will, 
previous  to  any  of  the  vessels  in  the  squadron 
leaving  on  detached  service,  see  that  they  are 
provided  with  all  that  may  be  required  in  the 
engineer  department,  to  prevent,  as  far  as  pos 
sible,  any  purchases  while  absent  from  the  com 
mander-in-chief,  and  he  will  make  a  report  of 
the  same  to  the  commander-in-chief. 

6.  To  examine  the  coal  used,  and  report  if  there 
is  any  falling  off  in  quality,  or  any  undue  damp- 
ness,'and  to  see  that  it  is  properly  stored  at  the 
depots,  and  that  there  is  at  all  times  a  sufficient 
quantity  on  hand  to  meet  the  probable  wants  of 
the  squadron. 

7.  To  make  frequent  reports  of  the  condition 
of  the  engineer  department  of  every  vessel  in 
the  squadron. 

8.  To   examine  all    returns   and    requisitions 
made  by  the  senior  engineers  of  vessels,  and  to 
forward   them,  with   such  remarks  as   he  may 
deem  necessary. 

9.  To  recommend  such  measures  as  will,  in 
his  opinion,  promote   efficiency,   economy,  and 
uniformity  in  his  department. 

10.  And,  finally,  to  perform  such  other  duties, 
relating  to  his  position,  as  shall  be  assigned  him 
by  the  commander-in-chief. 

ENGINEER,  CHIEF.  There  are  70  chief  engi 
neers  ;  the  senior  10  have  the  relative  rank  of 
captain,  the  15  next  in  seniority  have  the  rela 
tive  rank  of  commander,  and  the  junior  45  have 
the  relative  rank  of  lieutenant-commander.  See 
ENGINEER-IN-CHIEF. 

When  a  chief  engineer  is  attached  to  a  navy- 
yard,  he,  under  the  direction  of  the  commandant, 
has  the  superintendence  of  the  construction  and 
repair  of  the  steam  and  other  machinery.  He 
has  the  supervision,  under  the  commandant,  of 
the  foremen  and  all  the  men  employed  in  the 
machine-  and  boiler-shops  and  foundries,  and  of 
the  material  used  in  those  departments,  and  is 
responsible  for  its  preservation  and  proper  use. 
He  has  charge  of  all  steam-machinery  afloat,  at 
the  yard  or  station,  under  the  direction  of  the 
commandant,  whether  the  vessel  be  under  re 
pairs  or  in  ordinary ;  and  he  is  to  exercise  con 
trol  over  all  employes  in  the  engineer's  depart 
ment  on  board  such  vessels.  When  the  vessel 
under  repair  is  in  commission,  he  will,  before 
commencing  any  repair,  confer  with  the  com 
manding  officer  of  the  vessel,  who  will  render 
him  every  facility  for  the  prompt  and  economical 
execution  of  the  work.  He  is  responsible  for  the 
condition  and  preservation  of  all  the  machinery 
of  the  vessels  under  his  charge.  When  a  steamer 


ENGLISH 


248 


ENSIGN 


is  to  be  laid  up,  be  will  take  charge  of  tbe  ma 
chinery  at  the  time  the  chief  engineer  of  .the 
vessel  is  detached  ;  when  repairs  are  to  be  effected, 
he  makes  requisition  on  the  commandant  for  the 
work  necessary. 

When  a  chief  engineer  is  attached  to  a  vessel 
he  is  in  charge  of  the  boilers  and  engines  and 
their  dependencies,  distilling  apparatus,  steam- 
winches,  engines  for  turning  steam-capstans,  etc. 
He  keeps  a  strict  account  of  the  expenditures  of 
coal,  stores,  and  other  articles  in  his  department, 
and  frequently  examines  the  coal  in  the  bunkers 
to  see  that  there  is  no  danger  of  spontaneous 
combustion. 

ENGINEER,  ASSISTANT.  When  there  is  no 
chief  engineer  on  board,  the  duties  assigned  to 
him  devolve  on  the  senior  assistant  engineer. 
Assistant  engineers  are  at  all  times  faithfully  and 
zealously  to  carry  into  prompt  execution  all 
orders  they  may  receive  ;  and  they  are  to  be  spe 
cially  careful  in  the  management  of  the  engines, 
boilers,  and  their  dependencies.  When  the  en 
gines  are  in  operation,  the  engineer  of  the  watch 
must  execute  promptly  all  orders  he  may  receive 
from  the  officer  of  the  deck,  though  he  must  be 
careful  in  so  doing  that  no  risk  of  injury  is  in 
curred.  He  reports  hourly  to  the  officer  of  the 
deck  whether  the  engines  and  their  dependencies, 
the  force-pumps,  hose,  and  all  other  means  for 
extinguishing  fire,  are  in  good  order,  and  that 
the  pumps  and  hose  are  ready  for  immediate 
use.  He  notes  hourly  on  the  steam-log  all  the 
information  which  the  columns  in  it  require, 
and  places  in  the  column  of  "  remarks"  full 
information  of  the  state  of  the  weather  and  sea, 
and  all  accidents  to,  or  defects  in,  the  engines 
or  their  dependencies,  the  manner  of  their  work 
ing,  the  quality  of  the  coal,  and  any  other  cir 
cumstances  which  maybe  useful  for  determining 
the  powers  and  qualities  of  the  vessel  and  the 
engines  under  the  various  circumstances  to  which 
they  may  be  exposed.  He  must  be  particularly 
careful  to  prevent  the  waste  of  coals,  oil,  tallow, 
and  all  other  stores  in  the  engineer's  department. 

Passed  assistant  engineers  rank  as  lieutenant 
or  master  according  to  length  of  service  ;  assist 
ant  engineers  as  master  or  ensign. 

English,  Earl,  Commodore  U.S.N.  Born  in 
New  Jersey.  Appointed  from  New  Jersey, 
February  25,  1840;  attached  to  frigate  "Con 
stellation,"  East  India  Squadron,  1840-44;  steam 
ship  "  Princeton, "special service,  1844-45;  Naval 
School,  1846. 

Promoted  to  passed  midshipman,  July  11, 
1846;  razee  "Independence,"  flag-ship,  Pacific 
Squadron,  1846-48  ;  present  at  capture  of  Mazat- 
lan,  1847;  steamer  "Vixen,"  Home  Squadron, 
1849-50;  store-ship  "Southampton,"  Pacific 
Squadron,  1851-53 ;  receiving-ship,  Philadel 
phia,  1853  ;  coast  survey,  1854-55. 

Promoted  to  master,  1855. 

Commissioned  as  lieutenant,  September  14, 
1855;  sloop  "Levant,"  East  India  Squadron, 
1855-58 ;  took  part  in  engagements  with  Barrier 
Forts,  Canton  Kiver,  China,  November,  1856 ; 
navy-yard,  Philadelphia,  1859  ;  steam-sloop 
"  Wyoming,"  Pacific  Squadron,  1860-61 ;  com 
manding  steamer  "Somerset,"  East  Gulf  Block 
ading  Squadron,  1862;  capture  of  fort  at  mouth 
of  St.  Mark's  Kiver,  Florida,  June  15,  1862. 

Commissioned  as  lieutenant-commander,  July 
16,  1862;  commanding  steam-gunboat  "Saga 


more,"  East  Gulf  Blockading  Squadron,  1863; 
captured  and  destroyed  town  of  New  Smyrna, 
Fla.,  July  28, 1863  ;  commanding  steam-gunboat 
"Pontiac,"  1864;  commanding  steamer  "  Wya- 
lusing,"  North  Atlantic  Blockading  Squadron, 
1864-65;  capture  of  Plymouth,  N.  C.,  October, 
1864 ;  in  action  with  rebel  batteries  and  in 
fantry,  on  lloanoke  Kiver,  near  Poplar  Point, 
N.  C.,  during  the  expedition  up  that  river,  the 
advance  being  prevented  by  torpedoes,  December, 
1864 ;  ordnance  duty,  navy-yard,  New  York,  1866. 
Commissioned  as  commander,  July  25,  I860  ; 
commanding  steam-sloop  "  Iroquois,"  Asiatic 
Squadron,  1867-69;  commanding  flag-ship  "Del 
aware,"  Asiatic  Fleet,  1870. 

Commissioned  captain,  September  28,  1871 ; 
special  duty,  1872 ;  navy-yard,  Portsmouth,  N. 
H.,  1873;  commanding  "Congress"  (second- 
rate),  European  Station,  1873-76;  navy-yard, 
Portsmouth,  N.  H.,  1876-78. 

In  1878  appointed  chief  of  Bureau  of  Equip 
ment  and  Recruiting. 

Commissioned  as  commodore,  1880. 
Enlarge.     The  wind  is  said  to  enlarge  when 
it  comes  out  nearer  the  stern. 

Enlist.  To  enter  upon  a  list ;  to  enroll.  Thus, 
the  recruiting  officer  is  said  to  enlist  a  man. 

To  enter  into  a  contract  with  the  government 
to  serve  it  for  a  term  of  years  in  a  naval  or 
military  capacity.  Men  are  enlisted  in  the  navy 
for  a  term  of  3  years,  and  in  the  marine  corps 
for  5  years.  See" ENLISTMENT. 

ENLISTMENT.  The  act  by  which  a  man  binds 
himself  to  serve  the  government  for  a  term  of 
years  in  a  military  or  naval  capacity.  Kecruit- 
ing  officers  are  enjoined  to  guard  against  the  en 
listment  of  improper,  unsound,  or  incompetent 
persons.  Boys  between  the  ages  of  16  and  17 
may  be  enlisted  to  serve  in  the  navy  until  they 
reach  the  age  of  21,  but  only  with  the  consent 
of  their  parents  or  guardians  given  in  a  pre 
scribed  form.  No  person  under  16,  no  insane  or 
intoxicated  person,  and  no  deserter  from  the 
naval  or  military  service  shall  be  enlisted.  No 
person  shall  be  entered  as  landsman  over  the  age 
of  25,  unless  he  has  some  mechanical  trade ;  nor 
after  34,  even  though  he  has  a  trade,  without  the 
authority  of  the  Department.  No  person  shall 
be  entered  as  ordinary  seaman  unless  he  shall 
have  been  two  years  at  sea  ;  nor  as  seaman,  unless 
he  shall  have  been  four  years  at  sea  before  the 
mast,  and  have  passed  a  satisfactory  examination. 
The  recruit  is  required  to  declare  on  oath,  in 
presence  of  the  commanding  officer  of  the  ren 
dezvous  or  vessel,  that  he  makes  a  true  state 
ment  of  his  age,  to  the  best  of  his  knowledge  and 
belief.  Persons  enlisted  for  general  service  shall 
not  be  detailed  as  servants  for  officers.  Attend 
ants  selected  by  the  officers  themselves  are  en 
listed  for  the  cruise,  and  are  not  to  be  turned 
over  to  the  general  service.  After  selection  these 
men  must  be  retained  as  attendants  until  dis 
charged. 

Ensign.  The  lowest  grade  of  commissioned 
officers  in  the  navy,  corresponding  to  the  grade 
of  second  lieutenant  in  the  army.  An  ensign  is 
a  steerage  officer,  and  may  be  ordered  to  duty  on 
the  forecastle,  in  the  fire-room,  or  to  any  other 
duty  at  the  discretion  of  the  commanding  officer. 
When  assigned  permanently  to  duty  as  a  watch- 
and  division-officer  he  is  entitled  to  quarters  in 
the  wardroom.  This  title  was  first  introduced 


ENSIGN 


249 


EPHEMERIS 


into  the  U.  S.  navy  in  1862,  taking  the  place  of 
the  title  of  Passed  Midshipman,  and  these  officers 
now  continue  the  duties  of  the  latter. 

Ensign.  The  national  flag.  (See  COLORS.) 
It  is  almost  invariably  hoisted  at  the  peak  of 
American  vessels,  but  English  men-of-war  gen 
erally  hoist  their  ensign  to  a  staff  at  the  stern 
when  in  port.  See  FLAG. 

Entering-ladder.  See  ACCOMMODATION  LAD 
DER,  JACOB'S  LADDER. 

Entering-port.  In  three-deckers,  a  port  cut 
down  to  the  level  of  the  deck  on  the  middle  deck. 

Entering-rope.  A  man-rope  over  the  side  at 
the  gangway. 

Entrance.  The  angle  which  the  bow  of  a 
ship  makes  with  the  water  at  the  line  of  flota 
tion. 

Entrance-money,  or  Entrance-fee.  A  pay 
ment  made  for  mess-furniture,  stores,  etc.,  on 
joining  a  mess. 

Epact  (Gr.  epagein,  to  add  in).  The  number 
indicating  the  days  and  parts  of  a  day  to  be 
added  to  the  lunar  year  of  12  lunar  months  to 
make  it  up  to  the  solar  year  ;  this  number  is  the 
age  of  the  moon  at  the  commencement  of  the 
calendar  year.  A  mean  lunation  is  29d  12h  44m ; 
the  moon,  therefore,  describes  in  365  days  12 
complete  lunations  and  10d  15h  of  the  thirteenth; 
hence  on  the  first  of  January  its  age  is  10d  15h 
more  than  on  the  preceding  first  of  January,  and 
lld  15h  if  the  preceding  year  was  a  leap-year. 

The  epact  for  the  year  is  the  moon's  age  on  the 
first  of  January;  the  epact  for  the  month  is  the 
moon's  age  on  the  first  of  the  month,  supposing 
the  moon  to  change  at  noon  January  1st. 

Epaulet.  A  shoulder  ornament.  See  UNI 
FORM. 

Ephemeris,  The  Astronomical.  Works  on 
astronomical  bibliography  mention  ephemerides 
as  early  as  the  12th  century.  The  earliest  printed 
ephemerides  are  those  of  Johann  Regiomontanus, 
published  in  the  latter  part  of  the  15th  century. 
They  included  only  the  predictions  of  eclipses 
and  positions  of  the  planets,  and  sold  for  much 
more  than  their  weight  in  gold.  The  earliest 
astronomical  ephemeris  appearing  year  by  year 
is  the  Connaissance  des  Temps  ou  des  Mouve- 
ments  Celestes,  which  has  not  suffered  interrup 
tion  since  the  publication  of  the  first  volume, 
by  Picard,  for  the  year  1679.  Since  1795,  the 
work  has  been  under  the  direction  of  the  Bureau 
des  Longitudes,  established  in  that  year.  It  is 
issued  two  years  in  advance  of  date.  Each  vol 
ume  contains  a  very  full  Table  des  Positions 
Geographiques,  data  not  conveniently  accessible 
elsewhere.  Detailed  improvements  were  intro 
duced  into  the  volumes  for  the  years  1862  and 
1863,  whereby  the  Connaissance  des  Temps  was 
placed  on  equal  footing  with  the  ephemerides 
of  other  nations.  One  marked  difference  be 
tween  it  and  similar  publications  consists  in  the 
omission  of  the  Calendar,  proper, — the  several  . 
ephemerides  being  arranged  according  to  the 
objects  to  which  they  pertain,  and  not  according 
to  the  months  of  the  year.  The  first  volume  of 
the  astronomical  ephemeris  of  England  may  be 
said  to  be  that  for  the  year  1834.  The  British 
Nautical  Almanac,  however,  had  then  long 
been  a  regular  publication, — the  >first  volume 
was  that  for  the  year  1767  (see  ALMANAC,  THE 
NAUTICAL)  ;  but  the  ephemerides  for  the  special 
use  of  the  astronomer  had  always  occupied  a 


secondary  position.  In  addition  to  the  impor 
tant  change  from  apparent  to  mean  time  in  the 
computations  of  the  Almanac,  the  Report  of 
the  Committee  Relative  to  the  Improvement  of 
the  Nautical  Almanac  recommended,  among 
other  things,  an  extension  of  the  ephemeris  of 
Jupiter's  satellites,  the  insertion  of  a  list  of 
moon-culminating  stars,  apparent  places  of  fixed 
stars  for  upper  transit  at  Greenwich  (instead  of, 
as  previously,  for  noon),  and  the  insertion  of  a 
table  for  determination  of  latitude  by  Polaris  at 
any  time.  Almost  no  important  differences  of 
arrangement  are  to  be  remarked  between  the 
British  Nautical  Almanac  for  1834  and  that 
for  1883, — the  latest  issued.  An  unparalleled 
circumstance  in  the  history  of  nautical  almanacs 
occurs  in  the  British  Nautical  Almanac  for  1882, 
wherein  the  positions  of  the  sun  and  the  major 
planets  are  all  predicted  from  one  uniform 
series  of  tables, — those  by  the  late  Le  Verrier, 
of  Paris.  The  Berliner  Astronomisches  Jahr- 
buch  (Berlin  Astronomical  Annual)  is  among 
the  oldest  of  the  national  ephemerides ;  the  first 
volume  was  that  for  the  year  1776.  It  is  pub 
lished  two  years  in  advance  of  date,  and  is 
marked  by  a  lack  of  design  for  the  use  of  navi 
gators  ;  being  gotten  up  almost  solely  with 
reference  to  astronomical  convenience.  One 
characteristic  feature  consists  in  the  great  amount 
of  space  devoted  to  ephemerides  of  minor  plan 
ets,  which  now  number  about  220  (June,  1880). 
Spain  publishes  one  year  in  advance  its  Alma- 
naque  Ndutico,  computed  for  the  meridian  of 
San  Fernando.  It  does  not  need  especial  notice, 
except  that  nearly,  all  the  data  of  prediction  are 
embraced  under  the  Calendar  scheme,  thus 
making  it  the  counterpart  of  the  Connaissance 
des  Temps.  The  Portuguese  publish,  two  years 
in  advance,  the  Ephemerides  Astronomicas,  com 
puted  for  the  meridian  of  Coimbra.  It  is  very 
similar  to  the  Almanaque  Ndutico  of  the  Spanish, 
both  in  general  arrangement  and  amount  of  data, 
except  that  it  gives  no  apparent  positions  of  fixed 
stars.  The  Italian  Effemeridi  Astronomiche  di 
Milano  ranks  among  the  oldest  astronomical 
ephemerides,  the  initial  volume  being  that  for 
the  year  1755.  The  data  of  prediction  which  it 
contains  are  mostly  for  the  use  of  astronomers, 
only.  A  good  share  of  the  space  in  many  of  the 
volumes  is  given  up  to  astronomical  memoirs  and 
meteorological  observations.  In  treating  of  the 
American  ephemeris,  we  shall  have  to  do  prin 
cipally  with  that  portion  which  is  designed  quite 
exclusively  for  astronomical  use,  and  is  adapted 
to  the  meridian  of  Washington.  No  radical 
changes  ever  having  been  made  in  the  general 
principles  of  its  construction,  we  shall  take  the 
volume  for  1883,  now  in  press,  for  a  descriptive 
specimen.  In  addition  to  the  ephemerides  of  the 
sun  and  moon,  the  lunar  distances  and  ephemer 
ides  of  the  most  conspicuous  planets,  contained 
in  the  navigator's  portion  of  the  volume,  the 
American  Ephemeris  and  Nautical  Almanac 
contains  the  heliocentric  positions  of  the  major 
planets,  with  the  logarithms  of  their  distances 
from  the  sun  and  from  the  earth  ;  the  rectangular 
equatorial  co-ordinates  of  the  sun  ;  the  longitude 
and  latitude  of  the  moon  ;  data  for  the  libra- 
tion  of  the  moon ;  the  aberration  and  parallax 
of  the  sun  ;  formulae  and  numbers  for  reducing 
a  star  from  its  mean  to  its  apparent  place  or  the 
reverse ;  special  ephemerides  for  easy  reduction 


EPOCH 


250 


EQUINOXES 


of  observations  of  the  moon  and  major  planets  ; 
very  full  data,  with  maps,  of  the  eclipses  ;  data 
for  the  prediction  of  occultations  of  planets  and 
stars  by  the  moon  ;  phenomena  and  configura 
tions  of  the  satellites  of  Jupiter,  and  data  for 
identifying  all  known  satellites  of  the  other 
planets  ;  the  longitude  and  latitude  of  about  140 
observatories  ;  an  article  on  the  arrangement  and 
use  of  the  American  Ephemeris  and  Nautical 
Almanac ;  an  appendix  on  the  construction  of 
the  same  ;  and  a  selection  of  tables  much  used  in 
astronomy  and  navigation.  The  astronomical 
tables  by  which  the" American  Ephemeris  and 
Nautical  Almanac  is  prepared  are  as  follows: 
the  ephemerides  of  the  sun  and  moon  are  from 
Hansen's  Tables;  Mercury,  from  Winlock's 
Tables  ;  Venus,  from  Hill's  Tables  ;  Mars,  from 
Lindenau's  Tables,  with  corrections ;  Jupiter, 
from  Bouvard's  Tables,  with  corrections ;  Jupi 
ter's  satellites,  from  Damoiseau's  Tables,  supple 
mented  by  those  of  Todd ;  Saturn,  from  Bou 
vard's  Tables,  with  corrections ;  Uranus  and 
Neptune,  from  Newcomb's  Tables. — D.  P.  Todd. 

Epoch.  A  point  of  time  rendered  conspicu 
ous  by  some  historical  event ;  era  ;  period  ;  date. 

Eprouvette.  A  small  piece  of  ordnance  for 
testing  the  force  of  gunpowder. 

Equal  Altitudes.     See  ALTITUDE. 

Equation  of  Equal  Altitudes.  See  ALTI 
TUDE. 

Equation  of  Second  Differences.  See  DIF 
FERENCES,  SECOND. 

Equation  of  Time.  The  difference  between 
apparent  and  mean  time.  In  consequence  of 
the  motion  of  the  sun  in  the  ecliptic  being  vari 
able,  and  the  ecliptic  not  being  perpendicular  to 
the  axis  of  the  earth's  rotation,  apparent  time 
is  variable,  and  this  fluctuation  is  considerable, 
amounting  to  upwards  of  half  an  hour, — appar 
ent  noori  sometimes  taking  place  as  much  as 
16 ] m  before  mean  noon,  and  at  others  as  much 
as  14£m  after.  These  are  the  greatest  values  of 
the  equation  of  time  ;  it  vanishes  altogether  four 
times  in  the  year, — this  occurring  about  April 
15,  June  15,  September  1,  and  December  24. 
It  is  calculated  and  inserted  in  the  Nautical 
Almanac  for  every  day  in  the  year!  The  equa 
tion  of  time  is  itself  a  portion  of  mean  time. 

Equator  (Lat.  ceyuare,  to  divide  into  equal 
parts).  The  terrestrial  equator  is  that  great 
circle  of  the  earth  whose  plane  is  perpendicular 
to  the  axis  of  the  earth,  and  consequently  every 
point  of  which  is  equidistant  from  the  north  and 
south  poles.  It  divides  the  globe  into  the  northern 
and  southern  hemispheres.  The  equator  is  the 
primitive  circle  in  the  system  of  co-ordinates 
used  for  denning  the  position  of  places  on  the 
earth's  surface.  Origin,  intersection  of  the  equa 
tor  by  the  first  meridian  ;  co-ordinates,  longitude 
and  latitude. 

The  celestial  equator  is  the  great  circle  in 
which,  if  the  terrestrial  equator  were  extended 
indefinitely,  it  would  intersect  the  celestial  sphere. 
It  is  also  called  the  equinoctial,  and  is  the  primi 
tive  circle  in  a  system  of  co-ordinates  used  for 
defining  the  position  of  points  on  the  celestial 
sphere.  Origin,  first  point  of  Aries ;  co-ordi 
nates,  right  ascension  and  declination. 

EQUATORIAL  CURRENT.  The  set,  chiefly  west 
erly,  met  with  near  the  equator,  especially  in  the 
Atlantic. 

EQUATORIAL  PROJECTION  OF  A  SPHERE.     A 


projection  in  which  the  primitive  plane  or  plane 
of  projection  is  parallel  to,  or  coincides  with,  the 
equator. 

EQUATORIAL  SECTOR.  An  instrument  for  find 
ing  the  difference  in  the  right  ascension  and  dec 
lination  of  two  heavenly  bodies. 

EQUATORIAL  TELESCOPE.  A  telescope  so 
mounted  that  it  enables  the  observer  to  follow 
the  stars  as  they  move  equatorially. 

Equiangular  Spiral.  A  line  which  cuts  the 
meridians  at  a  constant  angle  ;  a  rhumb-line  ;  a 
loxodromic  curve. 

Equilibrium-valve.  A  valve  for  equalizing 
the  pressure  of  a  fluid  or  fluids  contained  in  two 
separate  chambers  or  vessels.  The  term,  though 
objectionable,  is  sometimes  applied  to  the  main 
steam-  and  exhaust-valves  of  an  engine  when 
they  are  "  balanced,"  or  so  arranged  that  differ 
ence  in  pressure  between  the  boiler  steam  and 
discharged  steam  will  not  offer  resistance  to  the 
movement  of  the  valve.  "Double  poppet-valves," 
"  D-valves,"  and  "  ring"  or  "piston-balanced" 
plain  slide-valves  are  examples. 

Equinoxes  (Lat.  cequus,  equal ;  nox,  night). 
The  two  periods  of  the  year,  about  the  21st  of 
March  and  the  23d  of  September,  when  the  sun, 
in  his  annual  revolution  in  the  ecliptic,  crosses 
the  equinoctial.  At  these  times  the  days  and 
nights  are  of  equal  length  throughout  the  world, 
hence  the  term.  The  two  equinoxes  are  distin 
guished  as  the  vernal  equinox  and  autumnal  equi 
nox ;  the  former  being  that  when  the  sun  passes 
from  the  southern  to" the  northern  hemisphere, 
the  season  being  "  spring"  in  the  northern  hemi 
sphere  ;  the  latter,  when  the  sun  passes  from  the 
northern  to  the  southern  hemisphere,  the  season 
being  "autumn"  in  the  northern  hemisphere. 
These  terms  are  relative ;  for  what  are  the  ver 
nal  and  autumnal  equinoxes  for  the  northern 
are  respectively  the  autumnal  and  vernal  equi 
noxes  for  the  southern  hemisphere.  In  cases 
where  there  is  any  danger  of  ambiguity  or  con 
fusion,  we  may  add  the  qualifying  adjectives 
"  northern"  or  "  southern,"  as  the  case  may  be  ; 
thus,  one  date  would  be  called  the  northern  ver 
nal  equinox  or  the  southern  autumnal  equinox, 
and  the  other  the  northern  autumnal  equinox  or 
the  southern  vernal  equinox.  It  is  convenient  to 
restrict  the  term  equinox  to  indicate  a  date  or 
epoch  of  time]  and  to  use  the  expression,  equi 
noctial  point,  when  we  want  to  refer  to  a  position 
or  place  in  the  ecliptic.  Similarly  for  solstice  and 
solstitial  point. 

EQUINOCTIAL.  The  celestial  equator.  The 
name  is  derived  from  the  fact  that  at  all  places 
on  the  surface  of  the  earth  beneath  this  circle  the 
nights  are  equal  all  the  year  round,  being  of  the 
constant  length  of  12  hours.  The  equinoctial  is 
the  primitive  circle  in  a  s}'stem  of  co-ordinates 
for  defining  points  on  the  celestial  sphere.  Origin, 
first  point  of  Aries;  co-ordinates,  right  ascen 
sion  and  declination. 

EQUINOCTIAL  COLURE.  The  hour-circle  which 
passes  through  the  equinoctial  points.  In  the 
polar  co-ordinates  for  the  celestial  sphere,  it  is 
the  initial  position  of  the  secondary  circles.  See 

COLURES. 

EQUINOCTIAL  GALES.  Storms  which  occur 
about  the  time  the  sun  crosses  the  equinoctial. 

EQUINOCTIAL  POINTS.  The  two  points  of  the 
ecliptic  in  which  it  is  intersected  by  the  equinoc 
tial.  They  are  distinguished  as  the  vernal  equi- 


EQUIP 


251 


ESKIPP  AMENTUM 


noctial  point  and  the  autumnal  equinoctial  point, 
but  are  more  generally  called  the  first  point  of 
Aries  and  the  first  point  of  Libra,  as  being  the 
commencement  respectively  of  these  signs  of  the 
ecliptic,  and  they  are  represented  by  their  sym 
bols  T  and  =c=.  The  constellations  of  Aries  and 
Libra,  though  not  now  coincident  in  position 
with  them,  give  their  names  to  these  divisions 
of  the  ecliptic,  and  the  figure  of  the  Balance 
(Libra)  has  evident  reference  to  the  equipoise 
of  the  day  and  night  at  the  equinox.  The  first 
point  of  Aries  is  the  origin  or  zero  point,  from 
which  right  ascensions  are  reckoned  on  the  equi 
noctial  and  longitudes  on  the  ecliptic.  The  equi 
noctial  points  do  not,  however,  preserve  a  con 
stant  place  among  the  stars,  but  travel  backwards 
along  the  ecliptic, — i.e.,  from  east  to  west,  or 
contrary  to  that  in  which  the  sun  appears  to 
move  in  that  circle.  This  retrogression  is  ex 
tremely  small,  amounting  to  50.1"  annually,  so 
that  a  complete  revolution  occupies  25, 868  years. 
It  is,  however,  of  great  inconvenience  to  prac 
tical  astronomers,  as  it  renders  obsolete,  from 
time  to  time,  their  catalogues  of  the  stars,  which 
are  referred  to  this  shifting  vernal  equinoctial 
point  as  origin.  Since  the  formation  of  the 
earliest  catalogues  on  record,  the  place  of  the  first 
point  of  Aries" has  retrograded  about  30°,  altering 
to  this  extent  the  longitudes.  The  technical 
phrase  for  the  phenomenon  is  the  precession  of 
the  equinoxes, — a  term  derived  from  the  fact  that 
the  epoch  of  the  equinox  every  year  "precedes," 
or  is  earlier  than  it  would  have  been  but  for  the 
retrogression  of  the  first  point  of  Aries. 

Equip.  To  supply  with  all  the  articles  neces 
sary  for  efficient  service.  To  fit  out. 

EQUIPMENT.  The  act  of  fitting  out  or  fur 
nishing  an  individual,  vessel,  or  force  with  all 
the  essential  requirements  for  efficient  action. 
Also,  the  collective  designation  of  the  articles 
comprising  the  outfit. 

EQUIPMENT  AND  RECRUITING,  BUREAU  or,  is 
that  branch  of  the  Navy  Department  which  has 
charge  of  the  equipment  of  all  vessels  of  war,  the 
supply  of  their  sails,  rigging,  anchors,  and  fuel ; 
also  the  recruiting  of  sailors  of  the  various  grades 
for  the  navy.  See  NAVY  DEPARTMENT. 

EQUIPMENT  OFFICER.  The  captain  of  the 
yard  is  the  head  of  the  department  of  equipment 
in  the  yard,  and  discharges  the  duties  of  that 
position  in  addition  to  his  other  duties.  The 
executive-officer  is  the  equipment  officer  of  a 
ship,  and  is  responsible  for  all  articles  and  stores 
in  that  department. 

Equuleus.     See  CONSTELLATION. 

Erichthus.  A  genus  of  long-tailed  decapod 
crustaceans,  inhabiting  tropical  seas. 

Ericsson,  John,  LL.D.  Born  in  the  province 
of  Vermeland,  Sweden,  1803.  At  the  age  of  11, 
Count  Platin  gave  him  a  cadetship  in  a  corps 
of  engineers ;  and  in  1816  he  was  employed  on 
the  grand  ship  canal  between  the  Baltic  and  the 
North  Sea.  He  entered  the  Swedish  army  as 
ensign,  rose  to  the  grade  of  lieutenant,  and 
was'for  some  time  employed  in  the  survey  of 
Northern  Sweden.  One  of  the  earliest  of  his 
inventions  was  the  flame-engine,  intended  to 
work  independently  of  steam  by  condensing 
flame.  Visiting  England  in  1826,  he  discovered 
that  this  engine  when  worked  by  mineral  fuel 
was  a  total  "failure.  Devoting  himself  to  me 
chanical  pursuits,  he  invented  the  steam-boiler 


on  the  principle  of  artificial  draft.  In  1829  he 
competed  for  the  prize  offered  by  the  Liverpool 
and  Manchester  Kailway  for  the  best  locomotive, 
and  produced  an  engine  that  attained  the  then 
incredible  speed  of  fifty  miles  an  hour.  This 
led  him  to  construct  a  steam  fire-engine  with 
entire  success.  Directing  his  attention  to  navi 
gation,  he  invented  the  propeller,  and  that  new 
arrangement  of  the  steam-machinery  in  ships  of 
war  which  has  revolutionized  the  navies  of  the 
world.  Not  succeeding  in  making  the  British 
Admiralty  believe  what  they  saw,  he  came  in  1839 
to  New  York,  and  in  1841  was  employed  in  the 
construction  of  the  U.  S.  ship  of  war  "  Prince 
ton,"  on  the  very  plan  which  had  been  received 
with  such  indifference  by  the  British  Admiralty. 
She  was  the  first  steamship  ever  built  with  the 
propelling  machinery  under  the  water-line,  and 
out  of  the  reach  of  shot;  and  she  was  distin 
guished  for  numerous  other  mechanical  novel 
ties.  In  1852  he  was  made  Knight  of  the  order 
of  Vasa  by  King  Oscar  of  Sweden.  The  same 
year  he  brought  out  a  new  form  of  caloric- 
engine  in  the  ship  "Ericsson."  In  the  Amer 
ican  department  of  the  great  exhibition  of  1851 
he  exhibited  an  instrument  for  measuring  dis 
tances  at  sea,  the  hydrostatic  gauge  for  meas 
uring  the  volume  of  fluids  under  pressure,  the 
reciprocating  fluid-meter,  the  alarm  barometer, 
the  pyrometer,  the  rotary  fluid-meter,  and  the 
sea-lead,  of  all  of  which  instruments  he  has 
given  a  brief  explanation  in  a  pamphlet  pub 
lished  in  1851.  For  these  he  received  the  prize 
medal  of  the  exhibition.  Ericsson's  caloric- 
engine  was  first  placed  before  the  scientific  in 
London  in  1833.  Its  advantages  over  steam  are 
economy  of  space,  economy  of  first  cost,  economy 
of  fuel,  of  repairs,  and  running  expenses,  sim 
plicity,  safety,  and  power.  His  great  inven 
tion — the  ironclad  "  Monitor" — had  just  been 
completed,  and  arrived  at  Fortress  Monroe  most 
opportunely,  March  9,  1862,  to  stay  the  devas 
tating  progress  of  the  rebel  ironclad  "  Merri- 
mac."  The  result  of  this  contest  settled  the 
question  of  "wooden  navies."  Capt.  Ericsson 
was  the  first  to  bring  the  system  of  iron  turret- 
ships  into  operation. 

Eridanus  (the  river  Eridanus,  the  Po).  A 
winding  constellation  in  the  southern  hemi 
sphere,  containing  one  star  of  the  first  magni 
tude,  a  Eridani,  called  also  Achernar,  may  be 
found  by  bisecting  the  line  joining  Eomalhaut 
and  Canopus. 

Erie.  A  city  and  port  of  entry,  on  Lake  Erie, 
88  miles  S.W.  of  Buffalo,  95  miles  E.N.E.  of 
Cleveland.  Lat.  42°  8'  N.  ;  Ion.  80°  8'  W.  It 
has  a  safe  land-locked  harbor,  which  is  4  miles 
long  by  1  mile  wide,  and  is  protected  by  the 
island  of  Presque  Isle,  on  which  two  light 
houses  are  situated.  Pop.  27,000. 

Erigone.  A  name  sometimes  applied  to  the 
constellation  Virgo. 

Erne.     See  EARNE. 

Escape-valve.  A  weighted  or  constrained 
valve,  so  arranged  as  to  permit  the  escape  of  a 
fluid  from  a  chamber  when  the  pressure  exceeds 
a  desired  tension.  See  SAFETY-VALVE  and 
CYLINDER  ESCAPE-VALVE. 

Escutcheon.  The  space  on  the  stern  of  a  ship 
where  her  name  is  painted. 

Eskippamentum.  An  archaism  for  a  ship's 
furniture  (Anglo-Norman,  eskipper>  to  ship). 


ESKIPPESON 


252 


ESTUARY 


Eskippeson.  An  old  law-term  for  a  passage 
by  sea.  See  ESKIPPAMENTUM. 

Esnecca.  A  royal  yacht  of  the  12th  century. 
A  transport  of  the  middle  ages. 

Esox.  A  genus  of  abdominal  fishes,  in 
cluding  the  pike. 

Espials.  An  old  term  for  night-watches 
afloat,  in  docks  and  harbors. 

Esquimalt.  A  seaport  of  British  Columbia, 
on  Vancouver  Island,  on  the  Strait  of  Juan  de 
Fuca,  65  miles  from  its  entrance,  and  3  miles 
S.W.  of  Victoria.  The  harbor  is  very  exten 
sive,  and  vessels  of  the  largest  size  can  anchor 
here  in  safety.  Esquimalt  is  destined  apparently, 
in  connection  with  the  Canada  Pacific  .Railway, 
to  be  the  future  entrepot  of  a  national  commerce. 
Here  are  situated  a  navy-yard,  a  hospital,  and 
other  necessary  buildings  for  the  requirements  of 
a  squadron,  as  the  town  is  the  station  of  her  Ma 
jesty's  ships  of  a  portion  of  the  Pacific  squadron. 

Esquimaux.  A  name  derived  from  esqui- 
mantsic,  in  the  Abenaki  language,  meaning 
eaters  of  raw  flesh.  Many  tribes  in  the  Arctic 
regions  are  ignorant  of  the  art  of  cookery. 

Establishments,  Naval,  of  Great  Britain. 
The  dock-yards  of  Great  Britain  are  situated  at 
Chatham,  Sheerness,  Portsmouth,  Devonport, 
and  Pembroke.  There  are  victualing-yards  at 
Deptford,  Gosport,  and  Haulbowline,  near  Cork, 
Ireland.  In  her  colonies,  Great  Britain  has  fine 
dock-yards  at  Bermuda,  Malta,  and  Halifax, 
besides  store-ships  or  store-houses  at  most  of  the 
principal  ports. 

Chatham  is  situated  on  the  Medway  River,  30 
miles  E.S.E.  from  London.  In  addition  to  hav 
ing  the  School  of  Military  Engineering  and  the 
Marine  Infirmary,  it  possesses  a  fine  dock-yard, 
which  is  a  mile  in  length,  containing  several 
ship-building  slips  and  dry-docks  sufficiently 
capacious  for  the  largest  ships  It  has  also 
basins  for  the  vessels  of  the  Steam  Reserve,  which 
is  a  term  applied  to  the  vessels  forming  the  list 
in  ordinary.  It  has  a  metal-mill,  which  supplies 
the  other  dock-yards  with  copper  sheets,  copper 
bolts,  and  other  articles  in  copper  and  mixed 
metals.  It  has  also  extensive  saw-mills,  the 
largest  rope-walk  in  the  kingdom,  and  all  scrap- 
iron  is  sent  to  Chatham  to  be  melted  and  rolled 
into  required  shapes.  It  has  also  a  machine  for 
testing  the  strength  of  chain-cables,  and  block- 
making  machines.  The  dock-yard  has  a  rear- 
admiral-superintendent  in  command,  and  em 
ploys  2000  hands. 

Sheerness  is  situated  on  the  northwest  extrem 
ity  of  the  Isle  of  Sheppey,  at  the  confluence  of 
the  Thames  and  Medway,  11  miles  E.N.E.  of 
Chatham.  It  has  a  fine  dock-yard  covering  over 
60  acres,  has  immense  store-houses,  several  dry- 
docks  and  basins.  It  is  under  the  control  of  a 
captain-superintendent,  and  with  Chatham  comes 
under  the  command  of  the  commander-in-chief 
at  the  Nore. 

Portsmouth  is  the  chief  naval  arsenal  of  Great 
Britain,  and  is  situated  on  the  southwest  side  of 
Portsea  Island,  at  the  entrance  of  Portsmouth 
harbor,  and  opposite  the  town  of  Gosport.  It  is 
74  miles  S.W.  from  London.  The  dock-yard 
has  an  area  of  300  acres  ;  it  has  basins  capable  of 
holding  all  the  vessels  of  the  British  navy ;  has 
also  a  dozen  dry-docks,  and  a  large  deep  sea-dock 
over  600  feet  long  and  60  feet  in  depth.  It  has  also 
a  torpedo-ship  fur  the  instruction  of  officers  in 


torpedo  warfare,  and  a  gunnery-ship  for  instruc 
tion  in  gunnery.  The  dock-yard  also  contains 
mast-  and  rope-houses,  hemp-stores,  rigging- 
stores,  and  sail-loft.  It  has  various  ship-build 
ing  slips.  The  wood-mills  contain  a  number  of 
block-making  machines.  The  harbor  is  420  yards 
wide  at  its  entrance,  and  is  defended  by  forts  on 
each  side.  It  expands  into  a  spacious  basin,  ex 
tending  inland  for  4  miles,  forming  Porchester 
Lake.  Large  war-vessels  can  enter  and  lie  at 
anchor  at  all  times  of  the  tide,  and  in  the  stream 
above  the  dock-yard  are  moored  several  hulks  of 
vessels  which  bear  names  that  they  have  rendered 
historical.  The  "  Victory,"  Lord  Nelson's  flag 
ship  at  the  battle  of  Trafalgar,  is  kept  here  in 
commission,  and  is  open  to  the  general  public. 
The  dock-yard  is  under  the  control  of  a  rear- 
admiral-superintendent,  and  the  naval  station, 
comprising  Spithead  and  Gosport  as  well,  is  under 
the  general  command  of  the  naval  commander- 
in-chief.  The  importance  of  this  port  dates  from 
the  reign  of  Henry  VIII. 

Haslar  Hospital,  near  Gosport,  is  one  of  the 
largest  naval  hospitals  in  Great  Britain. 

Devonport  is  two  miles  W.N.W.  of  Plymouth, 
and  contains  a  large  dock-yard  of  358  acres  in 
extent.  The  yard  is  situated  on  the  Hanioaze,  an 
estuary  of  the  Tamar.  It  contains  six  building- 
slips  for  vessels  and  five  dry-docks.  It  is  the 
principal  yard  for  sail-making,  rope-making,  and 
the  manufacture  of  anchors.  It  employs  about 
2500  hands ;  is  controlled  by  a  rear-admiral- 
superintendent,  and  the  station  at  Plymouth  is 
under  command  of  a  naval  commander-in-chief. 

Pembroke,  situated  in  South  Wales,  on  a  navi 
gable  creek  of  Milford  Haven,  is  7  miles  S.E.  of 
Milford.  Pembroke  dock  is  2  miles  from  the 
town.  It  has  twelve  building-slips  and  dry- 
docks.  The  entire  naval  establishment  covers 
an  area  of  over  80  acres.  It  is  principally  a  ship 
building  yard,  and  owes  its  naval  importance  to 
that  fact. 

The  British  government  does  not  confine  its 
ship-building  entirely  to  the  dock-yards,  but 
employs,  when  required,  the  services  of  private 
ship-builders. 

Deptford,  which  is  now  a  victualing-yard,  is 
situated  in  the  town  of  that  name,  about  4 
miles  below  London  bridge,  and  opposite  Green 
wich.  It  has  five  building-slips  and  two  dry- 
docks,  but  they  are  not  much  used  now,  as  it  is 
principally  a  fitting-out  yard.  It  is  the  chief 
station  for  victualing  the  foreign  and  home  sta 
tions,  also  for  the  small  stores  and  clothing  for 
the  navy  and  marines,  which  are  here  inspected, 
packed,  and  issued  to  the  naval  service. 

At  Gosport,  opposite  Portsmouth,  is  the  Royal 
Clarence  Victualing- Yard,  where  the  bread  used 
in  the  British  navy  is  made.  It  has  extensive 
bakeries,  etc. 

At  Haulbowline,  near  Cork,  is  also  a  victual 
ing-yard,  similar  to,  but  not  so  extensive  as, 
Deptford. 

At  Dartmouth,  Devon,  on  the  south  coast  of 
England,  is  the  training-ship  "  Britannia"  for 
the  naval  cadets. 

At  Chatham,  Portsmouth,  and  Devonport  are 
extensive  barracks  for  the  marines  when  not  on 
service  afloat. 

Establishment  of  the  Port.     See  TIDE. 

Estuary.  An  inlet  of  the  sea  ;  the  widening 
of  the  mouth  of  a  river  into  an  arm  of  the  sea. 


ESTURE 


253 


EXAMINATIONS 


Esture.  An  old  word  for  the  rise  and  fall  of 
water. 

Etesian  Winds.  The  Etesice  of  the  ancients  ; 
winds  which  blow  constantly,  in  the  Levant, 
during  the  time  of  the  dog-days. 

Etiquette,  Naval.  Naval  "ceremonies ;  cus 
toms  of  the  service. 

Euphroe.  A  block  of  wood  to  extend  the 
small  lines  called  a  crow-foot. 

Evaporation.  Vapor  is  any  substance  in  a 
gaseous  condition,  at  the  maximum  density  con 
sistent  with  that  condition.  It  is  certain  that 
most  substances  are  volatile,  and  do  exist  in  a 
state  of  vapor  at  all  attainable  temperatures. 
Iron,  copper,  lead,  and  tin  are  examples  in  which 
this  is  obvious  to  the  smell. 

When  a  body  passes  from  a  solid  or  liquid  to  a 
gaseous  state,  the  work  necessary  to  separate  the 
atoms  requires  a  certain  quantity  of  heat  for  each 
unit  of  weight  of  the  substance  evaporated,  which 
is  dependent  on  the  temperature  of  the  boiling- 
point,  and  remains  constant  for  any  constant 
pressure  of  the  vapor  produced  without,  baing 
sensible  to  the  thermometer.  This  is  called  the 
latent  heat  of  evaporation.  The  total  heat  of 
evaporation  is  the  sum  of  the  Latent  heat,  and 
the  heat  required  to  raise  the  temperature  before 
evaporation  from  some  fixed  temperature  to  that 
of  evaporation.  When  a  vapor  is  condensed  an 
action  reverse  to  that  of  evaporation  takes  place. 

Regnault's  experiments,  the  most  extensive 
and  accurate  known,  show  that  the  latent  heat 
of  evaporation  of  pure  water  at  the  atmospheric 
pressure  of  14. 7  pounds  per  square  inch  is  966. 1°F. 
The  boiling-point  is  212°  F.,  and  the  total  heat 
from  the  temperature  of  melting  ice,  1146.1°  F. 

Eve-eel.  A  name  for  the  conger-eel, — from 
the  Danish  hav-aal,  or  sea-eel. 

Evening  Gun.     The  gun  fired  at  tattoo. 

Even  Keel.  A  ship  so  trimmed  as  to  draw 
the  same  water  forward  as  she  does  aft  is  on  an 
even  keel. 

Evolution.  A  manoeuvre  of  a  fleet,  vessel,  or 
body  of  men. 

Ewage.  An  old  law-term  for  the  toll  paid  for 
a  water-passage. 

Examinations.  Boards  are  ordered  for  the 
examination  of  candidates  for  appointment  or 
promotion,  the  latter  being  duly  informed  of  the 
time  and  place  of  meeting.  Before  proceeding 
to  the  examination  of  any  candidate  for  appoint 
ment,  the  medical  officers  furnish  to  the  board 
a  certificate  of  the  physical  fitness  of  the  can 
didate.  No  person  will  be  passed  by  the  medical 
board  who  is  not  free  from  physical  defects  and 
all  obvious  tendency  to  any  form  of  disease 
which  would  be  likely  to  interfere  with  an 
efficient  discharge  of  duty.  In  the  case  of  an 
assistant  surgeon,  the  board  scrutinizes  his  phy 
sical  qualifications,  and  makes  a  separate  report 
in  each  case  direct  to  the  Department.  The  board 
to  examine  professionally,  having  received  the 
certificate  of  the  physical  fitness"  of  the  candi- 
,  date,  examines  him  on  all  the  required  quali 
fications  ;  it  grants  certificates  to  those  who  may 
be  found  duly  qualified,  numbering  them  in  the 
order  of  merit ;  it  also  reports  to  the  authority 
convening  the  board,  at  the  close  of  a  session, 
the  result  of  all  its  investigations,  and  forwards 
the  documentary  evidence  it  may  have  received 
in  relation  to  the  capacity  and  fitness  of  those 
examined. 


Applications  for  admission  into  the  navy  can 
be  made  to  the  Secretary  of  the  Navy  at  any 
time  by  the  candidate  himself,  or  by  his  parent, 
guardian,  or  friends.  All  applications  must  state 
age,  birthplace,  and  residence  of  the  candidate, 
who  must  also  furnish  certificates  of  moral  and 
physical  qualifications.  No  person  will  be  ap 
pointed  an  officer  in  the  navy  until  he  shall 
have  passed  a  physical  and  a  professional  ex 
amination. 

Any  person  giving  a  false  certificate  of  age, 
character,  or  time  of  service,  or  making  a  false 
statement  to  a  board  of  examination,  will  be 
dropped. 

A  candidate  fov  an  appointmsnt-  to  the  grade 
of  assistant  engineer  must  be  not  le?s  than  19 
nor  more  than  26  years  of  age ;  jve  had 
not  less  tli an  two  years'  service  in'5  .  an(fa^>~ 
ricating  and  management  of  steam-f  ^  ^n(j  fty 
for  marine  purposes,  and  must  give  sa^  ^  ,-  en  to 
.widence  of  his  skill  in  such  capacity, 'or  Ihem 
served  not  less  than  that  period  as  an  engin^^ 
on  board  of  a  steamer  provided  with  a  conde  b_ 
sing-engine,  and  have  a  certificate  from  t)ne 
director  or  superintending  engineer  as  to  }(n- 
ability.  le 

He  will  be  examined  in  accordance  with  th^ 
forms  prescribed  by  the  Navy  Department. 

A  candidate  for  the  office  of  assistant  naval 
constructor  must  be  not  less  than  24  nor  more 
than  30  years  of  age ;  must  furnish  evidence 
showing  that  he  is  a  shipwright  by  profession, 
that  he  has  been  engaged  in  that  business,  and 
must  present  the  certificate  of  the  person  with 
whom  the  business  was  learned,  and  will  be  re 
quired  to  pass  such  examination  as  the  Navy 
Department  may  direct. 

A  candidate  for  the  office  of  assistant  pay 
master  must  be  not  less  than  21  nor  more  than 
26  years  of  age.  His  moral  and  mental  qualifi 
cations  will  be  subjects  of  rigid  investigation  by 
a  board. 

A  candidate  for  the  office  of  assistant  surgeon 
must  be  not  less  than  21  nor  more  than  26 
years  of  age.  His  moral,  mental,  and  pro 
fessional  qualifications  will  be  decided  upon  by 
a  board. 

An  applicant  for  the  office  of  chaplain  must 
be  not  less  than  21  nor  more  than  30  years  of 
age.  He  must  be  a  regularly-ordained  min 
ister. 

A  candidate  for  a  boatswain's  appointment 
must  be  of  correct  habits,  not  less  than  21  nor 
more  than  35  years  of  age ;  he  must  have  been 
at  least  seven  years  at  sea,  and  have  served  at 
least  one  year  as  a  petty  officer ;  he  must  be  a 
thorough  practical  seaman,  and  understand  cut 
ting,  fitting,  and  rigging  according  to  regula 
tions,  the  weighing,  catting,  fishing,  securing, 
and  transportation  of  anchors  and  the  working 
of  cables,  the  erection  and  securing  of  sheers, 
the  handling  of  purchases,  masting,  securing 
yards,  etc.,  and  be  able  to  write  sufficiently  to 
keep  an  account  of  stores. 

A  candidate  for  the  appointment  of  acting 
gunner  must  be  a  seaman  of  sober  and  correct 
habits,  not  less  than  21  nor  more  than  30  years 
of  age.  He  must  understand  the  manner  of  fit 
ting  magazines  and  shell-rooms ;  the  manner  of 
stowing  and  preserving  powder,  projectiles,  fire 
works,  and  all  ordnance-stores  afloat  and  on 
shore;  also  the  manner  of  handling  and  secur- 


EXAMINATIONS 


254 


EXAMINATIONS 


ing  guns.  He  must  be  able  to  put  up  all  kinds 
of  ammunition,  to  take  impressions  of  vent  and 
bore,  to  star-gauge  guns,  to  adjust,  verify,  and 
use  sights,  and  to  n't  all  gun-gear.  He  must 
understand  and  be  able  to  explain  all  fuzes  in 
use  in  the  navy,  and  be  conversant  with  orders 
and  regulations  in  regard  to  the  care  and  hand 
ling  of  all  ordnance  material,  afloat  or  ashore, 
and  with  the  charges  of  powder  for  guns  and 
projectiles  of  every  calibre.  He  must  be  able 
to  read  and  write  with  facility,  understand  the 
first  four  rules  of  arithmetic  and  proportion ;  be 
able  to  keep  the  gunner's  accounts  correctly,  and 
he  must  have  mad 2  3,  cruise"  in  a  sea-going  vessel 
of  war.  ~-  '" 

A   candidate  for  a  carpenter  -s    appointment 
must  b/  £6f  correct  habits ;  be  not  Jess  than  21 
no?  necfe  than  30  years  of  age  ;  be  a  good  ship- 
it  squadt,  understand  calking,  the  fishing  of  masts 
jesty'.yards,  and  the  quality  and  strength  of  tin^ 
E^'how  to  unship  and  hang  a  rudder,  to  cofW 
manuct  and  hang  a  jury-rudder,  and  be  able  to 
eafrrite  sufficiently  well  to  keep  an  account  of 
regores. 

fcA  candidate  for   a  sailmaker's   appointment 

Thmst  be  of  correct  habits ;  be  not  less  than  21 

Chor  more  than  30  years  of  age ;  be  a  good  work- 

a  man  ;  be  capable  of  draughting,  and  understand 

thoroughly   the   cutting   and 'making  of  sails, 

awnings,    hammock-cloths,    boom-covers,    and 

wind-sails,  and  be  able  to  write  sufficiently  well 

to  keep  an  account  of  stores. 

No  acting  gunner  will  receive  a  warrant  as 
gunner  until,  after  making  a  cruise  of  not  less 
than  one  year  as  acting  gunner  in  a  sea-going 
vessel,  and  after  a  course  of  laboratory  instruc 
tion  at  the  Washington  Navy-Yard,  he  has  passed 
a  thorough  examination  before  a  board  of  line- 
officers.  He  will  not  be  entitled  to  examination 
unless  he  presents  commendatory  letters  from 
his  commanding  officers.  An  acting  boatswain, 
carpenter,  or  Bail  maker  is  eligible  for  a  warrant 
bearing  the  same  date  as  his  acting  appointment 
after  serving  one  year  at  sea :  provided  the  com 
manding  officers  under  whom  he  has  served  have 
certified  favorably  as  to  his  merits. 

Boards  for  the  examination  of  candidates  for 
appointment  or  promotion  arc  composed  as  fol 
lows :  for  a  mate,  boatswain,  gunner,  carpenter, 
or  sailmaker,  of  three  line-officers,  one  of  whom 
shall  be  of  or  above  the  rank  of  lieutenant- 
commander  ;  for  engineer  officers,  of  three  chief 
engineers ;  for  passed  assistant  and  assistant  pay 
masters,  of  three  paymasters;  for  assistant  naval 
constructors,  of  three  naval  constructors.  See 
NAVAL  ACADEMIES,  RECRUITING. 

Examination  of  Officers  for  Promotion  and 
Retirement  in  the  Navy,  Board  of.  Officers  of 
the  medical  corps  were  first  subject  by  statutory 
law  to  examination  before  promotion  to  a  higher 
grade  by  a  board  of  surgeons,  designated  for  the 
purpose  by  the  Secretary  of  the  Navy.  The  act 
requiring  the  examination  of  this  class  of  officers 
was  approved  May  24,  1824. 

The  subsequent  legislation  of  Congress  on  this 
subject,  as  expressed  in  the  acts  approved  respec 
tively  July  16,  1862,  and  April  21,  1864,  require 
"  all  officers  below  the  grade  of  commodore,  and 
all  officers  not  of  the  line,"  and  "in  time  of 
peace  all  officers  to  be  promoted  from  the  list  of 
commodores  to  the  grade  of  rear-admiral,"  to  be 
examined  as  to  their  physical  qualifications  to 


perform  the  duties  of  a  naval  officer  at  sea  by  a 
board  of  medical  officers,  appointed  for  the  pur 
pose  by  the  Secretary  of  the  Navy.  An  excep 
tion  is  made  in  cases  of  officers  whose  physical 
disqualifications  were  occasioned  by  wounds  re 
ceived  in  the  line  of  duty,  which  do  not  inca 
pacitate  them  for  other  duties  in  the  grade  to 
which  they  shall  be  promoted. 

In  addition  to  the  physical  examination  herein 
stated,  the  officers  aforesaid  are  required  to 
establish  their  mental,  moral,  and  professional 
fitness  for  promotion  to  the  satisfaction  of  a  board 
of  examining  officers  appointed  by  the  President 
of  the  United  States.  Said  board  to  consist  of 
not  less  than  three  officers,  senior  in  rank  to  the 
officer  to  be  examined. 

The  officers  thus  subject  to  examination  before 
promotion,  to  a  grade  limited  in  number  by  law, 
are  not  entitled  to  examination  in  such  a  sense 
as  to  give  increase  of  pay,  until  designated  by 
the  Secretary  of  the  Nav}r  to  fill  vacancies  in 
the  higher  grade. 

When  such  vacancies  occur,  and  the  officers 
are  designated  to  fill  the-same,  the  law  says  that 
"  any  such  officer  whose  case  is  to  be  acted  upon 
by  such  examining  board  shall  have  the  right  to 
be  present  if  he  so  desires,  and  to  submit  a  state 
ment  of  his  case  on  oath." 

The  peculiar  wording  of  this  section  of  the  law 
has  occasioned  different  opinions  as  to  its  mean 
ing.  Some  officers  have  questioned  the  right  of 
such  examining  board  to  personally  interrogate 
officers  who  appear  before  it  as  candidates  for 
promotion,  and  have  claimed  that  the  law  leaves 
it  optional  with  the  candidates  to  be  present  or 
absent,  as  they  may  elect. 

Upon  full  examination  of  the  law,  and  after 
mature  deliberation  as  to  its  interpretation,  it 
has  been  decided  by  the  revising  authority  that 
such  right  exists,  and  that  the  law  creating  such 
examining  boards,  and  such  candidates  for  ex 
amination,  implies  without  question  the  right  on 
the  part  of  the  former  to  interrogate,  and  the 
duty  on  the  part  of  the  latter  to  answer. 

The  right  of  personal  examination  is  therefore 
the  fundamental  principle  of  these  boards,  and 
indispensable  primarily  to  the  accomplishment 
of  their  objects,  and  this  power  may  not  be  re 
strained  or  limited  except  by  express  affirmative 
legislation. 

In  addition  to  this  right  of  personal  examina 
tion,  the  law  confers  upon  these  boards  all  need 
ful  and  convenient  power  of  further  collateral 
examination,  such  as  to  summon,  swear,  and  ex 
amine  witnesses,  and  to  inspect  the  files  of  the 
Navy  Department ;  and  those  powers  are  exercised 
in  such  forms  of  procedure  and  report  as  will 
enable  the  President  of  the  United  States,  who 
is  the  revising  authority,  to  see  and  understand 
fully  all  the  facts  necessary  or  desirable  for  his 
consideration. 

The  boards  are  organized  anew  in  each  case, 
and  sworn  in  the  presence  and  hearing  of  the 
candidate  to  be  examined. 

The  record  of  the  proceedings  in  each  case  is 
made  up  with  precision  and  care,  and  with  scru 
pulous  attention  to  legal  requisites,  and  is  signed 
by  every  member  and  the  recorder,  and  shows 
who  of  the  members  concurred  in,  and  who,  if 
any,  dissented  from  the  opinion  of  the  board. 

The  requisite  mental,  moral,  and  professional 
qualifications,  to  be  determined  by  the  examina- 


EXCHEQUERED 


255 


EXHAUST 


tions,  relate  to  the  duties  and  responsibilities  of 
the  grade  to  which  the  candidate  seeks  promo 
tion,  and  not  to  those  of  any  other  grade. 

No  officer  may  be  rejected  until  after  such 
public  examination  of  himself,  and  the'  records 
of  the  Department  in  his  case,  unless  he  shall 
fail  to  appear  before  the  board  after  having  been 
duly  notified. 

Whenever  any  officer  of  the  navy,  on  being 
ordered  to  perform  the  duties  appropriate  to  his 
commission,  shall  report  himself  unable  to  com 
ply  with  such  order,  or  whenever,  in  the  judg 
ment  of  the  President  of  the  United  States,  an 
officer  of  the  navy  is  in  any  way  incapacitated 
from  performing  the  duties  of  his  office,  the 
President,  at  his  discretion,  directs  the  Secretary 
of  the  Navy  to  refer  the  case  of  such  officer  to 
a  board  of  not  less  than  five  commissioned  offi 
cers,  two-fifths  of  whom  are  members  of  the 
medical  corps  of  the  navy ;  the  members  of  the 
board,  except  those  taken  from  the  medical  corps, 
are  senior  in  rank  to  the  officer  to  be  examined. 

The  board  is  authorized  to  inquire  into,  and 
determine  the  facts,  touching  the  nature  and  oc 
casion  of  the  disability  of  any  such  officer;  and 
has  such  powers  of  a  court-martial  and  of  a 
court  of  inquiry  as  may  be  necessary. 

The  members  are  sworn  in  each  case  to  dis 
charge  their  duties  honestly  and  impartially. 

When  the  board  finds  an  officer  incapacitated 
for  active  service,  from  wounds,  or  injury  re 
ceived  in  the  line  of  duty,  from  sickness  or  ex 
posure  therein,  or  from  any  other  incident  of 
the  service,  and  the  President  approve  of  such 
finding,  the  disabled  officer  is  thereupon  placed 
upon  the  list  of  retired  officers  with  pay  equal 
to  seventy-five  per  centum  of  the  sea-pay  for  the 
grade  or  rank  he  may  hold  at  the  date  of  his  re 
tirement. 

But  if  such  disability  or  incompetency  pro 
ceeded  from  other  causes,  and  the  President  con 
cur  in  opinion  with  the  board,  the  officer  is 
retired  upon  furlough-pay,  or  he  is  wholly  re 
tired  from  the  service  with  one  year's  pay,  at  the 
discretion  of  the  President ;  in  this  last  case  his 
name  is  wholly  omitted  from  the  navy  register. 

No  officer  of  the  navy  may  be  retired  because 
of  misconduct,  but  he  is  subject  to  court-martial 
for  such  misconduct. 

The  members  of  the  board  are  sworn  in  each 
case  to  an  honest  and  impartial  discharge  of  their 
duties  ;  and  no  officer  of  the  navy  may  be  re 
tired,  either  partially  or  wholly  from  the  ser 
vice,  without  having  had  a  fair  and  full  hearing 
before  the  board,  if  he  shall  demand  it,  except 
in  cases  where  he  may  be  retired  by  the  Pres 
ident,  at  his  own  request,  or  on  account  of  age, 
or  length  of  service,  or  on  account  of  his  failure 
to  be  recommended  by  an  examining  board  for 
promotion. — James  C.  Dalin. 

Exchequered  (Eng.).  Seized  by  government 
officers  as  contraband. 

Executive-officer.  The  title  of  "  executive- 
officer"  is  of  quite  recent  date,  and  has  been  the 
cause  of  much  discussion,  bad  temper,  and  bitter 
opposition;  it  has  grown  from  the  ashes  of  the 
old  first  lieutenant,  and  finds  its  parallel  in  the 
army  adjutant,  and  in  all  corporations  or  factories 
employing  large  bodies  of  men,  in  the  name  of 
superintendent  or  manager.  The  executive-officer 
holds  by  far  the  most  onerous,  most  difficult,  and 
most  thankless  office  on  board  ship,  while  his 


authority  is  limited  entirely  by  the  dictum  of  his 
commander.  His  duties  consist  in  stationing 
the  officers  and  crew  for  the  necessary  handling 
of  the  sails  and  spars,  in  the  boats,  at  the  great 
guns,  fire-quarters,  small-arms,  and  in  their 
messes  ;  he  must  frequently  exercise  them  as  pre 
scribed  by  navy  regulations ;  he  is  always  on 
duty,  and  must  be  ever  vigilant  and  watchful ; 
setting  at  all  times  a  good  example  of  neat 
ness  and  prompt  respectful  obedience,  he  must 
exact  it  from  all  others.  He  must  keep  a 
conduct-roll  of  all  the  crew,  setting  forth  all 
their  individual  merits  and  carefully  noting  all 
their  faults.  He  must  keep  a  liberty-book,  in 
which  the  names  of  all  who  obtain  leave  are  en 
tered,  the  length  of  time  grante^,  the  hour  of 
their  return,  and  their  condition.  He  must 
keep  a  punishment-book,  in  which  any  and  all 
punishments  inflicted,  for  what  cause  and  by 
what  authority,  are  recorded.  He  must  listen  to 
all  complaints,  and,  if  necessary,  present  them 
to  his  captain.  He  acts  as  chief  of  police,  and 
must  be  very  watchful  of  his  immediate  sub 
ordinates  in  that  department,  to  suppress  the 
smuggling  of  liquor,  -theft,  fighting,  and  gam 
bling.  He  must  be  ready  at  all  times  to  lead  the 
crew,  to  head  the  battalion,  or  show  the  way  to 
the  weather-earing  ;  ready  always  with  his  gold- 
laced  and  epauletted  coat  for  fair  weather,  or 
his  trumpet  and  oil-skin  jacket  for  the  midnight 
gale.  He  must  be  ready  to  promote  and  encour 
age  all  kinds  of  healthful  and  proper  amuse 
ments  among  the  crew,  such  as  boat-racing,  glee 
clubs,  base  ball,  and  particularly  swimming  ;  the 
comfort  of  the  crew  should  be  his  constant  study. 
But  most  difficult  task  of  all,  he  must,  by  his  in 
fluence  and  dignity,  maintain  good  order,  frown 
ing  down  all  license,  stopping  at  once  all  im 
proper  discussion  ;  if  he  wishes  the  cruise  to  be 
happy,  he  must  first  of  all  be  true  and  loyal  to 
his  commanding  officer,  never  permitting  officers 
to  criticise  him  in  the  presence  of  the  servants, 
never  himself  doing  so  even  to  the  officers.  He 
must  be  equally  careful  not  needlessly  to  open 
the  captain's  eyes  to  any  of  the  little" faults  or 
minor  breaches  of  discipline  on  the  part  of 
officers  or  men ;  he  must  learn  when  and  what 
to  hear  or  see,  and  as  his  relations  with  the  cap 
tain  are  more  or  less  confidential,  he  must  be  ex 
ceedingly  prudent  in  his  speech.  He  is  held 
responsible  for  the  cleanliness  of  the  ship,  her 
good  order,  neat  and  man-of-war-like  appear 
ance,  and,  above  all,  he  is  to  do  as  he  is  told  by 
his  captain,  to  promulgate  and  execute  his  orders  ; 
and,  last  of  all  his  duties,  never  to  go  ashore  ex 
cept  on  the  sheet-anchor. —  W.  T.  Truxtun,  Cap 
tain  U.S.N. 

Exhaust.  A  term  applied  to  the  mechanism 
for  releasing  steam  from  a  cylinder  after  having 
performed  its  work ;  and,  "also,  to  the  ejected 
steam. 

EXHAUST -PIPE.  A  pipe  for  conducting  ex 
haust  steam  from  a  cylinder  to  a  condenser,  or 
to  the  atmosphere,  or  to  any  convenient  place 
remote  from  the  engine.  When  an  exhaust- 
pipe  terminates  in  a  chimney,  and  has  a  con 
tracted  outlet  for  increasing  the  velocity  of  the 
escaping  steam  and  inducing  a  draft,  the  con 
tracted  termination  is  called  a  blast-pipe. 

EXHAUST-PORT.  The  opening  or  passage  in  a 
steam-cylinder  through  which  the  exhaust  steam 
escapes. 


EXMOUTH 


256 


EXPANSION   OF  STEAM 


'  EXHAUST  STEAM.  The  steam  that  is  ejected 
from  a  cylinder  after  having  performed  its 
work. 

EXHAUST-VALVE.  A  valve  for  releasing  the 
exhaust  steam  from  a  cylinder,  or  for  discharg 
ing  any  confined  fluid  from  a  vessel  or  chamber. 

Exmouth,  Viscount  (Sir  Edward  Pellew),  a 
celebrated  English  admiral,  was  born  at  Dover 
in  1757.  He^was  descended  from  a  Norman 
family,  settled  in  Cornwall  for  many  centuries. 
He  entered  the  navy  at  13  years  of  age,  and  was 
at  once  remarked  for  his  daring,  activity,  and 
intelligence.  Well  suited  to  his  profession,  he 
rose  to  be  a  typical  English  sailor. 

His  first  war-service  was  in  our  own  country, 
at  the  battle  of  Lake  Champlain,  when  he  suc 
ceeded  to  the  command  of  the  schooner  "  Carle- 
ton,"  and,  for  gallant  and  skillful  conduct,  was 
given  a  lieutenant's  commission.  In  the  next 
year  he  served  in  Burgo}rne's  unfortunate  cam 
paign,  in  command  of  a  detachment  of  seamen, 
whose  tremendous  labor,  in  the  lakes  and  rivers, 
was  entirely  thrown  away  by  Burgoyne's  cap 
ture. 

In  1782  he  had  command  of  the  "Pelican," 
and  destroyed  three  French  privateers  at  one 
time,  for  which  service  he  was  made  a  captain. 
At  the  breaking  out  of  the  war  with  the  French, 
in  1793,  he  was  in  command  of  the  "  Nyinphe," 
36,  which  ship  is  said  to  have  been  manned 
mostly  by  landsmen.  In  her,  however,  he  cap 
tured  the  French  frigate  "  La  Cleopatre,"  a 
heavier  ship.  He  was  knighted  for  this  action. 

In  1794  he  had  command  of  the  "  Arethusa" 
frigate,  and  captured  the  French  frigate  "  Po- 
mone"  in  the  course  of  a  general  action.  In 
the  same  year  he  was  given  command  of  the 
second  division  of  the  Western  Squadron,  where 
he  distinguished  himself. 

Always  noted  for  deeds  of  personal  daring, 
one  of  the  most  remarkable  of  these  was  his 
boarding  the  wrecked  transport  "  Button,"  ship 
wrecked  on  the  coast.  The  danger  was  imminent, 
but  he  took  charge,  and  by  his  personal  influ 
ence  and  great  exertions  saved  the  lives  of  all 
on  board.  He  is,  perhaps,  better  known  to  sea 
faring  people  for  this  action  than  from  his  sub 
sequent  achievements. 

In  1798  he  commanded  the  "Impetueux,"  in 
the  Channel  Fleet,  and  passed  creditably  through 
several  actions. 

He  then  entered  Parliament,  and  was  known 
as  a  strenuous  supporter  of  Pitt. 

In  1804  he  was  made  rear-admiral  of  the  blue, 
and  Commander-in-chief  in  India,  when,  by 
his  rapid  and  well-considered  measures,  he  sue- . 
ceeded  in  nearly  clearing  those  seas  of  the  French 
cruisers  which  had  caused  such  havoc.  He  re 
turned  to  England  in  1809,  and  the  next  year 
was  appointed  commander-in-chief  in  the  North 
Sea. 

In  1811  he  was  commander-in-chief  in  the 
Mediterranean  ;  and  in  1814  was  made  Baron 
Exmouth,  and  K.C.B.,  and  G.C.B.  When,  in 
1816,  the  Dey  of  Algiers  violated  the  treaty  con 
cerning  prisoners,  Lord  Exmouth  was  sent  out, 
with  a  powerful  fleet,  and  made  an  attack  upon 
that  cit}T,  so  famous  in  its  curious  history.  The 
bombardment  took  place  on  the  26th  of  August, 
with  considerable  loss  on  the  side  of  the  English 
and  their  Dutch  allies,  and  dreadful  slaughter 
occurred  among  the  Algerines.  The  result  was 


the  apology  of  the  dey  and  the  surrender  of 
1800  slaves.  For  this  victory  Lord  Exmouth 
was  made  a  viscount ;  and,  shortly  before  his 
death,  he  became  a  vice-admiral. — E.  Shippen. 

Exocetus.  A  fish  which  comes  upon  the 
beach  to  sleep.  A  genus  of  fishes  having  very 
long  and  large  pectoral  fins,  by  means  of  which 
they  are  able  to  fly  a  considerable  distance  in  the 
air, — the  flying-fish. 

Expansion.  In  naval  architecture,  the  laying 
off  the  ship  mathematically  from  a  model  or 
drawing  to  the  full  or  building  size.  The  en 
largement  of  a  body,  whether  solid,  liquid,  or 
gaseous,  due  to  the  separation  of  its  atoms  by 
heat.  See  EXPANSION  OF  STEAM,  CUT-OFF. 

Expansion  of  Steam.  Accurate  investiga 
tions  of  this  subject  are  very  intricate,  and  the 
formulae  deduced  are  complicated ;  but  calcula 
tions  sufficiently  correct  for  many  purposes  may 
be  made  as  follows  : 

Suppose  a  given  weight  of  steam  occupying 
the  space  represented  by  O  E  =  VL,  at  the  pressure 


G  B  — pv  be  admitted  into  a  cylinder  and  to  drive 
a  piston  ;  then  to  expand,  its  volume  increasing 
to  O  F  =  v2.  and  its  pressure  falling  to  F  D  — 7>2> 
according  to  the  law  represented  by  the  curve 
C  D  ;  and,  lastly,  to  be  expelled  from  the  cylinder 
at  the  final  pressure,  then  the 

Energy  transmitted,  E  = 

tPl     * 
v  dp 


J  » 


the  value  of  which,  as  given  by  Kankine's  for 
mula  for  a  perfect  gas,  is 


when  Y  =  1-408  for  air. 

If  the  fluid  is  discharged  from  the  cylinder  at 
a  lower  pressure  than  that  at  which  the  expan 
sion  terminates,  there  is  to  be  added  to  the  pre 
ceding  formula  the  term 


making 


(2) 


This  formula  becomes  still  more  complex  for 
saturated  steam. 

Adiabatic  Curve.  —  If  the  steam  be  allowed  to 
expand  without  receiving  or  emitting  heat,  and 
the  mechanical  energy  exerted  during  the  ex 
pansion  be  entirely  communicated  to  an  exter- 


EXPANSION   OF  STEAM 


257 


EXPLORING  EXPEDITIONS 


nal  body,  such  as  a  piston,  the  pressure  p2  will 
be  less  than  it  would  had  the  temperature  been 
maintained  constant,  because  by  expansion,  heat 
is  made  to  disappear.  The  curve  C  D  governing 
the  pressures  of  the  several  volumes  is  called  an 
adiabatic  curve,  the  simplest  equation  of  which 
is,  for  a  perfect  gas, 


(3) 


If  the  steam  while  expanding  be  maintained 
at  a  constant  absolute  temperature,  the  curve  C  D 
is  called  an  isothermal  line. 

The  line  0  V  may  be  regarded  as  a  line  of  ab 
solute  cold,  and  an  asymptote  to  all  other  iso 
thermal  and  adiabatic  curves. 

It  is  frequently  assumed  in  practice  that  the 
temperature  remains  constant,  and  that 

« 


in  which  case  the  absolute  pressure  at  any  point 
of  the  curve  C  D  may  be  represented  by  -,  and 
the  energy  transmitted  during  an  infinitely  small 
expansion  by  -d  v,  which  being  integrated  be 
tween  the  limits  of  v  =  vl  and  v=v2,  when  vl 
represents  the  unit  of  measure  of  v2,  gives  the 
energy  transmitted  during  the  whole  expansion, 

^2 

rf  11 

(5) 


r   dv 

ij    -V-= 


and  if  the  work  pl  vv  done  before  expansion,  be 
added,  the  expression  for  the  total  energy  be 


2 

E  =Pif     ~  +Pi  «i  =Pi  (hyp-  log.  v2  +  1)    (6) 

*i 

By  subtracting  the  back-pressure  p3  vv  and 
denoting   the  total  mean  pressure  by  Pm,  the 
effective  energy 
Ei=j»i(hyp.log.  vz  +  l)-p3V2  =  Pm.vz-p3v2  (7) 

Mean  pressure 


Initial  pressure,  when  the  mean  pressure  is 
given, 


^  —  hyp.log.^  +  l 

The  relative  weight  of  steam  required  to  main 
tain  a  constant  mean  pressure  for  various  grades 
of  expansion  may  be  represented  by  the  cylinder 
full  of  steam  at  the  final  pressure,  or, 

^2=^  =  ,       .*»      .  1  .         .  (10) 

v2      hyp.log.v2-f  1 

Suppose  Pm  to  be  unity  and  constant,  then  if 

Per  Cent,  of  Gain. 


=  l.OQ;  j»2  =  1.000 
=  !.  18  ;  jt>2  =  0.690 
=  1.675^2  = 


=  0.278 


Successive. 

41 
17.1 

9.4 

4.7 


Total. 

41 
58.1 
67.5 
72.2 


This  is  a  maximum  result,  and  not  nearly  at 
tainable  in  practice.      By  applying  the   exact 
17 


thermo-dynamic  laws  of  expansion,  and  deduct 
ing  the  losses  by  back-pressure,  clearance,  and 
friction  of  larger  engine  required,  which  in 
creases  with  the  several  values  of  pv  the  per 
cent,  of  gain  will  be  materially  reduced. — Albert 
Aston,  Chief  Engineer  U.S.N. 

EXPANSION-GEAR.  In  the  steam-engine,  the 
mechanism  for  operating  an  expansion  or  cut-off 
valve. 

EXPANSION-VALVE.     See  CUT-OFF. 

Expedition.  An  undertaking  by  sea  or  land, 
with  a  peaceful  design  or  with  hostile  intent. 
See  EXPLORING  EXPEDITIONS. 

Expend.     To  use  up  or  consume  in  service. 

Exploit.  An  achievement ;  a  feat ;  a  success 
ful  deed. 

Exploring  Expeditions.  Exploring  expe 
ditions,  to  examine  coasts  and  seas  unknown 
or  imperfectly  surveyed,  have  been  undertaken 
from  the  earliest  times.  Maritime  exploration, 
however,  has  never  been  so  fruitful  as  within 
the  past  four  hundred  years.  The  earlier  expe 
ditions  were  of  a  commercial  nature,  and  this 
was  doubtless  the  motive  that  induced  Jason  to 
undertake  the  Argonautic  expedition,  the  first 
in  history, — 1250-60  B.C.  The  great  Egyptian 
monarch ,  Pharaoh  Necho,  is  said  to  have  obtained 
the  circumnavigation  of  Africa,  630  B.C.,— Phoe 
nicians,  under  his  orders,  performing  it  by  land 
ing  and  sowing  grain  during  the  summer,  thus 
occupying  three  years  in  the  voyage.  During 
the  three  centuries  preceding  the  birth  of  Christ, 
the  Carthaginians  led  the  van  in  maritime  dis 
covery.  Impelled  by  a  mercantile  spirit,  they 
discovered  the  Scilly  Islands,  explored  the  coast 
of  Spain,  Africa  as  far  as  Cape  Nun,  which 
Hanno  is  said  to  have  reached.  Nearchus,  the 
admiral  of  Alexander's  fleet,  made  many  im 
portant  explorations  of  the  coasts  and  islands  of 
the  Persian  Gulf  during  his  five  months' voyage. 
The  geographical  knowledge  disseminated  by  the 
writings  of  Erastosthenes,  Strabo,  Hipparchus, 
and  Ptolemy  prepared  the  way  for  the  modern 
science  of  geography,  and  led  to  the  develop 
ment  of  maritime  discovery  and  exploration 
after  the  nations  had  arisen  from  the  wreck  of 
the  barbarian  incursions,  and  when  better  navi 
gation  and  sounder  ships  enabled  such  voyages 
to  be  undertaken.  Aside  from  the  general  decay 
of  knowledge,  the  unsettled  state  of  society,  and 
the  prevalence  of  piracy  at  sea,  the  dominant 
nation  for  centuries — the  Romans — were  not  a 
maritime  people,  and  sought  their  triumphs  by 
land.  The  navigation  of  those  times  was  con 
fined  to  coasting  from  head  to  headland ;  the 
stars  and  landmarks  were  the  only  guides,  and 
daytime  and  the  favorable  seasons  only  were  em 
ployed  in  navigation.  But  about  the  middle  of 
the  14th  century  the  mariner's  compass  was  in 
troduced  ;  ships  able  to  breast  the  stronger 
waves  of  the  Atlantic,  and  able  to  sail  with  a 
side  wind,  were  built  ;  maps  and  charts  of  bet 
ter  construction  appeared ;  the  astrolabe,  the 
first  astronomical  instrument  of  navigation,  was 
invented,  and  a  maritime  school  was  established 
by  Prince  Henry  of  Portugal.  The  expeditions 
sent  from  there  greatly  encouraged  adventurous 
mariners  to  penetrate  farther  into  the  unknown 
west,  and  these  voyages  soon  bore  fruit. 

The  first  exploring  vessel  was  sent  out  in  1410, 
and  reached  Cape  Nun,  and  this  initiatory 
voyage  was  followed  by  others,  sent  by  Henry 


EXPLORING  EXPEDITIONS 


258 


EXPLORING  EXPEDITIONS 


and  the  kings  of  Portugal.  In  1416  a  vessel 
reached  Cape  Bojador,  and  in  1418,  Juan  Gon- 
calves  Zarco,  in  a  barcha,  with  Tristan  Vaz 
Teixera,  sailed  on  a  voyage  of  discovery,  and,  be 
ing  blown  off  the  coast,  discovered  Porto  Santo, 
one  of  the  Madeiras.  In  1420,  they  again  sailed, 
with  three  vessels,  discovered  Madeira  (visited 
before  by  an  Englishman),  and  burned  its  woods, 
planting  the  vine  and  sugar-cane.  Gil  Eanez,  in 
1420,  tried  to  pass  Cape  Bojador,  but  failed,  suc 
ceeding,  however,  in  a  second  voyage  in  1433.  In 
two  succeeding  voyages  he  finally  reached  Rio  do 
Ouro,  or  Gold  River.  In  1432,  Cabral  was  sent 
out  by  Prince  Henry,  and  discovered  the  Azores. 
Expeditions  were  undertaken  in  1440  (defeated 
by  stress  of  weather),  in  1441,  and  in  1442,  more 
for  plunder  than  for  discovery,  but  gold  was  then 
first  found.  In  1443,  Nunez  Tristan,  who  had 
commanded  the  last  two  expeditions,  again  sailed, 
advancing  as  far  as  Alguin  Bay,  and  to  the  Gam 
bia  River  in  a  succeeding  voyage.  No  important 
discoveries  were  made  in  the  three  succeeding 
voyages.  In  1447,  Lan9arot,  with  several  cara 
vels,  explored  as  far  as  the  Senegal  River.  In 
1455,  Cada  Mosto,  a  Venetian,  sailed  in  a  Por 
tuguese  caravel,  and  again  in  1456,  with  two 
caravels,  exploring  and  describing  the  coast, 
then  discovered  the  Cape  Verde  Islands  ;  and 
the  same  year  De  Cintra  and  De  Costa,  with 
two  vessels,  went  as  far  as  Cape  Mesurado.  This 
was  the  last  expedition  under  Prince  Henry,  the 
founder  of  modern  discovery  and  exploration. 
In  1471,  Santarem  and  Escobar  discovered  the 
Gold  Coast  and  Cape  St.  Catherine.  The  trade 
with  Africa  was  farmed  by  the  Portuguese  gov 
ernment,  and  discovery  relaxed  somewhat.  Un 
der  John  the  Perfect  it  again  revived,  and  the 
attention  of  other  nations  to  the  subject  was  soon 
manifested  by  their  attempts.  In  1484,  Diego 
Cam  reached  the  Congo  River,  and  in  1487,  Bar 
tholomew  Diaz  sailed  with  3  caravels,  discov 
ered  the  cape  at  the  southern  point  of  Africa,  and 
named  it  Cabo  Tormentoso.  In  1484-86,  Martin 
Beheim  is  said  to  have  reached  Brazil,  but  ac 
counts  of  this  are  vague.  These  voyages  paved 
the  way  for  the  great  explorer,  Christopher  Co 
lumbus.  Ferdinand  of  Spain  was  induced  to 
grant  him  3  vessels  and  90  men,  and  he  sailed 
from  Palos,  Spain,  August  3,  1492.  He  touched 
at  the  Canaries,  and  then  boldly  struck  towards 
the  west.  Previous  explorers  had  kept  nearer  the 
land,  until  accidental  discoveries  of  the  islands 
led  them  there  in  subsequent  voyages  ;  but  Co 
lumbus,  firmly  believing  in  the  rotundity  of  the 
earth,  boldly  sought  the  Indies  by  sailing  around 
it.  His  timorous  sailors  feared  the  unknown 
sea,  and  nearly  frustrated  his  plans  ;  but  finally 
he  was  rewarded  by  a  sight  of  the  land,  and  on 
Friday,  October  12,  he  "discovered  Guanahani, 
which  he  called  San  Salvador.  He  discovered 
Long  Island,  Exuma  Island,  and  Watling's 
Island  in  the  course  of  his  explorations  this 
voyage,  and  Cuba  on  the  28th  October,  and  St. 
Domingo  on  December  6.  He  lost  his  flag-ship, 
but  got  safely  back,  touching  at  the  Azores  and 
the  mouth  of  the  Tagus,  and  arriving  at  Burgos, 
Spain,  March  15,  1493.  The  news  of  his  dis 
covery  of  the  Indies  spread  abroad,  and  soon 
other  explorers  were  seeking  western  lands.  A 
papal  bull  granted  these  waters  to  the  Spanish, 
reserving  to  the  Portuguese  explorations  east  of 
a  line  at  first  100  leagues,  afterwards  370  leagues, 


west  of  the  Azores.  Columbus  sailed,  as  vice 
roy  of  the  new  country,  with  17  ships  and  150 
men,  to  colonize  the  new  lands,  September 
25,  1493.  On  the  3d  November  he  discovered 
Dominica  (Sunday)  Island,  and  Marie-Galante, 
Guadeloupe,  Montserrat,  Antigua,  St.  Matthew, 
St.  Bartholomew,  Santa  Cruz,  Porto  Rico,  and 
others  in  succession,  arriving  at  the  latter  island 
April  24,  1494.  He  sailed  with  3  vessels  April 
24,  1494,  discovered  many  islands  near  Cuba,  ex 
plored  its  coasts,  discovered  Jamaica  May  14, 
and  the  islands  in  the  Mona  passage.  He  sailed 
on  his  third  voyage  with  6  ships  May  19,  1497, 
and  then  discovered  the  coast  of  Venezuela, 
Trinidad,  and  other  islands,  and,  on  arriving  at 
Hispaniola,  was  sent  home  in  chains. 

In  his  fourth  voyage,  with  2  ships  and  170 
men,  in  1502,  he  explored  the  coast  of  Honduras, 
and  this  was  his  last  exploit. 

England  was  the  first  to  profit  by  the  dis 
covery,  and  John  and  Sebastian  Cabot  sailed  in 
June,  1496,  with  2  ships  and  300  men.  They 
discovered  the  island  of  Newfoundland,  and  ex 
plored  the  continent  as  far  as  Chesapeake  Bay. 
Sebastian  Cabot  afterwards  sailed  on  other  ex 
peditions, — the  first  in  the  Spanish  service,  to 
South  America,  and  subsequent  ones  in  search 
of  northwest  and  northeast  passages.  These 
latter  voyages  belong  to  Polar  exploration. 

The  Portuguese  king  sent  out  in  1496  Vasco 
da  Gama  with  4  ships  and  120  men.  He  sailed 
July  9,  1496,  explored  the  coast  of  Africa,  passed 
the  Stormy  Cape,  now  Good  Hope,  discovered 
Mozambique,  and  first  found  the  passage  to  In 
dia,  laying  the  track  for  future  voyages.  Jeal 
ous  of  the  Spanish  discoveries  in  the  west,  Ojeda 
and  Vespucci  were  sent  in  1499,  by  the  Portu 
guese  king,  with  4  ships.  They  discovered  the 
continent  of  South  America,  about  the  Orinoco, 
and  in  a  second  voyage  discovered  Brazil.  Amer 
igo  Vespucci,  the  pilot  of  these  expeditions, 
sailed  again  in  1501  with  3  ships,  explored  the 
Brazilian  coast,  and  crossed  to  Africa.  In  1503, 
with  6  ships,  he  discovered  St.  Matthew  Island 
and  Bahia,  and  first  published  accounts  of  the 
new  world,  which  became  known  as  America. 

With  the  new  century  the  spirit  of  discovery 
and  exploration  started  afresh.  The  Portuguese, 
first  to  open  the  way,  led  the  van  in  the  16th 
century  also.  Pedro  Alvarez  Cabral  sailed  in  1500 
with  12  ships  and  1500  men,  partly  to  colonize 
the  new  Indian  possessions.  He  sailed  March 
8,  explored  the  coast  of  Brazil,  crossed  to  Africa, 
doubled  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  and  touched 
at  Sofala,  exploring  much  of  the  coast.  At 
the  same  time  Gaspar  de  Cortereal  sailed  with 
2  vessels  to  the  westward,  explored  Newfound 
land,  discovered  the  St.  Lawrence  and  Labrador, 
and  named  them.  Returning  on  a  second  voy 
age,  in  1502,  he  was  lost.  From  1500  to  1510 
many  expeditions  were  sent  from  Portugal  to 
India,  but  they  were  for  colonization  and  trade, 
although  in  many  of  them  important  discoveries 
were  made.  Albuquerque  discovered  Zanzibar 
in  1503.  Juan  de  Nova  Castella  first  saw  St. 
Helena  in  1502.  Tristan  d'Acunha  discovered  the 
island  called  after  him  in  1506,  and  Madagascar 
in  1507.  Diego  Lopez  de  Sequerem  explored 
the  coasts  of  Malacca  and  Sumatra,  and  many 
other  discoveries  were  made  by  traders  and  In 
dia  fleets.  Spain  was  not  idle.  In  1508,  Vin- 
cente  Jafiez  Purzon  and  Juande  Solis  sailed  along 


EXPLORING  EXPEDITIONS 


259 


EXPLORING  EXPEDITIONS 


the  coast  of  South  America  from  the  equator  to 
40°  S.  In  1512,  De  Soils  explored  the  whole  coast 
of  Brazil,  and  discovered  the  La  Plata  and  the 
Parana,  and  colonies  were  soon  planted  there. 
The  same  year  Juan  Ponce  de  Leon  sailed  from 
the  Spanish  colonies  and  discovered  Florida.  In 
1517,  Cordova  explored  the  coast  of  Campeachy, 
in  1518,  Juan  de  Grijalva  the  coast  of  Honduras, 
and  the  same  year  Francis  de  Garay  sailed  down 
the  coast  of  Florida.  The  following  year  saw 
the  advent  of  Fernando  Cortez  and  the  establish 
ment  of  a  Spanish  kingdom  on  the  continent,  and 
many  voyages  of  discovery  ensued  thereafter. 

But  the  greatest  maritime  event  that  had  hap 
pened  since  the  voyage  of  Da  Gama  was  that  of 
Magalhaens.  He  sailed  from  Seville  in  1519,  on 
the  20th  of  September.  After  exploring  the  coast 
of  Brazil,  and  wintering  in  Patagonia,  he  sailed 
through  the  straits  that  bear  his  name.  Of  his 
5  ships,  one  was  here  lost  and  one  returned  to 
Spain,  but  he  pushed  into  the  hitherto  unex 
plored  South  Sea,  discovered  the  Ladrones,  Phil 
ippines,  Jardines,  and  other  islands  in  that  sea, 
and  was  killed  at  Zebu.  One  vessel  reached 
San  Lucar,  Sept.  6,  1522,  with  18  men,  and  thus 
the  first  circumnavigation  of  the  globe  was  ac 
complished  in  1154  days.  Cortez  and  subsequent 
viceroys  of  New  Spain  sent  out  many  expedi 
tions  of  discovery  and  exploration  from  1520  to 
1524.  In  1525,  Francis  Pizarro  and  Diego  de 
Almagro  sailed  south  and  discovered  Peru,  after 
wards  conquering  it  and  establishing  an  empire 
there.  A  fleet  of  7  vessels  sailed  from  Corunna 
in  the  same  year,  one  of  them  sailing  around  the 
continent  of  South  America,  the  others  going 
to  the  Moluccas. 

Francis  I.  sent  John  Verrazzani,  1523,  to  ex 
plore  the  new  continent,  and  again  in  1524.  He 
is  said  to  have  discovered  Florida,  before  seen  by 
Ponce  de  Leon. 

Sebastian  Cabot  sailed  again  for  the  king  of 
Spain  in  1526,  explored  the  La  Plata,  ascended 
north  120  miles  in  his  ships,  and  480  miles  far 
ther  in  boats ;  also  exploring  the  Parana  and 
Paraguay  Rivers.  Cortez  sent  Alvarda  de  Saa- 
vedra,  in  1527,  into  the  South  Seas,  and  New 
Guinea  was  then  first  seen,  and  many  smaller 
islands.  Francis  I.  sent  Jacques  Cartier  from 
St.  Malo  with  2  ships  of  60  tons  in  1534.  He 
explored  Labrador,  discovered  the  Magdalen 
Islands,  Chaleur  and  Gaspe  Bays,  and  took  pos 
session  of  the  new  country  in  the  name  of  the 
king  of  France.  In  a  second  voyage,  in  1535, 
he  sailed  through  Belleisle  Straits,  and  explored 
the  St.  Lawrence  and  Saguenay,  wintering  there. 
In  a  third  voyage,  in  1541,  he  made  other  ex 
plorations  of  Canada  under  the  command  of 
Roberval.  In  1536,  Cortez  sent  Juan  de  Gri 
jalva  to  explore  the  west  coast  of  America, 
and  the  same  year  himself  sailed,  discovering 
the  Gulf  and  peninsula  of  California.  The 
same  year  Grijalva  sailed  into  the  South  Seas, 
and  discovered  many  islands  about  the  Moluc 
cas,  Spice,  and  Philippine  groups.  In  1539, 
Francis  de  Ulloa  explored  both  shores  of  the 
Gulf  of  California,  and  the  west  coast  of  the 
peninsula  as  far  as  32°  north  latitude.  In  1540, 
Orellana  explored  the  Amazon,  and  in  1541 
Don  Stephen  de  Gama  explored  the  Red  Sea, 
Abyssinian  coast,  and  Arabian  shores.  In  1542, 
another  Spanish  fleet,  exploring  the  west  coast  of 
America,  sailed  north  to  40°,  and  saw  the  Sierra 


Nevadas.  The  same  year  a  fleet  of  6  vessels 
sailed  into  the  South  Sea,  and  discovered  the 
Pelew  and  other  islands.  The  next  year  De  la 
Torre  explored  the  Philippines.  The  Spaniards, 
anxious  to  reach  their  new  possessions,  sent  ex 
peditions  to  find  the  northwest  passage,  and,  in 
1542,  Cabrillo  explored  the  coast  of  California 
as  far  as  44°  north,  naming  Cape  Mendocino. 
The  voyages  of  Frobisher,  Smith,  and  Davis  be 
long  to  Polar  exploration.  In  1553,  Sir  Hugh 
Willoughby  and  Richard  Chancellor  passed  Nor 
way,  and  sailed  into  the  White  Sea.  In  1562, 
Jean  de  Ribaut  sailed  with  2  vessels  from  France, 
and  explored  the  coast  of  Florida  and  South 
Carolina.  The  voyage  of  Drake  in  1577,  import 
ant  from  discoveries  made,  was  a  predatory  in 
cursion  against  Spanish  commerce.  In  1582, 
Gualle,  under  Spanish  colors,  first  explored  the 
seas  north  of  Japan,  discovered  New  Georgia  and 
many  other  points  on  the  north westcoastof  Amer 
ica.  Cavendish  sailed  July  2, 1586,  with  3  vessels 
on  a  voyage  of  discovery.  He  explored  the  coast 
of  California,  traversed  the  South  Seas,  and 
sailed  around  the  globe,  discovering  many  islands 
in  his  voyages.  He  essayed  a  second  voyage, 
but  died  at  its  commencement,  and  nothing  was 
accomplished.  Hawkins  discovered  the  Falkland 
Islands  in  1586,  and  the  Dutch  sent  several  ex 
peditions  in  search  of  the  northwest  passage. 
But  the  wars  between  Spain  and  England  para 
lyzed  discovery  during  the  latter  part  of  the 
century.  Much  remained  yet  to  be  explored. 

The  next  century  opened  with  brighter  prom 
ise  to  the  explorer.  The  invention  of  the  tele 
scope  (1609),  of  the  octant  in  1732,  of  chronome 
ters  in  1736,  and  the  improvement  in  maps  and 
charts  by  Mercator  (1550)  and  Wright  (1559),  the 
progress  in  astronomy  by  the  studies  of  Galileo, 
Copernicus,  and  Tycho  Brahe,  habitude  in  mak 
ing  longer  voyages  at  sea,  and  better  ships,  gave 
the  mariner  better  instruments  and  more  exact 
means  of  making  these  voyages  successful. 

The  first  to  open  the  way  of  discovery  was 
Hendrik  Hudson.  His  first  voyage,  in  1607,  was 
in  search  of  the  northwest  passage,  and  he  ex 
plored  Greenland.  His  second  voyage  was  to  the 
northeastward,  but  the  ice  stopped  him.  It  is 
his  third  voyage  that  concerns  us,  when  he  dis 
covered  the  river  that  bears  his  name,  sailing  up 
it  to  the  head  of  navigation.  His  fourth  voyage 
belongs  to  Polar  exploration.  In  a  voyage  of 
a  warlike  nature  in  1606-7,  Van  Voort  discov 
ered  New  Holland.  In  1607,  Quiros  sailed  to 
the  South  Sea  in  search  of  a  continent,  and  dis 
covered  Otaheite.  Le  Maire  and  Schouten  sailed 
from  Holland  in  1675  with  2  ships  in  search 
of  the  same  continent  and  a  passage  to  India. 
They  discovered  Le  Maire  Straits  and  Staten 
Land,  first  doubled  and  named  Cape  Horn,  and 
discovered  many  islands  in  the  Pacific,  and  also 
New  Zealand  and  New  Guinea.  Baffin's  voyage 
in  1619  was  Arctic,  and  exploration  flagged  for 
a  while. 

In  1642,  Abel  Jansen  Tasman  sailed  with  3 
ships  from  Batavia.  He  discovered  Tasmania 
on  the  24th  of  November,  1642,  naming  it  Van 
Diemen's  Land.  Van  Vlaming  explored  care 
fully  the  coast  of  New  Holland  towards  the 
close  of  the  century.  An  expedition  under  De 
Vries  explored  the  waters  north  of  Japan.  Dam- 
pier's  voyages,  adding  much  to  our  knowledge 
of  the  East  Indies,  at  the  close  of  this  and  the 


EXPLORING  EXPEDITIONS     •       260  EXPLORING  EXPEDITIONS 


beginning  of  the  next  century,  were  buccaneer 
ing  expeditions,  and  many  discoveries  were  made 
during  the  privateering  voyages  of  Capt.  Woods 
Kogers  in  1708-11. 

But  the  first  exploring  voyage  of  the  18th 
century  was  that  of  Vitus  Sabring,  a  Kussian, 
in  Arctic  regions.  He  first  ascertained  Kam- 
skatka  to  be  a  peninsula.  A  Russian  trading 
company  made  many  discoveries  in  their  mer 
cantile  voyages.  Capt.  John  Clipperton  explored 
the  coast  of  China  in  1719,  and  Capt.  Shelvocke 
explored  farther  the  northwest  coast  of  America, 
and  sailed  round  the  world. 

The  Dutch  East  India  Company  sent  an  ex 
pedition,  of  3  ships  under  Commodore  Rogge- 
wein  in  1721,  to  explore  the  southern  continent. 
Visiting  Brazil,  they  rounded  Cape  Horn,  dis 
covered  Easter  Island,  Aurora  Island,  Rogge- 
wein  and  other  islands,  coasted  New  Guinea  and 
the  Moluccas.  His  ships  were  seized  at  Batavia, 
and  he  went  home  in  the  company's  ships,  sail 
ing  around  the  world. 

The  voyage  of  Lord  Anson,  1740-43,  was 
against  Spanish  commerce,  although  many  dis 
coveries  were  made.  Admiral  Byron  sailed  on 
a  voyage  of  discovery  from  England  in  1764, 
explored  the  Straits  of  Magellan,  discovered  Dis 
appointment,  Danger,  and  many  other  islands 
in  the  South  Sea,  explored  the  Solomon  and 
Ladrone  Islands,  and  sailed  around  the  world. 
Capt.  Wallis,  in  his  voyages,  1766-68,  sailed 
around  the  world,  discovered  Whitsun  Island, 
Queen  Charlotte  Island,  Egmont  Island,  Wallis 
Island,  and  others,  giving  their  positions  care 
fully.  Capt.  Philip  Carteret,  sailing  with  him 
from  England,  parted  company  at  the  Straits  of 
Magellan,  sailing  to  the  southward,  and  dis 
covered  Osnaburgh,  Keppel,  Volcano,  Duke  of 
Gloucester,  and  other  islands,  explored  New 
Britain,  New  Ireland,  Philippine,  Celebes,  and 
other  groups,  and  sailed  around  the  world.  But 
the  most  famed  navigator  of  the  century  was 
Capt.  James  Cook.  He  first  sailed  in  1768,  with 
astronomers,  to  observe  the  transit  of  Venus. 
Patagonia,  Tierra  del  Fuego,  Le  Maire  Straits, 
and  other  localities  were  more  carefully  explored 
and  described,  and  Cook  sailed  to  the  southward 
as  far  as  60°,  then  sailed  north,  discovered  many 
islands  in  the  Society  group,  and  landed  at 
Otaheite.  That  and  the  neighboring  islands 
were  thoroughly  and  carefully  explored.  He 
then  coasted  along  the  islands  of  New  Zealand 
and  New  Guinea,  and  the  continent  of  Aus 
tralia.  He  then  returned  by  way  of  Batavia 
and  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  The  same  year  that 
Cook  sailed,  Louis  de  Bougainville  was  sent 
out  from  France.  After  surrendering  the  Falk 
land  Islands  to  England,  he  sailed  with  2  ves 
sels  into  the  South  Sea,  discovered  Dangerous 
Archipelago,  visited  Tahiti,  named  Pentecost 
Island,  and,  touching  at  Batavia,  completed  the 
circuit  of  the  globe.  Cook's  second  voyage,  in 
the  u  Resolution"  and  "Adventure,"  began  July 
13, 1772.  He  went  to  the  southward  of  America, 
the  first  to  penetrate  into  the  icy  sea,  advancing 
as  far  as  lat.  71°.  He  believed  that  he  had 
disproved  the  existence  of  a  continent  there. 
He  then  explored  New  Hebrides  and  New  Cale 
donia,  Society  and  Friendly  Islands,  and  dis 
covered  the  Sandwich  Islands.  His  third  voy 
age  was  undertaken  in  1778,  when  he  explored 
the  Sandwich  Islands  and  the  northwest  coast 


of  America,  advancing  as  far  as  lat.  70°  40' 
north.  He  was  killed  February  14,  1779,  at 
the  Sandwich  Islands,  and  little  was  accom 
plished  during  the  rest  of  the  voyage.  The 
voyage  of  Capt.  Phipps,  in  1773,  in  which 
Nelson  was  engaged,  belongs  to  Arctic  explo 
ration.  The  Spaniards  explored  the  west  coast 
of  North  America,  advancing  in  1775  as  far  as 
58°  north.  The  unfortunate  La  Perouse  sailed 
with  2  vessels  from  Brest,  August  1,  1785,  on 
a  voyage  of  discovery.  Carefully  exploring  and 
mapping  the  west  coast  of  North  America,  from 
lat.  60°  to  Monterey,  he  sailed  south,  and  after 
many  discoveries  in  the  South  Seas,  his  vessels 
were  lost.  An  expedition  sent  in  search  of  them, 
under  D'Entrecasteaux,  explored  Van  Diemen's 
Land,  New  Caledonia,  New  Hebrides,  New  Zea 
land,  and  other  islands,  in  1791.  In  1791,  George 
Vancouver  sailed  with  2  ships  from  England. 
He  surveyed  the  Sandwich  Islands  and  the  coast 
of  Northwest  America,  naming  the  island  that 
still  is  called  after  him.  The  French  sent  Ker- 
guelen  to  find  the  southern  continent,  which  he 
imagined  he  had  done  on  his  first  voyage,  but  a 
second  proved  it  to  be  a  barren  island,  now  called 
by  his  name. 

The  present  century  has  been  fruitful  in  ex- 

Eloration,  but  by  far  the  greater  part  of  this 
as  been  directed  to  the  Arctic  regions,  and 
will  not  detain  us.  Many  important  expeditions 
of  general  discovery  and  exploration  have  nev 
ertheless  been  undertaken.  England  was  the 
first  to  inaugurate  the  century,  and  Capt.  Flin 
ders,  in  July,  1801,  sailed  to  explore  Australia. 
He  made  careful  surveys  of  much  of  the  Austra 
lian  coast,  of  Northumberland  and  Cumberland 
Islands,  and  added  greatly  to  the  knowledge  of 
these  distant  lands.  He  was  detained  by  the 
French  government,  and  did  not  reach  England 
until  1810.  The  expedition  of  Krusenstern,  in 
1803-6,  was  intended  to  establish  relations  with 
Japan ;  and  although  this  object  failed,  he  sur 
veyed  much  of  the  coasts  of  North  America  and 
Asia. 

In  1815  the  Russians  followed  this  up  by  send 
ing  Kotzebue  on  an  exploring  tour.  He  spent 
three  years  exploring  the  north  coast  of  America 
and  Asia,  and  made  many  discoveries  in  the 
South  Sea,  in  this  and  another  voyage  in  1823. 
In  1817,  De  Freycinet,  a  French  navigator,  ex 
plored  the  South  Seas,  adding  much  to  our 
knowledge  of  them.  In  1819,  Capt.  Belling- 
ham,  a  Russian,  went  as  far  south  as  70°  lati 
tude  ;  and  in  1821  he  discovered  Alexis  and 
Peter's  Island,  near  the  Antarctic  continent. 
Capt.  Weddel,  in  sealing  voj^ages,  went  as  far 
as  74°  south  in  1823,  and  made  discoveries  in 
Antarctic  regions.  Capt.  Biscoe,  in  1832,  in 
sealing  voyages,  discovered  Graham  Land,  a 
part  of  the  southern  continent.  In  1836,  Sir 
Edward  Belcher  sailed  on  a  voyage  around  the 
world  in  the  u  Sulphur,"  and  made  valuable  ex 
plorations  of  the  islands  and  countries  in  the 
South  Sea,  adding  greatly  to  the  hydrographic 
knowledge  of  those  localities.  In  1838,  the  first 
American  exploring  expedition  of  magnitude 
sailed.  Lieut.  Charles  Wilkes,  in  command  of 
5  vessels,  left  Norfolk,  August  18,  1838,  and 
spent  four  years  in  an  exploration  of  the  globe. 
After  touching  at  Madeira,  Cape  Verde,  and 
Rio,  the  fleet  separated,  reuniting  after  an  ex 
ploration  of  the  waters  about  Cape  Horn.  The 


EXPLOSION 


261 


EXPLOSIVES 


Paumotoo,  Tahiti,  and  Samoan  Islands  were  then 
explored,  many  new  islands  being  discovered, 
and  Wallis  and  Sydney  visited.  Capt.  Wilkes 
then  sailed  southward,  and  three  of  his  vessels 
found  the  Antarctic  continent,  Wilkes  following 
north  up  to  70°  longitude.  The  existence  of  a 
continent,  disbelieved  by  Cook,  was  thus  proven. 
"Wilkes  then  visited  New  Zealand,  Feejee  Islands, 
Sandwich  Islands,  and  explored  the  Columbia 
and  Sacramento  Kivers.  He  sailed  from  America 
again,  November  1,  1841,  visited  Manilla,  Soo- 
loo  Archipelago,  Borneo,  and  Singapore,  and  ar 
rived  at  New  York,  June  10,  1842,  having  lost 
2  of  his  vessels.  Wilkes  sailed  along  3000 
miles  of  the  Antarctic  continent ;  and  the  same 
year  (1840)  D'Urville,  sent  out  by  the  French 
government,  sailing  from  Hobart  Town,  dis 
covered  the  same  land,  coasting  from  136°  to 
142°  east  longitude.  D'Urville  made  many 
other  explorations  in  the  South  Seas  during  his 
two  years'  voyage.  Sir  James  Ross  sailed  from 
England  in  1839  with  2  vessels,  and  discov 
ered  the  same  continent  in  1841,  naming  two 
mountains  that  he  saw  "Erebus"  and  "Ter 
ror,"  and  ascended  to  78°  10'  north,  the  farthest 
that  has  yet  been  attained  in  those  regions.  He 
afterwards,  in  1842,  visited  Graham  Land  and 
Shetland,  reaching  72°  latitude  on  that  side  of 
the  pole. 

In  1852,  Commander  Lynch  explored  the  coast 
of  Africa,  ascending  many  of  the  rivers,  from 
the  Gambia  to  Liberia.  The  same  year,  a  sec 
ond  exploring  expedition  of  5  vessels  sailed  from 
the  United  States,  commanded  by  Capt.  King- 
gold.  After  reaching  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  the 
squadron  divided  into  two,  and  explored  Van 
Diemen's  Land,  Caroline  Islands,  Ladrone 
Islands,  and  Bonin  Islands,  the  Sunda  Straits, 
Sooloo  Sea,  and  the  fleet  assembled  at  Hong- 
Kong.  There  Lieut.  John  Rodgers  succeeded 
to  the  command,  and  explored  and  surveyed  the 
Bonin,  Ladrone,  and  Loochoo  Islands.  One 
vessel  was  lost,  but  surveys  were  subsequently 
prosecuted  among  the  islands  to  the  south  of 
Japan,  in  the  Kurile,  among  the  Aleutian 
Islands,  and  in  Behring's  Straits.  Lieut.  Rod 
gers  advanced  as  far  as  72°  north  in  the  Arctic 
regions,  and  the  expedition  returned  in  1855. 
In  1856,  Commander  Page  surveyed  the  La 
Plata  and  Parana  Rivers  in  a  steam-vessel,  the 
"Water- Witch,"  until  a  rupture  with  the  Para 
guayan  authorities  compelled  him  to  quit.  Be 
sides  these,  other  expeditions  of  a  local  nature 
have  taken  place  to  survey  the  Isthmus  of  Pan 
ama,  the  Amazon  River,  or  for  the  exploration 
of  the  continents  of  Australia  and  Africa,  but 
these  properly  belong  to  inland  travels. — F.  S. 
Bassett,  Lieutenant  U.S.N.  See  POLAR  EXPLO 
RATION. 

Explosion.     See  EXPLOSIVES. 

Explosives.  Explosion,  The  sudden  and 
violent  expansion  of  a  body  by  its  component 
parts  acquiring  a  great  increase  of  bulk. — Encyc. 

A  bursting  with  noise ;  a  bursting  with  a  sud 
den  expansion  of  any  elastic  fluid  with  force  and 
a  loud  report. — Diet. 

These  definitions  include  many  actions  of  a 
physical  character,  such  as  the  bursting  of  steam- 
boilers,  and  the  term  is  also  applied  to  the  sound, 
to  the  effect,  etc.  More  strictly,  explosion  means 
the  result  of  chemical  action  occurring  in  certain 
substances  called  explosive  agents  or  explosives. 


In  this  sense  the  word  is  synonymous  with  ex 
plosive  reaction,  and  may  be  defined  as  a  chemi 
cal  action  which  causes  the  sudden,  or  extremely 
rapid,  formation  of  a  very  great  volume  of  highly 
expanded  gas.  An  explosive  reaction  does  not 
differ  in  kind  from  other  chemical  reactions,  but 
only  in  degree.  The  explosive  character  of  a 
reaction  depends  upon  its  possessing  the  two  es 
sential  features,  great  change  of  state,  and  quick 
ness  of  action.  The  volume  of  the  gas  produced 
is  very  much  greater  than  that  of  the  substance 
from  which  it  is  derived,  and  it  is  still  more  ex 
panded  by  the  heat  evolved  during  the  action. 
The  greater  the  volume  of  the  expanded  gas  the 
more  powerful  the  explosion,  and  vice  versa. 
The  time  required  for  the  occurrence  of  the 
change  must  be  very  short,  and  the  shorter  it  is, 
the  more  highly  explosive  the  reaction  becomes. 

Conditions  of  Explosion. — The  amount  and  kinds 
of  gas  given  oif  in  an  explosive  reaction,  depend 
upon  the  chemical  composition  of  the  explosive 
substance  and  the  character  of  the  change  it  un 
dergoes.  The  conditions  or  circumstances  of 
explosion  may  affect  these  results  considerably. 
Thus,  gunpowder  fired  in  a  mortar  gives  different 
products  than  when  fired  unconfined,  and  nitro 
glycerine  exploded  under  certain  circumstances 
gives  noxious  gases  which  are  not  found  under 
other  conditions.  Practically,  however,  the  effect 
of  condition  on  the  character  of  the  change  is 
mostly  seen  in  the  comparative  rapidity  of  the 
action. 

The  physical  or  mechanical  condition  of  the 
explosive  substance  is  of  much  importance. 
Thus,  dynamite  avoids  the  inconveniences  of  the 
liquid  form  of  nitro-glycerine,  while  it  preserves 
unimpaired  the  readiness  of  explosion  by  the 
appropriate  means.  Gunpowder,  in  large  grains 
and  highly  compressed,  burns  more  slowly  than 
if  in  small  grains,  or  of  low  density.  Gun-cotton 
in  its  various  mechanical  states  passes  through 
all  gradations  from  rapid  burning  to  sudden  and 
violent  explosion. 

Confinement  is  the  principal  external  condi 
tion  affecting  an  explosion.  Confinement  is  ne 
cessary  to  obtain  the  full  effect  of  an  explosive, 
but  the  more  rapid  the  action  the  less  the  con 
finement  needed.  Yet  even  the  quickest  of  ex 
plosives,  like  a  fulminate  or  chloride  of  nitrogen, 
requires  a  certain  confinement  to  develop  its 
power.  With  the  rapidly  acting  agents,  how 
ever,  the  amount  of  confinement  required  is 
small,  and  is  usually  obtained  necessarily  in  use. 
The  slower  substances,  like  gunpowder,  require 
strong  confinement,  in  order  to  allow  time  for 
the  spread  of  the  action  through  the  mass  of  the 
charge.  Or,  means  may  be  taken  to  quicken 
their  action,  as  by  special  modes  of  firing,  and  so 
the  confinement  needed  diminished. 

The  explosive  reaction  is  very  much  influ 
enced  by  the  manner  of  bringing  it  about.  The 
effect  obtained  when  a  substance  is  exploded  by 
a  sharp  shock  or  blow,  derived  from  the  explo 
sion  of  a  fulminate,  is  very  different  from  that 
produced  when  firing  is  caused  by  a  flame.  This 
difference  is  due  to  the  greater  rapidity  of  trans 
mission  of  the  exploding  impulse  through  the 
mass  of  the  material  acted  on.  The  transmis 
sion  of  the  ignition  by  flame  proceeds  more  slowly 
from  particle  to  particle.  Consequently,  when 
a  fulminate  is  the  exploding  agent,  tha  time  of 
action  is  shortened,  so  that  the  explosion  becomes 


EXPLOSIVES 


262 


EXPLOSIVES 


sharper  and  more  violent.  The  term  detonation 
is  applied  to  the  sudden  and  violent  explosion 
produced  in  this  way.  The  action  of  the  detona 
tor  may  be  well  compared  to  a  sudden  applica 
tion  of  a  powerful  mechanical  force,  like  a  blow 
from  a  heavy  hammer.  The  particles  of  gas 
from  the  initial  explosion  strike  percussively 
upon  the  particles  of  the  mass  to  be  fired,  and 
meeting  with  resistance,  their  energy  is  con 
verted  into  heat.  But  the  effectiveness  of  this 
action  will  evidently  very  largely  depend  upon 
the  suddenness  of  the  percussive  blow.  In  gen 
eral,  then,  it  may  be  said  that  the  readiness  with 
which  the  explosion  of  one  body  will  produce 
that  of  another  will  be  governed  by  the  amount 
of  force  it  gives  in  the  shortest  time. 

While  this  is  true  in  the  main,  it  does  not  ac 
count  for  certain  peculiarities  attending  explo 
sions.  An  explosive  body  is  one  which  is  readily 
affected  by  disturbing  actions.  Its  parts  are 
held  together  in  a  nicely  balanced  equilibrium, 
which  is  easily  overbalanced,  and  the  destruction 
of  the  system  results.  The  extremely  sudden 
application  of  great  mechanical  force  tends  di 
rectly  to  the  disorganization  of  the  body.  But 
there  are  certain  forms  of  force,  or  modes  of  ap 
plying  force,  to  which  the  substance  is  more  sen 
sitive  than  it  is  to  others.  It  is  found  that  ful 
minating  mercury  is  much  more  effective  and 
ready  in  producing  the  explosion  of  other  bodies 
than  many  agents  which  are  more  powerful  or 
even  more  sudden.  This  is  as  if  the  shock  or 
blow  of  the  fulminate  had  some  peculiar  quality 
to  which  other  substances  were  sensitive.  The 
fulminate  gives  an  impulse  or  vibration  to  which 
the  others  respond,  and  which,  therefore,  exerts  a 
greater  disturbing  action  upon  them  than  is 
caused  by  a  mechanical  excitement  which  does 
not  possess  this  special  vibration.  This  theory, 
which  is  due  to  Abel,  has  been  strongly  sup 
ported  by  his  experiments,  and  by  those  of  Cham 
pion  and  Pellet.  The  latter  have  shown  that 
the  vibrations  produced  by  different  explosions 
are  unlike,  and  that  certain  vibratory  motions 
produced  explosion  more  readily  than  others. 

The  distinction  between  detonation  and  sim 
ple  explosion  is  one  of  degree,  and  not  of  kind. 
The  essential  peculiarity  of  the  detonation  is 
found  in  the  shortness  of  the  time  required  for 
it.  Perfect  detonation,  then,  is  the  instantaneous 
explosion  of  the  whole  mass  of  a  body.  There 
is  a  great  difference  in  explosive  substances  in  re 
gard  to  their  susceptibility  to  detonation.  Some, 
like  nitro-glycerine,  gun-cotton,  and  the  ful 
minates,  are  readily  detonated,  and  are  known 
as  the  detonating  explosives.  Probably  all  ex 
plosives  can  be  detonated,  if  the  proper  method 
is  taken.  Evidently,  however,  detonation  will 
be  much  less  readily  brought  about  with  a  me 
chanical  mixture  like  gunpowder  than  with  a 
definite  compound  like  nitro-glycerine.  Still, 
as  has  been  shown  by  Abel  and  by  Roux  and 
Sarrau,  gunpowder  can  be  exploded  with  much 
more  violence  when  the  mode  of  firing  is  an 
initial  explosion  of  fulminate  (Abel)  or  of  nitro 
glycerine  (Roux  and  Sarrau)  than  when  it  is  a 
simple  inflammation. 

Relative  Force  of  Explosive  Agents. — Knowing 
the  composition  of  the  explosive,  the  resultants 
of  the  reaction  and  the  heat  evolved  can  be  de 
termined,  and  from  these  data  a  comparison  of 
force  may  be  drawn.  Berthelot  calculates  the 


si 

*i 

*$*$ 

Explosive  Substance. 

IM 

*  +*X 

i  1 

m 

i 

fll 

*J 

*!! 

A 

caZ. 

TO.  C. 

641  000 

0216 

139000 

1  01 

608  000 

0225 

137000 

i 

510  000 

0  173 

88  000 

064 

764  000 

0  948 

190000 

1  38 

316  000 

0  370 

117  000 

085 

1  320  000 

0  710 

939  000 

6  85 

590000 

0801 

472000 

344 

989  000 

0  484 

480  000 

35 

1  420  000 

0  484 

680  000 

4  96 

quantity  of  heat  generated  and  the  volume  of 
gas  formed.  The  product  of  these  numbers 
gives  him  a  "  term  of  comparison  between  the 
pressures,"  which,  though  not  an  exact  measure 
of  the  true  pressure,  is  obtained  from  two  char 
acteristic  and  experimental  elements. 

The  following  table  shows  some  of  his  results  : 


This  comparison,  he  claims,  "accords  in  gen 
eral  with  experience." 

Sarrau  considers  that  the  force  of  an  explo 
sive  substance  is  nearly  proportional  to  the  prod 
uct  of  its  heat  of  combustion  by  the  weight  of 
the  permanent  gas  produced  by  the  combustion. 
From  experimental  determinations  of  the  weights 
of  permanent  gas  given  off  on  explosion,  he  cal 
culates  the  force  of  some  explosive  substances, 
and  thence  derives  the  following  table,  showing 
the  relative  force  they  exert.  In  this  table  the 
force  exhibited  by  powder  is  taken  as  unity,  and 
is  the  mean  of  determinations  made  with  five 
varieties. 

Name  of  Substance.  Relative  Force. 

Saltpetre  powder 1 

Chloride  of  nitrogen 1.08 

Nitro-glycerine 4.55 

Gun-cotton 3.06 

Picrate  of  potash 1.98 

Mixture  of  55  pts.  picrate  of  potash  and  45  pts. 

saltpetre 1.49 

Mixture  of  equal  weights  of  picrate  and  chlo 
rate  of  potash 1.82 

If  the  character  of  the  chemical  change  occur 
ring  in  an  explosion  were  perfectly  known  the 
total  force  exerted  might  be  calculated,  but  a  com 
parison  based  upon  such  calculations  would  not 
certainly  give  the  relative  useful  effect.  For  the 
circumstances  of  use  seriously  affect  the  relative 
practical  value.  Under  certain  conditions,  the 
detonating  explosives  are  much  more  effective 
than  the  slower  ones,  while  in  other  cases  the 
reverse  may  be  true,  Therefore,  whatever  may 
be  the  relative  force  possessed  by  the  different  ex 
plosive  substances,  their  comparative  value  must 
be  obtained  from  the  results  of  practice,  and 
then  it  will  be  found  that  the  comparison  will 
vary  with  the  conditions  of  use. 

Roux  and  Sarrau  give  a  comparison  of  relative 
force  derived  from  direct  experiment.  The  rela 
tive  effects  were  approximately  measured  by  de 
termining  the  quantity  of  each  substance  re 
quired  to  rupture  cast-iron  shells  of  nearly  equal 
strength.  They  also  used  two  modes  of  firing, 
so  that  they  had  explosions  of  the  first  order,  or 
detonations  produced  by  fulminate  (except  with 
gunpowder  when  nitro-glycerine  was  taken), 
and  explosions  of  the  second  order,  or  simple 
explosions,  produced  by  the  application  of  flame. 


EXPLOSIVES 


263 


EXPLOSIVES 


Some  of  their  results  are  given  in  the   table 
below: 

Name  of  Substance.  Explosive  Force. 

1st  order.  2d  order. 

Mercury  fulminate 928 

Gunpowder 434  100 

Nitro-glycerine 1013  480 

Gun-cotton 646  300 

Potassium  picrate 531  182 

Considering  the  ordinary  circumstances  of 
practice,  the  following  comparison  may  be  said 
to  indicate  about  the  average  relative  force  of 
the  usual  explosive  agents  : 

Name  of  Substance.  Kelative  Force. 

Gunpowder 1 

Nitro-glycerine 8  to  10 

Dynamite,  759$  nitro-glycerine 6 

Gun-cotton 4  to  6 

Picric  powder,  from  ammonium  picrate 2  to  2.5 

General  Composition  of  Explosives. — Many  sub 
stances  are  known  possessing  explosive  proper 
ties  to  a  greater  or  less  extent,  but  of  these  few 
are  of  practical  value  as  explosive  agents.  It  is 
convenient  to  divide  explosives  into  explosive 
compounds  and  explosive  mixtures.  In  a  com 
pound,  the  elements  composing  it  are  in  chemi 
cal  combination,  while  a  mixture  is  prepared  by 
mixing  mechanically  the  ingredients  which  make 
it  up. 

Explosive  compounds,  with  some  unimportant 
exceptions,  are  essentially  composed  of  carbon, 
hydrogen,  oxygen,  and  nitrogen.  On  explosion, 
the  carbon  and  hydrogen  unite  with  the  oxygen 
to  form  carbonic  acid  gas  and  water  (gaseous  at 
the  temperature  of  the  reaction),  and  the  nitrogen 
is  set  free.  The  action,  then,  is  like  an  ordinary 
combustion,  except  that  it  is  extremely  intense 
and  rapid  from  the  previous  intimate  association 
and  intermixture  of  the  combustible  with  the 
oxygen.  The  nitrogen  plays  a  very  important 
part  in  such  a  compound.  It  brings  into  the 
body  a  large  proportion  of  oxygen,  which  it 
readily  yields  to  the  carbon  when  decomposition 
occurs.  As  its  attractive  power  for  other  ele 
ments  is  feeble,  its  presence  in  the  compound 
confers  the  ready  decomposibility  necessary  to 
an  explosion. 

Explosive  mixtures,  properly  so  called,  are 
those  in  which  the  explosive  property  is  depend 
ent  upon  the  fact  of  mixture, — that  is,  the  in 
gredients  of  the  mixture  do  not  have  explosive 
properties  separately  from  it.  Gunpowder  is 
such  an  explosive  mixture,  as  sulphur,  charcoal, 
and  saltpetre  are  not  explosive  substances,  but 
the  explosive  property  is  attained  when  mixing 
has  been  accomplished.  In  principle,  explosive 
mixtures  of  this  sort  are  very  simple  in  composi 
tion  and  all  essentially  alike.  In  general,  two 
kinds  of  ingredients  go  to  make  such  an  explo 
sive  agent,  one  being  combustible  and  the  other 
capable  of  furnishing  oxygen.  The  principal 
combustible  body  is  almost  invariably  carbon  or 
some  carbonaceous  substance  which  also  contains 
hydrogen.  Sometimes  sulphur,  or  other  oxidiz- 
aole  material,  may  be  a  constituent.  The  body 
supplying  the  oxygen  is,  in  nearly  all  cases,  a 
nitrate  or  a  chlorate,  either  of  which  is  a  power 
ful  oxidizing  agent.  In  a  nitrate,  the  oxygen  is 
retained  with  considerable  force,  so  that  a  strong 
external  influence  is  required  to  separate  it.  In 
general  then,  the  mixtures  made  from  the  ni 
trates  are  not  very  easily  exploded,  and  their 
action  is  comparatively  moderate.  They  are 


not  sensitive  to  mechanical  actions  like  friction 
or  percussion.  The  chlorates  yield  their  oxygen 
much  more  readily,  and  mixtures  containing 
them  are  very  sensitive  to  friction  and  percus 
sion  and  explode  with  great  sharpness.  Of  the 
nitrates,  the  potassium  and  sodium  salts  are  the 
only  ones  used  to  any  extent  in  practice.  They 
enter  into  the  numerous  compositions  included 
under  gunpowder.  Of  the  chlorates,  the  potas 
sium  salt  is  the  only  one  used  in  the  preparation 
of  explosive  mixtures. 

Evidently,  the  number  of  possible  explosive 
mixtures  is  great,  since  there  are  many  sub 
stances  of  a  combustible  nature.  The  action 
taking  place  on  explosion  is  the  same  in  all.  The 
carbon  is  oxidized  to  carbonic  acid  gas  and  the 
hydrogen  to  water  (steam)  with  the  evolution  of 
great  heat  and,  if  a  nitrate  is  present,  its  nitrogen 
is  set  free.  Other  substances  remain  behind  in  the 
solid  residue,  or  also  enter  into  the  formation  of 
gas.  This  action  is  very  similar  to  that  of  an 
ordinary  combustion  of  carbonaceous  fuel,  inten 
sified  and  hastened  by  the  previous  mixture  of 
the  materials. 

There  is  another  and  numerous  class  of  mix 
tures  having  explosive  properties  which  contain 
explosive  compounds.  The  object  of  the  mechani 
cal  mixing  performed  in  preparing  these  agents  is 
not  to  gain  thereby  the  explosive  property,  but  to 
obtain  some  advantage  in  use  or  handling.  Thus, 
nitro-glycerine  is  found  in  a  great  number  of 
mechanical  mixtures,  but  in  them  all  it  is  still 
the  same  body,  and  it  is  the  explosive  power  of 
the  nitro-glycerine  which  gives  value  to  the 
mixture.  It  is  therefore  better,  as  well  as  more 
convenient,  to  treat  such  mixtures  in  connection 
with  the  explosive  compounds  to  which  they 
belong. 

The  principal  explosive  compounds  which  de 
mand  particular  consideration  are  Nitro-gly 
cerine,  Gun-cotton,  the  Fulminates,  and  the 
Picrates. 

Of  the  explosive  mixtures,  gunpowder  in  its 
somewhat  varied  forms  is  the  most  important. 
But  a?  gunpowder  is  the  subject  of  a  separate 
article  (q.  v.)  it  will  not  be  specially  treated  in 
this  one.  It  will  only  be  necessary  to  briefly 
allude  to  some  others  of  the  mixtures. 

NITRO-GLYCERINE. — Syn.  Nitrin  ;  Glyceryl 
Nitrate  ;  Glonoin,  or  Blasting  Oil. 

History  and  Modes  of  Manufacture. — Discov 
ered  by  Sobrero  in  Pelouze's  laboratory,  in  Paris, 
in  1847 ;  first  applied  as  an  explosive  agent  by 
Alfred  Nobel,  in  1863.  When  first  brought  into 
use  numerous  severe  accidents  created  a  strong 
prejudice  against  nitro-glycerine,  which  has 
been  gradually  removed  as  its  properties  and 
mode  of  preparation  have  become  better  under 
stood.  Its  practicable  use  as  a  blasting  agent 
was  brought  about  by  Nobel's  discovery  that 
fulminating  mercury  exploded  it  perfectly.  In 
1866  dynamite  was  brought  out,  by  which  the 
power  of  nitro-glycerine  is  retained  in  a  more 
convenient  form,  while  its  dangers  are  largely 
avoided.  So  that  now,  nitro-glycerine  and  its 
preparations  are  very  extensively  used  all  over 
the  world. 

Nitro-glycerine  is  formed  by  the  action  of 
concentrated  nitric  acid  upon  glycerine  at  a  low 
temperature.  The  method  of  making  it  consists, 
essentially,  of  the  careful  mixing  of  the  glycerine 
with  the  acid,  the  separation  of  the  nitro-gly- 


EXPLOSIVES 


264 


EXPLOSIVES 


cerine,  and  its  thorough  washing.  The  strongest 
nitric  acid  attainable  must  be  used  (sp.  gr.  1.5, 
not  less  than  1.45).  The  glycerine  must  be  pure 
and  nearly  anhydrous.  In  order  to  take  up  the 
water,  which  is  a  by-product  of  the  reaction,  the 
nitric  acid  is  mixed  with  twice  its  weight  of  sul 
phuric  acid  (oil  of  vitriol).  The  sulphuric  acid 
takes  no  direct  part  in  the  formation  of  the  nitro 
glycerine,  but  serves  to  prevent  the  dilution  of 
the  nitric  acid. 

Nobel's  Method. — In  a  leaden  tank  is  placed  a 
large  quantity  of  the  mixed  acid.  This  tank 
stands  in  a  wooden  outer  tub,  with  space  be 
tween  for  the  circulation  of  cold  water.  In  the 
tank  revolves  a  shaft  carrying  paddles,  and  also 
a  cylinder  on  hollow  bearings,  so  that  a  current 
of  cold  water  can  be  sent  through.  This  cylin 
der  and  paddles  serve  to  agitate  the  liquid,  in 
suring  the  rapid  mixture  of  the  glycerine  with 
the  acid,  and  aid  in  cooling.  The  glycerine 
runs  in  a  fine  stream  from  a  vessel  above,  upon 
the  upper  surface  of  the  c}Tlinder.  Sometimes, 
instead  of  the  revolving  cylinder,  a  coil  of  pipe 
for  the  transmission  of  cold  water  is  placed  in 
the  tank  and  a  vertical  agitator  in  the  centre. 
At  some  factories  the  tank'is  of  iron,  and  has  a 
coil  of  iron  pipe.  Over  the  top  of  the  apparatus 
should  be  placed  a  hood  or  draft  arrangement 
for  carrying  off  fumes.  After  the  mixing  of  the 
glycerine  with  the  acid  has  been  accomplished, 
the  liquid  is  run  off  into  a  large  volume  of  water, 
which  dilutes  the  sulphuric  acid,  while  the  nitro 
glycerine  separates  and  falls  to  the  bottom  of  the 
tub,  as  it  is  a  heavy  liquid,  not  miscible  with 
water.  It  is  then  drawn  off  for  washing  by  re 
peated  agitations  with  water  and  alkaline  solu 
tion. 

Mowbray's  Method. — The  mixed  acid  is  placed 
in  earthenware  pitchers,  which  stand  in  troughs 
surrounded  by  ice  and  water.  Behind  the 
troughs  passes  a  pipe,  bringing  compressed  and 
cooled  air,  which  is  forced  down  into  the  acid 
mixture  through  glass  tubes,  connected  by  rub 
ber  tubing,  to  jets  on  the  air  main.  On  a  shelf 
over  the  troughs  stand  bottles,  each  containing 
the  amount  of  glycerine  required  for  the  acid  in 
one  pitcher,  and  each  having  a  rubber  siphon- 
tube  with  a  glass  tip,  through  which  the  glycer 
ine  is  drawn  over,  dropping  into  the  pitcher 
below.  The  filled  pitchers  stand  in  ice-water  for 
some  hours  before  the  operation  begins,  and  while 
it  is  going  on,  the  current  of  compressed  air 
forced  into  the  acid  liquid  keeps  it  in  constant 
agitation.  After  the  glycerine  has  run  over,  the 
pitchers  are  emptied  into  a  large  volume  of  water 
for  the  precipitation  of  the  nitro-glycerine,  which 
is  then  washed  by  agitation  with  water  (and  al 
kaline  solution)  and  a  stream  of  compressed  air. 

JBoutmy  and  Faucher's  Method. — The  glvcerine 
is  mixed  with  sulphuric  acid  (forming  glycero- 
sulphuric  or  sulpho-glyceric  acid),  and  this  mix 
ture  is  added  to  the  mixed  acid,  the  whole  being 
allowed  to  stand  24  hours.  The  quantities  used 
are  mixed  together  at  once,  and  time  is  allowed 
for  the  completion  of  the  action. 

Kurtz's  Method. — The  acid  is  contained  in  a 
narrow  vertical  cylinder  of  lead  or  iron  with 
conical  bottom.  Two  pipes  reach  to  the  bottom 
of  the  cylinder,  one  bringing  glycerine  and  the 
other  compressed  air.  These  pipes  have  small 
orifices,  and  are  so  placed  that  the  stream  of  air 
strikes  the  glycerine  and  mixes  it  rapidly  with 


the  acid.  The  nitro-glycerine  formed  rises  to 
the  surface  of  the  acid,  either  running  off  stead 
ily,  or  drawn  off  at  intervals,  through  a  pipe  to 
the  washers.  These  are  placed  one  above  another, 
so  that  the  nitro-glycerine  coming  in  at  the  top 
of  one  runs  out  at  its  bottom  to  the  one  below, 
and  so  on,  a  stream  of  compressed  air  agitating 
the  water  in  each.  The  converting  vessel  and 
the  various  washers  can  be  separated  by  heavy 
walls.  In  the  latest  form  of  Kurtz's  apparatus, 
the  glycerine  is  converted  into  a  sort  of  emulsion 
by  forcing  air  into  it,  and  this  emulsion  is  blown 
through  a  pipe  leading  to  the  bottom  of  the  con 
verting  vessel  by  a  stream  of  compressed  air. 
Thus  a  more  rapid  and  perfect  mixture  of  the 
glycerine  and  acid  is  obtained. 

The  methods  above  mentioned  are  the  most 
important  and  characteristic  ones.  Nobel's  is 
the  one  most  used.  The  apparatus  is  simple  and 
effective  for  work  on  a  large  scale,  and  the  con 
version  can  be  rapidly  performed.  As  in  all 
processes,  care  must  be  taken  to  avoid  rise  of 
temperature,  but  trouble  on  this  score  is  less 
liable  to  occur  when  operating  with  large  quan 
tities.  Mowbray's  method  involves  the  use  of 
many  vessels,  and  much  handling  of  small  quan 
tities  of  material,  and  therefore  requires  more 
labor  and  time,  but,  with  proper  care  and  atten 
tion,  it  is  a  good  working  method.  Boutmy  and 
Faucher's  process,  it  is  claimed,  is  more  free 
from  danger,  and  gives  a  larger  yield  than  others, 
but  these  claims  do  not  seem  to  be  borne  out  in 
practice.  The  mere  process  of  conversion  is 
practically  free  from  danger,  accidents  at  this 
stage  being  extremely  rare  by  any  method.  A 
yield  of  1.8  parts  of  nitro-glycerine  to  1  of  gly 
cerine  is  claimed  for  this  mode  of  operating,  but 
this  is  no  better,  if  as  good,  as  is  regularly  ob 
tained  at  the  present  time  by  the  other  plans, 
and  Kurtz  asserts  that  2.2  to  1  is  attainable  by 
his.  The  peculiarity  of  this  process  lies  in  the 
previous  union  of  the  glycerine  with  sulphuric 
acid,  so  that  the  heat  given  off  during  conversion 
is  less,  and  the  reacting  masses  can  be  mixed  to 
gether  at  once  and  not  slowly.  However,  the 
heat  evolved  during  conversion  by  the  other 
ways  is  perfectly  controllable  without  loss  of 
time,  while  for  this  process  a  period  of  24  hours 
is  allowed  for  action,  a  serious  delay  and  objec 
tionable  as  leaving  the  nitro-glycerine,  as  it  is 
formed,  exposed  to  the  action  of  strong  acid  for 
a  long  time.  Kurtz's  method  is  the  newest  one, 
and  seems  to  possess  some  advantages.  The  ac 
tion  goes  on  rapidly,  and  the  nitro-glycerine,  as 
fast  as  it  is  produced,  is  removed,  and  not  allowed 
to  collect  in  the  converter  or  at  any  time  during 
the  operation,  thus  lessening  the  chances  of  ex 
tensive  explosion,  and  the  nitro-glycerine  is  not 
exposed  to  further  action.  The  difficulty  with  it 
in  its  present  shape  seems  to  be  that  the  acid  will 
soon  become  weakened,  when  the  operation  must 
be  stopped  to  supply  fresh  acid,  or  the  product 
will  be  inferior.  But  the  weakened  acid  drawn 
off  can  be  worked  up  again,  and  not  thrown 
away,  as  in  other  methods, — a  considerable  econ 
omy.  The  converting  vessel  must  be  high  enough 
to  insure  sufficient  exposure  of  the  glycerine  to 
the  action  of  the  acid.  When  this  has  been  at 
tained,  it  is  desirable  to  remove  the  nitro-gly 
cerine  at  once,  and  this  Kurtz's  plan  permits. 
It  is  interesting  as  the  first,  though  imperfect, 
attempt  at  a  continuous  process,  and  it  promises 


EXPLOSIVES 


265 


EXPLOSIVES 


to  be  much  used.  However,  the  time  is  prob 
ably  not  far  distant  when  a  really  continuous 
method  will  be  practiced. 

Composition  and  Properties. -^-There  are  three 
possible  nitrins  or  nitro-glycerines,  mononitrin, 
C3H7(NO2)03,  dinitrin,  C3H6(N02)2O3,  and  trini- 
trin,  C3H5(N02)3O3.  The  characteristics  and 
conditions  of  formation  of  these  compounds  have 
not  been  fully  worked  out.  Probably,  as  in 
analogous  cases,  the  two  lower  ones  (mono-  and 
di-)  are  formed  to  a  greater  or  less  extent  when 
weak  acid  is  used,  or  the  temperature  of  the 
reaction  is  too  high,  and  that  trinitrin  is  the 
only  or  principal  one  formed  when  proper  care 
is  taken.  It  is  usual,  therefore,  to  consider 
nitro-glycerine  as  trinitrin,  and  to  give  its  em 
pirical  formula  as  C3H3N3O9.  The  equation  il 
lustrating  its  formation  will  then  be — 

C3H803  +  3HNO3  =  C3H5N3O9  +  3H2O. 

Glycerine.    Nitric  acid.    Nitro-glycerine.     Water. 

Nitro-glycerine  is  a  colorless,  oily  liquid  at  or 
dinary  temperatures,  sp.  gr.  1.6,  insoluble  in  wa 
ter,  and  having  a  pungent,  aromatic  taste.  At 
40°  F.,  it  freezes  to  a  white,  crystalline  mass. 
It  produces  a  violent  temporary  headache  if 
taken  into  the  system,  either  by  placing  a  drop 
upon  the  tongue  or  on  the  skin.  Persons  hand 
ling  it  constantly  quickly  lose  their  susceptibility 
to  this  action.  Pure,  well-made  nitro-glycerine 
is  stable  (does  not  spontaneously  decompose) 
under  ordinary  circumstances;  if  it  contains 
free  acid,  decomposition  is  apt  to  occur  which 
may  result  in  explosion  or  in  the  attainment 
of  a  state  of  extreme  sensitiveness,  so  that  ac 
cidental  explosion  may  be  easily  caused.  Pure 
nitro-glycerine  is  not  sensitive  to  friction  or  mod 
erate  percussion,  when  freely  exposed.  Placed 
on  an  anvil  and  struck  with  a  hammer,  only  the 
particle  receiving  the  blow  goes  off,  scattering 
the  remainder.  Completely  confined,  it  may  be 
readily  exploded  by  a  ,  blow.  Nitro-glycerine 
may  be  inflamed  and  burns  slowly.  Its  firing- 
point  is  about  180°  C.  (356°  F.). 

Use  and  Mode  of  Firing. — Nitro-glycerine  is 
the  most  powerful  explosive  agent  in  use.  In  its 
liquid  form  it  is  inconvenient  and  dangerous  to 
handle  or  transport,  so  it  is  not  usually  employed 
in  that  state.  It  is  liable  to  loss  or  scattering 
through  leakage  of  the  vessels  containing  it, 
which  may  later  give  rise  to  accidents.  It  may 
be  frozen,  arid  as  long  as  it  remains  frozen,  its 
transportation  is  easy  and  safe,  but  it  must  be 
thawed  before  using.  Thawing  is  performed 
by  placing  the  cans  containing  the  explosive  in 
water,  at  not  over  100°  F. 

The  mode  of  firing  is  a  fuze  charged  with  ful 
minating  mercury,  which  with  certainty  accom 
plishes  the  detonation  of  nitro-glycerine.  With 
a  gunpowder  fuze  it  is  fired  with  difficulty,  and 
only  imperfectly.  Frozen  nitro-glycerine  is  less 
readily  and  certainly  fired  than  the  liquid,  even 
by  a  fulminate  fuze.  Since  nitro-glycerine  is 
readily  detonated,  strong  confinement  is  not 
needed  for  it. 

Products  of  Decomposition.  —  On  explosion, 
nitro-glycerine  is  resolved  into  gases, — carbonic 
acid  gas,  water  (steam),  nitrogen,  and  a  small 
proportion  of  oxygen  (Nobel).  If  the  explosion 
is  imperfect,  oxides  of  nitrogen  and  other  bodies 
are  formed. 

Nitro-glycerine    Preparations.  —  In    order    to 


avoid  the  disadvantages  of  the  liquid  condition, 
nitro-glycerine  may  be  mixed  with  various  sub 
stances  (absorbents)  to  form  solid  or  semi-solid 
preparations.  For  most  purposes,, also,  the  great 
intensity  of  the  pure  nitro-glycerine  explosion  is 
not  demanded,  while  yet  a  violent  explosive  is 
wanted.  Therefore  preparations  containing  va 
rious  proportions  of  nitro-glycerine  find  very 
extensive  application  as  blasting  agents,  as  their 
cost  is  moderate,  and  they  are  very  effective. 

Some  writers  divide  the  nitro-glycerine  prepa 
rations  into  those  with  an  active  base  and  those 
with  an  inactive  base.  Preparations  with  an 
active  base  are  those  in  which  the  absorbent  sub 
stance  or  substances  are  explosive,  so- that  they 
take  part  in  the  explosion,  adding  to  the  force 
exerted.  Nitro-glycerine  mixed  with  gunpowder 
would  give  a  preparation  which  would  be  said  to 
have  an  active  base.  Preparations  with  inactive 
base  are  those  in  which  the  absorbent  is  an  inert 
substance,  like  the  earth  from  which  dynamite 
is  made.  This  classification  is  unsatisfactory, 
for,  though  there  are  preparations  in  which  the 
other  substances  do  act  with  the  nitro-glycerine, 
others  are  included  with  them  in  which  such 
joint  action  does  not  occur.  It  must  be  remem 
bered,  however,  that  the  intermixture  of  differ 
ent  substances  with  nitro-glycerine  will  doubt 
less  affect  its  explosion,  though  they  do  not  take 
part  in  it. 

Dynamite.  —  The  word  dynamite  is  used,  to 
some  extent,  as  a  generic  term,  and  it  is  then 
made  to  include  all  of  the  mixtures  of  nitro 
glycerine  with  solid  substances.  Originally,  it 
applied  to  one  particular  preparation,  and  it  is 
still  most  used  in  this  sense.  This  preparation 
is  largely  employed  for  military  purposes  under 
the  name  of  dynamite,  and  in  this  article  it  will 
be  the  one  referred  to  when  that  name  is  used. 
Dynamite  is  prepared  by  mixing  nitro-glycerine 
with  a  natural  silicious  earth  (kieselguhr),  which 
abounds  in  many  localities.  This  earth  is  an  ex 
tremely  fine  powder,  composed  of  the  skeletons 
of  infusoria.  It  has  high  absorptive  power, 
being  capable  of  taking  up  from  3  to  4  times 
its  weight  of  nitro-glycerine  without  becoming 
pasty.  The  usual  proportions  are  1  part  of  earth 
to  3  of  nitro-glycerine.  This  gives  a  soft  ma 
terial,  resembling  in  consistency  slightly  moist 
pale  brown  sugar.  Shaken  down  in  a  cartridge  or 
case,  it  has  about  .9  sp.  gr.,  but  may  be  packed 
or  driven  to  a  sp.  gr.  of  1.25.  From  its  nearly 
solid,  soft  and  pulverulent  condition,  it  is  much 
easier  and  safer  to  handle  than  liquid  nitro-gly 
cerine,  and,  at  the  same  time,  it  contains  so 
large  a  proportion  of  that  agent  that  it  is  a  very 
powerful  explosive.  It  is  fired,  like  nitro-gly 
cerine,  by  a  detonating  fuze  containing  fulmi 
nating  mercury.  Dynamite  freezes  at  the  same 
temperature  as  its  nitro-glycerine,  to  a  more  or 
less  compact  mass,  and  when  frozen  its  explosion 
is  accomplished  with  difficulty,  and  not  with  cer- 
taintjr,  hy  a  fulminate  fuze. 

The  absorbent  capacity  of  the  earth  must  not 
be  exceeded  in  preparing  the  dynamite,  in  order 
that  exudation  may  not  afterward  occur.  If 
flame  is  applied  to  dynamite,  it  takes  fire  and 
burns  with  a  strong  flame,  leaving  as  residue  the 
silicious  earth.  If  dynamite  in  large  quantity 
is  set  on  fire,  explosion  may  occur  after  a  part 
has  burned  away,  but  in  moderate  quantity  and 
not  closely  confined,  inflammation  only  takes 


EXPLOSIVES 


266 


EXPLOSIVES 


place.  Dynamite  is  little  liable  to  explosion 
from  sparks,  in  which  respect  it  is  much  safer 
than  ordinary  gunpowder.  Although  wetting 
does  not  prevent  the  explosion  of  dynamite,  yet 
if  it  is  exposed  to  the  prolonged  action  of  water 
in  quantity,  the  nitro-glycerine  will  be  washed 
off  the  particles  of  silica  more  or  less  com 
pletely. 

Dynamite  is  sold  in  the  United  States  under 
the  name  of  Giant  Powder  No.  1. 

Cellulose  Dynamite. — Proposed  by  Trauzl,  an 
Austrian  engineer  officer.  The  absorbent  is 
purified  wood-pulp  which  will  take  up  3  times 
its  weight  of  nitro-glycerine.  This  preparation 
is  said  to  be  capable  of  resisting  the  action  of 
water,  and  that  if  20  per  cent,  of  water  be  added 
to  it,  it  is  still  perfectly  explosive  by  a  fulminate 
fuze,  although  it  cannot  be  inflamed. 

Gun-cotton  Dynamite. — Qlyoxiline. — The  first* 
named  is  a  preparation  also  brought  forward 
by  Trauzl,  and  is  a  mixture  of  damp  gun-cotton 
with  nitro-glycerine.  Glyoxiline  has  been  made 
by  Abel  by  allowing  the  porous  masses  of  com 
pressed  gun-cotton  to  absorb  nitro-glycerine. 

Explosive  Gelatine,  or  Gelatine  Dynamite. — 
This  new  and  very  interesting  preparation  was 
discovered  by  Nobel.  He  found  that  nitro- 

flycerine  would  dissolve  the  nitro-cellulose 
nown  as  photographic  gun-cotton  or  collodion 
cotton,  with  the  production  of  a  gummy  or  ge 
latinous  substance,  in  which  the  nitro-glycerine 
is  very  strongly  held,  and  which  has  very  great 
explosive  power.  Explosive  gelatine  may  be 
prepared  in  two  ways :  1.  By  using  a  solvent 
for  the  nitro-cellulose  and  mixing  the  solution 
with  nitro-glycerine.  For  this  purpose  methyl 
alcohol,  or  the  usual  mixture  of  ether  and  alco 
hol,  may  be  used.  Afterwards  the  solvent  must 
be  removed  by  evaporation.  This  operation  may 
be  conducted  in  the  cold,  but  practically  it  is 
less  serviceable  than — 2.  By  dissolving  the  nitro 
cellulose  directly  in  the  nitro-glycerine  at  a 
moderate  heat.  A  convenient  mode  of  working 
is  to  heat  the  nitro-glycerine  in  porcelain  or 
enameled  vessels  of  convenient  size,  standing 
in  a  water-bath  to  about  170°  F.,  adding  the 
required  quantity  of  soluble  gun-cotton  to  the 
liquid  as  soon  as  it  has  become  hot.  The  mix 
ture  should  be  frequently  stirred.  Gelatinization 
takes  place  quickly,  and  as  soon  as  it  is  com 
plete  the  vessels  should  be  removed  from  the 
bath.  On  cooling,  there  is  "obtained  a  firm 
jelly  free  from  greasiness.  The  proportion  of 
soluble  gun-cotton  used  varies  from  6  to  10  per 
cent,  of  the  finished  material,  depending  some 
what  upon  its  solubility.  The  gelatine  has  a 
pale-yellow  or  yellowish-brown  color,  is  elastic, 
and  can  easily  be  cut  or  rolled  into  convenient 
shapes.  It  is  quite  insensitive  to  blows  or  fric 
tion,  and  does  not  give  up  its  nitro-glycerine 
under  action  of  pressure  or  of  water.  An  espe 
cially  powerful  fuze  is  required  to  explode  it 
when  unconfined. 

Other  preparations  may  be  made  by  mixing 
various  substances  with  this  gelatine.  Of  these, 
camphorated  gelatine  is  the  most  important.  It 
differs  from  the  simple  gelatine  in  that  it  con 
tains  a  small  percentage  of  camphor.  This  may 
be  conveniently  added  when  the  gelatine  is 
made,  as  camphor  is  very  easily  soluble  in  nitro 
glycerine.  This  camphorated  gelatine  is  ex 
tremely  insensitive  to  blows.  The  impact  of  a 


rifle-bullet  fired  from  a  distance  of  80  feet  fails 
to  fire  it.  It  is  not  affected  by  water  or  any  tem 
perature  attained  in  practice.  Its  explosion  re 
quires  a  peculiarly  strong  fuze,  unless  it  is  very 
strongly  confined.  Hess  states  that  the  Austrian 
camphorated  gelatine  (4  per  cent,  of  camphor) 
is  for  equal  weights  25  per  cent,  stronger  than 
dynamite  or  compressed  wet  gun-cotton,  and  for 
equal  bulks  has  40  per  cent,  advantage  in 
strength  over  the  dynamite  and  75  per  cent, 
over  gun-cotton.  In  many  respects,  therefore, 
explosive  gelatine  seems  to  be  peculiarly  suitable 
for  military  purposes. 

Other  Preparations. — Many  other  nitro-gly 
cerine  mixtures  are  made  for  use  in  blasting, 
which  are  not  very  suitable  for  military  service, 
and  need  not  be  discussed  here.  They  contain 
usually  from  20  to  50  per  cent,  of  nitroglycerine, 
mixed  with  various  absorbents,  ordinarily  the 
ingredients  of  gunpowder  pr  similar  substances. 
Of  these  may  be  mentioned,  as  used  in  the 
United  States,  Dualin,  Giant  Powder  No.  2, 
Hercules  Powder  (contaii^R  magnesium  carbon 
ate),  Rendrock,  Vulcan  Powder,  etc.  ;  in  Europe, 
Dynamite  No.  2,  Lithofracteur,  Lignose,  Colonia 
Powder,  Brains  Powder  (contains  a  chlorate), 
etc. 

GUN-COTTON. — Syn.  Nitro-cellulose  ;  Pyroxy 
lin. 

Schonbein,  in  1845,  stated  that  he  had  pre 
pared  an  explosive  substance  from  cotton.  He 
kept  his  process  secret  until  it  had  been  discov 
ered  also  by  Bottger,  Otto,  Knopp,  and  Taylor. 
In  France,  England,  Germany,  and  Russia,  at 
tempts  were  made  to  manufacture  and  use  the 
new  agent,  but  not  with  satisfactory  results. 
By  the  method  of  manufacture  employed,  the 
liability  to  spontaneous  decomposition  was  not 
removed,  and  consequently  many  accidents  were 
experienced  with  it.  In  Austria,  the  use  of 
gun-cotton  was  kept  up  for  a  number  of  years 
after  it  had  been  given  up  by  other  governments. 
This  was  due  to  the  improvements  in  the  meth-» 
ods  of  making,  which  were  devised  by  Von  Lenk, 
an  Austrian  officer.  It  was  employed  in  shells 
and  in  field-guns.  While  it  was  found  to  be  a 
very  serviceable  agent,  yet  its  dangerous  insta 
bility  still  gave  trouble,  and  after  a  severe  acci 
dent  in  1862,  its  manufacture  was  largely  given 
up,  its  use  being  limited  to  certain  engineering 
purposes,  and  in  1865  its  making  was  stopped  al- 
gether  in  Austria.  In  1865,  Abel  introduced  his 
process  by  which  the  quality  of  the  gun-cotton 
was  so  much  improved  that  the  previous  obsta 
cles  to  its  extensive  use  seemed  to  have  been  al 
together  removed.  It  therefore  grew  in  favor, 
until  the  severe  accident  at  Stowmarket,  Eng 
land,  in  August^  1871.  Investigation  into  the 
causes  of  the  accident  showed  that  the  explosion 
was  not  due  to  any  defect  in  the  method  of  prep 
aration  of  the  gun-cotton,  or  to  its  instability,  so 
that  confidence  was  again  felt  in  it.  Afterward, 
it  was  discovered  that  Abel's  compressed  gun- 
cotton  could  be  violently  exploded  when  wetted, 
or  even  saturated,  with  water.  In  this  way  was 
obtained  an  explosive  agent  of  great  power,  as 
well  as  one  having  a  high  degree  of  safety.  In 
consequence,  compressed  gun-cotton  has  been 
largely  adopted  by  European  governments  as  a 
military  explosive,  particularly  for  torpedo  pur 
poses.  It  possesses  many  advantages  for  such 
employment,  but  for  blasting  the  nitro-glycerine 


EXPLOSIVES 


267 


EXPLOSIVES 


preparations  are  preferred,  as  more  convenient  to 
use  and  more  easily  exploded. 

Formation  and  Mode  of  Manufacture. — Gun- 
cotton  is  formed  by  the  action  of  concentrated 
nitric  acid  on  cotton  or  cellulose.  Cotton  being 
nearly  pure  cellulose  is  the  best  material  for  this 
purpose.  The  method  of  making  consists  essen 
tially  in  exposing  the  cotton  for  a  sufficiently 
long  time  to  the  action  of  a  mixture  of  strong 
nitric  and  sulphuric  acids,  and  in  thoroughly 
washing  the  product.  As  in  the  nitro-glycerine 
reaction,  the  sulphuric  acid  does  not  take  any 
direct  part  in  the  formation  of  the  gun-cotton, 
but  takes  up  the  water,  which  is  a  by-product. 

AbeVs  Process. — Cotton-waste  is  the  form  of 
cotton  used.  It  is  picked,  cleaned,  and  dried. 
The  acids  are  the  strongest  nitric  and  sulphuric 
acids,  mixed  in  the  proportion  of  one  part  of 
the  former  to  three  of  the  latter.  Cotton  in 
one-pound  charges  is  immersed  in  the  acid 
mixture,  which  is  contained  in  a  trough  sur 
rounded  with  cold  water.  After  a  short  expo 
sure  to  the  action  of  the  acid,  the  cotton  is 
taken  up,  placed  upon  a  perforated  shelf,  and  as 
much  as  possible  of  the  acid  squeezed  out  from 
it.  It  is  then  put  into  jars,  covered  with  fresh 
acid,  and  the  jars  placed  in  cold  water,  where 
they  remain  for  24  hours.  The  gun-cotton  from 
the  jars  is  thrown  into  a  centrifugal  strainer, 
which  expels  from  it  nearly  all  of  the  acid.  It 
is  then  diffused  quickly  in  small  quantities 
through  a  large  volume  of  water,  and  again 
passed  through  a  centrifugal  machine.  Thor 
ough  washing  is  necessary  to  remove  the  traces  of 
acid  still  adhering  to  the  gun-cotton.  The  wash 
ing  is  expedited  and  rendered  complete  by  the 
operation  of  pulping.  The  pulping  is  performed 
in  pulping-engines,  or  beaters.  A  beater  is  an 
oblong  tub,  in  which  is  placed  a  revolving 
wheel  carrying  strips  of  steel  on  its  circumfer 
ence.  From  the  bottom,  under  the  wheel,  pro 
ject  similar  steel  strips.  By  the  rotation  of  the 
wheel,  the  gun-cotton  suspended  in  water  circu 
lates  around  the  tub,  and  is  drawn  between  the 
two  sets  of  steel  projections,  which  reduce  it  to  a 
pulp.  The  bottom'is  movable,  so  that  the  space 
through  which  the  gun-cotton  must  pass  may  be 
contracted  as  the  operation  goes  on.  When  the 
pulping  is  complete,  the  contents  are  run  into 
the  poachers  for  the  final  washing.  A  poacher 
is  a  large,  oblong  wooden  tub.  At  the  middle 
of  one  side  is  placed  a  wooden  paddle-wheel, 
which  extends  half-way  across  the  tub.  In  the 
poacher,  the  pulp  is  stirred  for  a  long  time  with 
a  large  quantity  of  water.  The  revolution  of  the 
wheel  keeps  up  a  constant  circulation,  and  care 
is  taken  that  no  deposit  occurs  in  any  part  of  the 
tub. 

The  pulp  is  next  to  be  separated  from  the  large 
volume  of  water  in  which  it  is  suspended,  and 
compressed  into  cakes  or  disks.  This  is  ac 
complished  in  two  presses.  The  first  press  has 
thirty-six  hollow  cylinders,  in  which  perforated 
plungers  work  upwards.  The  plungers  having 
been  drawn  down,  the  cylinders  are  filled  with 
the  mixture  of  pulp  and  water,  and  their  tops 
covered  with  a  weight.  The  plungers  are  then 
forced  up  by  hydraulic  power.  The  pulp  is 
compressed,  the  water  escaping  through  the  per 
forations  in  the  plungers. 

In  the  second  press,  the  cylindrical  masses  of 
gun-cotton  from  the  first  press  are  more  highly 


compressed,  a  pressure  of  six  tons  to  the  inch 
being  applied. 

About  6  per  cent,  of  water  remains  in  the 
cakes,  which  is  usually  increased  to  20  or  25  per 
cent,  before  storing  the  material.  A  variety 
called  granulated  gun-cotton  is  prepared  without 
pressing,  by  making  the  pulp  into  small  grains 
or  balls. 

In  this  process,  while  care  is  taken  to  insure 
complete  conversion,  still  the  essential  feature  is 
the  thorough  washing  accomplished.  This  is 
rendered  possible  by  the  pulping  operation  by 
which  the  fibres  are  torn  into  shreds,  thus  facili 
tating  their  rapid,  as  well  as  thorough,  puri 
fication. 

Composition  and  Properties.  —  There  are  a 
number  of  varieties  of  nitro-cellulose.  Of 
these  only  one  is  used  as  an  explosive  agent.  It 
is  derived  from  the  fullest  action  of  the  nitric 
acid  upon  the  cellulose.  The  others  are  less 
explosive,  although  very  inflammable.  Some 
of  the  less  nitrated  products  are  largely  used  for 
making  collodion  for  photographic  and  medical 
purposes,  for  celluloid,  etc.  The  composition  of 
the  explosive  gun-cotton,  or  tri-nitro-cellulose, 
may  be  expressed  by  the  formula  C6H7N3On, 
and  the  equation  illustrating  its  formation  will 
be— 


Cellu 


io°5  +  3HN03  =  C6H7(N02\,O5  -f  3H2O. 

lose.      Nitric  acid.      Tri-nitro-cellu'lose,      Water. 


ulose, 
or  Gun-cotton. 


The  appearance  of  the  cotton  is  very  little 
changed,  by  the  operation  of  conversion.  Gun- 
cotton  is  insoluble  in  and  unaffected  by  water. 
If  flame  is  applied  to  dry,  loose  gun-cotton,  it 
flashes  off;  dry  compressed  gun-cotton  burns 
rapidly  but  quietly  if  unconfined,  and  moist 
compressed  gun-cotton  slowly,  under  the  same 
circumstances.  If  a  large  quantity  of,  com 
pressed  gun-cotton  is  inflamed,  the  explosion  of 
a  part  may  be  produced  after  the  remainder  has 
burned  away.  The  outer  portion  .  confines  the 
inner,  and  it  becomes  heated  to  the  point  of 
explosion.  Dry,  loose  gun-cotton  is  not  detonated 
by  fulminating  mercury,  but  if  packed  in  small 
compass,  and  especially  if  highly  compressed, 
the  violent  explosion  is  readily  produced.  Ful 
minate  will  not  explode  wet,  compressed  gun- 
cotton.  To  accomplish  this  there  is  required  the 
detonation  of  a  small  quantity  of  dry,  compressed 
gun-cotton,  itself  detonated  by  a  fulminate. 
Gun-cotton  is  not  sensitive  to  friction  or  percus 
sion.  "Well-made  and  thoroughly  washed  gun- 
cotton  is  stable,  but  if  free  acid  has  been  allowed 
to  remain  in  it,  or  if  it  is  contaminated  by  the 
lower  products,  spontaneous  decomposition  may 
result.  The  firing-point  of  gun-cotton  is  about 
360°  F. 

Use  and  Mode  of  Firing.  —  Gun-cotton  was 
formerly  used  for  artillery  by  spinning  and 
weaving  the  fibre  into  ropes  or  webs,  from  which 
cartridges  were  made.  At  the  present  time  the 
compressed  is  the  only  kind  made,  and  this  is,  of 
course,  not  suited  for  artillery.  Compressed 
gun-cotton  is  usually  made  in  disks  from  1  to  6 
inches  diameter,  but  any  other  shape  can  be  as 
easily  made.  For  torpedo  purposes,  it  is  pressed 
into  forms  which  will  fit  the  cases  to  contain  it. 

Compressed  gun-cotton  is  always  stored  and 
used  wet.  It  is  then  the  safest  explosive  agent 
known.  In  order  to  explode  it  when  in  this 


EXPLOSIVES 


268 


EXPLOSIVES 


condition,  a  special  "primer"  is  necessary,  which 
is  composed  of  dry  compressed  gun-cotton  with 
a  fuze  charged  with  25  grains  of  fulminating 
mercury  firmly  attached  to  it.  This  primer  must 
be  water-proof,  although  the  main  charge  may 
be  freely  exposed  to  water. 

Gun-cotton,  either  as  pulp  or  compressed,  is 
well  fitted  for  bursting  charges  for  shells. 

Products  of  Decomposition. — On  explosion, 
gun-cotton  is  almost  entirely  converted  into 
gases,  only  a  trifling  residue  being  left.  The 
gases  formed  are  carbonic  acid,  carbonic  oxide, 
water  (converted  into  steam  by  the  heat  of  the 
reaction),  nitrogen,  and  a  small  amount  of  marsh 
gas  (Karolyi). 

The  combustion  is  not  so  complete  as  when 
nitro-glycerine  is  fired.  The  latter  contains 
more  than  oxygen  enough  to  oxidize  all  its  car 
bon  and  hydrogen  to  carbonic  acid  and  water, 
while  the  quantity  in  gun-cotton  is  insufficient 
to  do  this,  and  a  considerable  proportion  of  car 
bonic  oxide  is  formed.  This  does  not  much  af 
fect  the  volume  of  gas  formed,  but  the  heat 
evolved  is  considerably  less  than  if  the  oxidation 
of  the  carbon  was  more  complete. 

Gun-cotton  Preparations. — Nitrated  Gun-cot- 
ion. — This  is  made  by  soaking  the  dry  com 
pressed  gun-cotton  in  a  saturated  solution  of 
saltpetre  (potassium  nitrate),  and  drying. 

Chlorated  Gun-cotton. — This  is  similarly  made, 
using  potassium  chlorate  instead  of  nitrate. 

Tonite,  or  Cotton  Powder. — This  is  a  mixture 
of  finely  divided  gun-cotton  with  barium  ni 
trate. 

THE  FULMINATES. — The  fulminates  are  salts 
of  fulminic  acid  (C2H2N2O2).  The  mercury  salt 
is  the  only  one  of  practical  value.  All  of  them 
are  easily  exploded,  and  some  are  excessively  sen 
sitive. 

Fulminating  Mercury. — Fulminating  mercury 
has  the  composition  indicated  by  the  formula 
C2HgN202.  It  is  formed  by  the  action  of  mer 
curic  nitrate  and  nitric  acid  upon  alcohol.  The 
best  mode  of  preparing  it  is  as  follows : 

Dissolve  1  part  of  mercury  in  12  parts  of  ni 
tric  acid,  sp.  gr.  1.3,  and  pour  this  solution  into 
11  parts  of  alcohol,  85  per  cent.  Place  the  ves 
sel  containing  the  mixture  in  hot  water  until 
it  darkens  and  becomes  turbid,  and  begins  to 
evolve  dense  white  fumes.  It  is  then  removed 
from  the  water.  The  reaction  goes  on,  with 
strong  effervescence  and  copious  evolution  of 
dense,  white,  ethereal  vapors.  If  red  fumes  ap 
pear,  cold  alcohol  should  be  added  to  check  the 
violence  of  the  action.  The  operation  should  be 
performed  at  a  distance  from  a  fire  or  flame,  and 
in  a  strong  draft,  so  that  the  vapors  will  be 
carried  away.  When  the  liquid  clears  and  the 
dense  white  fumes  are  no  longer  given  off,  fur 
ther  action  is  stopped  by  filling  up  with  cold 
water. 

The  fulminate  settles  to  the  bottom  of  the  ves 
sel  as  a  gray,  crystalline  precipitate.  The  super 
natant  liquid  is  then  poured  off,  and  the  ful 
minate  washed  several  times  by  decantation  or 
upon  a  filter. 

Properties  and  Uses. — Dry  fulminating  mer 
cury  explodes  violently  when  forcibly  struck, 
when  heated  to  186°  0.  (367°  P.),  when  touched 
with  strong  sulphuric  acid  or  nitric  acid,  by 
sparks  from  flint  and  steel  or  the  electric  spark. 
When  wet  it  is  inexplosive.  It  is  therefore 


always  kept  wet,  and  dried  in  small  amounts 
when  wanted  for  use. 

Its  explosive  force  is  not  much  greater  than 
that  of  gunpowder,  but  it  is  much  more  sudden 
in  its  action,  so  that  it  produces  violent  local 
effects. 

The  readiness  with  which  it  may  be  fired 
makes  it  an  excellent  means  of  causing  the  ex 
plosion  of  other  substances,  and  it  is  for  this  pur 
pose  only  that  it  is  used.  It  finds  many  applica 
tions, — either  pure  or  mixed  with  other  bodies, — 
in  percussion-powder,  percussion-caps,  primers, 
fuzes,  detonators,  etc.  It  presents  many  advan 
tages  for  this  use.  It  is  of  special  importance 
for  the  peculiar  power  it  possesses  of  causing  the 
violent  explosions  called  detonations.  It  is, 
therefore,  a  requisite  for  exploding  nitro-glycer 
ine,  gun-cotton,  and  their  preparations. 

Detonators  or  detonating  fuzes  are  charged 
with  pure  fulminating  mercury, — 15  to  25  grains 
in  each.  Fifteen  grains  is  a  sufficient  charge 
for  nitro-glycerine  or  its  preparations ;  one  of 
25  grains  is  used  with  compressed  gun-cotton. 

Fulminating  Silver. — This  salt  has  a  similar 
composition  to,  and  is  prepared  like,  fulminating 
mercury,  using  silver  nitrate  instead  of  mercuric 
nitrate.  It  must  be  handled  with  the  greatest 
caution,  as  it  is  extremely  sensitive,  exploding 
when  dry  on  slight  provocation  and  even  when 
wet,  although  then  requiring  a  harder  blow  than 
if  dry. 

THE  PICRATES. — The  picrates  are  salts  of 
picric  acid.  Picric  or  trinitrophenic  acid  is 
formed  by  the  action  of  nitric  acid  on  carbolic 
acid  (phenol,  C6H60).  Three  products  may  be 
derived  from  this  action,  but  only  one,  picric 
acid,  possesses  any  marked  explosive  properties. 

Picric  acid  has  the  composition  indicated  by 
its  formula,— C6H3(N02)3O,  or  C?H3N3O7.  Pic 
ric  acid  is  found  in  commerce,  being  used  to  dye 
silk  and  wool  yellow.  If  the  acid  is  heated,  it 
takes  fire  and  burns  sharply  and  rapidly,  with 
out  explosion.  The  picrates  are  all  exploded 
with  more  or  less  violence  by  heat  or  blows. 
When  used  as  explosive  agents,  they  are  mixed 
with  potassium  nitrate  (saltpetre)  or  potassium 
chlorate. 

A  large  number  of  picrates  are  known,  but 
the  potassium  and  ammonium  salts  are  the  only 
ones  that  have  been  much  used  in  explosive  prep 
arations. 

Potassium  Picrate.  C6  H2  KN3  Or— Most  vio 
lently  explosive  of  the  picrates.  Potassium  pic- 
rate  and  potassium  chlorate  form  a  mixture 
nearly  as  powerful  as  nitro-glycerine,  but  it  is 
so  sensitive  to  friction  or  percussion  as  to  render 
it  practically  useless.  With  potassium  nitrate 
instead  of  chlorate,  a  less  violent  mixture  is  ob 
tained,  but  one  still  too  liable  to  accidental  ex 
plosion. 

Ammonium  Picrate.  C6H2  (NH4)  N3O.. — This 
salt  has  been  employed  by  Brugere  and  by  Abel 
with  saltpetre  in  the  preparation  of  certain  ex 
plosive  mixtures.  Brugere  claims  for  such  a 
powder,  that  it  is  less  hygroscopic  than  gun 
powder,  and  that  it  is  more  powerful  and  more 
uniform  in  its  effects. 

Abel's  Picric  Powder  has  been  used  in  Eng 
land  for  bursting  charges  for  shells.  It  is  pre 
pared  by  the  usual  gunpowder  processes,  and  has 
the  same  form  as  that  agent.  It  is  not  affected 
by  blows  or  friction,  and  is  as  safe  and  perma- 


EXPLOSIVES 


269 


EYGHT 


nent  as  gunpowder,  and  is  fired  in  the  same 
way. 

A  good  powder  may  be  made  from  ammonium 
picrate,  saltpetre,  and  a  small  proportion  of  char 
coal.  The  charcoal  serves  to  bind  together  the 
other  ingredients,  and  there  is  obtained  a  mix 
ture  which  can  be  easily  incorporated,  pressed, 
and  granulated.  Experiment  with  this  powder 
has  shown  that  it  may  be  serviceable  as  a  sub 
stitute  for  gunpowder,  when  greater  violence  is 
wanted,  and  neither  gun-cotton  nor  nitre-glycer 
ine  is  available  or  suitable.  It  is  handled  and 
fired  like  ordinary  gunpowder,  and  does  not 
absorb  moisture  more  readily. 

EXPLOSIVE  MIXTURES. — The  general  compo 
sition  of  these  explosive  agents  has-been  already 
considered.  Many  of  them  contain  a  nitrate  or 
nitrates,  in  most  cases  potassium  or  sodium 
nitrate  or  both.  These  salts  are  mixed  with 
combustible  substances  in  varying  proportions, 
according  to  the  use  for  which  the  explosives  are 
wanted.  From  charcoal,  sulphur,  and  potassium 
(or  sodium)  nitrate  are  prepared  the  numerous 
varieties  of  war,  sporting,  and  blasting  powders. 
They  are  essentially  alike  in  their  mode  of  ac 
tion,  and  may  all  be  included  under  the  general 
title  of  gunpowder.  The  explosive  mixtures 
which  are  not  classed  under  gunpowder  are  of 
but  comparatively  little  importance  and  require 
but  brief  mention. 

Schultze's  Powder  is  made  by  converting  puri 
fied  woody  fibre  (sawdust)  into  nitro-cellulose, 
by  treatment  with  nitric  and  sulphuric  acids, 
washing,  drying,  and  mixing  with  saltpetre  by 
soaking  the  grains  in  a  saturated  solution  of  the 
salt,  and  again  drying.  It  is  intended  for  use  in 
small-arms.  A  similar  powder  is  made  in  the 
United  States  by  Dittmar,  for  sporting  purposes. 

Barium  nitrate  has  been  occasionally  used  to 
replace  saltpetre,  as  in  the  preparations  called 
Saxifragin  and  Wynant's  Powder,  but  with  no 
especial  success. 

Mixtures  containing  potassium  chlorate  form 
a  separate  class.  They  are  characterized  by 
great  readiness  and  sharpness  of  explosion.  They 
are  sensitive  to  blows  or  friction,  so  much  so 
that  they  are  of  but  little  value  as  explosive 
agents.  The  principal  preparations  of  this  kind 
are — 

German,  or  White  Gunpowder,  Reveley's  Pow 
der. — Potassium  chlorate  with  potassium  ferro- 
cyanide  (yellow  prussiate  of  potash),  or  with 
sugar  as  a  third  ingredient. 

Horsley's  Powder. — Potassium  chlorate  and 
powdered  nut-galls.  When  this  powder  is  used 
as  an  absorbent  for  nitro-glycerine,  the  mixture 
resulting  is  called  Horsley's  Powder  No.  2. 

Erhardt's  Powder. — Potassium  chlorate  and 
tannin  with  powdered  coal,  sometimes  used  as  a 
diluent. 

Powder  used  in  u  chemical  fuzes." — Potassium 
chlorate  and  sugar,  or  sugar  and  nut-galls. 

Oriental  Powder. — Potassium  chlorate  and 
powdered  gambier. 

Pertuiset  Powder. — Potassium  chlorate  and 
sulphur.  Used  in  explosive  bullets. 

SprengeVs  Nitric  Acid  and  Potassium  Chlorate 
Mixtures. — Sprengel  has  found  that  there  are 


many  organic  substances  which  dissolve  in  con 
centrated  nitric  acid,  forming  explosive  mix 
tures.  Nitro-benzole,  or  picric  acid,  will  give  a 
liquid  which  can  be  violently  exploded.  These 
solutions  contain  strong  nitric  acid,  so  that  they 
are  inconvenient  to  handle  or  use. 

He  also  proposes  a  kind  of  chlorate  mixture 
which  avoids  the  usual  dangers  of  such  prepara 
tions.  The  mixing  of  potassium  chlorate  with 
solid  combustible  substances  (the  usual  method) 
is  a  dangerous  operation,  and  the  mixture  is 
very  sensitive.  Sprengel  allows  cakes  or  lumps 
of  the  chlorate  to  absorb  combustible  liquids, 
which  is  readily  done  without  danger.  If  the 
liquid  taken  up  contains  a  nitro-compound,  or 
one  containing  sulphur,  the  mixture  can  be  ex 
ploded  by  a  fulminate ;  but  if  not,  then  tho 
detonator  must  be  surrounded  by  an  envelope 
of  gun-cotton.  Carbon  disulphide,  nitro-benzole, 
benzine,  petroleum,  are  examples  of  combusti 
ble  liquids  which  may  be  used  in  this  way. 
Sprengel  claims  for  these  mixtures  cheapness, 
power,  and  safety.—  Walter  N.  Hill.  See  GUN 
POWDER. 

Export.     To  send  goods  out  of  a  country. 

EXPORTS.  Goods  sent  out  of  a  country.  See 
BALANCE  OF  TRADE,  COMMERCE,  CUSTOMS. 

Extreme  Breadth.  The  widest  part  of  the 
ship,  including  the  thickness  of  the  planking. 

Eye.  A  loop  or  ring.  The  eye  of  a  shroud  is 
that  part  that  goes  over  the  mast-head.  The  eye 
of  an  anchor  is  the  hole  in  which  the  ring  is 
inserted.  Eyes  of  a  ship,  or  the  eyes  of  her,  the 
hawse-holes ;  they  were  formerly  frequently 
painted  to  represent  eyes ;  the  Chinese  always 
paint  an  eye  on  each  bow  of  their  craft.  The 
term  is  also  applied  to  those  parts  of  a  ship  which 
lie  near  the  hawse-hole,  particularly  in  the  lower 
apartments  within  the  vessel. 

EYE,  ARTIFICIAL,  or  SPINDLE.  A  neat  eye 
for  the  end  of  a  stay,  and  sometimes  used  for 
the  lower  end  of  man-ropes. 

EYE-BOLT.  A  bolt  with  an  opening  in  the 
head  to  which  a  tackle  may  be  hooked. 

EYE,  FLEMISH.  An  eye  used  for  the  collar 
of  a  stay.  It  is  not  strong,  soon  rots,  and  is  sel 
dom  used  where  strength  is  more  important  than 
neatness.  The  name  is  sometimes  applied  to  the 
artificial  eye. 

EYELET-HOLES.  Small  circular  holes  in  a  sail 
through  which  are  thrust  the  reef-points,  rob- 
ands,  etc. 

EYE,  HOPE-MAKER'S.  An  eye  formed  in  the 
end  of  a  cable  in  laying  it  up.  Two  of  the 
strands  are  two  legs  of  a  rope,  and  when  laid  up 
they  form  an  eye ;  the  third  strand  is  then  also 
formed  into  an  eye. 

EYES,  LASHING.  Eyes  formed  in  two  parts 
of  a  strap  of  a  block,  or  in  end  of  a  stay,  which 
are  connected  by  a  lashing. 

EYE-SORE.     Any  disagreeable  object. 

EYE-SPLICE.  A  kind  of  splice  made  by  turn 
ing  the  end  of  a  rope  back  and  passing  the  ends 
of  the  strand  through  the  standing  part.  The 
eye  of  a  splice,  the  strand  raised  up  by  the  mar- 
linspike  to  receive  the  opposite  strand. 

Eyght.  An  alluvian  river-island ;  called  also 
ait,  ayt,  ey,  eyet,  or  eyot. 


270 


PAIKFAX 


F. 


F.  Of  the  letters  used  in  the  log-book  to  in 
dicate  the  state  of  the  weather,/  denotes  fog. 

Face.  A  flat  surface ;  as,  the  face  of  the 
muzzle,  face  of  a  valve,  etc.  To  trim  the  cuffs, 
collar,  etc.,  of  a  garment  with  a  protective  or 
ornamental  covering. 

FACE-PIECE.  The  letting  of  one  piece,  which 
is  thinner,  into  another  in  order  to  strengthen  it. 

Formerly,  it  was  a  term  used  in  making  the 
knee  which  formed  the  cut- water  of  the  ship,  and 
was  denned  as  a  piece  of  oak  generally  tabled 
into  the  forepart  of  the  knee  of  the  head,  to  assist 
in  the  conversion  of  the  main  piece,  and  like 
wise  to  shorten  the  upper  bolts,  and  prevent  the 
cables  from  rubbing  against  them  as  the  knee 
gets  worn. 

FACING.  A  piece  of  cloth  sewed  on  a  garment 
as  a  protection  or  ornament. 

Factor.  An  agent,  transacting  business  for 
others,  and  empowered  to  buy  and  sell  at  his  own 
discretion. 

FACTORAGE.  The  allowance,  percentage,  or 
commission  paid  to  a  factor. 

FACTORY.  A  house  or  quarter  where  factors 
reside.  The  body  of  factors  in  a  country.  A 
manufactory,  mill,  or  workshop. 

Faculae.  The  bright  streaks  on  the  sun's 
disk,  in  which  appear  the  maculae  or  dark  spots. 

Fadome.     Old  form  of  fathom. 

Faff.     To  blow  in  puffs. 

Fag.  To  beat.  To  fag  out,  to  untwist  or  be 
come  frayed  ;  as,  the  end  of  a  rope,  or  the  edge 
of  canvas. 

FAG-END.  The  frayed  end  of  a  rope.  The 
small  remaining  part  of  anything. 

Faggot.  A  man  hired  to  answer  to  names 
in  a  false  muster. 

Fagot.  A  billet  of  wood  used  in  stowing 
cargo. 

Fahrenheit,  Gabriel  Daniel.  The  inventor  of 
the  mercurial  thermometer.  He  was  born  in 
Dantzic  in  1686.  In  1714  he  conceived  the  idea 
of  substituting  mercury  for  spirits  of  wine  in  the 
construction  of  thermometers.  He  took  as  the 
zero  of  his  thermometric  scale  the  lowest  temper 
ature  observed  by  him  at  Dantzic,  in  the  year 
1709,  which  he  found  was  that  produced  by  mix 
ing  equal  quantities  of  snow  and  sal-ammoniac, 
and  which  he  probably  supposed  was  the  abso 
lute  zero  of  temperature.  The  space  between 
this  point  and  that  to  which  the  mercury  rose 
at  the  temperature  of  pure  boiling  water  he  di 
vided  into  212  parts  or  degrees.  This  scale, 
though  now  in  common  use,  will  eventually  be 
superseded  by  the  centigrade  scale  of  Celsius. 
It  is  denoted  by  the  abbreviation  "F."  or 
"Fahr." 

Faik,  or  Falk.  A  name  for  the  razor-bill 
(Alca  tor  da). 

Fair.  Plain;  favorable;  unobstructed.  Ap 
plied  to  the  weather,  clear  or  cloudless  ;  to  the 


wind,  favorable  or  propitious  ;  to  timbers,  when 
they  are  trimmed  to  fit  exactly. 

FAIR  CURVE.  In  delineating  ships  is  a  per 
fectly  fair  line  applied  to  any  portion  of  the 
ship's  surface. 

FAIRING.  In  ship-building  is  making  a  curved 
surface  on  any  part  of  a  ship  perfectly  true,  or 
parts  of  perfect  arcs. 

FAIR  LEAD.  A  rope  has  a  fair  lead  when  it 
does  not  suffer  chafe  from  obstruction. 

FAIR-LEADER.  A  block  or  thimble  of  wood  or 
metal,  placed  to  give  a  rope  a  fair  lead,  or  to 
change  its  direction  slightly.  Fair-leaders  are 
generally  made  of  hard  wood,  as  lignum-vitas, 
and  have  one,  two,  or  three  holes  in  them,  ac 
cording  to  the  number  of  ropes  to  lead  through 
them.  One  or  two  scores  are  cut  in  one  side  for 
the  shroud  or  stay  which  they  are  to  embrace, 
and  two  smaller  scores  at  right  angles  to  these 
for  the  seizings  to  hold  them  in  place. '  Also,  a 
board  or  rail  with  holes  through  which  ropes  lead. 

FAIR  PLATE.  Has  reference  to  the  plating  of 
iron  ships,  and  is  a  term  used  when  the  plate 
has  been  finished  in  perfectly  fair  or  evenly 
true  lines. 

FAIR-WAY.  The  middle  of  the  navigable 
channel  of  a  river,  strait,  or  harbor,  etc.  The 
proper  course  through  a  channel. 

FAIR  WEATHER.  Weather  in  which  the  light 
sails  may  be  carried. 

FAIR-WEATHER  FRIEND.  A  friend  when  for 
tune  smiles,  but  who  deserts  you  in  the  days  of 
adversity. 

FAIR-WEATHER  SAILOR.  The  nautical  equiv 
alent  of  carpet-knight. 

Fairfax,  D.  M.,  Rear-Admiral  U.S.N.  Born 
in  Virginia.  Appointed  midshipman  from  North 
Carolina,  August  12, 1837 ;  sloop  "John  Adams," 
East  Indies,  1837-40  ;  at  the  destroying  of  towns 
on  the  west  coast  of  Sumatra,  in  1839 ;  ten 
months  in  sloop  "  Fairfield"  and  frigate  "  Bran- 
dywine,"  Mediterranean,  in  1841-42;  Naval 
School  at  Philadelphia,  1842-43. 

Promoted  to  passed  midshipman,  June  29, 
1843  ;  attached  to  steam-frigate  "Missouri"  un 
til  she  was  destroyed  by  fire  at  Gibraltar,  in 
1843;  coast  survey,  in  1844;  brig  "Porpoise," 
1845 ;  transferred,  after  four  months,  to  frigate 
"  Columbus,"  East  India  and  Pacific  Squadron, 
1845-47  ;  in  store-ship  "  Erie, "Pacific  Squadron, 
for  four  months,  and  transferred  to  sloop 
"  Cyane,"  1847-49;  at  the  attack  and  capture 
of  several  towns  on  the  west  coast  of  Mexico, 
under  Commander  Dupont ;  frigate  "Congress," 
Brazil  Squadron,  1850-63. 

Commissioned  as  lieutenant,  February  26, 
1851 ;  frigate  "  Potomac,"  Home  Squadron, 
1855-56  ;  transferred  to  frigate  "  Wabash,"  and 
continued  in  her  during  1856-58  ;  at  capture  of 
Walker's  expedition,  at  San  Juan,  Nicaragua; 
steamer  "Mystic,"  in  1859;  "Constellation," 


FAJAKDO 


271 


FALSE 


1859-60;  "San  Jacinto,"  1860-61,  coast  of 
Africa ;  while  in  the  last  named,  directed  in  per 
son  the  taking  from  the  "Trent"  of  Messrs. 
Mason  and  Slidell ;  commanding  steamer  "  Ca- 
yuga,"  Mississippi  Squadron,  in  1862,  under 
Admiral  Farragut ;  skirmishing  along  its  banks 
and  keeping  river  open  as  far  as  Eed  River. 

Commissioned  as  commander,  July  16,  1862  ; 
commanding  monitor  "  Nantucket,"  South  At 
lantic  Blockading  Squadron  ;  attack  on  Charles 
ton  forts,  April  7,1863;  commanding  "  Mon- 
tauk,"  in  night  and  day  work  at  Charleston, 
until  August  25,  1863  ;  commandant  of  midship 
men,  at  the  Naval  Academy,  1863-65 ;  com 
manding  Practice  Squadron,  two  seasons. 

Commissioned  as  captain,  July  26,  1866; 
commanding  steamer  "  Rhode  Island,"  flag-ship 
North  Atlantic  Squadron,  1866 ;  commanding 
flag-ship  "  Susquehanna,"  same  squadron,  1867- 
68  ;  on  ordnance  duty  at  different  periods,  at 
Philadelphia,  New  York,  and  Boston ;  execu 
tive-officer  of  navy-yard,  Portsmouth,  N.  H., 
1870-72. 

Commissioned  as  commodore,  August  24, 1873  ; 
commanding  Naval  Station,  New  London,  Conn., 
1873-76  ;  special  duty,  1876-77 ;  commandant 
Naval  Station,  New  London,  1877-78.  Total 
sea-service  22  years  and  4  months ;  shore  duty, 
15  years.  Special  duty  Washington,  D.  C., 

1879.  Governor  Naval  Asylum,  Philadelphia, 

1880.  Commissioned  as  rear-admiral,  July  11, 
1880. 

Fajardo.  On  the  east  coast  of  the  island  of 
Porto  Rico,  5  miles  S.  of  the  N.E.  angle  of  that 
island  ;  has  a  fine  harbor,  telegraph-lines  to  other 
West  Indian  ports  and  the  United  States.  Pop. 
3500. 

Fake.  One  complete  circle  of  a  rope  in  a  coil. 
A  number  of  such  turns  make  a  tier  or  sheave, 
and  several  tiers  superimposed,  a  coil.  To  fake 
a  rope  is  to  coil  it  down  carefully,  in  opposition 
to  coil,  to  perform  the  work  loosely  or  hastily. 
See  FLEMISH,  FRENCH-FAKE. 

Falcon.  An  ancient  and  mediaeval  gun. 
There  were  various  sizes,  throwing  balls  of  from 
1  to  6  pounds.  They  were  about  25  or  30  times 
their  calibre  in  length  (7  to  8  feet). 

FALCONET.  A  mediaeval  piece  of  ordnance 
having  a  ball  of  \  to  3J  pounds  smaller  in  calibre 
than  a  falcon. 

Falconer,  William,  was  born  in  Edinburgh 
about  1730.  He  went  early  to  sea,  and  before 
he  was  18  years  of  age  was  second  mate  of  a 
vessel  in  the  Levant  trade,  which  was  wrecked 
off  Cape  Colonna,  himself  and  two  others  be 
ing  the  only  portion  of  the  crew  saved.  He 
published  "The  Shipwreck"  in  1762,  and  dur 
ing  the  next  year  he  entered  the  navy  as  mid 
shipman  in  the  "  Royal  George."  When  peace 
came  he  resided  in  London,  where  he  wrote 
a  satire  on  Wilkes,  and  compiled  a  "  Nautical 
Dictionary."  He  was  again  at  sea  in  September, 
1769,  as  purser  in  the  "  Aurora"  frigate,  and  per 
ished  with  his  companions  when  the  vessel  sank 
in  the  Mozambique  Channel. 

Fall.  To  descend  by  the  force  of  gravity. 
To  lessen  ;  to  diminish.  To  happen  ;  to  come  to 
pass.  A  precipitous  descent  of  water.  A  break 
in  a  deck.  The  rope  of  a  tackle  or  purchase.  The 
ebb  of  the  tide.  To  fall  aboard  of,  to  come  into 
collision  with  another  vessel,  either  by  design  or 
by  the  mismanagement  of  the  vessel.  To  fall 


astern,  to  drop  behind.  To  fall  back,  to  give 
way;  to  recede.  To  fall  calm,  to  become  calm. 
To  fall  down,  to  sail  or  drift  down  to  another 
position.  To  fall  foul  of,  the  same  as  to  fall 
aboard  of.  To  fall  in  with,  to  meet  a  vessel ;  to 
make  the  land.  To  fall  home,  to  project  within 
the  perpendicular,  said  of  the  top-sides, — the 
same  as  to  tumble  home.  To  fall  off,  to  pay  off 
to  leeward.  Fall  not  off!  Keep  the  ship  up  to 
her  course  !  To  fall  out,  the  opposite  of  to  fall 
home  (which  see). 

FALLEN  STAR.  A  name  for  the  jelly-fish 
(Medusa),  thrown  up  on  a  beach. 

FALLING  GLASS.  The  descending  of  the  mer 
cury  in  the  barometer. 

FALLING  STAR.  A  shooting-star.  See  AER 
OLITES. 

FALLING  TIDE.    The  ebb-tide.     See  TIDE. 

FALLS.  The  descent  of  a  deck  from  a  fair 
curve,  lengthwise,  to  give  height  to  a  cabin,  as 
in  yachts,  small  sloops,  and  schooners. 

FALL  WIND.     A  sudden  gust. 

Fall !  A  Fall !  A  cry  to  signify  that  the  har 
poon  has  been  firmly  imbedded  in  the  whale. 

Fall  Cloud.    See  CLOUD. 

Fall  River.  A  large  manufacturing  city  and 
port  of  entry  of  Bristol  Co.,  Mass.,  on  the  east 
bank  of  the  Taunton  River  at  its  mouth,  and  on 
Mount  Hope  Bay,  which  is  the  northeastern  arm 
of  Narragansett  Bay,  49  miles  south  of  Boston, 
19  miles  N.N.E.  of  Newport,  R.  I.  Large 
steam-packets  ply  daily  between  Fall  River  and 
New  York.  It  is  specially  noted  for  its  manu 
factures  of  cotton,  for  which  there  are  40  mills. 
The  harbor  is  safe,  capacious,  and  deep  enough  to 
admit  vessels  of  the  largest  class.  Pop.  44,500. 

Falmouth.  A  seaport  town  on  a  branch  of  the 
estuary  of  the  Fal,  in  Cornwall  Co.,  England. 
Lat.  50°  8'  8"  N. ;  Ion.  5°  V  V  W.  The  harbor 
is  formed  by  the  estuary  of  the  Fal,  and  is  about 
5  miles  long  by  1  mile  broad.  The  entrance  is 
defended  by  Pendennis  and  St.  Mawe's  Castles, 
both  built  in  the  reign  of  Hen^  VIII.,  and  the 
former  contains  large  barracks,  magazines,  etc. 
Its  position  at  the  mouth  of  the  English  Chan 
nel  rendered  Falmouth  for  many  years  a  princi 
pal  station  for  the  foreign  mail  service,  and  it  is 
still  a  great  resort  for  shipping.  Pop.  5500. 

False.     Not  genuine  ;  feigned. 

FALSE  ALARM.     See  ALARM. 

FALSE  ATTACK.  A  feigned  attack,  to  draw 
away  the  attention  of  the  enemy. 

FALSE  COLORS.  An  ensign  or  colors  other 
than  that  the  vessel  is  entitled  to  carry.  As  a 
stratagem,  the  carrying  of  false  colors  is  al 
lowed;  but  no  gun  should  be  fired  until  the 
proper  ensign  is  substituted. 

FALSE  FIRE.  A  composition  in  a  wooden 
tube,  which  burned  with  a  light  blue  flame  from 
a  half  to  several  minutes.  It  was  principally 
used  as  a  night-signal,  but  often  to  deceive  an 
enemy. 

FALSE  KEEL.  A  plank  from  4  to  6  inches 
in  thickness,  which  is  put  on  and  bolted  to  the 
main  keel  with  short  bolts,  so  that,  in  the  event 
of  the  ship  striking  bottom,  the  false  keel  may 
be  wrenched  off  without  disturbing  the  main 
keel;  it  also  enables  the  sailing  ship  to  hold  a 
better  wind. 

FALSE  MUSTER.  An  incorrect  statement  of 
the  number  of  people  borne  on  the  ship's  books. 
A  quaker  or  wooden  gun. 


FALSE   POINT 


272 


FAKKAGUT 


•FALSE  PAPERS.  Documents  carried  by  a  ship 
declaring  her  to  be  what  she  is  not,  representing 
her  cargo,  destination,  nation,  etc.,  falsely,  for 
the  purpose  of  deceiving  a  searching-party.  A 
vessel  with  false  papers  is  a  lawful  prize. 

FALSE  POST.  A  piece  of  timber  tabled  and 
secured  to  the  after-side  of  the  main  post,  to 
make  good  a  deficiency  in  size. 

FALSE  KAIL.  A  rail  fayed  down  upon  the 
upper  side  of  the  main  or  upper  rail  of  the  head ; 
it  is  to  strengthen  the  head-rail. 

FALSE  STEM.  The  same  as  the  term  fore-foot, 
the  forward  lower  piece  of  the  stem,  and  secured 
to  the  stem  in  a  manner  similar  to  the  method  of 
securing  the  false  keel  with  short  bolts. 

FALSE  STERN.  A  stern  built  on  the  original 
ship  or  yacht,  thereby  altering  its  shape,  without 
destroying  the  original  vessel. 

FALSE  TABLING.  A  tabling,  or  piece  of  can 
vas,  sewed  on  the  sides  of  a  cut  in  an  awning  or 
screen. 

False  Point.  A  port  of  India,  on  the  Bay 
of  Bengal,  Cuttack  District.  Lat.  20°  20'  N. ;  Ion. 
86°  47'  E.  It  has  the  best  harbor  between  Cal 
cutta  and  Bombay,  safe,  roomy,  and  accessible 
to  all  ships.  It  communicates  by  canals  with 
the  interior  of  Orissa. 

Family-head.  A  figure-head  composed  of 
several  full-length  figures. 

Fan.     To  widen. 

Fanal  (Fr.).     A  light-house. 

Fancy-line.  A  line  leading  through  a  thim 
ble  in  the  mizzen  rigging  or  top,  and  having 
another  thimble  near  the  end,  through  which  the 
hauling  part  of  the  main  brace  leads,  the  end  be 
yond  being  secured  to  the  standing  part  of  the 
brace.  A  line  rove  through  a  block  at  the  jaws 
of  a  gaif,  used  to  haul  it  down.  A  line  used  to 
overhaul  a  lee  topping  lift. 

Fane.  An  old  term  for  weather-cock.  See 
VANE. 

Fang.  To  prime  a  pump.  The  valve  of  a 
pump.  The  bend  of  a  rope. 

Fanion.  A  small  flag  used  to  mark  the 
stations  in  surveying. 

Fanning  Along.  Moving  along  very  slowly 
with  the  sails  alternately  swelling  and  collaps 
ing. 

Fanning-breeze.  A  very  light  breeze,  just 
sufficient  to  give  a  ship  steerage- way. 

Fan-tod.  A  name  given  to  a  nervous,  fidgety 
officer. 

Far-cost.    A  Scotch  coasting-vessel. 

Fardage.     Dunnage,  when  laden  in  bulk. 

Fare.  Sum  paid  for  conveyance  by  water.  A 
fishing-seine  for  cod.  A  cargo  of  cod. 

Faro.  A  seaport  of  Portugal,  in  Algarve,  on 
the  Yalfermosa,  near  the  south  coast,  20  miles 
southwest  of  Tavira.  Among  the  principal 
buildings  are  the  military  hospital,  arsenal,  and 
custom-house.  Pop.  8210. 

Farragut,  David  Glasgow,  Admiral  U.S.N., 
was  born  at  Campbell's  Station,  near  Knoxville, 
Tenn.,  July  5,  1801. 

His  father,  who  was  descended  from  a  distin 
guished  family  of  the  island  of  Minorca,  emi 
grated  to  America,  and  entered  the  colonial 
army.  He  married  in  North  Carolina  and  set 
tled  in  Tennessee,  but  subsequently  drifted  to 
Louisiana,  and  entered  the  naval  service  as  a 
sailing-master.  Here  an  acquaintance  arose  be 
tween  him  and  the  celebrated  Commodore  David 


Porter,  in  whom  young  Farragut  found  a  valu 
able  friend. 

He  was  appointed  midshipman,  December  17, 
1810,  served  in  the  frigate  "  Essex"  in  her  event 
ful  cruise  in  the  Pacific,  and  at  the  age  of  13  was 
placed  in  command  of  one  of  her  numerous  prizes. 
In  the  battle  between  the  "Essex"  and  the 
British  ships  "Phoebe"  and  "Cherub"  (March 
28,  1814),  which  resulted  in  the  capture  of  the 
former,  Farragut  was  slightly  wounded,  and  re 
ceived  the  commendation  of  his  commander,  who 
regretted  that  he  was  "too  young  for  promo 
tion."  The  story  of  the  pig,  which  he  tells  in 
his  journal,  is  not  merely  amusing,  but  suggests 
that  some  characteristics  of  the  future  com 
mander  were  already  pretty  well  developed  in 
the  boy.  After  the  battle,  a  young  reefer  of  the 
"  Phosbe"  was  carrying  off  a  pet  pig,  when  Far 
ragut  claimed  it  as  private  property,  and  deter 
mined  not  to  let  it  go.  The  oldsters  cheered  his 
pluck,  made  a  ring,  and  declared  that  the  winner 
of  a  fair  fight  should  have  the  pig.  This  was 
quickly  decided  in  favor  of  the  young  American, 
whose  physical  education  had  been  exceptionally 
good.  "So,"  says  Farragut,  "I  took  Master 
Murphy  under  my  arm,  feeling  that  I  had  in 
some  degree  wiped  out  the  disgrace  of  our  de 
feat." 

With  the  remainder  of  the  crew  of  the  "  Es 
sex,"  he  returned  to  the  United  States  in  the 
"  Essex,  Jr."  (a  captured  whaler). 

After  peace  was  declared  he  received  orders  to 
the  "  Independence,"  74,  bearing  the  broad-pen 
nant  of  Commodore  Bainbridge,  and  intended 
to  take  part  in  the  Algerine  war ;  but  Decatur 
succeeded  in  forcing  the  bey  to  terms  before  the 
ship's  arrival  in  the  Mediterranean. 

Farragut  made  a  second  cruise  to  the  Medi 
terranean  in  the  "Washington,"  under  Com 
modore  Chauncey,  and  his  journal  of  observa 
tions  at  this  period  of  his  career  is  extremely  in 
teresting.  Through  the  interposition  of  the 
chaplain  of  his  ship,  Mr.  Charles  Folsom,  who 
had  been  temporarily  appointed  consul  at  Tunis, 
Farragut  had  an  opportunity  to  study  and  travel 
in  the  interior. 

In  1823-24  he  served  under  his  old  commander, 
Porter,  in  the  Mosquito  Fleet,  fitted  out  for  the 
suppression  of  piracy  in  the  West  Indies,  took 
part  in  a  small  affair  against  the  pirates  at  Cape 
Cruz,  and  had  some  romantic  and  ludicrous  ad 
ventures  in  chasing  them  to  their  haunts  on 
shore.  He  considered  his  experience  in  the  Gulf 
as  of  great  service  to  him  professionally,  and 
looked  with  pride  upon  the  fact  of  his  getting 
command  of  the  schooner  "  Ferret"  at  the  age  of 
22. 

In  January,  1825,  he  was  attached  to  the 
"  Brandy  wine,"  the  vessel  to  which  was  assigned 
the  duty  of  conveying  Lafayette  home  to  France 
after  his  visit  and  tour  in  the  United  States. 

He  served  on  the  Brazilian  station  up  to  the 
close  of  1837  as  executive-officer  of  the  "Dela 
ware,"  and  in  command  of  the  "Boxer"  and 
"Decatur." 

While  in  command  of  the  sloop  "  Erie"  at 
Vera  Cruz  he  witnessed  the  bombardment  of  the 
castle  of  San  Juan  de  Ulloa  by  the  French 
naval  forces  (1838),  and  being  always  an  enthu 
siastic  observer  of  matters  relating  to  his  profes 
sion,  he  took  notes  of  the  action.  At  the  break 
ing  out  of  the  war  with  Mexico  (1846)  he  was 


FARRAGUT 


273 


FATHER-LASHER 


anxious  to  turn  this  experience  to  good  advan 
tage,  remarking  that  in  making  his  notes  he 
had  not  looked  forward  to  a  war  with  Mexico, 
but  had  made  it  a  rule  of  his  life  to  note  such 
things  with  a  view  to  possible  use  in  the  future.. 
After  urgent  solicitation  he  obtained  command 
of  the  "Saratoga"  (March,  1847),  but  too  late 
to  do  more  than  to  see  some  hard  service  on  the 
blockade  of  Tuxpan. 

After  his  return  home  (February,  1848)  he  was 
variously  employed  on  ordnance,  court-martial, 
and  navy-yard  duties. 

In  1854  he  was  sent  to  the  Pacific  coast  to 
establish  the  navy-yard  at  Mare  Island,  Cal. 
The  four  years  passed  here  were  uneventful,  with 
the  exception  of  the  organization  of  the  "  Vigi 
lance  Committee"  of  1856.  Farragut's  coolness 
and  judgment  in  dealing  with  a  delicate  question 
of  Federal  and  State  jurisdiction  not  only  saved 
the  government  from  being  drawn  into  a  local 
quarrel,  but  prevented  bloodshed. 

In  1859-60  Farragut  commanded  the  "  Brook 
lyn"  in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  part  of  the  time  on 
special  service  with  the  American  minister,  Hon. 
Robert  McLane. 

At  the  breaking  out  of  the  civil  war  he  was 
residing  at  Norfolk,  Va.,  his  adopted  home. 
Being  a  man  of  broad  national  views,  he  prompt 
ly  announced  his  allegiance  to  the  Union,  moved 
to  the  North,  and  after  some  delay  was  assigned 
to  the  command  of  the  Western  Gulf  Squadron, 
January,  1862. 

His  passage  of  Forts  Jackson  and  St.  Philip, 
the  defenses  of  New  Orleans  (April  23-24, 1862), 
in  his  fleet  of  wooden  ships,  was  a  grand  achieve 
ment  in  naval  warfare,  at  a  time  when  the  the 
ory  of  the  superiority  of  forts  over  ships  was 
everywhere  asserted.  He  seemed  confident  of 
success  from  the  first.  "As  to  being  prepared 
for  defeat,"  he  wrote,  "  I  certainly  am  not. 
Any  man  who  is  prepared  for  defeat  would  be 
half  defeated  before  he  commenced.  I  hope  for 
success,  shall  do  all  in  my  power  to  secure  it,  and 
trust  to  God  for  the  rest.'*'  And  with  his  gallant 
officers  and  men  he  succeeded  in  passing  the  bar 
rier  of  hulks,  logs,  and  chains,  and  forts,  de 
stroyed  the  enemy's  flotilla,  and  placed  New 
Orleans  under  his  guns. 

As  soon  as  possible  he  pushed  on  up  the  river 
to  carry  out  his  orders  to  open  the  Mississippi, 
and  successfully  passed  the  batteries  of  Vicks- 
burg  (June  28,  1882) ;  but  the  great  elevation  of 
the  batteries,  and  the  absence  of  a  co-operating 
land  force  of  sufficient  strength,  rendered  this 
movement  of  little  real  importance.  His  vessels 
on  the  coast  of  Texas,  however,  succeeded  in 
capturing  Galveston  and  Sabine  City. 

On  March  14,  1863,  in  attempting  a  bold  dash 
past  the  batteries  of  Port  Hudson,  a  portion  of  his 
fleet  was  compelled  to  retire,  and  one  of  his  ships 
— the  "  Mississippi" — was  destroyed.  But  with 
his  flag-ship  and  one  small  gunboat  he  continued 
on  up  the  river,  penetrating  as  far  as  Vicksburg, 
and  finally  established  a  blockade  between  Red 
River  and'Port  Hudson.  On  the  arrival  of  Porter 
from  above,  he  returned  to  New  Orleans  by  the 
Atchafalaya,  and  conducted  the  naval  operations 
of  the  siege  of  Port  Hudson  until  its  surrender, 
July  8,  1863. 

His  most  brilliant  achievement  was  in  passing 
Forts  Morgan  and  Gaines,  at  the  entrance  to  Mo 
bile  Bay,  August  5,  1864.  In  this  encounter  he 
18 


captured  the  ram  "Tennessee"  and  gunboat 
"  Selma."  The  forts  subsequently  surrendered 
to  the  combined  naval  and  military  forces.  In 
this  engagement  he  showed  his  decision  of  char 
acter  in  taking  the  lead  in  his  flag-ship  at  a  mo 
ment  when  disaster  seemed  certain.  The  dra 
matic  incident  of  his  viewing  the  conflict  from  a 
lofty  position  in  the  rigging,  where  he  had 
allowed  himself  to  be  secured  by  a  lashing  of 
rope,  has  been  authenticated  by  an  autograph 
letter  of  Farragut's  (September  25,  1864),  in 
which  he  says,  "  I  told  you  that  Watson  brought 
me  the  rope  to  tie  myself  in  the  rigging.  So  he 
did ;  but  Dravton  sent  one  up  by  the  quarter 
master  when  1  was  up  in  the  main  rigging.  I 
was  so  much  interested  in  what  was  going  on 
around  me  that  I  hardly  noticed  it,  but  took  it 
mechanically,  and  fastened  it  to  the  shrouds  and 
around  myself." 

He  received  the  thanks  of  Congress,  and  was 
commissioned  rear-admiral  July  16,  1862,  and 
vice-admiral  Dec.  21,  1864,  and  was  finally  pro 
moted  to  the  rank  of  admiral,  July  25,  1866. 

In  1867,  in  command  of  the  European  Squad 
ron,  he  made  an  extended  cruise  in  the  "  Frank 
lin,"  and  was  received  with  marked  attention  at 
the  European  capitals. 

Farragut  had  a  high  reputation  in  the  service 
for  industry,  character,  and  efficiency.  He  was 
physically  and  morally  brave  and  essentially 
modest,  though  with  a  pleasant  appreciation  of 
his  attainments.  His  education  in  some  re 
spects  was  remarkable.  He  was  an  indefatigable 
reader,  and  spoke  several  languages.  Among  in 
timates  his  humor  was  proverbial.  The  purity  of 
his  domestic  life  was  as  unsullied  as  his  profes 
sional  career ;  there  was  nothing  in  either  that 
required  explanation  or  apology.  His  plans  of 
battle  appeared  simple  enough,  but  showed  a 
thorough,  minute,  and  painstaking  preparation. 
His  quickness  of  perception  and  resolution  in 
the  midst  of  conflict  were  his  strongest  points. 

He  died  at  Portsmouth,  N.  H.,  August  14, 
1870.  His  remains  were  subsequently  borne  to 
Woodlawn  Cemetery,  Westchester  Co.,  N.  Y. 
(September  30),  with  great  ceremony,  where 
they  now  rest  under  a  monument  erected  by  his 
widow  and  son. — Loyall  Farragut. 

Farthel.     An  obsolete  word  for  furl. 

Fash.  An  irregular  seam.  A  mold-mark  on 
projectiles. 

Fashion-piece.  In  wood  construction,  it  is 
the  aftermost  frame  timber,  and  is  secured  to  the 
ends  of  the  transoms. 

Faskidar.  The  Arctic  gull  (Cataractes para- 
siticus). 

Fast.  A  rope  or  chain  confining  the  ship  to 
a  wharf.  It  is  called  according  to  its  position  a 
bow-fast,  head-fast,  breast-fast,  quarter-fast,  or 
stern-fast. 

Fast  Aground.  So  completely  aground  as  to 
be  immovable. 

Fast-stayer.  A  ship  which  goes  about  or 
tacks  quickly. 

Father  (Eng.\  Dock-yard  name  for  the 
builder  of  a  naval  vessel. 

Father-lasher.  A  certain  salt-water  fish 
(Coitus  bubatis),  allied  to  the  river  bull-head.  Its 
head  is  large,  and  its  spines  formidable.  It  is 
found  on  the  coasts  of  Britain,  Newfoundland, 
and  Greenland.  In  the  latter  country  it  is  ex 
tensively  used  for  food. 


FATHOM 


274 


FEED 


Fathom.  A  measure  of  6  feet,  roughly  made 
by  extending  both  arms ;  used  in  measuring 
cordage,  depths,  etc.  To  fathom,  to  find  the 
depth  by  sounding  ;  to  comprehend.  The  table 
shows  the  fathom  of  different  countries  : 


Country. 

Name. 

Fathoms. 

| 

1 

a 

hH 

1  MetreH. 

1 

England  and  1 
America,    j 

Fathom. 

1 

6 

72 

1.829 

Russia.               Shashainh.             *) 
France.          )   Grande  Brasse.       > 
Holland.        j   Groote  Vadem.       ) 

1 

6 

72 

1.829 

France.          ) 
Holland.        / 

Moyenne  Brasse.  ) 
Koopvaarders  Va-  > 
dem                      I 

.916 

5.5 

66 

1.676 

France.          \ 
Holland.         f 

Petit  Brasse.          \ 
Bussmans  Vadem.  > 

.833 

5 

60 

1.523 

Denmark   &\  !-u_* 
Norway.     j  ,Favn- 

1.029 

6175 

74 

1.834 

Portugal. 

Braca. 

1 

6.004  72 

1.829 

France. 

Brasse. 

.925     5.541  66.6     1.086 

Prussia. 

Fadem. 

.984     5906  71 

1.826 

Spain. 

Braza. 

.916;    5.492  6fi 

1.786 

Sweden. 

Famn. 

.974     5.84^  70 

1.824 

India. 

Bain. 

1 

6 

72 

1.829 

FATHOM-WOOD.  Refuse  wood  from  ship 
building, — sold  by  the  fathom. 

Fat-quarter.     A  broad  and  full  quarter. 

Faucon  and  Fauconnet.  Old  form  for  falcon 
and  falconet. 

Favor.  To  spare,  or  to  be  careful  of.  The 
spars  are  favored  by  being  relieved  of  undue 
strain.  A  ship  is  favored  "when  she  is  eased  or 
allowed  to  go  off  during  squalls. 

Fay-fena.    A  Japanese  galley  of  30  oars. 

Feam.     A  small  lighter's  windlass. 

Fearnaught  or  Dreadnaught.  Woolen  cloth 
of  great  thickness. 

Feather.  In  mechanism,  a  prism  or  bar  of 
metal,  usually  steel,  one  side  of  which  is  firmly 
embedded  lengthwise  in  the  surface  of  a  shaft, 
either  in  a  cylindrical  or  conical  portion  thereof, 
the  projecting  portion  being  fitted  to  a  slot  in 
the  hub  of  a  wheel,  pulley,  coupling,  etc.,  for 
the  purpose  of  constraining  such  hub  to  the  ro 
tary  motion  of  the  shaft,  and  at  the  same  time 
permit  it  to  slide  or  be  easily  removed  in  direc 
tion  of  its  axis.  A  feather  is  sometimes  em 
bedded  in  the  surface  of  the  bore  of  a  hub  and 
fitted  to  a  slot  in  the  shaft.  It  differs  from  a 
key  in  the  fact  that  it  is  immovable.  To  cut  a 
feather.  See  CUT. 

Feather  an  Oar.  To  bring  the  blades  in  a 
horizontal  position  so  as  to  cut  the  wind  as  soon 
as  they  are  out  of  the  water.  It  is  done  by 
dropping  the  wrist  at  the  proper  time. 

Feathering  Float.  A  paddle  or  float  of  a 
paddle-wheel,  so  arranged  as  to  turn  on  an  axis 
and  present  its  broadside  to  the  water  at  its  low 
est  submersion,  and  to  turn  its  edge  to  the  water 
in  entering  and  emerging. 

Feathering  Paddle-wheel.  A  wheel  whose 
floats  have  a  motion  on  an  axis,  so  as  to  descend 
nearly  vertically  to  the  surface  of  the  water,  and 
ascend  nearly  the  same  way,  avoiding  beating 
the  water  in  the  descent,  and  lifting  it  in  the 
ascent.  The  loss  of  power  from  these  causes  is 
due  only  to  the  quantity  of  water  thrown  off  as 
spray,  or  carried  around  the  wheel ;  and,  so  far 
as  this  action  is  concerned,  a  feathering-wheel  is 
equivalent  to  a  radial-wheel  having  twice  its 


diameter.  No  economy  is  accomplished  by  avoid 
ing  "  oblique  action"  in  solid  water.  There  are 
numerous  devices  for  feathering-wheels.  See 
PADDLE-WHEEL. 

Feathering  Propeller.  A  term  applied  to 
any  propelling  apparatus  in  which  the  blades  or 
floats  turn  upon  an  axis  so  as  to  present  their 
edges  to  the  water  in  dipping  or  entering,  leav 
ing  or  returning,  and  their  broadsides  when  the 
propelling  force  is  most  effective.  The  term  is 
suggested  by  the  action  of  the  feathers  of  the 
wings  of  a  bird,  and  is  applicable  to  oars,  paddle- 
wheels,  or  submerged  wheels. 

Feathering  Screw.  A  screw-propeller  in 
which  the  blades  can  be  set  in  a  fore-and-aft  di 
rection,  so  as  to  present  a  minimum  resistance  to 
a  vessel's  headway  when  under  sail  alone.  The 
term  also  applies 'to  screws  in  which  the  blades 
can  be  turned  and  reversed  on  their  axes  by  the 
steering  apparatus,  thereby  dispensing  with  a 
rudder. 

Feaze.  To  untwist  a  rope's  end  ;  to  pull  it  to 
pieces. 

FEAZIXGS.  The  unlaid  or  ragged  end  of  a 
rope. 

Febiger,  John  C.,  Commodore  U.S.N.  Born 
in  Pennsylvania.  Appointed  from  Ohio,  Sep 
tember  14,  1838 ;  attached  to  frigate  "  Mace 
donian,"  West  India  Squadron,  1838-40;  sloop 
"  Concord,"  Brazil  Squadron,  1841-43  ;  wrecked 
in  "  Concord"  on  east  coast  of  Africa,  1843  ;  at 
tached  to  brig  "Chippola,"  purchased  by  gov 
ernment  at  Rio  de  Janeiro,  and  used  to  re 
cover  and  dispose  of  equipment  of  "  Concord," 
1843-44. 

Promoted  to  passed  midshipman,  May  20, 
1844;  frigate  "Potomac,"  Home  Squadron, 
1844-45;  sloop  "Dale,"  Pacific  Squadron, 
1846-47;  frigate  "  Columbus,"  Pacific  Squadron, 
1848;  sloop  "Dale,"  African  Squadron,  1850; 
coast  survey,  1852-57. 

Commissioned  as  lieutenant,  April  30,  1853 ; 
sloop  "  Germantown,"  East  India  Squadron, 
1858-60;  sloop  "Savannah,"  1861. 

Commissioned  as  commander,  August  11, 
1862;  commanding  the  steamer  "Kanawha," 
West  Gulf  Blockading  Squadron,  1862-63  en 
gagement  off  Mobile  Bay,  April  3,  1862;  com 
manding  steamers  "Osage,"  "Neosho,"  and 
"Lafayette,"  Mississippi  Squadron,  1863;  com 
manding  steamer  "  Mattabeset,"  North  Atlantic 
Blockading  Squadron,  1864-65;  engagement  with 
rebel  ram  "  Albemarle,"  in  Albemarle  Sound, 
May,  1864;  commanding  steamer  "  Ashuelot," 
Asiatic  Squadron,  1866-68. 

Commissioned  as  captain,  May  6,  1868  ;  com 
manding  steam-sloop  "  Shenandoah,"  Asiatic 
Squadron,  1868-69.  While  commanding  the 
"Shenandoah,"  entered  and  surveyed  Ping- 
Yang  Inlet,  west  coast  of  Corea.  Inspector  of 
Naval  Reserved  Lands,  from  1869-72.  Com 
manding  U.  S.  steamer  "  Ornaha,"  South  Pacific 
Squadron,  1872-74.  Member  Board  of  Ex 
aminers,  1874-76.  Commandant  navy-yard, 
Washington,  D.  C.,  1876  to  August,  1880. 

Feckless.     Weak  and  silly. 

Feed.  Material  for  replacing  that  consumed, 
wasted,  or  transformed,  in  animal  or  mechanical 
economy,  as  the  feed-water  of  a  steam-boiler 
which  replaces  the  water  evaporated,  or  food  for 
animals.  To  feed,  to  supply  a  steam-boiler 
with  water,  or  a  furnace  with  fuel,  etc. 


FEEL  THE   HELM 


275 


FID 


FEEDER.  A  stream  that  supplies  a  body  of 
running  water.  A  passing  cloud  bringing  more 
wind  in  a  gale. 

FEEDER  FORCE-PUMP.     See  FEED-PUMP. 

FEEDING-GALE.  A  constantly  increasing  gaAe, 
worse  after  every  squall. 

FEEDING  PART  OF  A  TACKLE.  The  running 
part. 

FEED  OF  GRASS.     A  supply  of  vegetables. 

FEED-PIPE.  A  pipe,  connected  with  a  feed 
pump  or  other  apparatus,  through  which  water 
is  supplied  to  a  steam-boiler. 

FEED-PUMP.  A  force-pump  for  supplying 
steam-boilers  with  water  to  replace  that  which  is 
evaporated,  blown  off,  or  lost  by  leakage.  It  is 
generally  worked  by  some  moving  part  of  the 
main  engine.  It  consists  essentially  of  a  cylin 
der  in  which  a  piston  or  a  plunger  is  fitted,  and 
may  be  made  either  single-  or  double-acting ;  re 
ceiving-  and  discharge-valves,  which  in  large 
pumps  are  usually  made  of  india-rubber ;  valve- 
chests  or  chambers ;  an  air-vessel  or  chamber ; 
and  a  "feed  safety-valve,"  which  permits  the 
water  to  escape  to  the  hot- well  or  reservoir, 
when  communication  with  the  boiler  is  checked. 
"When  a  feed-pump  is  driven  by  a  small  special 
steam-cylinder,  and  independent  of  the  main  en 
gine,  it  is  called  an  "  auxiliary,"  or  "donkey"- 
pump. 

FEED- WATER.  The  water  reserved  from  the 
condenser  of  a  steam-engine  for  the  purpose  of 
supplying  the  boiler.  The  term  is  generally  ap 
plied  to  water  passing  into  a  boiler  from  what 
ever  source. 

FEED-WATER  PUMP.  A  pump  for  supply 
ing  feed-water  to  a  reservoir,  whence  it  can  be 
readily  drawn  by  a  feed-pump  or  injector. 

Feel  the  Helm.  A  ship  feels  her  helm  when 
she  obeys  it. 

Feint.     A  pretended  attack. 

Fell-head.  The  top  of  a  mountain  not  ending 
in  a  peak. 

Felt.  Fabric  made  of  wool,  or  wool  and  fur, 
or  hair,  compacted  by  rolling  and  pressure,  with 
glue  and  size.  It  is  used  as  a  non-conductor 
on  steam-pipes,  boilers,  cylinders,  etc. 

Patent  felt,  mixed  with  tar,  was  formerly  put 
between  the  sheathing  and  the  ship's  bottom. 

Felucca.  A  small  vessel  of  Arabic  origin,  with 
lateen-sails  ;  the  helm  may  be  used  at  either  end. 

Female-hemp.     See  FIMBLE-HEMP. 

Female-screw.  A  cylinder  with  a  spiral  in 
side,  into  which  a  screw  works. 

Fencing.  The  art  of  using  a  foil,  or  sword, 
in  simulated  or  actual  attack  and  defense.  The 
changes  which  modern  science  has  brought  about 
in  the  mode  of  conducting  combats  both  on  sea 
and  land  have  very  much  lessened  the  chance 
of  personal  encounters  between  combatants,  and 
have,  as  a  consequence,  relegated  the  art  of  fen 
cing  to  a  far  lower  degree  of  prominence  than  it 
formerly  had.  The  officer,  however,  still  wears 
a  sword,  and  occasions  demanding  a  right  knowl 
edge  of  its  use  as  a  weapon  of  offense  and  de 
fense,  though  not  of  frequent  occurrence,  are  yet 
among  the  chances  of  active  service  ;  the  art  of 
fencing,  therefore,  should  still  be  cultivated, 
both  as  a  factor  in  an  officer's  efficiency,  and  as 
a  useful  and  graceful  accomplishment. 

Fend.  To  keep  off.  To  fend  off,  to  shove  off, 
to  keep  from  contact.  Fend  the  boat,  to  keep  it 
from  touching  the  ship  or  wharf. 


FENDER.  Wood,  rope,  or  other  material  used 
to  prevent  chafe.  Mat-fenders  are  made  of  rope 
mats.  Grommet-fenders  are  rope-grommets 
grafted  or  covered  over  with  rope  yarns.  Canvas- 
fenders  are  bags  of  canvas  stuffed  with  oakum  of 
hair.  Cork-fenders  are  nets  of  small  rope  filled 
with  cork-shavings.  Rope-fenders  are  made  of 
short  pieces  of  rope,  plaited  together.  A  pile- 
fender  is  a  loose  pile,  planted  in  front  of  a 
wharf,  to  absorb  the  shock  of  a  boat. 

FENDER-BAR.  A  bar  passing  along  the  ship's 
side,  to  absorb  the  chafe,  just  above  the  water- 
line. 

FENDER-BOLT.  An  eye-bolt,  through  which 
the  fender-bar  passes. 

FENDER-PILE.  One  of  any  number  of  large 
piles,  the  upper  part  of  which  projects  a  suitable 
distance  above  the  surface  of  the  water,  driven 
at  the  corners  and  ends  of  wharves,  piers,  or 
ferry-slips,  which,  by  their  resilience,  prevent 
destructive  shocks  to  vessels  coming  alongside  in 
a  strong  current,  wind,  or  tide-way. 

Fernan-bag.  A  small  ditty-bag  to  hold  to 
bacco.  A  monkey's  cheek-pouches. 

Fernandina.  A  port  of  entry  and  capital  of 
Nassau  Co.,  Fla.,  on  Amelia  Island,  28  miles 
N.N.E.  of  Jacksonville.  It  has  a  good  harbor, 
and  is  the  N.E.  terminus  of  the  Atlantic,  Gulf 
and  West  India  Transit  Kailroad.  Steamboats 
run  three  times  a  week  from  here  to  Charleston 
and  Savannah.  Pop.  3150. 

Ferrara.  An  old  broadsword  named  after 
Andrea  Ferrara,  the  famous  Spanish  sword- 
maker. 

Ferrol.  A  seaport  town  and  one  of  the  prin 
cipal  naval  arsenals  of  Spain,  in  the  province 
of,  and  12  miles  N.E.  of  Corunna,  on  the  north 
arm  of  the  Bay  of  Betanzos.  Lat.  43°  29'  30" 
N. ;  Ion.  8°  13'  W.  Its  harbor,  one  of  the  best 
in  Europe,  is  entered  by  a  narrow  strait,  and  is 
defended  by  the  castles  of  San  Felipe  and  Palma. 
The  town  on  its  north  shore  is  strongly  fortified 
on  the  land  side.  Its  vast  arsenal  and  dock-yard 
covers  nearly  24  acres,  and  comprises  many 
magnificent  docks  and  store-houses.  It  has  a 
general  and  military  hospital,  naval  barracks, 
and  schools  of  navigation  and  mathematics.  Pop. 
21,500. 

Ferrule.  An  iron  band  on  the  mizzen  topsail- 
yard.  A  bushing  to  expand  boiler-tubes. 

Ferry.  A  place  where  goods  or  passengers 
are  conveyed  over  narrow  waters.  The  boat 
used  in  conveying  goods  or  passengers  over  a 
stream ;  it  may  be  propelled  by-  hand,  or  by 
horse-  or  steam-power. 

FERRY-BOAT.  A  boat  for  transporting  goods 
or  passengers  over  narrow  waters.  See  FERRY. 

Fetch.  To  reach ;  to  arrive  at ;  as,  to  fetch 
to  windward  of  a  point.  To  fetch  away,  to  break 
loose.  To  fetch  headway,  to  gather  headway. 
To  fetch  the  pumps,  to  cause  the  pumps  to  draw 
by  pouring  in  water  from  the  top  to  expel  the 
air.  Fetch  is  also  the  extent  of  a  bay  or  gulf  from 
point  to  point. 

Fettle.  To  put  in  order ;  to  repair.  In  fine 
fettle,  in  good  trim  ;  in  high  spirits. 

Feu  de  Joie  (Fr.).  A  salute  of  musketry  by 
files. 

Fez.  A  red  cloth  skull-cap  worn  by  Moham 
medans,  and  frequently  by  sailors  in  the  Medi 
terranean. 

Fid.    A  square,  wedge-shaped  bar  of  wood  or 


FIDDLE 


276 


FILL 


iron,  placed  in  a  mortise  in  fhe  heel  of  a  topmast 
or  topgallant-mast.  The  ends,  resting  on  the 
trestle-trees,  take  the  weight  of  the  mast  and 
sustain  it  in  place.  Iron  fids  are  generally  used, 
with  a  laniard  attached  to  prevent  them  from 
falling  from  aloft.  Screw  fids  have  also  been 
designed,  so  as  to  be  taken  out  without  lifting 
the  mast.  A  conical  pointed  piece  of  lignum- 
vitse,  or  other  hard  wood,  used  to  open  the 
strands  of  a  rope  in  splicing  or  working  it.  An 
iron  fid  is  properly  a  marlin-spike.  These  fids 
are  called  hand-fids,  and  are  from  14  to  20  inches 
long.  Larger  conical  pieces  of  wood,  of  vari 
ous  sizes  from  30  to  40  inches  long,  used  to 
open  the  eyes  of  rigging,  are  called  setting-fids 
and  standing-fids.  A  vent-plug  of  oakum.  A 
quid  of  tobacco.  To  fid  a  mast  is  to  sway  it  up 
to  its  place  and  insert  the  fid. 

FID-HAMMER.  A  hammer  having  one  end 
of  the  head  pointed,  so  as  to  serve  as  a  fid. 

FID-HOLE.  The  mortise  in  the  heel  of  a  mast, 
into  which  a  fid  is  inserted ;  they  are  in  length 
half  the  diameter  of  the  mast,  and  their  width  is 
two-thirds  of  their  length. 

Fiddle.  A  rack,  used  on  a  table,  to  keep  the 
crockery  on,  formed  of  frames  connected  by  tape 
or  cord. 

Fiddle-block.  A  block  having  two  sheaves 
lying  in  the  same  plane,  one  above  the  other. 
They  are  used  for  burtons,  yard-tackles,  etc.  ; 
called  also  long-tackle-block. 

Fiddle-fish.  The  king-crab  (Limulus  poly- 
phemus). 

Fiddle-head.  The  scroll  on  a  ship's  bow,  that 
turns  inwards,  like  the  head  of  a  fiddle. 

Fiddler.  A  small  crab  with  one  claw  longer 
than  the  other. 

Fiddler's  Green.  A  sailor's  paradise,  where 
dance-houses  and  kindred  amusements  abound. 

Field-artillery.  Light  artillery  for  use  on 
shore,  in  distinction  from  boat-artillery.  See 
HOWITZER. 

Field-carriage.  The  carriage  for  a  light  piece 
of  ordnance,  by  which  it  is  transported  when  on 
shore.  See  HOWITZER. 

Field-day.  A  day  of  drills  or  exercises.  A 
day  for  general  cleaning  or  overhauling. 

Field-gun.     See  FIELD-PIECE. 

Field-howitzer.  A  howitzer  mounted  on  a 
field-carriage  for  use  ashore. 

Field-ice.  A  large  extent  of  floating  ice, 
adrift  or  stationary.  Detached  pieces  are  fioes, 
and  when  they  suddenly  reunite,  cause  nips. 

Field  of  View.  The  circular  space  visible 
through  a  telescope. 

Field-piece.  A  piece  of  ordnance  for  use  on 
land,  so  mounted  as  to  be  capable  of  transpor 
tation. 

Fiery-flaw.     See  FIRE-FLAIRE. 

Fifer.     The  marine  who  plays  the  fife. 

Fife-rail.  A  rail  about  the  mast,  supplied 
with  pins  to  belay  ropes  to,  and  with  blocks  to 
lead  them  through. 

Fig.     In  full  fiy,  in  full  dress. 

Figala.  An  East  Indian  vessel  with  one  mast, 
and  propelled  by  paddles. 

Figger.     A  Smyrna  trading-vessel. 

Figgie-dowdie.     Plum-duff. 

Fight.     An  engagement  or  battle. 

FIGHTING-LANTERN  (Eng.}.  See  BATTLE-LAN 
TERN. 

FIGHTING-CANVAS,  or  FIGHTLNO-SAILS.   Sails 


used  in  action.  Formerly,  topsails  and  courses. 
In  future,  sails  will  be  furled. 

FIGHTING-STOPPER.  An  arrangement  of  two 
dead-eyes,  connected  by  rope  laniards,  and  fur 
nished  each  with  a  tail  of  rope.  When  a  shroud 
is  parted  in  action,  the  tails  embrace  the  severed 
parts,  and  then  they  are  hauled  together  by  the 
laniard.  See  STOPPER. 

FIGHTING-TRIM.  In  proper  trim  to  commence 
an  action. 

FIGHTING-WATER.  Casks  or  tubs  of  water 
placed  about  the  deck  for  use  during  action,  or 
in  cans  in  the  magazine.  Vinegar  is  added  to  it 
in  some  services. 

FIGHTS.  An  old  word  for  screens  to  conceal 
the  men  from  the  enemy.  See  CLOSE-FIGHTS. 

Figure.  The  ornament  at  a  ship's  prow, 
whether  a  scroll,  fiddle-head,  billet,  or  figure-head. 

FIGURE-HEAD.  An  image  or  carved  figure 
formerly  carried  at  the  prow.  The  Phrenicians 
carried  the  figures  of  the  marine-protecting  dei 
ties,  adopted  from  them  by  the  Greeks  under  the 
name  of  Dioscuri,  or  Castor  and  Pollux.  Ancient 
Egyptian  ships  carried  a  ram's  head  or  a  carved 
lotus.  Roman  ships  carried  the  head  of  a  lion, 
ram,  dragon,  etc.  Early  Norman  ships  commonly 
carried  a  dragon's  head  or  serpent's  head,  and 
sometimes  an  archer.  Full-length  figures  of 
Neptune,  of  Mercury,  and  other  Greek  gods 
were  common  in  1600-1700,  and  the  statues  in 
carved  wood  of  great  men,  of  allegorical  subjects, 
as  Hope,  etc.,  were  then  used.  Busts  or  half- 
length  statues  were  more  common.  Many  of 
these  carvings  were  works  of  art.  The  adoption 
of  ramming,  and  first  the  straight,  then  the  ram- 
bow,  caused  them  to  fall  into  disuse,  and  they 
are  seldom  seen  on  iron  or  armored  vessels. 

Figure-of-eight.  A  knot  made  in  the  shape 
of  the  figure  8. 

Fike.    See  FYKE. 

Filadiere.  A  small  flat-bottomed  boat  of  the 
Garonne. 

File.  In  mechanical  art,  an  implement  of 
hardened  steel,  having  its  surface  cut  into  sharp 
furrows  or  teeth,  used  principally  for  shaping  or 
smoothing  metals,  but  frequently  used  on  other 
substances.  There  is  a  great  variety  of  shapes, 
sizes,  and  degree  of  fineness  of  teeth  or  cut.  The 
cross-section  may  be  rectangular,  square,  round, 
half-round,  triangular,  or  wedge-shaped  (knife- 
edged)  ;  the  longitudinal  section  usually  tapers 
or  curves  from  the  "shank  end,"  which  receives 
the  handle,  to  the  point.  The  sizes  of  files  are 
denoted  by  their  length  in  inches,  and  the  prin 
cipal  degrees  of  fineness  by  the  terms  "  bastard," 
"second  cut,"  "smooth, "and  "dead  smooth." 
Small  round  files  are  called  "  rat-tail"  files  ;  files 
having  parallel  teeth  cut  in  one  direction  only, 
that  is,  not  crossed  at  a  right  angle  by  other 
teeth  or  furrows,  are  called  "  float-cut"  files  ;  and 
flat  files  having  one  or  both  their  edges  left 
blank,  or  without  teeth,  are  called  "safe-edge" 
files.  An  old  file,  a  nickname  for  a  cunning, 
humorous  character. 

FILE-FISH.  One  of  a  class  of  fishes  having 
their  skin  granulated  like  a  file.  They  are  inter 
mediate  between  the  bony  and  cartilaginous 
fishes,  and  constitute  the  genus  Balistes. 

Filibuster.  A  freebooter.  A  name  first  ap 
plied  to  the  adventurer  Lopez  in  1849. 

Fill.  To  fill  the  sails,  to  trim  the  yards  so 
that  the  wind  shall  blow  on  the  after-part  of  the 


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277 


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sails.  To  fill  a  yard,  to  fill  its  sail.  To  fill  away, 
to  fill  a  sail  or  sails  that  have  been  aback.  To 
fill  a  ship's  bottom,  to  cover  her  bottom  with 
broad-headed  nails  so  as  to  give  her  a  sheathing 
of  iron.  Copper  sheathing  is  now  preferred. 
To  Jill  in,  to  put  in  timbers  wherever  solidity  is 
required  ;  as,  between  the  frames  in  a  ship. 

FILL  AND  STAND  ON.  To  fill  the  sails  and 
resume  the  course  after  heaving  to. 

FILLER.  A  strip  of  wood  inserted  in  a  made 
mast  to  fill  up  a  deficiency. 

FILLING-ROOM.  A  small  room  formerly  par 
titioned  off  from  the  magazine  for  a  filling-place 
for  shell,  etc. 

Fillet.  The  ornamental  rings  formerly  cast 
about  the  muzzle  or  cascabel  of  a  gun.  The 
rounded  surface  joining  the  plane  surfaces  of  a 
gun. 

Filter.  An  apparatus  for  purifying  water. 
Sailors  call  a  stone  filter  a  drip-stone. 

Fimble  Hemp,  or  Female  Hemp.  The  hemp 
which  produces  no  seed,  and  is  chiefly  used  for 
domestic  purposes.  Carl,  or  male  hemp  is  used 
for  cordage. 

Fin.  An  organ  of  a  fish,  consisting  of  a  mem 
brane  supported  by  rays,  or  little  bony  or  carti 
laginous  ossicles,  and  serving  to  balance  and 
propel  it  in  the  water.  Fishes  move  through  the 
water  chiefly  by  means  of  the  tail,  the  principal 
office  of  the  fins  being  to  balance  or  direct  the 
body,  though  they  are  also,  to  a  certain  extent, 
employed  in  producing  motion.  Jocular  for 
hand ;  tip  us  your  fin,  shake  hands. 

FIN-BACK.  A  whale  of  the  genus  Balcenoptera, 
having  a  tough  fin  on  its  back.  Some  are  80  to 
90  feet  long.  It  has  little  oil,  no  whalebone,  and 
is  hard  to  catch.  Also  called  finner  and  fin- 
whale. 

Find.     To  provide  ;  to  furnish. 

Finding.     The  verdict  of  a  court-martial. 

Findon  Haddock.  A  kind  of  Scotch  had 
dock. 

Fine.      To  fine  the  under-water  body   is   to 

Erolong  and  sharpen  the  ends.  A.  fine  entrance 
i  a  sharp  under-water  part  of  the  fore-body  of 
the  ship. 

Finger-shell.  A  marine  shell  resembling  a 
finger. 

Finner.     See  FIN-BACK. 

Finnic.     Scotch  salmon  less  than  a  year  old. 

Finnock.     A  kind  of  Scotch  salmon. 

Fintrum  Speldin.     Small  dried  haddock. 

Fiord.  A  deep  narrow  inlet  of  the  sea  on  the 
Norwegian  coast. 

Fir.  Fir  is  the  wood  of  a  tree  of  the  genus 
Abies.  The  Scotch  fir  is  a  pine.  For  the  frames 
of  men-of-war  its  use  has  been  rare,  but  17  Eng 
lish  men-of-war  were  built  of  it  from  1750  to 
1806  Their  average  life  was  9  years.  Fir  is 
used  for  ship's  spars,  and  for  plank  of  the  bot 
tom.  The  best  fir  comes  from  Riga  and  Dantzic. 
The  early  frigates  of  our  navy  were  made  of  fir, 
and  lasted  fairly  well. 

Firbome.     An  old  term  for  a  beacon. 

Fire.  The  effect  of  combustion  ;  a  conflagra 
tion.  To  kindle  ;  to  set  on  fire.  To  discharge  a 
fire-arm  ;  the  discharge  of  fire-arms. 

A  raking  fire  is  delivered  from  ahead  or  astern 
of  a  vessel,  the  projectiles  passing  through  in  the 
direction  of  her  length.  In  early  days  one  of 
the  great  points  in  a  sea-fight  was  to  rake  the  op 
posing  ship  without  being  raked  by  her.  Since 


the  introduction  of  ironclads  it  is  not  a  matter 
of  so  much  importance. 

To  fire  at  will  is  to  fire  the  guns  independently 
of  each  other,  each  gun-captain  seizing  the  most 
favorable  opportunity ;  this  firing  is  used  in 
action  when  the  object  is  visible. 

To  fire  in  succession  is  to  fire  one  gun  after 
another  in  regular  order,  beginning  with  the 
forward  gun  if  the  wind  be  aft,  or  with  the  after 
gun  if  the  wind  be  from  forward ;  this  firing 
may  be  used  at  the  beginning  of  an  action,  or 
when  a  steady  continuous  fire  is  desired. 

Quick  firing  is  rapid  firing  at  will,  the  tangent 
sight  not  being  raised ;  this  firing  is  used  when 
close  alongside  an  enemy,  when  but  little  point 
ing  is  required. 

When  a  gun  is  so  laid  that  the  projectile 
strikes  the  object  without  grazing  between  the 
gun  and  object,  the  fire  is  direct',  this  firing  is 
used  at  short  range  or  at  great  ranges,  when 
great  penetration  is  desired,  or  when  the  surface 
between  the  gun  and  the  object  is  so  rough  that 
the  force  and  direction  of  the  projectile  would  be 
injuriously  affected.  When  the  gun  is  so  laid 
that  the  projectile  makes  one  or  more  grazes 
before  reaching  the  object,  the  firing  is  denomi 
nated  ricochet]  that  properly  so  called  is  per 
formed  with  the  gun  laid  level,  or  at  most  at  8° 
elevation;  though  shot  will  often  ricochet  at 
greater  angles  of  elevation. 

Practically,  ricochet  fire  is  of  no  value  from 
rifled  guns  firing  elongated  projectiles.  In  ex 
perimental  practice  over  perfectly  smooth  water, 
it  will  often  be  observed  that  successive  projec 
tiles  of  high  velocity  and  rapid  spin  maintain  a 
certain  uniformity  of  flight  on  the  first  one  or 
two  bounds  ;  but  the  slightest  irregularity  of 
the  reflecting  surface  causes  them  to  lose  all 
certainty  of  direction.  The  flatness  of  the  tra 
jectory  of  the  rifle,  by  greatly  increasing  the 
dangerous  space,  has  correspondingly  decreased 
the  importance  of  ricochet  fire.  For  smooth 
bores,  however,  ricochet  firing  upon  a  smooth 
surface,  within  certain  distances,  has  some  im 
portant  advantages  over  direct  firing.  When 
the  guns  have  very  little  or  no  elevation,  and 
are  near  the  water,  as  they  are  in  a  ship's  bat 
tery,  the  projectile  strikes  the  water  at  a  very 
small  angle  ;  its  flight  is  not  greatly  retarded  by 
the  graze,  and  it  rises  but  little  above  the  sur 
face  in  its  course.  The  distant  charge  should 
always  be  used,  but  the  penetration  is  not  to  be 
depended  on  beyond  1500  yards  against  unarm- 
ored  ships  of  war. ,  At  low  elevations  it  requires 
only  correct  lateral  direction,  since  the  projectile 
would  rarely  pass  over  and  would  probably  strike 
a  vessel  if  within  its  effective  range,  whether  the 
actual  distance  had  been  correctly  ascertained  or 
not.  The  deviation  of  the  projectile  is,  however, 
generally  increased  by  ricochet  and  in  propor 
tion  to  the  roughness  of  the  surface  of  the  water. 
Even  a  slight  ripple  will  make  a  perceptible  dif 
ference  not  only  in  direction,  but  in  range,  pene 
tration,  and  the  height  to  which  the  projectile 
will  rise  in  its  bounds. 

Although  these  facts  demand  attention,  yet 
when  the  estimated  distance  does  not  require  an 
elevation  of  more  than  3°,  projectiles  from  guns 
pointed  rather  too  low  for  direct  firing  will  prob 
ably  ricochet  and  strike  the  object  with  effect, 
even  when  the  water  is  considerably  rough. 
This  may  be  called  accidental  ricochet.  When 


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278 


FIKE 


the  water  is  not  smooth,  the  most  favorable  cir 
cumstances  for  such  firing  are  when  the  flight 
of  the  shot  is  with  the  roll  of  the  sea  and  that 
roll  is  long  and  regular.  Kicochet  will  be  effec 
tive  against  small  objects  up  to  2000  yards,  but 
should  not  commence  at  less  than  600  yards. 
Shot  rarely  ricochet  at  all  with  elevations  above 
5°,  and  the  bounds  are  always  higher,  with 
«qual  charges  from  the  same  gun,  as  the  eleva 
tion  of  the  gun  is  increased. 

A  fire  is  said  to  be  curved  when  the  projectile 
clears  an  intervening  object  and  descends  upon 
the  target.  A  fire  is  said  to  be  plunging  when 
the  target  is  below  the  level  of  the  gun:  it  is 
.particularly  effective  against  vessels. 

Horizontal  fire  includes  all  kinds  where  the 
velocity  of  the  projectile  is  due  to  the  charge. 
Vertical  fire  includes  all  kinds  where  the  velocity 
,of  the  projectile  on  impact  is  mainly  due  to  the 
attraction  of  gravity.  See  MORTAR. 

Concentration  of  fire  may  be  desirable  under 
certain  circumstances ;  and  arrangements  have 
been  sometimes  made  to  secure  it  by  the  simul 
taneous  discharge  of  a  number  of  guns  upon 
.some  part  of  an  object  whose  distance  is  known. 
The  advantages  of  these  arrangements  are  not 
very  obvious,  excepting  in  cases  where  the  posi 
tion  of  the  enemy  may  be  visible  from  one  part 
of  a  ship  and  not  from  all  the  guns  in  the  bat 
tery.  The  object  sought  to  be  obtained  is  there 
fore  to  aim  from  inboard  at  an  invisible  target, 
the  distance  and  direction  of  which  are  indicated 
by  the  commanding  officer.  It  is  consequently 
necessary  that  he  shall  be  so  placed  as  to  obtain 
a  distinct  view  of  the  enemy,  or  have  suitable 
observers  to  inform  him  of  his  exact  position. 

FIRE-ALARM.  A  signal  to  denote  that  a  fire 
has  broken  out,  and  to  summon  the  officers  and 
men  to  their  stations  for  suppressing  it.  See 
FIRE-BILL. 

FIRE-AND-LIGHTS.  A  nickname  for  the  mas- 
ter-at-arms. 

FIRE-ARM.  A  weapon  acting  by  the  force  of 
gunpowder,  discharging  a  ball.  The  Chinese 
claim  to  have  used  fire-arms  in  304  B.C.  A 
stone-thrower  was  used  in  China  in  757  A.D. 
In  1200  the  Mongols  used  fire-arms,  and  in  1258 
Genghis  Khan  used  them.  They  became  of 
universal  use  during  the  14th  century.  One  of 
the  first  instances  of  their  use  afloat  was  by  the 
Venetians  against  the  Genoese,  in  1377.  Other 
explosive  materials  have  been  tried  in  them  with 
but  little  success. 

FIRE-ARROWS.  Arrows  wrapped  with  tow 
soaked  in  turpentine,  used  frequently  in  the 
naval  actions  of  the  17th  century.  The  last 
instance  of  their  use  afloat  in  a  large  action 
was  that  of  the  French  in  the  East  Indies  in 
1758. 

FIRE  AWAY  !     Go  on  with  your  remarks. 

FIRE-BALLS.  Balls  made  of  tow  and  tallow, 
mixed  with  sulphur  and  pitch. 

FIRE-BARRELS.  Small  stout  barrels  filled  with 
inflammable  composition,  used  in  fire-ships,  to 
increase  the  combustion. 

FIRE-BAVINS.  Short  bundles  of  brush-wood 
dipped  in  inflammable  composition,  arid  fastened 
about  parts  of  a  fire-ship  to  spread  the  flame. 

FIRE-BELL.  The  quick  ringing  of  the  ship's 
bell,  the  signal  for  a  tire. 

FIRE-BILL.  The  bill  giving  the  stations  of 
the  crew  on  an  alarm  of  fire.  They  are  dis 


tributed  in  proper  places  to  work  the  pumps, 
lead  out  hose,  act  as  axmen,  or  smotherers,  as 
sist  in  hauling  up  sails,  in  hoisting  provisions, 
in  getting  out  the  boats,  drawing  the  charges 
of  the  guns,  etc.  See  EMERGENCIES  AT  SEA. 

FIRE-BOOM.  A  boom  swung  out  from  the 
ship's  side  to  keep  off  fire-ships.  See  FIRE-SHIPS 
AND  HAFTS. 

FIRE-BRICK.  An  infusible  kind  of  brick  used 
for  lining  the  inside  of  furnaces  or  flues  not  ex 
posed  to  water,  when  necessary  to  protect  them 
from  intense  heat. 

FIRE-BRIDGE,  or  BRIDGE-WALL.  A  wall 
which  forms  the  back  end  of  a  furnace,  and  over 
which  the  heated  gaseous  products  of  combustion 
pass.  It  may  be  built  of  fire-bricks,  or  it  may 
be  an  iron  shell  filled  with  water  and  forming 
part  of  the  boiler.  Fire-bridges  are  also  built  at 
intervals  in  the  large  masonry  flue  under  long 
cylindrical  boilers,  for  the  purpose  of  mixing 
the  gases  and  bringing  them  in  close  contact 
with  the  surface  of  the  boiler. 

FIRE-BUCKET.  A  bucket  of  canvas,  leather, 
rubber,  wood,  or  metal,  used  in  case  of  fire. 
Those  used  in  the  navy  are  made  of  light  tanned 
sole-leather,  and  a  laniard,  several  fathoms  long, 
is  attached  to  each,  to  be  used  in  drawing  water 
from  aloft. 

FIRE-CLAY.  Clay  (a  silicate  of  alumina)  from 
which  fire-bricks  are  made  and  in  which  they 
are  laid  or  cemented. 

FIRE-CREW.  The  crew  of  a  fire-ship  that 
conduct  her  into  action,  and  after  inflaming  her 
leave  her  to  her  fate. 

FIRE-CURTAINS.  Curtains  of  canvas  dipped 
in  inflammable  mixtures,  and  suspended  from  the 
beams  of  a  fire-ship,  to  increase  the  combustion. 

FIRE-DRAKE.  A  meteor.  The  corpo  santo  of 
old  navigators. 

FIRE-EATER.  A  hotspur.  A  man  fond  of 
fights  and  fighting. 

FIRE-EXTINGUISHER.  A  small  portable  appa 
ratus  for  extinguishing  an  accidental  fire  in  its 
incipiency.  Its  action  is  to  throw  upon  a  fire  a 
small  stream  of  water  surcharged  with  carbonic 
gas.  It  consists  essentially  of  a  very  strong  me 
tallic  case  or  vessel,  which  is  filled  with  water, 
together  with  a  suitable  quantity  of  carbonate  of 
soda  or  lime,  and  which  contains  a  small  recep 
tacle,  made  of  lead,  glass,  or  other  suitable  ma 
terial,  for  holding  a  quantity  of  sulphuric  acid 
sufficient  to  combine  with  the  carbonates  and 
form  sulphates,  while  releasing  carbonic  acid  gas, 
which  the  water  holds  in  suspension,  and  which, 
by  its  pressure,  gives  force  to  the  stream.  The 
acid  and  carbonates  are  securely  isolated  from 
each  other  until  the  apparatus  is  required  for  use. 
There  are  many  devices  for  effecting  the  combi 
nation  or  mixture,  one  being  designed  as  early  as 
1816.  The  fire-extinguishers  furnished  the  navy 
are  now  of  the  Babcock  pattern,  in  which  car 
bonic  acid  is  generated,  and  cast  on  the  fire. 

FIRE-FLAIRE.    The  sting-ray  (Raiapastinaca}. 

FIRE-FLAUGHTS.     The  northern  lights. 

FIRE-HEARTH.     The  hearth  about  the  galley. 

FIRE-HOOPS.  Hoops  wrapped  in  tow  and 
soaked  in  inflammables.  Used  by  the  Knights 
of  Malta  in  the  middle  ages. 

FIRE-LOCK.  A  gun-lock  inflaming  the  powder 
by  striking  a  flint.  A  gun  having  a  flint-lock. 

FIREMAN,  or  STOKER.  A  man  who  manages 
fires.  On  board  vessels  of  war  firemen  are  di- 


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279 


FIRE 


vided  into  two  classes,  viz.,  first-  and  second- 
class  firemen.  A  first-class  fireman  is  required 
to  be  thoroughly  skilled  in  making,  maintain 
ing,  and  cleaning  fires  with  all  the  varieties  of 
coal  in  general  use,  and  in  all  the  preparations 
for  starting  fires  and  raising  steam  in  boilers. 
He  must  be  acquainted  with  the  methods  of 
keeping  the  water  in  boilers  at  the  proper  height 
and  density  ;  be  familiar  with  the  various  cocks 
and  valves  in  common  use  in  marine  machinery  ; 
capable  of  packing  stuffing-boxes,  making  steam- 
joints,  "laying  up"  and  preparing  packing, 
cleaning  bright-work,  and  starting  or  stopping 
and  lubricating  either  the  main  or  auxiliary 
engines  or  pumps.  Skill  in  the  use  of  mechanics' 
tools  adds  to  his  efficiency. 

A  second-class  fireman  must  be  skilled  in  the 
management  of  fires,  boilers,  and  pumps,  and 
have  a  good  general  knowledge  of  the  duties 
of  a  first-class  fireman. 

A  fireman  is,  also,  one  whose  duty  it  is  to 
extinguish  fire. 

FIRE-QUARTERS.  The  assembly  of  the  crew 
on  an  alarm  of  fire.  The  fire-bill  gives  each  his 
station,  and  this  is  to  be  taken  instantly  on  an 
alarm.  Pumps  are  rigged  and  manned,  ports 
closed,  charges  drawn  from  the  guns,  hatches 
covered,  sails  trimmed,  and  preparations  made 
for  getting  out  the  boats,  if  at  sea,  or  they  are 
lowered  in  port.  Friday  is  the  day  usually  set 
apart  for  the  purpose  of  drilling  in  this. 

FIRE-RAFT.  A  raft  of  floating  timber,  arranged 
with  combustibles,  and  set  afloat  against  an 
enemy's  fleet.  See  FIRE-SHIPS  AND  RAFTS. 

FIRE-ROOM,  or  STOKE-HOLE.  A  room  or 
space  at  the  fronts  of  steam-boilers  devoted  to 
the  management  of  the  fires,  and,  generally,  to 
all  operations  connected  with  the  management 
of  boilers  under  steam,  such  as  feeding,  observ 
ing  pressures  and  temperatures,  height  of  water 
in  boilers,  degree  of  saturation  of  water  in  boiler, 
blowing,  etc.  When  the  fronts  of  boilers  face 
amidships,  it  is  a  fore-and-aft  fire-room,  and 
when  they  face  forward  or  aft,  it  is  called  an 
athwart-ship  fire-room. 

FIRE-SHIPS  AND  RAFTS,  EXPLOSION-VESSELS 
AND  BOOMS.  Fire-ships  are  vessels  loaded  with 
combustibles,  set  on  fire,  and  drifted  or  propelled 
against  fleets,  forts,  or  obstructions.  Such  in 
ventions  have  been  used  for  centuries,  and  have 
played  an  important  part  in  many  contests.  The 
first  account  of  the  use  of  fire-ships  is  at  the 
siege  of  Tyre,  333  B.C.  The  Tyrians  here  sent 
a  galley,  loaded  with  stones  and  prepared  with 
sulphur,  etc.,  against  the  mole  built  by  Alexan 
der,  partially  destroying  it.  Six  other  instances 
of  the  use  of  fire-ships  before  the  Christian  era 
are  recorded.  Fire-ships  were  used  by  the 
Rhodians  in  a  contest  with  the  Syrians,  19i  B.C., 
and  Livy  alludes  to  their  use  by  that  mari 
time  nation  in  190  The  Carthaginians,  in  149 
BC.,sent  boats  filled  with  combustibles  against 
the  Roman  fleet  under  Manlius,  attacked  and 
partially  destroyed  it.  In  38  B.C.,  two  of  the 
fleets  of  Augustus  were  destroyed  by  Cassius  ;  the 
first,  under  Pomponius,  by  several  ships  filled  with 
pitch,  hemp,  etc. ;  the  second,  under  Sulpicius,  by 
forty  fire-ships,  in  the  harbor  of  Vibo. 

Two  more  instances  of  their  use  are  given 
before  the  introduction  of  Greek  fire.  In  439 
Genseric  towed  a  number  of  fire-ships  out  of 
Carthage  harbor  against  a  Roman  fleet  under 


Basilicus,  and  destroyed  most  of  it.  Belisarius, 
in  545,  destroyed  a  bridge  thrown  across  the 
Tiber  near  Rome  by  Totila,  by  a  fire-boat,  car 
ried  in  a  tower  erected  on  two  galleys,  by  means 
of  which  the  boat  was  dropped  on  the  bridge. 

In  673,  an  Egyptian,  Callinicus,  in  the  Greek 
service,  invented  Greek  fire,  and  the  use  of  this 
combustible  liquid  seems  to  have  given  a  new 
impulse  to  the  employment  of  fire-ships.  This 
liquid,  long  known  under  its  various  names  of 
"  Ignis  Gnecus,"  "  Greek  fire,"  "  Wild  fire,"  and 
"  Maritime  fire,"  was  the  forerunner  of  powder, 
consuming  all  within  its  reach,  and  only  being 
quenched  by  sand,  vinegar,  and  acids.  It  was 
poured  from  sides  of  ships,  from  battlements  and 
turrets,  shot  in  balls  and  arrows,  and  ejected 
from  horrid-mouthed  brazen  tubes.  The  Greeks 
long  preserved  the  secret,  but  the  Saracens 
finally  obtained  it,  and  its  disuse  only  came  with 
the  advent  of  powder.  Sometimes,  as  at  Con 
stantinople  in  717,  old  vessels  were  impregnated 
with  this  liquid,  and  thus  made  more  formidable, 
set  adrift  against  the  enemy.  There,  also,  in 
951,  953,  the  Russian  fleets  felt  their  force,  two 
being  nearly  destroyed  by  the  fire-galleys  sent 
against  them. 

During  the  Crusades  we  meet  with  Greek  fire 
continually,  and  also  with  fire-ships.  Notable 
are  those  used  at  Zara  in  1171  against  the  Vene 
tians,  two  unsuccessful  attacks,  one  with  17  fire- 
ships,  by  the  besieged  Greeks  against  the  Vene 
tians  at  Constantinople  in  1204,  and  the  fire-ships 
used  by  the  Pisans  at  Geneva  in  1218.  The  fire- 
ships  used  at  Reggio  by  the  Saracens  are  called 
"  Jeremitas"  by  old  chroniclers. 

In  1370,  the  English  first  used  them  at  Zuruck- 
zee,  and  they  were  visited  by  them  at  Rochelle 
in  1372. 

They  were  first  used  in  a  sea-engagement  by 
the  Spaniards  against  the  English  in  1406.  The 
Venetians  at  Syracuse  in  1433,  and  the  Knights 
at  Rhodes  in  1440,  used  these  weapons. 

The  more  important  use  of  fire-ships,  the  in 
auguration  of  explosion-vessels,  and  the  use  of 
an  elaborate  boom  for  defense,  occurred  at  the 
siege  of  Antwerp  in  1585.  Thirteen  fire-ships 
were  used,  and  set  afloat  against  the  boom  with 
the  explosion-vessels,  but  the  latter  only  caused 
disaster  The  Great  Armada  was  first  disorgan 
ized  and  thrown  into  confusion  by  eight  fire-ships 
sent  against  it  by  Lord  Howard  at  Calais,  July 
27,  1588.  Fear  of  these  led  the  Spaniards  to  run 
out,  and  they  were  met  and  defeated  on  Goodwin 
Sands  soon  after. 

During  the  17th  and  18th  centuries  the  use 
of  fire-ships  became  almost  universal.  Nearly 
every  fleet  had  them,  from  one  to  twenty  in 
number,  and  in  the  long  and  bloody  wars 
between  the  English  and  the  Dutch  they  were 
often  used  with  disastrous  results,  the  large 
fleets  of  cumbersome  ships  being  particularly 
vulnerable  to  their  attacks.  They  were  then 
used  in  sea-actions.  Three  ships  were  destroyed 
by  one  in  1653,  and  four  Dutch  ships  in  1665  by 
one,  the  loss  of  life  being  heavy.  One  hundred 
and  ninety  Dutch  vessels  were  destroyed  by  fire- 
ships  at  Vreeling.  Fire-ships  were  used  in  con 
nection  with  explosion-vessels  in  the  English 
attacks  on  St.  Malo,  Dieppe,  and  Dunkirk  in 
1693-94,  and  at  Dunkirk  a  peculiar  "  smoke-ship" 
was  used  to  disconcert  the  aim  of  the  gunners, 
but  it  failed. 


FIRE 


280 


FIRE 


They  were  used  on  this  continent  at  Quebec  in 
1759,  and  at  Philadelphia  in  1777.  They  were 
last  used  in  sea-actions  by  Matthews  in  1746,  and 
by  Boscawen  in  1759.  From  this  time  they 
diminished  in  numbers,  and  we  only  hear  of 
them  as  occasionally  employed  during  the  present 
century.  Fire-ships  were  used  at  Basque  Roads 
in  1809,  again  with  explosion-vessels,  but  effected 
nothing.  At  Washington  in  1814,  Commodore 
Rodgers  used  them  without  effect,  and  the  Turks 
had  five  in  their  fleet  at  the  battle  of  Navarino. 
In  1822,  the  Greeks  at  Scio  revenged  themselves 
on  the  Turks  by  sending  against  their  victorious 
fleet  two  fire-ships  and  several  launches,  June  7. 
Two  ships  were  destroyed,  and  more  than  two 
thousand  men  killed. 

In  1840-41,  the  Chinese  sent  fire-rafts  and  junks 
against  the  English  on  five  occasions,  but  ef 
fected  nothing.  Fire-rafts  were  sent  down  the 
Mississippi,  first  in  October,  1861,  throwing  the 
ships  into  confusion,  again  from  April  16  to 
April  21,  against  Farragut's  fleet,  adding  to  the 
terrors  of  the  night-assault  of  Forts  Jackson  and 
St.  Philip,  but  effected  little,  and  were  easily 
avoided.  One,  however,  was  pushed  by  a  rarn, 
and  set  the  "Hartford"  on  fire,  but  the  flames 
were  extinguished.  The  steamer  "  Abtao"  was 
fitted  as  a  fire-ship  in  1879  by  the  Chilians,  but 
was  not  used. 

Fire-ships  were  generally  old  vessels  of  50  to 
150  tons.  In  a  central  compartment  fire-barrels 
were  placed,  filled  with  powder,  pitch,  and  tal 
low.  Troughs  led  along  the  decks,  in  which 
reeds,  dipped  in  rosin,  pitch,  tallow,  and  powder, 
were  placed,  bundles  of  brush  aiding  them,  and 
fuzes  led  through  scuttles  to  the  barrels  below, 
and  to  sally-ports.  Small  iron  pieces  blew  the 
ports  open,  and  barrels  of  composition  on  deck, 
boxes  in  tops,  channels,  from  bowsprit,  davits, 
etc.,  and  fire-curtains  from  the  beams,  aided  the 
conflagration.  Fire-ships  sailed  to  windward, 
fought  to  leeward,  prepared  for  battle,  and  went 
into  action,  on  signal.  The  duty  was  hazardous, 
and  little  quarter  was  given  to  captured  crews. 
Steam-vessels  will  be  more  formidable  as  fire- 
ships,  and  may  yet  be  used  in  defending  harbors, 
but  fire  is  not  so  terrible  to  iron-cased  ships,  with 
wire  rigging. 

Explosion-vessels  have  been  used  less  often  than 
fire-ships.  The  first  was  at  Antwerp.  They  were 
invented  by  Giambelli,  an  Italian.  Four  were 
used,  but  one  broke  the  boom  and  killed  800 
people,  blowing  up  six  ships,  and  flooding  the 
shores.  They  were  strong  flat  boats,  containing 
7000  pounds  of  powder,  in  a  brick  well,  roofed 
with  heavy  stones,  and  charged  with  missiles  of 
all  kinds.  The  French  prepared  a  vessel,  in  1688, 
to  use  at  Algiers,  but  did  not  use  it.  Explosion- 
vessels  were  sent  against  the  ports  of  St.  Malo, 
Dieppe,  and  Dunkirk  on  four  occasions,  in  1693- 
94,  but  all  failed  to  damage  the  towns.  The  next 
use  of  explosion-ships  was  that  of  our  forces  at 
Tripoli,  the  ill-fated  "Intrepid,"  in  which  all 
those  engaged  were  killed.  This  was  during 
the  night  of  September  4,  1804.  The  ketch  was 
sailed  in,  and  parted  company  with  her  convoy 
of  3  vessels  at  the  entrance  of  the  harbor,  and 
was  last  seen  from  them  sailing  in  towards  the 
mole.  Suddenly  she  blew  up,  either  having  been 
fired  by  her  cre'w  or  exploded  by  a  shot  from  the 
forts. 

During  the  same  year  a  floating-mine  was  sent 


against  Fort  Rouge,  at  Calais,  but  effected  no 
damage. 

In  1809  several  attempts  were  made  against 
Rochefort  with  floating-mines,  some  of  which 
were  ships  of  large  dimensions.  The  explosions 
shook  the  earth  for  miles  around,  but  nothing 
was  gained  by  them. 

Finally,  more  formidable  attempts  were  made 
against  the  French  fleet  at  Basque  Roads.  Three 
explosion-vessels  and  9  fire-ships  were  sent  against 
the  fleet  and  boom.  The  explosion-vessels  were 
made  by  placing  firmly- wedged  logs  in  the 
hold,  piling  spirit-casks,  containing  1500  bar 
rels  of  powder,  and  bound  round  with  hempen 
cables.  Several  hundred  shells  were  placed  on 
top,  and  some  3000  hand-grenades  wedged  with 
sand.  These  were  sent  under  sail,  and  one  was 
swept  away  by  a  fire-ship,  but  one  exploded  near 
the  boom,  breaking  it  by  the  force  of  the  wave. 

At  Wagram,  on  the  Danube,  boats  filled  with 
5  barrels  of  powder,  arranged  to  be  fired  by  the 
carrying  away  of  the  mast  on  collision  with  the 
bridge,  were  sent  down  the  river,  but  effected 
nothing. 

Lord  Exmouth  took  an  explosion-vessel  to 
Algiers  in  1816,  but  did  not  use  it. 

The  last  occasion  on  which  an  explosion-ves 
sel  was  used  was  at  Fort  Fisher,  December  24, 
1864.  An  old  steam-vessel  was  here  used,  and 
the  powder  was  stowed  rather  loosely  in  bags 
about  the  lower  decks,  while  fuzes,  clock-work, 
and  a  fire  were  depended  on  to  ignite  the  formid 
able  charge.  Towed  in  and  anchored  within  300 
yards  of  the  fort,  the  charge  was  fired  in  time, 
causing  a  severe  shock,  but  no  damage  to  the 
fort. 

Booms  are  naturally  connected  with  this  sub 
ject,  having  been  used  principally  to  keep  fire- 
ships  out  of  harbors.  We  find  records  of  such 
defenses  as  early  as  the  siege  of  Syracuse,  413 
B.C.  Chains  were  used  in  the  harbor  of  Con 
stantinople  as  early  as  700  B.C.  In  the  middle 
ages  such  defenses  became  more  common,  and 
the  further  defense  of  sunken  ships  was  inaugu 
rated  by  the  Rochellais  in  1371.  The  first  for 
midable  defense  was  used  at  Bonifacio,  in  Cor 
sica,  in  1420,  where  a  bridge  of  great  plank  was 
defended  by  5  ships  ranged  in  a  line.  This  was 
surpassed  by  the  great  Antwerp  structure,  built 
by  the  Duke  of  Parma  in  1585,  a  structure  made 
partly  of  piles  and  partly  of  a  floating-bridge  of 
vessels,  moored  head  and  stern,  and  defended  by 
anchored  floating-batteries.  As  we  have  seen, 
this  was  broken  by  Giambelli 's  explosion-vessel, 
but  it  was  repaired  the  same  night,  and  served 
its  purpose. 

During  the  17th  and  18th  centuries  these  de 
fenses  were  much  used,  sometimes  chains  only 
being  thrown  across  the  harbor,  at  others  ships 
were  sunk,  hulks  with  heavy  batteries  anchored 
near,  etc. 

The  earliest  formidable  attempt  to  use  a  boom 
was  at  Basque  Roads,  in  1809.  Heavy  cables 
were  here  fastened  to  logs  and  anchored  across 
the  channel,  while  line-of-battle  ships  at  either 
end  defended  the  structure.  This  boom  was 
broken  by  Cochrane's  explosion-ships. 

During  the  civil  war  in  this  country  torpedoes 
planted  in  the  stream  added  their  force  to  the  de 
fense  of  a  boom,  and  elaborate  systems  of  booms 
were  made.  At  Charleston  extensive  series  of 
such  were  found.  When  Farragut's  fleet  at- 


FIRES 


FISH 


tacked  New  Orleans  formidable  chains  stretched 
across  the  river,  and  buoyed  up  by  hulks,  were 
first  encountered,  and  destroyed  by  slipping. 

Sunken  vessels  were  frequently  employed, 
notably  at  Charleston,  effectually  closing  the 
channels. 

The  latest  use  of  booms  was  by  the  Paraguayans, 
in  their  war  of  1864-68  with  Brazil. 

Booms  will  not  answer  alone  to  obstruct  a 
harbor,  but  combined  with  torpedoes,  batteries, 
and  sunken  obstructions,  they  will  always  be 
found  useful  for  the  purpose. — F.  S.  Bassett, 
Lieutenant  U.S.N. 

FIRE-SURFACE.  The  surface  of  a  steam-boiler 
which  is  exposed  to  the  fire  or  furnace  heat. 

FIRE-TUB.  A  tub,  provided  with  a  wire 
grating,  placed  at  the  foot  of  a  canvas  shute, 
by  which  empty  powder-boxes  are  returned  from 
the  deck  above. 

FIRE-WORKS.  The  rockets,  blue-lights,  false 
fires,  and  chemical  signals  used  on  board  ships. 
They  are  packed  in  light  boxes,  and  placed  under 
the  eye  of  a  sentry,  away  from  the  magazine. 

FIRING-KEY.  That  key  of  an  electric  machine 
or  battery  which,  upon  being  pressed,  closes  the 
circuit,  and  fires  the  gun  or  torpedo  connected 
with  it. 

FIRING-LEVER,  FIRING-PIN,  FIRING-BOLT. 
The  assemblage  of  levers,  etc.,  by  which  the 
charge  of  a  towing  torpedo  is  fired. 

Fires.  In  mechanics,  the  masses  or  beds  of 
burning  fuel  in  furnaces. 

FIRES,  BANK.  To  collect  fires  into  small  heaps 
or  "banks,"  covering  them  heavily  with  fresh 
coal,  and  leaving  a  large  portion  of  the  grates 
bare,  so  that  the  draft  may  not  pass  through 
the  incandescent  fuel ;  the  object  being  to  sup 
press  combustion,  and  the  consequent  formation 
of  steam  when  no  longer  required  for  immediate 
use,  and,  at  the  same  time,  to  preserve  a  desired 
pressure  and  temperature  of  steam,  and  retain 
sufficient  fire  to  readily  ignite  the  fuel  required 
for  a  full  or  "spread"  fire.  The  best  place  to 
form  a  bank  is  near  the  mouth  of  the  furnace, 
and  a  few  inches  clear  of  the  dead-plate,  and  it 
should  be  as  compact  as  possible. 

FIRES,  HAUL.  To  entirely  withdraw  the  fires 
from  the  furnaces,  either  while  they  are  burning 
briskly  or  nearly  extinguished.  This  operation 
is  performed  whenever  a  boiler  becomes  useless 
or  dangerous  from  excessive  leakage  or  from 
overheating  caused  by  scant  water-supply,  or 
when  it  is  known  that  steam  will  not  be  required 
for  a  definite  period  of  time,  and  it  is  desirable 
that  the  boiler  be  cooled,  cleaned,  or  repaired 
expeditiously. 

FIRES,  SPREAD.  To  open  or  spread  banked 
fires  over  the  whole  surface  of  the  grates,  and, 
at  the  same  time,  to  supply  them  with  the  requi 
site  quantity  of  fuel  for  forming  steam. 

FIRES,  START.  In  steam-enginery,  to  kindle 
new  fires  in  the  furnaces  of  a  steam-boiler  for 
the  purpose  of  raising  steam  when  the  machin 
ery  has  not  been  in  use  for  a  period  of  time. 
The  principal  preparations  required  are,  that  the 
man-hole,  hand-hole,  and  other  "joints"  are 
properly  made;  that  the  boiler  is  filled  with 
water  to  the  proper  level ;  that  the  mouth  or 
front  of  the  furnace  is  supplied  with  kindling- 
wood  and  other  inflammable  material ;  and  that 
the  grates,  on  parts  not  occupied  by  kindling- 
stuff,  be  thinly  covered  with  coal  so  as  to  check 


the  draft  through  them  at  the  back  ends  of 
the  furnaces  and  direct  it  upon  the  fire  in  front. 
In  vessels  of  war  these  preparations  are  usually 
completed  before  the  order  to  start  fires  is  given. 

FIRING.  The  act  of  kindling  or  maintaining 
fires. 

FIRING  TOOLS.  Tools  or  implements  for 
managing  fires.  They  consist  of  large  steel 
"scoop-shovels"  for  handling  coal  and  ashes; 
"slice-bars,"  which  are  stout  bars  of  round 
iron  flattened  and  pointed  at  one  end  and  formed 
into  an  eye-handle  at  the  other,  and  having  suf 
ficient  length  to  reach  the  back  end  of  a  furnace, 
leaving  two  or  three  feet  to  project  outside, — 
used  to  pass  under  the  fires  close  to  the  grates 
for  the  purpose  of  detaching  clinkers  or  break 
ing  up  caking  coal;  "pickers,"  which  are  bars 
or  rods  having  the  same  length  as  slice-bars, 
though  of  lighter  material,  and  having  the  fire  end 
bent  at  right  angles  and  flattened  so  as  to  pass 
between  the  grate  bars  from  underneath, — used 
for  removing  ashes  and  stirring  fires  without 
opening  furnace  doors;  "devil-claws,"  bars  or 
rods  having  three  bent  prongs  at  their  ends, — used 
for  withdrawing  clinkers  from  a  fire;  and"  hoes," 
the  fire  ends  of  which  are  provided  with  flat 
"  blades"  or  plates  of  iron  fixed  at  right  angles 
to  the  bar, — used  in  banking  or  hauling  fires.  The 
above-mentioned  tools,  except  shovels,  are  some 
times  called  "  fire-irons,"  and,  like  the  slice-bar, 
are  provided  with  handles,  and  have  sufficient 
length  to  reach  the  back  of  a  furnace  and  project 
a  proper  distance  outside,  so  that  the  fireman  may 
not  be  compelled  to  approach  the  fires  too  closely. 

First  Lieutenant.  The  executive-officer 
(which  see).  An  officer  of  marines  ranking 
with  a  master  in  the  navy. 

First  Mate,  or  First  Officer.  The  officer  of  a 
merchant  ship  next  in  rank  to  the  master. 

First,  or  Prime  Meridian.     See  MERIDIAN. 

First  Point  of  Aries.  The  vernal  equinoctial 
point.  See  ARIES. 

First  Point  of  Cancer.  The  summer  solstitial 
point.  See  CANCER. 

First  Point  of  Capricorn.  The  winter  sol 
stitial  point.  See  CAPRICORN. 

First  Point  of  Libra.  The  autumnal  equi 
noctial  point.  See  LIBRA. 

First-rate.  A  ship  of  the  first-rate  is  one  of 
the  highest  grade.  In  our  navy  it  comprises  all 
steamers  of  4000  tons  or  more,  and  ironclad 
steamers  of  3000  tons  or  more. 

First  Watch.  The  watch,  or  period  of  time 
from  8  to  12  P.M.  The  portion  of  the  crew  on 
duty  at  that  time. 

Firth.     See  FRITH. 

Fish.  To  angle  for  fish  ;  hence,  to  take  any 
thing  out  of  the  water.  To  hoist  the  fluke  of 
the  anchor  up  to  the  bill.board.  To  secure  a 
spar  with  a  fish.  To  search  for  a  star.  A  ver 
tebrate  animal  breathing  through  gills  and  liv 
ing  in  the  water;  the  name  is  also  applied  to 
mammals,  as  whales,  etc.  Fish  are  divided  by 
naturalists  into  six  families,  most  of  which  are 
marine.  A  purchase  used  to  raise  the  fluke  of 
the  anchor  up  to  the  bill-board.  A  piece  of 
wood  or  iron  used  to  strengthen  a  damaged  spar. 
Fish  is  used  as  an  epithet ;  as,  queer  fish,  odd 
fish,  etc.  Fresh  fish,  greenhorns.  As  mute  as  a 
fish,  as  dry  as  a  fish,  expressions  used  to  denote 
perfect  silence,  extreme  thirst.  Fish!  Fish! 
The  cry  of  a  whaler  when  a  whale  is  sighted. 


FISH 


282 


FLAG 


FISH-BACK.  A  line  from  the  back  of  the  fish 
hook,  to  assist  in  hooking  it  to  the  arm  of  the 
anchor. 

FISH-BOOM.  A  boom  or  spar  by  the  aid  of 
which  the  anchor  is  fished.  It  usually  has  one 
end  connected  to  an  eye  on  the  foremast  by  a 
goose-neck,  and  the  tackle  connected  to  the 
other  end,  a  double  block  hooking  to  it,  and  the 
fall  leading  up  through  a  sheave  in  the  boom,  a 
block  on  the  foremast,  and  then  on  deck.  Some 
times  a  pennant  is  used,  leading  through  the 
sheave  on  the  boom.  A  topping-lift  elevates  the 
boom,  and  it  is  moved  by  small  guys  on  either 
side.  When  not  in  use  the  boom  is  lowered  into 
an  iron  crutch  on  the  forecastle. 

FISH-DAVIT.     See  DAVITS. 

FISHER-FISH.  A  species  of  Remora,  said  to 
be  trained  by  the  Chinese  to  catch  tifrtle.  When 
a  turtle  is  perceived  basking  on  the  surface  of 
the  sea,  the  men,  avoiding  all  noise,  slip  one  of 
their  remoras  overboard,  tied  to  a  long  and  fine 
cord.  As  soon  as  the  fish  perceives  the  floating 
reptile  he  swims  towards  it,  and  fixes  himself  on 
it  so  firmly  that  the  fishermen  easily  pull  in  both 
together. 

FISHERMAN'S  BEND.  A  knot,  for  simplicity 
called  the  king  of  all  knots.  Its  main  use  is  for 
bending  studding-halliards  to  the  yard,  by  taking 
two  turns  round  the  yard,  passing  the  end  be 
tween  them  and  the  yard,  and  half  hitching  it 
round  the  standing  part. 

FISHERMAN'S  WALK.  The  short  walk  afforded 
by  the  deck  of  a  fishing-boat,  "three  steps  and 
overboard." 

FISH-FAG.  A  fish-woman.  A  female  fish- 
porter. 

FISH-FALL.  The  rope  forming  the  purchase 
known  as  the  fish. 

FISH-FLAKE.    A  stage  on  which  fish  are  dried. 

FISH-FRONT.  A  strengthening  slab  on  the 
front  of  a  made  mast. 

FISH-GARTH.     A  fish-weir  on  a  river-bank. 

FISH-GIG.  A  spear  with  several  barbed  prongs 
for  spearing  fish. 

FISH-HACK.     The  fish  Gobius  niger. 

FISH-HOOK.  A  hook  used  in  angling.  A 
large  iron  hook  attached  to  the  fish-pendant,  or 
to  the  lower  block  of  the  fish-purchase,  used  to 
hook  the  arm  of  the  anchor  so  as  to  fish  it. 

FISHING-BOAT.     A  small  boat  used  for  fishing. 

FISHING-FROG.  The  devil-fish  or  angler  (Lo- 
phius  piscatorius). 

FISHING-GROUND.  A  bank  or  shore  frequented 
by  fishermen. 

FISHING-SMACK.  A  fishing-vessel  having  a 
well  in  the  hold  to  preserve  fish  alive. 

FISHING-TACKLE.  Lines,  hooks,  rods,  nets, 
etc.,  for  catching  fish. 

FISHING-VESSELS.  .  All  vessels  employed  in 
fishing. 

FISH-PENDANT.  A  large  rope  attached  to  the 
lower  block  of  the  fish-purchase  and  leading 
through  a  sheave  in  the  fish-boom,  having  the 
fish-hook  at  its  lower  end. 

FISH-PURCHASE.     See  FISH-TACKLE. 

FISH-ROOM.  A  room  in  old  men-of-war,  be 
tween  the  after  hold  and  the  spirit-room,  where 
fish,  and  sometimes  spirits,  were  kept. 

FISH-SPEAR.     A  short  spear  used  in  fishing. 

FISH-TACKLE.  The  assemblage  of  rope,  blocks, 
and  hook  by  which  the  anchor  is  fished. 

FISH-TAIL  PROPELLER.     A  propeller  consist 


ing  of  a  blade  hung  on  pivots,  the  axes  of  which 
are  not  coincident  with  the  centre  of  pressure  of 
the  blade,  attached  to  the  end  of  a  lever  oscil 
lating  in  a  plane  parallel  to  the  direction  of  the 
vessel.  The  automatic  oscillatory  motion  of  the 
blade  itself  is  constrained  to  a  desired  angle  by 
stops,  and  it  is  so  arranged  that  its  action  can  be 
reversed.  The  device  has  never  met  with  prac 
tical  success. 

•  FISH-TORPEDO.  A  self-impelling  torpedo. 
See  TORPEDOES. 

FISH-WIFE,  or  FISH-WOMAN.  A  woman  who 
deals  in  fish.  A  female  fish-seller. 

Fist.  To  lay  hold  of;  to  seize.  Hand  over 
fist,  rapidly. 

Fistularia.  A  genus  of  acanthopterygious 
fishes  characterized  by  having  the  head  pro 
longed  into  a  slender  tube,  with  the  mouth  at 
the  extremity, — named  by  Linnaeus. 

Fit.  To  adapt  to  any  purpose.  To  fit  the 
rigging,  to  worm,  parcel,  and  serve  it,  turn  in 
dead-eyes, — in  short,  to  prepare  it  for  use  at  sea. 
To  fit  out,  to  supply  with  necessaries. 

FIT-ROD.  A  small  iron  rod  with  a  hook  at 
one  end,  used  to  sound  the  holes  for  bolts  in  a 
ship's  side. 

FITTED  FURNITURE.  Spare  articles,  such  as 
bucklers,  chocks,  port-lids,  etc.,  furnished  to  a 
ship. 

Fiume.  A  seaport  town  of  Austro-Hungary, 
and  the  only  important  seaport  for  the  outlet  of 
the  produce  of  Hungary,  situated  on  the  small 
river  Fiumara,  where  it  falls  into  the  Gulf  of 
Quarnero,  at  the  N.E.  extremity  of  the  Adriatic. 
Lat.  45°  19'  36"  N.  ;  Ion.  14°  26'  45"  E.  The 
harbor  is  indifferent,  and  admits  only  small 
vessels,  but  the  roadstead  has  depth  of  water  for 
vessels  of  any  size  and  is  well  sheltered.  Pop. 
13,500. 

Five-fingers.  A  name  of  the  star-fish  (As- 
terias). 

Five-share-men.  Men  who  enlist  on  shares 
of  one-fifth  in  whalers. 

Fixed-ammunition.     See  AMMUNITION. 

Fixed-blocks.  An  old  name  for  the  chess-trees. 

Fixed  Stars.     See  STARS. 

Flabbergast.  To  astonish  by  extraordinary 
statements. 

Flag.  The  national  colors  or  standard.  An 
ciently  a  standard  consisted  of  an  object  fixed  to 
the  end  of  a  pole  and  borne  like  the  modern 
flag,  but,  unlike  it,  not  intended  to  wave  or 
flutter  with  the  wind.  The  Egyptians  used 
an  animal,  the  earlier  Greeks  a  piece  of  armor, 
Romulus  a  bundle  of  hay,  his  descendants  a 
hand,  and  the  later  Romans  the  eagle.  The  Cru 
sades  made  the  cross  a  favorite  standard  with 
the  nations  of  Europe.  Napoleon  adopted  the 
eagle  of  the  Romans,  and  Austria  and  Russia 
the  double-headed  eagle,  which  had  originated 
with  the  emperors  of  the  East  to  symbolize  their 
claim  to  rule  both  the  eastern  and  western  empires. 

The  national  flag  of  the  United  States  assumed 
the  form  which  it  now  has  after  many  experi 
ments  and  as  the  result  of  much  thought  and  dis 
cussion.  The  flags  used  by  the  colonies  before 
their  separation  from  the  mother-country  would 
naturally  be  those  of  England.  This,  however, 
does  not  appear  to  have  been  strictly  the  case, — 
several  flags,  differing  more  or  less  from  those  of 
that  kingdom,  having  been  adopted  at  different 
times  previous  to  the  Revolution. 


FLAG 


283 


FLAG 


The  ancient  national  flag  of  England  was  the 
banner  of  St.  George  (a  white  field  with  a  red 
cross). 

The  cross  of  St.  George,  as  early  as  the  14th 
century,  had  been  a  badge  almost  universally 
worn  by  the  English  soldiery.  It  was  worn  over 
the  armor,  and  was  afterwards  adopted  as  the 
national  standard.  This  formed  the  national 
colors  of  England  till  1606,  when,  by  royal  proc 
lamation,  the  cross  of  St.  Andrew  (a  white  cross 
on  a  blue  field),  which  had  been  the  badge  of 
the  Scots  as  early  as  the  Crusades,  was  united 
with  it.  This  standard  was  called  the  "  King's 
Colors,"  and  was  required  to  be  displayed  from 
the  maintop  of  British  vessels  ;  those  from  South 
Britain  to  carry  the  St.  George's  cross,  and  those 
from  North  Britain  the  St.  Andrew's  cross,  from 
the  foretop.  As  the  "King's  Colors"  were  pre 
scribed  authoritatively  for  "subjects  traveling 
by  sea"  only,  it  is  probable  that  the  St.  George's 
cross-flag  continued  to  be  used  quite  generally  by 
the  English  subjects  of  Great  Britain. 

It  appears  to  have  been  in  use  in  Massachu 
setts,  from  the  following  curious  circumstance: 
It  seems  from  the  early  records  that,  in  1635, 
complaint  was  entered  "  that  the  ensign  at  Salem 
was  defaced;  viz.,  one  part  of  the  red  cross  was 
taken  out."  On  an  examination  of  the  case  be 
fore  the  General  Court,  it  was  shown  that  the 
mutilation  was  done,  not  from  disloyalty  to  the 
flag,  but  "  upon  this  opinion  :  That  the  red  cross 
was  given  to  the  King  of  England  by  the  Pope, 
as  an  ensign  of  victory,  and  so  a  superstitious 
thing,  and  "a  relic  of  Antichrist."  The  account 
continues:  "  Because  the  Court  could  not  agree 
about  the  thing,  whether  the  ensigns  should  be 
laid  by  in  regard  that  many  refused  to  follow 
them,  the  whole  case  was  referred  to  the  next 
General  Court ;  and  the  commissioners  for  mili 
tary  affairs  gave  orders,  in  the  mean  time,  that 
all  ensigns  should  be  laid  aside." 

During  the  interim,  a  new  flag,  having  for  an 
emblem  the  red  and  white  roses  in  place  of  the 
cross,  was  proposed  ;  and  letters  in  relation  to 
the  matter  were  written  to  England  for  the  pur 
pose  of  obtaining  "  the  judgment  of  the  most 
wise  and  godly  there." 

This  project  seems  to  have  been  relinquished  ; 
for  in  December,  1635,  the  military  commissioners 
"appointed  colors  for  every  company,  leaving 
out  the  cross  in  all  of  them,  and  appointing  the 
King's  Arms  to  be  put  into  that  of  Castle  Island 
(Boston.)" 

The  next  year,  however,  a  difficulty  arose  be 
tween  the  authorities  and  the  masters  of  some 
English  ships,  in  consequence  of  the  "  King's 
Colors"  not  being  displayed  from  the  fort  on 
Castle  Island ;  and  "  the  Governor,  with  the 
consent  of  Mr.  Dudley,  gave  warrant  to  Lieut. 
Morris  to  spread  the  King's  Colors  at  Castle 
Island  when  the  ships  passed  by,  yet  with  this 
protestation :  That  we  hold  the  cross  in  the  en 
sign  idolatrous  ;  but,  this  being  the  King's  fort, 
the  Governor  and  some  others  were  of  opinion 
that  his  own  colors  might  be  spread  upon  it." 
There  being  no  "  King's  Colors"  to  be  found  to 
display  at  the  fort,  they  were  presented  by  Capt. 
Palmer,  of  one  of  the  ships,  "and  the  Governor 
in  requital  sent  him  three  beaver-skins." 

This  flag  was  used  only  at  the  castle,  being 
excluded  by  religious  opinion  from  general  use. 
The  one  containing  the  king's  arms  continued  to 


be  used  till  after  the  establishment  of  the  repub 
lic  in  England.  The  Parliament  had  adopted, 
as  the  colors  of  England,  the  old  standard  of  the 
cross  of  St.  George ;  and  in  1651,  the  General 
Court  of  Massachusetts  ordered  that,  "as  the 
Court  conceives  the  old  English  colors  now  used 
by  the  Parliament  of  England  to  be  a  necessary 
badge  of  distinction  betwixt  the  English  and 
other  nations  in  all  places  of  the  world  till  the 
State  of  England  shall  alter  the  same,  which  we 
must  desire,  we,  being  of  the  same  nation,  have 
therefore  ordered  that  the  captain  of  the  Castle 
shall  presently  advance  the  aforesaid  colors  of 
England  upon  the  Castle  upon  all  necessary  oc 
casions." 

The  St.  George's  cross-flag  appears  to  have 
been  used  in  the  colonies,  but  frequently  with 
some  variations,  during  the  next  half-century, 
or  until  the  "  Union  Flag"  was  prescribed  by 
Parliament,  in  1707.  A  crimson  flag,  of  which 
the  Union  was  a  St.  George's  cross  on  a  white 
field,  was  one  most  frequently  used.  Sometimes 
a  pine-tree  was  represented  in  one  of  the  squares 
formed  by  the  cross.  Another  flag,  represented 
in  a  work  of  the  time  and  called  "  the  flag  of  the 
New  England  Colonies,"  had  a  dark-blue  field 
with  the  cross  on  a  white  field  in  the  corner  ; 
while,  in  place  of  the  pine-tree,  a  half-globe  was 
represented. 

These  various  departures  from  the  English 
flag,  assuming  standards  of  their  own,  indicate  a 
growing  feeling  of  independence  among  the  col 
onies  ;  while  the  absence  of  a  desire  for  a  separa 
tion  from  the  mother-country  is  evident  in  the 
acknowledgment  of  allegiance  implied  by  repre 
senting  on  them  the  colors  of  England  ;  or,  when 
from  tenderness  of  conscience  these  were  left  out, 
the  arms  of  the  king.  By  act  of  Parliament, 
January  16,  1707,  ratifying  the  treaty  of  the 
union  of  the  two  kingdoms  of  England  and  Scot 
land,  it  was  ordained  "  that  the  ensign  armorial 
of  our  Kingdom  of  Great  Britain"  should  be 
"  the  crosses  of  St.  George  and  St.  Andrew  con 
joined"  (the  same  as  heretofore  described  as  the 
"  King's  Colors");  to  be  "  used  in  all  flags,  ban 
ners,  standards,  and  ensigns,  both  at  sea  and 
land,"  and  "  the  ensign  described  on  the  margent 
hereof  (the  crosses  conjoined  in  the  corner  of  a 
crimson  banner)  to  be  worn  on  board  of  all  ships 
or  vessels  belonging  to  any  of  our  subjects  what 
soever."  These  flags  were  known  familiarly  as 
"  Union  Flags,"  typifying  the  union  of  England 
and  Scotland,  and  were  generally  used  by  the 
colonies  till  their  rupture  with  the  mother- 
country. 

The  necessity  for  union  which  then  existed 
among  the  different  colonies  led  to  the  adoption 
of  badges  and  flags  ;  and  we  find  this  sentiment 
plainly  represented  in  many  of  them. 

A  committee  of  conference,  consisting  of  Dr. 
Franklin,  Mr.  Lynch,  and  Mr.  Harrison,  was 
appointed  by  the  Continental  Congress  to  con 
sider  the  subject  of  a  proper  flag.  It  assembled 
at  the  American  camp  at  Cambridge,  and  on 
the  first  day  of  January,  1776,  in  honor  of  the 
organization  of  the  new  army,  was  first  displayed 
the  flag  of  the  United  Colonies.  It  was  com 
posed  of  seven  red  and  six  white  stripes,  with 
the  red  and  white  crosses  of  St.  George  and  St. 
Andrew  conjoined,  on  a  blue  field  in  the  corner, 
denoting  the  union  of  the  colonies,  while  ac 
knowledging  their  continued  allegiance  to  Great 


FLAG 


284 


FLAG 


Britain,  and  was  named  "  The  Great  Union 
Flag." 

This  was  the  basis  of  our  present  national 
colors. 

In  the  mean  time,  various  flags  had  been 
adopted  by  different  colonies  or  bodies  of  troops 
assembled  to  resist  the  aggressions  of  the  mother- 
country.  For  the  Connecticut  troops  in  1775, 
was  prescribed  "  one  standard  for  each  regiment, 
to  be  distinguished  by  their  color ;  for  the  seventh, 
blue;  for  the  eighth,  orange,  etc."  Upon  these 
standards  were  represented  the  colony  arms,  with 
the  motto,  "  Qui  transtulit  sustinet"  ("He  who 
transplanted  us  will  sustain  us"),  round  it  in 
letters  of  gold.  The  flag  displayed  by  Gen.  Put 
nam  on  Prospect  Hill,  July  18,  1775,  is  described 
as  a  red  flag  bearing  the  motto  of  Connecticut, 
"  Qui  transtulit  sustinet,"  on  one  side,  and  on 
the  other  "  An  appeal  to  Heaven."  The  flag 
of  the  floating-batteries  had  "a  white  ground,  a 
tree  in  the  middle,  and  the  motto,  '  Appeal  to 
Heaven.'  "  Trumbull,  in  his  celebrated  picture 
of  the  battle  of  Bunker's  Hill,  has  represented 
our  troops  as  displaying  a  flag  combining  the  two 
last  mentioned, — a  red  flag  with  the  pine-tree  on 
a  white  field  in  the  corner, — and  such  a  flag  was 
probably  used  in  that  battle. 

The  first  American  flag  displayed  in  South 
Carolina  was  at  the  taking  of  Fort  Johnson  by 
Col.  Moultrie,  September  13,  1775,  described  as 
a  large  blue  flag  with  a  crescent  in  one  corner. 

In  many  of  the  camps  red  flags  were  used. 

But  these  various  banners  were  all  supplanted 
by  the  "  Great  Union  Flag." 

For  use  in  their  infant  navy,  other  flags  were 
also  appointed.  On  February  9,  1776,  Col.  Gads- 
den  presented  to  Congress  a  standard  to  be  used 
by  the  American  navy,  representing,  in  a  yellow 
field,  a  rattlesnake  of  thirteen  rattles,  coiled  to 
strike,  and  the  motto,  "  Don't  tread  on  me." 

The  device  of  a  rattlesnake  was  a  favorite  one 
with  the  colonists  at  this  period,  and  was  fre 
quently  adopted  as  a  heading  by  many  of  the 
newspapers  of  the  day  ;  being  represented  divided 
into  thirteen  parts,  with  the  initial  of  one  of  the 
colonies  in  each  part,  and  accompanied  by  the 
motto,  "Join  or  die." 

The  Massachusetts  Provincial  Congress  adopted 
a  flag  to  be  used  by  the  cruisers  of  the  colony  of 
Massachusetts, — a  white  flag  with  a  green  pine- 
tree,  and  the  inscription,  "Appeal  to  Heaven"  ; 
being  the  same  flag  as  that  used  on  the  floating- 
batteries  and  before  described.  The  "  Great 
Union  Flag,"  without  the  crosses,  and  sometimes 
with  a  representation  of  a  rattlesnake,  and  the 
motto  "  Don't  tread  on  me,"  was  also  used  as  a 
naval  flag,  and  denominated  "  the  Continental 
Flag." 

During  the  war  of  the  Revolution,  flags  with 
significant  and  appropriate  devices  were  occa 
sionally  adopted  and  borne  by  some  of  the  corps  ; 
many  of  which,  by  the  valor  of  the  corps  to 
which  they  belonged,  have  become  historic. 
Such  was  the  flag  of  the  "  Culpepper  Minute- 
Men,"  who  assembled  in  obedience  to  the  call 
of  Patrick  Henry,  upon  which  was  represented  a 
rattlesnake  and  the  mottoes  "Don't  tread  on 
me,"  "  Liberty  or  Death,"  and  the  name  of  the 
corps,  "  Culpepper  Minute-Men."  Such,  also, 
was  the  flag  of  the  "  Morgan  Rifles,"  which 
bore  upon  its  field  the  date  "  1776,"  surrounded 
by  a  wreath  of  laurel,  the  inscription  "  XI.  Vir 


ginia  Regiment,"  and  the  words  "  Morgan  Rifle 
Corps."  And  the  Pulaski  banner,  prepared  by 
the  nuns  of  Bethlehem,  and  sent  to  Count  Pulaski 
"  with  their  blessing,"  while  he  was  organizing 
a  corps  of  cavalry  in  Baltimore ;  this  was  of 
crimson  silk,  emblazoned  with  emblems  wrought 
with  the  needle  by  their  own1  hands.  The  Life- 
Guard  of  Washington  bore  a  banner  of  white 
silk,  with  devices,  and  the/ motto  of  the  corps, 
u  Conquer  or  die,"  painted  upon  the  field. 

The  "Great  Union  Flag,"  however,  which 
was  first  unfurled  on  the  1st  of  January,  1776, 
over  the  new  Continental  army  at  Cambridge, 
consisting  of  but  9659  men,  was  used  as  the  ban 
ner  par  excellence  of  the  United  Colonies. 

A  standard  for  the  United  States  was  not 
adopted  till  some  months  after  the  Declaration 
of  Independence.  Congress,  on  the  14th  of  June, 
1777,  passed  the  following  resolution,  which, 
however,' was  not  made  public  till  Septembers 
of  the  same  year  :  "  Resolved,  that  the  flag  of 
the  thirteen  United  States  be  thirteen  stripes, 
alternate  red  and  white,  that  the  union  be  thir 
teen  stars,  white  in  a  blue  field,  representing  a 
new  constellation." 

The  new  constellation  which  it  was  intended 
should  be  represented  is  supposed  to  be  Lyra, 
which  in  ancient  times  was  the  symbol  of  har 
mony  and  unity  among  men.  The  difficulty  of 
representing  a  constellation  on  a  standard  prob 
ably  led  to  a  modification  of  the  plan,  and  a  circle 
of  thirteen  stars  was  chosen,  signifying  union 
and  eternal  endurance.  Red  is  an  emblem  of 
courage  and  fortitude ;  white,  purity  ;  and  blue, 
constancy,  love,  and  faith. 

This  flag  was  used  at  the  surrender  of  Bur- 
goyne,  October  17,  1777. 

The  first  change  in  this  flag  was  in  1794,  when 
it  was  enacted  by  Congress  in  the  following  reso 
lution  :  "  That  from  and  after  the  first  day  of 
May,  Anrio  Domini  one  thousand  seven  hundred 
and'  ninety-five,  the  flag  of  the  United  States  be 
fifteen  stripes,  alternate  red  and  white.  That  the 
union  be  fifteen  stars,  white  in  a  blue  field." 
Approved  January '13,  1794. 

The  next  change  was  in  1818,  the  resolution 
of  Congress  being  as  follows  :  "  That,  from  and 
after  the  fourth  day  of  July  next,  the  flag  of  the 
United  States  be  thirteen  horizontal  stripes,  al 
ternate  red  and  white ;  that  the  union  be  twenty 
stars,  white  on  a  blue  field ;  and  that,  on  the  ad 
mission  of  a  new  State  into  the  union,  one  star 
be  added  to  the  union  of  the  flag  ;  and  that  such 
addition  shall  take  effect  on  the  fourth  day  of 
July  next  succeeding  such  admission."  Approved 
April  4,  1818. 

Flags  are  also  used  as  distinguishing  marks  of 
the  flag-ships  of  admirals,  vice-  and  rear-ad 
mirals  ;  they  are  of  blue  bunting,  are  worn  at 
the  main,  fore,  or  mizzen,  and  contain  four, 
three,  or  two  stars,  according  to  the  grade  of  the 
officer.  When  two  or  more  flag-officers  of  the 
same  grade  are  in  company,  the  senior  flies  the 
blue,  the  next  in  rank  the  red,  and  the  others  the 
white  flag.  The  distinctive  flag  of  the  Secretary 
of  the  Navy  is  worn  at  the  main  of  the  vessel  in 
which  he  is  embarked.  When  the  President  is 
on  board  a  man-of-war,  the  fact  is  denoted  by  the 
hoisting  of  the  national  colors  at  the  main. 

Flags  are  also  used  for  signaling.  (See  SIG 
NALS.)  Those  which  are  hoisted  at  the  yard-arms 
or  mast-heads  are  made  of  some  light  rough 


FLAKE 


285 


FLEAK 


material,  as  bunting,  that  a  very  light  breeze 
may  cause  them  to  blow  out ;  those  which  are 
made  use  of  in  signaling  by  hand  are  made  of 
some  light  smooth  material,  which  offers  little 
resistance  to  the  passage  of  the  flag  through  the 
air.  A  black  flag  is  usually  adopted  by  pirates; 
a  white  flag  is  shown  as  a  token  of  surrender  or 
as  a  flag  of  truce  (which  see)  ;  a  red  flag  is  hoisted 
when  powder  is  being  received  or  discharged,  and 
it  is  also  shown  as  a  defiance ;  a  yellow  flag  is 
hoisted  at  the  fore  when  there  is  any  infectious 
disease  on  board,  being  used  by  all  civilized 
nations  as  a  quarantine  flag.  To  hang  out  the 
white  flag,  to  call  for  quarter,  or  to  indicate 
friendly  intentions.  To  hang  out  a  red  flag,  to 
give  a  signal  of  defiance.  To  lower  or  strike  the 
flag,  to  haul  it  down  as  a  token  of  submission. 
To  flag,  to  send  a  signal-message  by  means  of  a 
hand-flag. 

FLAG-CAPTAIN.  The  commanding  officer  of  a 
flag-ship. 

FLAG-LIEUTENANT.  A  term  for  an  aid  to  the 
commander-in-chief.  „ 

FLAGMAN.  A  man  who  handles  a  hand-flag 
in  signaling. 

FLAG-OFFICER.  An  admiral,  vice-admiral, 
rear-admiral,  or  commodore. 

FLAG  OF  TRUCE.  A  white  flag  which  is  shown 
to  denote  a  desire  to  communicate  with  the 
enemy.  A  flag  of  truce  is,  in  its  nature,  of  a 
sacred  character ;  and  the  use  of  it  to  obtain 
knowledge  or  information  surreptitiously  against 
the  interests  'or  wishes  of  an  enemy  is  to  abuse  it, 
and  will  subject  the  bearer  to  punishment  as  a 
spy.  The  senior  officer  present  is  alone  author 
ized  to  dispatch  or  to  admit  communication  by  a 
flag  of  truce.  Flags  of  truce  should  never  be 
permitted  to  approach  sufficiently  near  to  acquire 
useful  information.  The  firing  of  a  gun  is  gen 
erally  understood  as  a  warning  not  to  approach 
nearer.  On  the  water,  a  flag  of  truce  should  be 
met  at  a  suitable  distance  by  a  boat  from  the 
senior  officer's  vessel,  in  charge  of  a  commis 
sioned  officer,  having  a  white  flag  plainly  dis 
played  from  the  time  of  leaving  until  her  return. 
In  dispatching  a  flag  of  truce  the  same  precau 
tions  are  to  be  observed.  When  a  flag  of  truce 
is  admitted,  the  ensign  is  always  to  be  hoisted 
and  a  white  flag  at  the  fore  on  board  the  vessel 
of  the  senior  officer  present  when  no  engagement 
is  in  progress,  and  kept  flying  until  the  flag  of 
truce  from  the  enemy  has  returned  within  his 
lines.  A  flag  of  truce  cannot  insist  on  being  ad 
mitted,  and  should  rarely  be  used  during  an  en 
gagement  ;  if  then  admitted,  there  is  no  breach 
of  faith  in  retaining  it.  Firing  is  not  necessarily 
to  cease  on  the  appearance  of  a  flag  of  truce 
during  an  engagement,  and  should  any  person 
connected  with  it  be  killed,  no  complaint  can  be 
made.  If,  however,  the  white  flag  should  be  ex 
hibited  as  a  token  of  submission,  firing  is  to 
cease.  See  TRUCE. 

FLAG-SHARE.  The  commander-in-chief's  share 
of  the  prize-money  awarded  to  all  vessels  making 
captures  within  the  limits  of  his  command. 

FLAG-SHIP.  A  vessel  flying  the  distinctive 
flag  of  an  admiral  or  the  broad-pennant  of  a 
commodore. 

Flake.    A  swinging  stage  hung  over  the  stern. 

Flam.     A  puff  of  wind.     A  shallow  spot. 

Flam-few.  The  glimmer  of  the  moon  on  the 
water. 


Flan.     A  sudden  flaw  of  wind  from  the  land. 

Flanche.     To  belly  out ;  to  flare. 

Flange.  In  mechanism,  projecting  parts  by 
which  one  portion  of  a  machine  or  structure 
is  bolted  or  riveted  to  another ;  as,  flanges  of 
pipes,  columns,  cylinder-heads,  boiler-plates,  etc. 
Flanges  may  project  either  externally  or  inter 
nally. 

A  projecting  rim  of  a  wheel,  as  applied  to  rail 
way  locomotive  or  car-wheels  to  constrain  them 
to  the  track. 

Flap.  The  cover  of  a  cartridge-box.  The 
violent  motion  of  a  sail,  caused  by  the  wind 
or  the  rolling  of  the  vessel. 

Flare.  The  skate,  Raia  batis.  To  project 
beyond  the  perpendicular ;  opposed  to  tumble 
home. 

Flash.  In  timber,  the  marks  of  the  grain. 
A  river  opening  into  a  bay,  separated  from  the 
sea  by  a  reef  of  rock.  A  canal  at  the  side  of 
a  river,  arranged  so  as  to  pour  its  waters  into  it, 
and  thus  shoot  boats  over  falls.  To  burn  loose 
powder,  producing  flame  but  no  noise.  Flash 
in  the  pan,  to  miss  fire  ;  to  fail ;  an  unsuccessful 
attempt.  To  make  a  flash,  to  shoot  a  boat  over 
rapids  by  a  flash. 

FLASHING  LIGHT.     See  LIGHTS. 

FLASHING  SIGNALS.     See  SIGNALS. 

FLASH-RIM.  A  cup-shaped  enlargement  of 
the  bore  of  carronades,  facilitating  loading,  and 
preserving  the  rigging  from  flame. 

FLASH^SHIP.  A  ship  all  paint  outside  and 
disorder  within  ;  a  showy  but  not  efficient  vessel. 

Flask.  A  horn,  leather,  or  metal  implement, 
for  holding  powder.  Priming-flasks  are  sup 
plied  to  prime  guns  for  salutes  in  the  navy.  A 
box  to  contain  a  mold  for  castings. 

Flat.  Horizontal;  level.  A  straight  part  in 
a  curve.  A  bank  over  which  the  tide  flows  ;  if 
of  less  than  3  fathoms  it  is  called  a  shoal,  shal 
low,  or  bar.  A  flat-bottomed  lighter.  The  posi 
tion  of  a  sail  when  the  yard  is  sharp  up,  the 
sheets  close  home,  and  the  halliards  taut  up,  or, 
in  othen  words,  when  it  lies  as  nearly  as  possible 
in  the  direction  of  the  keel.  A  sheet  is  flat  aft 
when  it  is  hauled  as  much  as  possible  in  the 
direction  of  the  keel, — applied  to  fore-and-aft 
sails.  Flat  aback,  see  ABACK. 

FLAT-BOTTOMED.  Having  little  rise  in  floor 
timbers;  flat-floored. 

FLAT-CALM.     See  DEAD-CALM. 

FLAT-FISH.  Sole,  turbot,  etc.,  which  swim, 
on  one  side,  and  have  the  eye  in  the  upper  side. 

FLAT-FLOORED.  Having  the  bottom  timbers 
lying  nearly  in  a  plane  perpendicular  to  the 
plane  of  the  keel. 

FLAT  NAILS.  Sharp  flat-headed  nails  used  in 
the  mold-loft. 

FLAT-SEAM.  When  two  edges  of  canvas  are 
overlapped,  and  thus  sewed  together,  it  is  called 
a  flat-seam. 

FLAT  SEIZING.  A  seizing  with  no  riding 
turns. 

FLAT  SENNIT.     See  SENNIT. 

FLATTEN-IN.  To  haul  the  sail  as  nearly  fore 
and  aft  as  may  be  to  produce  only  its  lateral 
effect.  Head-sails  are  flattened-in  to  pay  the 
ship's  bow  off,  or  turn  it  from  the  wind. 

Flaut.     See  FLUTE. 

Flaw.  A  defect  in  wood,  metal,  etc.  A  puff 
of  wind.  • 

Fleak.    See  DUTCH  PLAICE. 


FLEATE 


286 


FLOAT 


Fleate.  To  skim  fresh  water  off  the  sea  near 
the  mouths  of  rivers. 

Flechera.  A  fast  dispatch-boat  used  in  South 
American  waters. 

Fleech.  A  slab-cut  of  timber. 
Fleet.  To  pass  over  quickly ;  to  skim  over 
the  water.  To  shift  from  one  place  to  another. 
To  pull  the  blocks  of  a  tackle  farther  apart. 
" Fleet  ho!"  "  Let  go  and  shift I"  said  when  the 
blocks  come  together,  rendering  it  necessary  to 
pull  them  apart.  To  shift  the  turns  of  a  rope 
farther  down  on  the  capstan.  Fleet  the  messenger, 
to  shift  the  eyes  past  the  capstan.  An  arm  of 
the  sea  where  the  tide  flows.  A  bay  where 
vessels  can  anchor.  A  shallow  tidal  creek.  The 
whole  naval  force  of  a  country.  A  collection  of 
ships,  either  war  or  merchant.  A  fleet  is  divided 
into  divisions  and  squadrons,  the  centre  being 
under  the  commander-in-chief,  and  the  van  and 
rear  under  subordinates.  The  admiral,  vice-  and 
rear-admiral  occupy  these  posts  when  at  sea. 
A  small  fleet  is  called  a  flotilla,  and  the  same 
name  designates  a  large  fleet  of  small  vessels 
or  boats.  Fleets  of  great  size  were  early  used. 
The  Persians  first  assembled  great  numbers  of 
ships,  and  the  Carthaginians  and  Romans  counted 
them  by  hundreds.  The  Danes  and  Normans, 
in  their  early  incursions,  had  from  200  to  600 
vessels,  and  William  the  Conqueror  came  to 
England  with  1000  vessels.  In  the  early  naval 
history  of  England  from  200  to  500  ships  sailed 
together,  and  they  collected  more  than  1000 
vessels  during  the  early  wars  with  France; 
on  several  occasions  Louis  IX.  of  France  had 
1700  vessels, — on  his  expedition  to  the  Holy 
Land.  The  Great  Armada  consisted  of  only 
150  vessels,  varying  from  300  to  1200  tons.  Dur 
ing  the  Dutch  and  English  naval  wars,  and 
the  French  and  English  wars,  fleets  of  nearly  a 
hundred  ships  of  the  line,  and  sometimes  more, 
were  common.  With  a  great  increase  in  the 
size  and  cost  of  ships,  and  greater  individual 
power  of  each,  large  fleets  will  be  the  exception 
in  the  future.  A  designation  of  the  divisions  of 
the  cruising  navy  of  the  United  States,  as  the 
European  Fleet,  'the  North  Atlantic  Fleet,  the 
Pacific  Fleet,  and  the  Asiatic  Fleet.  Squadron  is 
also  here  employed. 

FLEET-CAPTAIN.  The  senior  aid  of  the 
admiral  of  a  fleet,  when  a  captain.  See  CHIEF- 
OF-STAFF. 

FLEET-GIG.     The  gig  of  the  fleet-captain. 

FLEET-PAYMASTER,  -SURGEON,  -ENGINEER, 
and  MARINE  OFFICER.  The  ranking  officers 
of  those  corps  attached  to  the  staff. 

FLEET-TACTICS.     See  NAVAL  TACTICS. 

FLEET-WATER  (Eng.}.  Water  that  overflows 
the  land. 

Flemish.  To  coil  down  a  rope  in  concentric 
coils,  closely  pressed  together.  See  FAKE. 

Flemish  Accounts.  Short  or  deficient  ac 
counts. 

Flemish  Eye.     See  EYE,  FLEMISH. 

Flemish  Fake.  A  fake  or  coil  of  rope  in 
which  the  separate  turns  are  concentric,  and  lie 
flat  on  the  deck,  without  riding  over  each  other. 

Flemish  Horse.  The  outer  or  short  foot-rope 
of  a  yard.  It  is  spliced  around  a  thimble  at  the 
yard-arm,  and  has  the  other  end  seized  to  the 
yard  some  distance  inside. 

Flench-gut.     Long  slices  of  whale's  blubber. 

Flense.    To  strip  off  the  blubber  of  a  whale. 


Flesh.  To  flesh  a,  sword,  to  use  it  in  action 
the  first  time. 

Flesh-traffic.     The  slave-trade. 

Flibot.     See  FLY-BOAT. 

Flibustier  (Fr.).     See  FILIBUSTER. 

Flicker.     To  veer  about ;  as  the  wind. 

Flidder.     The  limpet  (Ancylus}. 

Flighers.     An  old  law-term  for  masts. 

Flight.  A  Dutch  canal-boat  for  passengers. 
A  sudden  rise  in  the  lines  of  a  ship.  The  pas 
sage  of  a  projectile  through  the  air. 

Flinch.     See  FLENSE. 

FLINCH-GUT.     See  FLENCH-GUT. 

Flinders.     Splinters  of  wood. 

Flint.  Stone  to  strike  fire  with, — provided  to 
boats  and  for  the  galley.  Matches  are  forbidden 
on  board  ship. 

Flip.  A  drink  composed  of  beer,  spirits,  and 
sugar. 

Flipper.     A  fin  ;  the  hand. 

Flitch.     The  outside  cut  of  a  tree  or  log. 

Flittering.     Old  English  for  floating. 

Flizzing.  Flight  of  a  splinter  through  the 
air, — from  the  Dutch  flissen,  to  fly. 

Float.  A  place  or  basin  where  vessels  float. 
Inner  part  of  a  ship-channel.  In  wet-docks,  the 
basin  where  the  water  is  maintained  at  one  level 
by  locks.  A  raft  of  timber,  boxes,  or  barrels. 
A  camel  or  floating-stage.  The  paddle  of  a 
paddle-wheel.  Any  buoyant  body  used  to  con 
strain  another  body  in  a  constant  relative  posi 
tion  to  the  surface  of  a  liquid.  To  swim  on  the 
surface  of  the  water. 

FLOATAGE.     Same  as  flotsam  (which  see). 

FLOAT-BOARDS.  The  boards  fastened  radially 
on  the  rim  of  a  paddle-wheel. 

FLOATING  ANCHOR.     A  sea-anchor. 

FLOATING  BATTERY.  A  vessel  constructed  to 
float  in  smooth  water,  carrying  a  heavy  battery, 
and  strongly  protected  by  plating.  A  vessel 
used  as  a  battery  to  support  the  landing  of  troops. 
The  first  use  of  a  floating  battery  is  traced  far 
back  into  antiquity,  when  two  or  more  galleys 
were  united,  with  catapults,  battering-rams,  etc., 
on  their  decks,  to  attack  towns.  The  Knights 
of  St.  John,  at  Malta,  first  protected  a  battery 
with  metal,  using  lead,  in  1530.  In  modern 
times,  the  floating  batteries  used  at  Gibraltar 
in  1779-83  are  first  met  with.  These  were  ten 
in  number,  and  were  protected  with  timber,  junk, 
and  hides.  In  1855  the  French  constructed  float 
ing  batteries  at  Kinburn,  in  the  Crimea,  and  these 
were  effective,  and  some  still  remain  in  use. 
Four  of  them  are  of  280  tons  and  carry  two  5.1- 
inch  guns,  and  one  is  of  140  tons,  carrying  two 
6-inch  guns.  Spain  has  two, — the  "  Duque  de 
Tetuan"  and  the  "  Puigcerda."  Many  modern 
armored  vessels  are  simply  floating  batteries  with 
motive-power. 

FLOATING  BETHEL.  An  old  ship  fitted  up  as 
a  chapel. 

FLOATING  BREAKWATER.  A  system  of  an 
chored  cribs,  serving  to  break  the  force  of  waves. 

FLOATING  BRIDGE.  A  bridge  of  boats.  A 
ferry-boat,  running  on  chains  laid  in  a  narrow 
channel. 

FLOATING  COFFIN.  A  name  for  a  vessel  which 
is  considered  unseaworthy,  particularly  applied 
to  our  monitors  and  old  brigs,  the  old  English 
10-gun  brigs,  and  to  the  very  long  passenger 
steamers  engaged  in  the  transatlantic  trade. 
FLOATING  DAM.  The  caisson  of  a  dry-dock. 


FLOE 


287 


FLUX 


FLOATING  DERRICK.  The  application  of  the 
Bishop's  derrick  to  a  large  scow  of  such  a  ca 
pacity  as  to  handle  the  heaviest  weights,  such 
as  the  boiler  of  a  steamship,  and  which  is  also 
fitted  with  a  sufficient  steam-power,  in  order 
that  the  scow  and  weight  appended  can  be  trans 
ported  from  one  place  to  another  in  a  harbor.  It 
is  useful  also  in  many  other  ways. 

FLOATING  DOCK.  A  dock  built  for  the  re 
pairs  of  ships,  which  is  floating  instead  of  being 
formed  by  excavations.  There  are  several  kinds 
of  floating  docks,  known  as  the  sectional,  bal 
ance,  and  hydraulic  docks. 

FLOATING  LIGHT.  A  vessel  moored  off  a 
shoal  or  rocks  with  a  light  at  its  mast-head. 
There  are  25  light-ships  on  the  coast  of  the 
United  States,  with  35  lights.  A  light  erected 
on  a  buoy  or  floating-stage.  Buoy-lights  are 
now  furnished  with  gas-tanks  in  the  buoys,  in 
some  instances. 

FLOATING  PIER.  A  stage  or  camel  floating 
on  the  water,  rising  and  falling  with  the  tide. 

FLOAT-VALVE.  A  valve  connected  with  a 
float  so  that  it  may  be  automatically  opened, 
closed,  or  regulated  according  to  a  varying  sur 
face  of  a  liquid. 

Floe.  A  detached  portion  of  an  ice-field.  See 
CALF. 

Flog.  To  punish  by  striking  with  the  cat- 
o'nine-tails.  This  punishment  is  now  forbidden 
in  our  service,  though  quite  common  in  some 
others,  particularly  the  Russian.  To  flog  the 
glass,  to  agitate  and  so  hasten  the  flow  of  sand 
through  it;  sometimes  practiced  in  early  days  by 
the  midshipmen  eager  for  their  watch  to  be  up. 

Flome.     An  old  word  for  a  river  or  flood. 

Flood.  The  flowing  in  of  the  tide.  The 
rising  tide,  known  as  young  flood,  high  flood, 
spring  flood,  half  flood,  etc.  To  overflow ;  to 
deluge  with  water;  as,  to  flood  the  magazine. 
See  TIDE. 

FLOOD-ANCHOR.     See  ANCHOR. 

FLOOD-COCKS.  The  cocks  that  are  fixed  in 
pipes  leading  from  the  ship's  side  below  the 
water-line  into  the  magazine,  used  to  flood  the 
latter  in  case  of  fire.  These  cocks  are  turned  by 
levers  from  the  deck. 

FLOOD-MARK.  A  mark  placed  on  the  shore 
or  a  wharf  at  the  highest  tide  ;  high- water 
mark.  In  England  it  marks  the  extent  of  Ad 
miralty  jurisdiction. 

Flook,  or  Fluck.     A  flounder  ;  a  flat-fish. 

Floor.  All  that  part  of  a  ship  on  either  side 
of  the  keel  which  approaches  nearer  to  a  hori 
zontal  than  to  a  perpendicular  direction. 

FLOOR-HEADS.  The  outer  ends  of  the  floor- 
timbers. 

FLOOR-PLAN.  A  plan  of  the  floors  or  bottom 
timbers  of  the  ship,  upon  the  drawings  of  the 
ship,  or  the  mold-loft  floor. 

FLOOR-RIBBAND.  The  ribband  next  below 
the  floor-heads. 

FLOOR-SWEEPS.  Radii  that  sweep  the  heads 
of  the  floors.  It  is  an  old  method  of  construc 
tion,  not  used  nowadays. 

FLOOR-TIMBERS.  The  lower  timbers  of  the 
frame  of  a  ship  placed  square  across  the  keel, 
and  which  are  consequently  thoroughly  secured 
to  the  keel. 

Flory-boat.  A  small  boat  used  to  carry  pas 
sengers  from  steamers  to  the  shore. 

Flosh.    A  weedy  marsh  on  the  sea-shore. 


Flosk.  The  sea-sleeve,  anker-fish,  cuttle-fish, 
or  squid  (Sepia  loligo). 

Flota.  The  fleet  of  Spanish  galleys  that 
yearly  sailed  to  Mexico  in  the  17th  century. 

Flota  Navium.     An  old  term  for  fleet. 

Flote.     An  old  term  for  wave. 

FLOTE-BOTE.  An  old  term  for  a  yawl  or  row- 
boat. 

Flotilla.     A  fleet  of  small  vessels. 

Flot-mann.     A  very  old  term  for  a  sailor. 

FLOTSAM,  or  FLOTSON  (Law).  Goods  floating 
on  the  sea,  as  distinguished  from  jetsam,  or  goods 
thrown  into  the  sea,  and  which,  sinking,  remain 
under  water ;  and  also  from  ligan,  those  cast  into 
the  sea  and  buoyed.  In  olden  times,  such  goods 
belonged  to  the  finder  ;  later,  they  were  the  prop 
erty  of  the  sovereign  ;  at  present,  salvage  or 
wreckage  is  allowed  on  them. 

Flounder.  The  flat-fish  (Platessa  flessus}; 
called  a\so  floun-dab. 

Flow.  To  move  in  a  steady  stream.  The 
rising  of  the  tide.  The  current  of  a  river.  The 
direction  or  set  of  a  current.  To  flow  the  head- 
sheets,  to  ease  them  off  so  the  wind  will  have  no 
effect  on  the  head-sails. 

FLOWING.  The  position  of  a  sheet  when  it 
is  eased  off. 

Flowerof  the  Winds.  The  old  compass  painted 
on  charts,  a  rose  or  lily  being  drawn  in  its  centre. 

Flowering.  The  shoals  or  strata  of  fish-feed, 
often  seen  in  the  water  about  spawning-time. 

Flowing  Hope.     See  FORLORN  HOPE. 

Flue.  The  fluke  of  an  anchor.  A  passage  for 
distributing  the  gaseous  products  of  combustion 
of  a  furnace,  or  conveying  them  to  a  chimney. 
In  steam-boilers,  metallic  flues  surrounded  by 
water  constitute  the  larger  portion  of  the  fire  or 
heating  surface.  Small  cylindrical  metallic  flues 
are  called  tubes. 

FLUE-BOILER.  A  steam-boiler  in  which  the 
fire  or  heating  surface  is  chiefly  in  flues  instead 
of  tubes. 

FLUE-SURFACE.  The  aggregate  surface  of 
flues  exposed  to  heat. 

Fluffit.     The  movement  of  the  fins  of  a  fish. 

Fluid  Compass.     See  COMPASS. 

Fluke.  The  large  triangular  tail  of  the  whale. 
The  triangular  blade  at  the  end  of  the  anchor- 
arms,  that  forms  a  holding  surface  when  the 
anchor  is  down.  See  ANCHOR. 

Flummery.     A  dish  of  oat-meal. 

Flurry.  The  movements  of  a  dying  whale. 
A  light  breeze  of  wind,  agitating  the  surface  of 
the  sea.  Haste  and  confusion. 

Flush.  Even ;  level.  Well  provided  with 
money. 

FLUSH  DECK.  A  deck  extending  from  stem 
to  stern  without  a  break. 

Flustered.     Excited  or  worried. 

Flute,  or  Fluyt.  A  pink-rigged  fly-boat,  the 
after-part  of  which  is  round-ribbed.  Armed  en 
flute,  partially  armed. 

Flute-mouth.  A  fish  of  the  genus  Fisttda- 
ridce,  with  a  snout  drawn  out  into  a  tube. 

Fluvial.     Belonging  to  a  river. 

FLUVIAL  LAGOON.  A  shallow  lagoon,  formed 
on  the  sea-coast  by  the  action  of  a  river. 

FLUVIO-MARINE.  The  combined  action  of 
river  and  sea. 

Flux.  The  coming  in  of  the  tide.  In  chem 
istry  and  metallurgy,  any  substance  or  mixture 
used  to  promote  the  fusion  of  metals  or  min- 


FLY 


288 


FCENUS  NAUTICUM 


erals,  as  alkalies,  borax,  etc.  In  large  operations, 
limestone  is  extensively  used.  The  action  of  a 
flux  is  to  combine  with  the  more  refractory  or 
infusible  components  of  an  ore  or  mineral,  leav 
ing  the  pure  metal  alone  exposed  to  the  action 
of  the  heat,  as  in  smelting  silicious  iron  ores 
with  lime  flux,  where  the  infusible  lime  combines 
with  the  silica,  forming  "slag,"  which  separates 
from  the  metal. 

Fly.  In  mechanism,  a  contrivance  for  resist 
ing  acceleration  or  retardation  of  movement  in 
a  machine  when  the  ratio  between  the  motive 
force  and  the  resistance  to  be  overcome  in  per 
forming  work  is  variable.  When  used  to  pre 
vent  accelerated  motion  only,  as  when  the  motive 
force  is  a  descending  weight  or  released  spring 
acting  against  a  nearly  constant  resistance,  a 
fly  consists  of  two  or  more  radial  arms,  fixed  to 
a  rapidly  revolving  spindle  or  shaft  so  as  to  re 
volve  with  it,  to  the  ends  of  which  are  attached 
thin  vanes  or  plates  presenting  their  flat  surfaces 
to  the  resistance  of  the  atmosphere  or  other  fluid. 
This  device  is  familiar  in  striking-clocks  and 
certain  automatic  musical  instruments.  When 
used  to  prevent  fluctuations  of  speed  arising  from 
an  alternately  varying  ratio  between  force  ap 
plied  and  resistance  to  be  overcome,  weights  are 
substituted  for  vanes,  which,  by  their  moment 
of  inertia,  absorb  the  energy  of  acceleration 
when  the  motive  force  exceeds  the  resistance, 
and  yield  it  when  the  resistance  exceeds  the  force. 
The  part  of  a  flag  from  the  union  to  the  extreme 
end.  The  compass-card.  To  move  quickly 
or  suddenly  ;  as,  to  fly  up  into  the  wind.  To  float 
in  the  wind ;  as,  a  flag  at  the  mast-head.  To  let 
fly,  to  let  go  ;  as,  to^  let  fly  the  sheets.  To  fly 
about,  to  chop  about. 

FLY-AWAY,  CAPE.     See  CAPE  FLY-AWAY. 

FLY-BLOCK.  The  upper  block  of  the  topsail 
halliards. 

FLY-BY-NIGHT.  A  square-sail,  set  like  a 
stun'sail,  used  by  sloops  before  the  wind.  A 
jib  used  as  a  stun'sail,  extending  from  the  top 
mast  head. 

FLYER.     A  clipper.     A  fast  sailer. 

FLY-GOVERNOR.  A  governor  in  which  uni 
formity  of  motion  is  secured  by  means  of  fly- 
vanes.  See  GOVERNOR. 

FLYING  DUTCHMAN.  A  traditional  spectre- 
ship,  seen  near  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  The 
legends  are  numerous,  but  owe  their  origin  to  a 
taTe  of  a  Dutch  skipper,  who,  baffled  long  by 
head  winds,  swore  he  would  double  the  cape  in 
spite  of  God  and  man.  Thenceforth  his  ship 
sailed  without  chart  or  compass,  and  is  seen  in 
all  weathers,  sometimes  with  little  sail  in  a  calm, 
sometimes  with  all  sail  in  a  tempest.  Sailors  also 
ascribe  to  its  influence  white  squalls,  shipwrecks, 
and  other  disasters.  Sometimes  it  visits  passing 
ships,  when  wine  sours,  and  other  disasters  hap 
pen.  Sometimes  mail  is  sent  from  it.  when  the 
unlucky  ship  is  never  again  heard  from.  His 
appearance  constantly  changes,  so  that  he  is 
never  recognizable.  His  crew  is  composed  of 
the  spirits  of  old  thieves,  skulkers,  and  other 
outcasts  from  ships.  Many  other  legends  are 
connected  with  the  famous  Hollander,  and  the 
theme  has  furnished  literature  and  music  with 
much  material. 

FLYING  FISH.  Fish  of  the  genus  Scombere- 
socidce,  or  Sclerogenidce,  whose  pectoral  fins  are 
prolonged  into  a  species  of  wings,  smooth-edged, 


and  which  jump  out  of  the  water  long  distances. 
Sometimes  the  name  is  applied  to  the  flying  gur 
nard. 

FLYING  GURNARD.  A  fish  of  the  genus  Dac- 
tylopterus.  These  resemble  flying  fish,  but  their 
wing-bones  are  prolonged  beyond  the  mem 
branes,  and  they  have  a  spine  on  the  head.  Both 
these  and  flying  fish  are  edible,  and  abound  in 
tropical  waters. 

FLYING  JIB.  The  outermost  jib,  or  sail,  on 
the  bowsprit,  used  as  a  jib  to  turn  the  ship's 
head.  It  is  generally  taken  in  and  set  with 
royals,  is  one  of  the  light  sails,  and  sets  on  a 
stay  leading  to  the  fore-topgallant  mast-head, 
through  the  boom  end.  For  the  gear  of  the  fly 
ing  jib  see  under  proper  heads. 

FLYING  JIB-BOOM.  The  light  boom  which 
extends  beyond  the  jib-boom.  It  is  an  outrigger 
for  the  stay,  and  lies  along  the  jib-boom  for 
half  of  its  length,  being  secured  by  a  belly-lash 
ing  to  it,  and  by  a  heel-clamp  to  the  bowsprit- 
cap,  while  it  passes  through  a  vvythe  on  the  boom 
end.  For  the  rigging  of  the  jib-boom  see  under 
proper  heads. 

FLYING  KITES.  Those  lofty  sails,  now  obso 
lete,  formerly  carried  above  the  royals  ;  as  sky- 
sails,  moon-sails,  star-gazers,  etc. 

FLYING  LIGHT.  The  state  of  e,  ship  when 
she  has  little  cargo,  and  is  light  in  draft. 

FLYING  PROA.  A  kind  of  double  canoe  of  the 
Ladrone  Islands.  The  lee  side  is  flat,  keeping 
the  craft  up  to  the  wind  in  the  same  manner  as  a 
lee-board  or  centre-board.  A  smaller  canoe  is 
attached  to  an  outrigger  rigged  out  to  windward  ; 
when  the  wind  freshens  a  man  is  sent  out  on  the 
outrigger.  It  carries  an  enormous  triangular 
sail,  and  sails  very  close  to  the  wind,  to  which  it 
always  presents  the  rounded  side.  It  is  very 
light,  being  held  together  with  coir  yarns. 

FLYING  SQUID.  The  genus  of  Cephalapod 
fish  called  Ommastrephes.  It  sometimes  jumps 
high  out  of  the  water. 

FLYING  STUN'SAIL.  A  stun'sail  set  flying, 
between  the  masts. 

FLY-WHEEL.  A  wheel  with  a  heavy  rim, 
which,  by  its  great  moment  of  inertia,  accumu 
lates  the  energy  of  acceleration,  and  yields  it 
when  motion  is  retarded,  as  in  equalizing  the 
motion  of  a  crank,  or  overcoming  the  resistance 
of  suddenly  applied  work,  as  in  rolling-mills. 

Foam.  'Froth  produced  by  agitating  the 
waves,  or  arresting  their  motion.  A  liquid  hold 
ing  such  a  quantity  of  vapor  or  gas  in  suspension 
as^to  cause  it  to  form  a  mass  of  small  bubbles. 

FOAM-COCK.     A  cock  to  blow  off  the  foam. 

FOAMING.  In  steam-enginery,  a  condition  of 
the  water  in  a  boiler  when  in  a  state  of  foam. 
The  principal  causes  of  this  condition  are  im 
purities  in  the  water,  which  are  either  very 
volatile  or  tend  to  make  it  viscid,  or  a  higher 
temperature  of  the  water  than  is  due  to  the 
steam-pressure.  The  latter  state  may  result  from 
temporarily  drawing  the  steam  from  the  boiler 
more  rapidly  than  it  can  be  formed  at  the  proper 
temperature  and  pressure.  Foaming  endangers 
both  boiler  and  engine ;  the  former,  because  the 
true  water-level  cannot  be  ascertained,  and  the 
latter,  because  the  water  is  carried  bodily  into 
the  cylinder,  producing  destructive  shocks. 

Focal  Distance.  The  distance  between  the 
object-glass  and  the  image. 

Fcenus  Nauticum.     Usury  or  bottomry. 


FOG 


289 


FOOTE 


Fog.  Watery  vapor,  precipitated  in  the  lower 
atmosphere,  causing  a  mist  or  obscurity.  Fogs 
are  produced  by  the  rapid  cooling  of  the  atmos 
phere  near  the  earth,  causing  it  to  part  with  its 
moisture.  They  are  common  near  banks  where 
currents  meet,  and  hover  about  the  banks  of  the 
Gulf  Stream.  In  northern  latitudes  they  are 
very  prevalent.  Dry  fogs,  or  dust-clouds,  are 
also  met  with  on  the  coast  of  Africa.  Fog  is 
generally  a  sign  of  good  weather. 

FOG-ALARM.  An  audible  signal  to  warn  ves 
sels  from  rocks,  shoals,  or  other  dangerous  places. 
The  sound  is  made  by  a  bell,  trumpet,  or  whistle, 
and  the  apparatus  may  be  worked  by  the  heaving 
of  the  sea,  by  the  effect  of  the  tide  or  current,  or 
by  machinery.  A  notable  fog-alarm  was  the 
bell  on  the  Inchcape  rock ;  the  clapper  was 
moved  by  the  action  of  the  waves. 

FOG-BANK.  A  dense  fog  lying  in  a  cloud  or 
bank  about  the  horizon.  Lying  at  the  water's 
edge  it  resembles  land,  and  has  led  to  those 
illusive  appearances  called  Dutchman's  land, 
Cape  Fly-away,  No-man's  land,  Butter-land,  etc. 

FOG-BELL.  A  bell  rung  to  warn  ships  during 
fogs.  When  ships  are  at  anchor  a  bell  is  thus 
rung.  Bells  are  placed  on  buoys  or  on  frame-  or 
iron-work  at  sea  in  the  vicinity  of  shoals  to 
warn  ships.  Some  are  arranged  to  toll  automat 
ically  by  the  motion  of  the  waves,  tide,  or  winds. 
A  bell  is  also  sometimes  erected,  connected  with 
machinery,  near  a  light-house  on  shore,  to  ring 
in  case  of  fog. 

FOG-BOW.  A  bow  formed  in  high  latitudes 
opposite  the  sun,  sometimes  white,  sometimes 
prismatic  in  colors.  It  is  caused  by  refraction, 
and  is  said  to  indicate  the  clearing  away  of  fogs. 

FOG-DOG.  A  clearing  spot  in  a  fog,  or  a  break 
in  the  bank,  presaging  the  lifting  of  the  fog. 

FOG-EATER.  Much  the  same  as  fog-bow  and 
fog-dog,  and  including  both.  A  break  in  a  fog- 
bank  or  mist,  a  sign  of  clearing  weather. 

FOGGY.  Abounding  with  fog.  Obscure  ;  be 
clouded.  Half  drunk. 

FOG-HORN.     A  horn  for  making  fog-signals. 

FOG-RING.     A  circular  bank  of  fog. 

FOG-SIGNAL.  A  signal  made  during  fog  to 
warn  ships  from  each  other's  path,  or  of  dan 
gers,  such  as  rocks  and  shoals.  Ships  at  anchor 
generally  use  a  bell,  and  this  is  used  also  in  other 
cases.  (See  FOG-BELL.)  Sailing-ships  under 
way  use  a  horn.  Automatic  horns  have  been 
devised,  either  causing  the  sound  by  a  motion 
communicated  by  the  hand,  or  by  the  rolling  of 
the  ship.  Steamers  under  way  use  a  steam- 
whistle.  More  effective  signals  are  desirable, 
but  have  not  yet  been  adopted.  On  shore,  besides 
a  bell,  a  gun  has  been  used,  a  steam-whistle,  and 
a  siren,  where  the  sound  is  caused  by  blowing 
air  or  steam  through  revolving  disks  in  which 
holes  are  cut.  Buoys  off  shore  have  in  many  in 
stances  automatic  fog-whistles  attached  to  them. 
On  the  coast  of  the  United  States  there  are  54 
fog-signals,  16  of  them  duplicates.  Many  of 
those  on  the  light-vessels  are  worked  by  caloric- 
engines. 

FOG-WHISTLE.     See  FOG-SIGNAL. 

Fogram.     Liquor  of  indifferent  quality. 

Fogy.  An  old-fashioned  person.  An  increase 
of  pay  due  to  length  of  service. 

Foil.     A  slender,  blunt  sword  used  in  fencing. 

Folder.     The  folding  sight  of  a  fire-arm. 

Folding  Boat.  A  boat  made  of  frame-work 
19 


and  canvas,  so  as  to  be  folded  up  into  a  small 
bundle. 

Follis.     A  large-meshed  net. 

Followers  (Eng.).  A  captain  or  flag-officer's 
servants  and  boat's  crew.  Young  midshipmen 
formerly  going  with  the  captain  from  ship  to 
ship.: 

Fomalhaut.  The  bright  star  a  Plscis  Aus 
tralia.  See  PISCIS  AUSTRALIS. 

Foo-Choo.  One  of  the  treaty-ports  and  a 
large  city  of  China,  capital  of  the  province  of 
Fo-Kien,  on  the  Min  River,  25  miles  from  its 
mouth.  Lat.  26°  12/  24"  N. ;  Ion.  119°  30'  E. 
It  is  surrounded  by  an  amphitheatre  of  hills 
about  4  miles  distant,  and  is  inclosed  by  a  cas 
tellated  wall  9  or  10  miles  in  circumference. 
The  whole  is  commanded  by  a  fortified  hill  500 
feet  above  the  plain,  and  inside  of  the  walls  is 
another  height  crowned  by  a  conspicuous  watch- 
tower.  Foo-Choo  has  a  naval  arsenal,  ship 
yards,  and  a  school  of  navigation.  Pop.  500,000. 

Foolen  (Eng,).  The  space  between  the  high- 
water  mark  and  the  foot  of  the  wall  on  the  banks 
of  a  river. 

Fool-fish.  The  long-finned  file-fish  of  the 
genus  Batistes. 

Foolish  Guillemot.  The  diving-bird,  Uria 
troile. 

Foot.  A  linear  measure  of  12  inches ;  the 
foot  varies  in  different  countries  from  21.022 
centimetres  to  50  centimetres  in  length.  The 
lower  edge  of  a  sail.  To  foot,  to  push  with  the 
feet ;  as,  to  foot  the  fore-sheet  clear  of  the 
backstays. 

FOOT-BOARD.  A  small  board  in  skiffs,  to  serve 
as  a  stretcher  for  the  foot  of  the  rower.  A  gang- 
board. 

FOOT-BOAT.  A  small  boat  used  to  carry  foot- 
passengers. 

FOOT-BRAIL. 

FOOT-CLEW. 
mock. 

FOOT-HOOK.     Same  as  futtock  (which  see). 

FOOTING.  The  fine  which  a  landsman  has  to 
pay  on  first  going  aloft. 

FOOT-POUND.  The  unit  of  measure  of  work, 
which  is  a  resistance  of  one  pound  moved  through 
a  space  of  one  foot.  See  WORK. 

FOOT-ROPE.  The  roping  on  the  foot  of  a  sail. 
The  rope  extending  under  a  yard,  from  near  the 
end  to  the  slings,  or  middle,  for  the  men  to  stand 
on.  It  is  also  used  on  the  jib-  and  flying  jib- 
booms,  and  on  the  spanker-boom.  They  were 
formerly  called  horses,  and  are  still  supported  at 
intervals  along  the  yard  by  the  stirrups. 

FOOT-VALVE.  A  valve  placed  between  the 
condenser  and  air-pump  of  a  steam-engine,  and 
through  which  the  products  of  condensation  are 
drawn. 

Foote,  Andrew  Hull,  Rear-Admiral  U.S.N. 
Son  of  Gov.  S.  A.  Foote.  Born  in  New  Haven, 
Conn.,  September  12,  1806;  died  in  New  York 
City,  June  26,  1863.  Acting  midshipman  in 
1822,  he  made  his  first  cruise  in  the  schooner 
"Grampus,"  sent  in  1823  to  chastise  the  West 
Indian  pirates.  Lieutenant,  May  27,  1830 ;  com 
mander,  December  19,  1852.  He  was  flag-lieu 
tenant  in  1833  of  the  Mediterranean  Squadron ; 
and  in  1838,  as  first  lieutenant  of  the  "John 
Adams,"  Commodore  Read,  circumnavigated  the 
globe,  and  took  part  in  an  attack  on  the  pirates  of 
Sumatra.  While  stationed  at  the  Naval  Asylum, 


See  BRAIL. 
The  clew  at  the  foot  of  a  ham- 


FORBIN 


290 


FORBIN 


in  1841-43,  he  prevailed  upon  many  of  the  in 
mates  to  give  up  their  spirit  rations,  being  one 
of  the  first  to  introduce  the  principle  of  total 
abstinence  from  intoxicating  drinks  in  the  navy, 
and  continued  this  effort  in  the  "  Cumberland," 
in  1843-45,  besides  delivering  an  extemporaneous 
sermon  every  Sunday  to  the  crew.  In  1849-52, 
in  command  of  the  brig  "  Perry,"  he  was  on  the 
African  coast,  successfully  engaged  in  suppress 
ing  the  slave-trade.  He  published  in  1854 
"Africa,  and  the  American  Flag."  He  com 
manded  in  1856  the  sloop  "  Portsmouth"  on  the 
China  station.  Arriving  at  Canton  just  before 
the  commencement  of  hostilities  between  the 
English  and  Chinese,  he  exerted  himself  in  pro 
tecting  American  property,  and  having  been, 
while  thus  engaged,  tired  upon  by  the  Barrier 
Forts,  received  permission  from  Commodore  Arm 
strong  to  demand  an  apology  for  this  indignity. 
This  being  refused,  he  attacked  the  forts,  four  in 
number,  with  the  "  Portsmouth"  and  "  Levant," 
breached  the  largest,  and,  with  280  sailors,  landed 
and  carried  it  by  storm.  The  remaining  forts 
were  successfully  carried,  with  a  total  loss  of  40  to 
the  attacking  party.  The  works  were  of  granite, 
with  walls  7  feet  thick,  mounting  176  guns,  and 
garrisoned  by  5000  men,  400  of  whom  were 
killed  and  wounded.  In  July,  1861,  he  became 
captain,  and  in  September  flag-officer  of  the 
flotilla  fitting  out  in  the  Western  waters.  Feb 
ruary  4,  1862,  he  sailed  from  Cairo  with  seven 
gunboats,  four  of  them  ironclads,  to  attack  Fort 
Henry,  on  the  Tennessee  liiver.  "Without  await 
ing  the  co-operation  of  Gen.  Grant,  he  attacked 
the  fort  at  noon  of  the  6th,  and  in  two  hours 
compelled  its  surrender.  On  the  14th  he  attacked 
Fort  Donelson ;  but  the  fleet  was  obliged  to 
haul  off  just  as  the  enemy's  water-batteries  had 
been  silenced,  two  of  the  gunboats  having  be 
come  unmanageable.  Foote  was  severely  wounded 
in  the  ankle  by  a  fragment  of  a  64-pound  shot. 
Though  on  crutches,  he  proceeded  down  the  Mis 
sissippi  with  his  fleet  and  a  number  of  mortar- 
boats  to  besiege  Island  No.  10.  After  its  reduc 
tion,  April  7,  he  returned  to  New  Haven.  Re 
gaining  his  health,  he  was  made  chief  of  the 
Bureau  of  Equipment  and  Recruiting.  July 
31,  1862,  he  was  appointed  rear-admiral  on  the 
active  list.  On  Admiral  Dupont's  being  relieved 
from  his  command  of  the  South  Atlantic  Block 
ading  Squadron,  May,  1863,  Admiral  Foote  was 
appointed  to  succeed  him. 

Forbin,  Claude  (Chevalier,  and  afterwards 
Count  de),  a  very  celebrated  French  sailor,  was 
born  near  Aix,  in  Provence,  in  August,  1656, 
and  died  at  Saint  Marcel,  near  Marseilles,  on 
the  4th  of  March,  1735.  His  name  has  often  been 
confounded  with  two  others  of  the  same  family 
who  bore  the  title  of  chevalier, — one  of  whom 
was  his  uncle. 

The  Count  de  Forbin  wrote  his  own  memoirs, 
— almost  the  exception  in  the  case  of  French  sea 
men  of  the  period, — the  other  one  who  has  given 
us  his  life  being  Duguay-Trouin.  Forbin  most 
unjustly  abuses  his  contemporaries, — even  Jean 
Bart  and  Duguay-Trouin, — but,  with  that  ex 
ception,  his  "Memoirs"  are  both  amusing  and 
instructive. 

From  Forbin's  own  showing  it  appears  that, 
from  extreme  youth  to  the  age  of  nineteen  he 
was  involved  in  every  species  of  dissipation,  debt, 
gambling,  and,  moreover,  a  great  duelist. 


In  1675  he  entered  the  galley  service  as  a 
"  standard  bearer,"  making  several  cruises.  This 
grade  being  suppressed  in  1676,  Forbin  entered 
the  land  service,  in  a  corps  of  rnusqueteers,  com 
manded  by  a  relative,  and  made  a  campaign  in 
Flanders. 

In  1677  he  re-entered  the  marine,  as  ensiegne  de 
vaisseau.  He  soon  lost  his  commission,  how 
ever,  and  was  even  condemned  to  decapitation, 
for  having  killed  another  officer  in  a  duel.  After 
a  time  he  was  pardoned  for  this  offense,  and 
actually  contrived  to  again  enter  the  navy,  as  an 
enseigne  de  vaissea.ii,  by  substituting  himself  for 
a  brother  whom  he  much  resembled,  and  who 
was  prevented,  by  ill  health,  from  going  to  sea. 

In  1680,  Forbin  served  with  D'Estrees  in  the 
West  Indies,  and  in  1682-83,  with  Duquesne  at 
the  bombardments  of  Algiers.  For  his  coolness 
and  bravery  on  these  occasions  he  was  made 
lieutenant  de  vaisseau. 

Two  years  later  he  was  a  member  of  the  em 
bassy  sent  to  the  King  of  Siam  by  Louis  XIV., 
and  the  Eastern  monarch  was  so  pleased  with 
Forbin  that  he  retained  him  at  his  court,  and 
made  him  admiral,  and  general  in  his  army,  be 
sides  bestowing  upon  him  other  high  dignities. 
Forbin  appears  to  have  very  soon  got  tired  of  it 
all,  and  obtaining  leave,  on  account  of  his  health, 
to  go  to  the  French  colony  of  Pondicherry,  he 
thence,  without  further  ceremony,  returned  to 
France,  where  he  appeared  at  court,  and  amused 
Louis  XIV.  with  his  descriptions  of  court-life  in 
Siam. 

In  1689,  after  the  rupture  of  the  peace  of 
Nimeguen,  Forbin  re-entered  active  service,  re 
ceiving  a  commission  as  capitaine  de /regale.  In 
this  capacity  he  served  under  Jean  Bart,  and, 
forming  part  of  the  escort  of  a  convoy,  had  a 
desperate  fight  with  two  English  vessels  of 
greater  force.  They  were  both  captured,  both 
made  prisoners,  and  both  made  escapes  remark 
able  for  the  endurance  and  intrepidity  shown, 
and  were  both,  as  a  reward,  made  capitaines  de 
vaisseau.  Forbin  almost  at  once  went  to  sea 
again,  in  a  low,  fast-sailing  vessel  called  the 
"  Marseillaise,"  and  became  a  scourge  to  the 
commerce  of  the  English.  The  year  after,  he 
commanded  the  "Fidele,"  in  the  battles  under 
Tourville,  and  afterwards  cruised  in  the  North 
Sea. 

In  1692  he  again  served  under  Tourville  at 
the  disastrous  battle  of  La  Hogue,  where  he  was 
most  severely  wounded  in  the  knee,  and  his  ship, 
"  La  Perle,"  was  cut  to  pieces,  and  very  nearly 
burnt  by  fire-ships.  In  spite  of  all  this  he  suc 
ceeded  in  getting  in  to  Saint  Malo. 

Having  recovered  from  his  wounds,  Forbin 
next  served  under  Jean  Bart,  in  his  celebrated 
cruise  in  the  North  Sea,  where  he  inflicted  such 
damage  on  the  Dutch  and  English  commerce. 

In  1693  he  served  in  the  brilliant  action  off 
Lagos,  where  Tourville  dispersed  and  ruined  the 
great  Smyrna  fleet  and  its  escort.  Forbin  here 
captured  three  ships  and  burnt  a  fourth.  He 
continued  constantly  in  service,  both  in  the 
North  Sea  and  in  the  Mediterranean,  and  as  a 
reward  for  his  services  was,  in  1699,  made  a 
Chevalier  of  St.  Louis. 

During  the  war  of  the  Spanish  Succession  he 
had  a  separate  command  in  the  Adriatic,  where 
he  burnt  Trieste,  and  so  preyed  upon  Austrian 
commerce  that  the  prayers  of  the  Dalmatian 


FOR-BY 


291 


FOKE 


sailors,  on  going  to  sea,  was  that  they  might  not 
encounter  the  Chevalier  de  Forbin. 

In  1706-7  he  took  or  destroyed,  in  the  North 
Sea,  more  than  180  English  and  Dutch  vessels, 
and  was  made  chef  d'escadre  and  count. 

The  next  cruise  he  made  was  to  the  White  Sea, 
and  the  result  was  the  ruin  of  the  fisheries  for 
that  season.  In  the  same  year,  1707,  he  came 
south  with  his  squadron  to  join  that  of  Duguay- 
Trouin,  and,  together,  they  fought  a  large  Eng 
lish  squadron.  Owing  to  some  misapprehension 
of  orders,  Forbin  did  not  arrive  in  line  until  late 
in  the  day,  which  caused  a  drawn  battle,  although 
the  English  suffered  most  damage. 

In  1708,  Forbin  was  commissioned  to  conduct 
to  Edinburgh  the  Pretender,  the  Chevalier  St. 
George,  son  of  James  II.  Forbin  was  much 
blamed  for  the  non-success  of  the  Pretender's 
venture,  and,  being  already  dissatisfied  because 
he  had  not  been  made  lieutenant-general  of  the 
marine,  he  abandoned  the  naval  service,  and 
settled  down  near  Marseilles,  where  he  died. 
He  was  a  brave  man,xand  a  good  sailor,  but  of 
unmeasured  pride,  and  never  made  any  personal 
friends.  He  was  77  when  he  died,  and  had 
served  40  years  at  sea. — E.  Shippen. 

For-by.     Near  ;  close  at  hand. 

Force.  A  condition  between  two  bodies 
tending  to  change  their  relative  positions  ;  its 
unit  of  measure  is  one  pound  avoirdupois. 
Strength  ;  power  ;  might.  Violence  ;  coercion. 
Strength  or  power  for  war ;  hence,  a  fleet  or 
body  of  troops.  To  compel ;  to  coerce. 

FORCED-MEN.  Men  who  are  forced  by  pirates 
to  serve  with  them,  but  who  do  not  sign  the 
articles. 

FORCE-PUMP.  A  pump  for  forcing  a  fluid 
against  a  resisting  pressure  ;  as,  the  pumps  of  a 
fire-engine  or  the  feed-pump  of  a  steam-boiler. 

FORCER.     Piston  of  a  force-pump. 

Fore.  The  distinguishing  characteristic  of  all 
that  portion  of  a  ship  and  appurtenances  which 
lie  near  the  stem  ;  the  opposite  of  aft,  or  after. 
To  the  fore,  in  advance.  At  the  fore,  at  the  fore- 
royal  mast-head,  said  of  a  flag  or  set  of  flags. 

FORE-AND-AFT.  From  stem  to  stern.  In  a 
line  parallel  to  the  keel. 

FORE-AND-AFTER.  A  cocked  hat  worn  with 
the  peaks  in  front  and  behind.  A  vessel  rigged 
with  fore-and-aft  sails  only. 

FORE-AND-AFT  SAILS.  Sails  that  are  not  bent 
to  yards,  but  extend  from  the  mast  or  stay  to  the 
lee  side  of  the  vessel.  They  include  sails  setting 
on  stays,  on  masts,  with  gaffs,  booms,  sprits,  and 
lateen-yards,  and  are  divided  into  stay-sails  (in 
cluding  jibs),  trysails  (including  spanker),  la 
teen-sails,  lug-sails,  sprit-sails,  gaff-topsails,  and 
shoulder-of-mutton  sails.  They  allow  the  vessel 
to  approach  nearer  to  the  wind,  as  they  may  be 
trimmed  more  nearly  in  a  line  with  the  keel  than 
square-sails.  Schooners,  sloops,  boats,  and  small 
craft  generally  use  them,  but  they  also  make  a 
part  of  the  sail-rig  of  every  vessel. 

FORE-AND-AFT~TACKLE.  A  tackle  used  in  the 
line  of  the  keel  for  any  purpose. 

FORE-BAY.  The  sick-bay.  The  galley-room 
on  the  spar-deck  of  merchantmen.  The  rise  of 
a  floor  of  a  lock-gate.  See  SICK-BAY. 

FORE-BODY.  That  portion  of  the  vessel  for 
ward  of  dead-flat. 

FORE-BOOM.  An  old  name  for  the  jib-boom. 
The  boom  of  a  fore-and-aft  foresail. 


FORE-CABIN.     The  forward  cabin  of  a  vessel. 

FORECASTLE.  That  portion  of  the  spar-deck 
from  the  after  fore-shroud  forward.  The  name 
arose  from  the  structure  resembling  a  castle 
which  was  formerly  erected  on  the  forward  part 
of  the  spar-deck.  A  partial  deck  level  with  the 
rail  at  the  forward  part  of  the  ship  is  called  a 
topgallant  forecastle. 

FORECASTLE-AWNING.     See  AWNING. 

FORECASTLE-DECK.  The  forward  part  of  the 
upper  deck. 

FORECASTLE-JOKES.     Sailors'  practical  jokes. 

FORECASTLE-MEN.  That  part  of  the  crew  sta 
tioned  on  the  forecastle,  generally  the  oldest  and 
most  reliable  seamen.  They  handle  the  head- 
sails,  the  foresail  and  lower  studding-sail,  work 
the  anchor-gear,  clean  and  keep  the  forward  part 
of  the  ship  in  order,  etc. 

FORECASTLE-NETTINGS.  That  portion  of  the 
hammock- nettings  on  or  near  the  forecastle. 

FORE-COURSE.  The  sail  bent  to  the  fore-yard. 
See  FORESAIL. 

FORE-FOOT.     The  forward  end  of  the  keel. 

FORE-GAFF.     The  gaff  of  the  fore-trysail. 

FORE-GANGER.  A  short  piece  of  rope  con 
necting  the  line  with  the  harpoon. 

FORE-GUY.     See  FORWARD  GUY. 

FORE- HATCH.  The  hatch  nearest  the  fore 
mast,  generally  abaft  it,  on  all  decks. 

FORE-HOLD.  The  forward  part  of  the  hold. 
In  it,  in  men-of-war,  are  stowed  tar,  pitch, 
rigging,  anchor-gear,  etc. 

FORE-LEECH.    The  luff  of  a  stay-sail  or  trysail. 

FOREMAST.  The  mast  nearest  the  bow.  For 
the  rigging  of  the  foremast,  see  under  proper 
heads. 

FOREMAST  HAND,  or  FOREMAST  MAN.  A 
blue-jacket  not  above  the  rating  of  seaman.  The 
term  may  include  all  who  are  shipped  "  before 
the  mast." 

FORE  MAST-MAN.  A  man  stationed  to  attend 
to  the  gear  of  the  foremast.  See  MAST-MAN. 

FORE-ORLOP.  The  part  of  the  ship  next  for 
ward  the  hold,  and  under  the  berth-deck.  On 
it,  in  frigates  and  large  sloops,  are  the  sail-rooms, 
etc. 

FORE-PASSAGE.  A  gangway  or  passage  on 
the  fore-orlop-deck,  leading  to  the  fore-peak. 

FORE-PEAK.  That  part  of  the  hold  in  the 
extreme  forward  part  of  the  ship,  occupied  by 
paint-room,  yeoman's  store-room,  and  a  block- 
room  in  men-of-war. 

FORE-RAKE.  The  part  of  the  ship  projecting 
over  the  forward  end  of  the  keel. 

FORE-REACH.  To  shoot  ahead  after  the  pro 
pelling  power  has  ceased.  To  gain  ground  ahead 
in  tacking. 

FORE-ROYAL.    See  ROYAL. 

FORE-RUNNER.  The  piece  of  bunting  inserted 
in  a  log-line,  to  mark  the  extent  of  stray-line, 
and  the  point  at  which  the  glass  must  be  turned. 

FORESAIL.  A  square-sail,  bent  to  the  fore- 
yard,  the  lowest  on  the  foremast.  The  fore-and- 
aft  sail  on  the  foremast  of  a  schooner.  The  fore- 
stay-sail  of  a  cutter  or  sloop.  For  the  gear  of 
the  foresail,  see  under  proper  heads.  See  SAILS. 

FORE-SHEET  HORSE.  An  iron  bar  fixed  across 
the  deck,  for  the  clew  of  the  fore-stay-sail  to 
travel  on. 

FORE-SHEETS.  The  forward  portion  of  a  boat 
having  a  grating  shipped  over  it.  See  STERN- 


FORECAST 


292 


FOYST 


FORE-SHEET  TRAVELER.  An  iron  ring  or 
triangle  fitted  to  the  clew  of  a  fore-and-aft  fore 
sail,  running  on  the  horse,  so  as  to  traverse  the 
sail. 

FORE-SHIP.  An  old  term  for  the  fore  part  of 
a  ship. 

FORE-SPENCER.     A  name  for  the  fore-trysail. 

FORE-STAGE.  An  old  name  for  the  fore 
castle. 

FORE-STAY-SAIL.  The  stay-sail  just  forward 
of  the  foremast,  setting  on  the  fore-stay.  In 
men-of-war  it  has  its  own  stay,  and  is  only  bent 
in  bad  weather,  and  is  called  the /ore  storm-stay 
sail.  See  STAY-SAIL. 

FORE  STAY-TACKLE.     See  TRIATIC  STAY. 

FORE  STUDDING-SAIL.     See  STUDDING-SAIL. 

FORE-TOP.     See  TOP. 

FORE-TOPGALLANT.     See  TOPGALLANT. 

FORE-TOPMAST.     See  TOPMAST. 

FORE-TRYSAIL.     See  TRYSAIL. 

FORE-YARD.  The  lower  yard  across  the  fore 
mast.  For  the  rigging  of  the  fore-yard,  see 
under  proper  heads.  See  YARDS. 

Forecast.  Foresight ;  forethought.  To  fore 
see  ;  to  project. 

Foreign-built.     Built  in  a  foreign  country. 

Foreland.  An  advanced  headland,  cape,  or 
promontory  forming  the  limit  of  a  stretch  of 
coast. 

Fore-lock.  A  flat  piece  of  iron,  wedge-shaped, 
driven  in  a  slit  in  the  end  of  a  bolt,  so  as  to  hold 
it  in  place.  A  spring  fore-lock  has  a  spring, 
keeping  it  in  place. 

FORE-LOCK  BOLT.  A  bolt  having  a  fore-lock 
attached  to  it. 

Foreness.     A  peak  or  promontory. 

Fore-staff.  A  nautical  instrument  for  tak 
ing  altitudes,  now  discarded.  In  the  fore-staff, 
the  eye  was  directed  along  the  instrument  to  the 
object.  In  the  back-staff,  the  image  by  reflection 
was  used.  See  BACK-STAFF. 

Forge  Ahead.  To  shoot  ahead  after  the  sails 
are  in,  or  steam  is  shut  off.  When  hove-to,  or 
lying-to,  to  gain  distance  ahead. 

Forge-over.  To  force  over  a  shoal  or  rock. 
To  crowd  sail  or  steam  to  get  over  a  rock,  etc. 

Fork  of  a  Stay.  The  place  where  a  stay  is 
divided  into  two  parts,  so  as  to  embrace  the 
mast. 

Forkers  (Eng.}.  People  who  reside  near  a 
navy-yard  for  the  purpose  of  stealing,  or  receiv 
ing  stolen  goods. 

Fork-tail.  A  salmon  in  its  fourth  yea'r's 
growth. 

Forlorn  Hope.  *  A  term  applied  to  a  body  of 
officers  and  men  who  volunteer,  or  are  detailed, 
more  generally  the  former,  for  some  important 
and  desperate  undertaking  in  war,  the  extreme 
peril  of  which  affords  scant  hope  of  safe  deliver 
ance,  and  correspondingly  enhances  the  merit  of 
the  service.  A  contemplated  enterprise  of  great 
danger  and  doubtful  issue. 

Former.  A  pattern  for  cartridges.  A  wad- 
mold. 

Formicas.  Chains  of  small  rocks  at  the 
water's  edge. 

Fornax.    See  CONSTELLATION. 

Forrest.  French,  Captain  U.S.N.  Born  in 
Maryland  in  1796;  died  in  Georgetown,  D.  C., 
December  22,  1866.  Midshipman,  June  9, 1811 ; 
lieutenant,  March  5, 1817  ;  commander,  February 
9, 1837  ;  captain,  March  30, 1844  ;  dismissed  April 


19, 1861.  He  fought  bravely  in  the  war  of  1812, 
distinguishing  himself  in  the  battle  on  Lake 
Erie,  and  in  the  action  between  the  "  Hornet" 
and  "Peacock,"  February  24,  1813,  and  in  the 
Mexican  war  was  adjutant-general  of  the  land 
and  naval  forces.  When  Virginia  seceded  he 
was  put  at  the  head  of  the  navy  of  Virginia ; 
commander  at  the  Norfolk  Navy- Yard ;  was 
afterward  commander  of  the  James  River  squad 
ron,  and  then  Acting  Assistant  Secretary  of  the 
Confederate  navy. 

Fort-de-France.  On  the  west  coast  of  Mar 
tinique,  French  West  Indies.  Has  a  fine  harbor, 
strong  fortificatipns,  a  naval  arsenal,  and  several 
hospitals.  Pop.  13,300. 

Forth.     An  arm  of  the  sea. 

Forty  Thieves  (Eng.}.  A  name  given  to 
forty  line-of-battle  ships  commenced  in  1815, 
many  of  which  never  got  to  sea  except  as  razees. 

Forward.     In  the  fore  part.     In  advance  of. 

FORWARD-FIRE  CARTRIDGE.  A  metallic 
cartridge,  in  which  the  fulminate  is  attached  to 
the  base  of  the  shot,  and  fired  by  a  pin  running 
through  the  powder. 

FORWARD  GUY.  A  rope  leading  from  the 
bowsprit  through  a  block  near  the  end  of  the 
lower  or  swinging-boom,  then  back  through  a 
block  on  the  bowsprit,  and  in  on  deck.  Any 
guy  leading  forward. 

Fother.  A  weight  of  lead  equal  to  19J  cwt. 
Leaden  pigs  for  ballast.  To  stop  a  leak  by  haul 
ing  under  the  bottom  a  sail  closely  thrummed 
with  yarns  and  oakum,  the  pressure  of  the  water 
forcing  the  sail  into  the  aperture. 

Foul.  Not  clear  ;  entangled  ;  jammed.  Un 
clean  ;  filthy.  Unfavorable. 

FOUL  ANCHOR.     See  ANCHOR. 

FOUL  BERTH.  A  berth  in  which  a  ship  is  ex 
posed  to  the  danger  of  fouling,  or  of  being 
fouled  by,  other  ships. 

FOUL  BILL.     See  BILL  OF  HEALTH. 

FOUL  BOTTOM.  A  term  applied  to  the  bottom 
of  a  harbor  where  rocks  or  wrecks  endanger  the 
safety  of  vessels.  The  state  of  a  ship's  bottom 
when  sea-weed,  shells,  etc.,  adhere  to  it. 

FOUL  COAST.  A  coast  lined  with  reefs  and 
breakers. 

FOUL  FISH.  Fish  during  the  spawning 
season. 

FOUL  GROUND.     See  FOUL  BOTTOM. 

FOUL  HAWSE.  The  state  of  the  hawse  when 
the  chains  are  so  intertwined  that  neither  anchor 
can  be  picked  up  without  fouling.  See  HAWSE. 

FOUL  WEATHER.     Wet,  windy  weather. 

FOUL-WEATHER  BREEDER.  A  name  given  to 
the  Gulf  Stream,  which  occasions  great  perturba 
tions  in  the  atmosphere.  An  oppressive  state  of 
the  atmosphere  presaging  foul  weather. 

FOUL-WEATHER  FLAG.  A  flag  hoisted  as  a 
storm-signal. 

FOUL  WIND.  A  head  wind  ;  an  unfavorable 
wind. 

Founder.     To  fill  with  water  and  sink. 

Four-cant.     Four-stranded  rope. 

Fox.  Two  or  more  yarns  laid  up  by  hand  ; 
used  for  sennit,  gaskets,  mats,  seizings,  etc.  A 
Spanish  fox  is  a  single  yarn  twisted  up  in  a  di 
rection  contrary  to  its  original  lay ;  used  for 
small  seizings. 

Foyst.  An  old  name  for  a  brigantine.  Early 
voyagers  applied  the  name  to  large  barks  in  India, 
which  were  probably  grabs. 


FRAME   TIMBEKS 


293 


FRENCHMAN 


Frame  Timbers.  The  several  pieces  which 
compose  the  frame  of  a  ship,  as  the  floor  tim 
bers,  first,  second,  third,  and  fourth  futtocks, 
and  top  timbers,  which  are  united,  having  a 
proper  shift  or  scarf  with  each  other,  and  bolted 
together. 

Frames.  The  timbers  spoken  of  above  after 
being  united  or  bolted  together  securely.  In 
iron  construction  it  is  the  floor  plate  and  its 
angle-irons,  as  well  as  the  reverse  angle-irons 
united  in  one  rib,  which  when  completed  is 
called  bframe. 

France,  Navy  of.  Although  unfortunate  in 
her  encounters  with  the  British  during  the  lat 
ter  part  of  the  last  and  the  commencement  of  the 
present  century,  France  has  always  enjoyed  a 
high  reputation  for  the  skill  and  bravery  of  her 
naval  officers,  and  for  their  services  in  the  cause 
of  science  and  discovery.  The  names  of  D'Estaing, 
Villeneuve,  La  Perouse,  La  Bougainville,  La 
Grasse,  and  Duquesne,  embellish  her  historical 
pages,  while  the  possessions  which  she  still  re 
tains  illustrate  their  conquests.  The  fluctuations 
in  the  government  of  the  country  during  the  past 
seven  decades  have  more  or  less  interrupted  her 
progressive  arrangements,  but  the  elasticity  of 
her  resources  and  the  energy  of  her  people  have 
more  than  compensated  the  caprice  of  events. 
France  had,  at  the  close  of  1879,  a  navy  of  no 
fewer  than  498  Vessels,  of  235,162  horse-power, 
the  entire  number  carrying  2834  guns.  This 
force  is  divided  into  59  ironclads,  264  unarmored 
screw-steamers,  62  paddle-wheel  steamers,  and  113 
sailing-vessels.  The  ships  are  distributed  among 
five  maritime  divisions,  viz.,  Cherbourg,  Brest, 
L 'Orient,  Rochefort,  and  Toulon.  But  compara 
tively  very  few  of  the  ships  are  equipped  for  ser 
vice  :  they  are  laid  up  in  ordinary,  and  can  be 
promptly  put  into  fighting  trim,  and  in  the  mean 
while  no  fewer  than  50  additional  vessels  are  in 
course  of  construction.  The  navy  is  manned 
partly  by  conscription  and  partly  by  voluntary 
enlistment.  None  but  men  above  20  and  under 
40  years  of  age  are  admitted  into  the  service.  At 
the  head  of  the  administration  of  each  maritime 
division  there  is  a  vice-admiral,  called  a  prefet 
maritime.  There  are  19  other  vice-admirals  in 
active  service,  and  13  on  a  reserved  list ;  30  rear- 
admirals,  and  21  reserved ;  109  captains  of  first- 
class  men-of-war,  and  209  captains  of  frigates  ;  648 
lieutenants,  and  516  ensigns.  The  engineers  are 
in  proportion  to  the  number  of  vessels  actually 
placed  on  the  service  list. 

Frank.     The  fish-eating  heron. 

Franklin,  Sir  John.  An  English  navigator 
and  Arctic  explorer.  Born  in  Spilsby,  Lincoln 
shire,  April,  1786;  died  June  11,  1847.  Enter 
ing  the  navy  about  1800,  he  served  with  distinc 
tion  at  Trafalgar,  and  was  slightly  wounded  in 
the  attack  on  New  Orleans,  January,  1815.  As 
a  lieutenant  he  commanded  the  "  Trent"  in  the 
Arctic  expedition  of  1818,  under  Capt.  Buchan. 
In  1819  he  led  an  overland  expedition  to  trace  the 
coast-line  of  North  America,  an  account  of  which 
he  published  on  his  return,  and  was  made  a  cap 
tain.  In  1825  he  renewed  this  enterprise,  tracing 
the  coast  from  the  mouth  of  the  Coppermine 
Kiver  to  the  150th  meridian,  for  which  service 
he  was  knighted.  Governor  of  Van  Diemen's 
Land  in  1836-42.  In  May,  1845,  he  sailed  with 
the  "  Erebus"  and  "Terror"  to  discover  a  north 
west  passage  and  never  returned.  Several  expe 


ditions  were  sent  in  search  of  him  from  England 
and  America  without  success,  but  Dr.  Rae  found, 
in  1854,  some  relics  of  the  party.  In  the  sum 
mer  of  1859  Capt.  McClintock  discovered  on  the 
shore  of  King  William's  Land  a  record  depos 
ited  in  a  cairn  by  the  survivors  of  Franklin's 
company,  dated  April  25,  1848,  stating  that  Sir 
John  died  June  11,  1847;  that  the  ships  were 
abandoned  April  22,  1848,  when  the  survivors, 
148  in  number,  started  for  the  Great  Fish  River. 
Many  relics  were  found  of  this  party,  who  per 
ished  on  their  journey,  probably  soon  after  leav 
ing  their  vessels. 

Frap.  To  bind  tightly  with  a  rope  or  piece 
of  small  stuff".  When  a  ship  is  very  old  and  her 
timbers  work,  cables  may  be  passed  round,  serv 
ing  to  hold  her  together.  St.  Paul's  ship  was 
under  girded. 

Fredericton,  a  port  of  entry  and  city  of  New 
Brunswick,  capital  of  the  province  of  the  county 
of  York,  is  situated  on  the  west  side  of  the  river 
St.  John.  Lat.  45°  55'  N.;  Ion.  66°  31'  30"  W. 
The  public  buildings  comprise  the  parliament 
buildings,  the  government  house,  city  hall,  and 
barracks.  The  river,  which  is  here  three- fourths 
of  a  mile  wide,  is,  however,  only  navigable  for 
sea-going  vessels  of  120  tons.  Pop.  6150. 

Free.  To  clear ;  to  set  at  liberty  ;  as,  to  free 
a  boat  of  water,  to  free  a  prisoner.  The  wind  is 
free  when  the  ship  is  not  obliged  to  brace  her 
yards  sharp  up.  To  run  free,  to  sail  with  the 
yards  braced  in  and  sheets  eased  off. 

FREEBOOTER.  A  robber ;  one  who  scours  the 
seas  for  purposes  of  pillage,  a  pirate. 

FREE  PORT.  A  port  where  goods  may  be 
landed  free  from  custom-house  restrictions.  A 
port  where  goods  of  all  kinds  are  received  at 
equal  rates. 

FREE  SHIP.  A  neutral  vessel.  The  doctrine 
that  "  free  ships  make  free  goods,"  which  means 
that  an  enemy's  goods,  other  than  such  as  are 
contraband  of  war,  found  on  board  a  neutral 
vessel  are  free  from  confiscation,  has  been  much 
discussed  and  alternately  admitted  and  rejected 
by  mosc  maritime  nations.  Great  Britain  has, 
however,  uniformly  maintained  the  opposite  doc 
trine,  viz.,  that  enemy's  goods  found  on  board  a 
neutral  ship  may  lawfully  be  seized  as  prize  of 
war,  and  the  latter  proposition  has  been  explicitly 
incorporated  into  the  jurisprudence  of  the  United 
States,  and  declared  by  the  Supreme  Court  to  be 
founded  on  the  law  of  nations.  This  rule,  known 
as  the  "belligerent  rule,"  is,  however,  even  by 
those  nations  which  insist  on  its  being  the  origi 
nal  doctrine  of  international  law,  often  made  to 
yield  to  the  other  and  more  liberal  doctrine  by 
conventions  between  themselves. 

In  the  days  when  piracy  was  more  common 
than  it  is  now,  piratical  craft  were  often  called 
free  ships. 

FREE  TRADER  (Eng.}.  A  ship  formerly 
trading  to  India  independently  of  the  East  India 
Company.  A  prostitute. 

French  Fake.  A  fake  or  coil  of  rope  where 
the  turns  dip  one  under  the  other,  so  as  not  to 
foul  in  running. 

French  Lake.     The  Mediterranean  Sea. 

French  Leave.  Absence  without  permission. 
To  take  French  leave,  or  to  French,  is  to  leave 
without  permission. 

Frenchman,  or  Frenchy.  A  sailor's  name  for 
any  foreigner,  particularly  of  the  Latin  race. 


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French  Sennit.  Sennit  in  which  an  odd  num 
ber  of  nettles  are  regularly  and  evenly  woven  one 
under  and  then  over  the  others  in  succession.  See 
SENNIT. 

French  Shroud-knot.  A  shroud-knot  in  which 
the  three  strands  of  one  end  are  walled  over  those 
of  the  opposite  end. 

French  the  Ballast.     To  freshen  the  ballast. 

Fresh.  New  ;  not  impaired  by  use  nor  time. 
Slightly  intoxicated.  Impudent;  cheeky.  Not 
salty.  Overflow  of  running  water.  The  current 
of  a  river  in  the  sea  beyond  its  mouth.  Fresh 
breeze,  a  breeze  blowing  from  13  to  15  miles  per 
hour,  in  which  royals  may  be  carried ;  indicated 
by  5  in  the  Beaufort  scale.  Fresh  topgallant 
breeze,  a  breeze  blowing  from  15  to  17  miles  per 
hour,  in  which  topgallant-sails  may  be  carried  ; 
indicated  by  6  in  the  Beaufort  scale.  Fresh 
wind,  a  wind  blowing  from  17  to  18  miles  per 
hour,  in  which  topgallant-sails  are  taken  in  and 
topsails  reefed  down  ;  indicated  by  7  in  the  Beau 
fort  scale. 

FRESHEN.  To  renew.  To  freshen  the  hawse, 
to  veer  out  a  little  more  cable  to  bring  the  chafe 
and  strain  on  another  part.  To  freshen  the  bal 
last,  to  shift  or  restow  it.  To  freshen  the  way, 
to  increase  the  speed  of  the  ship.  To  freshen  the 
nip,  to  veer  on  the  cable  or  pull  upon  a  back 
stay  to  shift  the  chafe  from  a  particular  spot ; 
also,  to  take  a  drink,  especially  just  after  the  sun 
dips  ;  this  was  accompanied  by  the  toast  "  down 
fall  of  the  barbarous  Moors." 

FRESHES.  Swollen  ebb-tides  due  to  heavy 
rains. 

FRESHET.  A  current  or  stream  swollen  by 
heavy  rains  or  melting  snow. 

FRESH  GRUB.     Provisions  not  salted. 

FRESH  HAND.  A  greenhorn ;  a  new  hand. 
When  a  gale  increases  the  sailors  say  there  is  a 
fresh  hand  at  the  bellows. 

FRESH  WATER.  Water  fit  to  drink,  in  oppo 
sition  to  salt  water.  In  early  days  ships  were 
obliged  to  carry  immense  quantities  of  fresh 
water,  but  of  late  it  has  been  obtained  by  distil 
lation  of  salt  water.  See  DISTILLER. 

FRESH-WATER  SAILOR.  One  who  is  not  ac 
customed  to  the  sea,  his  experience  having  been 
confined  to  lakes  and  rivers. 

FRESH-WATER  SEAS.     The  Great  Lakes. 

FRESH  WAY.  Increased  speed.  To  gather 
fresh  way,  to  recover  speed  after  being  stopped 
or  checked. 

Fret.  A  narrow  strait  of  the  sea — from  f re 
turn.  To  chafe.  A  fret  of  wind,  a  light  flaw. 

Friar-skate.  The  sharp-nosed  ray  (Raia 
oxyrinchus}. 

Friction.  A  force  which  acts  between  two 
bodies  at  their  surface  of  contact,  and  in  the 
direction  of  a  tangent  to  that  surface,  so  as  to 
resist  their  sliding  on  each  other,  and  which  de 
pends  on  the  force  with  which  the  bodies  are 
pressed  together. 

There  is  also  a  kind  of  resistance  to  the  sliding 
of  two  bodies  upon  each  other,  which  is  inde 
pendent  of  the  force  by  which  they  are  pressed 
together,  and  which  is  analogous  to  that  kind  of 
strength  which  resists  the  division  of  a  solid  body 
by  shearing, — that  is,  by  sliding  one  part  over 
another.  This  kind  of  resistance  is  called  ad 
hesion. 

Friction  may  act  either  as  a  means  of  giving 
stability  to  structures,  as  a  means  of  transmit 


ting  motion  in  machines,  or  as  a  cause  of  loss  of 
power  in  machines. 

FRICTION-BAND,  or  STRAP.  A  flexible  band 
used  as  a  brake  to  resist  the  rotary  motion  of  a 
wheel,  shaft,  or  pulley.  It  is  firmly  secured  to 
a  rigid  part  of  a  machine  or  structure,  and  is 
made  to  clasp  or  release  a  revolving  part  at  will 
by  means  of  screws  or  levers.  It  is  applied  on 
steamships  to  check  the  revolving  motion  of  the 
screw-propeller  when  the  vessel  is  under  sail 
headway,  and  it  is  desired  to  "  couple"  the  engines 
with  the  screw  for  the  purpose  of  using  steam- 
power. 

FRICTION-BAR.  A  bar  on  the  slide  of  an  iron 
gun-carriage  that  is  made  by  friction  to  absorb 
the  recoil. 

FRICTION-PRIMER,  or  FRICTION-TUBE.  A 
primer  used  to  inflame  the  charge  of  a  gun.  It 
consists  of  a  metal  tube  filled  with  fine-grained 
powder,  having  at  its  upper  end  a  short  tube  at 
right  angles,  in  which  is  a  notched  iron  wire, 
imbedded  in  fulminating  composition.  A  loop 
in  this  notched  wire  receives  the  laniard,  and  its 
friction  ignites  the  fulminate. 

FRICTION-RAIL.  An  iron  rail  on  an  iron  gun- 
carriage,  that  by  pressing  against  the  friction-bar 
absorbs  the  recoil. 

FRICTION-ROLLERS.  Boilers  of  hard  wood  or 
metal  placed  in  a  metal  bushing  about  the  axis 
of  a  sheave  or  truck  to  aid  in  reducing  the  fric 
tion. 

FRICTION-TRANSOM.  The  transom  of  a  gun- 
slide  to  which  the  friction-bars  are  attached. 

Friday.  An  unlucky  day  in  the  seaman's 
calendar.  By  old  sailors  it  was,  and  is,  con 
sidered  imprudent  to  commence  any  undertaking 
on  Friday. 

The  superstition  extends  to  India,  among  the 
Brahmins.  Friday's  moon  was  an  unlucky  one 
in  England. 

Probably  it  owes  much  of  its  unlucky  character 
in  the  sailor's  mind  to  its  being  a  jour  maigre,  a 
banian-day,  or  one  on  which  no  meat  was  al 
lowed  to  the  crew  ;  hence,  a  black-letter  day  in 
the  seaman's  calendar.  Fish  brought  in  on  Fri 
day  were  likely  to  decay,  as  they  would  not  be 
sold  before  the  following  week ;  hence  the  fish 
erman's  superstition.  Good-Friday  is  called  in 
German  charfreitag,  mournful  Friday,  and  here 
its  unlucky  character  would  seem  to  originate. 

Friezing.  The  ornamental  carving  or  paint 
ing  above  the  drift-rails  and  around  the  bow  and 
stern. 

Frigate.  A  familiar  name  for  the  Portuguese 
man-of-war,  Physalis  pelagica. 

Frigate.  The  name  was  anciently  written  in 
English  friggot  and  frigat,  meaning,  according 
to  Webster,  an  open  ship  or  vessel ;  this  authority 
also  says  it  is  probably  derived  from  the  Latin 
fabricata,  something  constructed  or  built. 

In  Portuguese  it  signifies  a  boat  as  well  as  a 
ship.  The  word  as  generally  used  at  the  present 
time  signifies  a  ship  of  war  with  two  decks  for 
guns,  and  mounting  from  20  to  60  guns.  In 
1799,  "The  British  Naval  Chronicle"  says, 
"  Frigates  mount  from  20  to  40  guns,  and  some 
taken"  from  the  French  mount  46." 

The  author  of  the  Dictionnaire  de  la  Marina, 
published  in  Amsterdam  in  1739,  is  the  only 
writer  that  treats  of  the  frigate.  He  says  the 
word  derives  its  origin  from  the  Mediterranean, 
where  it  was  used  to  designate  long  vessels  that 


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used  both  sails  and  oars,  and  carried  a  deck  of 
which  the  topside,  being  higher  than  that  of  gal 
leys  in  general,  had  openings  resembling  port 
holes  for  the  passage  of  oars.  What  occasioned 
this  name  for  swift  sailing  and  pulling  galleys  is 
not  known.  The  same  name  was  applied  by  the 
French  to  a  very  swift-flying  sea-gull.  It  is  easy 
to  conceive  that  France,  bordering  upon  the 
Mediterranean,  should,  ere  long,  have  launched 
similar  vessels  from  her  channel- washed  shores, 
adapting  them,  by  a  bluffing  body  and  larger 
size,  to  encounter  the  storms  and  swells  of  a 
northern  sea. 

Towards  the  middle  of  the  16th  century  Eng 
lish  merchant  ships  were  generally  called  "  fri 
gates,"  as  are  the  Spanish  merchant  ships  of  the 
present  time,  "  da  guerra"  being  added  to  dis 
tinguish  a  ship  or  frigate  of  war.  Towards  the 
close  of  the  16th  century  some  of  these  merchant- 
frigates  were  hired  to  serve  in  the  navy.  In  1588, 
we  find  among  the  ships  serving  with  Sir  Francis 
Drake  the  "  Friggat  Elizabeth  Fonnes,  of  eighty 
tons  and  fifty  men,"  about  the  size  of  a  small 
fishing-schooner,  and  not  so  large  by  one  hundred 
tons  as  modern  yachts  such  as  the  "America" 
and  "  Henrietta."  The  "Elizabeth  Fonnes"  was 
one  of  the  English  ships  fitted  out  to  oppose  the 
far-famed  and  self-styled  "  Invincible  Armada." 

Sir  Robert  Dudley,  Duke  of  Northumberland, 
prepared  drafts  of  seven  distinct  classes  of  ships 
of  war,  among  which  was  one  160  feet  in  length, 
and  having  24  feet  beam,  constructed  to  carry  a 
tier  of  guns  on  a  single  whole  deck,  beside  other 
guns  on  two  short  decks,  resembling  the  quarter 
deck  and  forecastle,  or,  rather,  not  being  united 
by  gangways,  the  poop  and  topgallant  forecastles 
of  modern  ships.  The  disposition  of  the  guns 
on  board  this  vessel  was  precisely  the  same  as  in 
the  modern  single-banked  frigate,  and  Sir  Robert 
called  his  ship  thus  constructed  and  armed 
"frigata." 

The  first  English  navy  list  on  which  the  name 
occurs  was  published  in  1604,  and  contains  only 
a  "French  Frigat."  She  is  placed  on  that  list 
the  last  but  one,  and  could  have  been  but  little 
more  than  a  boat,  her  burden  being  only  15  tons. 

The  next  English  navy  list  that  bears  the  name 
is  that  of  1633,  on  which  we  find  registered 
"Swann  Frigat"  and  "  Nicodemus  Frigat," 
each  of  60  tons,  10  men,  and  3  guns.  These 
were  probably  pleasure-yachts,  built  to  attend 
Charles  I.  on  his  frequent  visits  of  inspection  to 
his  different  naval  depots. 

Fuller,  writing  about  the  year  1660,  says  : 
"  We  fetched  the  first  model  and  pattern  of  our 
friggots  from  the  Dunkirks,  when  in  the  days  of 
the  Duke  of  Buckingham,  then  admiral,  we  took 
some  friggots  from  them,  two  of  which  still  sur 
vive  in  His  Majesty's  navy  by  the  names  of  the 
'Providence'  and  'Expedition.'"  The  duke, 
then  Marquis  of  Buckingham,  was  the  lord 
high  admiral  from  1619  to  1636,  and  the  names 
of  these  two  vessels  occur  in  the  lists  of  1632  and 
of  1652.  They  seem  to  have  been  small  ships, 
mounting  from  20  to  30  guns,  chiefly  on  a  single 
deck. 

Mr.  Pepys,  the  historian,  who,  from  his  posi 
tion  in  the  Admiralty,  may  be  considered  good 
authority,  says  that  the  first  frigate  built  in 
England  was  the  "Constant  Warwick,"  built 
by  Mr.  Peter  Pett,  the  elder,  at  RatclifFe  in 
1646  as  a  privateer  for  the  Earl  of  Warwick,  and 


afterwards  sold  by  him  to  the  Commonwealth. 
This  Peter  Pett  was  also  the  constructor  of  the 
first  English  three-decker,  "The  Sovereign  of 
the  Seas,"  but  he  had  it  recorded  on  his  tomb 
stone,  evidently  esteeming  it  the  greatest  honor, 
that  he  was  the  "inventor  of  the  first  frigate." 

His  son  confessed  to  Pepys  that  his  father  took 
his  model  of  a  frigate  from  a  French  frigate 
which  he  had  seen  in  the  Thames.  Probably 
the  Frenchman  was  a  privateer,  and  quite  likely 
one  of  the  many  which  the  enterprising  Dun- 
kirkers  had  equipped. 

Fuller  and  Pepys  both  refer  to  a  model  or  pat 
tern  showing  some  distinguishing  peculiarity 
between  a  frigate  and  the  ordinary  ships  of  war, 
yet  neither  give  the  faintest  description  of  what 
the  peculiarity  was,  whether  in  form,  armament, 
rig,  or  all  three  united. 

The  dates  of  the  transfer  of  this  "frigate"  to 
the  navy  by  the  Earl  of  Warwick  is  unknown ; 
but  her  first  appearance  on  any  list  as  a  national 
vessel  was  in  1652,  when  she  is  classed  as  &  fifth- 
rate  of  28  guns  ;  in  another  list  of  the  same  year 
her  guns  are  stated  at  32.  When  a  privateer 
she  mounted  but  26.  In  1677  she  appears  on  the 
list  as  a  fourth-rate,  mounting  42  guns.  The 
"  Constant  Warwick's"  length  of  keel  was  90 
feet,  her  breadth  of  beam  28  feet  2  inches,  depth 
of  hold  12  feet,  draft  of  water  12  feet  8  inches, 
and  her  tonnage,  modern  measurement,  380  to 
400  tons. 

Her  armament  consisted  at  first  of  18  light 
demi-culverins,  or  short  9-pounders,  on  the  main 
deck ;  two  minions,  or  4-pounders,  on  the  roof 
of  the  officers'  cabin,  or  poop,  and  six  light  sack- 
ers,  or  short  6-pounders,  on  what  may  be  called 
the  quarter-deck.  The  main,  or  gun-deck  of  this 
frigate,  as  in  modern  vessels  of  this  class,  had 
originally  a  continuous  tier  of  guns,  nine  of  a 
side,  to  which  subsequently  one  was  added  for 
each  bow  port,  before  unprovided,  making  20  in 
all ;  on  her  second,  or  spar-deck,  the  bulwarks, 
or  barricades,  only  extended,  in  the  first  in 
stance,  to  the  gangway  or  mainmast;  behind 
them  were  mounted  the  six  sackers,  or  6-pounders. 
These  bulwarks  were  afterwards  extended  for 
ward,  and  thus  gave  room  for  a  second  whole 
tier  of  guns,  which,  with  the  minions  on  the 
poop,  extended  forward  to  the  side  of  the  quarter 
deck,  and  mounting  six  4-pounders  instead  of 
two,  as  formerly,  converted  her  into  the  46-gun 
ship  she  was  represented. 

She  was  disposed  of  by  the  earl,  after  having 
shown  decided  proofs  of  superior  sailing  over  all 
other  classes  of  vessels ;  nevertheless,  we  may 
credit  a  writer  who,  in  1665,  complains  of  the 
ships  of  the  British  navy  being  "  over-gunned, " 
and  instances  "  The  Constant  Warwick  from 
twenty-six  gunns  and  an  incomparable  sayler  to 
forty-six  gunns  and  a  slugg."  Retaining  her 
original  appellation,  we  see  that  from  a  properly 
armed,  snug  one-decked  vessel,  the  "  Constant 
Warwick"  was  converted  into  an  over-gunned, 
top-heavy,  two-decked  ship,  the  only  good  qual 
ity  remaining  to  her  being  the  original  sharp 
ness  of  her  lower  body,  or  what  a  modern  naval 
architect  would  call  *the  fineness  of  her  lines. 
This  sharpness  of  form  appears  to  be  the  only 
characteristic  of  the  frigate  which  English  build 
ers  thought  worthy  of  being  retained,  and  seemed 
to  them  a  property  suited  to  all  sizes  and  classes 
of  ships.  Accordingly,  we  find,  between  the 


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years  1646  and  1653,  upwards  of  60  "frigates" 
were  built  or  building,  and  one  of  the  latter  de 
signed  to  mount  from  50  to  80  guns,  while  the 
others  are  variously  classed  from  56  down  to  12 
guns.  The  name  at  that  time  seems  to  have  been 
general  to  all  but  ships  of  the  first  class.  The 
natural  effect  of  this  sharpness  applied  to  an 
overloaded  ship  of  60  or  70  guns  was  to  immerse 
her  so  deep  in  the  water  that  her  lower  battery 
was  sunk  too  low  and  too  near  the  water-line  to 
be  useful. 

According  to  Mr.  Pepys,  "  In  1663  and  1664, 
the  Dutch  and  French  built  ships  of  two  decks, 
which  carried  from  60  to  70  guns,  and  were  so 
contrived  that  they  carried  their  lower  deck  guns 
four  feet  from  the  water,  and  to  stow  four  months' 
provision ;  whereas  our  frigates  from  the  Dun 
kirk  build,  which  were  narrower  and  sharper, 
carried  their  guns  but  little  more  than  three  feet 
from  the  water,  and  but  ten  weeks'  provision." 
Mr.  Pepys  then  states  that  five  frigates,  viz., 
three  of  70,  one  of  66,  and  one  of  64  guns,  were 
ordered  to  be  built  of  such  dimensions  as  to 
obviate  those  defects.  Eight  or  ten  years  later 
Mr.  Pepys,  still  complaining  of  the  want  of 
buoyancy  of  the  British  frigate,  says  :  "In  1672 
and  1673  the  French  brought  a  squadron  of  35 
ships  to  join  our  fleet  at  Spithead.  There  were 
several  excellent  ships  with  two  decks  and  a  half 
that  carried  from  60  to  70  guns,  more  especially 
one  called  the  'Superbe,'  which  his  Majesty  and 
Royal  Highness  went  on  board  of.  She  was  40 
feet  broad,  carried  74  guns,  and  six  months'  pro 
visions.  Our  frigates  being  narrow  could  not 
stow  as  much  provision,  nor  carry  their  guns  so 
far  from  the  water,  which,  Sir  Anthony  Deane 
observing,  measured  the  ship,  and  gave  his 
Majesty  an  account  thereof,  who  was  pleased  to 
command  Sir  Anthony  to  build  the  '  Harwich' 
as  near  as  could  be  of  the  l  Superbe's'  model  and 
dimensions,  which  was  done  accordingly  with 
such  general  satisfaction  as  to  be  the  pattern  of 
the  second-  and  third-rates  built  by  the  late  act 
of  Parliament." 

Thus  in  less  than  twenty  years  the  first  frigate 
spread  her  name,  if  not  her  qualifications,  over 
nearly  the  whole  of  the  British  navy. 

From  1677,  the  date  when  first-  and  second- 
rates  excluded  two-decked  ships,  the  name 
"frigate"  was  confined  to  the  third  and  three 
inferior  rates.  Towards  the  close  of  the  17th 
century  the  first  four  rates  of  the  British  navy 
assumed  the  name  of  line-of-battle  ships,  or  ships 
of  the  Hue,  and  the  frigate  was  restricted  to  the 
fifth-  and  sixth-rates. 

When  first  arranged  the  ships  of  the  line  com 
prised  all  vessels  of  over  50  guns,  and  frigates  those 
from  under  50  to  20  guns.  In  1727  frigates  were 
of  three  classes,  viz.,  40,  30,  and  20  guns,  meas 
uring  600,  420,  and  374  tons  respectively,  and 
mounting  12-,  9-,  and  6-pounders.  Two  new 
classes  were  added  in  1740.  The  one  a  44-gun 
ship,  of  about  710  tons,  with  40  guns  upon  two 
decks,  with  batteries  of  18-  and  9-pounders  in 
stead  of  12's  and  6's,  also  with  four  6-pounders 
additional  on  the  quarter-deck.  The  other  was 
a  24-gun  ship,  of  440  tons,  with  twenty  9-pound- 
ers  on  the  main,  or  gun-deck,  two  9-pounders  on 
the  spar-deck,  and  two  3-pounders  on  the  quar 
ter-deck.  "Within  the  nine  years  next  succeeding 
thirty-eight  of  the  44's  were  built,  and  several  of 
the  old  40's  made  to  carry  four  6-pounders  on  the 


quarter-deck,  and  thus,  in  1755,  the  old  class  of 
40's  became  extinct.  In  1748  a  28-gun  ship,  of 
585  tons,  and  carrying  twenty-four  9-pounders 
on  her  main  and  four  ^-pounders  on  her  quarter- 
deck,  was  constructed,  and  proved  a  decided  im 
provement  on  the  old  24,  as  well  as  the  30-gun 
class.  This  28  is  the  first  ship  which  in  the  ar 
rangement  of  her  guns  conveys  any  idea  of  a 
modern  frigate. 

In  1757  two  new  classes — a  32  and  the  other  a 
36— were  added.  On  the  29th  of  March,  1756, 
the  navy  board  agreed  with  Robert  Inwood  to 
build  a  fifth-rate  ship,  on  a  plan  proposed  by  Sir 
Thomas  Slade,  a  surveyor  of  the  navy.  This  ship 
was  to  measure  671  tons,  and  to  mount  twenty- 
six  12-pounders  on  the  main,  four  6-pounders 
on  the  quarter-deck,  and  two  6-pounders  on  the 
forecastle.  She  was  launched  May  5,  1757,  and 
was  called  the  "Southampton," — a  name  still 
retained  in  the  English  navy.  Another  like  her, 
and  named  "Diana,"  was  launched  in  August, 
and  others  followed.  The  "Alarm,"  on  which 
copper  sheathing  was  first  tried,  in  1761,  was  of 
this  class.  Much  smaller  ships,  however,  con 
tinued  to  retain  the  designation  of  frigates,  for 
between  1757  and  1760  four  ships  were  built  for 
the  English  navy  and  four  captured  by  it,  which 
averaged  only  312  tons,  and  mounted  from  14 
to  18  guns,  and  these,  in  the  record  of  1760  and 
of  1762,  are  styled  frigates.  They  were  soon  after 
stripped  of  that  name,  and  called  "sloops,"  or 
"  sloops-of-war. " 

The  "  Southampton"  must  be  considered  as 
the  first  genuine  frigate  of  English  build, — that 
is,  she  was  the  first  English  ship  constructed  to 
carry  her  guns  on  a  single  whole  deck,  a  quarter 
deck,  and  a  forecastle,  the  unvarying  character 
istic  of  the  sailing-frigate  of  our  later  times.  The 
"  Southampton"  bore  the  character  of  a  good  sea- 
boat  and  prime  sailer,  and  after  a  successful 
career  of  fifty-six  years  was  wrecked  on  a  reef 
in  the  Crooked  Island  Passage. 

The  36-gun  frigate  of  this  date  averaged  720 
tons,  and  was  armed  with  four  additional  6- 
pounders  on  the  quarter-deck.  Three  of  this 
class  and  rate  only  were  built,  viz.,  the  "Pal 
las,"  launched  in  1757,  and  the  "  Brilliant"  and 
"  Venus."  In  1774  some  newly-discovered  vir 
tues  in  the  old  44-gun  ship  caused  twenty-nine 
of  them  to  be  built.  Like  their  predecessors, 
they  proved  crank,  and  carried  their  guns  too 
low,  and,  after  several  endeavors  to  improve 
them,  they  were  deprived  of  their  guns  on  the 
lower  deck  and,  being  fitted  with  poops,  con 
verted  into  store-ships. 

The  first  Admiralty  order  establishing  the 
38-gun  frigate  is  dated  September  30,  1779,  and 
marks  their  first  appearance  as  a  British  class. 
Previous  to  1782  five  had  been  launched,  aver 
aging  946  tons.  These  ships  were  named  "  Are- 
thusa,"  "Latona,"  "Minerva,"  "Phaeton," 
and  "  Thetis."  The  "  Minerva,"  the  first  afloat, 
was  launched  at  Woolwich,  June  3,  1780.  These 
ships  mounted  twenty-eight  18-pounders  on  the 
main  deck  and  eight  9-pounders  on  the  quarter 
deck  and  forecastle,  throwing  300  pounds  of 
metal  at  a  broadside. 

Carronades  were  invented  the  year  these  ves 
sels  were  ordered  by  the  Admiralty,  and  eight 
18-pound  carronades  and  fourteen  swivels,  in  ad 
dition  to  their  original  armament,  were  placed  on 
board  them,  converting  them  in  reality  into  46- 


FRIGATE 


297 


FKOG 


gun  ships.  The  swivels  were  disposed  of  when 
the  two  forecastle  guns  were  reduced  from  12-  to 
9-pounders.  In  1781  there  were  604  carronades 
in  the  royal  navy,  of  sizes  from  32-pounders  to 
12-pounders.  With  the  advance  in  ordnance 
and  marine  architecture  the  frigates  of  the  Old 
World  increased  in  size  and  military  value ;  but 
they  continued  to  be  used,  as  originally  intended, 
as  the  "scouts,"  so  to  speak,  of  the  main  body 
of  a  sea  army.  Nelson  called  them  the  "  eyes 
of  the  fleet." 

On  July  10,  1797,  was  launched  at  Phila 
delphia  the  "United  States,"  frigate,  the  first 
of  those  American  "forty-fours"  which  were 
destined  to  become  so  celebrated  in  the  annals 
of  naval  warfare.  They  were  longer  propor 
tionally,  had  heavier  scantling,  and  carried 
heavier  batteries  than  any  ships  of  equal  rating 
in  the  world.  They  were  spoken  of  in  England 
as  "74's  in  disguise."  Their  appearance  on  the 
ocean  effected  a  marked  change  in  the  designing 
and  arming  of  ships  of  war  of  foreign  navies. 
"  It  is  but  justice  in  regard  to  America,"  writes 
an  eminent  English  authority,  "to  mention  that 
England  has  benefited  by  her  example,  and  that 
the  large  class  of  frigates  now  (1840)  employed 
in  the  British  service  are  modeled  after  those  of 
the  United  States." 

Passing^  over  the  periods  marked  by  the  ap 
pearance  of  the  "Fulton,"  "Missouri,"  and 
"Princeton,"  we  may  come  at  once  to  the 
"  Minnesota"  class  of  steam-frigates,  launched 
in  1855.  These  magnificent  specimens  of  naval 
architecture,  with  their  enormous  batteries,  were 
in  their  day  the  wonder  and  admiration  of  the 
entire  maritime  world. 

A  clever  writer  on  English  naval  affairs  says, 
"  It  was  not  until  comparatively  recent  times 
that  the  navies  of  different  powers  began  seri 
ously  to  vie  with  each  other  in  the  introduction 
of  the  very  destructive  ordnance  now  in  use,  the 
largest  known  specimens  of  which  are  to  be  seen 
on  board  the  new  American  frigates"  (the  "  Min 
nesota"  class). 

The  "forty-four"  of  1812  carried  a  battery 
of  thirty  24-pounders  on  the  gun-deck,  fourteen 
32-pounder  carronades  on  the  quarter-deck,  and 
six  32-pounder  carronades  on  the  forecastle ;  mak 
ing  a  total  of  fifty  guns^  throwing  1360  pounds 
of  solid  shot,  or  680  pounds  at  a  broadside.  She 
had  a  complement  of  430  men,  and  cost,  to  build, 
$220,910.  The  "Minnesota's"  battery  in  time 
of  war  consisted  of  twenty-eight  9-inch  shell 
guns  on  her  gun-deck,  twenty  9-inch  guns  on  the 
spar-deck,  and  two  11-inch  pivot-guns  mounted 
on  the  forecastle  and  quarter-deck,  respectively. 
This  gave  a  total  of  fifty  guns,  throwing  3799 
pounds  of  loaded  shell,  or  4320  pounds  of  solid 
shot;  or  a  broadside  of  2035  pounds  of  shell,  or 
2492  pounds  of  solid  shot.  Her  displacement 
is  4700  tons.  The  "  Ohio,"  a  fair  representative 
of  the  line-of-battle  ships,  has  a  displacement  of 
4250  tons,  and  threw  at  a  broadside  1612  pounds 
of  solid  shot.  By  comparing  these  figures  and 
considering  the  increased  mobility  due  to  steam- 
power,  an  idea  may  be  formed  of  the  relative 
military  value  of  the  frigate  of  the  steam  period 
and  the  line-of-battle  ship  of  the  last  of  the  sail 
period. 

The  estimated  cost  of  a  line-of-battle  ship  in 
1812  was  $333,000.  The  cost  of  a  modern  frigate 
may  be  seen  from  the  following  table : 


Cost  of  Hull. 

Machinery. 

Total. 

Colorado  

$828,143 
707  062 

$170,000 
172  004 

$998,143 
879  126 

694,711 

154,982 

849  693 

85S,904 

234  3G1 

1  093  265 

644,215 

170  000 

894  215 

Wabash  

813,644 

165,924 

979  568 

From  this  comparison  it  will  be  seen  how  com 
pletely  the  term  frigate  has  ceased  to  convey  any 
idea  of  the  military  value  of  a  vessel  of  war. 

A.  frigate-built  ship  is  one  having  the  decks  ar 
ranged  like  those  of  the  earlier  frigates,  i.e., — with 
a  raised  quarter-deck  and  forecastle.  From  these 
there  was  a  descent  of  a  few  steps  to  the  waist. 
Her  forecastle  extended  from  the  stem  to  the 
belfry ;  the  quarter-deck  from  the  stern  to  the 
gangway.  The  open  space  between  was  the 
waist;  hence  the  term  a  "  deep-waisted  ship." 

FRIGATE-BIRD.  A  large  and  rapacious  tropi 
cal  fowl  of  the  genus  Tachypetes  (T.  aquila),  with 
very  long  wings  ;  allied  to  the  pelican. 

FRIGATOON.  A  Venetian  vessel  built  with  a 
square  stern,  with  a  mainmast,  jigger-mast,  and 
bowsprit.  The  name  is  also  applied  to  a  ship- 
rigged  sloop-of-war. 

Frigid  Zone.     See  ZONES. 

Fringing-reefs.  Narrow  reefs  of  coral  for 
mation  at  short  distances  from  the  shore. 

Frisk.     To  freshen,  as  the  wind. 

Frith.  Derived  from  /return  maris,  a  narrow 
strait :  an  arm  of  the  sea  into  which  a  river  flows. 
Synonymous  with  firth  (which  see). 

Fritters.  Tendinous  fibres  of  the  whale's 
blubber,  running  in  various  directions,  and  con 
necting  the  cellular  substance  which  contains  the 
oil.  They  are  what  remains  after  the  oil  has 
been  tried  out,  and  are  used  as  fuel  to  try  out  the 
next  whale. 

Frobisher,  Sir  Martin.  This  distinguished 
naval  adventurer  of  the  Elizabethan  period, 
the  first  Englishman  who  sought  to  discover 
a  northwest  passage  to  China,  was  a  native  of 
Doncaster,  but  the  year  of  his  birth  is  unknown. 
After  endeavoring  in  vain  for  many  years  to 
secure  money  and  vessels  to  search  for  the  north 
west  passage,  he  was  patronized  by  several  per 
sons  of  rank  and  fortune,  and  succeeded  in 
securing  money  enough  to  fit  out  two  small 
vessels  of  25  tons  each,  and  a  pinnace  of  10 
tons.  With  these  he  sailed  from  Deptford, 
June  8, 1576.  On  the  llth  of  August  he  entered 
the  strait  which  bears  his  name.  The  second 
expedition  under  his  command  sailed  in  May, 
1577,  and  the  third  in  the  following  year.  He 
afterwards  served  under  Drake  in  the  West 
Indies,  and  was  knighted  for  distinguished 
bravery  in  the  fight  with  the  Spanish  Armada, 
July  26,  1588.  He  died  November  7,  1594,  the 
result  of  a  wound  received  while  leading  an 
attack  by  sea  against  Brest. 

Frog.  An  old  term  for  a  seaman's  coat  or 
frock.  A  leather  pocket  or  case  for  a  pistol, 
bayonet,  or  cutlass.  An  amphibious  animal  of 
the  genus  Rana. 

FROG-EATERS.     Frenchmen. 

FROG-FISH.     See  FISHING-FROG. 

FROG-LANDERS.     Hollanders. 

FROG-PIKE.  The  female  pike,  spawning  at 
the  same  time  as  frogs. 


FRONTAGE 


298 


FUNERAL  HONORS 


Frontage.     The  length  or  face  of  a  wharf. 

Frost.  The  congelation  of  the  vapor  of  the 
atmosphere.  The  hoar  frost,  or  white  frost, 
which  is  seen  in  the  mornings  during  spring  and 
autumn,  is  merely  frozen  dew.  See  DEW. 

FROSTED.  Having  a  lustreless  appearance,  as 
metals,  glass,  etc.,  when  not  polished;  this  ap 
pearance  somewhat  resembles  hoar-frost ;  hence 
the  name.  Frosted  work  is  introduced  as  a  foil 
or  contrast  to  burnished  work,  in  which  the  metal 
is  liighly  polished. 

FROST-FISH.  A  small  fish,  called  also  torn- 
cod;  they  are  taken  in  large  quantities  in  the 
depth  of  winter  by  fishing  through  holes  cut  in 
the  ice. 

FROST  RIME.     See  FROST-SMOKE. 

FROST-SMOKE.  A  thick  mist  in  high  latitudes, 
arising  from  the  surface  of  the  sea  when  exposed 
to  a  temperature  much  below  freezing ;  the 
vapors  as  they  rise  are  condensed  either  into  a 
thick  fog,  or,  with  the  thermometer  about  zero, 
hug  the  water  in  eddying  white  wreaths.  The 
latter  beautiful  form  is  called  a  barber,  probably 
from  its  resemblance  to  soap-suds. 

Froth.     See  FOAM. 

Frumentariae.  The  ancient  vessels  which 
supplied  the  Roman  markets  with  corn'. 

Frush.  A  term  for  wood  that  is  apt  to  splinter 
and  break. 

Fry.     Young  fishes. 

Fucus  Maximus.  An  enormous  sea-weed, 
growing  abundantly  round  the  coasts  of  Tristan 
d'Acunha,  and  perhaps  the  most  exuberant  of 
the  vegetable  tribe.  Said  to  rise  from  a  depth 
of  many  fathoms,  and  to  spread  over  a  surface 
of  several  hundred  feet. 

Fuddled.  Not  quite  drunk,  but  unfit  for 
duty.  Confused. 

Fuel.  Any  substance  used  to  produce  heat  by 
combustion,  as  coal,  wood,  peat,  oil,  etc.  Carbon 
and  hydrogen  are  the  elements  of  heat  in  fuel. 

Fuell.  An  old  nautical  word  signifying  an 
opening  between  two  headlands. 

Fu-fu.     A  sea-dish  of  barley  a*hd  molasses. 

Full.  Complete ;  plump ;  filled  out.  Sails 
are  full  when  th(/wind  inflates  them,  so  as  to 
give  the  ship  headway.  The  yards  are  said  to 
be  braced  full  when  the  sails  are  filled.  Keep 
her  full!  an  order  to  the  helmsman  to  keep  the 
sails  full,  and  not  allow  them  to  shake. 

FULL  AND  BY.  Sailing  close  to  the  wind  with 
yards  sharp  up  and  sails  full. 

FULL-BOTTOMED.  Of  great  capacity  below 
the  water-line. 

FULL  DRIVE.     Forcibly  ;  with  great  vigor. 

FULL  DUE.     For  good  ;  final. 

FULL  FEATHER.  In  full  dress;  attired  in 
best  clothes. 

FULL  FIG.     See  FULL  FEATHER. 

FULL  MAN  (Eng.}.  A  rating  in  coasters  for 
one  receiving  whole  pay  as  being  competent  to 
perform  all  his  duties  ;  able  seaman. 

FTTLL  MOON.  When  the  moon  is  in  opposi 
tion  the  whole  illuminated  disk  is  turned  toward 
the  earth  ;  the  moon  is  then  said  to  \>&full. 

FULL  PAY.  The  pay  allowed  when  on  actual 
service. 

FULL  SEA.     High  water. 

FULL  SPEED.     Highest  speed. 

FULL  SPREAD.     All  sail  set. 

FULL  SWING.     Complete  control. 

Fulmar.    A  web-footed  sea-bird,  Procellaria 


glacialis,  of  the  petrel  kind,  larger  than  the 
common  gull ;  its  eggs  are  taken  in  great  quan 
tity  at  St.  Kilda  and'in  the  Shetlands. 

Fulminates.  The  salts  of  fulminic  acid.  See 
EXPLOSIVES. 

Fumado.  A  commercial  name  of  the  pilchard, 
when  garbaged,  salted,  smoked,  pressed,  and 
packed. 

Fumble-fisted.  Awkward  in  catching  a  turn, 
or  otherwise  handling  a  rope. 

Fumigate.  To  purify  confined  or  infectious 
air  by  means  of  smoke,  sulphuric  acid,  vinegar, 
and  other  correctives.  See  DISINFECTANTS. 

Funeral  Honors.  On  the  receipt  of  official 
intelligence  of  the  death  of  the  President  of  the 
United  States,  the  senior  officer  present,  on  the 
following  day,  causes  the  ensign  of  each  vessel 
under  his  authority  to  be  hoisted  at  half-mast 
from  sunrise  to  sunset,  and  a  gun  to  be  fired  by 
his  vessel  every  half-hour,  beginning  at  sunrise 
and  ending  at  sunset.  At  naval  stations  the 
same  ceremonies  are  observed. 

On  the  death  of  a  commander  of  a  fleet,  squad 
ron,  or  division,  at  sea,  the  ensigns  of  all  the 
vessels  present,  and  the  distinguishing  flag  of 
command  which  he  wore,  are  hoisted  at  half-mast 
during  the  performance  of  the  funeral  ceremony  ; 
and  on  committing  the  body  to  the  deep,  the 
flag-ship  fires  as  many  minute-guns  as  he  was 
entitled  to  receive  for  a  salute  when  alive,  and 
his  flag  is  hauled  down  on  firing  the  last  gun. 
If  occurring  in  port,  the  ensigns  and  distinguish 
ing  flag  mentioned  are  hoisted  at  half-mast 
during  each  day  from  that  of  his  decease  until 
sunset  of  the  one  on  which  the  funeral  service  is 
performed,  and,bn  sending  the  body  to  the  shore, 
the  prescribed  number  of  minute  guns  is  fired. 
The  escort  fires  three  volleys  of  musketry  over 
the  grave. 

On  the  death  of  an  officer  commanding  a 
vessel,  at  sea,  the  ensigns  of  all  the  vessels 
present,  and  the  pennant  of  the  vessel  he  com 
manded,  are  hoisted  at  half-mast  during  the  per 
formance  of  the  funeral  ceremony ;  and,  on 
committing  the  body  to  the  deep,  the  vessel  he 
commanded  fires  as  many  minute-guns  as  he  was 
entitled  to  receive  as  a  return  salute  when  alive. 
If  in  port,  the  pennant  of  the  vessel  he  com 
manded  is  hoisted  at  half-mast  during  each  day 
from  that  of  his  decease  until  sunset  of  the  one 
on  which  the  funeral  service  is  performed  ;  and, 
on  sending  the  body  to  the  shore,  all  the  vessels 
present  half-mast  their  ensigns  until  sunset,  and 
the  number  of  minute-guns  indicated  is  fired. 
The  escort  fires  three  volleys  of  musketry  over 
the  grave. 

On  the  death  of  a  commissioned  officer,  other 
than  those  already  mentioned,  at  sea,  the  ensigns 
of  all  the  vessels  present  are  hoisted  at  half-mast 
during  the  performance  of  the  funeral  service  ; 
and  if  in  port,  the  ensigns  are  so  hoisted  during 
the  time  that  the  body  is  being  conveyed  to  the 
shore,  and  until  the  return  of  the  funeral  escort 
to  the  ship.  In  either  case,  after  the  funeral 
services,  three  volleys  of  musketry  are  fired  \)y 
the  full  marine  guard. 

On  the  death  of  an  officer  of  the  staff  corps, 
the  same  funeral  honors  are  observed  as  those 
prescribed  for  a  line-officer  of  the  same  relative 
rank,  except  that  the  distinctive  flag  or  pennant 
of  the  vessel  is  not  hoisted  at  half-mast,  and  that 
no  minute-guns  are  fired. 


FUNGUS 


UNlVtKgfTY 

-  - 

299    >v-. 


'UZE 


On  the  death  of  a  warrant-officer,  the  ensigns 
of  all  the  vessels  present  are  hoisted  at  half-mast 
during  the  performance  of  the  funeral  service 
when  at  sea ;  and  when  in  port,  during  the  time 
that  the  body  is  being  conveyed  to  the  shore,  and 
for  one  hour  afterward.  In  either  case,  three 
volleys  of  musketry  are  fired  by  a  sergeant's 
guard  of  fourteen  men. 

On  the  death  of  a  petty  officer,  or  other  person 
of  inferior  rating,  the  ensigns  of  all  vessels 
present  are  hoisted  at  half-mast  during  the  per 
formance  of  the  funeral  service  when  at  sea  ;  and 
when  in  port,  during  the  time  that  the  body  is 
being  conveyed  to  the  shore. 

On  the  death  of  an  officer,  non-commissioned 
officer,  or  private  -of  the  marine  corps,  the 
funeral  honors  are  to  be  regulated  by  his  relative 
rank. 

If  it  should  not  be  practicable  to  fire  with 
musketry  at  the  grave  of  any  officer  in  a  foreign 
country,  the  volleys  are  fired  over  the  body  after 
it  is  lowered  into  the  boat  alongside  the  ship. 

Funeral  honors  are  ndt  to  be  paid  before  the 
rising  nor  after  the  setting  of  the  sun. 

Fungus.     See  DRY  EOT. 

Funk.  To  become  frightened  ;  to  show  the 
white  feather.  To  blow  tobacco  smoke  in  a  per 
son's  face. 

Funnel.  A  metal  tube  for  carrying  off  smoke 
from  a  furnace.  The  galley-funnel  is  familiarly 
known  as  Charley  Noble. 

Funny.  A  light  clinker-built  pleasure-boat, 
rowing  a  pair  of  sculls.  It  is  long  and  narrow, 
and  used  for  racing. 

Fur.  Scale  formed  in  a  boiler.  To  clean  off 
the  scale  from  the  interior  of  a  boiler. 

Furl.  To  roll  up  and  bind  a  sail  to  its  yard 
or  boom. 

FURLING-LINE.  A  small  line  for  binding  a 
sail  to  it's  gaff  or  boom  when  furled.  A  sea- 
gasket. 

Furlough.  The  correct  definition  of  the  word 
furlough  as  used  by  the  Navy  Department  is 
leave  or  license  given  by  the  Secretary  of  the 
Navy  to  an  officer  to  be  unemployed  for  a  speci 
fied  time.  This  is  done  upon  request  of  the 
officer,  and  sometimes  by  decision  of  the  Depart 
ment,  as  in  cases  of  officers  who  get  duty  on 
board  vessels  carrying  IT.  S.  mail.  Furlough 
under  such  circumstances  is  not  a  punishment. 
Where  an  officer  is  put  on  furlough  by  the  Sec 
retary  of  the  Navy  as  a  penalty,  or  in  the  sense 
of  implying  censure,  the  word  is  used  in  the  past 
tense,  viz.,  furloughed.  It  so  appears  at  least  in 
the  Navy  Register. 

Officers  on  furlough  and  officers  furloughed  re 
ceive  one-half  of  the  pay  to  which  they  would 
have  been  entitled  if  on  leave  of  absence  on  the 
active  list.  (Rev.  Stat.,  Sec.  1557.) 

The  Secretary  of  the  Navy  has  a  legal  right  to 
furlough  any  officer  on  the  active  list.  (Rev. 
Stat.,  Sec.  1442.) 

Furnace.  A  structure  in  which  intense  heat 
is  produced  by  combustion  and  applied  to  such 
purposes  as  the  manufacture  and  working  of 
metals,  generation  of  steam,  etc.  The  general 
peculiarities  of  furnaces  are  designated  by  specific 
names,  such  as  blast-furnace,  reverberatory-fur- 
nace,  steam-boiler  furnace,  etc. 

FURNACE-BRIDGE.     See  FIRE-BRIDGE. 

FURNACE-DOOR.  A  door  for  closing  the  mouth 
of  a  furnace. 


Furniture.  The  rigging,  sails,  spars,  anchors, 
cables,  boats,  provisions,  etc.,  which  make  up  a 
vessel's  equipment. 

Furole.  The  luminous  appearance  known  as 
the  corpo  santo.  See  ST.  ELMO'S  FIRE. 

Furube.  A  fish  taken  on  the  coast  of  Japan, 
and  considered  to  be  poisonous. 

Furze.     Brushwood  prepared  for  breaming. 

Fuse.     See  FUZE. 

Fusible  Alloy.  An  alloy  composed  prin 
cipally  of  tin,  lead,  and  bismuth,  which  will 
melt  near  or  below  the  temperature  of  boiling 
water.  When  the  component  parts  are  tin  19, 
lead  31,  and  bismuth  50,  the  alloy  will  melt  at  a 
little  less  than  212°  F. 

Fusible  Plug.  A  plug  of  easily  fusible  metal 
or  alloy  screwed  into  a  crown-sheet  or  other 
suitable  part  of  a>  boiler-furnace,  which,  by  melt 
ing  when  not  covered  by  water,  gives  warning 
of  low  water  and  partially  releases  the  pressure 
from  the  boiler.  The  device  has  never  proved 
successful,  and  is  not  now  in  use. 

Fust.  A  low  but  capacious  .armed  vessel, 
propelled  with  sails  and  oars,  which  formerly 
attended  upon  galleys ;  a  scampavia,  barge,  or 
pinnace. 

Fustick.  In  commerce,  a  dye-wood  brought 
principally  from  the  West  Indies  and  Spanish 
Main. 

Futtocks.  The  crooked  timbers  placed  in 
the  lower  parts  of  the  frames  of  a  wooden  ship, 
commencing  with  the  heads  of  the  flqor  timbers, 
and  as  they  go  upwards  are  called  first,  second, 
third,  and  fourth  futtocks  until  the  top  timbers 
are  reached.  The  term  hook  is  frequently  applied 
to  anything  bent  or  curved,  as  boat-hooks,  fore- 
hooks,  after-hooks,  etc.  Futtock  is  a  corruption 
of  foot-hook,  and  is  so  named  from  its  being 
placed  at  the  foot  of  a  timber. 

FUTTOCK-BAND.  An  iron  band  around  the 
lower  mast,  to  which  the  futtock-shrouds  are 
secured. 

FUTTOCK-HOLES.  Holes  in  the  top-rim  for  the 
futtock-plates. 

FUTTOCK-PLATES.  Certain  iron  plates  having 
their  upper  parts  open  like  a  ring,  to  fix  the 
dead-eyes  in;  and  round  holes  are  punched  at 
the  lower  end  of  these  plates  for  the  futtock- 
shrouds  to  hook  into. 

FUTTOCK-RIDERS.  These  are  used  in  mer 
chant  ships  built  of  wood.  They  are  placed  on  an 
angle  of  40°,  more  or  less,  with  the  stem  and 
stern-post,  and  are  secured  at  the  lower  end  to  a 
hook  which  crosses  the  stem  and  at  the  upper 
end  to  the  diagonal  knee,  towards  which  the 
rider  is  pointed ;  they  are  generally  placed  inside 
of  the  ceiling. 

FUTTOCK-SHROUDS.  Lengths  of  iron  chain 
connected  with  the  futtock-band  and  the  fut 
tock-plates,  and  serving  to  take  the  strain  of  the 
topmast  rigging.  In  large  ships  they  are  some 
times  rattled  down  for  convenience  in  getting 
into  the  tops. 

FUTTOCK-STAFF.  A  leather-covered  iron  rod 
inside  the  topmast  rigging  for  the  topgallant 
shrouds  to  lead  over. 

Fuze.  The  local  apparatus  for  inflaming  the 
charge  of  a  shell  or  torpedo. 

The  fuzes  for  shells  are  classified  as  time-, 
percussion-,  and  concussion-fuzes,  according  to 
their  mode  of  operation. 

The  time-fuzes  used  in  the  navy  are : 


FUZE 


300 


FUZE 


•  1.  Navy  metal  stock  time-fuze,  for  S.  B.  spher 
ical  and  for  M.  L.  K.  shell. 
2    Bormann  fuze. 

3.  Time-fuze,  wooden  stock,  for  B.  L.  how 
itzers. 

4.  The  bomb  or  mortar  fuze. 

5.  Rear  fuzes,  in  base  of  rifle-shell. 

The  navy  time-fuze  is  fitted  to  all  spherical 
shell  (except  the  24-pounder  and  12-pounder  boat- 
howitzer  ammunition)  and  to  a  part  of  the  ex 
panding  shell  for  rifle  guns.  This  fuze  consists 
of  a  column  of  inflammable  composition  driven 
in  a  paper  case,  intended  to  burn  a  certain  num 
ber  of  seconds,  having  a  safety-plug  attached  to 
its  lower  orifice  in  such  a  way  as  to  prevent  the 
issue  of  flame  so  long  as  it  remains  fixed,  and 
also  to  guard  the  composition  against  the  effects 
of  moisture. 

In  practice,  this  plug,  which  consists  of  a  short 
solid  cylinder  of  lead,  is  detached  from  its  posi 
tion  upon  the  firing  of  the  gun,  the  jar  caused  by 
the  explosion  being  sufficient,  thus  leaving  the 
fuze-composition  in  contact  with  the  shell  charge. 
The  safety-plug  is  omitted  in  time-fuzes  intended 
for  use  in  rifle-shell. 

The  paper  case  in  which  the  composition  is 
driven  is  made  slightly  tapering  to  fit  into  the 
metal  stock,  the  safety-plug  attached  to  the  lower 
end  projecting  through  the  stock  about  half  an 
inch. 

The  composition  is  covered  on  top  by  a  water- 
cap,  of  peculiar  construction,  being  primed  on 
its  outer  surface  with  a  strand  of  quick-match 
and  powder ;  its  object  is  to  protect  the  flarne 
from  being  extinguished  on  ricochet;  this  is 
next  covered  by  a  thin  piece  of  parchment,  and 
over  all  by  a  leaden  patch,  which  is  firmly  fixed 
by  being  expanded  to  fill  the  recess  in  the  metal 
stock ;  it  is  provided  with  a  lug,  that  it  may  be 
stripped  off  to  expose  the  priming,  otherwise  the 
fuze  will  not  ignite,  and  consequently  the  shell 
will  not  explode.  The  length  of  fuze,  in  seconds, 
is  stamped  upon  the  leaden  patch,  and  outside  of 
all,  printed  upon  paper,  is  pasted  the  date  of 
manufacture,  length  of  fuze,  with  initials  of  in 
specting  officer. 

These  fuzes  are  of  3J,  5,  7,  10,  15,  and  20 
seconds  time  of  burning,  a  certain  proportion 
of  each  being  supplied  to  each  ship,  although  all 
shell,  unless  otherwise  ordered,  are  fitted  and 
issued  from  the  shell-houses  with  the  5-second 
fuze,  which  is  regarded  as  the  general  work 
ing  fuze.  For  greater  or  less  distances  this  fuze 
may  be  drawn,  and  any  of  the  others  substituted. 
The  navy  time-fuze  is  rarely  extinguished  by 
several  ricochets  on  water  ;  and  near  the  end 
of  its  flight,  when  fired  direct,  frequently  acts 
by  concussion.  The  fuze  used  should  not  be  of 
longer  time  of  burning  than  requisite  to  reach 
the  object ;  the  shorter  times  are  of  quicker  com 
position,  therefore  more  certain ;  also  on  firing 
on  ricochet  the  shell  may  sink  short  of  the  dis 
tance  necessary  for  its  explosion,  and  conse 
quently  be  supposed  to  fail. 

For  special  firing,  as,  for  example,  at  shore  bat 
teries  or  masses  of  uncovered  troops,  any  of  these 
fuzes  may  be  shortened.  To  do  this,  unscrew 
the  water-cap  and  back  the  paper  case  out  from 
the  lower  end  with  a  drift  and  mallet ;  cut  off 
from  the  lower  end  with  a  fine  saw,  or  sharp 
knife  struck  with  a  mallet,  the  proportional  part 
required,  and  insert  the  upper  part  in  the  stock, 


forcing  it  down  with  a  few  gentle  blows  with 
the  drift ;  screw  on  the  water-cap.  But  this 
operation  should  only  be  performed  by  an  expert, 
and  in  cases  of  necessity :  as  when  done  by  inex 
perienced  persons,  premature  explosions  have 
been  caused,  seriously  damaging  the  guns.  It 
is  preferable,  therefore,  when  circumstances  will 
admit,  to  take  up  such  distance  as  will  corre 
spond  with  the  time  of  flight  of  one  of  the  regu 
lation  lengths.  When  firing  against  ships  or 
earth-works,  the  fuze  should  be  a  little  longer 
than  necessary,  in  order  to  reach  the  object 
before  bursting  ;  but  a  little  shorter  when  firing 
against  boats  or  masses  of  troops,  in  order  to 
insure  its  bursting  in  front  of  them. 

Time-fuzes  are  generally  very  unreliable  in 
rifle  guns,  as  expanding  or  forced  projectiles  cut 
off  the  flame  from  the  fuze  ;  but  with  the  Par 
rot  shell,  the  navy  time-fuze  is  comparatively 
certain  of  ignition  and  regular  in  its  time  of 
burning.  The  safety-plug  must  be  removed 
when  the  navy  time-fuze  is  used  in  rifled  cannon, 
as  recent  experiments  show  that  it  is  a  probable 
cause  of  premature  explosion  of  shells.  In  test 
ing  the  navy  time-fuze  by  the  watch  or  michro- 
nometer,  the  safety-plug  must  be  removed ;  other 
wise  the  fuze  will  burn  longer  than  the  time  for 
which  it  is  marked,  as  all  navy  time-fuzes,  being 
intended  for  use  under  a  water-cap,  burn  a  longer 
time  in  the  open  air. 

The  Bormann  fuze  is  fitted  to  all  S.  B.  shrap 
nel  and  the  24-pounder  and  12-pounder  boat- 
howitzer  ammunition,  and  has  been  fitted  to 
certain  shell  for  special  firing  ;  the  length  of  the 
fuze  being  the  limit  of  distance  within  which 
this  fire  is  effective.  It  consists  of  a  short  cylin 
drical  case  of  soft  metal  (composition  of  lead  and 
tin),  containing  an  annular  space  charged  with 
fuze-composition  of  a  uniform  density  and  thick 
ness  throughout.  The  annular  space  or  inden 
tation  for  the  composition  is  made  on  the  lower 
side,  in  the  shape  of  a  horseshoe,  one  end  of  which 
connects  with  a  small  magazine  in  the  .centre 
of  the  fuze.  This  indentation  extends  nearly 
through  the  cylinder,  that  portion  of  the  metal 
left  on  top  being  quite  thin.  The  fuze  is  charged 
from  the  under  side,  a  strand  of  quick-match 
being  first  placed  in  the  bottom  of  the  channel ; 
the  fuze-composition  is  then  laid  in  a  smooth 
layer  throughout,  and  a  ring  of  the  same  metal 
as  the  case  is  pressed  upon  it  by  machinery,  seal 
ing  it  hermetically.  The  cylindrical  opening  or 
magazine  in  the  centre  is  filled  with  fine  powder 
and  covered  with  a  cap  of  sheet-lead  ;  with  those 
supplied  at  present  this  cap  is  made  quite  thin, 
obviating  the  perforation  heretofore  necessary. 

The  metal  on  the  upper  surface  of  the  fuze 
over  the  composition  is  graduated  in  equal  parts 
and  marked  in  seconds  and  quarter  seconds,  and 
being  quite  thin  is  easily  cut  with  a  gouge,  thus 
exposing  the  fuze-composition  to  the  flames. 
Care  should  be  taken  in  making  the  cut  not  to 
pierce  the  priming-chamber  or  magazine,  which 
would  necessarily  cause  an  explosion  at  the 
muzzle  of  the  gun. 

On  the  side  of  the  fuze  the  thread  of  a  screw 
is  cut,  by  which  means  it  is  fitted  to  the  projec 
tile  ;  and  to  prevent  its  being  driven  into  the 
shell  by  the  explosive  force  of  the  charge,  the 
fuze  being  made  of  soft  metal,  it  is  supported  by 
a  composition  plate,  which  is  first  screwed  into 
the  fuze-hole,  having  a  perforation  in  its  centre 


FUZE 


301 


FUZE 


for  the  flame  to  pass  through.  No  oil  is  to  be 
used  on  the  threads  of  this  fuze,  and  on  screwing 
it  in  it  must  be  started  fair,  so  as  to  be  evenly 
supported  on  the  plate. 

The  date  of  manufacture  and  initials  of  in 
specting  officer  are  stamped  on  the  upper  surface 
of  the  fuze,  and  on  the  bottom  is  pasted  a  piece 
of  paper  on  which  is  noted  the  date  when  inserted 
in  projectile. 

This  fuze  is  opened  at  the  required  number  of 
seconds  by  cutting  close  to  the  right  of  the  mark 
on  the  index  plate.  The  cut  should  be  made 
down  to  the  plane  of  the  table,  in  order  to  expose 
the  composition ;  and  is  best  made  by  two  or 
three  efforts,  instead  of  trying  to  effect  the  cut 
at  once.  This  fuze  should  be  carefully  explained 
to  the  men,  as  shells  have  been  taken  from  guns 
with  the  cut  actually  made  into  the  priming- 
magazine. 

The  time-fuze  for  B.  L.  howitzer,  which  is 
virtually  a  modification  of  the  English  Boxer 
fuze,  consists  of  a  beech-wood  stock,  conical  in 
form,  fitted  to  receive  the  paper-case  fuze,  which 
is  somewhat  less  in  diameter  than  the  regulation 
navy  time-fuze  already  described.  Just  above 
the  upper  face  of  the  fuze-composition  is  an  un 
occupied  space  from  which  four  gas-vent  chan 
nels  lead  to  the  outside  of  the  stock  above  the 
point  of  the  shell.  Immediately  above  this  gas- 
vent  chamber  the  bore  of  the  stock  is  consider 
ably  enlarged  to  receive  the  igniter.  This  con 
sists  of  a  small  bronze  hollow  cylinder,  closed  at 
the  lower  end,  where  it  is  furnished  on  the  inside 
with  a  pierced  nipple  for  a  percussion-cap.  The 
upper  edge  of  the  hollow  cylinder  is  flanged  in 
such  a  manner  as  to  rest  on  top  of  the  stock  ; 
thereby  preventing  the  igniter  from  being  driven 
bodily  into  the  fuze  on  discharge  of  the  gun. 
Inside  of  this  hollow  cylinder  the  plunger  is 
hung  on  a  brittle  wire  (half  copper  and  half 
lead).  When  this  arrangement  is  in  place  the 
head  of  the  fuze  is  covered  with  a  piece  of  paper 
or  linen,  luted  down  and  coated  with  shellac. 
Thus  far  the  fuze  only  burns  for  the  full  time 
for  which  it  was  pressed.  In  order  to  provide  for 
intermediate  times,  two  side  channels  are  bored 
from  the  lower  end  of  the  fuze  upward.  Holes 
bored  at  equal  intervals  from  the  outside  of  the 
stock  connect  the  exterior  of  the  fuze  with  the 
side  channels  ;  the  lowest  communicating  hole  in 
each  channel  being  bored  entirely  through  to 
the  fuze-composition.  The  channels  are  filled 
with  mealed  powder  and  paper  pasted  over  the 
exterior  of  the  time-holes.  Upper  and  lower 
ends  of  the  stock  are  served  with  brass  wire. 

To  use.  the  fuze,  with  a  suitable  tool  pierce 
through  the  communicating  hole,  which  corre 
sponds  to  the  number  of  seconds  desired,  into  the 
column  of  fuze-composition,  then  push  the  fuze 
by  hand,  giving  it  a  slight  twist,  into  the  nose 
of  the  projectile,  and  load  the  gun.  On  explosion 
of  the  charge  the  igniter  acts  as  usual,  and  the 
fuze-composition  burns  down  to  the  point  at 
which  it  was  pierced  ;  then  the  flame  flashes  into 
the  side  channels,  down  the  latter  to  the  lower 
communicating  hole,  and  thence  to  the  bursting 
charge. 

The  bomb-  or  mortar-fuze  consists  of  a  con 
ical  wooden  plug  turned  off  the  proper  size  of 
the  fuze-hole,  and  about  seven  and  a  half  inches 
in  length  ;  the  axis  of  the  plug  is  bored  out  cylin- 
drically  from  the  large  to  within  a  short  dis 


tance  of  the  small  end,  the  latter  being  left  solid. 
The  plug  is  graduated  and  marked  on  the  ex 
terior  in  inches,  the  fuze-composition  with  which 
it  is  filled  being  driven  hard  and  as  evenly  as 
possible,  so  as  to  burn  at  the  rate  of  seven  seconds 
to  an  inch,  making  the  extreme  length  of  the 
fuze  forty-nine  seconds.  At  the  large  end  a  cup 
is  hollowed  out  and  filled  with  mealed  powder 
moistened  with  alcohol.  The  rate  of  burning  is 
ascertained  by  experiment,  and  marked  on  a 
water-proof  covering,  which  is  tied  over  the  cap. 
A  fuze-saw  is  supplied,  and  must  be  at  hand 
during  practice,  to  cut  the  fuze  at  the  required 
length. 

Fuzes  for  sea-coast  mortars  are  also  driven  in 
conical  paper  cases  marked  with  the  number  of 
seconds  they  burn  per  inch.  These  cases  are  in 
serted  in  a  metal  or  wooden  plug  previously 
driven  in  the  fuze-hole,  and  accurately  reamed 
out. 

Base-fuze.  "With  forced  and  expanding  pro 
jectiles  the  flame  of  the  discharge  frequently 
fails  to  ignite  the  fuze  placed  in  the  forward  end 
of  the  projectile ;  there  are  also  objections  to  the 
use  of  the  fulminates  and  chemicals  of  percus 
sion-  and  concussion-fuzes.  These  reasons  have 
led  to  the  invention  of  time-fuzes  placed  in  the 
base  of  projectiles,  several  kinds  of  which  are 
now  on  trial. 

Percussion-fuzes  are  those  which  are  prepared 
for  action  by  the  shock  of  the  discharge,  and  put 
in  action  on  striking  the  object.  The  only  fuze 
of  this  kind  used  in  the  navy  is  the  Schenkle- 
fuze,  which  consists  of  a  hollow  metallic  stock, 
cylinder,  and  cap.  The  stock  is  made  of  com 
position,  and  in  appearance  is  similar  to  that  of 
the  navy  time-fuze.  The  cylinder  is  of  steel, 
about  an  inch  and  a  quarter  in  length,  filled  with 
quick-burning  composition,  and  has  fixed  at  its 
forward  end,  in  a  cylindrical  recess,  a  nipple, 
projecting  slightly,  on  which  an  ordinary  per 
cussion-cap  is  placed.  The  cylinder  fits  loosely 
in  the  fuze-stock,  and  is  suspended  by  means  of 
a  small  brass  screw,  which  passes  through  a  hole 
in  the  side  of  the  stock  and  into  the  cylinder. 
This  screw  is  not  to  be  removed,  or  premature 
explosion  in  the  gun  is  likely  to  occur. 

A  brass  cap,  plain  on  one  side  and  countersunk 
on  the  other,  screws  into  the  head  of  the  stock 
over  the  cylinder;  the  object  of  its  being  made 
with  one  side  countersunk,  is  to  guard  against 
the  danger  of  accidental  explosion  should  the 
cylinder  or  plunger  become  loose,  as  the  cavity 
is  of  sufficient  depth  to  prevent  contact  with  the 
percussion-cap,  it  being  particularly  ordered  that 
it  shall  be  screwed  in  with  the  cavity  next  the 
plunger ;  to  be  reversed  only  when  the  shell  is  en 
tered  in  the  gun,  at  which  time  it  is  absolutely 
necessary.  In  firing,  the  jar  caused  by  the  ex 
plosion  of  the  charge  in  the  gun  breaks  the 
screw,  the  cylinder  is  released  and  recedes  to  the 
bottom  of  the  fuze-case,  and  upon  striking  an 
object  of  sufficient  resistance  the  cylinder  moves 
forward  with  violence,  the  percussion-cap  coming 
in  contact  with  the  plain  side  of  the  brass  cap 
explodes,  thereby  igniting  the  fuze-composition, 
which  communicates  flame  to  the  bursting  charge 
in  the  shell.  These  fuzes  are  all  made  of  one 
size. 

The  best  effect  of  a  percussion-fuze  is  obtained 
by  firing  into  a  mass  of  timber.  They  frequently 
fail  if  fired  into  a  bank  of  soft  earth,  sand,  or 


FUZE 


302 


GALLAN  WHALE 


other  material  which  doe?  not  offer  a  sufficiently 
sudden  resistance  ;  also,  if  fired  at  high  angles  of 
elevation,  owing  to  the  fact  that  the  rifle-shells 
do  not  generally  strike  point  foremost. 

Concussion-fuzes  are  put  in  action  by  the  shock 
of  discharge,  but  the  action  is  restrained  until 
the  projectile  strikes  the  object.  These  fuzes,  as 
well  as  the  percussion-fuzes,  are  wholly  inde 
pendent  of  the  time  of  flight,  and  are  dangerous 
to  handle  on  account  of  the  fulminates  and 
chemicals  which  they  contain. 

Combination  time-fuze.  The  composition  is 
ignited  by  a  percussion  contrivance  put  in  action 
by  the  shock  of  discharge,  after  which  it  burns 
as  an  ordinary  time-fuze. 

Fuzes  used  in  torpedoes  may  be  classified  as 
percussion-,  friction-,  chemical,  and  electric  fuzes. 

A.  percussion-fuze  is  one  in  which  the  heat  is 
produced  by  a  blow  on  some  fulminating  com 
pound.  The  blow  may  be  produced  by  releasing 


a  compressed  spring  which  acts  on  a  hammer, 
by  the  dropping  of  a  weight,  or  by  the  impact 
of  a  moving  body. 

A. friction-fuze  is  one  in  which  the  heat  is 
evolved  by  the  friction  of  a  metallic  surface  on 
the  composition,  or  by  the  friction  of  the  parti 
cles  of  the  composition  on  each  other. 

A  chemical  fuze  is  one  in  which  substances 
separated  until  required  for  action  are  then 
brought  into  contact,  and,  uniting  chemically, 
produce  heat. 

An  electric  fuze  is  one  in  which  the  heat  is 
caused  by  electricity.  The  heat  may  be  caused 
by  the  shock  or  blow  of  disruptive  discharge 
acting  on  a  sensitive  composition,  or  by  the  heat 
generated  by  the  passage  of  an  electric  current 
over  a  conductor  of  high  specific  resistance. 

Fuzzy.     Not  firm  or  sound  in  substance. 

Fyke.  A  bow-net  for  taking  shad.  The  Me~ 
dusa  cruciata,  or  Medusa's  head. 


G.  Of  the  letters  used  in  the  log-book  to  in 
dicate  the  state  of  the  weather,  g  denotes  gloomy 
weather. 

Gab.  An  old  but  vulgar  term  for  the  mouth. 
Gift  of  the  gab,  facility  of  expression.  See  EC 
CENTRIC-HOOK. 

Gabarre  (Fr.}>  A  river-lighter.  A  store- 
ship. 

Gabart,  or  Gabbert.  A  flat  vessel  with  a  long 
hatchway  ;  used  in  canals  and  rivers. 

Gabbok.  A  voracious  dog-fish  in  St.  George's 
Channel. 

Gaberdine.  An  old  name  for  a  loose  felt  cloak 
or  mantle. 

Gabert.    See  GABART. 

Gable,  or  Gabulle.     An  old  form  of  cable. 

Gaby.     A  conceited  simpleton. 

Gachupin.  A  South  American  name  for  a 
Spaniard. 

Gadoid.  One  of  a  family  of  soft-finned  fishes 
having  the  ventral  fins  below  or  in  advance  of 
the  pectoral,  of  which  family  the  cod  is  the 
type. 

Gaff.  A  small  spar  projecting  abaft  a  mast, 
which  extends  the  head  of  a  fore-and-aft  sail 
not  set  on  a  stay.  The  inner  end  is  called  the 
jaws,  and  the  outer,  the  peak.  It  has  cheek- 
blocks  for  the  brails,  and  iron  bands  with  eyes 
for  the  vangs,  throat-  and  peak-halliards.  It 
is  sometimes  stationary,  being  secured  to  the 
mast  by  eye-bolts  on  gaff  and  mast ;  when  fitted 
to  hoist  and  lower,  it  slides  on  a  trysail-mast, 
batten,  or  jack-stay.  For  the  gear  of  a  gaff,  see 
under  proper  heads. 

A  barbed  iron  instrument  for  spearing  fish. 

GAFF-HOOK.  A  strong  iron  hook  set  on  a 
handle  for  landing  large  fish  that  have  been 
caught  with  a  hook  and  line. 

GAFF-NET.     A  peculiar  fishing-net. 

GAFF-TOPSAIL.  A  light  triangular  or  quad 
rilateral  sail  set  above  a'gaff.  It  is  seldom  used 


in  men-of-war,  but  forms  a  part  of  the  rig  of  all 
fore-and-afters.  For  the  gear  of  a  gaff-topsail, 
see  under  proper  heads. 

Gage.     See  GAUGE. 

Gained  Day.  See  DAY,  CIRCUMNAVIGA 
TOR'S. 

Gaining-twist.  A  term  applied  to  the  rifling 
of  a  gun  when  the  twist  is  not  uniform,  but 
greater  at  the  muzzle  than  at  the  breech. 

Gain  the  Wind.  To  arrive  on  the  weather 
side  of  another  vessel  when  both  are  working  to 
windward. 

Gait-fish.     A  name  for  the  porpoise. 

Gair-fowl.  A  name  of  the  great  auk,  Alca 
impennis. 

Galaxy  (Gr.  gala,  milk).  The  galaxy,  or 
milky-way  (Via  Lactea),  is  the  great  luminous 
band  which  stretches  across  the  sky  and  which 
forms  a  zone  completely  encircling  the  whole 
sphere,  almost  in  a  great  circle.  At  one  part  it 
sends  off  a  kind  of  branch  which  unites  again 
with  the  main  body,  after  remaining  distinct 
for  about  150  degrees.  This  remarkable  belt 
has  maintained  from  the  earliest  ages,  the  same 
relative  situation  among  the  stars,  and  when  ex 
amined  through  powerful  telescopes,  is  found  to 
consist  entirely  of  stars  scattered  by  millions, 
"  like  glittering  dust  on  the  black  ground  of  the 
general  heavens." 

Gale.  A  storm.  In  a  gale  a  ship  must  scud 
before  it  or  lie-to.  In  the  Beaufort  scale  the 
strength  is  denoted  by  9,  10,  11,  or  12,  and  the 
velocity  is  from  20  to  iOO  miles  per  hour. 

Galeas.    See  GALLIAS. 

Galeopis.  An  ancient  war-ship  with  a  prow 
resembling  the  beak  of  a  sword-fish. 

Gall.     To  chafe.     See  WINDGALL.  ^ 

Gallants.  Formerly,  all  flags  carried  at  the 
mizzen  were  termed  gallants. 

Gallan  Whale.  The  largest  whale  which 
visits  the  Hebrides. 


GALLEAT 


303 


GALLEY 


Galleat,  or  Galliot.  A  galley  having  one  mast 
and  16  to  20  oars  ;  at  one  time  used  by  most  of 
the  maritime  nations  of  Europe.  Also,  a  Dutch 
or  Flemish  merchant  vessel  with  very  rounded 
ribs  and  flattish  bottom,  with  a  mizzen-mast 
stepped  well  aft,  carrying  a  square  main-sail  and 
main  topsail,  a  fore-stay  to  the  main-mast  (there 
being  no  foremast)  with  fore-stay-sail  and  jibs. 
See  SCAMPAVIA. 

Galleon,  or  Galion.  A  name  formerly  given 
to  ships  of  war  having  three  decks  with  guns  on 
each.  Also  applied  to  large  Spanish  merchant 
vessels,  much  used  as  treasure-ships  ;  they  were  a 
ready  prey  on  account  of  their  unwieldiness. 

Gallery.  A  balcony  projecting  from  the  after 
part  of  a  ship.  See  QUARTER  GALLERY. 

GALLERY-LADDER.  Synonymous  with  stern- 
ladder. 

Galley.    The  cooking  apparatus  on  board  ship. 

GALLEY-GROWLERS.  A  term  applied  to  a 
class  of  grumblers  and  croakers  on  board  ship 
who  find  fault  with  the  food  and  spread  idle 
rumors  through  the  ship  ;  hence  the  terms  "  gal 
ley-news"  and  "galley-yarn." 

GALLEY-NEWS.     See  GALLEY-GROWLERS. 

GALLEY-PACKET.  The  mythical  ship  which 
brings  "galley-news." 

GALLEY-PEPPER.  Soot  or  ashes  which  drop 
into  victuals  in  cooking. 

GALLEY-SLANG.  The  neological  barbarisms 
foisted  into  sea-language. 

GALLEY-STOKER.     A  skulker. 

GALLEY-YARN.  An  unfounded  rumor.  See 
GALLEY-GR.OWLERS. 

Galley.  French  galere,  derived  from  Ital. 
galera,  and  adopted  by  the  French  about  1500. 
The  Italian  galera  was  derived  from  the  low 
Latin  galea,  a  helmet,  because  the  figure-head 
often  consisted  of  a  helmet.  Ovid  says,  "  Navis  ; 
et  a picta  casside  nomen  habet."  Some  etymolo 
gists  have  thought  that  gale,  the  name  applied 
to  the  weasel  and  the  cat,  was  given  to  this  species 
of  vessel  on  account  of  its  swiftness,  slender  form, 
and  ease  of  manreuvre. 

The  name  galley  has  been  in  modern  times 
applied  to  vessels  of  war,  using  both  sails  and 
oars,  which  the  ancients  distinguished  according 
to  the  number  of  benches  of  rowers,  as  biremes, 
triremes,  etc.  There  is  much  uncertainty  as  to 
the  rig  and  arrangement  of  the  ancient  galleys. 
It  is,  however,  certain  that  they  were  used  for 
war, — often  very  long,  low,  originally  without  a 
deck,  and  having  one  mast.  Later,  they  were  con 
structed  with  poop  and  forecastle,  for  the  fight 
ing  men,  and  the  masts  were  made  to  lower,  as 
in  the  Roman  galleys  at  the  battle  of  Actium. 
The  Greeks  and  Carthaginians  generally  kept 
their  masts  up  during  a  fight,  and  kept  hoisted 
at  their  yard-arms  heavy  masses  of  metal  to  be 
dropped  upon  their  assailants,  often  causing  them 
to  sink.  The  Romans  used  grappling-hooks  with 
which  to  hold  their  galleys  fast  to  those  of  their 
enemy,  and  thus  make  the  fighting  hand-to-hand, 
in  which  case  they  were  apt  to  be  successful. 

The  ancient  galleys  were  often  armed  with 
a  metal  spur,  or  rostrum.  They  were  steered  by 
2  or  even  4  broad  oars,  instead  of  a  rudder. 

All  galleys  in  the  beginning  had  only  one  rank 
of  oars, — the  uniremes  of  the  Romans,  moneres  of 
the  Greeks.  These  galleys  were  distinguished 
among  themselves  by  the  number  of  oars,  such 
as  triacontoros,  or  30  rowers,  and  pentekontoros, 


or  50  rowers.  It  is  said  that  the  ranks  of  oars 
were  gradually  increased  until,  like  the  great 
vessel  of  Hiero,  built  by  Archimedes,  and  that 
of  Ptolemy  Philopator,  the  ranks  were  raised  to 
40.  Yet,  as  has  been  said,  no  modern  has  given 
a  thoroughly  satisfactory  explanation  of  how 
these  were  arranged. 

The  modern  galley  was  especially  in  use  in 
the  Mediterranean  from  the  12th  to  the  18th  cen 
tury.  They  were  very  fast,  and  capable  of  per 
forming  rapid  evolutions,  their  breadth  in  rela 
tion  to  length  being  as  1  to  7,  or  even  as  1  to  8  or  9. 
They  were  decked,  steered  by  a  rudder  and  tiller, 
and  carried  2  or  more  lateen-sails,  in  later  times, 
but  the  sails  were  originally  square.  Each  oar 
was  from  40  to  50  feet  long,  and  manned  by  sev 
eral  men.  An  ordinary  galley  pulled  50  oars, 
and  would  have  from  250  to  300  rowers.  A  walk 
or  gangway,  called  the  coursier,  ran  along  the 
middle  of  the  deck,  along  which  passed  the  comite, 
or  boatswain  and  his  mates,  for  the  purpose  of 
making  the  rowers  do  their  best. 

Before  the  invention  of  gunpowder  the  sides 
of  galleys  were  surmounted  by  a  wall  or  bulk 
head  of  planks,  and  they  had  small  towers  for 
ward  and  aft,  from  which  archers  launched  their 
projectiles.  They  were  also  armed  with  a  spur 
of  wood  covered  with  iron.  The  use  of  fire-arms 
caused  the  towers  and  spurs  to  be  abandoned, 
and  a  heavy  piece  of  artillery  and  some  smaller 
ones  were  mounted  forward,  behind  a  sort  of 
bulwark  called  a  rambade.  To  prevent  board 
ing  they  had  nettings  stretched  completely  over 
the  rowers  and  the  main  deck.  The  poop,  which 
was  higher  than  the  prow,  was  also  defended  by 
bulwarks  crenelated  for  musketry. 

The  system  of  recruiting  for  the  rowers  of  the 
galleys  differed  much  at  different  times.  During 
ancient  times  the  rower's  place  was  considered  an 
honorable  one.  Virgil  mentions  that  the  Trojan 
youth  practiced  continually  at  the  oar.  Later 
the  oar  was  worked  by  prisoners  of  war  and  black 
slaves,  the  latter  being  especially  used  by  the 
Carthaginians. 

In  the  middle  ages  they  chained  to  the  same 
bench  infidel  prisoners  and  criminals ;  and  in 
France  justice  showed  herself  more  or  less  severe 
according  to  the  need  of  rowers  for  the  galleys. 
The  loss  of  life  in  the  French  galleys  was  fright 
ful.  In  1676  the  rowers  numbered  4710,  but 
death  made  such  fearful  ravages  among  them 
that  every  sort  of  vagabond  was  picked  up,  and 
even  North  American  Indians  were  kidnapped 
for  the  purpose  of  being  put  to  the  oar. 

The  treatment  of  the  galley-slaves  was  terri 
ble,  even  after  the  great  Colbert  had  interfered  to 
obtain  better  treatment  for  them.  Fed  princi 
pally  upon  lentils  and  black  bread,  with  a  little 
fat  or  oil,  and  all  in  insufficient  quantity,  a  trav 
eler  who  wrote  at  the  end  of  the  17th  century 
says  they  were  eaten  by  swarms  of  vermin  and 
scaly  with  itch ;  dressed  in  a  coarse  sack,  with 
out  shoes  or  cap,  they  slept  upon  the  hard  deck 
or  bench,  chained  to  it  and  to  each  other.  If 
necessary  during  any  manoeuvre  to  insure  silence, 
they  were  gagged.  "  Other  particulars  still  more 
revolting  are  given. 

In  some  of  the  French  dock-yards  may  still  be 
seen  galley-slaves  working  at  the  oar  and  per 
forming  other  hard  labor,  but  the  system  is  fast 
dying  out.  The  Algerines^used  galleys  up  al 
most  to  our  own  time.  In  1748  the  officers  of  the 


GALLIAS 


304 


GALVANIC  BATTERY 


French  galleys,  who  had  until  then  formed  a 
separate  corps,  were  merged  in  the  navy. 

The  term  galley  was  also  applied  to  a  ship's 
boat,  generally  built  for  speed. 

GALLEY-ARCHES.  Spacious  and  well-built 
structures  in  many  of  the  Mediterranean  ports 
for  the  reception  and  security  of  the  galleys. 

GALLEY-FOIST,  or  GALLEY-FUST.  An  obso 
lete  term  for  a  barge  of  state. 

GALLEY-SLAVE.  A  person  condemned  to  work 
at  the  oar  on  board  a  galley. 

Gallias.  A  vessel  larger  and  heavier  than  the 
ordinary  galley ;  it  had  castellated  structures  at 
the  bow  and  stern  for  the  fighting  men. 

Gallied.  Worried;  rattled;  thrown  out  of 
mental  equilibrium. 

Galligaskins.  Wide  hose  or  breeches  formerly 
worn  by  seamen,  also  called  petticoat-trousers. 

Gallipoli.  A  seaport  town  of  European 
Turkey,  in  Roumelia,  on  the  Sea  of  Marmora, 
132  miles  W.S.W.  of  Constantinople.  Lat.  40° 
24'  N. ;  Ion.  26°  40'  E.  It  has  two  ports,  and  is 
the  principal  station  of  the  Turkish  fleet.  Pop. 
20,300. 

Gallipoli.  A  fortified  seaport  town  of  Naples, 
province  of  Lecce,  29  miles  W.S.W.  of  Otranto, 
on  a  rocky  island  in  the  Gulf  of  Taranto,  con 
nected  by  a  bridge  with  its  suburb  Lizza,  on  the 
mainland.  The  harbor  is  between  the  town  and 
the  island  of  Sant'  Andrea,  and  is  10  to  12  fath 
oms  in  depth.  Pop.  10,000. 

Gallivat.  An  armed  row-boat  of  India, 
smaller  than  a  grab,  generally  50  to  70  tons.  It 
was  built  like  a  grab,  but  not  so  large ;  it  had 
two  masts  with  a  large  triangular  sail  on  the 
main,  and  generally  a  deck  made  of  split  bam 
boo.  They  carried  swivel-guns  or  small  cannon, 
and  sometimes  pulled  50  oars,  by  which  they 
were  propelled  at  the  rate  of  4  miles  an  hour. 

Gallows.  A  frame- work  above  the  deck  of  a 
flush-decked  vessel,  used  for  stowing  spare  spars  ; 
called  also  gallows-tops ,  g  allow  s-bitts,  and  gallows- 
frames. 

Gally-gun.     A  kind  of  culverin. 

Galore.     Plenty ;  abundance. 

Galvanic  Battery.  The  use  of  electricity  as  a 
means  of  igniting  explosive  charges  is  of  com 
paratively  recent  date.  The  earliest  recorded 
application  of  this  agent  for  such  purposes  was 
by  Moses  Shaw,  an  American,  who,  in  1831,  ex 
ploded  charges  used  in  submarine  blasting  by 
means  of  an  ordinary  frictional  machine,  and 
who,  later  in  the  same  year,  by  advice  of  Dr. 
Hare,  substituted  a  galvanic  battery  for  the  elec 
trical  machine. 

In  1839,  Lieut.-Gen.  Pasley,  R.A.,  while  con 
ducting  operations  for  the  removal  of  the  wreck 
of  the  "  Royal  George,"  at  Spithead,  used  a  gal 
vanic  battery  for  firing  charges  of  powder.  In 
the  same  year,  Alan  Stevenson  also  applied  the 
same  means  in  submarine  blasting. 

Probably  the  most  noteworthy  of  the  earlier 
applications  of  electricity  to  firing  purposes  was 
that  made  by  William  Cubitt,  in  1843,  when  re 
moving  the  Round  Down  cliff,  on  the  line  of  the 
Southeastern  Railroad,  near  Dover.  This  cliff 
was  about  400  feet  high,  and  in  removing  it  three 
charges,  containing  in  the  aggregate  18,000 
pounds  of  gunpowder,  were  fired  simultaneously 
by  means  of  a  galvanic  battery.  The  results  of 
the  explosion  realized  the  most  sanguine  expec 
tations  of  the  projectors.  Over  1,000,000  tons 


of  chalk  rock  were  thrown  down  in  less  than 
five  minutes,  £10,000  and  twelve  months'  labor 
being  saved  to  the  company. 

The  introduction  of  the  torpedo  into  modern 
warfare  was  followed  by  earnest  attempts  to 
so  modify  its  firing  apparatus  as  to  place  it 
more  under  control,  thus  rendering  it  safe  to 
friends  and  less  dangerous  to  handle.  Elec 
tricity  attracted  almost  immediate  attention  in 
this  connection,  and  so  satisfactory  have  been 
the  results  obtained  by  its  use,  that  at  the  present 
time  it  is  almost  exclusively  employed  as  a  firing 
agent  for  torpedoes. 

The  sources  of  electricity  best  adapted  to  tor 
pedo  operations  are  three  in  number  : 

1.  Contact  between  dissimilar  metals,  supple 
mented  by  chemical  action, — illustrated  by  any 
form  of  galvanic  battery. 

2.  Friction  between  insulators, — for  example, 
Smith's  machine. 

3.  Mechanical  energy  so  applied  as  to  bring 
about   electro-magnetic   induction, — Beardslee's 
and  Farmer's  machines. 

Much  inventive  talent  has  been  employed  in 
devising  machines  of  this  last  class,  and,  as  a  re 
sult,  there  is  a  large  number  of  machines,  vary 
ing  very  widely  in  their  properties.  They  may, 
however,  be  divided  into  two  general  classes, 
viz.,  induction  machines  of  the  first  class,  com 
monly  called  magneto-electric  machines,  and  in 
duction  machines  of  the  second  class,  called  dy 
namo-electric  machines.  The  magneto-electric 
machines,  of  which  Beardslee's  machine  is  an  ex 
ample,  give  a  current  approximating  to  that 
derived  from  frictional  sources.  The  dynamo- 
electric  machines — Farmer's  for  example— give 
a  current  similar  to  that  of  the  galvanic  battery. 

A  source  of  electricity  to  be  used  in  extended 
defensive  operations  should  have  the  following 
properties : 

1.  Its  power  should  be  great. 

2.  It  should  be  ready  toact  at  all  times. 

3.  There  should  be  no  expenditure  of  material 
when  not  in  action. 

4.  It  should,  when  used  to  fire  any  given  tor 
pedo,  have  no   marked   inductive  influence  on 
neighboring  cables. 

5.  The  fuze  required  should  be  safe,  simple, 
little  affected  by  climate  or  storage ;  should  be 
of  such  a  nature  as  to  allow  testing  the  condition 
of  the  circuit,  from  time  to  time,  and  should  have 
such  a  resistance  that  moderately  poor  insulation 
of  the  leading  wires  will  not  prevent  its  firing. 

6.  It  should  be  equally  applicable  to  self-acting 
torpedoes  and  those  fired  at  will. 

Considered  in  reference  to  the  above  proposi 
tions,  it  will  readily  be  admitted  that  frictional 
electricity  is  of  but  little  value  as  a  firing  agent 
in  this  class  of  operations. 

First.  Although  its  power  can  be  made  as 
great  as  desired,  it  has  always  to  be  generated  at 
the  moment  required,  unless  we  go  into  a  con 
stant  expenditure  of  material  to  keep  the  gen 
erator  continuously  in  operation. 

Second.  The  inductive  influence  of  a  current 
derived  from  frictional  sources  is  very  marked. 

Explosions  of  fuzes  in  neighboring  circuits 
have  been  experienced  at  the  Torpedo  Station, 
due  to  no  other  cause  than  this,  and  it  is  also 
probable  that  to  the  same  cause  were  due  the 
"spontaneous  explosions"  encountered  by  the 
Austrians  in  their  earlier  experiments. 


GALVANIC   BATTEKY 


305 


GALVANIC   BATTERY 


Third.  The  fuze  best  adapted  to  frictional 
electricity  is  not  only  extremely  sensitive  and 
dangerous,  but  is  also  very  liable  to  injury  in 
storage,  and  renders  it  impossible  to  test  the  cir 
cuit  at  any  time;  but,  above  all,  it  has  such  a 
high  resistance  that  the  slightest  defect  in  the 
insulation  of  the  connecting  wires  will  render  it 
impossible  to  fire,  no  matter  what  may  be  the 
power  of  the  machine  used. 

Fourth.  Electricity  from  frictional  sources 
cannot  easily  be  used  with  self-acting  or  contact 
torpedoes. 

Frictional  electricity  being  then  of  little  value 
in  this  class  of  operations,  let  us  now  consider 
how  well  induction  machines  will  answer  as  a 
substitute.  The  current  derived  from  the  first 
class  of  these  machines,  approximating  to  that 
obtained  from  frictional  sources,  we  would  natu 
rally  expect  that  the  same  objections  would  ap 
ply.  This  is  the  case,  the  only  advantage  pos 
sessed  by  these  machines  being  that  the  fuze 
required  admits  of  testing,  and  is  less  sensitive, 
and  therefore  safer.  It  is,  however,  more  liable 
to  injury  in  transportation  and  storage,  and  has 
also  a  very  high  resistance,  which  prevents  its 
use  with  poorly-insulated  wires.  The  inductive 
influence  of  the  current  of  these  machines  is  not 
so  marked,  but  is  greater  as  the  machines  more 
nearly  approach  the  frictional  in  the  character 
of  the  current  furnished. 

Induction  machines  of  the  second  class  more 
nearly  fulfill  the  required  conditions.  The  in 
ductive  influence  on  neighboring  cables  is  slight. 
They  can  be  used,  when  in  action,  equally  well 
with  contact  torpedoes  or  those  fired  at  will. 
The  fuze  (platinum  wire)  best  adapted  to  these 
machines  is  simple,  safe,  sure,  offers  every  facility 
for  testing,  is  but  little  affected  by  climate, 
transportation,  or  storage,  and,  at  the  same  time, 
has  very  low  resistance,  and  can  be  fired  when 
the  insulation  of  the  leading  wires  is  very  defec 
tive.  However,  these  machines  are  not  ready  to 
act  at  all  times,  unless  machinery  be  provided 
for  driving  them,  which  involves  a  constant  ex 
penditure  of  material ;  for  this  reason  they  must 
be  condemned  for  defensive  operations. 

Frictional  and  induction  machines  being  thus 
disposed  of,  there  is  left  only  the  galvanic  battery. 

1.  The  power  of  a  galvanic  battery  is  only  a 
question  of  the  number  of  cells  used,  and  can  be 
made  anything  desired. 

2.  It  is  always  ready  to  act,  requiring  only 
that  its  circuit  be  complete. 

3.  In  a  properly  constructed  battery,  properly 
cared  for,  there  is  but  little  or  no  expenditure  of 
material,  when  not  in  action. 

4.  Its  current  has  practically  no  inductive  in 
fluence  on  neighboring  cables. 

5.  The  platinum  wire  fuze  can  be  used,  bring 
ing  with  it  all  the  advantages  enumerated  above, 
and  enabling  us,  by  simply  increasing  the  num 
ber  of  cells,  to  overcome  all  reasonable  defects 
of  insulation. 

6.  It  can  be  used  indifferently  with  contact 
torpedoes  or  those  fired  at  will. 

7.  It  is  easily  procured,  and  in  case  of  neces 
sity,  a  fair  battery  may  readily  be  improvised. 

In  view  of  all  these  points,  the  galvanic  bat 
tery  seems  to  be  peculiarly  adapted  for  use  as  a 
firing  agent  in  defensive  operations. 

A  good  battery  should  have  the  following 
qualities :  it  should  produce  a  high  electro-mo- 
20 


tive  force ;  its  electro-motive  force  should  be 
constant,  whether  used  to  produce  strong  or 
weak  currents  ;  it  should  have  a  small  and  con 
stant  internal  resistance ;  the  materials  employed 
should  be  cheap  and  readily  obtainable,  par 
ticularly  the  material  consumed ;  no  material 
should  be  expended  when  the  battery  is  not  em 
ployed  to  produce  a  current.  This  last  point  is 
generally  attained  when  the  cells  are  properly 
insulated  from  each  other,  the  battery  itself  well 
insulated,  and  the  zincs  carefully  amalgamated. 

The  electro-motive  force  and  resistance  per 
cell  of  any  form  of  battery  are  known  as  its 
electrical  dimensions,  and  it  is  the  relative  values 
of  these  two  quantities  which  must  be  the  guide 
in  selecting  batteries  for  particular  purposes. 

The  simplest  form  of  galvanic  battery  consists 
of  two  plates  of  dissimilar  metals  plunged  into  a 
liquid.  A  copper  and  a  zinc  plate  in  dilute 
sulphuric  acid  or  water  are  .  generally  used. 
When  the  two  plates  are  brought  into  contact  or 
joined  by  a  conducting  wire,  a  current  of  elec 
tricity  flows  from  the  copper  to  the  zinc,  through 
the  conducting  wire,  and  from  the  zinc  to  the 
copper,  through  the  liquid.  The  passage  of  the 
current  through  the  liquid  is  attended  by  chemi 
cal  action.  The  sulphuric  acid  attacks  the 
zinc,  forming  sulphate  of  zinc  and  liberating  hy 
drogen,  which  is  carried  over,  and  given  off  at 
the  copper  plate. 

This  battery  is  found  to  be  of  no  practical  use ; 
its  electro-motive  force  decreases  rapidly,  and  at 
the  same  time  its  resistance  is  constantly  increas 
ing,  until  finally  the  action  altogether  ceases. 
This  inconstancy  has  been  found  to  be  due  to  the 
action  of  the  liberated  hydrogen,  which,  instead 
of  passing  off  at  the  copper  plate,  clings  to  it, 
generating  an  opposing  electro-motive  force, 
which  subtracts  from  the  original  force  of  the 
combination.  The  hydrogen  has  still  another 
detrimental  action ;  after  the  circuit  has  been 
closed  for  some  time,  the  sulphate  of  zinc  formed 
permeates  the  whole  solution  ;  the  hydrogen  acts 
on  this  sulphate,  depositing  zinc  on  the  copper 
plate,  and  thus  weakening  still  further  the  bat 
tery.  Attempts  to  so  dispose  of  this  hydrogen 
that  its  action  shall  not  be  detrimental  have  re 
sulted  in  many  more  complicated  forms,  called 
constant  batteries. 

DanieWs  battery  consists  of  a  zinc  plate,  in 
either  a  solution  of  sulphate  of  zinc,  or  dilute 
sulphuric  acid,  and  a  copper  plate  in  a  saturated 
solution  of  sulphate  of  copper.  The  two  solutions 
are  separated  by  a  porous  cup.  To  the  sulphate 
of  copper  solution  a  little  sulphuric  acid  is  some 
times  added  to  increase  its  conductivity. 

This  battery  is  very  constant,  particularly 
when  the  sulphate  of  zinc  solution  is  kept  at 
half  saturation  ;  its  electro-motive  force  is  about 
.98  volt,  and  its  internal  resistance  varies  from 
4  to  10  ohms,  according  to  size  and  construction. 
The  plates  used  should  be  of  the  same  surface, 
the  copper  being  the  larger,  if  either,  and  the 
zinc  plate  should  be  in  the  larger  vessel. 

The  Gravity  battery  is  a  modification  of  Dan- 
iell's.  In  the  bottom  of  a  glass  jar  is  a  copper 
plate,  surrounded  by  crystals  of  sulphate  of  cop 
per  ;  to  the  copper  plate  is  soldered  an  insulated 
wire,  which  leads  up  to  the  top  of  the  jar ;  the 
jar  is  filled  with  water,  to  which  a  little  sulphate 
of  zinc  is  sometimes  added  ;  in  the  top  of  the  jar 
is  suspended  an  annular  zinc  plate. 


GALVANIC   BATTERY 


306 


GALVANIC   BATTERY 


•In  the  form  of  this  battery  in  use  at  the  Tor 
pedo  Station,  the  E.  M.  F.  is  about  one  volt,  the 
resistance  about  2.4  ohms.  In  one  particular 
case,  in  which  the  copper  plate  is  disposed  as  a 
band  around  the  interior  wall  of  the  jar,  the  re 
sistance  is  as  low  as  1.4  ohms. 

In  this  battery  the  difference  of  the  specific 
gravities  of  the  two  solutions  keeps  them  sepa 
rate ;  therefore,  the  battery  should  never  be  so 
agitated  as  to  cause  the  solutions  to  mix.  This 
battery  is  very  constant,  and  with  reasonable 
eare  can  be  used  for  months  without  re-setting. 

The  Le  Clanche  battery  consists  of  a  glass  jar, 
and  a  porous  cup  which  is  glazed  for  half  its 
length.  In  the  porous  cup  is  placed  a  carbon 
plate,  surrounded  by  a  mixture  of  gas  carbon 
and  the  needle  form  of  peroxide  of  manganese 
(black  oxide).  Both  the  carbon  and  the  man 
ganese  should  be  sifted  to  get  rid  of  any  fine 
dust,  which  would  materially  interfere  with  the 
action  of  the  battery.  The  top  of  the  porous 
cup  is  sealed  with  pitch.  The  glass  jar  contains 
a  zinc  rod,  and  is  half  filled  with  a  weak  solu 
tion  of  ammonic  chloride  (sal-ammoniac).  The 
E.  M.  F.  of  this  battery  is  about  1.48  volts,  and 
the  resistance  for  the  quart  jar  from  2.5  to  3 
ohms. 

The  battery  should  not  be  used  on  short  cir 
cuits  where  constant  work  is  required,  but  for 
intermittent  work  it  is  valuable,  constant,  and 
requires  but  little  care.  A  battery  of  this  kind, 
carefully  prepared  at  the  outset,  can  be  used  for 
ten  or  twelve  months  without  change,  except  to 
supply  what  the  solution  loses  by  evaporation. 
Sea- water  is  a  very  good  substitute  for  the  sal- 
ammoniac  solution. 

Grove's  battery  consists  of  a  zinc  plate  in  dilute 
sulphuric  acid  (generally  one  part  of  acid  to  ten 
or  twelve  of  water),  and  a  platinum  plate  in 
strong  nitric  acid,  the  two  solutions  being  sepa 
rated  by  a  porous  cap.  The  E.  M.  F.  and  re 
sistance  of  this  battery  are  reasonably  constant ; 
the  latter,  however,  increases  somewhat  with  the 
time  the  battery  has  been  in  operation.  With 
the  ordinary  quart  jar,  the  E.  M.  F.  is  about  1.8 
volts,  and  the  resistance  from  .3  ohm,  when  first 
set  up,  to  .8  ohm,  after  working  a  few  days. 

Bunsen'tt  battery  is  the  same  as  the  Grove, 
with  the  exception  that  carbon  is  substituted  for 
platinum.  The  E.  M.  F.  and  internal  resistance 
of  the  Bunsen  are  both  somewhat  greater  than 
those  of  the  Grove.  The  principal  objection  to 
both  these  batteries  is  the  nitrous  fumes  given 
off,  which  are  very  unpleasant,  and  also  particu 
larly  destructive  to  any  electrical  apparatus  ex 
posed  to  their  influence. 

Station  battery. — At  the  Torpedo  Station  a  modi 
fication  of  Bunsen 's  battery  is  much  used  ;  the 
porous  cup  is  charged  with  a  mixture  of  nitric 
acid  and  a  solution  of  bichromate  of  potash 
(Gibb's  solution).  This  solution  is  prepared  as 
follows :  a  saturated  solution  of  the  bichromate 
is  made,  to  which  is  added  one-fourth  its  volume 
of  strong  sulphuric  acid.  In  charging  the  bat 
tery,  five  parts  of  this  solution  are  mixed  with 
one  part  of  strong  nitric  acid ;  dilute  sulphuric 
acid  (one  to  twelve)  is  used  in  the  outer  jar.  The 
battery  is  reasonably  constant ;  its  E.  M.  F.  is 
about  two  volts,  and  its  resistance  for  the  quart 
jar  varies  from  .5  ohm,  when  first  set  up,  to 
something  over  an  ohm  at  the  end  of  two  weeks. 
No  nitrous  fumes  are  given  off,  which  is  a  great 


advantage  where  instruments  are  used  in  connec 
tion  with  the  battery. 

Pneumatic  battery. — A  small  compact  battery 
invented  by  Lieut.  J.  P.  Merrell,  U.S.N.  It  i9 
supplied  to  all  government  vessels  for  use  in 
boats,  for  which  it  is  very  well  adapted,  being 
compact  and  transportable,  and  possessing  suf 
ficient  power  to  fire  through  a  resistance  of  2.7 
ohms.  The  liquid  (Hertz's  battery  solution)  is 
separate  from  the  plates,  and  can  only  be  brought 
in  contact  with  them  by  blowing  through  a  rub 
ber  tube  attached  to  the  outer  jar. 

Selection  of  batteries. — In  torpedo  work  bat 
teries  are  used  for  three  distinct  purposes,  viz., 
signaling,  testing,  and  firing.  The  qualities  de 
manded  in  a  signal  or  testing  battery  are  identical ; 
it  must  be  constant  and  must  give  a  weak  current, 
certainly  one  50  per  cent,  below  that  required  to 
fire  the  fuze  used.  A  firing  battery,  on  the  con 
trary,  must  be  capable  of  generating  a  very 
strong  current,  and  must  have  as  great  constancy 
as  can  be  obtained  without  sacrificing  this  prime 
consideration.  • 

The  electrical  dimensions  of  a  battery  form 
the  only  criterion  by  which  to  judge  of  the  cur 
rent  which  it  is  capable  of  producing ;  and  it  is 
evident  that  for  a  signal  battery  one  should  be 
selected  which,  being  very  constant,  has,  at  the 
same  time,  a  low  E.  M.  F.  and  large  internal 
resistance ;  while,  for  a  firing  battery,  one  of 
great  E.  M.  F.,  low  internal  resistance,  and  fair 
constancy  should  be  chosen. 

For  a  signal  or  testing  battery,  either  a  Dan- 
iell,  Gravity,  or  Le  Clanche  should  be  chosen, 
for  they  are  all  three  very  constant,  and  their 
electrical  dimensions  are  suitable.  Perhaps  for 
a  signal  or  a  testing  battery,  where  the  work  is 
not  continuous,  a  Le  Clanche  would  be  the  best, 
as  it  requires  less  care  than  any  of  the  others ; 
but  for  a  testing  battery,  where  the  work  is  so 
much  that  it  may  practically  be  considered  con 
tinuous,  the  Daniell  or  Gravity  would  be  most 
suitable. 

The  Grove,  Bunsen,  and  Station  batteries,  in 
point  of  electrical  dimensions  and  constancy,  are 
suitable  for  firing  batteries.  The  Grove  and 
Bunsen  are,  however,  objectionable  on  account 
of  the  nitrous  fumes  given  off,  which  soon  de 
stroy  all  electrical  apparatus  used  in  connection 
with  the  batteries.  The  Station  battery  of  half- 
gallon  jars  makes  a  very  efficient  firing  battery  ; 
its  power  is  ample,  and  it  is  very  easily  cared  for. 

In  the  English  service,  a  battery  (known  as 
Walker's  battery)  consisting  of  large  plates  of 
carbon  and  zinc  plunged  into  very  large  vessels 
containing  dilute  sulphuric  acid,  has  been  adopted 
as  a  firing  battery  ;  and  in  this  country  a  similar 
form,  consisting  of  a  plate  of  lead  or  chrome 
iron  between  two  plates  of  zinc,  the  plates  being 
very  near  together,  has  been  recommended.  In 
both  these  forms  the  plates  are  kept  suspended 
over  the  acid,  and  are  lowered  when  it  is  desired 
to  fire.  They  may  easily  be  so  arranged  as  to  be 
lowered  by  the  action  of  the  signal  battery. 

A  portion  of  the  firing  battery  may  be  used  as 
a  signal  battery  ;  but,  as  accident  is  possible  with 
this  arrangement,  it  should  not  be  adopted  when 
a  suitable'signal  battery  can  be  obtained.  With 
either  of  the  batteries  'mentioned  above  as  suit 
able  for  signal  purposes  the  torpedo  cannot  be 
fired,  no  matter  to  what  extent  the  cells  may  be 
multiplied,  provided  they  are  always  connected 


GALVANIC  BATTEEY 


307 


GALVANIC  BATTERY 


in  series  ;  for  this  reason,  signal  batteries  should 
always  be  connected  in  series. 

Arrangement  of  battery  cells. — Batteries  are 
not  always  arranged  in  the  same  way,  but  are 
differently  grouped,  according  to  the  results  de 
sired.  The  positive  pole  of  one  cell  may  be 
connected  to  the  negative  pole  of  the  next,  in 
which  case  the  battery  is  said  to  be  connected  in 
series ;  or,  the  positive  poles  may  all  be  connected 
together,  and  also  the  negative,  which  connec 
tion  is  said  to  be  for  conductivity ;  and  last,  the 
cells  may  be  grouped,  i.e.,  part  connected  in  series 
and  part  for  conductivity.  See  ELECTRICITY. 

Electrical  measurements. — A  knowledge  of  the 
strength  of  current  required  to  fire  the  fuzes 
used,  of  the  resistance  of  the  circuit,  and  of  the 
dimensions  of  the  battery  chosen,  must  determine 
the  number  and  arrangement  of  the  cells  of  a 
firing  battery.  The  current  necessary  to  fire  a 
given  fuze  is  practically  a  constant  quantity, 
and  sh6uld  be  determined  in  the  laboratory,  and 
furnished  with  the  fuzes.  The  resistances  of 
th'e  circuits  and  dimensions  of  the  batteries 
being  subject  to  change  from  a  variety  of  causes, 
a  satisfactory  knowledge  of  their  value  can  only 
be  obtained  by  actual  measurement.  In  a  well- 
conducted  system  of  torpedo  defense,  such 
measurements  would  be  made  and  recorded 
daily,  thus  giving  a  positive  indication  of  the 
parts  of  the  system  needing  attention  or  repairs, 
and  particularly  of  the  time  when  the  batteries 
should  be  renewed. 

These  measurements  are  all  based  on  well- 
known  electrical  principles,  which,  together  with 
a  description  of  some  of  the  instruments  used, 
are  given  below. 

The  units  used  are  the  ohm,  volt,  and  weber. 
The  ohm  is  the  unit  of  resistance,  and  is  the  re 
sistance  offered  by  a  round  wire  of  pure  copper, 
10'  long  and  .01"  in  diameter,  at  42°  F. 

The  volt  is  the  unit  of  E.  M.  F.,  the  E.  M.  F. 
of  the  Daniell  or  Gravity  cell  being  a  rough 
approximation  to  the  unit. 

Strength  of  current  is  defined  as  the  quantity 
of  electricity  which  flows  by  any  section  or  point 
of  a  conductor  in  a  given  time,  and  is  expressed 
in  webers,  the  weber  being  the  unit  quantity  in 
a  second  of  time.  The  unit  quantity  is  &  farad; 
a  weber  current  will  be,  then,  one  in  which  a 
farad  passes  every  point  of  the  conductor  in  a 
second  of  time. 

A  tangent  galvanometer  and  box  of  resistance 
coils  will  suffice  to  make  all  the  measurements 
likely  to  be  required  in  torpedo  practice. 

A  box  of  resistance  coils  consists  of  a  number 
of  spools  of  fine  German  silver  or  platinum 


silver  wire  placed  in  a  box,  and  so  arranged 
that  one  or  all  of  them  may  be  conveniently  in 
troduced  into  a  circuit.  The  wire  on  the  spools 
is  carefully  insulated,  wound  on  the  bight,  and 
that  on  each  spool  has  a  definite  resistance. 
Such  values  are  generally  given  to  the  spools 
that,  by  different  combinations,  any  resistance 
from  l*ohm  to  10,000  ohms  may  be  obtained. 

A  tangent  galvanometer  is  an  instrument  used 
for  measuring  strengths  of  current,  and,  indi 
rectly,  resistances  of  conductors.  It  consists  gen 
erally  of  a  fixed  coil  of  wire,  so  placed  as  to 
influence  a  compass-needle;  the  radius  of  the 
coil  should  be  large  in  proportion  to  the  length 
of  the  needle.  The  arc  of  the  compass  is  gradu 
ated  to  degrees  and  fractions  of  a  degree,  ranging 
from  0°,  at  the  north  and  south  points,  to  90°, 
at  the  east  and  west  points. 

If  a  current  is  passed  through  the  instrument, 
the  compass-needle  will  be  deflected  to  the  right 
or  left,  according  to  the  direction  of  the  current, 
and  the  tangent  of  the  angle  of  deflection  of  the 
needle  will  be  proportional  to  the  strength  of 
the  current.  The  number  of  turns  and  the  resist 
ance  of  the  wire  in  the  coil  determine  the  adapt 
ability  of  the  instrument  to  different  classes  of 
measurements.  "When  in  use,  the  instrument  is  so 
adjusted  that  the  coil  lies  in  the  plane  of  the  mag 
netic  meridian  when  the  needle  stands  at  zero. 

Farmer's  modification  of  the  Gaugain  galvan 
ometer  is  a  very  useful  form  of  this  instrument. 
It  consists  of  four  vertical  coils  of  wire,  placed 
two  on  each  side  of  the  needle,  their  centres 
being  on  the  same  horizontal  line ;  between  the 
coils  is  a  compass,  with  a  circle  graduated,  as 
above  described.  The  point  of  suspension  of  the 
needle  lies  in  the  same  horizontal  line  as  the 
centres  of  the  coils,  and  at  a  distance  from  the 
centre  of  each  coil  equal  to  one-half  the  radius 
of  the  coil ;  this  having  been  found  to  be  the  best 
construction.  One  coil  on  each  side  consists  of 
a  number  of  turns  of  fine  insulated  wire,  and 
has  a  resistance  of  24  ohms  ;  and  the  other  of  one 
turn  of  very  coarse  copper  wire,  whose  resistance 
is  practically  zero. 

At  the  front  of  the  instrument  is  a  key-board, 
so  arranged  that,  by  placing  the  pins  properly, 
a  current  may  be  sent  through  either  fine  coil, 
through  one  fine  coil  after  the  other  (tandem), 
in  branch  circuits  through  the  two  fine  coils 
(team),  and  in  the  same  ways  for  the  coarse 
coils,  thus  giving  virtually  six  different  galvan 
ometers  in  the  one  instrument.  At  the  rear  of 
the  galvanometer  is  a  commutator,  by  which  the 
direction  of  the  current  through  the  instrument 
can  be  reversed. 


Table  of  Batteries. 


Size  of 
Cell. 

Name. 

E.  M.  F.  per  Cell. 

Resistance  per 
Cell. 

Constancy. 

Used  for— 

Quart 

Daniell 

0  98  volt 

4      to  6  ohms. 

Testing  and  signaling. 

Gravity  

1         " 

24               " 

<> 
<( 

{< 

Gravity  (with  cop 
per  band). 
Le  Clanche  

1         " 
1.48    " 

18      " 

1.4               " 
2.5    to  3      " 

03    to  0  8   " 

Very  constant  on  long  cir 
cuits  or  for  intermittent 
work  on  short  circuits. 

Firing  on   short   circuits, 
dangerous  for  signaling. 
Testing      and     signaling, 
particularly   for   signal 
ing. 
Firing,  bad  for  instruments. 

« 

Station 

2  to  1  8  volts. 

0  5    to  1      " 

n             (< 

Firing. 

V<  gal. 

Station  

2  to  1.8      " 

0.25  to  0.5   " 

»             « 

«   6 

GALVANIZED  IRON 


308 


GARBLING 


Galvanized  Iron.  Iron  the  surface  of  which 
is  alloyed  with  zinc.  The  iron  is  cleansed,  heated, 
and  plunged  into  a  bath  of  melted  zinc  covered 
with  sal-ammoniac. 

Galvanometer.  An  instrument  for  measuring 
electric  currents.  See  GALYANIC  BATTERY. 

Galveston.  A  port  of  entry  and  the  most 
populous  and  commercial  city  of  Texas,  situated 
on  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  on  Galveston  Island,  in 
Galveston  Bay.  Lat.  29°  IS'  N.;  Ion.  94°  50'  W. 
The  harbor,  which  is  the  best  on  the  Texas  coast, 
has  12  or  14  feet  of  water  over  the  bar  at  low 
tide.  The  chief  articles  of  export  are  cotton, 
hides,  grain,  and  pork.  .  Value  of  annual  exports 
about  $33,000,000.  Steamships  make  regular 
trips  from  this  port  to  New  York,  Havana, 
Liverpool,  etc.  Pop.  31,000. 

Galway.  A  town  and  seaport  on  the  west 
coast  of  Ireland,  situated  on  the  north  side  of 
Galway  Bay.  Lat.  53°  15/  12"  N. ;  Ion.  9°  3' 
30"  W.  The  commerce  of  the  town  was  at  one 
time  considerable,  but  has  now  declined.  Pop. 
16,000. 

Gama,  Vasco  da,  the  discoverer  of  the  mari 
time  route  to  India,  was  born  at  Sines,  a  small 
seaport  of  Portugal.  In  what  year  he  was  born 
is  not  known.  Five  years  after  the  corroboration 
by  Columbus  of  the  spherical  form  of  the  earth, 
and  the  successful  exploration  by  Diaz  of  the  pas 
sage  round  the  Cape  of  Storms,  the  King  of  Por 
tugal  dispatched  three  vessels  under  Da  Gama  to 
find  the  shores  of  India  and  open  a  traffic  with  the 
people.  The  voyage,  well  described  by  Camoens 
in  the  "  Lusiad,"  was  perfectly  successful.  After 
establishing  communication  with  the  natives 
of  Hindostan  at  Calicut,  on  the  Malabar  Coast, 
Da  Gama  returned  to  Portugal  in  1499.  The  re- 
joitfings  of  the  court  and  the  people  were  bound 
less, — wealth  and  power  were  in  their  grasp.  A 
second  expedition,  on  a  larger  scale  than  the  first, 
was  equipped,  and  Da  Gama  placed  in  command. 
Proceeding  along  the  eastern  coast  of  Africa,  he 
landed  at  some  places  to  punish  the  Moors  for 
certain  treacheries  practiced  on  him  during  his 
former  voyage  ;  he  continued  his  voyage,  and, 
reaching  Cochin  in  the  south,  he  founded  a  port 
and  factory.  From  that  date  the  commerce  of 
Europe  with  India,  round  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope,  was  established,  and  the  wealth  and  con 
sequence  of  the  Italian  republics  declined  in  pro 
portion  as  the  traffic  was  withdrawn  from  the 
Red  Sea  route.  He  died  at  Cochin,  December, 
1525.  His  body  was  conveyed  to  Portugal  and 
buried  with  great  pomp. 

Gambling.  Gambling  is  strictly  prohibited 
on  board  men-of-war  ;  even  card-playing  is  in 
terdicted  except  in  the  cabin  of  the  commanding 
officer. 

Gammon.  To  pass  the  gammoning  to  secure 
the  bowsprit.  Humbug  ;  hoax. 

GAMMONING.  Seven  or  eight  turns  of  a  lash 
ing  passed  over  the  bowsprit  and  through  the 
gammoning-hole,  to  secure  the  bowsprit.  The 
lashing  was  formerly  of  rope,  later  of  galvan 
ized  chain,  and  is  now  superseded  by  iron  bands 
setting  up  with  nuts  and  screws.  When  rope  or 
chain  was  used  the  turns  of  the  lashing  were 
crossed,  the  forward  turn  on  the  bowsprit  being 
the  after  turn  in  the  gammoning  hole. 

GAMMONING-FASHION.  A  term  applied  to  a 
lashing  in  which  the  turns  cross  after  the  man 
ner  of  the  gammoning. 


GAMMONING-FISH.  A  batten  on  the  upper 
side  of  the  bowsprit,  over  which  the  turns  of 
the  gammoning  were  passed. 

GAMMONING-HOLE.  A  scuttle  cut  through  the 
knee  of  the  head,  through  which  the  gammon 
ing  was  passed. 

GAMMON-KNEE.  A  knee-timber  bolted  to  the 
stem  just  below  the  bowsprit. 

GAMMON-PLATE.  An  iron  plate  bolted  to  the 
stem  of  some  vessels  to  support  the  gammoning. 

GAMMON-SHACKLE.  The  shackle  of  the  gam 
mon-plate. 

Gand-flook.  A  name  of  the  saury-pike, 
Scomberesox  saurus. 

Gang.  A  number  of  the  ship's  crew  employed 
on  any  particular  service  and  under  the  charge 
of  an  officer  or  petty  officer. 

Gang-board.  A  plank  with  several  cleats 
nailed  to  it  for  convenience  in  passing  back 
and  forth  from  a  vessel  to  the  wharf. 

Gang-cask.  A  small  barrel  used  for  bringing 
water  on  board  in  boats  ;  larger  than  a  breaker. 

Gang-plank.     See  GANG-BOARD. 

Gangway.  Formerly,  in  deep-waisted  ships, 
a  platform  from  the  poop  to  the  topgallant  fore 
castle  ;  the  name  is  now  applied  to  that  portion 
of  the  spar-deck  over  which  this  platform  ex 
tended.  A  thoroughfare  of  any  kind  ;  but  more 
especially  applied  to  the  aperture  in  the  ship's 
side  for  the  accommodation  of  persons  entering 
and  departing.  To  bring  to  the  gangway,  to  bring 
a  seaman  to  that  place  to  be  flogged. 

GANGWAY-LADDER.  The  ladder  extending 
from  the  gangway  to  the  water's  edge ;  the  ac 
commodation-ladder. 

Ganneret.     A  species  of  gull. 

Gannet.  The  Sula  bassana,  or  solan  goose,  a 
large  sea-bird  of  the  family  Pelecanidce,  common 
on  the  Scottish  coasts. 

Ganoidian.  One  of  an  order  of  fishes  charac 
terized  by  having  shining  bony  scales  or  plates, 
the  gills  as  in  ordinary  fishes,  but  the  optic 
nerve  not  decussating.  The  ganoids  were  among 
the  earliest  of  fishes  in  geological  time,  and  be 
came  afterward  very  numerous,  but  are  now  of 
few  species.  The  order  includes  the  modern  gar 
and  the  sturgeon. 

Gantan.  An  Indian  commercial  measure,  of 
which  17  make  a  baruth. 

Gant-line.  Synonymous  with  girt-line  (which 
see). 

Gant-lope,  or  Gauntlope  (commonly  pro 
nounced  gantlet}.  A  race  which  a  criminal  was 
sentenced  to  run,  in  the  navy  or  army,  for  some 
heinous  offense.  The  ship's  crew,  or  a  certain 
division  of  soldiers,  were  disposed  in  two  rows 
face  to  face,  each  provided  with  a  knotted  cord, 
with  which  they  struck  the  delinquent  as  he  ran 
between  them,  stripped  down  to  the  waist.  Tins 
was  repeated  according  to  the  sentence,  but  sel 
dom  beyond  three  times,  and  constituted  running 
the  gauntlet. 

Gantree,  or  Gantril.  A  wooden  stand  for  a 
barrel. 

Gape.  The  principal  crevice  or  crack  in 
shaken  timber.  The  seams  gape,  or  let  in  water. 

Gaper.  A  fish  with  six  or  seven  bands  and 
tail  undivided. 

Garbel.  A  word  synonymous  with  garboard 
(which  see). 

Garbling.  The  mixing  of  rubbish  with  a 
cargo  stowed  in  bulk. 


GARBOARD-STRAKE 


309 


GEE 


Garboard-strake,  or  Sand-streak.     The  first 
range  of  planks  laid  upon  a  ship's  bottom,  next 
the Iceel,  into  which  it  is  rabbeted,  and  into  the 
stem  and  stern-post  at  the  ends. 
Gare.     See  GAIR-FOWL. 

Gar-fish.  The  Belone  vulgaris,  or  bill-fish, 
the  bones  of  which  are  green.  Also  called  the 
guard-fish,  but  it  is  from  the  Anglo-Saxon  gar, 
a  weapon. 

Garganey.  The  Querquedula  circia,  a  small 
species  of  duck,  allied  to  the  teal. 

Garland.  A  collar  of  ropes  formerly  wound 
round  the  head  of  the  mast  to  keep  the  shrouds 
from  chafing.  A  strap  lashed  to  a  spar  when 
hoisting  it  in.  A  rope  grommet,  to  place  shot 
in  on  deck.  A  wreath  made  by  crossing  three 
small  hoops,  and  covering  them  with  silk  and 
ribbons ;  in  early  times  it  was  hoisted  to  the 
main-topgallant-stay. on  the  day  of  the  captain's 
wedding  ;  but  on  a  seaman's  wedding,  to  the  ap 
propriate  mast  at  which  he  was  stationed.  Also, 
a  sort  of  net  used  by  sailors  to  contain  their  pro 
visions,  being  hung  up  safe  from  cats,  rats,  ants, 
and  cockroaches. 

Garnet.  A  sort  of  purchase  fixed  to  the  main 
stay  of  a  merchant  ship,  and  used  for  hoisting 
the  cargo  in  and  out.  A  pendant  rove  through 
a  hole  in  the  spar-deck  and  hooked  to  the  cas- 
cabel  of  a  gun  in  getting  it  out  or  taking  it  in 
through  a  port.  See  CLEW-GARNET. 

GARNET-TACKLE.  The  tackle  hooked  to  the 
upper  end  of  the  garnet, — the  pendant-tackle. 

Garney.  A  term  in  the  fisheries  for  the  fins, 
sounds,  and  tongues  of  the  cod-fish. 

Garnish  (Eng.}.  Profuse  decoration  of  a 
ship's  head,  stern,  and  quarters.  Money  which 
pressed  men  in  tenders  and  receiving-ships  ex 
acted  from  each  other  according  to  priority. 

Garr.  An  oozy  vegetable  substance  which 
grows  on  ships'  bottoms. 

Garrooka.  A  fishing-craft  in  the  Gulf  of 
Persia  with  overhanging  bow  and  stern. 

Garter-fish.     A'fish  having  a  long,  depressed 
body,  like  the  blade  of  a  sword ;  the  Lepidopus. 
Garters.     A  slang  term  for  leg-irons. 
Garth.     A  fish-weir. 

Gas-check.  A  ring  or  plate  of  metal  designed 
to  prevent  the  escape  of  gas  i  n  breech-1  oadi  ng  arms. 
Gasket.  Plaited  stuff  or  a  small  line  used  to 
confine  a  sail  to  its  yard  when  furled.  The  har 
bor-gaskets  are  made  of  plaited  stuff  painted 
black,  and  receive  different  names  according  to 
the  positions  they  occupy ;  as,  yard-arm-,  quar 
ter-,  and  bunt-gaskets  ;  the  yard-arm-  and  quar 
ter-gaskets  are  passed  square,  and  the  bunt- 
gaskets  cross  each  other, — they  are  sometimes 
stitched  together  at  the  cross,  and  sometimes  a 
net  is  wove  between  them,  A  sea-gasket  is  a 
long  line  which  is  passed  around  the  yard  and 
sail ;  it  is  used  at  sea  when  neatness  is  not  so 
much  an  object  as  security ;  it  is  sometimes  called 
a  furling-line.  A  ring  of  india-rubber,  canvas, 
sheet-lead,  or  other  packing  material,  placed 
between  flanges,  such  as  those  of  cylinders,  pipes, 
man-hole  plates,  etc.,  for  the  purpose  of  making 
a  steam-,  water-,  or  air-tight  joint. 

Gat.     A  swash-way  or  channel  among  shoals. 
Gate,  or   Sea-gate.     When    two    ships   are 
thrown  on  board  one  another  by  a  wave  they 
are  said  to  be  in  a  sea-gate. 

Gather  Aft.  To  take  in  the  slack  of  a  sheet 
which  has  been  flowing. 


Gather  Way.     To  begin  to  feel  the  impulse 
of  the  wind  on  the  sails,  so  as  to  obey  the  helm. 
Gath-linn.     A    name   of  Polaris, — from  two 
Gaelic  words   signifying   ray  and  moisture,  in 
allusion  to  its  subdued  brightness. 
Gatling-gun.     See  MACHINE-GUNS. 
Gaub-line.     See  GOB-LINE. 
Gauge.     To    measure.     A    standard  of   any 
kind.     An  instrument   to  ascertain  or  regulate 
the  dimensions  or  form  of  any  particular  thing. 
(See  GUNS,  INSPECTION  OF.)     Position  of  a  ves 
sel  with  regard  to  the  wind  and  another  vessel. 
To  have  the  weather-   (or  lee-}  gauge,  to  be  to 
windward  (or  to  leeward)  of  a  vessel.    In  former 
days  it  was  considered  very  important  to  have 
the   weather-gauge,    and    fleets   sometimes   ma 
noeuvred  for  hours  to  obtain  this  advantage. 

GAUGE-COCK.  One  of  a  number  of  small 
cocks  inserted  in  the  shell  of  a  steam-boiler  at 
about  the  proper  water-level,  which  indicate,  by 
the  small  jet  of  steam  or  water  drawn  from  them, 
the  height  of  the  water  in  the  boiler.  One  cock 
is  placed  at  the  lowest  limit  of  safety,  one  at  the 
highest,  and  one  or  more  placed  at  equal  distances 
between  them.  The  steam-jet,  water-jet,  and  a 
mixture  of  the  two,  are  easily  distinguished 
either  by  sight  or  sound.  There  are  many  varie 
ties  of  gauge-cocks. 

GAUGE-ROD.  A  rod  provided  with  a  hook  and 
handle  for  operating  gauge-cocks  when  beyond 
reach  of  the  hand.  A  rod  or  stick  of  light  wood 
used  as  a  float  in  a  mercury  siphon  gauge, 
usually  called  a  gauge-stick.  Any  rod,  gradu 
ated  or  not,  used  to  gauge  or  measure  the  dis 
tance  between  two  points. 

Gaugnet.  The  Sygnathus  acus,  sea-needle,  or 
pipe-fish. 

Gaut.  In  the  East  Indies,  a  landing-place ; 
also,  a  range  of  hills. 

Gavelock.     An  old  term  for  a  pike. 

Gaver.     A  name  for  the  sea  cray-fish. 

Gavial.  A  genus  of  reptiles  of  the  crocodile 
family  inhabiting  the  Ganges ;  it  differs  from 
the  true  crocodile  and  alligator  in  the  great 
length  and  slenderness  of  the  muzzle. 

Gaw.     A  term  for  a  boat-pole. 

Gawdnie.  The  dragonet  or  yellow  gurnard, 
Callionymus  lyra. 

Gaw-gaw.     A  lubberly  simpleton. 

Gawky.  The  shell  called  horse-cockle.  Awk 
ward  ;  lank. 

Gawlin.  A  small  sea-fowl  which  the  natives 
of  the  Western  Isles  of  Scotland  trust  in  as  a 
prognostication  of  the  weather. 

Gawpus.    A  stupid,  idle  fellow. 

Gawrie.  A  name  for  the  red  gurnard,  Trigla 
cuculus. 

Gaydiang.  A  vessel  of  Anam,  resembling  in 
construction  a  Chinese  junk. 

Gazzetta.  The  name  of  a  small  coin  in  the 
Adriatic  and  Levant.  It  was  the  price  of  the 
first  Venetian  newspaper,  and  thereby  gave  the 
name  to  those  publications. 

Gear  (Ang.  Sax.  geara,  clothing).  A  general 
name  for  ropes  belonging  to  any  particular  spar 
or  sail ;  and  for  the  implements  used  in  any  oper 
ation  ;  as,  shaving-gear,  mess-gear,  etc. 

Gearing.  A  combination  of  wheels  and  pin 
ions,  or  shafts  and  pulleys. 

Gears,  or  Geers.     See  JEERS. 

Gee.  To  suit  or  fit ;  to  answer  the  purpose 
required. 


GEELONG 


310 


GERLETROCH 


Geelong,  a  town  and  seaport  of  Victoria,  S.E. 
Australia,  near  the  head  of  Geelong  harbor,  an 
arm  of  Corio  Bay,  40  miles  S.W.  of  Melbourne. 
Lat.  38°  &  S. ;  Ion.  144°  25'  E.  The  harbor, 
naturally  good,  has  been  much  improved  by 
dredging  and  by  construction  of  jetties.  Pop. 
15,200. 

Gefle.  A  fortified  seaport  town  of  Sweden,  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Gefle  liiver.  The  river  here 
separates  into  three  arms,  inclosing  two  islands, 
on  which  and  on  both  banks  the  town  is  situated. 
The  harbor  is  excellent.  It  has  ship-yards, 
sugar-refineries,  and  tanneries,  and  exports  iron 
and  agricultural  products.  Pop.  17,700. 

Geily watte.  An  old  term  for  the  captain's 
boat, — the  origin  of  jolly-boat. 

Gemini,  Constellation  of  (Lat.  "The  Twins"). 
The  third  constellation  of  the  zodiac,  lying  be 
tween  Taurus  and  Cancer.  The  two  principal 
stars  are  a2  Geminorum  called  Castor,  and  (3 
Geminorum  called  Pollux.  They  may  at  once 
be  found,  as  they  form,  with  the  two  bright  stars 
of  Auriga,  an  arch  round  the  head  of  Orion. 
As  they  rise,  Capella  is  the  uppermost  star  of 
the  pair  in  Auriga,  and  Castor  is  the  uppermost 
of  the  pair  in  Gemini ;  or,  again,  a  line  joining 
Rigel  and  Betelgeux,  and  continued  a  little  more 
than  its  own  length,  gives  Pollux,  and  is  also  bi 
sected  by  y  Geminorum. 

GEMINI,  SIGN  OF.  The  third  sign  of  the  eclip 
tic,  including  from  60°  to  90°  longitude.  Owing 
to  the  precession  of  the  equinoxes,  the  sign  is  at 
present  in  the  constellation  Taurus.  The  sun  is 
in  Gemini  from  about  21st  May  to  about  21st 
June.  Symbol  II. 

Gemma  (Lat.  a  jewel).  The  star  a  Coronce 
Borealis. 

General  Average.     See  AVERAGE. 

General  Orders.  Orders  relating  to  the  whole 
command,  in  contradistinction  to  special  orders, 
or  those  relating  to  only  a  portion  of  the  com 
mand. 

General  Ship.  When  persons  unconnected 
with  each  other  send  freight  in  a  ship  she  is 
called  a  general,  in  contradistinction  to  a  char 
tered,  ship. 

Generator.  An  apparatus  in  which  vapor  or  gas 
is  formed  from  a  liquid  or  solid  by  means  of  heat 
or  chemical  process,  as  a  steam-boiler,  gas-retort, 
or  vessel  for  generating  carbonic  acid  gas,  etc. 
Also,  a  machine  for  transmuting  work  into  elec 
tricity. 

Genoa,  a  fortified  seaport  of  Northern  Italy, 
on  the  Mediterranean,  between  the  rivers  Bi- 
sagno  and  Polcevera.  Lat.  44°  24'  54"  N. ;  Ion.  8° 
53'  E.  The  city  is  inclosed  by  a  double  line  of 
fortifications,  forming  a  vast  semicircle,  sup 
ported  by  numerous  detached  outworks,  consti 
tuting  one  of  the  most  extensive  town  fortifica 
tions  in  Europe.  The  port  is  of  a  semicircular 
form,  about  three-quarters  of  a  mile  in  diameter, 
formed  by  two  moles  projecting  into  the  sea  from 
opposite  sides,  but  not  opposite  each  other.  There 
are  yards  for  naval  construction.  The  harbor  is 
safe  and  good,  but  much  too  small  for  the  needs 
of  the  port ;  hence  new  harbor  works  are  in 
course  of  construction.  Pop.  161,700. 

Gentle.     A  grub  used  as  bait  in  angling. 

Gentle  Airs.  Breezes  which  are  barely  ap 
preciable,  not  exceeding  a  velocity  of  1.6  miles 
per  hour ;  they  are  indicated  by  1  on  the  Beau 
fort  scale. 


Geocentric  (ge,  the  earth ;  kentron,  the  cen 
tre).  Concentric  with  the  earth  ;  distinguished 
from  heliocentric,  concentric  with  the  sun.  The 
geocentric  place  of  an  object  is  its  position  re 
ferred  to  a  celestial  sphere  having  the  centre  of 
the  earth  for  its  centre ;  the  heliocentric  place  is 
its  position  referred  to  a  celestial  sphere  con 
centric  with  the  sun :  the  former  supposes  the 
spectator  to  be  in  the  centre  of  the  earth,  the 
latter  in  the  centre  of  the  sun.  Thus,  we  have 
geocentric  longitudes  and  latitudes,  and  helio 
centric  longitudes  and  latitudes. 

Geodesy.  The  science  of  the  measurement  of 
the  earth's  surface,  and  of  great  portions  of  it. 
Geodesy  has  many  physical  difficulties  to  contend 
against.  In  measuring  a  particular  length  with 
a  view  to  obtaining  a  base-line  for  calculating 
other  lines  by  trigonometrical  observations,  there 
is  first  a  difficulty  arising  in  the  use  of  the  unit 
of  length,  whatever  it  may  be,  whether  rod  or 
chain.  In  the  use  of  rods,  it  is  difficult  to  lay 
them  all  precisely  in  the  same  direction,  and  to 
prevent  error  arising  from  intervals  between  the 
rods.  In  the  use  of  chains,  again,  the  greatest 
care  is  needed  to  keep  all  the  links  stretched, 
while  the  difficulty  of  avoiding  error  through 
not  preserving  the  line  of  direction  is  but  little 
diminished.  Further,  in  all  cases,  the  tendency 
of  the  units  to  change  magnitude  with  changes 
of  temperature,  and  the  unevenness  of  the  earth's 
surface,  are  prolific  sources  of  error.  After 
all  these  difficulties  have  been  overcome  and  a 
sufficient  base-line  obtained,  a  new  class  of  diffi 
culties  are  encountered.  In  taking  trigono 
metrical  observations  of  distant  objects,  it  is 
found  that  the  three  angles  of  any  triangle  which 
we  may  form  are  together  in  excess  of  two  right 
angles ;  the  angles  are,  in  fact,  more  of  the  na 
ture  of  spherical  than  plane  angles.  For  this, 
in  using  the  angles  as  plane  angles  (for  greater 
simplicity),  a  correction  has  to  be  made.  Further, 
a  correction  is  required  for  the  effect  of  horizontal 
refraction  on  the  results  of  Observations  of  dis 
tant  objects, — a  most  fluctuating  source  of  error, 
to  evade  which,  as  far  as  possible,  it  is  usual  to 
make  observations  when  the  atmosphere  has 
been  for  some  time  undisturbed.  See  COAST  SUR 
VEY. 

Geo-graffy.  A  beverage  made  by  boiling 
burnt  bread  in  water. 

Geo-navigation.  A  term  proposed  by  some 
writers  to  distinguish  that  branch  of  navigation 
in  which  the  position  of  the  ship  is  determined 
by  dead-reckoning,  cross-bearings,  soundings, 
etc.,  from  the  other  branch  in  which  the  position 
is  determined  by  observations  of  the  heavenly 
bodies,  which  by  them  is  distinguished  as  celo- 
navigation. 

Georgetown.  Capital  of  British  Guiana,  on 
the  east  bank  of  the  Demerara  River,  at  its 
mouth.  The  town  has  a  good  water-supply,  and 
has  telegraph-lines  to  America  and  Europe  via 
Cuba  and  Brazil.  There  is  a  bar  at  the  river's 
mouth  with  but  8  feet  of  water,  and  large  ships 
discharge  and  load  by  means  of  lighters.  Pop. 
37,000. 

Georgium  Sidus.  The  planet  discovered  by 
Sir  ~W.  Herschel  was  so  named  at  first ;  but 
astronomers  adopted  Uranus  instead,  as  safer  to 
keep  in  the  neutral  ground  of  mythology. 

Gerletroch.  The  Salmo  Alpinus,  red  char,  or 
galley-trough. 


GERMANY 


311 


GIRDLE 


Germany,  Navy  of.  There  was  scarcely  any 
establishment  in  Germany  prior  to  *1848, 
and  even  at  that  time  it  was  begun  on  a  small 
scale.  The  unification  of  the  empire,  the  conse 
quent  accession  of  additional  ports,  and  the 
augmented  warlike  contingencies  have,  however, 
accelerated  the  growth  of  the  armament,  and  by 
the  latest  available  returns  the  navy-  consisted  of 
20  ironclads,  59  unarmored  steamers,  and  4  sail 
ing-vessels.  In  addition  to  the  vessels  named, 
there  are  two  or  three  torpedo-steamers,  pro 
tected  by  steel  armor,  and  capable  of  moving  at 
the  rate  of  20  knots  per  hour.  Five  thousand 
five  hundred  men  and  boys  man  the  German 
navy,  which  is  officered  by  1  admiral,  1  vice- 
admiral,  4  rear-admirals,  68  captains,  and  351 
lieutenants.  There  are,  besides,  10  companies 
of  marines,  6  of  infantry,  and  3  of  artillery, 
numbering  1500  men.  Conscription  is  the  rule 
of  recruitment  in  Germany,  both  in  the  navy 
and  army. 

Gerrack.     A  coal-fish  in  its  first  year. 

Gerret.     A  samlet  or  parr. 

Gerrick.     A  name  for  a  sea-pike. 

Gerron.     A  name  for  the  sea-trout. 

Ghee  (Eng.}.  The  substitute  for  butter  served 
out  to  ship's  companies  on  the  Indian  station. 

Ghost.  A  false  image  in  the  lens  of  an  in 
strument. 

Giant-powder.     See  EXPLOSIVES. 

Gib.  A  term  sometimes  applied  to  the  project 
ing  arm  of  a  crane  or  derrick.  A  piece  of  metal 
or  wood  to  hold  another  in  place.  Gib  and  key, 
the  fixed  wedge  and  the  driving  wedge  for  tight 
ening  the  strap  which  holds  the  brasses  at  the 
end  of  a  connecting-rod,  or  other  rod  of  a  steam- 
engine.  Short  for  Gibraltar. 

Gibb.  The  beak  or  hooked  lip  of  a  male 
salmon. 

Gibbous.  A  term  descriptive  of  the  shape  of 
the  disk  of  a  heavenly  body  when  it  assumes  a 
form  intermediate  between  a  circle  and  a  semi 
circle. 

Gib-fish.  A  name  for  the  male  of  the 
salmon. 

Gibraltar.  A  town  and  strongly  fortified  rock 
at  the  southern  extremity  of  Spain,  belonging  to 
Great  Britain.  Lat.  36°  9'  N.;  Ion.  5°  21'  W. 
The  immense  strength  of  the  fortress  excites 
wonder  and  admiration,  and  renders  it  impreg 
nable  ;  it  is  the  ancient  Calpe,  which,  with  Abyla 
on  the  opposite  shore  of  Africa,  obtained  the  name 
of  the  Pillars  of  Hercules.  The  height  of  the 
rock,  according  to  Cuvier,  is  1437  English  feet: 
it  was  taken  by  the  Saracens  under  Tarik  (Gibel- 
Tarik,  Mountain  of  Tarik,  whence  its  present 
name)  in  A.D.  712.  In  the  year  1462  the  king  of 
Castile  took  Gibraltar  from  the  Moors ;  and  the 
English,  under  Sir  George  Rooke,  the  Prince  of 
Hesse-Darmstadt,  Sir  John  Leake,  and  Admiral 
Byng,  bravely  won  it,  July  24,  1704.  It  was 
surrendered,  after  a  dreadful  cannonade,  to  the 
British,  by  the  governor,  the  Marquis  de  Salines, 
and  it  has  since  continued  an  appendage  to  the 
British  crown.  The  principal  buildings  are  the 
governor's  and  lieutenant-governor's  houses,  the 
admiralty,  naval  hospital, "victualing  office,  and 
barracks.  Pop.,  including  the  garrison,  26,470. 

Giddock.  A  name  for  the  sand-launce  or  sand- 
eel,  Ammodytes  tobianus. 

Giffoot.  A  Jewish  corruption  of  the  Spanish 
spoken  at  Gibraltar. 


Gift-rope,  or  Guest-rope.  An  old  name  for 
the  line  by  which  a  boat  makes  fast  to  the 
swinging-boom.  See  GUEST-WARP  BOOM. 

Gig.  A  long,  narrow  boat  used  by  the  com 
manding  officer ;  it  is  generally  clinker-built 
and  single- banked.  A  sort  of  spear  for  taking 
fish. 

GIGSMAN.     One  of  the  gig's  crew. 

Gijon.  A  fortified  seaport  town  of  Spain,  on 
the  Bay  of  Biscay.  The  town  contains  ship 
yards,  a  school  of  navigation,  and  a  large  public 
library.  Pop.  6600. 

Gilbert,  Sir  Humphrey.  This  brave  man, 
who  has  often  been  called  the  real  founder  of  the 
empire  of  North  America,  made  himself  con 
spicuous  by  his  services  as  a  British  soldier  in 
the  first  instance,  and  afterwards  as  an  adven 
turer  in  the  interest  of  a  party  who  had  obtained 
Queen  Elizabeth's  leave  to  occupy  and  colonize 
Virginia.  The  patent  which  Sir  Humphrey 
obtained  authorized  his  discovery  and  possession 
of  any  lands  that  might  be  yet  unsettled.  Sir 
Humphrey  made  two  attempts  to* reach  the  shores 
of  Virginia  and  the  Carolinas,  but  he  could  not 
get  beyond  Newfoundland.  Here  he  took  posses 
sion  of  the  harbor  of  St.  John's,  and  then  returned 
to  England  to  die.  He  left  behind  him  a  good 
name  as  a  valiant  soldier,  nn  able  navigator,  and 
a  sound  arithmetician. 

Gildee.  A  name  in  the  Scottish  isles  for  the 
Morrhua  barbata,  or  whiting-pout. 

Gil-guy.  A  name  applied  to  various  devices 
for  expediting  manoauvres,  especially  when  the 
device  is  not  very  efficient. 

Giller.     A  horse-hair  fishing-line. 

Gills.     Small  hackles  for  drying  hemp. 

Gilpy.     Adolescent. 

Gilse.     Misnomer  for  grilse. 

Gilt-head,  or  Gilt-poll.  The  Sparus  aurata, 
a  fish  of  the  European  and  American  seas  with  a 
golden  mark  between  the  eyes. 

Gimbals  (formerly  Gimmals,  akin  to  Lat. 
geminus,  double).  Pairs  of  brass  hoops  or  rings 
which  swing  one  within  the  other  on  diameters 
at  right  angles  to  each  other,  the  pivots  being 
on  the  inner  surface  of  each  successively  larger 
hoop.  Anything  suspended  in  their  centre  re 
tains  a  constant  position  relatively  to  the  hori 
zontal  plane  in  whatever  direction  the  frame 
work  is  tilted ;  used  for  hanging  compasses, 
barometers,  etc. 

Gimlet-eyed.     Keen-eyed. 

Gimmals.  The  old  form  for  gimbals  (which 
see). 

Gin,  or  Gin-block.  An  iron  frame  fitted  with 
a  metal  sheave ;  used  for  topsail-tyes,  and  for 
whips  for  loading  and  discharging  cargo. 

Gingado.     See  JERGADO. 

Gingal,  or  Jingal.  A  long-barreled  fire-arm 
used  in  the  East,  especially  in  China;  it  fre 
quently  loads  at  the  breech. 

Ginger.  To  spur  up ;  to  revive  one's  flagging 
energies. 

Gingerbread-work.     Carved  decorations. 

Gingerly.    Fastidiously  ;  daintily  ;  cautiously. 

Ginners,  or  Ginnles.     The  gills  of  fish. 

Ginseng.  A  Chinese  root,  formerly  highly 
prized  for  its  restorative  virtues.  It  is  now 
almost  out  of  the  Materia  Medica. 

Gip.     To  take  the  entrails  out  of  fishes. 

Girandole.     Any  whirling  fire-work. 

Girdle.      An  additional    planking   over   the 


GIRT 


312 


GLIM 


'wales  or  bends.  A  frapping  for  girding  a 
ship. 

Girt.  The  situation  of  a  ship  which  is  moored 
so  taut  by  her  cables,  extending  from  the  hawse 
to  two  distant  anchors,  as  to  be  prevented  from 
swinging  to  the  wind  or  tide.  The  ship  thus 
circumstanced  endeavors  to  swing,  but  her  side 
bears  upon  one  of  the  cables,  which  catches  on 
her  heel,  and  interrupts  her  in  the  act  of  tra 
versing.  In  this  position  she  must  ride  with 
her  broadside  or  stern  to  the  wind  or  current, 
till  one  or  both  of  the  cables  are  slackened,  so 
as  to  sink  under  the  keel ;  after  which  the  ship 
will  readily  yield  to  the  effort  of  the  wind  or 
current. 

Girt-line.  A  rope  passing  through  a  single 
block  at  the  head  of  a  mast  to  hoist  up  the  rig 
ging;  the  girt-line  is  the  first  rope  employed  to 
rig  a  ship,  and  the  last  in  unrigging.  Hammock 
girt-lines,  lines  extending  from  jib-boom  to 
spanker-boom,  on  which  scrubbed  hammocks  are 
stopped  to  dry.  Stripped  to  a  girt-line,  entirely 
stripped  ;  naked. 

Give.     To  yield  to  force  or  pressure. 

Give  a  Spell.     See  SPELL. 

Give  Chase.     To  pursue  another  vessel. 

Give  her  Sheet.     To  ease  off  the  sheet. 

Give  the  Calf  more  Rope.  An  expression 
conveying  an  indirect  request  for  silence,  ad 
dressed  to  one  who  is  making  an  unusual  or 
unnecessary  noise,  whicty  thus  is  likened  to  that 
caused  by  the  uneasiness  of  the  tethered  calf. 

Give  Way.  To  commence  rowing.  To  row 
with  more  vigor.  Give  way  together,  to  pull  to 
gether.  Give  way  with  a  will,  to  pull  heartily. 

Gladene.  A  very  old  designation  of  the  sea- 
onion. 

Glance.  A  dark-colored  metallic  sulphuret. 
A  name  for  anthracite  coal.  See  NORTHERN 
GLANCE. 

Gland.  In  mechanism,  a  piece  of  metal  con 
sisting  of  a  cylindrical  ring  fitted  to  the  annular 
space  between  a  rod  or  valve-stem  and  the  in 
terior  of  its  stuffing-box,  provided  with  a  flange 
by  which  it  is  secured  and  adjusted  either  by 
bolts  and  nuts,  or  by  a  large  nut  encompassing 
the  outside  of  the  stuffing-box ;  its  use  being  to 
confine  and  adjust  the  packing. 

Glasag.    A  certain  kind  of  edible  sea-weed. 

Glasgow.  The  commercial  and  manufactur 
ing  capital  of  Scotland,  on  both  sides  of  the 
Clyde,  21  miles  from  its  mouth.  Lat.  55°  51' 
62"  N.  ;  Ion.  4°  16'  W.  When  by  the  union 
of  England  and  Scotland  the  trade  with  the 
American  colonies  was  thrown  open  to  Scottish 
enterprise,  Glasgow  became  the  centre  of  the 
tobacco  trade ;  later  it  became  a  great  centre  of 
the  sugar  trade,  and  this  trade  the  town  still  re 
tains.  Her  special  business  consists  of  iron-ship 
building  and  machine-making,  and  the  Clyde- 
built  steamers  and  engines  are  world-renowned. 
In  the  beginning  of  the  century,  the  Clyde  below 
the  lowest  bridge  could  be  forded  on  foot,  now 
vessels  of  2000  tons  can  lie  at  anchor  at  all  states 
of  the  tide.  An  excellent  harbor  has  been  con 
structed  in  the  city  on  the  Forth  and  Clyde  Canal. 
Pop.  700,000. 

GLASS.  A  sailor's  name  for  anything  made 
of  glass  ;  as,  the  barometer,  telescope,  etc.  How 
is  the  glass  ?  how  is  the  barometer  ?  The  glass  is 
said  to  be  falling  or  rising  as  the  mercury  falls 
or  rises. 


A  time-glass  was  formerly  employed  to  mark 
the 'flight  of  time;  hence  glass  was  used  to 
denote  the  length  of  time  the  sand  occupied  in 
running  out.  To  flog  or  sweat  the  glass,  to  hasten 
the  running  of  the  sand  by  agitation,  or  to  turn 
it  a  short  time  before  the  sand  is  out.  Twenty- 
eight-second  and  fourteen-second  glasses  are  still 
used  to  mark  the  time  in  heaving  the  log.  Clear 
glass!  To  let  the  sand  run  out  of  one  end  before 
the  chip  is  hove  overboard.  To  cook  a  glass,  to 
heat  it,  and  thus  absorb  the  moisture  collected  on 
it ;  applied  to  time-glasses  and  telescopes.  Night- 
glass,  a  telescope  adapted  to  viewing  objects  at 
night;  it  has  a  large  field  of  view,  and  concen 
trates  a  large  amount  of  light.  Spy-glass,  a 
telescope. 

Glassok.   A  name  of  the  say,  seath ,  or  coal-fish. 

Glasson,  John  J.,  Commodore  U.S.N.  Born 
in  New  York  City.  Appointed  midshipman 
from  New  York,  February  1,  1823  ;  served  in  the 
store-ship  "  Decoy"  and  schooner  "  Fox,"  in  the 
West  India  Squadron,  fitted  out  by  special  act 
of  Congress  for  the  suppression  of  piracy,  which 
was  successfully  accomplished  under  the  com 
mand  of  Commodore  David  Porter,  1823 ; 
schooner  "Grampus,"  coast  of  Africa  and  West 
Indies,  1824;  in  the  "North  Carolina,"  74,  and 
sloop  "  Warren,"  Mediterranean,  1825-29;  sloop 
"Natchez,"  West  Indies,  1830. 

Promoted  to  passed  midshipman,  June  4, 1831  ; 
revenue-cutter  "  Rush,"  as  first  lieutenant  in 
the  Revenue  Marine.  "  New  York,"  1831-32; 
schooner  "Shark"  (as  master),  Mediterranean, 
1833-34  ;  rendezvous,  New  York,  1835-37. 

Commissioned  as  lieutenant,  February  9,  1837  ; 
sloops  "  Lexington"  and  "  Falmouth,"  in  the 
Pacific,  1838-40;  steamer  "Fulton,"  on  special 
service,  New  York  harbor,  1841-42;  sloop 
"Decatur,"  coast  of  Africa,  1843-44;  store- 
ship  "Lexington,"  with  troops  to  the  coast  of 
Texas,  1845;  steamer  "Spitfire"  (executive) 
and  schooner  "Falcon,"  Home  Squadron,  1846- 
48;  commanded  the  latter  vessel  in  the  attack 
on  Vera  Cruz,  and  the  Castle  of  San  Juan 
de  Ulloa,  which  were  captured  by  the  joint  action 
of  the  army  and  navy  ;  also  in  the  rescue  of  121 
inhabitants  of  the  town  of  Valladolid,  Yucatan 
(burned  and  sacked  by  the  Indians  in  a  state  of 
insurrection),  landing  them  safely  at  the  city  of 
Campeachy. 

Commissioned  as  commander,  September  14, 
1855;  commanding  rendezvous,  New  Bedford, 
Mass.,  1861-63;  navy-yard,  Norfolk,  Va.,  in 
charge  of  stores  for  the  supply  of  the  Coast 
Squadron  in  the  Atlantic,  and  the  flotilla  forces 
in  the  Chesapeake,  1864-65. 

Commissioned  as  commodore,  September  28, 
1866.  Sea  service,  17  years  11  months;  shore 
or  other  duty,  8  years  10  months.  Retired 
October  1,  1864. 

Glaucus.  A  genus  of  nudibranchiate  mol- 
lusks,  found  in  the  warmer  latitudes  floating  in 
the  open  sea,  beautifully  colored  with  blue. 

Glave.  A  light  hand-dart.  Also,  a  sword- 
blade  fixed  on  the  end  of  a  pole. 

Glazed  Powder.     See  POWDER. 

Glent.  To  turn  aside  or  quit  the  original  di 
rection,  as  a  shot  when  it  impinges  on  a  hard 
substance. 

Glib-gabbet.     Smooth  and  ready  speech. 

Glim.  A  light ;  familiarly  used  for  the  eyes. 
Douse  the  glim,  put  out,  or  cover  up,  the  light. 


GLISSON 


313 


GODON 


Glisson,  O.  S.,  Rear-Admiral  U.S.N.  Born 
in  Ohio.  Appointed  midshipman  from  Indiana, 
November  1,  1826. 

Promoted  to  passed  midshipman,  June  4, 1832; 
in  the  "Delaware,"  74,  Mediterranean,  1832-35. 

Commissioned  as  lieutenant,  February  9,  1837; 
sloop  "Marion,"  West  India  Squadron,  1841- 
42;  sloop  "Saratoga,"  Brazil  Squadron,  1843- 
44 ;  commanding  schooner  "  Reefer,"  during  the 
Mexican  war,  1847 ;  attached  to  steam-frigate 
"  Powhatan,"  East  India  Squadron,  and  on  the 
Japan  Expedition,  1852-55, — was  in  Japan  when 
the  first  treaty  was  made  by  Commodore  M.  C. 
Perry. 

Commissioned  as  commander,  September  14, 
1855;  commanding  steamer  "  Mount  Vernon," 
North  Atlantic  Blockading  Squadron,  1861. 

Commissioned  as  captain,  July  16,  1862  ;  while 
in  the  "Mount  Vernon,"  saved  the  transport 
"Mississippi,"  bound  to  New  Orleans,  with 
Gen.  Butler  and  1500  men  on  board.  It  was 
supposed  that  she  was  designedly  run  on  Frying- 
pan  Shoal,  N.  C.  ;  and  had  it  not  been  for  the 
timely  assistance  of  the  "  Mount  Vernon,"  it  is 
very  probable  that  many  lives  would  have  been 
lost.  By  this  valuable  service  being  rendered, 
Gen.  Butler  was  enabled  to  reach  New  Orleans  in 
time  to  participate  in  that  great  battle.  While 
on  the  blockade  of  Wilmington,  he  burned  a 
light-boat  under  the  guns  of  Fort  Caswell,  so 
close  that  they  could  hear  the  sentinels  calling 
"  all's  well."  This  light-boat  was  all  ready  to 
receive  her  battery  of  8  guns,  and  would  have 
been  put  in  commission  in  a  few  days. 

Commanding  steam-sloop  "  Mohican,"  1862- 
63,  in  chase  of  the  "Alabama";  commanding 
steamer  "Santiago  de  Cuba,"  1864-65;  present 
at  the  two  attacks  on  Fort  Fisher,  December, 
1864,  and  January,  1865  ;  commanded  the  Third 
Division  in  both  engagements;  was  recommended 
by  Admiral  Porter  for  promotion  for  covering 
the  landing  of  the  troops  and  carrying  his  divis 
ion  into  action. 

Commissioned  as  commodore,  July  25,  1866. 

Commanding  Naval  Station,  League  Island, 
Pa.,  1867,  to  May  1,  1870. 

Commissioned  as  rear-admiral,  June,  1870, 
and  ordered  to  the  command  of  the  European 
Fleet,  where  he  remained  until  retired,  on  Janu 
ary  18,  1871. 

Gloaming,  The  twilight.  Also,  a  gloomy, 
dull  state  of  the  sky. 

Globe  (Lat.  globus).  A  word  synonymous  with 
sphere,  but  generally  restricted  to  mean  the 
earth.  An  artificial  spherical  representation  of 
the  earth  or  heavens. 

GLOBE-FISH.  A  fish  of  the  genus  Diodon  or 
the  genus  Tetraodon,  which,  by  inflating  an  ab 
dominal  sac,  can  swell  out  its  body  to  a  globular 
shape. 

GLOBE-RANGERS.     A  sobriquet  for  marines. 

GLOBULAR  SAILING.  An  antiquated  term  for 
spherical  sailing. 

Gloucester.  A  city  and  port  of  entry  of  Es 
sex  Co.,  Mass.  It  has  a  greater  amount  of  tonnage 
employed  in  domestic  fisheries  than  any  other 
town  in  the  United  States,  amounting  in  1878  to 
32,604  tons,  the  number  of  vessels  being  520,  of 
which  409  were  employed  in  the  fisheries.  The 
quantity  of  mackerel  inspected  in  1876  was 
95,422  barrels.  The  number  of  men  employed 
in  the  cod-  and  mackerel-fisheries  was  5000.  In 


1875  the  fleet  landed  9,710,787  pounds  of  fish. 
The  cod-fishery  has  been  successfully  prosecuted 
for  more  than  a  century.  In  1876  the  number 
of  vessels  owned  here  and  employed  in  the  cod- 
fishery  was  375.  The  total  value  of  the  fisheries 
in  1876  was  $4,000,000.  The  harbor  is  one  of 
the  best  on  the  coast,  and  is  accessible  at  all  sea 
sons  to  vessels  of  the  largest  class.  Pop.  17,000. 
Glower.  To  frown  upon  ;  to  look  savagely. 
Glue  Cement.  One  pound  glue,  one  pound 
black  resin,  quarter-pound  red  ochre,  mixed  with 
the  least  possible  quantity  of  water. 

Glue,  Marine.  One  part  india-rubber,  twelve 
parts  mineral  naphtha  or  coal-tar ;  heat  gently, 
mix,  and  add  twenty  parts  of  powdered  shellac. 
Pour  on  a  slab  to  cool ;  when  used,  to  be  heated 
to  about  250°  F. 

Glum.     Gloomy ;  low-spirited. 
Glut.     A  piece  of  wood  used  as  a  fulcrum  for 
a  lever.     A  becket  attached  to  the  after  part  of 
a  square-sail,  into  which  is  hooked  the  bunt-whip. 
Topsails  frequently  have  three  gluts,  two  abaft 
for  furling  and  one  forward  for  a  midship  bunt- 
line  used  in  taking  in  the  last  reef. 
Glycerine,  Nitro-.     See  EXPLOSIVES. 
Gnomon.     The  hand  ;  style  of  a  dial. 
Go-about.     To  put  a  ship  on  the  other  tack. 
Go  Ashores.     The  seaman's  best  dress. 
Gobarto.     A  large  and  ravenous  fish  of  early 
voyagers,  probably  a  shark. 

Gobbag.     A  name  for  the  dog-fish. 
Gob-doo.     A  term  for  a  mussel. 
Goblachan.     A  name  for  the  parr  or  samlet. 
Gob-line,    Gob-rope,   or   Martingale  Back- 
rope.       A   rope   which   fits   over   the   dolphin- 
striker  with  a  cuckold-neck,  the  ends  setting  up 
to  the  bows  ;  they  are  frequently  made  of  chain. 
Gobon.     An  old  English  name  for  the   whi 
ting. 

Gob-stick.  A  horn  or  wooden  spoon. 
Goby.  A  spiny-finned  fish  allied  to  the  blen- 
ny,  and  distinguished  by  having  the  ventral 
fins  on  the  breast  capable  of  forming  a  funnel- 
shaped  '  sucker.  Several  species  of  the  genus 
Gobius  are  so  called.  They  are  mostly  small 
sea-fishes,  and  can  live  for  some  time  out  of  the 
water. 

Godon,  Sylvanus  W.,  Rear-Admiral  U.S.N. 
Born  in  Pennsylvania.  Appointed  midshipman 
from  the  same  State,  March  1,  1819. 

Commissioned  as  lieutenant,  December  17, 
1836  ;  attached  to  sloop-of-war  "  Peacock,"  East 
India  Squadron,  1836-37;  and  to  sloop-of-war 
"  Cyane,"  Mediterranean  Squadron,  1840;  at 
tached  to  bomb-brig  "Vesuvius,"  1847,  at  the 
siege  of  Vera  Cruz  ;  on  special  duty,  1850;  ex 
ecutive-officer  of  steamer  "  Susquehanna,"  East 
India  Squadron,  1851-53. 

Promoted  to  commander,  September  14,  1855  ; 
commanding  sloop-of-war  "  Mohican,"  Pacific 
Squadron,  1860. 

Commissioned  as  captain  in  1861,  and  ordered 
to  command  of  sloop-of-war  "Powhatan,"  one 
of  the  vessels  of  Dupont's  Expedition  to  Port 
Royal. 

Promoted  to  commodore,  January  2,  1863; 
on  special  duty,  1864 ;  commanding  steamer  ' '  Sus 
quehanna,"  and  Fourth  Division  of  Porter's 
Squadron,  at  the  two  battles  of  Fort  Fisher,  in 
December,  1864,  and  January,  1865. 

Commissioned  as  rear-admiral,  July  25,  1866 ; 
commanding  South  Atlantic  Squadron,  coast  of 


GODOWN 


314 


GOLDSBOKOUGH 


Brazil,  1866-67 ;  commandant  navy-yard,  New 
York,  1868-70.  Ketired  in  1871,  and  died  May 
17,  1879. 

Godown.  The  name  given  to  store-houses 
and  magazines  in  the  East  Indies, — a  corruption 
of  the  Malay  gadong. 

Godsend.  An  unexpected  relief  or  prize; 
wreckers  denote  by  the  term  vessels  and  goods 
driven  on  shore. 

Goe.     A  creek  smaller  than  a  voe. 

Gogar.  A  serrated  worm  used  for  fishing- 
bait. 

Goglet.  An  earthen  vase  or  bottle  for  holding 
water. 

Goillear.  The  Gaelic  for  a  sea-bird  of  the 
Hebrides,  said  to  come  ashore  only  in  January. 

Going  Free.  Sailing  with  a  wind  which  al 
lows  the  yards  to  be  braced  in  and  sheets  eased 
off. 

Going  Large.  Sailing  with  a  wind  which 
permits  the  stun'sails  to  be  set. 

Going  through  the  Fleet.  An  old  method  of 
punishment,  long  since  abolished.  The  victim 
was  sentenced  to  receive  a  certain  portion  of  the 
flogging  alongside  the  various  ships. 

Goldeney.     A  name  for  the  yellow  gurnard. 

Golden  Fleece.  Jason,  the  Argonaut,  sailed 
with  his  companions  from  lolchos  to  Colchis  to 
avenge  the  death  of  his  kinsman  Phryxus,  and 
to  recover  his  treasures,  which  the  perfidious 
^Eetes,  king  of  Colchis,  had  seized,  after  mur 
dering  their  owner.  The  ship  in  which  Phryxus 
had  sailed  to  Colchis  was  adorned  with  the  figure 
of  a  ram  on  the  poop,  which  gave  occasion  to 
the  poets  to  pretend  that  the  journey  of  Jason 
was  for  the  recovery  of  the  golden  fleece,  1263 
B.C. 

Golden  Number.  The  cycle  of  19  years,  or 
number  which  shows  the  years  of  the  moon's 
cycle  ;  its  invention  is  ascribed  to  Meton,  of 
Athens,  about  432  B.C.  To  find  the  golden  num 
ber  or  year  of  the  lunar  cycle,  add  one  to  the 
date  and  divide  by  nineteen,  then  the  quotient  is 
the  number  of  cycles  since  Christ,  and  the  re 
mainder  is  the  golden  number. 

Gold-fish.  A  small  fish  of  the  genus  Cypri- 
nus  (C.  auratus),  so  named  from  its  color  being 
like  that  of  gold.  It  is  a  native  of  China,  and 
is  said  to  have  been  introduced  into  Europe  in 
1691.  It  is  often  kept  in  small  ponds  or  glass 
globes,  as  an  object  of  curiosity  or  ornament. 

Gold  Mohur.  A  coin  in  the  East  Indies 
varying  a  little  in  each  presidency,  but  averaging 
15  rupees,  or  about  8  dollars  of  our  money. 

Goldsborough,  Charles  W.,  the  first  chief  of 
the  Bureau  of  Provisions  and  Clothing,  was  born 
at  Cambridge,  Md.,  April  18,  1779;  died  at 
Washington,  December  14,  1843.  He  was  chief 
clerk  of  the  Navy  Department  under  Stoddart, 
Smith,  and  Hamilton,  and  was  secretary  of  the 
Navy  Board  until  separate  bureaus  were  estab 
lished.  Author  of  "  U.  S.  Naval  Chronicle" 
(1824). 

Goldsborough,  John  R.,  Commodore  U.S.N. 
Born  July  2,  1809,  in  Washington,  D.  C.  Ap 
pointed  midshipman  from  District  of  Columbia, 
November  6,  1824 ;  previous  to  which  was  a 
cadet-midshipman  on  board  the  flag-ship  "  John 
Adams,"  bearing  the  broad  pennant  of  Com 
modore  David  Porter,  West  India  Squadron ; 
attached  to  the  ship-of-the-line  "  North  Caro 
lina,"  and  sloop  "Warren,"  Mediterranean 


Squadron,  from  November,  1824,  until  June, 
1830;  on  board  of  the  "  Warren"  was  engaged 
in  several  important  operations  against  the  Greek 
pirates ;  bombarded  the  town  of  Miconi,  and 
at  one  time,  when  in  command  of  the  launch 
of  the  "  Warren"  with  18  men,  engaged,  and 
after  a  short  and  spirited  engagement,  captured 
the  Greek  armed  piratical  schooner  "Helene," 
of  4  guns  and  58  men;  received  the  thanks  of 
Capt.  Kearney,  for  the  handsome  manner  in 
which  this  service  was  performed. 

Promoted  to  passed  midshipman,  April  28. 
1832. 

Commissioned  as  lieutenant,  September  6, 
1837. 

Commissioned  as  commander,  September  14, 
1855;  commanding  naval  rendezvous,  Philadel 
phia,  1855-59  ;  waiting  orders,  1860  ;  command 
ing  steamer4'  Union, "blockading  off  Charleston, 
Savannah,  and  Cape  Hatteras,  and  in  Potomac 
Flotilla,  1861 ;  captured  and  sunk  the  rebel  pi 
ratical  schooner  "  York,"  and  bombarded  a  rebel 
fort  off  Mathias  Point,  Potomac  River. 

Commissioned  as  captain,  July  16,  1862  ;  com 
manding  steamer  "  Florida,"  South  Atlantic 
Blockading  Squadron,  1862 ;  at  the  capture  of 
the  city  and  forts  around  Fernandina  ;  command 
ing  steam-frigate  "  Colorado,"  Western  Gulf 
Blockading  Squadron,  1863. 

Commissioned  as  commodore,  April  13,  1867. 
Retired  July  2,  1870;  died  June  22,  1877. 

Goldsborough,  Louis  Malesherbes,  Rear- 
Admiral  U.S.N.,  was  born  in  Washington, 
D.  C.,  February'18,  1805,  and  in  December,  1812, 
when  less  than  8  years  of  age,  an  antedated 
midshipman's  warrant  was  given  to  him.  In 
July,  1816,  he  was  given  his  first  orders  into 
service,  which  were  to  join  the  "  Independence," 
74,  under  Commodore  Bainbridge,  at  Boston. 

In  1817  he  was  ordered  to  join  the  "  Frank 
lin,"  74,  destined  for  the  Mediterranean,  as  the 
flag-ship  of  Commodore  Stewart ;  and  at  the  end 
of  this  ship's  cruise,  and  while  she  was  at  Gibral 
tar  on  her  way  home,  he  was  transferred  to  the 
frigate  "  Guerriere,"  in  which  ship  he  returned 
to  the  United  States  late  in  the  year  of  1820. 

In  1821  he  was  again  ordered  to  join  the 
"  Franklin,"  once  more  the  flag-ship  of  Commo 
dore  Stewart,  but  now  bound  to  the  Pacific ; 
and  he  remained  on  board  of  her  throughout  the 
cruise. 

In  1825  he  obtained  permission  from  the  De 
partment  to  avail  himself  of  the  schools  of  Paris, 
at  his  own  expense,  with  the  view  of  prosecuting 
his  studies  in  the  French  language  and  in  the 
scientific'  branches  of  his  profession, — mathe 
matics,  astronomy,  etc. 

In  1827,  having  received  orders  from  the  De 
partment,  he  joined  the  Mediterranean  Squadron, 
then  commanded  by  Commodore  Rodgers ;  and 
after  remaining  for  a  while  on  board  the  "  North 
Carolina,"  74,  he  was  ordered  to  join  the  schooner 
"Porpoise,"  under  command  of  Lieut.-Com- 
mandant  Benjamin  Cooper.  At  this  period,  pi 
ratical  depredations,  in  and  about  the  Grecian 
Archipelago,  were  of  frequent  occurrence,  so 
that  no  merchant  vessel,  unprotected  by  a  vessel 
of  war,  could  with  safety  venture  eastward  of  the 
island  of  Malta.  In  this  state  of  things,  the 
"Porpoise"  was  kept  actively  employed  in  af 
fording  convoy  from  and  to  Malta  and  Smyrna. 
Vessels  of  war  of  other  nations  were  also  en- 


GOLDSBOKOUGH 


315 


GOLDSBOKOUGH 


gaged  in  performing  the  same  service,  and  a 
general  understanding  existed  that  each  would 
give  protection  to  any  merchantman  that  might 
ask  it,  regardless  of  nationality,  as  the  whole 
civilized  world  pronounced  pirates  enemies  of 
the  human  race. 

In  September,  1827,  the  "Porpoise"  left 
Smyrna  for  Malta,  with  a  convoy  under  her 
charge,  consisting  of  11  merchant  vessels,  5  of 
which  were  American ;  and  while  becalmed  in 
the  Doro  passage  at  night,  one  of  the  convoy,  an 
English  vessel  called  the  "  Comet,"  was  attacked 
and  carried  by  some  200  or  300  Greek  pirates, 
who  had  put  out  from  the  islands  of  Andros  and 
Negropont  for  the  purpose,  in  5  very  large  mys- 
ticoes,  or  boats,  each  arranged  to  pull  some  40  or 
50  oars.  The  "  Comet,"  owing  to  the  calm,  was 
at  some  distance  from  the  "  Porpoise"  and  the 
rest  of  the  vessels  of  the  convoy  perhaps  a  couple 
of  miles,  but  in  the  midst  of  the  noise  and  con 
fusion  on  her  deck,  her  mate  and  another  of  the 
crew  succeeded  in  effecting  their  escape  in  the 
stern-boat,  reaching  the  "  Porpoise,"  and  im 
parting  all  they  knew.  Although  the  firing  of 
arms  by  the  pirates  as  they  approached  the 
"Comet"  had  attracted  anxious  attention  on 
board  the  a  Porpoise,"  and  put  all  on  the  qui  vive, 
yet  up  to  the  moment  of  the  arrival  alongside  of 
the  mate,  nothing  had  been  distinctly  ascertained, 
although  efforts  with  the  sweeps  were  being  made 
to  approach  the  "Comet."  It  was  soon  found, 
however,  that  the  mysticoes  were  towing  the 
"  Comet"  faster  away  from  the  "  Porpoise"  than 
the  latter  vessel  could  be  moved  by  the  agency  of 
sweeps,  and  as  the  only  remaining  alternative  to 
recover  the  "Comet"  the  boats  of  the  "Por 
poise"  were  now  resorted  to.  They  were  promptly 
prepared  to  assail  the  pirates,  and  all  of  them 
were  placed  under  Goldsborough's  command. 
All  told,  they  were  manned  by  some  40  officers 
and  men,  nor  could  they  possibly  accommodate 
more.  The  pirates  numbered  at  least  200.  De 
spite,  however,  of  this  disparity,  the  "Comet" 
was  boarded  without  hesitation,  the  pirates  driven 
from  her  deck,  and  the  vessel  was  thus  fully  re 
covered.  In  the  struggle,  from  80  to  90  of  the 
pirates  were  either  killed  or  wounded. 

The  wardroom  steward  of  the  "Porpoise,"  a 
mulatto  of  herculean  strength,  was  one  of  the 
expedition,  and  killed  with  his  own  hand  no  less 
than  11  of  the  pirates;  while  the  chief  of  the 
horde,  with  several  of  his  men,  was  dispatched 
by  the  pistol  of  Lieut.  John  A.  Carr,  of  Vir 
ginia.  These  pirates  were  at  this  time  so  numer 
ous  that  no  merchant  vessel,  unprotected  by 
convoy,  could  venture  to  thread  its  course  among 
the  islands  of  the  Greek  Archipelago  with  im 
punity  ;  and  so  powerful  were  they,  that  at  one 
time  they  succeeded  in  capturing  an  Austrian 
10-gun  man-of-war  brig.  Our  merchant  marine 
suffered  heavily  by  their  depredations,  for  they 
attacked  indiscriminately  vessels  of  every  nation 
except  their  own.  In  such  a  state  of  affairs,  a 
sound  thrashing,  like  that  administered  by  Lieut. 
Goldsborough  and  his  little  company,  could 
hardly  fail  of  good  effect. 

In  1830,  Goldsborough  returned  to  the  United 
States  in  the  "  Delaware,"  74,  Commodore  Crane, 
as  one  of  her  lieutenants,  and  shortly  afterward 
he  brought  to  the  notice  of  the  Department  the 
defectiveness  of  the  implements  of  navigation — 
charts,  chronometers,  sextants,  quadrants,  etc. 


— generally  furnished  to  our  ships  by  the  pro 
cess  of  requisitions  upon  navy  agents,  and  urged 
as  a  remedy  the  establishment  of  a  depot  of 
charts  and  instruments,  in  order  that  every 
article  might  be  thoroughly  examined  and  tested 
before  it  was  issued  for  use.  The  suggestion  was 
strongly  supported  by  the  Navy  Commissioners, 
and  in  a  little  while  the  depot  was  under  way, 
with  Goldsborough  in  charge  of  it.  This  was 
the  nucleus  of  the  present  observatory. 

In  1846,  war  existing  with  Mexico,  he  applied 
to  be  employed,  and  was  appointed  executive- 
officer  of  the  "Ohio,"  74,  commanded  by  Capt. 
Stringham,  and  was  present  on  board  that  ship 
at  the  fall  of  Vera  Cruz,  and  subsequently  com 
manded  a  large  detachment  of  her  officers  and 
crew  at  the  attack  and  capture  of  Tuspan. 

In  1849  he  was  ordered  by  the  Department  as 
the  senior  naval  officer  of  a  joint  commission,  com 
posed  of  three  army  and  three  navy  officers,  to 
explore  California  and  Oregon,  with  the  view 
of  ascertaining  and  reporting  upon  the  advan 
tages  they  might  possess  for  military  and  naval 
purposes,  the  proper  situations  for  fortifications, 
dock-yards,  light-houses,  etc.  In  1851  he  re 
turned  from  this  service  to  Washington,  and  in 
1852  he  was  ordered  to  command  the  frigate 
"  Cumberland,"  and  the  flag-ship  of  Commodore 
Stringham,  destined  for  the  Mediterranean. 
After  serving  on  board  of  her,  in  command,  for 
some  time,  the  commander  of  the  "  Levant," 
one  of  the  vessels  of  the  squadron,  died,  and  he 
(Goldsborough)  was  ordered  to  command  that 
vessel ;  and  while  on  board  of  her  at  Constanti 
nople,  he  received  orders  to  return  to  the  United 
States  to  take  command  of  the  Naval  Academy, 
and  accordingly  did  so  return  in  October,  1853, 
and  in  the  following  month,  November,  took 
command  of  that  establishment,  and  continued 
as  its  superintendent  until  September,  1857,  or 
nearly  four  years.  In  the  fall  of  1857,  he  was 
detailed  as  one  of  the  Board  of  Revision  in  cases 
which  had  arisen  under  the  first  law  of  Congress 
touching  officers  to  be  placed  on  a  retired  or  a 
reserved  list,  and  subsequently,  as  the  head  of 
a  board  to  revise  and  rewrite  the  Book  of  Ord 
nance  Instructions. 

In  1859  he  was  ordered  to  command  the  frigate 
"  Congress,"  fitting  at  Philadelphia  as  the  flag 
ship  of  Flag-Officer  Joshua  R.  Sands,  appointed 
commander-in-chief  of  the  Brazil  Squadron  ;  and 
he  returned  to  Boston  as  the  captain  of  that  ship 
in  August,  1861,  shortly  after  the  first  battle  of 
the  Rebellion  at  Bull  Run,  when  Flag-Officer 
Sands,  having  performed  his  cruise  to  the  entire 
satisfaction  of  the  government,  was,  as  a  matter 
incident  to  the  non-return  of  the  ship  to  Brazil, 
relieved  from  his  position.  She,  however,  was 
still  continued  in  commission,  and  in  September, 
or  shortly  after  reaching  home,  Goldsborough 
was  ordered  to  proceed  with  her,  under  his  com 
mand,  to  Hampton  Roads,  and  there  report  to 
Flag-Officer  Stringham. 

On  arriving  at  Hampton  Roads,  orders  from 
the  Department  were  placed  in  his  hands,  by 
Flag-Officer  Stringham,  directing  him  to  take 
command  of  the  North  Atlantic  Squadron,  and 
thus  to  relieve  Flag-Officer  Stringham,  who,  it 
was  understood,  did  not  desire  to  be  continued 
in  command  of  it,  and  had  so  expressed  himself 
to  the  Department. 

He  retained  the  command  of  the  North  Atlantic 


GOLD-SINNY 


316 


GOVERNMENT 


Squadron  during  1861-62,  being  promoted  to  rear- 
admiral  July  16,  1862,  and  performed  his  impor 
tant  duties  at  that  most  critical  period  of  the  war 
to  the  entire  satisfaction  of  the  Department.  In 
1863,  he  was  assigned  to  the  very  important  duty 
of  preparing  a  code  of  regulations  for  the  naval 
service.  On  completing  this  work  to  the  full  ex 
tent  he  was  authorized  to  proceed,  he  was  then 
assigned  to  revise  the  book  of  naval  allowances 
in  regard  to  equipment  and  outfits. 

In  April,  1865,  he  was  appointed  to  command 
the  European  Squadron,  and  after  serving  out 
his  full  time  in  this  command,  he  was  relieved 
from  it  by  the  appointment  of  Admiral  Farragut 
to  take  the  position,  and  therefore  returned  to 
the  United  States  in  his  flag-ship  "  Colorado" 
in  August,  1867.  Special  duty  in  Washington, 
1867  to  the  date  of  his  death,  February  20,  1877. 

Gold-sinny.  A  small  fish,  the  Crenilabrus 
Norwegicus. 

Gomer.  A  form  of  chamber  in  ordnance  con 
sisting  in  a  conical  narrowing  of  the  bore  to 
wards  its  inner  end.  It  was  first  devised  for  the 
service  of  mortars,  and  named  after  its  inventor, 
Gomer.  See  CHAMBER. 

Gomeisa.  The  name  of  the  star  ft  Canis 
Minoris. 

Gomere  (Fr.).     The  cable  of  a  galley. 

Gondola.  A  light  pleasure-barge  used  on  the 
canals  of  Venice,  generally  propelled  by  one  man 
standing  at  the  stern  with  one  powerful  oar, 
though  the  largest  kind  have  two  or  more  row 
ers.  The  medium-sized  gondolas  are  about  30 
feet  long  and  4  feet  broad,  with  a  well-furnished 
cabin  amidships,  though  exclusively  black,  as 
restricted  by  law.  They  rise  at  each  end  to  a 
very  sharp  point  about  the  height  of  a  man's 
breast.  The  stem  is  always  surmounted  by  the 
ferro,  a  bright  iron  beak  or  cleaver  of  one  uni 
form  shape,  seemingly  derived  from  the  ancient 
Romans,  being  the  rostrique  tridentibus  of  Vir 
gil.  Also,  a  passage-boat  of  6  or  8  oars,  used 
on  other  parts  of  the  coast  of  Italy.  The  name 
is  also,  applied  to  canal-boats  having  the  bow  and 
stern  alike. 

GONDOLIER.  A  man  who  works  or  navigates 
a  gondola. 

Gone.     Carried  away  ;  parted  ;  broken. 

Gone-goose.  A  ship  deserted  or  given  up  in 
despair. 

Gong.  A  kind  of  Chinese  cymbal,  with  a 
powerful  and  sonorous  tone  produced  by  the  vi 
brations  of  its  metal,  consisting  mainly  of  cop 
per  and  tutenag  or  zinc ;  it  is  used  as  a  signal 
for  calling  away  the  riflemen  ;  in  vessels  without 
field-music  it  is  used  to  summon  the  crew  to 
quarters. 

Gonga.  A  general  name  for  a  river  in  India, 
"Whence  comes  Ganges. 

Good-at-all-points.  Practical  in  every  par 
ticular. 

Good-conduct  Badge.    See  BADGE. 

Good  Shoaling.  An  approach  to  the  shore  by 
very  gradual  soundings. 

Goole.    An  old  term  for  a  breach  in  a  sea-bank. 

Goosander.  The  Mergus  merganser,  a  sea- 
fowl,  allied  to  the  duck,  with  a  straight,  narrow, 
and  serrated  bill,  hooked  at  the  point. 

Goose-neck.  A  sort  of  iron  hook  fitted  on 
the  inner  end  of  a  boom,  and  introduced  into  a 
clamp  of  iron  or  eye-bolt,  so  that  it  may  be  un 
hooked  at  pleasure. 


Goose-wing.  The  clew  of  a  course  or  topsail 
when  the  middle  part  is  hauled  up  and  lashed  to 
the  yard ;  this  is  done  in  very  bad  weather  only. 
The  term  is  also  applied  to  the  sails  of  a  schooner 
running  before  the  wind  with  the  sails  wing-and- 
wing. 

Gorab.     See  GRAB. 

Goramy.  A  fish  of  the  family  Anabnsidce,  a 
native  of  China  and  the  Eastern  Archipelago. 
It  is  one  of  the  nest-building  fishes,  and  at  the 
breeding  season  forms  its  nest  by  entangling  the 
steins  and  leaves  of  aquatic  grasses. 

Gord.  An  archaism  denoting  a  deep  hole  in 
a  river. 

Gore.  A  triangular  piece  of  cloth  or  canvas 
set  in  to  enlarge  a  garment  or  sail  at  a  particular 
point.  To  cut  in  the  form  of  a  gore. 

GORING-CLOTHS.  That  part  "of  a  sail  cut  on 
the  bias  to  give  the  required  sweep. 

Gorge.     The  groove  in  a  sheave. 

Gorgon  Steam-engine.  A  form  of  direct- 
acting  vertical  cylinder  steam-engine,  invented 
by  Seaward,  as  a  means  of  obviating  the  use  of 
the  beam  in  marine  engines.  It  is  called  the 
"  Gorgon"  engine  from  having  been  first  em 
ployed  in  an  English  government  steamer  of  that 
name. 

Gormaw.     A  name  for  the  cormorant. 

Gorse.  Heath  or  furze  for  breaming  a  ship's 
bottom. 

Gosnold,  Bartholomew.  Near  the  close  of 
the  reign  of  Queen  Elizabeth  this  navigator 
crossed  the  Atlantic,  and  in  seven  weeks  reached 
the  bay  of  Massachusetts.  Turning  to  the 
south  he  discovered  a  promontory,  to  which  he 
gave  the  name  of  Cape  Cod  from  the  abund 
ance  of  cod-fish  found  there.  Gosnold  then  pro 
ceeded  to  take  possession  of  other  islands,  to 
which  he  gave  the  names  of  u  Martha's  Vine 
yard"  arid  "Elizabeth." 

Gosport.  A  fortified  seaport  town  of  Eng 
land,  separated  from  Portsmouth  by  the  mouth 
of  Portsmouth  harbor.  Pop.  7500,  mostly  en 
gaged  in  the  government  navy-works,  and  in 
the  supply  of  shipping.  Gosport  has  extensive 
barracks,  the  Royal  Clarence  victualing-yard,  a 
powder-magazine  and  iron-foundries.  Outside 
of  the  town  on  the  south  is  Haslar  Hospital,  a 
naval  infirmary. 

Gossoon.     A  silly,  awkward  lout. 

Gothenburg.  A  seaport  city  of  Sweden,  at 
the  head  of  a  fiord  of  the  Cattegat,  which  receives 
the  Gotha  River.  The  harbor,  defended  by 
three  forts,  has  20  feet  of  water,  and  a  grand  dry- 
dock  cut  in  solid  rock.  Pop.  69,000. 

Gouge.  An  unwarrantable  proceeding  which 
inures  to  the  injury  of  another;  a  cheat.  A 
reprehensible  practice,  sometimes  indulged  in  at 
the  Naval  Academy,  of  using  concealed  bits  of 
paper,  etc.,  as  aids  to  the  memory  in  making  a 
recitation  ;  also,  the  article  so  used.  Gouging 
is  equivalent  to  ponying  or  papering. 

Gougings.     Gudgeons. 

Goulet.  Any  narrow  entrance  to  a  creek  or 
harbor  ;  as,  the  goletta  at  Tunis. 

Gouries.     The  garbage  of  salmon. 

Government,  Naval,  may  be  defined  as  that 
system  of  fundamental  rules  by  which  a  navy  is 
governed.  The  chief  desideratum  is  that  the 
rules  shall  be  so  framed  as  to  insure  an  energetic, 
efficient,  and  economical  management  of  the  af 
fairs  of  a  navy.  These  rules  may  have  either 


GOVERNMENT 


317 


GRAB 


the  sanction  of  custom  or  the  authority  of  law. 
In  either  event  they  partake  of  the  character  of 
the  government  under  which  they  are  framed. 
In  England,  for  example,  the  supreme  power  is 
divided  into  two  branches  :  the  Parliament,  con 
sisting  of  the  Crown,  Lords,  and  Commons;  and 
the  Executive,  consisting  of  the  sovereign  alone. 
Thus  the  executive  forms  a  co-ordinate  part 
of  the  legislative  branch.  It  is  not  surprising 
then  to  find  that  the  privy  councillors,  or  mem 
bers  of  the  cabinet,  have  seats  in  one  or  the  other 
of  the  two  houses  of  Parliament.  The  First 
Lord  of  the  Admiralty  has  the  opportunity, 
therefore,  as  a  member  of  Parliament,  of  present 
ing  the  navy  estimates  himself,  and,  at  the  same 
time,  of  explaining  the  naval  policy  of  the  ad 
ministration,  and  of  answering  such  questions 
and  meeting  such  objections  as  may  be  oifered. 
Besides  the  First  Lord  there  is  a  civil  lord,  who 
also  is  a  member  of  Parliament,  and  a  Parlia 
mentary  or  Financial  Secretary.  This  intimate 
relationship  between  the  executive  and  the  legis 
lative  branches  of  the  government  goes  far  to 
wards  insuring  harmony  of  action  between  the 
two,  and  greatly  facilitates  the  transaction  of 
public  business.  The  five  lords  and  the  Parlia 
mentary  Secretary  change  with  the  ministry,  so 
that  not  only  the  government  but  the  Navy  De 
partment  is  always  in  accord  with  Parliament. 
The  average  duration  of  a  ministry,  taking  the 
last  150  years,  is  about  three  years  and  eight 
months.  These  changes  affect  the  navy  at  large 
but  little,  however,  as  the  greater  part  of  the 
work  of  the  Admiralty  is  distributed  among 
heads  of  departments  (in  a  manner  somewhat 
analogous  to  the  distribution  of  duties  among 
the  chiefs  of  bureaus  of  the  United  States  Navy 
Department),  who  are  quite  independent  of  party- 
politics. 

While  the  First  Lord  is  directly  responsible  to 
Parliament  and  controls  the  navy  as  a  whole,  the 
Senior  Sea  Lord,  under  his  authority,  directs  the 
movements  of  the  fleet,  and  is  responsible  to  him 
for  its  discipline.  He  is  commander-in-chief,  as 
it  were,  of  all  the  floating  force  ;  or,  in  military 
phrase,  the  adjutant-general  to  the  First  Lord, 
relieving  him  of  those  purely  professional  duties 
which  the  civilian  frequently  finds  so  difficult  to 
master.  The  proof  of  the  efficiency  of  this  form 
of  naval  government  may  be  found  in  the  fact 
of  its  having  stood  the  test,  during  nearly  two 
centuries,  of  great  wars,  wherein  the  naval  re 
sources  of  the  country  have  been  strained  to  their 
utmost,  and  of  its  having  successfully  resisted  a 
formidable  combination,  in  1861,  to  abolish  it. 

To  the  foregoing  the  naval  administration  of 
the  United  States  presents  some  points  of  strong 
contrast. 

By  the  act  of  September  2,  1789,  establishing 
a  Treasury  Department,  the  Congress  of  the 
United  States  provided  that  the  Secretary  of  that 
Department  might  be  "required  to  give  infor 
mation  to  either  branch  of  the  legislature  in  per 
son  or  in  writing  .  .  .  respecting  all  matters 
pertaining  to  his  office."  This  is  the  only  in 
stance,  it  is  believed,  under  the  laws  of  the 
United  States,  where  a  member  of  the  executive 
branch  of  the  government  could  be  permitted, 
in  the  prosecution  of  public  business,  to  raise  his 
voice  in  the  legislative  halls ;  but  so  foreign  is 
such  a  proceeding  to  the  genius  of  the  Constitu 
tion,  that  the  provision  relating  to  personal  ex 


planations  has  become  a  dead  letter.  This  com 
plete  separation  between  the  executive  and  legis 
lative  branches  leaves  a  hiatus  between  the  two 
which,  however  desirable  in  theory,  tends  but 
little  to  accelerate  the  dispatch  of  public  busi 
ness,  and  renders  a  definite  line  of  naval  policy 
practically  impossible. 

In  the  organization  of  the  Navy  Department 
of  the  United  States  there  is  a  Secretary  of  the 
Navy  appointed  from  civil  life.  The  law  per 
mits  him  to  distribute  the  duties  of  the  Depart 
ment  among  eight  bureaus,  very  much  as  it  is  in 
the  fixed  administration  of  the  English  navy  ; 
but  it  provides  him  with  no  professional  assistant 
to  occupy  towards  him  the  relative  position  the 
Senior  Sea  Lord  bears  towards  the  First  Lord  of 
the  Admiralty  ;  consequently  much  of  the  duty 
pertaining  to  that  very  important  office  is  im 
perfectly  performed,  or  not  performed  at  all, — 
there  is  no  one  to  whom  it  legitimately  belongs. 

The  proof  of  the  inefficiency  of  this  form  of 
naval  government  is  to  be  found  in  the  fact 
that  it  utterly  failed  to  stand  the  test  of  war. 
The  foregoing  will  serve  to  illustrate  the  princi 
ple  of  naval  administration.  For  further  in 
formation,  see  ADMINISTRATION  and  ADMI 
RALTY. — S.  B.  Luce,  Captain  U.S.N. 

Governor.  A  machine  for  regulating  the 
speed  of  a  prime  mover,  such  as  a  steam-engine, 
water-wheel,  or  windmill,  by  automatically  con 
trolling  the  quantity  of  steam  admitted  to  a 
steam-cylinder,  or  the  supply  of  water  to  a 
wheel,  or  by  feathering  or  reefing  the  sails  of  a 
windmill.  There  is  a  great  variety  of  types  and 
devices  in  use,  but  the  original  invention  is  at 
tributed  to  Watt.  Among  these  is  the  type  of 
"ball-governor,"  or  revolving  pendulum,  which 
consists  of  two  suspended  balls,  the  centrifugal 
force  of  which  widens  their  amplitude  as  the 
speed  is  increased,  and  gravity  or  the  force  of 
springs  diminishes  it  as  the  speed  decreases  ;  the 
motion  due  to  the  varying  position  of  the  planes 
in  which  the  balls  revolve  being  communicated 
to  the  throttle,  sluice-valve,  or  other  mechanism, 
by  means  of  a  sleeve  on  the  spindle  or  a  rod  within 
it,  and  requisite  rods  and  levers.  Other  devices 
consist,  in  principle,  of  obliquely  placed  blades 
or  vanes  revolving  in  a  liquid  or  in  the  atmos 
phere,  and  producing  an  axial  motion  with  vari 
ation  of  speed;  and  again,  others  depend  upon 
the  moment  of  inertia  of  a  heavy  wheel,  which, 
by  suitable  mechanism,  either  actuates  the  throt 
tle-valve  directly,  or  by  the  intervention  of  a 
small  steam  and  hydraulic  cylinder.  In  some 
marine  steam-governors  the  action  depends  upon 
the  head  of  water  due  to  the  .variable  immersion 
of  the  screw-propeller  in  a  sea-way ;  and  both 
mechanical  and  electrical  contrivances  are  used. 
Marine  governors  thus  far  have  met  with  but 
limited  success. 

Gow.     An  old  term  for  the  gull. 

Gowk.  The  cuckoo.  A  stupid,  good-natured 
fellow. 

GOWK-STORM.  A  late  vernal  equinoctial  gale, 
contemporary  with  the  gowk  or  cuckoo. 

Goylir.  A  small  sea-bird  whose  appearance 
is  said  to  precede  a  storm ;  hence  seamen  call 
them  malifiaes. 

Grab.  The  large  coasting-vessel  of  India, 
generally  with  two  masts  and  of  150  to  300  tons 
burden.  It  drew  but  little  water,  and  had  a  pro 
jecting  prow  covered  with  a  strong  deck  on  a 


GRABBLE 


318 


GRAYLING 


level  with  the  main  deck  of  the  vessel,  from 
which  it  was  separated  by  a  bulkhead  that  ter 
minated  the  forecastle.  It  was  armed  with  guns 
varying  in  calibre  from  6-  to  12-pounders. 

Grabble.  To  endeavor  to  hook  a  sunken 
article.  To  catch  fish  by  hand  in  a  brook. 

Grade.     See  RANK. 

Graft.  To  cover  a  ring-bolt,  strap  of  a  block, 
etc.,  with  a  weaving  of  fishing-line  or  log-line. 
In  early  days  the  strap  of  a  block  was  frequently 
grafted  instead  of  being  spliced  ;  the  ends  of  the 
strap  were  joined  as  for  splicing,  the  strands 
were  opened  out  and  laid  up  into  nettles,  and 
the  nettles  were  grafted  over  the  opposite  part. 

Grain.  In  the  transverse  section  of  a  tree 
two  diiferent  grains  are  seen  ;  that  running  in  a 
circular  manner  is  termed  the  silver  grain  ;  the 
other  radiates  from  the  centre,  and  is  called  the 
bastard  grain.  Grain  is  also  a  name  applied  to 
a  whirlwind  in  Normandy  ;  it  is  transitory  in  its 
nature,  and  is  accompanied  by  rain.  Bad-grain, 
a  sea-lawyer  ;  a  nuisance.  In  the  grain  of,  in 
the  wake  of.  A  mast  is  said  to  have  its  grain 
upset  when  it  suffers  an  injury  by  compression, — 
frequently  due  to  too  much  setting  up  of  the 
rigging. 

Grained  Powder.     See  POWDER. 

Grains.  A  large  fish-spear  with  several  prongs. 

Gram.  A  species  of  pulse  given  to  horses, 
sheep,  and  oxen  in  the  East  Indies,  and  supplied 
to  ships  for  feeding  live-stock. 

Grampus  (Fr.  grampoise,  a  corruption  of  grand 
poisson}.  An  animal  of  the  cetacean  or  whale 
tribe,  distinguished  by  the  large  pointed  teeth 
with  which  both  jaws  are  armed,  and  by  the 
high  falcate  dorsal  fin.  It  generally  attains  a 
length  of  20  to  25  feet,  and  is  very  active  and 
voracious. 

GRAMPUS,  BLOWING  THE.  Sluicing  a  person 
with  water,  especially  practiced  on  him  who 
skulks  or  sleeps  on  his  watch. 

Grandsire.  The  name  of  a  four  oared  boat 
which  belonged  to  Peter  the  Great,  now  care 
fully  preserved  at  St.  Petersburg  as  the  origin 
of  the  Russian  fleet. 

Granny's-bend.  The  slippery  hitch  made  by 
a  lubber. 

Granny-knot.     This  is  a  term  of  derision  when 
a  reef-knot  is  crossed  the  wrong  way,  so  as  to  be 
insecure.     It  is  the  natural  knot  tied  by  women 
or  landsmen,  and  derided  by  seamen  because  it, 
cannot  be  untied  when  it  is  jammed. 

Grape,  or  Grape-shot.  Grape-shot  consists  of  a 
circular  cast-iron  stand  of  the  proper  dimensions, 
having  an  upright  spindle  in  the  centre,  around 
which  balls  are  placed  and  held  in  position  by  a 
stout  canvas  covering,  the  lower  edge  of  which  is 
secured  to  a  circular  plate  by  a  strong  seizing, 
and  quilted  over  the  balls  by  marline,  the  upper 
edge  of  the  canvas  being  drawn  in  and  secured  to 
the  upper  part  of  the  spindle.  It  is  then  painted 
as  a  protection  against  dampness,  the  balls  and 
stand  being  well  coated  with  red  lead  before 
being  made  up.  To  the  top  of  the  spindle  a 
shackle  or  handle  is  fixed  to  facilitate  handling. 

Grape-shot  have  not  sufficient  penetration  to  be 
used  with  effect,  generally,  against  ships-of-war 
beyond  150  yards.  When  the  men  on  the  spar- 
decks  of  the  enemy  are  exposed  by  the  heeling  of 
the  ship,  grape  or  canister  may  be  used  against 
them  at  distances  varying  from  200  to  300  yards. 
Against  light  vessels,  a  single  stand  of  grape  from 


heavy  guns  may  be  used  at  about  400  yards.  The 
dispersion  of  the  balls  is  about  one-tenth  the 
distance,  and  is  practically  independent  of  the 
charge. 

Grapnel,  or  Grappling.  A  pronged  implement 
used  as  an  anchor  for  a  boat ;  for  the  purpose  of 
recovering  an  object  at  the  bottom  of  a  harbor; 
for  hooking  on  to  ropes,  etc.,  likely  to  foul  the 
screw ;  for  securing  one  vessel  to  another  when 
boarding  is  to  be  attempted;  or  to  unake  fast  a 
tow-line  to  a  burning  vessel,  etc. 

GRAPNEL-ROPE.  The  rope  bent  to  a  grapnel. 
It  is  sometimes  fitted  with  a  length  of  chain  for 
towing  ships  on  fire,  in  order  that  it  may  not  be 
burnt  off. 

Grapple.     To  seize ;  to  hook  with  a  grapnel. 

GRAPPLING.     See  GRAPNEL. 

Grasp,  Death-.  The  convulsive  clutch  of  a 
drowning  person.  See  DROWN. 

Grass  Combers.  A  galley-term  for  lands 
men  who  enter  the  naval  service  from  the  rural 
districts.  Many  of  them  make  good  seamen. 

Grate.  A  floor  or  platform  consisting  of  bars 
of  iron  or  other  material,  separated  one  from 
another  so  as  to  allow  a  vacant  space  between. 
Used  in  steam-boiler  and  other  furnaces  for  sup 
porting  the  bed  of  burning  fuel  while  permitting 
free  access  of  air  thereto. 

GRATE-BAR.  One  of  a  number  of  bars  com 
posing  a  furnace-grate. 

Gratings.  Lattice-work  made  of  ash  to  cover 
the  hatchways,  etc. 

GRATING-DECK.  A  light  movable  deck  made 
of  gratings. 

Grave.  To  clean  a  vessel's  bottom,  and  pay 
it  over. 

GRAVING  BEACH,  or  SLIP.  The  portion  of  a 
dock-yard  where  ships  were  placed  to  be  graved. 

GRAVING-DOCK.     See  DOCK. 

Gravel.     To  vex  ;  to  irritate  ;  to  mortify. 

Gravelin.  A  small  migratory  fish  supposed 
to  be  the  spawn  of  the  salmon. 

Gravitation  (Lat.  grams,  heavy).  A  term 
used  to  denote  that  mutual  tendency  which  all 
the  bodies  of  nature  have  to  approach  each  other, 
with  forces  which  are  directly  as  their  masses, 
and  inversely  proportional  to  the  squares  of 
their  distances.  This  mutual  tendency  of  all  the 
particles  of  matter  to  each  other  is  called  the  at 
traction  of  gravitation.  In  reference  to  any  par 
ticular  body  or  mass  of  matter  the  aggregate 
attraction  of  all  its  particles  is  usually  called 
simply  its  gravity.  Absolute  gravity,  that  by 
which  a  body  descends  freely  in  a  vacuum. 
Relative  gravity,  that  by  which  a  body  descends 
when  the  absolute  gravity  is  opposed  by  a  con 
stant  but  inferior  force,  such  as  in  the  descent 
of  inclined  planes,  or  in  resisting  mediums,  as 
air  and  water.  Specific  gravity,  the  ratio  of  the 
weight  of  a  body  to  the  weight  of  an  equal  vol 
ume  of  some  other  body  assumed  as  a  conven 
tional  standard.  The  standard  usually  adopted 
for  this  purpose  is  pure  distilled  water  at  a  given 
temperature.  See  CENTRE  OF  GRAVITY. 

Grawls.   The  young  salmon.     See  GRILSE. 

Gray-fish,  Gray-lord.  Names  given  to  the 
coal-fish,  Gadus  carbonarius. 

Grayle.     Sand  ;    small  gravel. 

Grayling.  A  fish  of  the  salmon  kind  (Thy~ 
mallus  vulgaris],  inhabiting  many  of  the  streams 
of  England,  and  also  found  in  Norway  and 
Sweden. 


GKAYNING 


319 


GREAT   BRITAIN 


Grayning.     A  species  of  dace. 

Gray-school.  A  particular  shoal  of  large 
salmon  in  the  Solway  in  July. 

Graze.  To  rub  or  touch  lightly  in  passing 
over. 

Greasy  Weather.  Dirty,  disagreeable  weather. 

Great  Britain,  Navy  of.  If  any  reliance  could 
be  placed  on  tradition,  the  credit  of  originating 
a  navy  for  the  defense  of  the  coasts  of  England 
would'  be  assigned  to  Alfred  the  Great.  There 
is  no  doubt  that,  at  all  times  subsequently,  fleets 
of  small  craft  were  maintained  for  the  national 
protection,  but  it  does  not  appear,' from  authentic 
records  extant,  that  any  large  ships  were  built 
for  warlike  purposes  until  the  reign  of  Henry 
VII.,  when  a  two-decked  vessel — the  first  of  the 
kind — was  launched  in  the  year  1488,  and  re 
ceived  the  appellation  of  the  "Great  Harry." 
Still,  nothing  in  the  form  of  a  regular  royal  navy 
was  established  until  Henry  VIII.  ascended  the 
throne.  Three  years  after  his  accession,  Eng 
land  was  involved  in  a  war  with  France,  and 
steps  were  taken  to  invade  that  country.  A 
fleet  was  equipped  for  the  purpose.  The  French 
were  prepared,  and  a  battle — the  first  sea-fight 
in  which  cannon  were  employed — took  place  off 
Brest  on  the  10th  August,  1512.  The  action 
was  indecisive,  and  the  fleets  returned  to  their 
respective  harbors.  In  the  following  year  a 
similar  expedition  was  sent  against  Brest.  The 
French  resisted  it  with  galleys.  Sir  Edward 
Howard,  the  lord  high  admiral,  was  killed  in 
the  action.  Henry  now  set  to  work  vigorously 
in  the  constitution  of  a  royal  navy.  A  large 
three^decked  man-of-war  was  constructed,  and 
called  the  "  Henri,  Grace  de  Dieu,"  which  name 
was  afterwards  changed  to  that  of  the  ' '  Edward. ' ' 
Fifty  eight  other  vessels  were  built,  the  tonnage 
of  which  ranged  from  80  to  1200.  For  the 
proper  government  of  the  navy,  Henry  VIII. 
established  an  admiralty  and  a  navy  office,  and 
Sir  Thomas  Howard  was  appointed  lord  high 
admiral,  in  succession  to  his  brother.  For  close 
combat,  muskets,  hackbuts,  and  matchlocks  were 
introduced  in  1514. 

The  war  with  France  having  come  to  a  close, 
we  read  of  no  more  sea-fights  until  1523,  when 
the  treaty  was  broken,  and  an  English  fleet  at 
tacked  and  took  possession  of  Boulogne.  Con 
tinual  actions  were  fought  without  striking  re 
sults,  while  the  French  galleys  and  the  English 
pinnaces,  then  used  for  the  first  time,  kept  up  a 
sort  of  desultory  guerrilla  warfare.  In  the  mean 
time  King  Henry  persevered  in  his  plans,  and 
established  dock-yards  at  Deptford,  Woolwich, 
and  Portsmouth.  He  made  l?.ws  for  the  plant 
ing  and  preservation  of  trees,  that  timber  might 
always  be  available  for  ship-building.  Further, 
he  assigned  regular  pay  to  the  officers  and  sail 
ors,  which  contributed  to  render  the  service  very 
popular. 

Edward  VI.,  who  succeeded  to  the  throne  on 
the  death  of  Henry  VIII.,  was  a  peaceable  mon 
arch,  and  devoted  his  resources  to  scientific  ob 
jects.  He  engaged  the  services  of  Sebastian 
Cabot,  and  sanctioned  an  attempt,  under  Sir 
Hugh  Willoughby,  to  open  a  way  to  India  and 
China  in  a  northwest  direction.  Queen  Mary, 
who  succeeded  Edward,  did  not  follow  up  his 
measures  for  the  perfection  of  naval  efficiency, 
doubtless  influenced  by  her  husband,  Philip  of 
Spain,  who  desired  to  cripple  a  service  that 


might  become  formidable  to  his  own  country. 
But  Queen  Elizabeth,  who  knew  that  the  only 
way  to  protect  the  shores  and  commerce  of  Eng 
land  was  to  be  prepared  for  war,  proceeded  soon 
after  her  accession  to  repair  the  neglects  of  her 
predecessor.  She  continued  the  construction  of 
men-of-war,  fortified  the  banks  of  the  Medway, 
in  Kent,  which  was  the  rendezvous  of  the  ships, 
encouraged  the  manufacture  of  gunpowder,  and 
established  arsenals  in  the  chief  sea-board  cities. 
The  merchants  followed  the  queen's  example, 
and  by  the  time  she  had  occupied  the  throne 
for  four  years  as  many  as  20,000  seamen  were 
available  to  man  the  ships  of  war.  The  country 
was  at  peace,  and  opportunity  was  therefore 
given  for  a  further  prosecution  of  the  endeavor 
to  effect  discoveries  and  acquire  distant  posses 
sions.  The  annexation  of  Virginia  (America) 
and  other  places  was  the  result.  But  the  state 
of  peace  was  not  permanent.  A  religious  war 
between  Protestants  and  Catholics  had  been 
waging  for  many  years,  and  Elizabeth  giving 
countenance  to  the  Dutch  Protestants,  afforded 
Philip  of  Spain  a  pretext  for  sending  an  "Ar 
mada"  of  130  fine  war-ships  and  innumerable 
transports  against  England.  The  j'ear  1587  saw 
the  approach  of  the  Armada  and  its  complete 
destruction,  partly  by  the  British  vessels,  which 
met  isolated  Spanish  ships  and  gave  them  battle, 
and  partly  by  a  furious  storm,  which  dispersed 
the  expedition.  This  victory  and  an  attack  upon 
Cadiz,  Philip's  greatest  seaport,  completed  the 
warlike  operations  of  the  navy  during  the  16th 
century.  The  queen  was  fortunate  in  her  ad 
mirals.  The  names  of  Howard  of  Effingham, 
Francis  Drake,  Frobisher,  and  Hawkins  adorn 
the  page  of  England's  naval  history.  Those 
gallant  men  were  all  lost  to  the  nation  towards 
the  close  of  Elizabeth's  reign.  Frobisher  was 
killed  in  an  attempt  to  recover  Brest  from  the 
Spaniards,  and  Drake  and  Hawkins  died  in 
India. 

Not  until  the  middle  of  the  16th  century  did 
anything  occur  to  give  active  employment  to 
the  navy.  Meanwhile,  a  third  big  ship  was  built, 
and  armed  with  100  guns  of  divers  calibre.  At 
the  same  time  the  classification  of  ships  ~by  rates 
and  guns  was  begun.  In  1652,  Oliver  Cromwell 
being  then  at  the  head  of  affairs,  war  was  de 
clared  between  England  and  Holland.  It  arose 
from  the  habitual  refusal  of  the  Dutch,  under 
Van  Tromp,  to  lower  their  flag  to  the  British. 
Gens.  Blake,  Monk,  and  Deane  were  appointed 
to  lead  the  English  squadrons,  and  they  were 
opposed  by  Admirals  De  Kuyter,  Van  Tromp, 
and  De  Witt.  On  the  3d  of  June,  1653,  the 
rival  fleets  met  for  the  first  time  in  line.  After 
several  fights  the  Dutch  were  compelled  to  re 
treat  to  the  Texel.  The  loss  on  both  sides  was 
very  heavy,  and  Holland  and  England  again 
shook  hands.  Two  years  later  (1653)  Blake  was 
dispatched  to  the  coast  of  Morocco  to  punish  the 
African  marauders,  who  had  plundered  and  im 
prisoned  British  subjects.  He  attacked  and  de 
stroyed  the  fortifications  of  Tunis,  then  pro 
ceeded  to  Algiers  and  Tripoli  and  rescued  the 
captive  English,  exacting  compensation  from  the 
Moors  for  the  injuries  inflicted.  In  1657,  war 
having  been  declared  with  Spain,  Blake  was 
sent  to  Cadiz,  thence  to  Santa  Cruz,  to  capture 
sundry  Spanish  galleons  with  gold  on  board. 
While  on  this  service  he  died. 


GREAT  BRITAIN 


320 


GREAT   BRITAIN 


Cromwell  left  the  country  in  peace  when  he 
died.  His  successor,  Charles  II.,  maintained 
amicable  relations  with  foreign  powers  until 
1665,  when  war  was  proclaimed  with  Holland  by 
the  government  of  Charles  II.  A  large  fleet, 
under  the  nominal  command  of  the  king's 
brother,  the  Duke  of  York,  met  an  equally  pow 
erful  force  under  Opdam,  and  in  the  engagement 
which  took  place  the  evolution  called  "  breaking 
the  line"  was  first  adopted,  and  proved  a  suc 
cess.  The  Dutch  were  defeated  ;  but  in  the  fol 
lowing  year  De  Ruyter  took  the  field  in  com 
mand  of  the  Dutch,  and  a  series  of  actions 
ensued,  in  whicn  the  Dutch  were  masters.  The 
peace  of  Breda  was  the  consequence.  In  1667, 
the  Dutch  and  the  French,  while  the  peace  was 
being  negotiated,  were  aggressive  in  the  West 
Indies.  Thither  Sir  J.  Harman  sailed  with  a 
sufficient  force,  and  routed  the  enemy  off  the 
island  of  St.  Christopher,  at  the  same  time  de 
stroying  many  of  their  ships.  This  led  to  a  rup 
ture  of  the  treaty.  Charles  having  listened  to 
the  suggestions  of  his  ministers  in  favor  of  a  false 
economy,  had  dismantled  many  of  his  ships  and 
discharged  the  crews.  De  Ruyter,  being  ap 
prised  of  the  fact,  immediately  crossed  to  Eng 
land  with  70  ships.  Sir  Edward  Spragge  con 
fronted  him  at  the  mouth  of  the  Thames,  and  en 
deavored  to  defend  Sheerness,  but  the  inferiority 
of  the  force  at  his  command  rendered  his  efforts 
unavailing.  De  Ruyter  pushed  on,  and  entered 
the  Medway,  where  some  ships  were  at  anchor. 
These  he  destroyed  with  fire-ships,  which  were 
thenceforth  used  by  the  English  in  kindred 
operations.  Subsequently,  allied  with  the  French 
under  Count  d'Estrees,  an  English  squadron 
commanded  by  Sir  Edward  Spragge  gave  battle 
to  De  Ruyter,  Von  Tromp,  and  Von  Ghirt. 
The  losses  were  great  on  both  sides.  De  Ruyter 
was  wounded  and  Von  Ghirt  killed. 

In  1685,  Charles  II.  died,  and  having  no 
legitimate  offspring,  was  succeeded  by  his  brother 
James.  The  latter  endeavored  to  restore  popery 
throughout  the  kingdom,  and  in  the  prosecution 
of  this  religious  object  he  received  aid  and  coun 
tenance  from  the  French  king,  Louis  XIV.  The 
Protestants  of  the  realm,  however,  opposed  them 
selves  vigorously  to  the  attempt  to  reconvert  the 
country  to  Catholicism,  and  ultimately  King 
James  was  obliged,  in  1688,  to  abdicate  the 
throne,  giving  place  to  the  Prince  of  Orange, 
who  had  married  his  daughter.  Two  years 
later,  however,  aided  by  the  French  and  the 
Irish  Catholics,  James  tried  to  regain  the  crown 
of  England.  The  land  forces  of  both  parties 
came  into  collision,  in  1690,  on  the  banks  of  the 
river  Boyne,  and  James's  friends  succumbed  to 
the  resolute  valor  of  his  successor,  William  III. 
The  French,  however,  under  Tourville,  gained  a 
triumph  over  the  combined  Dutch  and  English 
fleet  off  Beachy  Head,  which  brought  Admiral 
Torrington  into  great  disgrace.  ^Undismayed 
by  the  failure  of  the  Catholic  forces  on  the  Boyne 
water,  the  king  of  France  equipped  an  immense 
naval  and  military  force  to  invade  England  and 
restore  James.  To  check  this  invasion  Admiral 
Russell  sailed  with  a  fleet  of  60  ships,  carrying 
4504  guns  and  27,725  men,  to  which  armament  36 
Dutch  ships  were  added.  The  opposing  forces 
met  off  Cape  La  Hogue  in  the  month  of  May, 
1692.  The  contest  which  ensued  lasted  four 
days,  and  terminated  with  the  destruction  of  the 


French  fleet.  Great  joy  was  manifested  by  the 
English  people  when  the  news  of  the  victory 
was  proclaimed ;  and  in  the  absence  of  King 
William,  his  queen  (Mary)  founded  a  royal 
naval  hospital  at  Greenwich,  near  London,  as  a 
memorial  of  the  gratitude  of  the  nation  for  the 
blessing  vouchsafed  it  by  the  Almighty. 

After  the  victory  at  Cape  La  Hogue  the  navy 
ceased  for  a  time  to  be  formidable.  It  is  on  rec 
ord  that  no  fewer  than  50  ships  were  captured 
by  foreign  foes  down  to  1697.  King  William, 
however,  rapidly  repaired  the  loss,  for  it  appears 
that  before  his  death  he  had  built  30  large 
ships,  and  incorporated  into  the  navy  15  that 
had  been  taken  from  the  French.  Queen  Anne, 
his  successor,  continued  the  improvement  of  the 
national  sea  force  to  such  an  extent  that  when 
she  died  and  the  elector  of  Hanover  ascended 
the  throne  as  George  I.,  no  fewer  than  178 
ships  of  war  constituted  the  navy  of  England. 
Of  that  number,  7  of  the  highest  class  or  rate 
carried  100  guns  each,  the  remainder  had  20  to  90 
pieces  of  ordnance,  according  to  their  size.  There 
were  six  different  classes  of  ships,  ranging  from 
374  to  1869  tons  each.  The  larger  were  rated  as 
u  line-of-battle  ships,"  the  lesser  as  frigates, 
from  the  Italian  word  frigata,  a  term  used  to 
designate  certain  long  vessels  of  one  deck  only 
which  swarmed  in  the  Mediterranean  and  were 
propelled  by  oars  and  sails.  The  chief  defect  in 
all  this  armament  lay  in  the  disproportion  of 
guns  to  tonnage.  The  scientific  officers  of  the 
day  were  mistaken  in  their  computation  of  the 
carrying  facility  of  the  ships.  All  the  guns  were 
nearly  of  the  same  calibre.  It  ought  not  to  be 
forgotten  that  early  in  the  reign  of  Anne  Gib 
raltar  was  taken  from  the  Spaniards,  and  remains 
a  British  stronghold  to  this  day. 

There  was  neither  scope  nor  occasion  for  the 
employment  of  the  navy  in  the  reign  of  the  first 
George.  His  successor,  being  of  a  more  chival 
rous  temperament,  espoused  the  cause  of  the 
queen  of  Hungary,  whose  territory  was  men 
aced  by  France,  Saxony,  Prussia,  and  Bavaria. 
The  land  force  contributed  by  Great  Britain 
failed  in  its  efforts  to  sustain  the  queen.  Ad 
vantage  was  taken  of  this  circumstance  by  France 
to  assert  the  pretensions  of  the  son  of  James  II. 
to  the  throne  of  England,  and  for  their  en 
forcement  a  military  force  under  Count  Saxe, 
and  20  ships  of  the  'line  under  the  command  of 
the  Duke  de  Roquefeuille,  attempted  to  effect  a 
landing  on  the  shores  of  Britain.  The  expedi 
tion  was  driven  back  by  Sir  John  Norris  and  a 
naval  squadron.  Especially  unfortunate  with  her 
army  in  the  Netherlands,  where  she  lost  the  battle 
of  Fontenoy,  England  countered  her  ill  luck  by 
the  successes  of  the  navy.  Admirals  Rowley  and 
Warren  upheld  her  consequence,  and  Louisbourg 
was  taken  from  the  French.  At  a  later  period 
France  endeavored  to  recover  Cape  Breton,  and 
made  a  descent  on  the  British  colonial  possessions 
in  America,  at  the  same  time  commencing  oper 
ations  against  those  in  India.  The  French  fleets 
were  met  by  Admirals  Anson  and  Warren,  de 
feated  and  captured,  while  Commodore  Fox,  with 
6  ships  of  war,  made  prizes  of  40  merchantmen 
bound  for  St.  Domingo.  These  successes  were 
crowned  by  Lord  Hawke's  capture  of  7  ships  of 
the  line  and  several  frigates  off  Brest. 

The  failure  of  his  naval  commanders  made 
Louis  XIV.  desirous  of  peace.  Great  Britain, 


GREAT  BRITAIN 


321 


GREAT   BRITAIN 


nothing  loth,  accepted  the  proffered  terms,  and  a 
suspension  of  arms  took  place  in  1798.  But,  not 
long  afterwards,  the  French  endeavored  to  dis 
possess  the  settlers  in  Nova  Scotia  of  their  ac 
quired  property,  and  the  dormant  warfare  was 
renewed  (1756),  and  continued  in  America  for 
several  years.  As  before,  the  land  operations  of 
the  English  were  not  triumphant,  while  at  sea, 
as  usual,  they  maintained  their  reputation.  One 
blot,  however,  temporarily  shocked  the  national 
sense.  The  French  made  an  attempt  upon  the 
island  of  Minorca,  then  held  by  the  English. 
Admiral  Byng,  with  a  squadron,  was  deputed 
to  raise  the  siege.  He  failed  in  this,  and  did 
not  even  manage  to  increase  the  strength  of  the 
beleaguered  garrison  or  replenish  its  stores.  For 
his  neglect  and  asserted  pusillanimity  Byng  was 
tried  by  court-martial  and  shot.  Ultimately 
the  French  were  expelled  from  Canada.  They 
made  an  attempt  to  recover  Quebec,  and  were 
frustrated  by  Lord  Colville  and  a  squadron  of 
ships  of  war.  About  the  same  time  Commodore 
More  and  a  small  military  force  took  Guada- 
loupe. 

On  the  accession  of  George  III.  (1760),  certain 
propositions  were  made  by  France  in  relation  to 
Spain,  which  Mr.  Pitt,  the  prime  minister,  con 
strued  into  an  offense  to  the  dignity  of  England. 
War  with  Spain  was  the  issue  of  the  negotia 
tions.  France  and  Spain,  united,  then  made 
war  on  Portugal,  and  directed  their  hostile  meas 
ures  to  Oporto  and  Lisbon,  two  ports  of  great 
importance  to  the  military  and  commercial  in 
terests  of  England.  The  Portuguese  and  British 
land  forces,  however,  defeated  the  project,  and  the 
latter,  in  retaliation,  took  possession  of  several  of 
the  French  West  India  Islands,  and  of  the  city 
of  Havana,  in  Cuba.  About  the  same  time  the 
"Active"  and  "Favorite,"  British  men-of-war, 
captured  the  Spanish  register  ship  the  "  Her- 
mione,"  with  prize  worth  three  million  sterling 
on  board.  In  the 'same  year  (1762")  Manilla  was 
wrested  from  Spain,  and  the  frigates  "Argo" 
and  "  Rantler"  seized  a  galleon  with  a  million 
and  a  half  of  treasure  on  board.  A  truce  fol 
lowed  upon  these  affairs  in  1763,  and  lasted  until 
A.D.  1770,  when  a  temporary  misunderstand 
ing  occurred  between  a  Spanish  and  English 
man-of-war  at  Port  Egmont,  on  the  Falkland 
Islands. 

Naval  operations  of  every  kind  were  suspended 
after  that  affair  until  1776,  when  the  North 
American  colonies  declared  their  independence 
of  Great  Britain.  The  French  people  taking 
part  with  the  revolted  States,  British  ships  of 
war  were  sent  to  capture  certain  islands  in  the 
West  Indies.  Admiral  Byron,  in  command  of 
the  fleet,  was  opposed  by  Count  d'Estaing,  who 
proved  too  powerful  for  the  English.  On  the 
other  hand,  Admirals  Hyde  Parker  and  Row 
ley  repaired  the  English  failures  by  disturbing 
French  commerce  with  the  islands.  Still,  it  was 
very  apparent  to  the  British  Parliament  that  the 
navy  had  deteriorated  and  required  reform  and 
strength.  Vigorous  efforts  were  accordingly  de 
creed,  and  in  1778,  Admiral  Keppel,  assisted  by 
Sir  R.  Haviland  and  Sir  Hugh  Palliser,  cruised 
in  the  Channel  to  protect  the  trade  of  the  country, 
while  Admiral  Byron  proceeded  to  America. 
After  two  or  three  isolated  combats  between  the 
"  Arethusa"  and  "La  Belle  Poule,"  the  "  Amer 
ica"  and  the  "  Licorne,"  which  caused  the 
21 


British  vessels  to  approach  closely  to  the  French 
coast,  it  was  discovered  (off  Brest)  that  the 
French  were  in  great  force.  A  fight  ensued, 
lasting  three  or  four  days,  and  the  French  get 
ting  away  in  safety,  serious  disputes  arose  be 
tween  the  admirals,  Palliser  bringing  charges 
against  Keppel  which  led  to  his  being  tried  by 
court-martial.  Keppel  was  honorably  acquit 
ted,  but  the  Admiralty  Board  continuing  to  dis 
countenance  him,  Lord  Howe  and  two  other 
admirals  resigned,  and  20  captains  declared  their 
readiness  to  do  the  same,  but  were  deterred  by 
the  possibility  of  their  services  being  required. 
Spain  and  France  were  again  in  alliance.  About 
this  time,  carronades  (so  called  from  the  locality 
of  the  foundry  on  the  banks  of  the  river  Carron, 
in  Scotland)  were  introduced  into  the  navy,  the 
better  to  adapt  the  weight  of  the  metal  to  the 
tonnage  of  the  shipping.  They  proved  effective 
in  two  actions, — in  one  of  which  the  "  Hebe"  was 
captured  and  used  as  a  model  for  English  frigates. 
The  number  of  ships  in  the  service  at  this  date 
was  300  of  all  classes,  and  with  this  force,  avail 
able  for  active  service,  Admirals  Rodney  and 
Hyde  Parker  made  vigorous  war  upon  the  allies, 
gaining  many  advantages  in  the  West  Indies 
and  on  the  coasts  of  Spain  and  Portugal.  The 
Spaniards  used  great  efforts  to  recover  Gibraltar, 
but  Rodney  kept  the  garrison  so  well  supplied 
that  their  exertions  proved  perfectly  futile.  A 
new  enemy  now  arose  to  tax  British  strength. 
The  States-General  of  Holland  declared  for  the 
Americans,  and  put  the  navy  to  some  trouble  in 
1780.  Two  years  later,  England  was  more  for 
tunate,  for  Rodney  defeated  the  Count  de  Grasse 
in  an  action  of  fleets,  and  took  the  count  a  pris 
oner  to  England,  where  he  was  treated  with 
marked  consideration.  The  fight  took  place 
off  Dominica,  and  was  a  fair  test  of  the  relative 
powers  of  the  rival  navies. 

From  1780  until  1793  the  state  of  affairs  in 
Europe  ( did  not  call  for  much  activity  on  the 
part  of  the  navy,  but  after  the  latter  date  until 
1814,  revolutionary  France  and  the  Emperor 
Napoleon  compelled  it  to  "rule  the  waves." 
With  few  reverses,  it  swept  the  navies  of  France, 
Spain,  and  Holland  off  the  seas.  Its  principal 
exploits  will  be  found  recorded  in  the  brief  biog 
raphies  of  Nelson,  Howe,  Jervis,  Collingwood, 
Cochrane,  Cockburn,  etc.  The  capture  or  ces 
sion  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  Ceylon,  Cochin 
and  Malacta,  etc.,  are  mainly  due  to  its  efforts. 
It  was  likewise  partially  engaged  in  conflicts 
with  the  American  navy,  but  without  acquiring 
a  superiority. 

No  particular  change  took  place  in  the  con 
stitution  of  the  navy  for  many  years  after  the 
establishment  of  peace  with  France ;  its  employ 
ment  was  limited  to  an  association  with  the  land 
forces  in  acquiring  influence  and  position  in 
Burmah,  China,  New  Zealand,  etc.  But  the  in 
troduction  of  steam  and  the  screw  as  elements  in 
propulsion,  and  the  application  of  breech-loading 
cannon  to  the  defense  of  ships,  and  their  offen 
sive  faculty,  compelled  the  adoption  of  a  system 
of  armor-plating  and  the  construction  of  iron 
vessels  of  prodigious  magnitude.  Turrets,  form 
ing  a  kind  of  floating  "fortresses,  and  rams  for 
cutting  the  hull  of  a  hostile  ship  at  close  quar 
ters,  likewise  came  rapidly  into  use  after  the 
commencement  of  the  American  civil  war  in 
1861,  in  which,  however,  England  took  no  part, 


V 


GEEAT  BRITAIN 


322 


GREEK  ALPHABET 


and  now  the  sailing-vessel  is  gradually  becom 
ing  a  thing  of  the  past.  The  last  operations  of 
the  British  navy  which  claim  a  place  in  its 
"brilliant  annals  occurred  in  the  Black  Sea,  in 
1855-56,  when  a  war  was  undertaken,  in  conjunc 
tion  with  France  and  Turkey,  against  the  empire 
of  Russia,  and  again  in  1877-78,  when  a  demon 
stration  was  made  in  the  same  locality  to  force 
the  acceptance  of  terms  of  peace  on  the  part  of 
Russia  again  assailing  Turkey  in  Europe  and 
Asia. 

The  British  navy  is  necessarily  the  most  pow 
erful,  and  therefore  the  most  costly,  in  the  world. 
For  the  current  year,  the  estimate  for  the  ex 
pense  of  the  permanent  establishment,  the  con 
tingencies  arising  out  of  its  employment,  and 
the  continued  improvements  in  nautical  archi 
tecture  and  gunnery,  reaches  nearly  $55,000,000. 
For  the  protection  of  so  many  distant  posses 
sions,  and  of  the  commerce  of  the  country  with 
all  nations,  numerous  vessels  of  the  highest  class 
are  essential,  and  their  equipment  corresponds 
with  their  bulk  and  faculty  of  oifense  and 
defense.  According  to  the  latest  navy  lists 
there  are  about  400  vessels  of  all  types,  and  of 
an  aggregate  tonnage  of  900,000."  Of  these, 
58  are  armored  vessels  carrying  rifled  guns  of 
great  calibre,  and  protected  by  armor  varying  in 
thickness  from  4J  to  24  inches.  The  number  of 
men  employed  on  board  the  ships  in  the  navy 
varies,  of  course,  with  the  exigencies  of  the  ser 
vice.  Not  all  the  vessels  are  in  "  commission"  at 
the  same  time ;  but  they  can  be  placed  on  a  war 
footing  at  very  short  notice,  because  there  is  a 
reserve  force  comprehending  some  thousands  of 
seamen  who  are  continually  undergoing  drill  in 
the  principal  harbors.  The  establishment  of 
officers  is  permanent,  and  consists  of  3  admirals 
of  the  fleet,  16  admirals,  19  vice-admirals,  31 
rear-admirals,  173  captains,  208  commanders, 
840  lieutenants,  230  sub-lieutenants,  217  mid 
shipmen,  264  naval  cadets,  11  staff-captains,  94 
statf-commanders,  56 -navigating  lieutenants  and 
29  sub-navigating  lieutenants,  5  chief  inspectors 
of  machinery,  5  inspectors,  180  chief  engineers, 
355  engineers,  120  assistant  engineers,  106  chap 
lains,  23  naval  instructors  (who  may  act  at  the 
same  time  as  chaplains ) ,  478  medical  officers  of  dif 
ferent  ranks  and  grades,  225  paymasters  and  200 
assistants,  and  54  secretaries  to  flag-officers.  The 
naval  reserv  officers  are  400  in  number.  Serv 
ing  on  board  the  ships  or  on  shore,  as  occasion 
may  require,  there  is  in  addition  to  the  purely 
naval  establishment  a  large  body  of  royal  ma 
rines,  a  highly  effective  corps  at  all  times.  The 
marine  artillery  has  90  officers,  and  the  light  in 
fantry  19  colonels,  24  majors,  81  captains,  and 
135  lieutenants. 

The  government  and  direction  of  the  affairs  of 
the  British  navy  are  vested  in  a  board  denominated 
the  Lords  of  the  Admiralty.  The  first  lord  is 
usually  a  civilian  and  a  member  of  the  cabinet ; 
two  of  the  others  are  naval  lords,  selected  from 
experienced  officers  capable  of  estimating  the 
wants  and  judging  of  the  capability  of  the  force. 
The  patronage  is  divided  among  these  lords; 
but  this  only  extends  to  selections  for  particular 
services  and  the  appointment  to  certain  ships. 
The  promotion  from  rank  to  rank  is  regulated 
by  the  seniority  of  the  officers ;  the  gradation  can 
only  be  interrupted  by  the  sentence  of  a  court- 
martial  for  acts  of  indiscipline  and  the  pleasure 


of  the  sovereign,  who  may  visit  misconduct  either 
\>y  dismissal  from  the  service  or  by  placing  an 
offender  at  the  bottom  of  the  list.  All  the  honors 
of  the  Bath,  the  orders  of  St.  Michael  and  St. 
George,  the  Victoria  Cross,  the  Albert  and  War 
medals,  are  available  equally  to  the  navy  and 
the  army,  and  special  pensions  are  conferred  for 
good  service  in  war  or  peace.  Pensions  for 
wounds  received  in  action  and  to  the  widows  of 
officers  are  likewise  granted,  while  the  sailors 
who  have  served  long  and  commendably  are 
provided  for  on  a  similar  system,  and  on  a  scale 
commensurate  with  the  position  they  held  in  the 
service. — J.  H.  Siddons. 

Great  Circle.    See  CIRCLE. 

GREAT-CIRCLE  SAILING.  In  great-circle  sail 
ing,  the  ship  keeps  on  the  great  circle  which  passes 
through  the  place  of  departure  and  the  place  of 
destination.  This  is  the  shortest  distance  be 
tween  the  two  places,  and  the  ship  steers  for  her 
port  as  if  it  were  in  sight.  As  the  great  circle, 
except  in  the  cases  of  a  meridian  and  the  equator, 
does  not  make  a  constant  angle  with  the  merid 
ians,  in  order  to  keep  on  it,  a  ship  must  be  con 
tinually  changing  her  course.  This  is  practically 
impossible,  and  hence  what  is  called  approximate 
great-circle  sailing  is  more  or  less  adopted.  In 
approximate  great-circle  sailing,  several  points 
on  the  arc  of  the  great  circle  joining  the  place 
left  and  the  place  sought,  are  fixed  upon,  and 
each  of  these  made  in  succession  by  the  ship 
sailing  on  the  rhumb-lines  connecting  them. 
The  sum  of  the  distances  described  on  these  sev 
eral  courses,  if  the  points  are  not  taken  too  far 
apart,  will  not  differ  much  from  the  shortest  dis 
tance. 

Great  Guns.  A  term  for  heavy  ordnance,  ex 
cluding  mortars  and  howitzers.  Blowing  great 
guns,  blowing  violently. 

Great-line  Fishing.  Fishing  carried  on  over 
the  deeper  banks  of  the  ocean.-  Hand-fishing  in 
over  60  fathoms. 

Great  Ocean.     The  Pacific. 

Great  Shakes.     See  SHAKE. 

Grebe.  A  genus  of  birds  of  the  family  Co- 
lymbidce,  with  short  wings  and  no  tail.  On  land 
their  motions  are  awkward,  but  in  the  water 
they  are  very  agile.  They  are  said  to  take  their 
young  under  their  wings  and  dive  to  escape  an 
enemy. 

Grecale.  A  northeast  breeze  off  the  coast  of 
Sicily, — Greece  bearing  N.E. 

Greece,  Navy  of.  This  small  state,  protected 
as  it  is  by  the  more  powerful  states  of  Europe,  has 
had  little  occasion  for  a  navy  since  it  became  a 
monarchy,  nor  is  it  in  a  condition  to  support  a 
large  armed  force.  Nevertheless  a  fleet  is  main 
tained  for  the  protection  of  the  commerce  of  the 
Morea  and  the  isles,  consisting  of  16  vessels. 
Two  of  the  vessels  are  ironclad,  the  "  Olga" 
and  the  "  Georgius,"  besides  which  there  are  1 
screw-corvette,  5  yachts,  1  screw-gunboat,  and 
7  pinnaces  and  small  gunboats.  The  sailors 
required  for  this  small  armament  are  obtained 
by  conscription.  They  are  in  number  581, 
with  71  commissioned  officers. 

Greek  Alphabet.  The  small  letters  of  the 
Greek  alphabet  are  used  to  distinguish  the  differ 
ent  stars  of  the  constellations  ;  thus  the  star 
Dubhe  is  a  Ursce  Majoris,  Rigel  is  ft  Orionis. 
The  navigator  should  not,  therefore,  be  ignorant 
of  these  characters  : — 


GEEEK  FIEE 


323 


GEEENOCK 


a  Alpha  (a).  v  Nu  (n). 

ft  Beta  (b).  £  Xi  (x). 

7  Gamma  (g).  o  Omlcron  (6). 

6  Delta  (d).  '  TT  Pi  (p). 

e  Epsllon  (e).  p  Eho  (r). 

£  Zeta  (z).  G  Sigma  (s). 

77  Eta  (e).  r  Tau  (t). 

6  Theta  (th).  v  Upsilon  (u). 

i  Iota  (i).  <£  Phi  (ph). 

K  Kappa  (k).  x  Chi  (ch)- 

A  Lambda  (1).  V  Psi  (?«)• 

//  Mu  (m).     '  w  Omega  (a). 

Greek  Fire.  An  incendiary  composition  used 
in  early  times.  The  invention  of  Greek  fire  is 
ascribed  to  Callicinus,  in  the  7th  century,  but 
there  seems  reason  to  believe  that  it  came  origin 
ally  from  India.  The  accounts  of  its  effects  are 
so  mingled  with  obvious  fable  that  it  is  difficult 
to  arrive  at  any  just  conclusion  as  to  its  power, 
but  the  mixture  seems  to  have  been  highly  in 
flammable,  and  to  have  possessed  the  power  of 
burning  under  water.  The  process  of  making 
it  was  kept  secret  for  several  centuries,  but  the 
knowledge  of  its  composition  gradually  spread 
until  at  the  time  of  the  discovery  of  gunpowder 
it  formed  a  recognized  defensive  element  in  most 
wars  from  Western  Europe  to  Asia  Minor.  See 
FIRE-SHIPS. 

Green.  Eaw ;  untutored  ;  ignorant ;  inexpe 
rienced. 

GREEN-HAND.  Embarked  for  the  first  time, 
and  consequently  inexperienced. 

GREEN-HORN.  A  lubberly,  uninitiated  fellow. 
A  novice  of  marked  gullibility. 

GREEN-MEN  (Eng.).  The  rive  supernumerary 
seamen  who  had  not  been  before  in  the  Arctic 
Seas,  whom  vessels  in  the  whale-fishery  were 
obliged  to  bear,  to  get  the  tonnage  bounty. 

Green,  Charles,  Commodore  U.S.N.  Born 
in  Connecticut.  Appointed  from  Connecticut, 
May  1,  1826 ;  receiving-ship  "Independence," 
Boston,  1826  ;  sloop  "Erie,"  West  India  Squad 
ron,  1827-28;  sloop  "Peacock,"  West  Indies, 
1829-31. 

Promoted  to  passed  midshipman,  April  28, 
1832 ;  New  York  Station,  1831-34 ;  frigate  "  Bran- 
dywine,"  Pacific  Squadron,  1834-37. 

Commissioned  as  lieutenant,  March  8,  1837; 
sloop  "Levant,"  West  Indies,  1838;  receiving- 
ship  at  New  York,  1839-40  ;  sloop  "  Falmouth," 
Home  Squadron,  1841-43;  steamer  "Union," 
Norfolk,  1847;  steamer  "Michigan,"  lakes, 
1848-50;  steamer  "Fulton,"  1852;  receiving- 
ship  "Ohio,"  Boston,  1853-55. 

Commissioned  as  commander,  September  14. 
1855;  New  York  Navy-Yard,  1857-58;  light 
house  inspector,  Buffalo,  1858-61. 

Commissioned  as  captain,  July  16,  1862  ;  com 
manding  "Jamestown,"  1861-62;  on  blockade 
off  Savannah,  Fernandina,  Wilmington,  N.  C. ; 
captured  and  sent  into  port  or  destroyed  six 
prizes ;  sent  the  boats  and  destroyed  the  bark 
"  Alvarado,"  under  guns  of  fort  at  Fernandina ; 
commanding  receiving-ship  "Ohio,"  Boston, 
1863-65;  light-house  inspector,  ninth  district. 
New  Orleans,  1865-67. 

Commissioned  as  commodore,  March  12,  1867. 
Eetired  November  15,  1862. 

Green,  Joseph  F.,  Rear-Admiral  U.S.N. 
Born  in  Maine,  November  24, 1811.  Appointed 
midshipman,  from  same  State,  November  1, 
1827  ;  attached  to  sloop-of-war  "  Vandalia,"  Bra 


zil  Squadron,  1830;  Naval  School,  Norfolk, 
1833. 

Promoted  to  passed  midshipman,  June  10, 
1833  ;  frigate  "  Potomac,"  Mediterranean  Squad 
ron,  1835-37. 

Commissioned  as  lieutenant,  February  28, 
1838;  sloop  "Erie,"  West  India  Squadron, 
1840;  frigate  "Columbus,"  Brazil  Squadron, 
1843-45;  rendezvous,  Boston,  1846;  ship-of-the- 
line  "  Ohio,"  Pacific  Squadron,  during  all  of  the 
Mexican  war.  Lieut.  Green  took  part  in  all  of 
the  important  actions  on  the  Pacific  coast.  He 
remained  in  the  "  Ohio"  until  1850;  navy-yard, 
Boston,  1851-52 ;  ordnance  duty,  1853-54 ;  Na 
val  Academy,  1855-58. 

Commissioned  as  commander,  September  14, 
1855 ;  waiting  orders,  1859-60 ;  ordnance  duty, 
1861. 

Commissioned  as  captain,  July  16, 1862  ;  com 
manding  steam-sloop  "  Canandaigua,"  South  At 
lantic  Blockading  Squadron,  1862-64;  partici 
pated  in  the  bombardment  of  Fort  Wagner; 
ordnance  duty,  Boston  Navy- Yard,  1866-68. 

Commissioned  as  commodore,  July  24,  1867 ; 
special  duty,  1869  ;  commanding  Southern  Squad 
ron  of  the  Atlantic  Fleet,  1870-71. 

Commissioned  as  rear-admiral,  July  13,  1870. 
Eetired  November  25,  1872. 

Green-bone.  The  trivial  name  of  the  vivip 
arous  blenny,  or  guffer,  the  backbone  of  which 
is  green  when  boiled. 

Greene,  Theodore  P.,  Rear-Admiral  U.S.N. 
Born  in  Montreal,  Canada.  Appointed  midship 
man  from  Vermont,  November  1,  1826  ;  in  sloops 
"  Warren,"  "  Ontario,"  and  frigate  "  Constella 
tion,"  Mediterranean  Squadron,  1827-32. 

Promoted  to  passed  midshipman,  1832 ;  sloop 
"  Vincennes,"  Pacific  Squadron,  and  cruise 
around  the  world,  1834-36. 

Commissioned  as  lieutenant,  December  20, 
1837;  razee  "Independence,"  Brazil  Squadron, 
master  and  lieutenant,  1837-39 ;  receiving-ship 
at  Boston,  1841r42  ;  schooner  "  Porpoise,"  1843  ; 
store-ship  "Lexington,"  1844;  frigate  "Con 
gress,"  Pacific  Squadron,  during  Mexican  war, 
1846-48  (six  months  in  command  of  land  forces 
at  Mazatlan) ;  sloop  "  Cyane,"  Home  Squadron, 
1852-53 ;  navy-yard,  Boston,  1854-56. 

Commissioned  as  commander,  September  14, 
1855  ;  light-house  inspector,  1858-60  ;  navy-yard, 
Mare  Island,  Cal.,  1861-62. 

Commissioned  as  captain,  July  16,  1862 ;  com 
manding  "St.  lago  de  Cuba,"  and  "San  Ja- 
cinto,"  1863-64;  while  commanding  latter  ves 
sel,  left  in  command  of  East  Gulf  Squadron,  on 
return  of  Eear-Admiral  T.  Bailey  to  United 
States;  commanding  "  Eichmond,"  West  Gulf 
Squadron,  1865  (protected  troops  landing  for 
attack  upon  Mobile)  ;  ordnance  duty,  Ports 
mouth,  N.  H.,  1866  ;  commanding  "  Powhai?,n," 
Pacific  Squadron,  1867. 

Commissioned  as  commodore,  July  24,  1867; 
commanding  Pensacola  Navy- Yard,  1868-70. 

Commissioned  as  rear-admiral,  May  24,  1872. 
Eetired  November  1,  1871. 

Green-fish.  Cod,  hake,  haddock,  herring, 
etc.,  unsalted. 

Greenland  Dove.  The  puffinet ;  called  scraber 
in  the  Hebrides. 

Greenland  Whale.     See  EIGHT  WHALE. 

Greenock.  A  seaport  town  of  Scotland,  on 
the  S.  side  of  the  Firth  of  Clyde.  Lat.  55°  56' 


GREEN  SEA 


324 


GRIT 


*54"  N. ;  Ion.  4°  45/  15"  W.  Greenock  has  a 
flourishing  mechanics'  institute,  numerous  banks, 
custom-house,  chamber  of  commerce,  seaman's 
asylum,  yards  for  building  iron  ships.  It  has 
old  and  new  harbors,  constructed  at  great  ex 
pense,  with  extensive  docks  and  quays.  Pop. 
58,000. 

Green  Sea.  A  large  body  of  water  shipped 
on  a  vessel's  deck  ;  it  derives  its  name  from  the 
green  color  of  a  sheet  of  water  between  the  eye 
and  the  light  when  its  mass  is  too  large  to  be 
broken  up  into  spray. 

Green-slake.  The  sea-weed  otherwise  called 
lettuce-lav  er. 

Green  Turtle.     See  TURTLE. 

Greenwich,  co.  of  Kent,  England,  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Thames,  3|  miles  E.S.E.  of  London 
Bridge.  Lat.  of  the  observatory,  51°  28'  38" 
N.  ;  Ion.  0°  0'  0".  The  educational  establish 
ments  are  numerous.  Here  are  royal  schools  for 
the  children  of  officers,  seamen,  and  marines. 
But  the  principal  object  of  interest  in  Green 
wich  is  its  magnificent  naval  hospital  for  the 
maintenance  of  veteran,  wounded,  or  unfortu 
nate  seamen.  It  stands  on  the  bank  of  the  river, 
is  865  feet  in  length,  and  covers,  with  the 
schools,  civil  offices,  lawns,  and  burial-grounds 
attached,  a  space  of  40  acres.  A  portion  of  the 
building  is  occupied  by  the  Royal  Naval  Col 
lege.  Pop.  of  the  town,  40,500. 

Greep.     An  old  spelling  of  gripe. 

Grego.  A  coarse  Levantine  jacket  with  a 
hood.  A  cant  term  for  a  heavy  overcoat. 

Gregory,  Francis  H.,  Rear-Admiral  U.S.N. 
Born  in  Norwalk,  Conn.,  October  9,  1789;  died 
at  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  October  4,  1866.  He  first 
entered  the  merchant  service;  became  a  mid 
shipman,  January  16, 1809  ;  lieutenant,  June  28, 
1814 ;  commander,  April  28,  1828 ;  captain,  Jan 
uary  18, 1838  ;  rear-admiral  (retired  list),  July  16, 
1862.  His  first  services  were  near  the  Balize, 
where  he  captured  an  English  brig  having  120 
slaves  on  board,  also  a  schooner  fitting  for  pirat 
ical  purposes;  had  a  night  action  with  a  priva 
teer,  which  he  disabled  and  drove  off  the  coast, 
and  took  a  Spanish  pirate  of  14  guns.  While 
serving  on  Lake  Ontario,  under  Chauncey,  in 
the  war  of  1812,  he  was  captured  in  August, 
1814;  sent  to  England,  and  confined  18  months. 
He  next  served  3  years  in  the  Mediterranean, 
under  Commodore  Shaw,  whose  daughter  he 
married.  From  1821  to  1823  he  commanded  the 
"Grampus,"  in  the  West  Indies.  Near  St. 
Croix  he  captured  the  notorious  pirate-brig 
"  Panchita,"  a  vessel  far  superior  to  his  own  in 
weight  of  metal  and  number  of  men.  He  com 
manded  the  frigate  "  Raritan"  in  the  Mexican 
war.  His  last  sea  service  was  in  command  of 
the  African  Squadron.  During  the  Rebellion  he 
superintended  the  construction  of  ironclads. 

grenade.  A  shell  thrown  from  the  hand  (see 
HAND-GRENADE),  or  placed  in  baskets  or  barrels 
and  fired  from  mortars  of  large  calibre.  Ram 
part-grenades  are  larger  than  the  hand-grenade, 
and  are  intended  to  be  rolled  down  ramparts, 
etc. 

Grenado.     An  old  word  for  a  live  shell. 

Grenville,  Sir  Richard,  an  English  vice-ad 
miral,  born  about  1540.  In  1591  attacked  a 
Spanish  fleet  of  more  than  50  vessels  with  a  small 
squadron  of  5  vessels.  The  battle  was  one  of  the 
most  obstinate  on  record,  several  of  the  Spanish 


vessels  being  sunk.  The  English  were  finally 
obliged  to  surrender,  Grenville  soon  after  dying 
of  his  wounds. 

Greve.     A  low,  flat,  sandy  shore. 

Grey-friars  (Eng.}.  A  name  given  to  the  oxen 
of  Tuscany,  with  which  the  Mediterranean  fleet 
was  supplied. 

Grey-head.     A  fish  of  the  haddock  kind. 

Greyhound.  A  hammock  with  very  little 
bedding. 

Grey  Town.  A  seaport  town  of  Nicaragua, 
on  the  east  coast,  at  the  mouth  of  the  navigable 
river  San  Juan.  It  is  the  principal  seaport  of 
Nicaragua.  Lat.  10°  55'  N. ;  Ion.  83°  43'  W. 
The  harbor,  once  the  finest  on  the  coast  of  Cen 
tral  America,  is  badly  silted  up.  Pop.  1250. 

Griban.  A  small  two-masted  vessel  of  Nor 
mandy. 

Gridiron.  A  stage  or  frame  made  of  heavy 
beams  of  wood  for  receiving  a  ship,  in  order 
that  her  bottom  may  be  examined  when  the 
tide  falls. 

Gridiron-valve.  A  slide  valve  containing 
several  ports  or  openings,  working  on  a  corre 
sponding  face,  used  as  an  expansion  or  cut-off 
valve. 

Grier,  William,  Surgeon-General  U.S.N. 
Born  in  Ireland.  Appointed  from  Maryland, 
March  7,  1838 ;  entered  the  service  as  assistant 
surgeon;  attached  to  sloop  "  Cyane,"  Mediter 
ranean  Squadron,  1838-41;  store-ship  "Erie," 
Pacific  Squadron,  1842-44;  schooner  "Shark," 
Pacific  Squadron,  1844-46  ;  hospital,  New  York, 
1848;  razee  "Independence,"  Mediterranean 
Squadron,  1849-52. 

Commissioned  as  surgeon,  April  14,  1852; 
fleet-surgeon,  North  Pacific  Surveying  Expedi 
tion,  1853-56 ;  Naval  Academy,  1859 ;  sloop 
"Macedonian,"  1861;  receiving-ship,  Balti 
more,  1862;  Naval  Hospital,  Memphis,  Tenn., 
1863-65;  special  duty,  Hartford,  Conn.,  1867; 
member  Board  of  Examiners,  1868-69 ;  special 
duty,  Baltimore,  1869-71 ;  member  of  Examin 
ing  and  Retiring  Boards,  1871-72 ;  Naval  Hos 
pital,  Annapolis,  1872  ;  member  of  Naval  Medi 
cal  Board,  1872;  president  of  Naval  Medical 
Board,  1872-76;  chief  of  Bureau  of  Medicine 
and  Surgery  (surgeon-general),  1877-78  ;  retired, 
1878. 

Griffin,  or  Griff.  A  name  given  to  Europeans 
during  their  first  year  in  the  East ;  it  has  become 
a  general  term  for  an  inexperienced  youngster. 

"Grig.     A  small  eel. 

Grilse.  Generally  considered  to  be  a  ^oung 
salmon  after  its  first  sojourn  at  sea,  though 
by  some  considered  to  be  a  distinct  fish. 

Grind.     A  half  kink  in  a  rope. 

Grip.  The  handle  of  a  sword  or  pistol.  To 
grasp  with  the  hand ;  to  hold  ;  to  bite ;  as,  the 
anchor  grips. 

Gripe.  A  piece  bolted  to  the  foreside  of  the 
stem  to  complete  it  below  the  cut-water.  A  ves 
sel  gripes  when  she  tends  to  come  up  to  the  wind 
against  the  helm  when  sailing  close-hauled.  This 
tendency  may  be  remedied  by  trimming  the  ves 
sel  by  the  stern. 

Gripes.  Broad  bands  formed  by  strands  woven 
together  and  fitted  with  thimbles  and  laniards; 
used  for  securing  boats  when  hoisted.  Griped- 
to,  the  situation  of  a  boat  when  secured  with 
gripes. 

Grit.     Spunk  ;  nerve.     Rough,  hard  particles. 


GRITT 


325 


GUBBER 


Gritt.     A  kind  of  sea-crab. 

Groats  (Eng.}.  A  monthly  allowance  for  each 
man,  formerly  assigned  to  the  chaplain  for  pay. 

Grobman.  A  term  for  a  sea-bream  about  two- 
thirds  grown. 

Grodan.     A  peculiar  boat  of  the  Orcades. 

Grog.  Diluted  spirits  formerly  issued  to  the 
navy.  In  1740  Admiral  Vernon  introduced  it 
into  the  British  navy,  and  it  was  said  to  have 
been  named  from  his  grogram  coat.  Pindar, 
however,  alludes  to  the  Cyclops  diluting  their 
beverage  with  ten  waters.  The  spirit-ration  was 
abolished  in  our  navy  September  1,  1862.  See 
RATION. 

GROG-BLOSSOM.  A  red  confluence  on  the  face 
of  an  excessive  drinker. 

GROGGY.     Stupefied  by  drink. 

Grog-grog.     The  soft  cry  of  the  solan  goose. 

Grogram.  A  coarse  stuff  of  which  boat- 
cloaks,  heavy  coats,  etc.,  were  made.  See  GROG. 

Gromal.    An  old  word  for  gromet  (which  see). 

Gromet.  A  boy  of  the  crew  of  the  ships 
formerly  furnished  by  the  Cinque  Ports.  His 
duty  was  to  keep  ship  in  harbor. 

Grommet,  or  Grummet.  A  ring  formed  of  a 
single  strand  of  rope,  laid  in  three  times  round. 

GROMMET-WAD.     See  WAD. 

Groove.  The  channel  between  the  lands  in 
rifled  guns. 

Gropers  (Eng.}.  Ships  stationed  in  the  Chan 
nel  and  North  Sea. 

Grosetta.  A  minute  coin  of  Ragusa,  some 
what  less  than  a  farthing. 

Ground.  To  take  the  bottom  or  shore  ;  to  be 
run  aground  through  ignorance,  violence,  or  ac 
cident.  The  surface  of  the  earth.  To  strike 
ground,  to  obtain  soundings.  To  break  ground, 
to  heave  the  anchor  clear  of  the  bottom. 

GROUNDAGE.  A  local  duty  charged  on  ves 
sels  coming  to  anchor  in  a  port  or  standing  in  a 
roadstead,  as  anchorage. 

GROUND-BAIT,  or  GROUNDLING.  A  loach  or 
loche. 

GROUND-GUDGEON.  A  little  fish,  the  Cobitis 
barbatula. 

GROUND-SEA.  The  West  Indian  name  for  the 
swell  called  rollers,  or  in  Jamaica  the  north  sea. 
It  occurs  in  a  calm,  and  with  no  other  indication 
of  a  previous  gale.  The  sea  rises  in  huge  billows, 
dashes  against  the  shore  with  roarings  resembling 
thunder,  probably  due  to  the  "  northers,"  which 
rage  off  the  capes  of  Virginia,  round  to  the  Gulf 
of  Mexico,  and  drive  off  the  sea  from  America, 
affecting  the  Bahama  Banks,  but  not  reaching  to 
Jamaica  or  Cuba.  The  rollers  set  in  terrifically 
in  the  Gulf  of  California,  causing  vessels  to  foun 
der  or  strike  in  7  fathoms,  and  devastating  the 
coast-line.  See  ROLLER. 

GROUND-STRAKE.  A  name  sometimes  used  for 
garboard  strake. 

GROUND-SWELL.  A  swell  which  rises  along 
the  shore,  often  in  fine  weather  and  when  the 
sea  beyond  is  smooth. 

GROUND-TACKLE.  A  general  name  for  all 
anchors,  and  for  the  ropes,  chains,  purchases, 
etc.,  belonging  to  the  anchors. 

GROUND-TIER.     The  lowest  tier  of  anything. 

GROUND-TIMBERS.  In  making  up  the  frame 
of  a  wooden  ship,  the  timbers  of  the  lower  course 
are  called  ground-timbers. 

GROUND-WAYS.  The  large  pieces  \of  timber 
laid  across  the  slip  or  dock  to  place  the  Ijblocks  on. 


Groundling.  A  fish  that  keeps  at  the  bottom 
of  the  water  ;  the  spined  loach  (Lobitis  trenia). 

Group.  Objects  arranged  in  a  cluster,  in  con 
tradistinction  to  those  arranged  in  a  series. 

Grouper.  A  variety  of  the  snapper  much  used 
for  food  in  the  West  Indies. 

Grout-head.  A  certain  kind  of  fish,  the  grout- 
nol. 

Grow.  A  word  used  in  connection  with  the 
chain  to  indicate  the  direction  of  the  anchor  ;  as, 
the  chain  grows  on  the  starboard  bow. 

Growl.     To  grumble  ;  to  complain. 

Grub.  Provisions  in  general.  Fresh  grub, 
fresh  provisions. 

GRUB-TRAP.     A  vulgarism  for  the  mouth. 

Gruff-goods.  An  Indian  return-cargo  con 
sisting  of  raw  materials  ;  as,  cotton,  rice,  sugar, 
pepper,  etc. 

Grumbler.  The  gurnard,  a  fish  of  the  blenny 
kind,  which  makes  a  rumbling  noise  on  reaching 
the  surface  of  the  water. 

Grummet.     See  GROMMET. 

Grunter.  A  name  of  the  Pogonias  of  Cuvier, 
a  fish  also  called  banded  drum  and  young  sheep 
skin,  so  called  from  the  peculiar  grunting  sounds 
made  by  it. 

Grus  (Lot.  "  The  Crane").  A  constellation 
to  the  south  of  Piscis  Australis  ;  the  only  bright 
star  in  it  bears  southwest  from  Fomalhaut. 

Gryphon.     An  old  term  word  for  typhoon. 

Guano.  The  excrement  of  sea-birds,  a  valu 
able  manure  found  in  thick  beds  in  all  tropical 
climates.  The  transport  of  it  occupies  a  number 
of  vessels,  called  guaneros.  It  is  of  a  dingy  yel 
low  color,  and  offensive  ammoniacal  effluvium. 
Capt.  Shelvocke  mentions  it  in  1720,  having 
taken  a  small  bark  laden  with  it. 

Guara.  The  singular  and  ingenious  rudder 
by  which  the  rafts  or  balsas  of  Peru  are  enabled 
to  work  to  windward.  It  consists  of  long  boards 
between  the  beams,  which  are  raised  or  sunk  ac 
cording  to  the  required  evolution, — a  device  not 
unlike  sliding-keels  or  centre-boards. 

Guard.  The  body  of  marines  attached  to  a 
vessel  or  naval  station. 

Guarda-costas.  Spanish  vessels  of  war  of 
various  sizes,  which  cruise  against  smugglers. 

Guard-boat.  A  boat  appointed  to  row  the 
rounds  among  the  ships  of  war  in  a  harbor. 
A  picket-boat.  Also,  a  boat  employed  to  enforce 
the  quarantine  regulations. 

Guard-fish.  A  corruption  of  the  word  gar 
fish. 

Guard-irons.  Curved  bars  of  iron  placed  over 
the  ornaments  of  a  ship,  or  over  life-buoys,  to 
defend  them  from  damage. 

Guardo.  A  receiving-ship  ;  a  vessel  on  which 
men  are  kept  in  readiness  for  sea-service. 

GUARDO-MOVE.     A  trick  upon  a  landsman. 

Guard-pile.  A  pile  of  the  nature  of  a  fender, 
in  front  of  a  wharf,  to  protect  the  structure  from 
violent  shocks. 

Guards.  The  widening  of  the  deck  of  a  vessel 
forward  and  abaft  the  paddle-wheels. 

Guard-ship.  A  vessel  of  war  appointed  to 
superintend,  for  the  time  being,  the  marine  af 
fairs  in  a  harbor.  Each  ship  in  the  harbor  takes 
this  duty  for  24  hours,  being. relieved  at  colors 
in  the  morning.  The  vessel  on  duty  hoists  the 
guard-flag  at  the  fore. 

Gubber.  Black  mud.  One  who  gathers  drift 
wood,  etc.,  along  a  beach. 


GUDGEON 


326 


GULF 


•  Gudgeon.  The  Gobio  fluviatilis,  a  river-fish 
6  or  7  inches  in  length.  One  of  the  metal  braces 
bolted  upon  the  stern-post,  in  the  eye  of  which  a 
pintle  works. 

Guebres.     Fire-worshipers. 

Guernsey.     See  JERSEY. 

Guess-warp.  A  hawser  carried  to  a  distant 
object  and  made  fast,  in  order  to  warp  a  vessel 
towards  it.  A  portion  of  the  hawser  is  coiled  in 
the  boat  to  insure  reaching  the  destination  ;  it  is 
from  the  necessity  of  judging  the  distance  by 
the  eye  that  we  have  the  term  guess-warp. 

Guest,  John,  Commodore  U.S.N.  Born  in 
Missouri.  Appointed  from  Arkansas,  December 
16,  1837. 

Promoted  to  passed  midshipman,  June  29, 
1843;  frigate  "Congress,"  Pacific  Squadron, 
1845-48;  war  with  Mexico,  battle  of  San  Ga 
briel,  Gal.,  January  8, 1848,  battle  of  Mesa,  Cal., 
January  9,  1848. 

Commissioned  as  lieutenant,  December  24, 
1850;  sloop  "  Plymouth,"  and  "  Susquehanna," 
in  Japan  Expedition,  at  the  first  landing  of 
Americans  in  Japan,  under  Commodore  Perry ; 
East  India  Squadron,  1851-55;  boarded  with 
the  cutter  of  the  "Plymouth,"  at  Shanghai,  1854, 
the  Chinese  man-of-war  "Sir  H.  Compton,"  and 
liberated  a  pilot-boat's  crew  who  were  under  the 
protection  of  the  American  flag  ;  in  April,  1854, 
was  second  in  command  of  the  "Plymouth," 
under  Capt.  John  Kelley,  in  a  severe  and  vic 
torious  action  with  the  Chinese,  at  Shanghai,  to 
prevent  aggression  on  foreign  residents ;  special 
duty,  Washington,  1855-56;  steam-frigate  "Ni 
agara,"  laying  the  first  telegraph  cable  across 
the  Atlantic,  1857-58;  rendezvous,  Philadel 
phia,  1859;  frigate  "Niagara,"  returning  Jap 
anese  Embassy  to  Japan,  1860;  commanding 
steam-frigate  "  Niagara,"  West  Gulf  Blockad 
ing  Squadron,  1861 ;  in  command  of  the  boats 
of  "  Niagara,"  cut  out  the  schooner  "  Aid,"  then 
under  the  protection  of  Fort  Morgan,  Mobile  Bay, 
August,  1861;  commanding  steamer  "  Owasco," 
West  Gulf  Blockading  Squadron,  1862  ;  at  Forts 
Jackson  and  St.  Philip,  and  capture  of  New  Or 
leans,  1862 ;  battles  on  the  Mississippi  up  to  and 
including  Vicksburg,  1862. 

Commissioned  as  commander,  July  16,  1862; 
commanded  "  Owasco"  at  the  capture  of  forts  at 
Galveston  City;  commanding  ironclad  "  San- 
gamon,"  the  first  U.  S.  vessel  fitted  with  a  spar- 
torpedo,  the  invention  of  Capt.  Guest,  South 
Atlantic  Blockading  Squadron,  1863;  com 
manded  the  "  Galatea,"  on  convoy  duty  in  West 
Indies,  in  1863-65;  commanding  steamer 
"losco,"  North  Atlantic  Blockading  Squadron, 
1864-65;  present  at  the  two  attacks  on  Fort 
Fisher. 

Commissioned  as  captain,  July  25,  1866. 

Commissioned  as  commodore,  December  12, 
1872 ;  senior  officer  of  Board  of  Inspection  of 
Vessels,  1872-76;  commandant  navy-yard, 
Portsmouth,  N.  H.,  1877-78.  Died  January  12, 
1879,  while  in  command  of  Portsmouth  Navy- 
Yard. 

Guest-warp  Boom.  An  old  term  for  the 
swinging-boom. 

Guffer.  A  British  sea-fish  of  the  blenny  tribe, 
remarkable  as  being  ovo-viviparous. 

Guide-blocks.  In  the  steam-engine,  adjustable 
metallic  pieces,  with  parallel  sides,  fitted  to  a 
cross-head  and  sliding  in  guides  for  keeping  the 


axes  of  piston-rods  coincident  with  or  parallel  to 
that  of  the  cylinder.  Sometimes  called  cross-head 
gibs.  Blocks  of  wood  or  metal  used  to  constrain 
a  moving  body  to  a  given  path. 

Guillem.     A  sea-fowl.     (See  LAVY.) 

Guillemot.  A  w,eb-footed  diving  sea-bird 
allied  to  the  auks. 

Guimad.     A  small  fish  of  the  river  Dee. 

Guinea-boat.  A  fast-rowing  galley,  of  former 
times,  expressly  built  for  smuggling  gold  across 
the  Channel,  in  use  at  Deal. 

Guinea-man.     A  negro  slave-ship. 

Guinea-pigs.  The  younger  midshipmen  of 
an  Indiaman. 

Gulden.     A  name  for  a  water-fowl. 

Gulf.  A  gulf  is  a  wide  opening  from  the  sea, 
generally  larger  than  a  bay.  Many  gulfs,  how 
ever,  are  really  bays,  and  many  bays  are  larger 
than  most  gulfs.  The  number  of  gulfs  is  much  less 
than  of  bays.  Keith  Johnson  enumerates  about 
170,  of  which  88  are  in  Europe,  39  in  Asia,  13  in 
North  and  10  in  South  America,  12  in  Oceanica, 
and  8  in  Africa.  There  are  more  gulfs,  as  there 
are  fewer  bays,  in  Corsica  and  Italy,  there 
being  15  in  the  former  and  13  in  the  latter  coun 
try.  Norway,  Sweden,  Denmark,  Holland,  and 
Spain  have  no  gulfs,  if  we  except  the  Bothnia 
Gulf,  washing  the  shores  of  Sweden.  Prussia 
has  but  the  Dantzic  Gulf,  France  only  the  Golfe 
du  Lion,  and  England  the  gulf  called  "The 
Wash."  On  the  north  of  Europe  there  are  6,  on 
the  east  9,  in  the  Baltic  4,  in  the  Mediterranean 
64,  on  Black  Sea  coasts,  4.  Fewer  arms  of  the 
sea  penetrate  the  other  great  divisions  of  the 
earth's  surface,  especially  the  solid  continents 
of  Africa  and  South  America.  Under  the  head 
of  gulfs  are  included  the  bodies  of  water  named 
in  Scotland  firths,  and  on  the  coast  of  Africa 
and  Australia,  bights. 

The  great  gulfs  of  the  world  are  9  in  num 
ber.  Others  are  not  much  less  in  size  or  im 
portance,  but  many  are  small  and  of  compara 
tively  little  importance  commercially,  physically, 
or  historically. 

The  two  great  gulfs  of  Europe  are  the  Bothnia 
Gulf  and  the  Gulf  of  Finland,  both  arms  of  the 
greater  Baltic  Sea.  Of  these,  the  more  northern 
is  the  Gulf  of  Bothnia,  extending  from  60°  to  66° 
N.  lat  ,  and  from  18°  to  25°  E.  Ion.,  being  about 
400  miles  long  and  120  average  width.  Into  it 
empty  18  large  rivers,  300  to  400  miles  long,  and 
an  infinity  of  smaller  streams,  coming  from  the 
mountains  and  glaciers  of  Sweden  and  Finland, 
and  the  outlets  of  scores  of  lakes.  These  render 
its  waters  so  fresh  that  it  generally  freezes  over, 
and  a  Russian  army  crossed  on  the  ice  in  1809. 
It  contains  many  groups  of  islands  near  both 
shores,  and  the  mouth  of  the  gulf  is  partly  occu 
pied  by  the  Aland  Archipelago,  containing  sev 
eral  large  and  many  small  islands.  Many  bays 
open  into  it,  and  a  number  of  important  cities 
are  situated  on  or  near  the  coasts,  chief  of  which 
is  Tornea,  at  the  head  of  the  gulf.  Its  harbors 
are  more  commodious  than  other  parts  of  the 
Baltic,  but  it  is  not  so  deep,  20  fathoms  being  the 
most  usual  depth. 

The  Gulf  of  Finland,  also  an  arm  of  the  Bal 
tic,  is  included  between  lat.  59°  and  60°  30'  N, 
and  Ion.  '22°  and  30°  30'  E.,  entirely  within 
the  limits  of  Eussia,  being  200  miles  long  and  GO 
miles  average  breadth.  Its  harbors  are  more  nu 
merous  than  those  of  Bothnia  Gulf,  but  its  navi- 


GULF 


327 


GULL 


gation  is  more  difficult.  Many  large  rivers  empty 
into  it,  fed  by  the  waters  of  large  lakes,  as  La 
doga,  Peipus,  etc.  The  Neva  is  the  largest  of 
these  rivers.  Numerous  bays  and  inlets  indent 
the  shores,  and  multitudes  of  small  islands  line 
them.  The  city  of  St.  Petersburg  is  situated  near 
its  head,  and  Revel,  Viborg,  and  other  impor 
tant  places  are  near  its  coasts.  The  navigation 
of  the  gulf  is  important  and  its  commerce  con 
siderable,  although  interrupted  by  the  rigors  of 
the  climate. 

Asia  possesses  three  gulfs  of  great  size, — the 
Gulf  of  Siam,  the  Gulf  of  Aden,  and  the  Persian 
Gulf.  The  Gulf  of  Siam  extends  from  lat.  7°  to 
13°  N.  and  Ion.  99°  to  105°  E.,  containing  about 
76,000  square  miles.  It  receives  the  waters  of 
the  Menan  and  a  part  of  those  of  the  Cambodia 
River.  It  washes  the  coasts  of  Siam  and  the 
Malay  peninsula.  It  contains  numerous  islands, 
and  its  fisheries  and  commerce  are  important. 

The  Gulf  of  Aden  is  a  narrow  inlet  by  which 
the  waters  of  the  Red  Sea  find  their  way  to  the  Sea 
of  Arabia.  It  lies  between  Ion.  44°  and  52°  E. 
and  lat.  10°  and  15°  N.,  and  washes  the  burning 
shores  of  Arabia  and  Abyssinia.  A  few  small 
rivers  empty  into  it,  and  half  a  dozen  bays  line 
the  coasts.  It  contains  but  few  islands,  is  deep, 
and  easily  navigated,  but  is  excessively  hot. 
Through  it  passes  the  commerce  of  India,  going 
to  the  Suez  Canal.  Aden  is  the  most  important 
city  on  its  shores.  Its  area  is  about  110,000 
square  miles. 

The  Persian  Gulf  is  a  sea  or  inclosed  sheet  of 
water,  lying  between  Arabia  and  the  Persian 
and  Turkish  dominions.  It  also  empties  its 
waters  into  the  Arabian  Sea  by  the  Straits  o(( 
Ormuz,  32  miles  wide.  It  is  oval  in  shape,  /of 
miles  long,  extending  from  Ion.  47°  to  lon?  for 
E.,  and  160  in  breadth,  extending  from  \\\  the 
to  lat.  30°  N.  The  climate  here  is  v/0ns  are 
northwest  winds  prevail,  and  violent  ns  in  the 
frequent.  The  most  famous  empires  <to  the  dry- 
were  situated  on  its  borders,  and  itery  returns, 
has  always  been  important,  but  is  r;slowly  driedj 
what  difficult  from  the  numerq'd  given  a  wash 
ated  in  it.  The  chief  cities  nrhracite,  German 
near  the  head,  and  Bushire,  in^  when  they  are 
phrates  and  Tigris  pour  into  ;en  a  gentle  heat, 
of  water  drained  from  the  hjiy  dried,  and  some- 
Persia,  and  have  greatly  c;  sand  is  put  over  the 
sions  by  the  alluvial  mu<on  plate  laid  on  and 
down.  The  pearl-fishery ,sk  is  built  up,  section 
the  Arabian  coast,  belong  by  iron  beams  to  the 
is  very  important.  jld  is  now  ready  for  re 

in  Australian  waters,3  fixed  in  a  tripod,  called 
pentaria  is  most  importble  or  set-screws  under 
shores  of  Australia,  e>jre  it  properly.  The  core 
17°  30'  S.  lat.,  and  fpipe  fluted  externally  and 
containing  some  75,0  besides  having  a  slight  ta- 
rivers  empty  into  itiWal.  This  pipe  is  wrapped 
situated  near  the  sbe  and  covered  with  the 
have  yet  been  formed  put  on  very  damp,  and 
On  the  American  <  After  this  is  partially 
large  gulfs,  but  throwing  is  applied,  and  made 
and  importance.  Thejndrical  by  turning  on  a 
between  the  46th  an^t  a  wooden  straight-edge, 
and  the  57th  and  65and  washed  as  is  the  rest 
washing  the  shores  of  the  core-stem  is  fitted 
Scotia,  New  Brunswio-  having  couplings  for  the 
nects  with  the  Atlantilg  carefully  centred  it  is 
Isle  to  the  northward  o  to  the  sides  of  the  pit, 
the  St.  Paul's  Channel  ;s  to  the  flask.  Grates 


Canso  to  the  southward.  It  contains  the  large 
islands  of  Anticosti,  Prince  Edward,  and  the 
Magdalen  Group.  Its  shores  are  steep,  rocky, 
and  shrouded  in  dense  fogs.  Into  it  empties  the 
great  St.  Lawrence,  the  outlet  of  the  northern 
lakes,  bringing  per  hour  more  than  1,670,000 
cubic  feet  of  water.  The  fisheries  are  very  im 
portant  and  the  commerce  considerable. 

The  great  Gulf  of  Mexico  is  situated  bet  'ftfeol 
18°  and  31°  N.  lat.,  and  81°  and  98°  Wwhich 
containing    some    800,000    square    mjice,  and 
is   circular,   deep,  and   has   few   islarn  without 
navigation  is  generally  easy,  except  the  metal, 
coast  of  the  United  States,  where    To  prepare 
islands,  etc.,  lie  in  the  way.     Ther(j  an(j  evenly 
winds  prevail,  and  bring  withrough  boards  on 
Gulf  Stream,  that  turns  to  the  'different  kinds  of 
striking   the  current    of   thfeted,  weighed,  and 
emerges  from  the  Straits  of  es  and  m^t  refrac- 
sissippi  pours  the  draining^™      These  prepara- 
tinent  into  the  gulf,  disc_ance)  slight  variations 
for  200  miles,  and  other  of  the  resultant  metal, 
The  commerce  is  impq,  ^e  perfectly  dry.     The 
during  a  part  of  the  ^nt  furnaces  are  connected 
tion  precarious.       ^  -servoir,  where  the  different 
The  Gulf  of  Cali,efore  running  into  the  gun- 
washing  the  shor.   furnaces   are"  all   ready  the 
lat.  23°  and  32°  and  so  controlled  that  the  iron 
and  containing^  at  the  same  time,  or  as  near 
A   few    large     The  length  of  time  to  melt  or 
among  tl\ron  "  down"  may  vary  several  hours, 
the  expends  mainly  on  the  size  of  the  charge 
*Ad   the  state  of  the   atmosphere.     When   the 
Jharge  is  nearly  melted  it  is  stirred  with  wooden 
or  iron  poles  to  bring  unmelted  lumps  up  to  the 
flame.     When  the  iron  is  well  down,  a  little  is 
ladled   out   and   run   into   a  green-sand   mold, 
cooled  and  broken,  and  from  it  the  state  of  the 
charge  is  at  once  ascertained  by  the  experienced 
eye  of  the  founder.     If  not  sufficiently  decar 
bonized,   the   fusion   is   kept  up  with  a  contin 
uance   of  the  stirring,  for  on  its  proper  decar- 
bonization  depend  in  a  great  measure  the  density 
and   tensile   strength.      When   all  the  furnaces 
are   ready  they  are  tapped  at  the  same  time, 
and  the  metal  runs  from  them  into  the  reser 
voir  or   "  mixing  basin,"    after   which   it   goes 
into  the  runners  of  the  mold   and   enters  into 
it  by   the  side    gates, — generally   one   in  each 
section  from  each  runner,  and  with  an  upward 
direction.     As  the  metal  rises  in  the  mold  it  is 
stirred  and  prevented  from  depositing  dirt  and 
scoria  about  the  core  and  in  the  trunnions.  When 
the  mold  is  filled  the  tap-holes  of  the  furnaces 
are  plugged,  but  from  time  to  time,  for  an  hour 
or  more,  metal  is  poured  in  from  a  ladle  to  the 
riser  to  feed  shrinkage.     As  soon  as  the  furnaces 
are  tapped  the  water  is  turned  on  from  the  hy 
drant,  and  entering  the  core-barrel   through  a 
metallic  pipe  reaching  nearly  to  the  bottom,  finds 
its  way  up  along  the  interior  and  out  by  the 
escape-pipe.      Half  an   hour  after  casting,  the 
change  in  temperature  of  the  water  having  been 
brought  to  about  25°  F.,  the  flow  remains  con 
stant  from  that  time.     The  fires  in  the  pit  are 
lighted   by  dropping  melted  iron  on  them  to 
wards  the  end  of  the  casting.     When  the  change 
in  temperature  of  the  water  has  become  constant, 
say  in  about  fifteen  hours,  the  core  is  withdrawn, 
the  rope  wrapping  taking  fire  as  it  comes  to  the 
air.     After  the  core  is  withdrawn,  the  water  is 
conducted  to  the  cavity  left  by  it,  and,  welling 


DUB 


DUGUAY-TROUIN 


minute  pores,  within  which  the  spores  are  to 
be  found,  growing  in  fours  on  the  summits  of 
slender  stalks  (basidia],  easily  visible  under  a 
magnifying  power  of  about  200  diameters.  The 
mycelium  may,  however,  be  detected  with  the 
naked  eye  as  white  threads  lying  between  the 
bundles  of  woody  fibre  and  parallel  with  them. 
Under  the  microscope,  the  mycelium  is  seen  to 
consist  of  very  minute  branching  filaments,  mat 
ted  or  felted  together. 

Since  the  dry-rot  fungus  flourishes  only  under 
the  conditions  of  moisture,  darkness,  and  con 
fined  air,  its  growth  may  probably  be  prevented 
on  shipboard  by  such  a  system  of  construction 
as  shall  afford  free  ventilation  of  the  bilges, 
frame-spaces  (by  boring  through  filling-chocks 
and  by  openings  on  the  spar-deck),  spaces  be 
neath  store-room  floors,  and  recesses  behind  bulk 
heads  ;  by  forced  ventilation,  as  now  practiced 
in  the  U.  S.  S.  "Richmond";  and  by  keeping 
the  holds  and  lower  decks  dry.  Extensive  ex 
periments  are  now  (1880)  being  prosecuted  by 
the  Navy  Department  with  a  view  to  the  preser 
vation  of  ship-timber  from  decay,  by  impregna 
tion  under  pressure  with  carbolic  acid  ("  Bur- 
nettizing"),  and  with  barium  sulphate  (the 
"  Thilmany  process"),  from  which  good  results 
are  hoped  for. 

Besides  the  pecuniary  loss  resulting  from  the 
ravages  of  dry-rot,  it  appears  to  afford  a  pecu 
liarly  favorable  nidus  for  the  development  of 
the  yellow  fever  poison,  and  the  preservation  of 
its  vitality  against  the  unfavorable  influence  of 
cold  weather.  See  YELLOW  FEVER. 

Other  fungi,  such  as  a  cobweb-like  growth  on 
the  under  side  of  wet  planks  (Helminthosporium), 
molds,  and  patches  of  surface  discoloration,  are 
common  on  shipboard,  but  do  not  appreciably 
influence  the  decay  of  wood. — J.  H.  Kidder,  Sur 
geon  U.S.N. 

Dub.  A  term  for  a  pool  of  deep  smooth  water 
in  a  rapid  river. 

Dubb.  To  cut  off  and  smooth  with  an  adze  the 
superfluous  wood.  To  dubb  a  vessel  bright,  is  to 
remove  the  outer  surface  of  the  plank  completely 
with  an  adze.  Spotting  with  the  adze  to  examine 
planks  is  also  dubbing. 

Dubbah,  or  Dubber.  A  coarse  leathern  ves 
sel  for  holding  liquids  in  India. 

Dubhe.  A  standard  nautical  star  in  the  Great 
Bear,  a  Ursce  Majoris. 

Dublin.  The  capital  city  of  Ireland,  on  the 
Liffey,  close  to  its  entrance  into  Dublin  Bay, 
Irish  Sea,  66  miles  W.  of  Holyhead,  and  135 
miles  W.  of  Liverpool.  Lat.  53°  23'  2"  N. ; 
Ion.  6°  20'  5"  W.  The  harbor  has  been  latterly 
much  improved,  and  near  the  mouth  of  the 
Liffey  are  the  Grand  Canal  and  the  custom 
house  docks,  the  latter  occupying  8  acres ;  depth 
at  low  water  12  feet,  at  high  tides  24  feet.  The 
bay  is  noble  and  picturesque,  and  esteemed  one 
of  the  finest  in  the  United  Kingdom  ;  it  is  about 
7  miles  in  breadth  at  its  entrance,  between 
Howth  Head,  on  the  north,  and  Kingston,  on 
the  south.  Pop.  246,300. 

Ducat.  A  well-known  coin  in  most  parts  of 
Europe.  See  MONEY. 

Ducatoon.  A  coin  of  the  Dutch  Oriental 
Isles,  value  about  $1.70.  Also,  a  silver  coin  of 
Venice,  value  about  $1.10. 

Duck.  To  dive,  or  immerse  another  under 
water.  The  finest  canvas  for  small  sails  is  some 


times  called  duck ;  but  it  is  really  a  lighter  cloth 
than  canvas,  and  is  much  used  by  seamen  and 
soldiers  in  hot  climates  for  frocks  and  trousers. 

DUCKING.  A  penalty  which  veteran  sailors 
inflict  on  those  who,  for  the  first  time,  pass  the 
tropics,  the  equator,  or  formerly  even  the  Strait 
of  Gibraltar,  and  usually  performed  in  a  tub  or 
half-butt,  with  the  assistance  of  a  few  buckets  of 
water ;  the  usual  fine,  however,  generally  pre 
vents  the  penalty  being  inflicted. 

DUCKING  AT  THE  YARD-ARM.  A  marine 
punishment  formerly  inflicted  by  the  French  for 
grave  offenses  ;  the  criminal  was  placed  astride  a 
short  thick  batten,  fastened  to  the  end  of  a  rope 
which  passed  through  a  block  at  the  yard-arm. 
Thus  fixed  he  was  hoisted  suddenly  up  to  the 
yard,  and  the  rope  being  then  let  go  he  was 
plunged  into  the  sea.  This  operation  was  re 
peated  several  times,  conformable  to  the  sen 
tence  ;  a  gun  advertised  the  other  ships  of  the 
fleet  that  their  crews  might  become  spectators. 
If  the  offense  was  very  great  he  was  drawn  un 
derneath  the  keel  of  the  ship,  which  was  called 
keel-hauling.  See  KEEL-HAULING. 

DUCKS.  The  general  name  for  a  sailor's  dress 
in  warm  climates. 

Duck  Up.  To  raise  the  clew  of  the  mainsail 
or  foresail  when  it  interferes  with  the  steering  by 
shutting  out  the  landmarks. 

Dudgeon  Wrath.  An  old  word  for  the  box- 
handle  of  a  dirk. 

Duds.  A  cant  term  for  clothes  or  personal 
property.  The  term  is  old,  but  still  in  common 
use,  though  usually  applied  to  clothing  of  an  in 
ferior  quality. 

Duel.  In  former  days  duels  were  of  frequent 
occurrence  in  the  navy,  but  latterly  they  are  al 
most  unknown.  It  is  forbidden  by  the  regula 
tions  to  send  or  accept  a  challenge  to  fight  a  duel 
or  act  as  second  in  a  duel,  and  courts-martial  are 
empowered  to  inflict  any  punishment  for  this 
offense,  except  death,  flogging,  or  imprisonment 
at  hard  labor. 

Duff.     A  sort  of  pudding.     The  posterior. 

Duffer.  A  low  peddler.  A  woman  who  as 
sists  smugglers.  A  stupid  or  cowardly  fellow. 

Dugong.  An  herbivorous  mammal  of  the 
East  Indian  seas,  intermediate  between  the 
Cetacea  and  the  Pachydermata,  having  an  elon 
gated  body,  with  flippers  near  the  head,  and 
terminated  by  a  crescent-shaped  tail. 

Dug-out.     A  canoe  hewn  from  one  tree. 

Duguay-Trouin,  Rene,  one  of  the  most  illus 
trious  of  French  sailors,  was  born  at  Saint  Malo, 
10th  of  June,  1673,  and  died  at  Paris,  27th  of 
September,  1736. 

He  came  from  a  family  of  sailors,  but  was 
himself  destined  from  chi'ldhood  to  be  an  eccle 
siastic,  going  early  to  the  College  of  Rennes, 
where  he  donned  the  soutane,  and  received  the 
tonsure,  with  a  view  to  succeeding  to  a  rich 
benefice  which  friends  of  his  family  had  in  their 
gift. 

His  father  died  when  he  was  only  fifteen,  and 
he  was  then  sent  to  Caen  to  study  philosophy. 
Here  his  sanguine  temperament  and  love  of 
pleasure  caused  him  to  break  bounds,  and  he 
neglected  his  studies  for  the  dissipations  of  a 
large  city.  His  escapades  at  last  became  quite 
notorious,  and  he  was  forced  by  his  family  to  re 
turn  to  Saint  Malo,  whence  he  was  soon  sent  to 
sea  in  the  corsaire  "La  Trinite,"  in  which  his 


DUGUAY-TROUIN 


229 


DUMFOUNDER 


family  had  a  large  interest.  This  was  in  1689. 
He  remained  in  this  vessel  for  two  years,  under 
going  considerable  hardship,  but  always  distin 
guished  for  his  conduct  in  numerous  engage 
ments  with  English  and  Dutch  vessels. 

After  this  apprenticeship,  he  went  to  sea  in 
another  vessel,  of  18  guns,  when  he  showed  so 
much  courage  and  conduct  that  he  was  given  a 
command,  being  then  only  18  years  of  age. 
After  this  he  continually  distinguished  himself 
by  attacks  upon  the  English  shipping,  both  in 
privateers  and  in  vessels  of  the  state.  In  1694, 
while  in  command  of  the  "  Diligente,"  a  40-gun 
frigate,  he  was  surrounded  by  an  English  squad 
ron  of  six  men-of-war,  under  Admiral  Sir  David 
Mitchell.  After  fighting  for  twelve  hours,  his 
crew  were  nearly  all  killed  or  wounded,  he  him 
self  was  wounded,  and  his  ship  on  the  point  of 
sinking,  so  he  was  obliged  to  surrender.  He 
was  imprisoned  at  Plymouth,  where  he  man 
aged  to  make  a  friend  of  a  pretty  bumboat 
woman,  and  with  her  assistance  escaped  in  a 
small  boat,  with  his  lieutenant,  his  surgeon,  the 
boatswain,  and  a  servant.  After  forty-eight 
hours  of  very  rough  weather  they  managed  to 
reach  the  coast  of  Brittany. 

He  was  soon  at  sea  again,  in  a  ship  of  48  guns, 
in  which  he  took  two  English  men-of-war  of 
superior  force,  one  of  which  he  brought  in.  For 
this  action  he  received  a  sword  of  honor,  and 
was  invited  to  join  the  fleet  of  the  Marquis  de 
Nesmond,  where  he  had  his  usual  success  in 
making  prizes. 

After  this  cruise  he  went  to  Paris,  to  be  pre 
sented  to  Louis  Quatorze,  and  received  many 
honors  while  there.  He  did  not  remain  long, 
however,  returning  to  his  sea-life,  and  had  com 
mand  of  several  small  squadrons,  which  he 
handled  with  his  accustomed  ability,  having 
been  made  capitaine  de  fregate  of  the  royal 
marine. 

After  the  peace  of  Ryswick  he  passed  four 
years  of  enforced  idleness  ;  but  upon  the  breaking 
out  of  the  war  of  the  Spanish  succession,  he  was 
again  promptly  at  sea,  serving  against  the  Hol 
landers  and  the  English,  in  which  he  passed 
through  many  battles  and  many  perils.  In  1705, 
when  thirty-two  years  of  age,  he  was  made  cap 
itaine  de  vaisseau,  and  very  shortly  after,  in  con 
sequence  of  continued  successes  against  the  Por 
tuguese,  English,  and  others,  he,  with  his  elder 
brother  (two  younger  ones  had  been  killed  while 
serving  under  him),  received  letters  of  nobility. 

In  1711  he  sailed,  in  command  of  a  fleet  of  7 
line-of-battle  ships,  8  frigates,  and  2  bomb-ves 
sels,  with  nearly  6000  men,  for  Rio  de  Janeiro. 
He  entered  the  bay  under  the  fire  of  the  Portu 
guese  batteries,  and  the  next  day  disembarked 
his  force.  After  some  slight  resistance  the  city 
was  abandoned  by  its  inhabitants.  Duguay- 
Trouin  then  threatened  to  utterly  destroy  the 
place  unless  a  handsome  ransom  was  paid.  This 
was  done,  and  he  then  set  out  on  his  return  to 
Brest,  but  lost  two  of  his  largest  vessels  on  the 
voyage, — sunk  in  a  hurricane.  For  this  action 
he  received  a  pension  of  2000  crowns  and  the  title 
of  commandant  of  the  marine  of  Saint  Malo ; 
and  in  1715,  at  Versailles,  he  received  the  com 
mission  of  admiral  of  the  fleet. 

Louis  XIV.  died  soon  after  this,  and  Duguay- 
Trouin  remained  at  Saint  Malo  in  retirement 
until  1723,  when,  under  the  regency,  he  was 


made  a  councillor  for  India.  In  1728  he  was 
made  commander  of  the  order  of  St.  Louis  and 
lieutenant-general.  The  next  year  he  was  made 
commandant  of  marine  of  Brest  and  of  the  coasts 
of  Brittany.  In  1731  he  commanded  a  fleet 
fitted  out  to  punish  the  Barbary  corsairs,  but  the 
appearance  of  the  force  so  imposed  upon  the 
Moors  that  they  gave  every  satisfaction  without 
any  fighting.  Although  he  continued  in  service, 
this  was  his  last  active  employment.  His  labors 
and  exposure  had  undermined  a  naturally  vigor 
ous  constitution,  and  he  died  in  Paris  at  63  years 
of  age. 

Duguay-Trouin  was  so  disinterested  and  gen 
erous  that,  in  spite  of  his  many  captures,  he  died 
comparatively  poor.  His  officers  and  sailors 
fairly  worshiped  him,  not  only  on  account  of 
his  intrepidity,  but  because  of  his  liberality  in  re 
gard  to  prize-money.  A  statue  of  him  is  erected 
in  the  "  Place  Duguay-Trouin,"  at  Saint  Malo. 

A  portrait  of  this  intrepid  sailor  is  in  the  city 
hall,  and  in  the  museum  at  Versailles  is  a  statue 
of  him  in  black  marble.  The  portrait  repre 
sents  him  in  a  rich  military  costume,  decor 
ated  with  the  order  of  the  Holy  Ghost.  On 
his  bandolier  are  the  arms  granted  him  by 
Louis  XIV., — two  fleur-de-lis  and  an  anchor. 
He  holds  a  pistol  in  his  right  hand,  while  the 
left  grasps  the  hilt  of  his  sword.  His  hat  is 
ornamented  with  plumes,  which,  in  our  day,  is 
not  considered  naval.  There  is  also  a  statue 
of  Duguay-Trouin  in  the  Bourse,  at  Nantes, 
and  there  are  two  other  well-known  oil-paint 
ings  of  him.  He  is  represented  with  a  youthful 
and  animated  countenance,  wears  a  huge  wig, 
and  a  coat  above  his  cuirass. 

His  arms  appear  upon  the  picture  (given  by 
Louis  XIV.), — the  fleur-de-lis  and  anchor, — and 
the  legend,  "Didit  ha?c  insignia  virtus." — E. 
Shippen. 

Duke  of  York  (Eng.).  A  nickname  for  a 
peculiar  storm-trysail  used  in  the  northern  seas. 

Dulce,  Dulse,  Delse.  One  of  the  edible  fuci, 
Iridea  dulce.  It  is  plentiful  on  the  rocky  coasts 
of  Ireland  and  western  England.  It  probably 
derived  its  name  from  being  sweet  and  pleasant, 
not  requiring  cooking. 

Duledge  Plate.  An  old  name  for  the  tire  or 
iron  plate  on  the  circumference  of  the  wheel  of 
a  field-piece.  Duledge  was  also  used  for  dowel, 
the  wooden  pin  connecting  the  felloes. 

Dull'd.   Fallen  or  moderated ;  said  of  the  wind. 

Duluth.  A  city  and  port  of  entry  of  Minne 
sota,  the  capital  of  St.  Louis  Co.,  is  finely  sit 
uated  at  the  W.  end  of  Lake  Superior,  and  is 
the  eastern  terminus  of  the  Northern  Pacific 
Railroad.  Lat.  46°  48'  N. ;  Ion.  92°  6'  W. 
Duluth  has  a  very  advantageous  position  for  a 
commercial  city,  being  at  the  head  of  navigation 
on  the  great  lakes.  Pop.  3300. 

Dumb-chalder.  A  metal  cleat  bolted  to  the 
back  of  the  stern-post  for  one  of  the  pintles  to 
rest  upon,  to  lessen  both  strain  and  friction. 

Dumb-craft.  Lighters,  lumps,  or  punts,  not 
having  sails.  A  name  for  the  screws  used  for 
lifting  a  ship  on  the  slip. 

Dumb-pintle.     A  peculiar  rudder-strap. 

Dumb-scraping.  Scraping  wet  decks  with 
blunt  scrapers. 

Dumb-sheave.  An  aperture  without  a  sheave, 
through  which  is  rove  a  rope. 

Dumfounder.     To  confuse  or  perplex. 


GUISTS 


330 


GUNS 


up,  emerges  through  a  hole  in  the  riser  formed 
by  casting  in  a  wrought-iron  pipe  near  the  top. 
Half  an  hour  after  removing  the  core  the  change 
in  temperature  of  the  entering  and  escaping 
water  should  be  brought  to  about  100°  F., 
when  the  flow  should  be  kept  constant.  It  is 
generally  several  days  before  the  fires  in  the  pit 
are  allowed  to  die  out,  and  when  the  gun  becomes 
sufficiently  cool  the  flask  is  removed  all  but  the 
breech-section,  the  gun  hoisted  out  of  the  pit,  the 
sand  and  dirt  scraped  and  cut  away,  and  it  is 
ready  to  go  into  the  finishing-shop. — H.  W.  Lyon, 
Lieutenant  U.S.N. 

Guns,  Inspection  and  Proof  of.  All  cannon 
for  the  navy,  manufactured  wholly  or  partly  at 
private  establishments,  are  fabricated  in  strict 
accordance  with  the  terms  of  the  contract  made 
with  the  Bureau  of  Ordnance,  and  subject  to  the 
inspection  of  an  officer  detailed  to  supervise  the 
operations.  During  fabrication  or  alteration, 
the  metal  of  guns  is  closely  examined  and  tested 
when  necessary,  and  the  pieces  themselves  are 
examined  and  measured  inside  and  out  in  the 
various  stages  of  manufacture ;  as  the  detection 
of  defects  and  errors  that  pass  the  limits  of  toler 
ation  may  save  useless  subsequent  labor.  Inter 
nal  defects  of  metal  will  often  be  betrayed  by  a 
close  examination  of  the  core  pieces  and  interior 
of  bore.  As  rust  tends  to  conceal  defects,  exam 
ination  of  the  guns  takes  place  before  expo 
sure  to  the  weather  ;  and  previously  to  the  final 
examination  and  proof  of  guns  they  are  not  to  be 
covered  with  paint,  lacquer,  oil,  or  any  mate 
rial  which  may  hide  defects  of  metal.  As  the 
water  proof,  which  is  of  great  importance  in  de 
tecting  defects  of  metal  not  otherwise  developed, 
necessarily  succeeds  immediately  the  powder 
proof,  and  can  be  effectively  applied  only  in  fine 
weather  and  when  the  temperature  is  above  the 
freezing-point,  final  inspections  are  made  at  such 
times  only.  If  it  is  ascertained  that  any  attempt 
has  been  made  to  conceal  defects,  the  gun  or 
guns  so  treated  are  rejected  without  further 
examination. 

Instruments.  1.  A  mirror,  for  reflecting  the 
sun's  rays  into  the  bores.  Two  will  be  required 
if  the  sun  be  in  the  rear  of  the  inspector. 

2.  A  lamp  attached  to  a  staff,  for  examining 
the  bores  when  the  sun  is  obscured  or  the  guns 
are  under  cover. 

3.  A  standard  cylinder-gauge. 

4.  A  measuring  staff  of  steel  or  iron. 

5.  A  chamber-gauge,  for  verifying  the  shape 
and  size  of  conical  chambers. 

6.  A  star-gauge,  for  measuring  the  diameter  of 
the  bore  and  the  chamber. 

7.  An  instrument  for  verifying  the  interior 
position  of  the  vent. 

8.  Profile-boards  for  distances  in  front  and  rear 
of  the  base-line. 

9.  A  trunnion-square  of  steel  or  iron,  for  ascer 
taining  the  position  of  the  trunnions  with  refer 
ence  to  the  axis  of  the  bore. 

10.  A  trunnion-gauge,   an   iron   ring  of  the 
proper  diameter  of  the  trunnions. 

11.  A  trunnion-rule,  for  measuring  the  dis 
tance  of  the  trunnions  from  the  base-line. 

12.  A  beam-caliper. 

13.  A  cylindrical  block,  for  verifying  the  size 
of  the  breeching-hole. 

14.  A  vent-guide. 

15.  Vent-gauges  of  untempered  steel  wire,  with 


shoulders  to  prevent  them  from  slipping  into  the 
vent. 

16.  A  vent-searcher,  a  steel  wire  of  the  length 
of  the  vent,  bent  to  a  right  angle  at  the  lower 
end  and  pointed. 

17.  A  semicircular  protractor,  of  metal,  for 
measuring  the  inclination  of  vents  or  for  ascer 
taining  their  deviation  from  the  guide. 

18.  A  set  of  templates,  for  verifying  the  shape 
of  lock-lugs,  the  angle  of  the  rear  sight-mass, 
the  curve  between  the  base-line  and  the  front  of 
rear  sight-mass,  that  at  the  end  of  the  cascabel, 
the  bevel  of  the  breeching-hole,  the  opening  of 
the  cascabel,  and  the  shape  of  the  muzzle-swell. 

19.  A  standard  foot-rule,  for  verifying  meas 
ures. 

20.  A  foot-rule  of  steel,  for  measuring   the 
masses,  the  length  of  the  trunnions,  and  for  other 
purposes. 

21.  A  set  of  ring-gauges,  large,  medium,  and 
small,  for  inspecting  the  projectiles  used  in  proof. 

22.  A  small  beam-caliper,  with  outside  edges, 
for  examining  the  adjusting  rings  and  the  ring- 
gauges. 

23.  A  platform-balance,  for  weighing  the  pro 
jectiles  used  in  proof  and  for  bringing  the  shells 
up  to  the  standard  weight. 

24.  A  set  of  implements  for  loading  and  clean 
ing. 

25.  A  searcher  with  six  or  more  points,  to  de 
tect  injuries  in  the  bore. 

26.  A  machine  for  taking  impressions  of  the 
vent. 

27.  Hydraulic  pump  and  apparatus   for  the 
water  proof. 

28.  Dies  for  marking. 

29.  Instruments  for  determining  the  velocity 
of  projectiles. 

30.  A  set  of  internal  pressure-gauges. 
Powder  proof.     Powder  for  the  proof  of  guns 

must  show  the  highest  initial  velocity  usually 
exhibited  by  service  powder  used  in  guns  of  the 
same  calibre  and  class  as  those  under  proof.  It 
must,  when  possible,  be  of  the  same  kind,  but 
in  any  event  must  assimilate  most  closely  to  the 
service  charge  in  its  rate  of  burning  and  in  the 
character  of  the  pressures  developed.  It  must 
be  carefully  weighed  (never  measured)  and  be 
filled  in  service  cylinders  and  well  settled.  The 
"  density  of  loading"  must  be  the  same  as  for 
service. 

The  projectiles  must  be  of  full  weight  and  not 
below  the  mean  gauge  ;  the  shells  must  be  filled 
with  a  mixture  of  sand  and  ashes  or  sawdust  to 
bring  them  up  to  the  proper  weight  of  the  filled 
shell.  Sabots  are  used  for  spherical  shell  and  a 
grommet-wad  over  the  shot ;  no  wad  of  any  kind 
is  placed  over  a  rifle  projectile. 

The  spiral  or  other  standard  gauge  for  deter 
mining  the  pressure  in  the  bore  must  be  used, 
and  the  results  recorded  carefully  after  each 
round. 

Gutta-percha  or  wax  impressions  of  the  bore 
of  rifle  guns  should  be  taken  before  and  after 
proof,  and  the  bore  should  be  carefully  star- 
gauged.  These  impressions  and  star-gauging 
must  be  compared  to  discover  whether  any  de 
fects  have  been  developed  during  the  powder 
proof. 

Waterproof.  The  pressure  to  be  applied  in 
the  water  proof  is  two  atmospheres,  or  30  pounds 
to  the  square  inch.  The  penetration  of  water 


GUNS 


331 


GUNS 


in  this  proof  through  the  metal  of  the  piece 
in  any  place  will  cause  the  rejection  of  the 
gun ;  and  if,  on  examination  after  the  water 
proof,  there  shall  be  any  defects  indicated  by 
weeping  or  dampness  in  the  bore,  the  gun  will 
be  rejected.  The  water  proof  is  alone  to  be  de 
pended  on  to  detect  minute  clusters  of  cavities 
in  the  bore,  which  for  this  purpose  should  be 
perfectly  dry  and  examined  by  sunlight.  All 
inspections,  consequently,  should  take  place  in 
fair  weather  and  when  the  temperature  is  above 
the  freezing-point. 

Extreme  proof.  After  undergoing  the  ordi 
nary  proof  established  for  its  calibre  and  class, 
the  gun  selected  for  extreme  proof  is  subjected 
to  at  least  1000  rounds  with  service-charges. 

GUNS,  MARKING  OF.  Guns  for  the  naval 
service,  received  by  authority  of  the  Bureau  of 
Ordnance,  are  marked  in  the  following  man 
ner,  viz.  : 

On  the  cylinder,  in  the  line  of  sight  near  the 
sight-mass,  all  accepted  guns  have  stamped  an 
anchor  two  inches  long. 

On  the  base-ring,  or  line,  the  initials  of  the 
foundry,  the  register  number,  and  the  weight  of 
gun  in  pounds. 

On  the  right  trunnion,  the  calibre  and  year  of 
fabrication. 

On  the  left  trunnion,  the  letter  P  and  the  in 
itials  of  the  inspecting  officer ;  all  the  above  in 
one-inch  letters. 

On  the  upper  jaw  of  the  cascabel,  the  prepon 
derance  in  pounds  is  stamped  lightly  with  half- 
inch  figures. 

On  the  end  of  the  upper  jaw,  the  cascabel  block 
and  head  of  the  pin,  the  foundry  number  in 
quarter-inch  figures. 

The  foundry  number  is  also  marked  on  the 
right  rim-base. 

Guns  rejected  for  imperfections  of  any  kind 
will  have  the  letter  C  stamped  on  the  anchor, 
so  as  to  partially  obliterate  it. 

The  founders  are  to  be  dissuaded  from  selling 
such  guns  to  other  parties,  and  required  to  break 
them  up. 

Guns  rejected  for  such  defects  as  render  them 
dangerous  to  those  who  fire  them  should  be  irrep 
arably  mutilated,  with  the  consent  of  the  foun 
der. 

GUNS,  ENDURANCE  OF.  The  endurance  of  a 
cast-iron  smooth-bore  gun  with  service-charges 
may  be  surely  predicted  by  observation  of  the 
progressive  wear  of  the  interior  orifice  of  the 
vent.  There  are  certain  general  forms  in  which 
this  enlargement  takes  place.  They  may  be 
classed  as  triangular,  lozenge,  quadrilateral 
star,  circular,  and  elliptic. 

"With  the  ordinary  central  vent,  when  subjected 
to  a  rapid  continuous  fire,  the  enlargement 
usually  takes  the  form  of  an  isosceles  triangle, 
the  apex  of  one  of  the  angles  towards  the  muzzle 
and  the  other  two  perpendicular  to  it.  With 
the  lateral  vent  of  the  Dahlgren  system  it  usually 
takes  the  lozenge  form,  the  cracks  extending 
from  the  opposite  angles  lengthwise  of  the  bore. 

With  those  rifled  cannon  in  which  the  vent  is 
bouched,  the  cracks  appear  round  the  bouching  ; 
and  although  the  bouching  preserves  the  vent, 
yet  the  formation  of  fissures  around  the  enlarged 
orifice,  when  once  commenced,  causes  a  greater 
tendency  to  rupture.  With  the  vent  not  bouched, 
the  wear  in  cast-iron  rifled  cannon  is  about 


double  that  of  the  smooth-bore.  So  long  as  the 
wear  of  the  vent  is  regular  and  without  cracks, 
a  mere  enlargement  is  not  indicative  of  danger ; 
but  when  it  reaches  a  diameter  of  four-tenths  of 
an  inch,  the  vent  should  be  closed  and  a  new 
one  opened. 

A  gun  of  large  calibre  should  not  in  service 
be  expected  to  endure  more  than  400  or  500 
rounds  before  it  will  be  necessary  to  open  the 
new  vent ;  which,  however,  will  be  of  no  advan 
tage  unless  the  old  one  be  closed  at  its  interior 
orifice,  on  which  the  gases  would  otherwise  con 
tinue  to  act  as  a  wedge.  The  first  distinct  ap 
pearance  of  the  cracks,  as  shown  by  the  button, 
is  the  proper  limit. 

GUNBOAT.  A  light-draft  vessel  carrying  one 
or  more  guns. 

GUN-CARRIAGE.  A  carriage  to  facilitate  the 
transportation  and  manipulation  of  howitzers 
or  great  guns.  It  must  have  the  strength  neces 
sary  to  resist  the  shock  of 'discharge,  stability  to 
retain  its  upright  position  when  subjected  to  vio 
lent  recoil  or  to  the  motion  of  the  ship  at  sea, 
facility  of  working,  simplicity,  and  durability. 
In  the  navy  all  gun-carriages  except  the  boat- 
carriages  are  built  of  iron. 

GUN-COTTON.     See  EXPLOSIVES. 

GUN-DECK.    See  DECK. 

GUN-FIRE.  The  firing  of  the  morning  or 
evening  gun;  familiarly  termed  "  the  admiral 
falling  down  the  hatchway." 

GUN-GEAR.  Everything  pertaining  to  the 
management  of  the  guns. 

GUN-HARPOON.     See  HARPOON. 

GUN-LOD.     A  vessel  filled  with  explosives. 

GUN-METAL.  A  bronze  consisting  of  90  parts 
of  pure  copper  and  10  parts  of  tin,  allowing  a 
variation  of  one  part  of  tin,  more  or  less.  When 
the  mixture  is  well  made  the  metal  is  homoge 
neous  ;  the  fracture  is  of  a  uniform  yellow  color, 
with  an  even  grain.  Its  specific  gravity  is  about 
8.75,  being  greater  than  the  mean  of  the  specific 
gravities  of  copper  and  tin.  It  should  be  re 
jected  for  the  manufacture  of  guns  if  it  contains 
an  appreciable  amount  of  sulphur,  .001  of  arsenic 
and  antimony,  .003  of  lead,  iron,  or  zinc,  or  in 
all  more  than  .005  of  foreign  substances. 

GUNNADE.  A  short  32-pounder  introduced 
in  1814. 

GUNNEL.     See  GUNWALE. 

GUNNERY.  A  branch  of  the  military  art 
which  has  for  its  object  the  management  of  guns 
and  mortars,  and  of  charging  and  pointing  them 
so  as  to  hit  a  proposed  mark  at  any  distance 
within  the  range  of  the  projectile.  To  accom 
plish  this  purpose  it  is  necessary  to  know  the 
nature  of  the  path  which  a  projectile  describes 
in  the  air  with  a  given  initial  velocity,  the  quan 
tity  of  gunpowder  necessary  to  produce  that  ve 
locity,  and  the  elevation  that  must  be  given  to 
the  gun  in  order  to  counteract  the  effect  of 
gravity  and  the  resistance  of  the  air  on  the  pro 
jectile  in  its  flight.  Various  other  considera 
tions  require  also  to  be  attended  to;  as  the  pro 
portion  between  the  length  of  the  gun  and  the 
diameter  of  its  bore,  the  system  of  rifling,  the 
proper  windage,  or  excess  of  the  diameter  of  the 
bore  above  that  of  the  projectile,  the  shape  of 
the  chamber,  the  strain  upon  the  metal,  and  the 
size  or  weight  of  projectile  proper  to  produce  a 
certain  effect,  as  to  batter  down  a  wall  or  to 
penetrate  a  ship's  side.  In  a  more  comprehen- 


GUNNER 


332 


GUNPOWDER 


sive  sense,  gunnery  includes  the  whole  science 
of  artillery  and  ordnance. 

GUNNERY-LIEUTENANT  (Eng.}.  One  who, 
having  obtained  a  warrant  from  a  gunnery-ship, 
is  eligible  to  large  ships  to  assist  specially  in 
supervising  the  gunnery  duties ;  he  draws  in 
creased  pay. 

GUNNERY-SHIP.  One  devoted  specially  to  the 
training  of  officers  and  men  in  everything  per 
taining  to  ordnance. 

GUN  PENDULUM.  A  device  employed  to  de 
termine  the  initial  velocity  of  projectiles  by 
means  of  the  recoil  of  the  gun.  The  principle  is 
that  the  explosive  force  of  the  powder  communi 
cates  equal  quantities  of  motion  to  the  gun  and 
to  the  projectile  in  opposite  directions;  conse 
quently,  by  suspending  the  gun,  loaded  with  ad 
ditional  weights,  in  the  manner  of  a  pendulum 
the  extent  of  its  arc  of  vibration  will  give  the 
means  of  estimating  the  quantity  of  motion  im 
pressed  on  it,  whence  the  initial  velocity  of  the 
projectile  can  be  computed.  See  BALLISTIC 
PENDULUM,  ELECTRO-BALLISTICS. 

GUN-ROOM  (Eng.}.  A  compartment  at  the 
after  part  of  the  lower  gun-deck  of  a  large  ves 
sel,  partly  occupied  by  the  junior  officers ;  but  in 
a  small  vessel  it  is  below  the  gun-deck  and  used 
as  a  mess-room  by  the  lieutenants. 

GUN-ROOM  PORTS  (Eng.}.  Stern-ports  cut 
through  the  gun-room  in  a  frigate. 

GUN-SHOT.  The  distance  a  gun  will  throw  a 
projectile.  See  RANGE. 

GUN-SLINGS.     See  SLINGS. 

GUN-STONE.  An  old  term  for  a  cannon-ball, 
from  the  circumstance  that  stone  was  the  first 
material  used  for  cannon-balls. 

GUN-TACKLE  PURCHASE.  A  purchase  rove 
through  two  single  blocks.  See  TACKLES. 

GUNWALE  (corruption  of  gun-wall}.  In  small 
craft,  the  fore-and-aft  plank  which  covers  the 
heads  of  the  timbers. 

Gunnel.  A  spotted  ribbon-bodied  fish  found 
on  rocky  bottoms. 

Gunner.  From  the  period  when  ordnance  was 
introduced  on  board  British  vessels  of  war  this 
officer  appears  to  have  formed  a  distinctive  class 
in  the  royal  navy.  The  complement  of  the 
"Henri,  Grace  deDieu,"  consisted  of  349  sol 
diers,  301  marines,  and  50  gunners ;  these  gunr 
n'jrs  correspond  to  what  are  now  called  seaman- 
gunners.  Gunners  are  warrant-officers,  and, 
under  the  ordnance-officer,  have  special  charge 
of  the  battery,  small-arms,  magazines,  and  ord 
nance  stores.  For  necessary  qualifications  for 
appointment,  see  EXAMINATIONS. 

GUNNER,  QUARTER.  A  petty  officer  attached 
to  each  gun-division  to  take  care  of  the  guns  and 
gun-gear,  and  at  quarters,  to  supply  the  guns' 
crews  with  belts,  primer-boxes,  etc.,  and  to  be 
ready,  during  action,  to  furnish  any  reserved  or 
spare  article  that  may  be  required,  such  as 
breechings,  ladles,  worms,  etc. 

GUNNER'S  DAUGHTER.  The  name  of  the 
gun  to  which  the  men  were  married  or  lashed  to 
be  punished. 

GUNNER'S  GANG.  The  men  under  the  direct 
superintendence  of  the  gunner,  including  chief 
gunner's  mate,  gunner's  mates,  quarter-gunners, 
armorer,  armorer's  mate,  etc. 

GUNNER'S  MATE.  One  of  the  assistants  of 
the  gunner,  selected  by  the  commanding  officer 
for  his  experience  and  reliability.  The  gunner's 


mates  are  stationed  in  the  magazines  when  at 
quarters,  and  in  the  event  of  the  absence  of  the 
gunner,  the  chief  gunner's  mate  assumes  his 
duties. 

GUNNER'S  PIECE.  The  fragment  of  a  burst 
gun  which  flies  upward. 

GUNNER'S  QUADRANT.  A  graduated  quarter 
of  a  circle  of  sheet-brass  of  6  inches  radius,  at 
tached  to  a  brass  rule  22  inches  long.  It  has  an 
arm  carrying  a  spirit-level  at  its  middle  and  a 
vernier  at  its  movable  end.  To  get  a  required 
elevation,  the  vernier  is  fixed  at  the  indicated 
degree,  the  brass  rule  is  then  inserted  in  the  bore 
parallel  to  the  axis  of  the  piece ;  the  gun  is  then 
elevated  or  depressed  until  the  level  is  horizon 
tal.  There  is  also  a  graduated  quadrant  of  wood, 
of  6  inches  radius,  attached  to  a  rule  23.5  inches 
long.  It  has  a  plumb-line  and  bob,  which  are 
carried,  when  not  in  use,  in  a  hole  in  the  end  of 
the  rule,  covered  by  a  brass  plate. 

GUNNER'S  TAILOR  (Eng.}.  An  old  rating  for 
the  man  who  made  the  cartridge-bags. 

Gunner-flook.  A  name  for^the  turbot,  Pleu- 
ronectus  maximus. 

Gunny.  Coarse  canvas  made  of  fibrous  ma 
terial,  as  jute. 

GUNNY-BAG.     A  sack  made  of  gunny. 

Gunpowder.  Gunpowder  is  made  of  salt 
petre,  charcoal,  and  sulphur,  in  proportions  now 
generally  adopted  of  75  parts  saltpetre,  15  char 
coal,  10  sulphur.  The  objects  to  be  obtained  are: 

1.  Maximum  force. 

2.  Minimum  of   initial   pressure  in  bore  of 
gun. 

3.  Uniformity  of  action. 

4.  Freedom  from  fouling. 

5.  Durability. 

Saltpetre,  a  compound  of  54  parts  nitric  acid 
and  46  parts  of  potash,  contains  in  one  volume 
as  much  oxygen  as  is  contained  in  3000  volumes 
of  atmospheric  air.  This  oxygen  when  heated 
to  a  certain  degree  combines  instantly  with  the 
carbon  to  form  carbonic  acid  and  carbonic  oxide, 
and  which  with  free  nitrogen  form  the  chief 
gaseous  products  of  combustion.  The  potassium 
is  found  combined  in  the  solid  residue. 

Charcoal.  Willow  and  alder  are  chiefly  used. 
The  smaller  branches,  \  inch  to  1  inch  in  diam 
eter,  are  cut  in  spring  when  the  sap  is  running, 
and  the  bark  peeled  off.  It  is  generally  left  to 
season  for  a  year. 

Sulphur.  The  oxidation  of  sulphur  by  salt 
petre  produces  a  higher  temperature  than  is  ob 
tained  with  charcoal,  and  this  accelerates  com 
bustion. 

The  ingredients  should  be  thoroughly  pulver 
ized  before  being  combined. 

The  saltpetre  being  thoroughly  dried,  is  ground 
in  a  buhr-stone  mill.  The  charcoal  and  sulphur, 
in  proper  proportions,  are  placed  in  iron  cylin 
ders  or  barrels,  about  3  feet  in  diameter  and  4 
feet  long,  which  have  iron  bolts  placed  in  them 
about  1  inch  in  diameter.  The  barrels  being 
revolved  at  about  15  revolutions  a  minute,  are 
run  about  24  hours.  The  bolts  in  the  drums 
completely  pulverize  the  ingredients. 

The  saltpetre,  sulphur,  and  charcoal  being 
pulverized,  have  now  to  be  incorporated  into 
one  mass.  There  are  several  modes  of  doing 
this, — stamper-mills,  wheel-mills,  barrel-mills, 
and  a  new  method  of  recent  invention  by  Gen. 
P.  A.  Oliver,  roller-mills. 


GUNPOWDER 


333 


GUNPOWDER 


Barrel-mills  consist  of  a  number  of  barrels 
about  the  size  of  a  whisk}7-barrel,  geared  to  re 
volve  at  about  15  revolutions  per  minute.  They 
each  contain  about  one-half  bushel  of  common 
marbles ;  the  ingredients  sufficient  for  8  or  10 
kegs  of  powder  are  then  placed  in  each,  and  the 
barrels  are  run  for  about  10  hours.  After  a 
steady  run  they  should  be  stopped  and  opened 
and  allowed  to  cool,  and  then  started  up  again. 
The  marbles  in  the  drums  pulverize  the  ingre 
dients  thoroughly. 

The  powder-meal  may  now  be  placed  in  bins 
and  slightly  dampened  before  going  to  the  press. 
If  desired  to  still  further  incorporate  it,  it  is  taken 
to  the  wheel-mill.  A  wheel-mill  consists  of  two 
heavy  broad  wheels  about  2  feet  in  diameter  and 
5  or  6  feet  high,  resting  on  a  bed-plate  ;  they  are 
revolved  by  a  vertical  shaft  passing  through  the 
centre  of  the  bed-plate,  to  which  the  axle  revolv 
ing  the  wheels  is  attached.  Two  plows  or 
knives,  one  near  the  vertical  shaft  and  another 
near  the  rim,  throw  the  composition  under  the 
runners  as  it  works  outwards.  The  charge  is 
spread  upon  the  bed  evenly,  and  a  small  amount 
of  water  sprinkled  upon  it.  Water  is  added  from 
time  to  time  in  sufficient  quantity  to  reduce  the 
effect  of  explosion,  and  to  incorporate  more  thor 
oughly.  The  wheels  are  revolved  at  8  or  10 
revolutions  a  minute,  and  from  4  to  8  hours, 
according  to  the  powder  to  be  made.  After  the 
powder  has  become  incorporated,  it  is  taken  to 
the  hydraulic  press  to  be  pressed  into  cakes.  The 
mass  is  placed  upon  the  press  in  layers,  plates  of 
copper  or  gutta-percha  intervening.  Eight  or 
twelve  hundred  pounds  are  pressed  at  a  time. 
A  pressure  of  6000  to  10,000  pounds  to  the  square 
inch  is  exerted.  When  sufficiently  pressed,  the 
press-cake,  looking  like  slate  f  to  1J  inches 
thick,  is  taken  to  the  coining-  or  graining- 
mill.  This  mill  serves  to  break  up  the  powder 
into  grains.  It  consists  of  a  series  of  adjustable 
rolls,  the  top  one,  of  gun-metal,  being  a  toothed 
roll,  to  break  up  the  cake;  under  this  is  another 
set  of  rolls  geared  two  to  one,  which  crush  the 
sizes  which  are  too  large,  and  another  set  under 
these  still  further  reduce  the  remaining  grains. 
Sieves  shake  the  dust  out  of  the  powder,  and 
other  screens  of  wire-cloth,  of  different-sized 
mesh,  retain  the  sizes  desired  and  reject  those 
that  are  too  large,  which  are  carried  back  to  the 
hopper  of  the  mill  by  an  elevator  to  be  ground  over 
again.  The  size  and  shape  of  the  grain  form  an 
important  factor  in  our  service.  Large  grains 
of  spherical  shape  are  made  to  reduce  the  press 
ure  on  the  gun,  as  large  grains  of  that  shape 
burn  slower,  but  it  is  always  at  the  expense  of 
the  powder.  It  is  not  the  fault  of  the  powder 
that  the  gun  bursts :  it  is  the  fault  of  the  gun. 
By  firing  the  charge,  next  the  ball,  and  using  three 
sections  of  powder,  slow,  quicker,  and  very  quick, 
a  better  result  will  doubtless  be  obtained  than  has 
hitherto  been  reached,  and  more  justice  done  to 
the  powder.  After  being  broken  up  into  grains, 
the  powder  is  dried  at  a  temperature  of  about 
130°  F.  Some  use  boxes  or  pans,  in  which  the 
powder  is  placed  in  the  drying-rooms  heated  by 
a  furnace.  A  new  patented  method,  termed  hot- 
air  glaze,  in  which  the  powder  is  placed  in  re 
volving  drums  and  hot  air  blown  through  them, 
is  used  by  some  manufacturers. 

The  powder  is  next  finished  by  being  placed  in 
the  glazing-drums.  These  consist  of  large  bar 


rels  about  3  by  6  feet.  In  these  the  powder  is 
placed.  The  drums  are  then  revolved  at  about 
15  revolutions  a  minute.  The  grains  of  powder 
are  tumbled  about  in  them  and  rubbed  against 
each  other.  In  the  process  the  powder  gets  warm 
and  sweats  a  little,  which  facilitates  the  rounding 
off  of  the  sharp  corners.  The  powder  is  usually 
revolved  in  these  drums  from  12  to  24  hours, 
according  to  the  glaze  required.  When  high 
bright  polish  is  needed,  a  small  quantity  of 
graphite  is  added.  The  glazing  takes  off  the 
rough  and  sharp  edges  of  the  grain,  and  the 
powder  occupies  less  bulk  in  consequence,  packs 
closer,  and  makes  less  dust. 

In  the  Oliver  process,  the  ingredients  being 
thoroughly  mixed  and  dampened,  are  placed  in 
small  boxes  holding  25  pounds  at  a  time.  A  box 
at  a  time  is  then  placed  in  the  hopper  of  the  in- 
corporating-mill.  «  These  consist  of  5  pairs  of 
adjustable  rolls,  with  atop  pair  of  rolls  regulating 
the  feed.  The  ingredients  passing  between  these 
rolls  in  a  very  thin  stream  are  intimately  ground 
by  each  set  of  rolls  successively,  the  rolls  being 
geared  two  to  one,  and  pass  in  a  thin  train  by  a 
rubber  apron  out-doors,  and  are  dumped  into 
another  box  holding  25  pounds.  When  full, 
this  box  is  carried  to  the  hopper  of  the  press. 
By  this  method  there  are  never  over  50  pounds 
damp  powder  in  the  incorporating-mill,  and  out 
side.  This  quantity  can  be  reduced  to  5  or  10 
pounds  if  desired.  The  object  is  to  have  so  little 
powder  in  any  one  place  as  to  do  away  with  any 
serious  damage  in  case  of  fire.  The  ingredients 
being  incorporated,  are  next  taken  to  the  press- 
and  graining-room,  both  being  combined  in  one. 
The  box  of  powder  is  dumped  into  the  hopper  of 
the  press,  and  is  immediately  pressed  into  sheets 
of  the  desired  thickness  between  2  large  rolls 
running  at  equal  speed.  A  belt  running  under 
the  rolls  carries  the  pressed  powder  forward 
under  the  grainer.  This  machine  consists  of 
knives  set  in  a  frame,  which  is  arranged  to  move 
up  and  down  by  means  of  an  eccentric,  cutting 
the  powder  as  it  passes  under  them .  The  grained 
powder  next  falls  upon  a  shaker,  arranged  with 
different-sized  screens.  The  dust  is  immediately 
shaken  out,  and  an  elevator  carries  it  back  into 
the  hopper  of  the  press  to  be  pressed  over  again. 
The  grains  which  are  too  large  are  brought  back 
by  an  elevator,  and  are  reduced  to  the  desired 
size  by  a  pair  of  rolls  of  zinc  running  two  to  one, 
placed  at  the  end  of  the  shaker ;  a  second  shaker 
outside  the  building  shakes  the  balance  of  the 
dust  out,  reasserts  the  sizes,  and  dumps  the  grains 
into  a  box  holding  150  pounds.  This  box  is  at 
once  taken  on  a  car  to  the  dry-house.  The  dry- 
house  contains  the  dryer,  the*  joint  invention  of 
Patrick  Clarch,  of  Rah  way,  N.  J.,and  Gen.  Oli 
ver.  It  consists  of  a  box  60  feet  long  by  14  wide, 
air-tight  at  all  points  except  the  top.  It  is  fur 
nished  with  a  number  of  wooden  rollers  on  the 
top,  which  revolve  in  suitable  bearings ;  at  each 
end  is  a  large  pulley  or  roller  3  feet  in  diameter 
and  12  feet  long.  A  woolen  cloth  is  placed  around 
these  rollers,  forming  an  endless  belt,  over  the 
whole  top  of  the  dryer.  The  powder  is  placed  on 
top  of  the  woolen  cloth,  and  the  large  pulleys 
revolving,  move  the  cloth  forward  very  slowly. 
The  damp  powder  goes  on  at  one  end,  and  the 
dry  is  dumped  off  at  the  other ;  as  it  falls  it  goes 
over  screens,  which  take  out  the  dust  and  dump 
it  into  boxes.  An  adjoining  building  contains 


GUNTEN 


334 


HAIL 


an  engine,  steam  coil,  and  powerful  blower, — 

Eipes  lead  from  coil  into  box  of  dryer.  The  air 
i  blown  through  the  coil,  thence  into  box  of 
dryer,  and  is  forced  through  the  cloth  upon 
which  the  powder  rests,  and  it  is  thus  dried  in  a 
couple  of  hours. 

Gunten.     A  boat  of  burden  in  the  Moluccas. 

Gunter's  Chain.  The  chain  ordinarily  used 
in  surveying. 

Gunter's  "Line.  A  logarithmic  line  on  Gun 
ter's  scale,  used  for  performing,  mechanically, 
the  operations  of  multiplication  and  division. 

Gunter's  Scale.  A  wooden  rule,  on  one  side  of 
which  are  marked  scales  of  equal  parts,  of  chords, 
tangents,  sines,  etc.,  and  having  on  the  other 
logarithms  of  these  various  parts,  by  means  of 
which  many  problems  in  navigation  and  survey 
ing  may  be  solved  mechanically. 

Gurge.     A  gulf  or  whirlpool. 

Gurnard.  A  fish  of  the  genus  Trigla,  so  called 
from  its  peculiar  grunt  when  removed  from  the 
water ;  its  head  being  all  skin  and  bone  gave 
rise  to  the  saying  that  the  flesh  on  a  gurnard's 
head  is  rank  poison.  One  or  two  species  are 
known  by  the  local  name  of  piper. 

Gurnet.     See  GARNET. 

Gussock.  A  term  for  a  strong  and  sudden 
gust  of  wind. 

Gust,  or  Gush.  A  sudden  blast  of  wind ;  a 
squall. 

Gut.  A  somewhat  coarse  term  for  the  main 
part  of  a  strait  or  channel,  as  the  Gut  of  Gi 
braltar,  Gut  of  Canso. 

Gutter-ledge.  A  cross-bar  laid  along  the  mid 
dle  of  a  large  hatchway  in  some  vessels,  to  sup 
port  the  covers  and  enable  them  the  better  to 
sustain  any  heavy  body. 

Guv.     A  rope  used  to  support  a  spar  in  a  lat 


eral  direction  j  as,  the  jib-guys.  A  rope  used  to 
steady  a  body  when  hoisted  or  lowered. 

GUY,  BELLY-.  A  rope  supporting  the  mid 
dle  part  of  derrick  or  sheer-leg. 

GUYS,  JIB  AND  FLYING  JIB.  These  go  over 
the  ends  of  their  respective  booms,  leading  thence 
to  the  ends  of  the  whiskers,  and  set  up  at  the 
bows. 

GUYS,  LOWER-BOOM.  Hopes  used  for  rigging  in 
and  out,  and  for  steadying  the  lower-boom  when 
rigged  out.  The  standing  part  of  the  forward 
guy  is  secured  at  the  end  of  the  whisker,  and 
leads  thence  through  a  block  on  the  boom, 
thence  through  a  block  at  the  bowsprit-cap, 
thence  to  the  forecastle  The  standing  part  of 
the  after  guy  is  hooked  to  a  bolt  in  the  ship's 
side  near  the  gangway,  leading  thence  to  a 
block  on  the  boom  and  back  through  a  sheave 
in  the  ship's  side.  The  lower-boom  guys  are 
sometimes  fitted  single,  hooking  to  eye-bolts  on 
the  boom. 

GUYS,  SPANKER-BOOM.  Fitted  in  one  with 
the  sheets.  See  SHEET. 

Gwiniad.  A  fish  (the  Coregonus  fera,  or  fresh 
water  herring)  found  in  North  Wales,  and  allied 
to  the  lake  white-fish. 

Gybe.    Another  form  for  jibe  (which  see).  ' 

Gymnotus  Electricus.  An  eel  from  the  Suri 
nam  River,  several  feet  in  length,  which  inflicts 
electrical  shocks. 

Gyn.  A  three-legged  machine  fitted  with  a 
windlass,  heaving  in  the  fall  from  a  purchase- 
block  at  the  summit,  used  on  shore  for  mounting 
and  dismounting  guns,  driving  piles,  etc. 

Gyp.  A  strong  gasp  for  breath,  like  that  of  a 
fish  just  taken  out  of  the  water. 

Gyver.     An  old  term  for  blocks  or  pulleys. 

Gyves.     Fetters ;  the  old  word  for  handcuffs. 


H. 


H.  Abbreviation  for  have  in  the  IT.  S.  Gen 
eral  Service  Signal  Code.  Among  the  letters 
used  in  the  log-book  to  register  the  state  of  the 
weather,  h  denotes  hail. 

Haaf.  Cod,  ling,  or  tusk  deep-sea  fisheries  of 
the  Shetland  and  Orkney  islanders. 

HAAF-BOOT.    One  fitted  for  deep-water  fishing. 

Haak.    See  HAKE.  ' 

Habeas  Corpus  (Lat.  You  may  have  the  body}. 
In  law,  the  name  given  to  a  variety  of  writs  (in 
the  ancient  forms  of  which  these  were  the  em 
phatic  words)  having  for  their  object  to  bring  a 
party  before  a  court  or  judge.  The  most  cele 
brated  of  these  is  the  writ  (Habeas  corpus  ad  sub- 
jiciendum)  to  inquire  into  the  cause  of  a  person's 
imprisonment  or  detention  with  a  view  to  obtain 
his  or  her  liberation. 

Hack.  A  word  applied  to  a  watch  or  chro 
nometer  used  in  taking  observations,  to  obviate 
the  necessity  of  moving  the  standard  chronom 
eter. 

Hackatee.     A  fresh-water  tortoise  having  a 


long  neck  and  flat  feet,  and  weighing  from  10  to 
15  pounds,  which  is  found  in  the  West  Indies. 

Haddock.  The  Gadus  cegilfinus,  a  species  of 
cod  fabled  to  bear  the  thumb-mark  of  Saint  Peter. 

Hag.  An  eel-like  fish  (the  Gastrobranchus 
(Myxine)  glutinosus]  having  a  cartilaginous  skel 
eton,  a  ring-like  mouth,  a  strong  tooth  in  the 
pdlate,  and  two  rows  of  teeth,  by  which  it  enters 
other  fishes  and  devours  them.  It  is  about  6  or 
6  inches  long,  and  is  allied  to  the  lamprey.  It 
is  found  in  polar  seas. 

Hag-boat.     See  HECK-BOAT. 

Hag's  Teeth.  Those  parts  of  a  matting  or 
pointing  interwoven  with  the  rest  in  an  irregu 
lar  manner,  so  as  to  break  up  the  uniformity. 

Haik.     See  HIKE. 

Hail.  To  call,  to  accost ;  thus  one  vessel  hails 
another  at  sea,  the  customary  form  being  "  Ship 
ahoy!"  A  sentinel  hails  when  he  challenges. 
A  ship  is  said  to  hail  from  the  port  to  which  she 
properly  belongs  ;  a  man,  to  hail  from  the  coun 
try  of  his  birth  or  residence.  Pass  within  hail, 


HAIMUKA 


335 


HALF-TOPSAILS 


a  special  signal  to  approach  and  receive  orders 
or  intelligence,  when  boats  cannot  be  lowered 
or  time  presses.  Hail  fellows,  congenial  mess 
mates. 

HAIL-SHOT.     Small  shot  for  cannon. 

Haimura  (Erythrinus  macrodon).  A  large 
fresh-water  fish  of  Guiana,  highly  esteemed  for 
the  table. 

Hair-bracket.  The  molding  which  terminates 
the  fore  ends  of  the  head-rails,  and  comes  at  the 
back  of  the  figure,  and  breaks  in  fair  with  the 
upper  deck. 

Hair-tail  (Trichiurus).  A  genus  of  acanthrop- 
terous  fishes,  sometimes  classed  in  the  Ribbon- 
fish  family,  but  more  generally  referred  to  the 
family  Scomber  idee.  In  Cuba  it  is  known  as  the 
sabre-fish,  and  in  other  parts  of  the  world  as  the 
blade- fish. 

Hair-trigger.  A  trigger  whose  movement  is 
effected  by  a  very  slight  force.  Its  action  is 
communicated  to  the  tumbler-catch  by  means  of 
a  device  called  a  hair. 

Hake.  An  old  term  for  a  hand-gun.  Also 
the  fish  Gadus  merlucius,  a  gregarious  and  vora 
cious  fish  of  the  cod  family,  termed  also  sea- 
pike. 

Hake's  Teeth.  A  term  for  the  Dentalium,  a 
species  of  shell-fish  whose  presence  in  the  British 
Channel  serves  as  a  guide  to  pilots  in  foggy 
weather.  Also,  a  phrase  applied  to  some  parts 
of  the  deep  soundings  in  the  British  Channel. 

Halcyon  Piscator.  A  bird  of  the  king-fisher 
kind,  so  called  from  its  supposed  identity  with 
the  halcyon  of  antiquity.  The  ancients  called 
the  seven  days  that  precede  and  follow  the 
winter  solstice  halcyon  days  from  the  circum 
stance  of  the  halcyon  selecting  that  period  for 
incubation.  "While  this  process  was  going  on  the 
weather  was  generally  remarkable  for  its  calm 
ness.  And  hence  the  expression  has  passed  into 
a  proverb,  signifying  days  of  peace  and  tran 
quillity. 

Hale.     An  old  word  for  haul. 

Half-beam.  A  beam  which  is  of  the  same 
size  as  the  ordinary  deck-beams,  and  is  cut  off 
for  some  reason,  as  a  long  hatch,  and  which 
does  not  as  a  consequence  extend  clear  across  the 
ship. 

Half-breadth  of  the  Rising.  A  term  used  in 
the  mold-loft,  it  being  the  distance  beveled  out 
from  the  centre-line  taken  at  a  mark  which  is  at 
or  near  the  head  of  the  floor-timbers,  and  after 
wards  applied  to  the  mold,  and  is  used  in  the 
framing  of  the  ship. 

Half-breadth  Plan.  That  on  which  is  shown 
the  form  of  the  vessel  by  horizontal  and  diagonal 
longitudinal  sections. 

Half-cock.  The  position  of  the  hammer  of 
a  fire-arm  intermediate  between  those  which  it 
has  when  resting  on  the  nipple,  or  firing-pin, 
and  when  drawn  back  to  full  cock.  Arms  should 
be  habitually  carried  at  half-cock,  as  in  that  state 
they  are  less  liable  to  be  accidentally  discharged. 
Going  off  at  half-cock,  a  metaphorical  expression 
for  speech,  or  action,  which  fails  of  effect  because 
uttered,  or  taken,  without  due  forethought  or 
preparation. 

Half- davit.     A  name  for  the  fish-davit. 

Half-deck.  The  portion  of  the  gun-deck-  in- 
eluded  between  the  mainmast  and  the  cabin-bulk 
heads. 

Half-floor.     An  expression  used  in  the  mold- 


loft  to  indicate  the  spoint  at  which  the  dead- 
rise  of  the  ship  is  taken,  which  is  at  one-quarter 
of  the  breadth  of  the  ship  from  the  centre-line. 
Sometimes,  in  a  wooden  ship,  floor-timbers  are 
made,  where  the  shape  is  difficult,  in  two  pieces, 
and  they  are  scarfed,  tabled,  and  bolted  to 
gether. 

Half-hitch.  A  hitch  formed  by  passing  the 
end  of  a  rope  around  the  standing  part  and  bring 
ing  it  up  through  the  bight. 

Half-laughs  and  Purser's  Grins.  Hypocrit 
ical  and  satirical  sneers. 

Half-man  (Eng.).  A  rating  in  coasters  for  a 
boy  or  landsman. 

Half-mast.  To  lower  a  flag  midway  between 
the  truck  and  deck,  as  a  mark  of  respect  for  the 
dead.  When  flags  are  half-masted  they  are  not 
hauled  down  from  that  position,  but  are  run 
close  up  as  the  call  is  beaten. 

Half-minute  Glass.  A  time-glass  used  in 
logging  a  ship.  A  glass  that  runs  28  seconds  is 
generally  used  as  being  more  convenient. 

Half-pay.  A  term  with  which  we  are  more 
familiar  in  the  pages  of  fiction  than  as  a  matter 
of  fact.  In  English  novels  the  half-pay  officer  is 
a  frequent  character,  but  in  this  county  the  ex 
pression  describes  nothing  known  to  either  our 
military  or  naval  system.  Even  in  England  and 
other  countries  employing  the  term,  or  its 
equivalent,  it  is  not  confined  to  its  literal  mean 
ing,  but  is  used  to  signify  a  money  allowance, 
less  in  amount — though  not  always  to  the  extent 
of  one-half— than  the  full  pay  of  the  officer  re 
ceiving  it.  This  allowance,  in  England,  has  not 
the  same  character  in  both  services.  In  the  royal 
navy  it  is  the  allowance,  usually  about  60  per  cent, 
of  the  full  pay,  made  to  all  officers  not  immediately 
wanted  afloat ;  and  as  there  are  always  many  more 
officers,  than  appointments  for  them  to  fill,  a  con 
siderable  number  are  at  all  times  on  the  half-pay 
list,  and  the  expression  thus  becomes  descriptive  of 
a  regular  and  recognized  condition.  In  the  Brit 
ish  army,  on  the  other  hand,  half-pay  is  a  tem 
porary  grant  either  to  officers  thrown  out  of 
employment  by  the  reduction  of  the  corps  with 
which  they  are  serving,  or  those  compelled  to 
quit  active  duties  by  sickness,  and  is  thus  perti 
nent  to  a  casual  rather  than  a  regular  condition. 
The  first  grant  of  army  half-pay  was  made  by 
William  III.  in  1698.  ' 

Half-pike.  An  iron  spike  fixed  on  the  end  of 
a  short  ashen  staff,  used  in  repelling  the  assaults 
of  boarders. 

Half-port.  The  ports  are  fitted  with  heavy 
shutters  having  a  circular  hole  to  receive  the  gun 
when  it  is  run  out.  These  ports  are  made  in  two 
pieces,  each  piece  being  called  a  half '-port ;  and 
when  in  action  the  upper  one  is  passed  inboard 
or  triced  up,  and  the  lower  one  is  lowered.  In 
port,  during  fine  weather,  they  are  kept  parallel 
with  the  water. 

Half-sea.  An  old  term  for  mid-channel. 
Half-seas  over,  moderately  drunk. 

Half-tide  Rocks.  Rocks  awash  at  the  middle 
of  the  tide. 

Half-timbers.  Those  timbers  in  the  cant 
bodies  which  are  answerable  to  the  lower  futtocks 
in  the  square  bodies. 

Half-top.    See  TOP. 

Half-topsails  Under.  An  expression  to  sig 
nify  that  a  vessel  is  so  far  distant  that  she  is  be 
low  the  horizon  with  the  exception  of  that  portion 


HALF  WATCH-TACKLE 


336 


HAMMOCK 


of  her  spars  and  sails  from  the  middle  of  the  top 
mast  up. 

Half  Watch-tackle.     A  luff-purchase. 

Halibut  (Hippoglossus  vulgaris).  One  of  the 
largest  kinds  of  flat-fish,  found  in  great  numbers 
on  the  Atlantic  coast,  and  much  esteemed  as  food, 
its  flesh  being  firm  and  white,  though  somewhat 
dry.  It  is  found  on  the  British  coast,  but  more 
abundantly  in  the  northern  than  the  southern 
parts.  The  Greenlanders  use  it  extensively,  and 
obtain  oil  from  it  in  considerable  quantities. 

Halifax.  A  city  and  seaport,  capital  of  Nova 
Scotia.  Lat.  45°  N.;  Ion.  63°  35'  W.  Situated 
on  the  west  side  of  Chebucto  Bay,  now  called 
Halifax  Harbor.  The  city  contains  many  large 
and  handsome  buildings,  among  which  can  be 
numbered  the  provincial  buildings,  military  and 
naval  hospitals,  barracks,  and  military  jail.  At 
the  northern  end  of  the  city  is  the  royal  dock 
yard,  covering  14  acres,  the  finest  in  the  British 
colonies.  The  harbor  is  6  miles  long  by  1  in 
width,  with  excellent  anchorage  in  every  part  of 
it,  and  at  the  north  end  it  is  connected  with  Bel- 
ford  Basin,  6  miles  by  4  in  size,  capable  of  con 
taining  all  the  navies  in  the  world.  The  city  is 
protected  by  11  fortifications,  and  is  the  chief 
naval  station  of  British  North  America.  Pop. 
32,500. 

Halley's  Chart.  The  chart  showing,  by 
curves,  the  variation  of  the  compass. 

Halliards,  Halyards,  or  Haulyards.  The 
rope  or  purchase  employed  to  hoist  a  yard  or 
sail  on  its  mast  or  stay.  All  yards  have  hal 
liards  except  the  lower, — these  being  kept  sta 
tionary  ordinarily ;  when  they  are  hoisted  or 
lowered  the  jeers  are  used. 

Topsail-yards  have  a  permanent  purchase,  vari 
ously  rigged  according  to  the  size  of  the  yard.  Top 
gallant  and  royal  yards  are  hoisted  by  means  of 
the  yard-rope,  a  tackle  being  clapped  on  abaft 
the  mast.  Jib-  and  sfa?/-sm7-halliards  are  bent  to 
the  head-cringles  of  their  respective  sails,  and 
lead  thence  along  the  stay  to  a  block  under  the 
collar  of  the  stay,  and  down  to  the  deck ;  they 
are  sometimes  rove  double,  in  which  case  there 
is  a  block  at  the  head  of  the  sail,  the  standing 
part  being  seized  to  the  collar  of  the  stay.  Stud 
ding-sail  halliards  are  bent  to  the  studding-sail 
yard,  and  reeve  through  a  block  at  the  yard- 
arm,  thence  through  a  block  on  the  mast,  and 
down  to  deck  ;  the  fore  clew-jigger  is  used  as  the 
inner  halliards.  Throat-  and  />ea£-halliards  are 
used  on  gaffs,  the  former  hooked  to  the  jaws,  and 
the  latter  to  the  peak.  Qaff-topsail  halliards  are 
rove  through  a  sheave  on  the  mast,  and  are  bent 
to  the  yard  or  head-cringle  of  the  gaff-topsail. 
Crow-foot  halliards  reeve  through  a  block  on  the 
lower  stay,  and  are  bent  to  the  crow-foot  oil  the 
awning.  *S%naZ-halliards,  light  lines  extending 
from  the  deck  to  the  trucks  or  gaff-ends ;  used 
for  hoisting  signal-flags.  .Bns^w-halliards,  the 
line  by  which  the  colors  are  run  up  to  the  peak 
or  flag-staff.  Smoke-stack  halliards,  Jack's  term 
for  the  hoisting  apparatus  of  the  smoke-stack. 

Halo.  A  luminous  ring  encircling  the  sun  or 
moon,  whose  light  passing  through  the  interven 
ing  vapor  gives  rise  to  the  phenomenon.  Halos 
are  termed  lunar  or  solar  according  as  they  ap 
pear  around  the  moon  or  sun.  The  lunar  halo 
is  simply  a  white,  luminous  circle  without  color 
excepting  a  pale  red,  which  sometimes  fringes 
the  interior  edge  of  the  circle.  Solar  halos  are 


prismatioally  colored.  See  CORONA,  PAR 
HELIA. 

Halse,  or  Halser.  Archaic  spelling  of  hawser. 

Halve-net.  A  net  to  prevent  fishes  from  going 
out  with  the  falling  tide. 

Halyards.     See  HALLIARDS. 

Hamac.  Columbus  found  that  the  inhabit 
ants  of  the  Bahama  Islands  had  for  beds  nets  of 
cotton  suspended  at  each  end,  which  they  called 
hamacs,  or  hamacas, — whence  hammock,  a  name 
since  adopted  universally  among  seamen.  See 
HAMMOCK. 

Hambroline.  A  superior  sort  of  small  stuff 
used  for  seizings. 

Hamburg,  one  of  the  principal  cities  of  Ger 
many,  is  situated  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Elbe, 
about  70  miles  from  its  mouth.  Lat.  53°  33' 
1"  N. ;  Ion.  9°  58'  23"  E.  Its  manufactories 
comprise  sugar-refineries,  tar,  tobacco,  and  sail 
cloth  factories,  ship-yards,  anchor  and  iron 
forges,  etc.  It  is  the  greatest  commercial  city 
of  the  European  continent,  its  trade  being  chiefly 
with  Great  Britain  and  America,  and  its  many 
first-class  steamers  are  constantly  running  to 
New  York,  the  "West  Indies,  South  America, 
and  the  Mediterranean.  The  channel  of  the 
Elbe  has  been  improved,  so  that  vessels  drawing 
18  feet  of  water  can  reach  the  city  at  high  tide. 
Pop.  264,850. 

Hamel.     The  star  a  Arietis. 

Hammer.  That  appendage  of  the  lock  of  a 
fire-arm  which,  being  first  drawn  back  to  the  po 
sition  of  "cock,"  is,  by  the  operation  of  the 
trigger  and  internal  mechanism  of  the  lock, 
sprung  down  upon  the  cap,  or  against  the  firing- 
pin  or  percussion-cartridge,  with  such  force  as 
to  explode  the  fulminate  and  to  cause  the  dis 
charge  of  the  piece. 

Hammer-headed  Shark  (Zygcena  malleus). 
An  extremely  ugly  fish  of  the  Shark  family,  dis 
tinguished  by  the  extraordinary  form  of  its  head, 
which  in  the  adults  resembles  a  double-headed 
hammer,  being  extended  on  both  sides  to  a  con 
siderable  length  and  having  the  eyes  at  the  ends 
of  the  lateral  extensions.  The  mouth  is  below 
the  centre  of  the  head.  In  the  young  the  ham 
mer-headed  form  is  not  so  perfect. 

Hammock.  A  suspended  bed  invented  by 
Alcibiades  j  the  name  is  derived  from  hamac 
(which  see).  It  consists  of  a  strip  of  canvas  about 
3  feet  wide  and  6  feet  long,  to  the  ends  of  which 
are  attached  combinations  of  small  cords,  called 
clews.  When  suspended,  this  canvas  forms  a  re 
ceptacle  for  a  mattress  and  blanket ;  when  not 
in  use,  the  canvas  is  wrapped  tightly  around  the 
bedding  and  bound  with  a  lashing  and  stowed  in 
the  nettings.  Each  man  on  board  ship  has  two 
hammocks,  the  one  not  in  use  being  kept  clean 
and  stowed  away  in  the  sail-room ;  the  watch 
number  of  the  owner  is  stenciled  on  the  ham 
mock,  and  also  on  a  tin  tag  hung  over  the  proper 
hook.  Up  all  hammocks,  the  order  to  take  the 
hammocks  on  deck  and  stow  them  in  the  nettings. 
Down  all  hammocks,  the  order  to  lash  the  ham 
mocks  and  stow  them  below,  when  for  any  rea 
son,  such  as  rain,  they  cannot  be  taken  on  deck. 
To  sling  a  hammock,  to  bend  the  clews  and  get  it 
ready  for  use.  To  swing  a  hammock,  to  hang  it 
up  on  the  hooks. 

HAMMOCK-CLOTH.  A  painted  canvas  cover 
over  the  netting  to  protect  the  hammocks  from 
the  weather. 


HAMPER 


337 


HANG 


HAMMOCK-GIRTLINES.  Lines  extending  from 
the  jib-boom  to  the  spanker-boom,  on  which 
scrubbed  hammocks  are  stopped  to  dry. 

HAMMOCK-NETTINGS.  Keceptacles  on  the  rail 
for  hammocks  when  not  in  use.  They  were  for 
merly  formed  of  net- work,  hence  the  name.  They 
are  now  boarded  in. 

HAMMOCK-STANCHIONS.  Iron  stanchions  fixed 
on  the  main-rail  or  plank-sheer,  having  a  forked 
end  to  which  the  hammock-rails  are  secured. 

Hamper.  Articles  which,  though  ordinarily 
indispensable,  are  a  great  inconvenience  at  cer 
tain  times.  See  TOP-HAMPER. 

Hamron.  An  archaic  term  meaning  the  hold 
of  a  ship. 

Hance.     A  sudden  fall  or  break. 

Hand.  An  adjective  applied  to  anything 
worked  by  hand.  A  man  ;  one  of  the  crew. 
All  hands,  everybody.  Bear  a  hand,  to  make 
haste.  Lend  a  hand,  to  assist.  Hand-over-hand, 
hauling  rapidly  upon  any  rope,  by  passing  the 
hands  alternately  one  before  the  other,  or  one 
above  the  other  if  hoisting.  A  sailor  is  said 
to  go  hand-over-hand  if  he  lifts  his  own  weight 
and  ascends  a  single  rope  without  the  help  of 
his  legs.  Hand-over-hand  also  implies  rapidly; 
as,  we  are  coming  up  with' the  chase  hand-over 
hand.  Hand-under-hand,  the  manner  of  descend 
ing  a  rope,  the  weight  of  the  body  being  sustained 
by  the  arms  only.  Hand-taut,  as  taut  as  can  be 
hauled  by  hand.  To  hand  a  sail,  to  furl  it. 

HAND  FEED-PUMP.  A  feed-pump  provided 
with  brakes  so  as  to  enable  it  to  be  worked  by 
hand  independent  of  other  motive  force. 

HAND-GEAR.  An  appliance  for  manipulating 
a  steam-engine  or  other  machine  when  automatic 
action  is  not  desired. 

HAND-GRENADE.  A  shell,  weighing  about  2 
pounds,  thrown  from  the  hand.  The  fuze  being 
previously  lit,  the  shell  is  conveniently  thrown 
from  the  tops  on  to  an  enemy's  deck,  from  the 
parapet  into  the  ditch,  or  generally  against  an 
enemy  otherwise  hard  to  reach.  Ketchum's  hand- 
grenade  is  a  small  oblong  percussion-shell,  which 
explodes  on  striking  the  object. 

HAND-GUN.  An  old  term  for  small-arms  in 
the  times  of  Henry  VII.  and  VIII. 

HAND-HOLE.  A  small  elliptical  or  triangular 
hole  in  any  convenient  part  of  the  shell  of  a 
steam-boiler ;  used  for  cleaning  and  repairing 
the  structure  and  withdrawing  scale  or  sediment 
from  the  interior.  It  is  covered  by  a  hand-hole 
plate. 

HAND-LEAD. 
in  shallow  water. 

HANDMAID.  An  old  denomination  for  a  ten 
der;  thus,  in  Drake's  expedition  to  Cadiz,  two 
of  her  Majesty's  pinnaces  were  appointed  to  at 
tend  his  squadron  as  handmaids. 

HAND  MAST-PIECE.    A  small  hand  mast-spar. 

HAND  MAST-SPAR.  A  round  mast ;  those 
from  Riga  are  commonly  over  70  feet  long  by  20 
inches  diameter. 

HAND-PUMP.  The  common  movable  pump 
for  obtaining  fresh  water,  etc.,  from  tanks  or 
casks. 

HAND-SAW.  The  smallest  of  the  saws  used  by 
shipwrights,  and  used  by  one  hand. 

HAND-SCREW.  A  handy  kind  of  single  jack- 
screw. 

HANDSPIKE.     A  short  wooden  lever  for  mov 
ing  heavy  articles,  as  guns. 
22 


A  small  lead  used  for  sounding 


HANDSPIKEMAN.  One  of  a  gun's  crew  who 
handles  the  handspike  in  great-gun  drill. 

Handle.  The  title  prefixed  to  a  person's 
name.  To  handle  a  ship  well  is  to  work  her  in 
a  seaman-like  manner. 

Handsomely.     Slowly;  steadily;  carefully. 

Handy,  Robert,  Commodore  U.S.N.  Ap 
pointed  a  midshipman  from  Rhode  Island,  Feb 
ruary  1,  1826;  sloop  "  John  Adams"  and  frigate 
"  Constellation,"  West  India  Squadron,  1826-27; 
frigate  "Hudson,"  Brazil  Squadron,  1828-31. 

Promoted  to  passed  midshipman,  April  28, 
1832;  survey  of  Narragansett  Bay,  1832;  sloop 
"  Vincennes',"  Pacific  Squadron,  1833-35;  frigate 
"Brandywine,"  Pacific  Squadron,  1835-37. 

Commissioned  lieutenant,  March  8, 1837 ;  sloop 
"  Erie,"  Home  Squadron,  1838;  navy-yard,  Bos 
ton,  1838-40;  steamer  "Fulton,"  special  service, 
1841-42;  sloop  "Levant,"  Pacific  Squadron, 
1843-47;  receiving-ship,  Boston,  1847-48;  navy- 
yard,  Boston,  1848-52. 

Commissioned  commander,  September  14, 
1855;  commanding  rendezvous,  Boston,  1858- 
61;  commanding  "Vincennes,"  Gulf  Squadron, 
1861;  commanding  "Dale,"  East  Gulf  Block 
ading  Squadron,  1863-65.  Retired,  1862. 

Commissioned  commodore,  March  13,  1867. 

Handy-billy.  A  small  jigger  used  for  vari 
ous  purposes  about  the  decks,  in  the  tops,  holds, 
etc. 

Handy  Ship.     One  that  works  easily. 

Hang.  To  droop  in  the  middle  part.  To 
linger;  to  stop  temporarily  ;  as,  a  vessel  hangs  on 
the  ways.  To  incline  ;  as,  a  mast  hangs  aft.  To 
support  temporarily  from  above;  as,  to  hang  the 
bight  of  a  chain.  To  hang  on,  to  persevere;  to 
continue.  To  throw  the  whole  weight  on  a  rope 
or  tackle;  to  hold  on.  The  hanging  of  sheer- 
strakes  and  decks  is  the  declining  in  the  centre 
of  the  length  fore  and  aft,  from  a  level  or  hori 
zontal  line. 

HANG  FIRE.  When  there  is  an  unusual  slow 
ness  in  the  ignition  of  the  gunpowder  of  a  piece 
or  train  it  is  said  to  hang  fire.  Used  figura 
tively  to  indicate  hesitation. 

HANGING-BLOCKS.  Blocks  under  the  eyes  of 
the  fore-topmast  rigging,  through  which  reeve 
the  jib-  and  stay-sail-halliards. 

HANGING-BRIDGE.  An  inverted  -fire-bridge 
or  bridge-wall,  placed  in  a  furnace  or  flue  for  the 
purpose  of  deflecting  the  flame  and  other  prod 
ucts  of  combustion  downwards.  See  FIRE 
BRIDGE. 

HANGING-CLAMP.  A  semicircular  iron  with 
a  foot  at  each  end  by  which  it  is  secured  to  any 
part  of  the  ship  to  receive  nails  ;  it  is  not  often 
used  nowadays. 

HANGING-COMPASS.  A  tell-tale;  a  compass 
so  constructed  and  swung  as  to  hang  with  the 
card  downwards. 

HANGING-KNEES.  Those  knees  against  the  sides 
and  beams  whose  bodies  are  perpendicular  and 
whose  arms  extend  under  the  beams  at  right 
angles  with  the  bodies  of  the  knees. 

HANGING-STAGE.  A  stage  rigged  outside  the 
ship,  supported  by  ropes  from  above. 

HANGING  STANDARD-KNEES.  Vertical  curves 
employed  generally  with  the  orlop  beams ;  they 
are  fastened  on  each  side  against  the  vertical 
side  of  the  beam,  and  on  the  other  side  against 
the  ship's  sides  ;  thus  they  differ  from  those  which 
are  simply  called  standard. 


HANK 


338 


HARPOON 


HANGING-STOVE.  A  vessel  suspended  from  a 
beam  and  containing  fire  for  drying  the  decks. 

Hank.  A  ring  of  rope,  wood,  or  iron,  running 
on  a  stay,  and  to  which  is  seized  the  luff  of 
a  stay-sail.  Also,  a  skein  of  line  or  twine. 
Hank-for-hank,  an  expression  to  denote  that 
anything  is  don,e  slowly  and  laboriously. 

Han-Kow.  A  city  and  one  of  the  treaty 
ports  of  China,  on  the  Yang-tse-Kiang,  at  the 
mouth  of  one  of  its  tributaries,  and  700  miles 
from  the  sea.  The  city,  with  Han-Yang  and 
Woo-Chang,  the  capital  of  Hoo-Pe,  all  in  sight 
of  one  another,  separated  only  by  the  river,  forms 
one  of  the  greatest  commercial  centres  of  the 
world.  Lat.  30°  30'  N. ;  Ion.  114°  E. 

Happy-go-lucky.  An  expression  to  signify  a 
reckless  reliance  on  chance. 

Haque.     A  small  hand-gun  of  former  times. 

Haquebut.  A  larger  sort  of  hand-gun  than 
the  haque  ;  an  arquebuse. 

Harbor.  A  general  name  for  any  safe  port. 
The  requisite  qualities  of  a  good  harbor  are,  that 
it  should  afford  security  from  the  effects  of  wind 
and  sea ;  the  bottom  should  be  free  from  rocks, 
wrecks,  and  shoals,  and  the  holding-ground 
should  be  good ;  the  opening  should  be  sufficient 
to  permit  the  entrance  and  departure  of  the 
largest  vessels  at  all  stages  of  the  tide ;  there 
should  be  suitable  establishments  for  the  repair 
ing  and  refitting  of  vessels  ;  a  sufficient  number 
of  warping-buoys  should  be  planted ;  it  should 
be  well  surveyed,  well  lighted,  and  well  de 
fended;  and  water,  fuel,  and  provisions  should 
be  abundant  and  convenient.  Such  a  harbor, 
if  used  as  a  place  of  commercial  transactions,  is 
called  a  port. 

HARBOR-DUES.     See  PORT-CHARGES. 

HARBOR-GASKET.     See  GASKET. 

HARBOR-MASTER.  An  officer  appointed  to  in 
spect  the  moorings,  and  to  see  that  the  ships  are 
properly  berthed,  and  the  regulations  of  the 
harbor  strictly  observed  by  thie  different  ships 
frequenting  it. 

HARBOR-REACH.  The  reach  or  stretch  of  a 
winding  river  which  leads  direct  to  the  harbor. 

HARBOR-WATCH.     See  ANCHOR-WATCH. 

Hard.  Firm  ;  solid.  Vehemently  ;  with  force. 
Cruel ;  oppressive.  Inflexible ;  unyielding. 
Distressful ;  unprofitable.  The  word  hard  ap- 

glied  to  the  helm  means  "  to  the  extreme  limit." 
ee  HELM. 

HARD  BARGAIN.  A  useless  officer ;  a  skulking 
seaman. 

HARD  FISH.  A  term  applied  to  cod,  ling,  had 
dock,  etc.,  when  salted  and  dried. 

HARD-HEAD.  The  Clupea  menhaden,  an  oily 
fish,  taken  in  immense  quantities  and  used  for 
manuring  land.  The  name  is  sometimes  given 
to  the  sea-scorpion  and  the  gray  gurnard. 

HARD-HORSE.     A  tyrannical  officer. 

Hards.    See  ACUMBA. 

Harle.  Mists  or  thick  rolling  fogs  from  the 
sea.  Also  a  name  of  the  goosander,  Mergus 
merganser  (which  see). 

Harlequin  Duck  (Clangula  histrionica).  A 
species  of  garrot  which  receives  its  name  from 
its  variegated  markings.  It  is  found  in  the  arctic 
regions,  and  in  winter  comes  as  far  south  as  the 
Bay  of  Fundy. 

Harmattan.  A  Fantee  name  for  a  singular 
periodical  easterly  wind  which  prevails  on  the 
west  coast  of  Africa,  generally  in  December, 


January,  and  February ;  it  is  dry,  though 
always  accompanied  by  haze,  the  result  of  fine 
red  dust  suspended  in  the  atmosphere  and  ob 
scuring  the  sun  ;  this  wind  is  opposed  to  the  sea- 
breeze,  which  would  otherwise  blow  fresh  from 
the  west  on  to  the  land. 

Harmony  of  the  Spheres.  The  ancients  sup 
posed  the  motions  of  the  stars  and  planets  to  pro 
duce  a  kind  of  music,  which  they  called  the  har 
mony  of  the  spheres. 

Harness.  An  old  term  for  the  furniture  of  a 
ship. 

Harness-cask.  A  large  conical  tub  for  con 
taining  the  salt  provisions  intended  for  present 
consumption.  Alluding  to  the  beef,  which  is 
often  called  salt-horse,  it  has  been  described  as 
the  tub  where  the  horse,  and  not  the  harness,  is 
kept. 

Harp-cock.  An  old  modification  of  the  har 
poon. 

Harpins.  A  continuation  of  the  ribbands  at 
the  fore  and  after  extremities  of  the  ship,  fixed 
to  keep  the  cant-frames,  etc.,  in  position  until 
the  outside  planking  is  worked. 

Harpoon,  or  Harpago.  A  spear  or  javelin 
with  a  barbed  point,  used  to  strike  whales  and 
other  fish.  The  harpoon  is  furnished  with  a 
long  shank,  and  has  at  one  end  a  broad  and  fiat 
triangular  head,  sharpened  at  both  edges  so  as 
to  penetrate  the  whale  with  facility,  but  blunt 
behind  to  prevent  its  cutting  out.  To  the  other 
end  a  fore-ganger  is  bent,  to  which  is  fastened  a 
long  cord  called  the  whale-line,  which  lies  care 
fully  coiled  in  the  boat  in  such  a  manner  as  to 
run  out  without  being  interrupted  or  entangled. 
Several  coils,  each  130  fathoms,  of  whale-line 
(soft  laid  and  of  clean  silky  fibre)  are  in  readi 
ness;  the  instant  the  whale  is  struck  the  men 
cant  the  oars,  so  that  the  roll  may  not  immerse 
them  in  the  water.  The  line,  which  has  a  turn 
round  the  bollard,  fiies  like  lightning,  and  is 
intently  watched.  One  man  pours  water  on 
the  smoking  bollard,  another  is  ready  with  a 
sharp  ax  to  cut,  and  the  others  see  that  the  line 
runs  free.  Seven  or  eight  coils  have  been  run 
out  before  the  whale  "sounds,"  or  strikes  bot 
tom,  when  he  rises  again  to  breathe,  and  probably 
gets  a  similar  dose. 

HARPOON,  GUN-.  A  weapon  used  for  the 
same  purpose  as  the  preceding,  but  it  is  fired 
out  of  a  gun,  instead  of  being  thrown  by  hand  ; 
it  is  made  entirely  of  steel,  and  has  a  chain  or 
long  shackle  attached  to  it,  to  which  the  whale- 
line  is  fastened.  Greener's  harpoon-gun  is  a 
kind  of  wall-piece  fixed  in  a  crutch,  which 
steps  into  the  bow-bollard  of  the  whale-boat. 
The  harpoon  projects  about  four  inches  beyond 
the  muzzle.  It  consists  of  its  barbed  point 
attached  to  a  long  link,  with  a  solid  button  at 
its  opposite  end  to  fit  the  gun  ;  on  one  rod  of 
this  link  is  a  ring  which  runs  to  the  muzzle,  and 
is  there  attached  "to  the  whale-line  by  a  thong  of 
seal-  or  walrus-hide,  wet.  The  gun  being  fired, 
the  harpoon  is  projected,  the  ring  sliding  up  to 
the  button,  when  the  line  follows.  Some  of 
these  harpoons  or  other  engines  have  grenades, 
— glass  globules  with  prussic  acid  or  other  chemi 
cals,  which  sicken  the  whale  instantly,  and  little 
trouble  ensues. 

HARPOONER,  HARPONEER,  or  HARPINEER. 
The  expert  bowman  in  a  whale-boat,  whose  duty 
it  is  to  throw  or  fire  the  harpoon. 


HAKP-SEAL 


339 


HASTINGS 


Harp-seal.  The  Phoca  gr<znlandica,  a  species 
of  seal  from  the  Arctic  seas ;  so  called  from  the 
form  of  a  dark-brown  mark  upon  its  back. 

Harp-shell  (Harpa}.  A  genus  of  gasteropo- 
dous  mollusks  of  the  whelk  family.  The  shells 
are  much  prized  on  account  of  their  great  beauty. 

Harr,  or  Harl.  A  cold,  thick  mist  or  fog  in 
easterly  winds  ;  the  haar. 

Harriot,  Thomas.  A  man  of  high  repute  as 
an  algebraist  and  astronomer.  He  accompanied 
the  expedition  to  Virginia,  under  Sir  Richard 
Grenville,  in  1585,  and  wrote  an  interesting  ac 
count  of  it1*  transactions.  He  made  a  careful 
examination  of  the  natural  productions  of  the 
Carolinas  and  Virginia,  and  was  the  first  to  in 
troduce  tobacco  and  the  potato  to  the  knowledge 
of  Europe.  Harriot  tried  also  to  explain  the 
doctrines  of  the  Bible  to  the  Indians  of  America, 
but  because  of  the  little  community  of  language 
between  the  two  races  his  missionary  efforts  were 
unproductive. 

Harrison,  Napoleon  B.,  Captain  U.S.N. 
Born  in  Virginia,  February  19,  1823 ;  died  at 
Key  West,  Fla,,  November  1,  1870.  Midship 
man,  February  26,  1838;  lieutenant,  January  6, 
1853  ;  commodore,  July  16,  1862  ;  captain,  April 
28, 1868.  Served  in  California  during  the  Mexi 
can  war;  commanding  "Cayuga,"  flag-ship  of 
Capt.  Bailey,  and  led  the  line  in  passage  of  Forts 
Jackson  and  St.  Philip  to  the  city  of  New  Or 
leans,  and  specially  commended  for  gallantry 
and  skill  in  official  reports  ;  commanding  steamer 
"  Mahaska"  in  James  River  Flotilla;  steam- 
frigate  "Minnesota,"  North  Atlantic  Blockad 
ing  Squadron,  1862-63;  attached  to  South  At 
lantic  Blockading  Squadron,  1863-65,  and  took 
part  in  the  operations  on  the  South  Carolina 
coast  up  to  the  fall  of  Charleston;  commandant 
of  midshipmen,  Naval  Academy,  Annapolis, 
1868-69. 

Harry-net.  A  net  with  such  small  meshes 
and  so  formed  as  to  take  even  the  young  and 
small  fish. 

Hartlepool,  Durham  County,  England,  19 miles 
E.S.E.  of  Durham,  is  situated  on  an  isolated 
promontory  on  the  North  Sea.  The  promontory 
curves  so  as  to  form  a  natural  harbor,  and  pre 
sents  from  its  high  and  singularly  excavated 
cliffs  magnificent  sea  and  land  views.  It  has  a 
large  export  trade  in  coals,  and  imports  Baltic 
produce,  wools,  and  other  staples.  Pop.  13,200. 

Hartstene,  Henry.  Born  in  South  Carolina ; 
died  in  Paris,  March  31,  1868.  Midshipman, 
April  1,  1828;  lieutenant,  February  23,  1840. 
He  was  in  1851  attached  to  the  coast  survey, 
and  afterward  commanded  the  mail-steamer  "  Il 
linois."  In  1855  he  was  sent  to  the  Arctic  regions 
in  search  of  Dr.  Kane  and  his  party,  whom  he 
rescued  and  brought  to  New  York.  In  1856  he 
was  ordered  to  convey  to  England  the  British 
exploring-bark  "  Resolute,"  which,  after  having 
been  abandoned  in  the  Arctic  ice,  had  been  res 
cued  by  a  New  London  whaler,  and  purchased 
of  her  salvors  by  Congress  as  a  present  to  the 
British  government.  He  was  afterwards  em 
ployed  in  taking  soundings  for  the  Atlantic 
telegraph  cable.  At  the  outbreak  of  the  civil 
war  he  resigned,  entered  the  Confederate  navy, 
and  in  the  summer  of  1862  became  insane. 

Harvest-moon.  The  full  moon  nearest  the 
autumnal  equinox,  when  for  several  successive 
evenings  she  rises  at  the  same  hour  ;  this  name 


is  given  in  consequence  of  the  supposed  advan 
tage  of  the  additional  length  of  moonlight  to 
agriculture. 

Harwich.  A  seaport  town  in  Essex  County, 
England.  The  harbor  is  among  the  best  on  the 
east  coast  of  England,  and  is  defended  by  a  strong 
fort  and  battery.  Considerable  ship-building  is 
carried  on,  and  it  has  large  manufactories  of 
cement.  Pop.  6100. 

Harwood,  Andrew  Allen,  Rear-Admiral 
U.S.N.  Born  in  Pennsylvania,  and  appointed 
midshipman  from  same  State,  January  1,  1818  ; 
served  in  the  gun-brig  "  Saranac,"  on  the  Amelia 
Island  Station,  1818;  sloop-of-war  "Hornet," 
1819-21,  during  which  time  said  ship  was  chiefly 
engaged  in  cruising  for  the  suppression  of  the 
African  slave-trade,  and  of  piracy  in  the  West 
Indies;  navy-yard,  Philadelphia,  and  receiving- 
ship  "  North  Carolina,"  in  1822  ;  steamer  "  Sea- 
Gull"  and  barges  belonging  to  the  expedition 
under  Commodore  Porter,  against  the  West  In 
dia  pirates,  1823 ;  on  July  3,  of  that  year,  as 
sisted  in  the  capture  of  the  piratical  schooner 
"  Catalina,"  of  3  guns,  and  her  barge,  by 
the  barges  "  Gallinipper"  and  "  Musquito"  in 
Signapa  Bay;  frigate  "Constitution,"  in  the 
Mediterranean,  1824-27, — in  the  latter  part  of 
this  service  as  acting  master. 

Commissioned  as  lieutenant,  March  3,  1827 ; 
receiving-ship,  Philadelphia,  1828-30;  navy- 
yard,  New  York,  1831-32;  frigate  "United 
States,"  Mediterranean  Squadron,  1832-33;  de 
tached  as  special  messenger  to  bring  home  the 
ratified  treaty  with  Naples  ;  frigate  "  Potomac," 
schooner  "  Shark,"  and  frigate  "Constitution," 
Mediterranean  Squadron,  1835-37  ;  New  York 
Station  on  special  service,  1840-43  ;  assistant  in 
spector  of  ordnance,  1843-52;  in  1844,  member 
of  a  commission  to  visit  dock-yards  and  foun 
dries  in  England  and  France,  and  report  on  ord 
nance  improvements. 

Commissioned  as  commander,  October  2, 1848 ; 
in  1851-52,  member  of  a  board  appointed  to  pre 
pare  the  ordnance  instructions  for  the  navy,  and 
to  make  the  necessary  investigations  and  ex 
periments ;  commanded  frigate  "Cumberland," 
Mediterranean  Squadron,  1853-55. 

Commissioned  as  captain,  September  14, 1855; 
inspector  of  ordnance,  1858-61  ;  member  of  a 
board  to  revise  the  ordnance  instructions, 'and 
prepare  a  new  edition. 

Commissioned  as  chief  of  the  Bureau  of  Ord 
nance  and  Hydrography,  August  6,  1861. 

Commissioned  as  commodore,  July  16,  1862 ; 
commandant  navy-yard,  Washington,  and  of  the 
Potomac  Flotilla,  1862-63 ;  secretary  Light- 
House  Board,  and  member  of  Examining  Board, 
1864-69. 

Commissioned  as  rear-admiral,  February  16; 
1869 ;  member  of  Retiring  Board  and  on  special 
duty  at  Washington,  1869-72;  retired  October 
9,  1864. 

Hasega.     A  corruption  of  asseguay. 

Hask.     An  archaism  for  a  fish-basket. 

Hasp.  A  semicircular  clamp  turning  in  an 
eye-bolt  in  the  stem  head  of  a  sloop  or  boat,  and 
fastened  by  a  forelock  in  order  to  secure  the  bow 
sprit  down  to  the  bows. 

Hastan.     The  term  for  a  large  eel  or  conger. 

Hastings.  One  of  the  Cinque  Ports  of  Eng 
land,  in  Sussex  County,  on  the  English  Channel. 
The  town  formerly  had  an  extensive  trade,  fine 


HASTY-PUDDING 


340 


HAWSE 


docks,  and  ship-yards,  but  is  now  chiefly  noted 
as  a  bathing-place.  Pop.  29,500. 

Hasty-pudding.  A  batter  made  of  flour  or 
oatmeal  stirred  in  boiling  water,  and  eaten  with 
molasses  or  sugar. 

Hatch.  A  half  door.  A  contrivance  for 
catching  salmon.  Any  aperture  in  the  deck, 
more  than  two  feet  square  ;  a  hatchway.  A  cov 
ering  for  a  hatchway.  To  batten  down  the  hatches, 
to  place  tarpaulins  over  them  and  secure  the  tar 
paulins  with  nails  and  battens.  Under  hatches, 
a  term  for  being  under  suspension  or  arrest, — 
applied  to  officers. 

Hatch-boat.  A  sort  of  small  vessel  known 
as  a  pilot-boat,  having  a  deck  composed  almost 
entirely  of  hatches. 

Hatch-rings.  Kings  to  lift  the  hatches  by,  or 
replace  them. 

Hatchway.    See  HATCH. 

HATCHWAY-STOPPER.     See  STOPPER. 

Haul.  To  pull ;  to  drag.  The  wind  hauls 
when  it  changes  its  direction  with  the  sun.  A 
ship  is  hauled  up  when  her  course  is  so  changed 
that  her  head  lies  nearer  the  wind.  A  ship  hauls 
her  wind  when  from  sailing  large  she  is  brought 
by  the  wind.  To  haul  off,  to  remove  to  a  greater 
distance.  To  haul  aboard  a  tack,  to  bring  the 
weather-clew  of  a  course  down  to  the  tack-block ; 
to  set  the  sail. 

HAUL-BOWLING.  An  old  name  for  an  able- 
bodied  seaman. 

HAU LING-DOWN  VACANCY  (Eng.}.  The  col 
loquialism  expressive  of  the  promotion  of  a  flag- 
lieutenant  and  midshipman  on  an  admiral's  haul 
ing  down  his  flag  at  the  expiration  of  a  cruise. 
This  custom  is  now  obsolete. 

HAULING-LINE.  A  light  line  sent  down  from 
a  yard,  top,  etc.,  to  which  a  small  article  is  bent 
to  be  hauled  up. 

HAUL- YARDS.     See  HALLIARDS. 

Haunch.  A  sudden  fall  or  break,  as  from  the 
drifts  forward  and  aft  to  the  waist.  The  same  as 
hance. 

Havana.  The  capital  city  of  Cuba,  the 
largest  of  the  West  Indies  group  of  islands. 
Lat.  23°  9'  4"  N. ;  Ion.  82D  22/  W.  Pop.  203,- 
000.  The  harbor  is  capable  of  holding  a  thousand 
large  ships,  and  is  defended  by  the  Morro  and 
Punta  castles  and  other  fortifications.  Havana 
is  chiefly  noted  for  its  cigars,  which  have  uni 
versal  celebrity.  The  trade  is  mainly  with  the 
United  States,  and  steamers  ply  constantly  be 
tween  Havana,  New  York,  New  Orleans,  Gal- 
veston,  Baltimore,  and  Philadelphia. 

Haven  (Anglo-Saxon,  hcefen).  A  safe  refuge 
from  the  violence  of  wind  'and  sea  ;  much  the 
same  as  harbor,  though  of  less  importance.  A 
good  anchorage  rather  than  a  place  of  perfect 
shelter. 

Havenent.     A  small  haven. 

Haven-screamer.  The  sea-gull,  called  hcefen 
by  the  Anglo-Saxons. 

Havre,  in  Seine-Inferieure,  France,  at  the  en 
trance  of  the  Seine  into  the  English  Channel. 
Lat.  49°  29'  16"  N.  ;  Ion.  0°  V  9"  E.  The  for 
tifications  are  very  extensive  and  complete.  The 
harbor  contains  five  large  basins,  not  including 
the  outer  port.  Among  the  principal  institutions 
are  a  school  of  navigation  and  one  of  geometry 
as  applied  to  the  arts.  A  great  number  of  sail 
ing-vessels  and  steamers  are  fitted  out  at  the 
building-yards  here.  Havre  is  the  port  of  Paris, 


and  regular  lines  of  steamers  ply  between  here 
and  New  York,  Havana,  Brazil,  Calcutta,  and 
China.  Pop.  92,100. 

Hawke,  Edward  (Baron).  A  British  admiral 
of  high  repute.  Before  he  had  completed  his 
twentieth  year  his  talent  and  conduct  procured 
him  the  command  of  a  ship.  At  Toulon,  in 
1749,  he  broke  the  line  of  a  Spanish  fleet  and 
captured  one  of  the  ships  of  the  enemy.  But  as 
in  this  he  had  violated  orders  he  was  sentenced 
to  dismissal  by  a  court-martial.  George  III.  re 
stored  him,  as  he  was  too  valuable  an  officer  to 
be  turned  adrift  for  an  error  in  judgment.  Naval 
history  credits  Hawke  with  two  or  three  victories 
over  the  French,  the  most  remarkable  of  which 
was  gained  in  Quiberon  Bay.  An  invasion  of 
England  was  meditated  in  1759,  but  Hawke,  by 
his  promptitude  and  daring,  anticipated  the 
event.  He  rose  to  be  a  vice-admiral,  first  lord 
of  the  Admiralty,  and  a  member  of  the  peerage. 

Hawk's-bill  (Chelone  irnbricata}.  A  well- 
known  turtle  frequenting  the  Atlantic  and  In 
dian  Oceans,  so  named  from  having  a  small 
mouth  like  the  beak  of  a  hawk  ;  it  produces  the 
tortoise-shell  of  commerce.  The  flesh  is  indif 
ferent,  but  the  eggs  very  good. 

Hawse.  The  situationof  the  cables  when  the 
ship  is  moored  with  an  anchor  on  each  bow. 
That  portion  of  a  vessel's  bow  through  which 
the  hawse-holes  are  cut.  In  the  hawse,  or  athwart 
the  hawse,  a  short  distance  in  advance  of  the  cut 
water.  A  ship  has  a  bold  hawse  when  the  hawse- 
holes  are  high  out  of  water.  To  freshen  the 
hawse,  to  veer  out  a  little  more  cable  and  bring 
the  chafe  and  strain  on  another  part.  To  ride 
hawse-fallen  is  to  ride  at  anchor  with  the  water 
coming  in  at  the  hawse-holes  carrying  every 
thing  before  it.  Hiding  hawse-full,  pitching 
bows  under.  The  hawse  is  clear  when  both 
chains  lead  direct  to  their  respective  anchors,  and 
either  anchor  can  be  picked  up  without  fouling. 
When  the  hawse  is  clear,  and  the  ship  .brings  a 
strain  on  both  chains,  her  head  bisecting  the 
angle  between  them,  the  hawse  is  open.  When 
the  chains  are  so  crossed  or  intertwined  that  the 
hawse  must  be  cleared  before  the  anchors  can  be 
hove  up,  the  hawse  is  foul.  If  from  an  open 
hawse  a  ship  swings  180°  she  brings  a  cross  in  the 
hawse,  a  second  half-swing  in  the  same  direction 
makes  an  elbow,  a  third,  a  round  turn,  a  fourth,  a 
round  turn  and  an  elbow,  and  so  on.  The  hawse 
should  be  cleared  before  the  turns  accumulate  to 
such  a  degree  as  to  render  the  operation  difficult. 
In  the  days  of  rope-cables,  clearing  hawse  was  a 
tedious  operation,  but  -chain-cables,  with  their 
shackles  at  every  15  fathoms,  enable  it  to  be  done 
much  more  rapidly.  A  cross  cannot  be  cleared  ; 
when  unmooring  in  such  a  case  the  anchor  to  the 
under  chain  must  be  hove  up  first ;  if  necessary 
to  heave  up  the  other  anchor  first,  one  of  the 
chains  must  be  unshackled  and  dipped.  If  the 
mooring-swivel  be  used,  the  hawse  never  gets 
foul,  but  there  are  some  objections  to  its  use.  See 
MOORING-SWIVEL. 

HAWSK-BAG.  A  canvas  bag  filled  with  oakum, 
used  in  heavy  seas  to  stop  the  hawse-hole  and 
prevent  the  water  coming  in.  See  JACK-ASS. 

HAWSE-BLOCK.  A  buckler  or  piece  of  wood 
made  to  tit  over  the  hawse-hole  when  at  sea  to 
back  the  hawse-plug. 

HAWSE-BOLSTER.  Pieces  of  oak  timber  fayed 
to  the  curvature  of  the  bow  under  the  hawse- 


HAWSEE 


341 


HEAD 


holes  to  prevent  the  cables  from  damaging  the 
lower  cheeks.  They  are  generally  ironed. 

HAWSE-BOXING,  or  NAVAL  HOOD.  Hawse- 
boxing  is  not  used  nowadays  ;  it  was  formerly  a 
projection  left  upon  the  hawse-timbers  in  the 
wake  of  the  hawse-holes,  the  thickness  of  the 
planking  inside  and  outside  against  which  the 
planking  butted.  The  purpose  of  boxing  is  now 
answered  by  the  use  of  a  lead  pipe  turned  down 
and  secured  inside  and  outside. 

HAWSE-BUCKLER.     See  BUCKLER. 

HAWSE-FULL.  Riding  hawse-full,  pitching 
bows  under. 

HAWSE-HOLES.  The  holes  at  the  fore  part  of 
the  ship  through  which  the  cables  pass. 

HAWSE-HOOK.  The  breast-hook  over  the 
hawse-holes. 

HAWSE-PIECES.  Pieces  in  the  frame,  to  the 
number  of  from  three  to  six,  next  aft  of  the 
knight-heads,  through  which  the  hawse-holes  are 
cut. 

HAWSE-PIPES.  Iron  pipes  fitted  in  the  hawse- 
holes  to  prevent  the  cable  from  cutting  the  wood  ; 
a  lead  lining  is  placed  under  the  iron  pipes. 

HAWSE-PLUG.  A  block  of  wood  made  to  fit 
into  the  hawse-pipe,  and  put  in  from  the  outside 
to  stop  the  hawse,  and  thereby  prevent  the  water 
from  washing  into  the  manger.  The  plug,  coated 
with  old  canvas,  is  first  inserted,  then  a  mat  or 
swab,  and  over  it  the  buckler  or  shield,  which 
bolts  upward  and  downward  into  the  breast- 
hooks. 

HAWSE-TIMBERS.  The  upright  timbers 
through  which  the  hawse-holes  are  cut. 

HAWSE-WOOD.  A  general  name  for  the  hawse- 
timbers. 

Hawser.  A  rope  11  inches  or  less  in  circum 
ference,  being  composed  of  three  plain-laid  ropes 
laid  up  left-handed.  Plain-laid  ropes  of  corre 
sponding  sizes  are  called  tow-lines. 

HAWSER-LAID  ROPE.  Cable-laid,  or9-stranded 
left-handed  rope.  In  England,  hawser-laid  rope 
is  3-  or  4-stranded  right-handed  rope. 

Haye.  A  peculiar  ground  shark  on  the  coast 
of  Guinea. 

Hayler.     An  archaism  for  halliards. 

Haze.     A  light  mist. 

Head.  The  upper  part  of  anything;  as,  mast 
head,  timber-head,  etc.  An  ornamental  figure 
at  the  bow  of  a  ship  ;  as,  figure-head,  scroll-head, 
etc.  Also,  in  a  more  extensive  sense  the  whole 
fore  part  of  a  ship.  The  name  is  also  applied  to 
that  portion  of  a  ship,  on  each  side  the  bowsprit, 
which  is  set  apart  for  the  convenience  of  the 
ship's  company.  The  upper  part  of  a  gulf,  bay, 
etc.  The  wind  heads  a  ship  when  it  causes  her 
to  break  off  from  her  course.  A  ship  is  trimmed 
by  the  head  when  she  draws  more  water  forward 
than  aft.  A  ship  heads  in  the  direction  marked 
out  by  her  keel. 

In  mechanics,  the  height  of  the  surface  of  a 
confined  liquid  of  uniform  density  above  any 
point  at  which  its  static  or  dynamic  effect,  such 
as  pressure  against  the  confining  structure  or  the 
velocity  of  flow  of  an  issuing  stream,  are  ob 
served  or  applied,  as,  for  instance,  the  water- 
pressure  at  any  part  of  a  ship's  side  or  bottom,  or 
the  flow  of  water  from  a  flume  to  a  water-wheel. 
The  pressure  upon  any  stated  surface  is  due  to 
the  weight  of  a  column  of  the  liquid  having  an 
area  of  base  equal  to  such  surface,  and  a  height 
equal  to  that  of  the  head ;  and  the  velocity  of 


flow  may,  by  neglecting  the  resistance  of  friction, 
contracted  vein,  etc.,  be  computed  by  the  well- 
known  formula  v=  y'lgh,  where  v  =  velocity,  g 
=  gravity  acceleration,  and  A  =  the  height. 

Head  of  steam  commonly  refers  to  the  pressure 
of  steam  above  that  of  the  atmosphere.  It  may, 
however,  in  computations  relating  to  velocity 
of  outflow,  etc.,  be  considered  as  the  height  of 
an  imaginary  column  of  steam  of  uniform  den 
sity  due  to  the  pressure,  arid  of  corresponding 
weight. 

HEAD  AND  GUN  MONEY  (Eng. ) .  An  encourage 
ment  in  the  prize  acts  by  which  £5  a  head  is 
given  to  the  captors  for  every  person  on  board  a 
captured  vessel  of  war  or  pirate. 

HEAD-BOARDS.  Boards  placed  at  the  forward 
and  after  ends  of  the  hammock  nettings.  The 
close  boarding  between  the  head-rails. 

HEAD-CRINGLES.  Earing-cringles  at  the  upper 
clews  or  corners  of  a  sail. 

HEAD-EARING.     See  EARING. 

HEADER.  The  person  in  the  Newfoundland 
fishing-vessels  who  is  engaged  to  cut  open  the 
fish,  tear  out  the  entrails,  break  off  the  head,  and 
pass  it  over  to  the  splitter,  who  sits  opposite  to 
him.  A  dive  head  foremost  into  the  water. 

HEAD-FAST.  A  rope  or  chain  employed  to 
fasten  the  head  of  a  ship  or  boat  to  a  wharf  or 
buoy,  or  to  some  other  vessel  alongside. 

HEAD-HOLES.  The  eyelet-holes  in  the  head 
of  a  sail ;  they  are  worked  button-hole  fashion, 
over  grommets  of  twine  of  several  thicknesses. 

HEAD-KNEE.  The  knee  of  the  head,  or  the 
cut- water,  may  be  defined  as  a  continuation  of  the 
stem.  It  is  fayed  and  bolted  to  the  stem,  and  se 
cured  to  the  bows  of  the  ship  by  strong  knees, 
called  cheek-knees.  The  heel  is  scarfed  to  the 
fore-foot,  and  it  is  also  secured  to  the  upper 
part  of  the  stem  by  a  knee  which  is  called  the 
lacing. 

HEADLAND.  'Wherever  the  coast  presents  a 
high  cliffy  salient  angle  to  the  sea,  without 
projecting  far  into  it,  it  is  called  a  headland; 
but  if  the  point  be  low,  it  is  a  spit,  tongue,  or 
point. 

HEAD-LEDGES.  The  ath wart-ship  pieces  which 
frame  the  hatchways. 

HEADMOST.  The  situation  of  any  ship  or 
ships  which  are  the  most  advanced  in  a  fleet,  or 
line  of  battle.  The  opposite  of  stem-most. 

HEAD-NETTING.  An  ornamental  netting  used 
in  merchant  ships  instead  of  the  fayed  planking 
to  the  head-rails. 

HEAD-PUMP.  A  small  pump  fixed  at  the  ves 
sel's  bow,  its  lower  end  communicating  with  the 
sea  ;  it  is  mostly  used  for  washing  decks. 

HEAD-RAILS.  Those  rails  which  extend  from 
the  back  of  the  figure-head  to  the  bows. 

HEAD-ROPE.  That  part  of  a  bolt-rope  which 
terminates  any  sail  on  the  upper  edge,  and  to 
which  it  is  sewed. 

HEAD-SAILS.  A  general  name  for  all  those 
sails  which  may  be  set  on  the  bowsprit,  jib,  and 
flying  jib-boom,  and  employed  to  influence  the 
fore  part  of  a  ship. 

HEAD  SEA.  A  name  given  to  the  waves  when 
they  oppose  a  ship's  course.  Their  effect  depends 
upon  their  height,  form,  and  speed  ;  sometimes 
they  are  steep,  quick,  and  irregular,  so  that  a 
ship  is  caught  by  a  second  before  she  has  recov 
ered  from  the  first ;  these  render  her  wet  and 
uneasy. 


HEALD 


342 


HEEL 


HEAD-SHEETS.     The  sheets  of  the  head-sails. 

HEAD-STICK.  A  short  round  stick  with  a  hole 
at  each  end,  through  which  the  head-rope  of  some 
triangular  sails  is  thrust  before  it  is  sewed  on. 
Its  use  is  to  prevent  the  head  of  the  sail  from 
twisting. 

HEAD-TIMBERS.  Small  timbers  used  in  build 
ing  up  the  head,  situated  on  each  side  to  receive 
the  planking. 

HEADWAY.  A  term  to  express  the  progress 
of  a  vessel  in  a  forward  direction. 

HEAD-WIND.  A  breeze  blowing  from  the 
direction  of  the  ship's  intended  course. 

HEAD-YARDS.     The  yards  on  the  foremast. 

Heald.     The  heel  over  of  a  grounded  ship. 

Heart.  A  small  strand  around  which  the 
four  strands  of  shroud-laid  rope  are  laid.  A  pe 
culiar  sort  of  block,  having  one  large  hole  in  the 
centre  and  a  groove  around  the  circumference. 
Collar-hearts  are  open  at  the  end  opposite  the 
laniard. 

HEART- YARNS.     The  centre  yarns  of  a  strand. 

Hearty.  Open  and  free.  My  hearties,  a  cheer 
ful  salute  to  shipmates  and  seamen  in  general. 

Heath.  Various  broom-stuffs  used  in  bream 
ing. 

Heave.  To  throw  ;  to  cast ;  to  push ;  to  cause 
to  move  by  the  application  of  force ;  to  force 
from  or  into  any  position.  To  heave  short,  to  haul 
in  cable  till  the  ship  is  nearly  over  the  anchor. 
To  heave  down,  to  cause  a  vessel  to  careen  by  ap 
plying  tackles  to  her  masts.  (See  HEAVING 
DOWN.)  To  heave  to,  to  bring  a  vessel's  head  to 
the  wind  and  adjust  the  sails  so  she  will  remain 
stationary,  or  nearly  so  ;  to  put  a  vessel  in  the  po 
sition  of  lying  to.  To  heave  in  sight,  to  come  in 
sight.  To  heave  up,  to  throw  up  ;  to  vomit ;  also, 
to  raise ;  as,  to  heave  up  the  anchor.  To  heave 
ahead,  to  cause  a  ship  to  move  forward  by  manual 
force.  To  heave  in  stays,  to  put  a  vessel  about  by 
tacking.  To  heave  about,  to  put  about  suddenly. 
Heave  and  aweigh,  an  encouraging  call  implying 
that  the  next  heave  will  break  the  anchor  out. 
Heave  and  awash,  implies  that  the  next  heave  will 
bring  the  anchor  in  sight.  Heave  and  pawl,  an 
order  to  heave  at  the  capstan  till  the  next  pawl 
drops.  Heave  and  rally,  an  injunction  to  the  men 
at  the  capstan  to  exert  themselves.  Heave  out, 
turn  out ;  to  get  out  of  bed.  Heave  the  lead,  to 
take  soundings  with  the  hand-lead.  Heave  the 
log,  to  determine  the  ship's  velocity  by  means  of 
the  log-line  and  time-glass.  To  heave  in,  to 
shorten  in  the  cable.  Heaving  and  setting,  the 
up-and-down  motion  of  the  waves,  or  the  similar 
motion  of  a  ship,  produced  by  the  waves.  Heav 
ing  through  all,  the  surging  and  slipping  of  the 
cable  when  the  nippers  do  not  hold. 

Heaver.  A  short  wooden  bar  used  as  a 
lever. 

Heaving  Down.  The  process  of  placing  a 
vessel  upon  her  side  for  the  purpose  of  calking 
or  repairing.  This  only  becomes  necessary  when 
access  to  docking  facilities  cannot  be  obtained, 
and  it  is  seldom  resorted  to  at  the  present  day 
except  with  the  smaller  class  of  vessels.  The 
process  is  practicable  with  sailing-vessels  only. 

A  vessel  may  be  hove  down  or  careened  to  a 
wharf  or  a  hulk  fitted  for  the  purpose.  Prepara 
tions  must  be  made  to  prevent  injury  to  the 
masts  and  hull  by  straining  by  removing  all 
weights  except  such  as  may  be  required  to  assist 
in  careening  the  vessel.  All  masts  and  yards 


above  the  lower  masts  must  be  sent  down,  and 
those  which  are  not  required  for  shoring  or 
strengthening  the  lower  masts  taken  out  of  the 
vessel.  The  decks  must  be  supported  by  shores 
wherever  they  are  to  be  subjected  to  unusual 
strain. 

The  wedges  are  removed  from  the  masts,  and 
the  latter  are  carried  over  against  the  partners  on 
the  offshore  side.  The  lower  masts  are  sup 
ported  by  spars,  which  rest  upon  the  water-ways 
on  the  inshore  side  of  the  deck,  and  are  lashed 
to  the  trestle-trees.  The  deck  underneath  these 
shores  must  be  supported,  and  shores  should  also 
be  firmly  wedged  between  the  heels  of  the  lower 
masts  and  the  offshore  or  upper  side,  to  prevent 
any  strain  at  the  step.  Additional  shrouds 
should  be  placed  over  the  mast-heads  and  set  up 
to  convenient  places  on  the  vessel's  side,  as  the 
gun-deck  ports  or  the  air-ports,  and  an  equal 
strain  must  be  placed  upon  all  the  shrouds. 
Hawsers  or  chains  may  also  be  used  as  shrouds 
by  setting  them  up  to  heavy  bolts  driven  into 
the  side  abreast  of  each  mast,  the  angle  of  sup 
port  being  increased  by  means  of  outriggers  or 
spars  projecting  through  the  ports.  Arrange 
ments  must  be  made  for  pumping  the  water  from 
the  vessel  while  she  is  careened,  and  the  seams, 
on  the  side  which  is  to  be  immersed,  should  be 
calked  to  prevent  leakage. 

The  vessel  should  be  moored  by  cables  passed 
under  the  bottom  and  secured  through  the  spar- 
deck  ports  on  the  inshore  side,  and  by  hawsers 
at  the  bow  and  stern. 

The  upper  blocks  of  the  purchases  are  lashed 
to  the  mast-heads,  and  the  lower  blocks  secured 
to  the  wharf.  The  distance  between  the  latter 
must  be  the  same  as  the  distances  between  the 
upper  blocks.  A  vessel  with  three  masts  requires 
purchases  only  on  the  foremast  and  mainmast, 
but  preventer  purchases  should  be  used  as  a 
precaution  against  accident. 

The  mast-heads  are  hove  down  to  the  required 
position  by  means  of  capstans  or  other  mechani 
cal  powers. — E.  T.  Strong,  Lieutenant  U.S.N. 

Heavy.  Heavy  metal,  guns  of  great  calibre. 
Heavy  sea,  high  and  strong  waves.  Heavy  gale, 
a  violent  storm  blowing  from  35  to  60  miles  an 
hour;  indicated  by  11  on  the  Beaufort  scale. 

Heck-boat.  The  old  term  for  a  pink.  Lat 
terly  a  clincher-built  boat  with  covered  fore- 
sheets,  and  one  mast  with  a  trysail. 

Heckle.  To  dress  flax  for  rope-making.  Also, 
an  artificial  fly  for  fishing. 

Heckle-back.  A  name  of  the  fifteen-spined 
stickleback  (Gasterosteus  spinachia). 

Heda.  An  early  term  for  a  small  haven, 
wharf,  or  landing-place. 

Hedgehog.  A  name  formerly  applied  to  a 
vessel  which  rowed  with  many  oars. 

Heel.  The  part  of  a  thing  corresponding  in 
position  to  the  human  heel ;  as,  the  after  end  of 
the  keel,  the  lower  part  of  a  mast,  bowsprit,  etc. 
To  heel,  to  lie  over  ;  to  be  inclined  out  of  the  per 
pendicular  ;  usually  applied  to  a  ship  when  she 
has  a  list,  caused  by  the  force  of  the  wind.  To  have 
the  heels  of,  to  be  able  to  sail  faster  than.  To 
show  the  heels  (or  a  clean  pair  of  heels],  to  out 
sail  ;  to  sail  away  from ;  to  outstrip  in  a  race  or 
in  a  chase. 

HE  EL-BRACE.  A  piece  of  iron-work  appli 
cable  to  the  lower  end  of  the  rudder  in  case  of 
damage  to  the  lower  supports. 


HEIGHT 


343 


HENRY 


HEEL-KNEE.  The  knee  that  is  bolted  to  the 
stern-post  and  keel ;  the  stern-post  knee. 

HEEL-LASHINX  A  lashing  to  secure  the  inner 
end  of  a  boom  when  it  is  rigged  out. 

HEEL  OF  THE  POST.  The  name  usually  given 
to  the  after  end  of  the  ship's  keel,  as  well  as  the 
lower  end  of  the  stern-post. 

HEEL-POST.  The  post  supporting  the  outer 
end  of  a  propeller. 

HEEL-ROPE.  A  line  to  the  heel  of  a  topgallant 
mast  to  assist  in  sending  it  down.  A  line  at 
tached  to  the  heel  of  a  boom  to  rig  it  out. 

HEEL-TACKLE.  A  purchase  hooked  to  the 
heel  of  a  heavy  boom  to  rig  it  out.  A  tackle  to 
secure  the  heel  of  a  sheer-leg  in  masting. 

Height.  Height  of  the  tide,  the  difference  in 
the  level  of  high  and  low  water, — the  range  of 
the  tide.  Height  of  a  wave,  the  distance  from 
the  crest  to  the  hollow.  Height  of  the  hold,  an 
expression  sometimes  used  for  depth  of  the  hold. 

Heliacal.  A  star  rises  heliacally  when  it  first 
becomes  visible  in  the  morning,  after  having 
been  liiddeii  in  the  sun's  rays  ;  and  it  sets  heliac 
ally  when  it  is  first  lost  in  the  evening  twilight, 
owing  to  the  sun's  proximity. 

Helier.     A  cavern  into  which  the  tide  flows. 

Heliocentric.  Concentric  with  the  sun.  See 
GEOCENTRIC. 

Heliometer.  An  instrument  designed  for  the 
accurate  measurement  of  the  diameters  of  the 
sun  or  planets. 

Heliostat,  or  Heliotrope.  This  instrument 
reflects  the  sun's  rays  by  a  silvered  disk,  and 
is  used  in  the  great  trigonometrical  surveys.  It 
has  been  visible  at  100  miles  distance. 

Hell-afloat.  A  ship  in  which  the  lives  of  the 
officers  and  crew  are  rendered  unhappy  by  the 
tyranny  of  the  commanding  officer. 

Helm.  The  apparatus  by  which  a  vessel  is 
steered.  In  small  craft  it  consists  of  the  rudder 
and  tiller  ;  in  large  vessels  a  wheel  is  added  to  give 
additional  power.  The  helm  is  amidships  when 
the  rudder,  tiller,  and  keel  are  in  the  same 
plane.  It  is  a-port  (or  a-starboard)  when  the 
tiller  is  borne  over  to  the  port  (or  starboard)  side. 
It  is  a-lee  (or  a-iveather)  when  the  tiller  is  borne 
over  to  the  lee  (or  weather)  side;  it  is  also  down 
(or  up)  when  the  tiller  is  borne  over  to  the  lee 
(or  weather)  side.  It  is  hard  a-port,  a-lee,  etc., 
when  the  tiller  is  borne  over  to  the  extreme  limit. 
In  case  the  tiller  projects  abaft,  instead  of  for 
ward  of  the  rudder,  the  positions  of  the  tiller 
will,  of  course,  be  the  reverse  of  those  given  above. 
To  right  the  helm,  to  put  it  amidships.  To  shift 
the  holm,  to  bear  the  tiller  over  to  the  corre 
sponding  position  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  ship. 
To  ease  the  helm,  to  let  the  tiller  come  more 
amidships  to  lessen  the  strain  on  the  rudder  or 
tiller-ropes.  Steady!  the  order  to  the  helmsman 
to  steer  as  the  ship  heads  when  the  order  is  given. 
Steady  a-starboard  (or  a-port) !  the  order  to  steer 
slightly  to  the  left,  (or  right).  Meet  her,  turn 
the  wheel  in  the  opposite  way  to  that  in  which 
the  ship's  head  is  moving,  in  order  to  check  her 
at  the  proper  point.  Nothing  to  starboard,  wind 
ward,  westward,  etc.,  a  caution  to  the  helmsman 
that  the  ship  must  not  be  allowed  to  go  the 
slightest  to  starboard,  windward,  westward,  etc., 
of  her  course.  No  higher  (or  nothing  off),  a  cau 
tion  to  the  helmsman,  when  sailing  close-hauled, 
that  the  ship  is  too  near  (or  not  near  enough)  the 
wind ;  whereupon  the  wheel  is  put  a  little  up 


(or  down).  When  the  ship  is  a  good  full  and 
by,  the  fact  is  announced  by  saying  very  well  thus 
or  very  well  dice.  Luff,  to  put  the  helm  down 
and  bring  the  ship's  head  up  to  the  wind.  Mind 
your  weather  helm,  a  caution  to  the  helmsman 
to  meet  her  if  she  begins  to  fly  to, — generally 
given  when  about  to  relieve  the  ship  of  head-sail, 
or  when  some  of  the  gear  of  the  head-sails  has 
been  carried  away.  The  terms  helm  and  wheel, 
are  used  indiscriminately.  To  helm,  an  old  word 
for  to  steer.  See  RUDDER. 

H  ELM-PORT.  The  hole  in  the  counter  through 
which  the  head  of  the  rudder  passes. 

HELM-PORT  TRANSOM.  A  timber  across  the 
counter  at  the  height  of  the  helm-port  and  bolted 
through  every  timber. 

HELMSMAN.  The  person  who  has  the  man 
agement  of  the  helm  for  the  time  being.  When 
there  are  two  or  more  men  at  the  helm  the  man 
at  the  weather  side  of  the  wheel  is  the  responsi 
ble  helmsman,  the  others  being  placed  at  the 
wheel  to  assist  in  the  manual  labor  or  for  instruc 
tion.  The  best  seamen  in  the  ship  are  sent  to 
the  weather-wheel,  relieving  each  other  every 
two  hours ;  each  period  of  two  hours  is  called  a 
trick.  The  lee  wheel  is  taken  by  the  ordinary 
seamen  and  landsmen. 

Helsingfors,  a  seaport  town  on  the  Gulf  of 
Finland,  Russia,  in  lat.  60°  11'  N.  ;  Ion.  24°  75' 
E.  Pop.  33,700.  Its  harbor  is  defended  by  the 
strong  citadel  of  Sveaborg.  It  has  an  active 
trade  in  exporting  grain  and  importing  manufac 
tured  goods. 

Hemp  (Cannabis  sativa).  A  manufactural 
plant  of  equal  antiquity  with  flax.  The  produce 
of  hemp  in  fibre  varies  from  3  to  6  hundred 
weight  per  acre,  and  forms  the  best  of  all  cordage 
and  ropes.  It  is  mixed  with  opium  in  the  prep 
aration  of  those  rich  drugs  called  hasheesh. 

Hen-frigate.  A  ship  wherein  the  captain's 
wife  interferes  in  the  duty  or  regulations. 

Henry,  The  Navigator.  A  famous  prince, 
fourth  son  of  John  I.,  King  of  Portugal,  born 
at  Oporto  in  1394.  He  first  won  distinction  at 
the  conquest  of  Ceuta,  in  1415.  His  grand  am 
bition  was  to  discover  unknown  regions.  Hav 
ing,  after  the  death  of  his  father,  taken  up  his 
residence  at  Sagres,  in  Algarve,  he  erected  there 
an  observatory  and  established  a  school  for  the 
instruction  of  the  sons  of  the  nobility  in  naviga 
tion  and  its  kindred  sciences.  He  dispatched  his 
pupils  on  voyages  of  discovery,  one  of  which  re 
sulted  in  the  discovery  of  the  Madeira  Islands, 
in  1418.  In  1433  one  of  his  mariners  rounded 
Cape  Nun,  up  to  that  time  regarded  as  the  end 
of  the  earth,  and  took  possession  of  the  coasts  as 
far  south  as  Cape  Bojador.  The  following  year 
one  of  his  ships  reached  a  point  120  miles  beyond 
Cape  Bojador,  and  in  1440  Cape  Blanco  was  at 
tained.  Henry  had  alone  borne  all  the  expenses 
of  these  voyages,  but  from  this  time  forth  socie 
ties  formed  under  his  patronage  and^guidance 
assumed  the  cost  of  prosecuting  the  work  of  dis 
covery,  which  had  become  a  passion  with  the 
whole  nation.  His  own  interest  and  energy, 
however,  continued  unabated.  In  1446  his  cap 
tain,  Nuno  Tristan,  doubled  Cape  Verd,  in 
Senegambia,  and  in  1448,  Gonzalez  Vallo  dis 
covered  three  of  the  Azores.  Henry  died  in 
1463,  having  had  the  satisfaction  of  learning 
that  his  mariners  had  reached  as  far  south  as 
Sierra  Leone. 


HEN'S-WAKE 


344 


HITCHCOCK 


Hen's-ware.  A  name  of  the  edible  sea-weed 
Fucus  esculentus. 

Hercules.  A  constellation  to  the  south  of 
Lyra  and  Draco,  a  Herculis  (called  also  Ras 
Algethi)  and  a  Ophinci  form  a  pair,  which  may 
be  known  by  their  being  the  first  bright  stars  in 
aline  drawn  southward  from  the  pair  in  Draco, 
«  Herculis  being  nearest  to  the  Great  Bear.  Ac 
cording  to  the  calculations  of  Sir  W.  Herschel, 
the  solar  system  is  traveling  towards  the  star  A 
Herculis,  R.  A.  17h  25. 9m,  Dec.  26°  12'  N. 

Hercules,  Pillars  of.  The  name  given  by  the 
ancients  to  the  two  rocks  at  each  side  of  the  en 
trance  to  the  Mediterranean.  The  first  author 
to  mention  them  was  Pindar,  who  places  one 
of  them  at  Gades  (Cadiz) ;  the  most  general 
opinion,  however,  identified  them  with  Calpe 
(now  Gibraltar)  and  Abyla  (now  Ceuta). 

Herling.  A  congener  of  the  salmon  species 
found  in  Scotland  ;  it  is  small  and  shaped  like  a 
sea-trout. 

Hermit-crab.  A  name  applied  to  a  group  of 
crabs  (family  Paguridce]  of  which  the  hinder 
part  of  the  body  is  soft,  and  which  habitually 
lodge  themselves  in  the  empty  shell  of  some 
mollusk.  Also  called  soldier-crab. 

Hermo.  A  Mediterranean  term  f0r  the  meteor 
called  carpo-santo. 

Herndon,  William  Lewis.  Born  in  Freder- 
icksburg,  Va.,  October  25,  1813;  drowned  by 
the  sinking  of  steamer  "Central  America," 
September  12,  1857.  He  entered  the  navy  at 
the  age  of  15;  served  in  the  Mexican  war; 
and  was  3  years  engaged  with  his  brother-in- 
law,  Lieut.  Maury,  in  the  Observatory  at  Wash 
ington.  In  1851-52  he  explored  the  Amazon 
River,  under  the  direction  of  the  U.  S.  govern 
ment.  A  narrative  of  the  expedition  is  con 
tained  in  Herndon's  "  Exploration  of  the  Valley 
of  the  River  Amazon"  (1853),  and  in  Part  II. 
of  the  same  work,  by  Lieut.  Gibbon,  who  ac 
companied  him  during  a  part  of  the  journey, 
1854.  In  1857  he  was  commander  of  the  steamer 
"  Central  America,"  which  left  Havana  for  New 
York,  September  8.  September  11,  during  a  vio 
lent  gale,  she  sprang  a  leak,  and  sank  on  the 
evening  of  September  12,  near  the  outer  edge  of 
the  Gulf  Stream,  in  lat.  31°  W  N. 

Herne.  A  bight  or  corner,  as  Herne  Bay,  so 
called  from  lying  in  an  angle. 

Hernshaw,  Herne.     Old  words  for  the  heron. 

Heron.  A  large  bird  of  the  genus  Ardea, 
which  feeds  on  fish. 

Herring.  A  fish  of  the  genus  Clupea  (C.  ha- 
rengus}.  Herrings  move  in  vast  shoals,  coming 
from  high  northern  latitudes  in  the  spring  to  the 
shores  of  Europe  and  America,  where  they  are 
taken  and  salted  in  great  quantities.  King  of 
the  herrings,  a  cartilaginous  fish  (Chimacar 
monstrosa],  allied  to  the  sturgeon,  which  fol 
lows  the  shoals  of  herring.  The  males  of  the 
species  have  a  spinous  disk  in  front  of  the  eyes ; 
whence  the  name. 

HERRING-BONING.  A  method  of  sewing  up 
rents  in  a  sail  by  small  cross  stitches,  by  which 
the  seam  is  kept  flat. 

HERRING-BUSS.  A  peculiar  boat  of  10  or  15 
tons,  for  the  herring-fishery. 

HERRING-COB.     A  young  herring. 

HERRING-GUTTED.     See  SHOTTEN-HERRING. 

HERRING-HOG.     A  name  for  the  porpoise. 

HERRING-POND.     The  Atlantic  Ocean. 


Heterodrprxious  Levers.  The  windlass,  cap 
stan,  crank,  crane,  etc. 

Heteroplon.  A  kind  of  naval  insurance, 
where  the  insurer  only  runs  the  risk  of  the 
outward  voyage ;  when  both  the  going  out  and 
return  of  a  vessel  is  insured,  it  is  called  ampho- 
teroplon. 

Hettle.  A  rocky  fishing-ground  in  the  Firth 
of  Forth,  which  gives  name  to  the  fish  called 
Hettle-codling. 

Hidden  Harbor.  That  of  which  the  outer 
points  so  overlap  as  to  cause  the  coast  to  appear 
to  be  continuous. 

Hide.     To  beat ;  to  rope's-end  or  drub. 

High-and-dry.  The  situation  of  a  ship  or 
other  vessel  which  is  aground,  so  as  to  be  seen 
dry  upon  the  strand  when  the  tide  ebbs  from 
her. 

High  Latitudes.  Those  regions  far  removed 
from  the  equator  towards  the  poles  of  the  earth. 

High-pressure  Engine.  A  non-condensing 
steam-engine,  or  one  in  which  the  steam,  after 
having  performed  its  work,  is  expelled  into  the 
atmosphere  instead  of  into  the  vacuum  of  a  con 
denser. 

High-water.  The  greatest  height  of  the  flood- 
tide.  See  TIDE. 

HIGH-WATER  MARK.  The  line  made  by  the 
water  upon  the  shore  when  at  its  greatest 
height ;  it  is  also  designated  the  flood-mark  and 
spring-tide  mark.  This  constitutes  the  boundary- 
line  of  admiralty  jurisdiction  as  to  the  soil. 

Higre.     See  BORE. 

Hike.  A  brief  equivalent  to  "  be  off"  "go 
away."  It  is  generally  used  in  a  contemptuous 
sense  ;  as,  he  was  hiked  off", — that  is,  dismissed  at 
once,  or  in  a  hurry.  To  hike  up,  to  kidnap,  to 
carry  otf  by  force. 

Hilt.     The  handle  and  guard  of  a  sword. 

Hind-castle.  A  word  formerly  used  for  the 
poop,  as  being  opposed  to  fore-castle. 

Hippagines,  or  Hippagogae.  Ancient  trans 
ports  for  carrying  cavalry. 

Hipper,  or  Hipping-stones.  Large  stones 
placed  for  crossing  a  brook. 

Hippo-camp.     The  sea-horse. 

Hippocampus.  A  small  fish,  so  termed  from 
the  head  resembling  that  of  a  horse.  They  live 
among  reeds  and  long  fuci,  to  which  they  cling 
with  prehensile  tails. 

Hippodame.     An  old  word  for  a  sea-horse. 

Hipsy.  A  drink  compounded  of  wine,  water, 
and  brandy. 

Hirecano.     An  old  word  for  hurricane. 

Hirst.  The  roughest  part  of  a  river-ford.  A 
bank. 

Hitch.  A  species  of  knot  by  which  a  rope  is 
made  fast  to  a  spar  or  other  object.  Figura 
tively,  an  impediment.  To  hitch,  to  make  a 
rope  fast  by  means  of  a  hitch.  To  pull  up  with 
a  jerking  motion;  as,  to  hitch  up  the  trousers. 
For  the  various  hitches,  see  under  proper  heads. 

Hitchcock,  Robert  B.,  Commodore  U.S.N. 
Born  in  Connecticut.  Appointed  from  Connec 
ticut,  January  1,  1825;  schooner  "  Shark,"  West 
India  Squadron,  1827;  frigate  "Delaware," 
Mediterranean  Squadron,  1829-31  ;  special  duty, 
1833-34. 

Commissioned  as  lieutenant,  March  3,  1835  ; 
special  duty,  1837;  frigate  "Ohio,"  Mediterra 
nean  Squadron,  1840  ;  rendezvous,  Boston,  1843; 
frigate  "  Savannah,"  Pacific  Squadron,  1845-46  ; 


HITCH^R 


345 


HOLLAND 


ordnance  duty,  1850-52 ;  commanding  store- 
ship  "  Kelief,"  1853;  inspector,  etc.,  Boston, 
1854-55. 

Commissioned  as  commande,*,  September  14, 
1855;  ordnance  duty,  1850-5 <;  commanding 
steam-frigate  u  Merrimac,"  Pacific  Squadron, 
1858-00;  inspector  of  ordnance,  1801. 

Commissioned  as  captain,  186K 

Commissioned  as  commodore,  July  1G,  1862; 
commanding  steam-sloop  "-Susquehanna," 
Western  Gulf  Squadron,  1802-03.  During  the 
greater  portion  of  the  time  Commodore  Hitch 
cock  was  attached  to  the  Western  Gulf  Squad 
ron,  and  for  some  months  he  was  the  senior 
officer  of  the  blockading  fleet  oft'  Mobile.  Ord 
nance  duty,  1804-05;  commandant  navy-yard, 
Norfolk,  1800  ;  special  duty,  1870-72.  Ketired, 
September  25,  1800. 

Hitcher.     An  old  term  for  a  boat-hook. 

Hoam.     The  dried  fat  of  the  cod-fish. 

Hobble.  A  perplexity  or  difficulty.  Hobbles, 
irons  or  fetters. 

Hobbler  (Eng.}.  A  coast-man  of  Kent,  a 
bit  of  a  smuggler,  and  an  unlicensed  pilot,  ever 
ready  for  a  job  in  either  of  these  occupations. 
Also,  a  man  on  land  employed  in  towing  a  ves 
sel  by  a  rope.  Also,  a  sentinel  who  kept  watch 
at  a  beacon. 

Hobit.  A  small  mortar  of  6  or  8  inches  bore, 
mounted  on  a  gun-carriage,  in  use  before  the 
howitzer. 

Hoboken,  Hudson  Co.,  N.  J.,  is  a  port  of 
entry  opposite  New  York  City,  and  immediately 
above  Jersey  City.  The  Stevens  Institute  of 
Technology  is  located  here,  and  the  city  has  ex 
tensive  manufactories  and  foundries.  It  is  one 
of  the  largest  coal-shipping  ports  in  the  world, 
being  the  principal  depot  from  which  New  York 
and  its  shipping  are  supplied.  Three  lines  of 
steamers  start  from  this  port.  Intercourse  with 
New  York  is  maintained  by  three  lines  of  ferry 
boats.  Top.  25,000. 

Hobrin.  A  designation  of  the  blue  shark, 
Sqiidliis  glancus. 

Hoc.  The  picked  dog-fish,  Sqiialus  ancan- 
thias. 

Hock-saw.  A  fermented  drink  along  the  coasts 
of  China,  partaking  more  of  the  nature  of  beer 
than  of  spirit. 

Hod.  A  hole  under  a  bank  or  rock  forming  a 
retreat  for  fish. 

Hoddy-doddy.  A  sea-term  for  a  revolving 
light. 

Hodmadods.  The  name  among  early  navi 
gators  for  Hottentots.  See  DODMAN. 

Hoe-mother,  or  Homer.  The  basking  shark, 
Sgualus  •)it(i.i:ir/ii(s. 

Hoe-tusk.  The  smooth  hound-fish  of  the 
Shetlanders,  Squalus  innstela. 

Hog.  A  kind  of  rough,  flat  scrubbing  broom, 
serving  to  scrape  a  ship's  bottom  under  water, 
formed  by  inclosing  a  number  of  short  twigs  of 
birch,  or  the  like,  between  two  pieces  of  plank, 
which  are  firmly  attached  to  each  other  ;  the  ends 
of  the  twigs  were  then  cut  oft'  even,  so  as  to  form 
a  brush  of  considerable  extent.  To  this  was  fit 
ted  a  long  staff,  together  with  two  ropes,  the 
former  of  which  was  used  to  thrust  the  hog  un 
der  the  ship's  bottom,  and  the  latter  to  guide  and 
pull  it  up  again  close  to  the  planks,  so  as  to  rub 
oft'  all  the  dirt.  This  work  was  usually  per 
formed  in  the  ship's  boat. 


Hogged.  A  significant  word  derived  from  the 
animal ;  it  implies  that  the  two  ends  of  a  ship 
droop  lower  than  the  midship  part,  consequently 
that  her  keel  and  bottom  are  so  strained  as  to 
curve  upwards.  The  term  is  therefore  in  oppo 
sition  to  that  of  sagging.  Many  ships  hog  in 
launching,  caused  by  the  after  part  of  the  vessel 
not  being  properly  water-borne  till  she  is  clear 
of  the  ways. 

HOG-CHAINS.  Chains  used  for  keeping  a  ship 
of  light  structure  in  shape,  being  attached  to  a 
frame  called  a  hog-frame  at  one  end,  and  secured 
at  the  other  end  to  some  part  of  the  vessel  which 
needs  sustaining. 

HOG-FRAME.  A  truss-frame  which  is  used  in 
light-draft  steamers,  especially  to  compensate 
for  the  want  of  strength  in  the  sides  of  such 
steamers. 

Hog-in-armor.  A  sobriquet  for  an  ironclad 
ship. 

Hogo.  From  the  French  haut  (/out,  a  disa 
greeable  smell,  but  rather  applied  to  ill-ventilated 
berths  than  to  bilge-water. 

Hoise.     The  old  word  for  hoist. 

Hoist.  To  raise  by  means  of  a  rope  or  tackle. 
The  perpendicular  height  of  a  flag  or  sail, — ap 
plied  to  sails,  the  yards  of  which  travel  up  and 
down  masts.  The  corresponding  term  for  courses 
is  drop.  The  hoist  of  a  stay-sail  is  the  length  of 
the  luff. 

Hold.  The  interior  portion  of  a  ship  below 
the  lower  deck.  The  after-hold  is  abaft  the  main 
mast,  the  main-hold  just  forward  of  the  main 
mast,  and  the  fore-hold  is  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
fore-hatchway.  To  stow  the  hold,  to  arrange  the 
contents  of  the  hold  in  a  proper  manner.  To 
break  out  the  hold,  to  remove  all  articles  there 
from.  To  hold  the  land,  to  keep  a  ship  near  the 
land  in  cruising.  A  ship  holds  her  own  when 
she  is  not  losing  ground  in  a  race  or  chase.  To 
hold  a  good  wind,  to  have  weatherly  qualities. 
•To  hold  water,  to  check  the  progress  of  a  boat 
by  immersing  the  oars  and  keeping  them  sta 
tionary  in  the  water. 

HOLD-UKAM.  One  of  the  lowest  range  of 
beams  in  a  merchantman.  In  a  man-of-war, 
they  support  the  orlop-deck. 

HOLD-STANCHIONS.  The  stanchions  which 
support  the  hold-beams  amidships. 

Holding-down  Bolts.  The  large  bolts  used 
for  securing  the  machinery  of  a  vessel  to  the 
hull.  In  wooden  ships  a  number  of  these  bolts 
pass  entirely  through  the  floor-timbers,  and  are 
provided  with  large  square  washers  embedded  in 
the  outside  of  the  frame.  Such  bolts,  if  of  iron, 
are  covered  on  parts  passing  through  wood  by  a 
casing  of  bronze  composition  cast  upon  them  to 
protect  them  from  corrosion. 

Holiday.  Any  part  left  neglected  or  uncov 
ered  in  paying,  painting,  blacking,  tarring,  etc. 

Holland,  Navy  of.  The  growth  of  European 
navies  has  been  necessarily  contemporaneous. 
The  rivalries  born  of  foreign  possessions  and 
commerce  put  England,  Holland,  and  Portugal 
on  the  alert  in  the  10th  century,  and  the  acqui 
sitions  of  each  nation  on  the  shores  of  India  and 
the  islands  of  the  Eastern  Archipelago  brought 
them  at  an  earl}'  period  into  hostile  contact. 
France  and  Spain  followed  in  their  wake,  and 
in  less  than  a  century  all  of  these  nations  were 
alternately  in  arms  against  each  other,  or  allied 
for  offensive  and  defensive  purposes.  From  her 


HOLLAKDS 


346 


HOPKINS 


maritime  position  Holland  has  been  a  nursery  of 
seamen  for  centuries,  and  at  one  time  she  was 
omnipotent  on  the  ocean.  The  history  of  her 
successes  is  told  in  the  brief  biographies  of  De 
Ruyter  and  Van  Tromp  (which  see),  and  the 
record  of  the  Dutch  explorers  of  northern  regions 
and  the  Pacific  Ocean.  It  is  unnecessary,  there 
fore,  to  detail  them  minutely  here.  Let  it  suffice 
that,  owning  valuable  lands  in  the  Eastern  Arch 
ipelago,  and  keeping  a  watchful  eye  upon  the 
cupidity  of  her  German  neighbor,  she  now  main 
tains  a  fleet  of  25  armored  and  90  unarmored 
steam-vessels,  varying  in  indicated  horse-power 
from  340  to  4630.  the  navy  is  officered  by  2 
vice-  and  4  rear-admirals,  19  captains,  43  lieu 
tenant-captains,  308  lieutenants  (first  andsecond), 
52  midshipmen,  and  65  medical  officers.  The 
marine  infantry  consists  of  45  officers  and  2120 
non-commissioned  officers  and  privates.  The 
navy  is  recruited  by  enlistment,  but  conscription 
is  resorted  to  in  an  emergency.  The  colonial 
possessions  of  Denmark  in  India  comprise  16 
islands  and  parts  of  the  coasts  of  Borneo  and 
Sumatra,  and  6  West  India  Islands,  besides 
Surinam. 

Hollards.  The  dead  branches  and  loppings  of 
trees. 

Hollebut.     A  spelling  of  halibut. 

Hollow  Sea.  The  undulation  of  the  waves 
after  a  gale ;  long  hollow-jawed  sea ;  ground- 
swell. 

Hollow  Shot.  Introduced  principally  for 
naval  use  before  the  horizontal  firing  of  shells 
from  guns  became  general.  Their  weight  was 
about  two-thirds  that  of  the  solid  shot ;  thus  they 
required  less  charge  of  powder  and  weight  of  gun 
than  the  latter,  whilst  their  smashing  effect  and 
first  ranges  were  supposed  to  be  greater.  It 
is  clear,  however,  that  if  filled  with  powder, 
their  destructive  effect  must  be  immensely  in 
creased. 

Holometrum  Geometricum.  A  nautical  in 
strument  of  brass,  one  of  which  was  supplied  to 
Martin  Frobisher  in  1576. 

Holus-bolus.     Altogether ;  all  at  once. 

Holy-stone.  A  sandstone  used  in  scrubbing 
decks.  The  name  probably  arose  from  their 
being  most  frequently  used  on  Sunday,  though 
by  some  it  is  attributed  to  the  kneeling  of  the 
men  while  using  it.  To  holy-stone,  to  clean  a 
deck  with  holy-stones.  To  ^  dry  holy-stone,  to 
holy-stone  without  using  water, — done  on  lower 
decks  in  damp  weather. 

Home.  Domicile;  residence.  The  place  where 
a  person  or  thing  abides.  To  haul  home  a  sheet, 
to  haul  it  to  its  proper  position  when  the  sail  is 
set.  The  anchor  comes  home  when,  in  heaving 
up,  the  anchor  is  dragged  toward  the  ship  in 
stead  of  the  ship's  being  hauled  up  to  the  an 
chor. 

HOME-STATION.  The  station  which  includes 
our  Atlantic  coast  within  its  limits  ;  the  North 
Atlantic  Station. 

HOMKWARD-BOUND.     Returning  homeward. 

HOMK WARD-BOUNDER.  A  very  long  pennant 
hoisted  by  a  homeward-bound  ship. 

Homocercal.  Having  the  tail  symmetrical, 
the  vertebral  column  terminating  at  its  com 
mencement  ;  opposed  to  heterocercal. 

Honolulu.  Capital  of  Hawaii,  on  the  south 
west  side  of  Oahu,  one  of  the  Sandwich  Islands. 
Lat.  21°  18'  12"  N. ;  Ion.  157°  50'  36"  W.  It 


has  a  good  harbor,  and  is  the  principal  station 
for  vessels  cruising  in  the  Pacific  Ocean.  Pop. 
15,000. 

Hood.  The  foremost  and  aftermost  plank  in 
each  strake.  A  Covering  for  a  hatch  or  skylight. 
The  cowl  of  a  ftjnnel.  Naval  hoods,  thick  pieces 
of  timber  encircling  the  hawse-holes. 

HOODING  ENps.  The  ends  of  the  hoods  where 
they  set  in  the  rabbet  of  the  stem  and  the  stern- 
post. 

Hook.  A  name  given  to  anything  having  the 
end  bent  or  curved ;  as,  boat-hooks,  can-hooks, 
foot-hooks,  etc. 

HOOK  AND  BUTT.  The  scarfing  of  two  ends 
of  plank  over  each  other,  in  such  a  manner  that 
they  cannot  be  drawn  apart  endways. 

HOOK-MOTION.  In  the  steam-engine,  an  ar 
rangement  of  valve-gear  in  which  the  motion 
for  going  ahead  or  backing  is  transmitted  from 
the  respective  eccentrics  to  a  rock-shaft  or  valve- 
stem  cross-head  by  eccentric  hooks  or  gabs.  This 
enables  the  valves,  when  the  hooks  are  detached, 
to  be  worked  with  a  starting-bar  by  hand,  which 
is  convenient  in  certain  classes  of  single  en 
gines. 

HOOK-SCARF.  Differs  from  the  plain  scarf,  in 
that  the  upper  end  is  formed  into  a  hook  and 
projects  from  one  to  two  or  more  inches  into  the 
timber,  thus  giving  greater  security. 

Hooker,  or  Howker.  A  coast-  or  fishing-ves 
sel, — a  small  hoy-built  craft  with  one  mast,  in 
tended  for  fishing.  They  are  much  used  by 
pilots,  especially  off  the  Irish  ports.  Also,  Jack's 
name  for  his  vessel,  the  favorite  "old  hooker." 
Also,  a  term  for  a  short  pipe,  probably  derived 
from  hookah. 

Hoop.  The  principal  hoops  of  different  kinds 
used  for  nautical  purposes  are  noticed  under 
their  several  names.  In  wind-bound  ships  in 
former  times  the  left  hands  of  several  boys  were 
tied  to  a  hoop,  and  their  right  armed  with  a 
nettle,  they  being  naked  down  to  the  waist.  On 
the  boatswain  giving  one  a  cut  with  his  cat,  the 
boy  struck  the  one  before  him,  and  each  one  did 
the  same,  beginning  gently,  but  becoming  irri 
tated,  they  at  last  laid  on  in  earnest.  Also,  an  old 
nautical  punishment  for  quarrelsome  fighters 
was,  that  two  offenders,  similarly  fastened, 
thrashed  each  other  until  one  gave  in.  The 
craven  was  usually  additionally  punished  by  the 
commander. 

Hopkins,  Esek,  Commodore  U.S.N.,  was 
born  in  Scituate,  R.  I.,  in  1718.  Was  appointed 
brigadier-general  of  Rhode  Island  forces  by  its 
governor,  and  on  December  22,  1775,  was  ap 
pointed  commander-in-chief  of  the  American 
navy,  being  the  first  who  held  that  title.  Was 
called  commodore  and  admiral  in  correspondence. 
He  went  to  sea  in  the  first  squadron  of  8  vessels, 
hoisting  his  flag  in  the  "Alfred."  Captured 
New  Providence  in  an  expedition  on  the  19th 
February,  and  also  took  a  brig  and  two  tenders. 
Encountering  a  frigate  at  sea,  he  did  not  suc 
ceed  in  capturing  her,  and,  for  an  alleged  want 
of  skill  in  engaging  her,  he  was  censured  by 
Congress,  although  a  defense  of  his  conduct  by 
John  Adams  partially  cleared  him,  and  led 
the  president  of  Congress  to  compliment  him. 
Not  getting  his  ships  ready  for  sea,  he  was 
again  cited  to  appear  to  answer  for  it,  but  neg 
lected  to  obey  the  summons  promptly,  and  was 
dismissed  by  Congress  January  2,  1777,  having 


HOPKINS 


347 


HOUSE 


been  at  the  head  of  the  service  1  year  and  10 
days. 

After  the  war  he  resided  near  Providence, 
K.  I.,  and  was  several  times  a  member  of  the 
General  Assembly  for  that  State,  and  died  there 
February  26,  1802,  aged  84.  He  was,  when  made 
commander-in-chief,  57  years  old,  and,  Bancroft 
says,  was  old  and  incompetent.  His  portraits 
show  him  to  be  a  man  of  vigor,  and  he  was  in 
fluential  in  the  political  affairs  of  his  own  State. 
His  bravery  was  never  called  into  question,  but 
he  was  doubtless  not  a  good  seaman  and  incom 
petent  to  command  the  navy. — F.  S.  Bassett, 
Lieutenant  U.S.N. 

Hopkins,  W.  E.,  Commodore  U.S.N.  Born 
in  Virginia.  Appointed  from  Virginia,  Novem 
ber  13,  1839 ;  Home  Squadron,  1841-43 ;  Naval 
School,  Philadelphia,  1845;  frigate  "Cumber 
land,"  1847;  schooner  "  Falcon,"  Home  Squad 
ron,  1848-49 ;  coast  survey,  1850-51  ;  sloop 
"  Marion,"  coast  of  Africa,  1851-55. 

Commissioned  as  lieutenant,  July  10,  1854 ; 
receiving-ship,  Philadelphia,  1856-58;  sloop 
"  Macedonian,"  Mediterranean  Squadron,  1859- 
60;  sloop  "Preble,"  1861. 

Commissioned  as  lieutenant-commander,  July 
16,  1882 ;  rendezvous,  Philadelphia,  1862 ;  com 
manding  steamer  "  Saginaw,"  Pacific  Squadron, 
1863-65. 

Commissionod  as  commander,  November  4, 
1863  ;  commanding  steamer  "  Shamrock,"  Euro 
pean  Squadron,  1866-67;  League  Island,  Penn 
sylvania,  1868. 

Commissioned  as  captain,  June,  1870 ;  navy- 
yard,  Mare  Island,  California,  1870-72 ;  com 
manding  "  Benicia,"  North  Pacific  Station, 
1872-75;  commanding  receiving-ship  "Inde 
pendence,"  Mare  Island,  1877-78. 

Commissioned  as  commodore,  December  1, 
1877  ;  leave  of  absence,  1879-80. 

Hopper-punt.  A  flat-floored  lighter  for  car 
rying  soil  or  mud,  with  a  hopper  or  receptacle  in 
its  centre  to  contain  the  lading. 

Hoppo.     The  chief  of  the  customs  in  China. 

HOPPO-MEN.     Chinese  custom-house  officers. 

Horie-goose.  A  name  for  the  Anser  bernicla, 
or  brent-goose. 

Horiolse.  Small  fishing-boats  of  the  an 
cients. 

Horizon  (Gr.  horizon,  the  boundary-line). 
The  circle  in  which  the  heavens  and  the  earth 
appear  to  meet.  The  horizon  is  the  primitive 
circle  in  one  of  the  systems  of  co-ordinates  for 
defining  points  of  the  celestial  concave  relatively 
to  the  position  of  an  observer  on  the  earth's  sur 
face.  See  CO-ORDINATES  FOR  THE  CELESTIAL 
SPHERE. 

HORIZON,  ARTIFICIAL.  A  reflector  whose  sur 
face  is  perfectly  horizontal,  used  to  observe  alti 
tudes  on  shore.  See  ARTIFICIAL  HORIZON. 

HORIZON,  CELESTIAL.  The  great  circle  in 
which  the  planes  of  the  sensible  and  rational 
horizon  (becoming  coincident  when  produced  in 
definitely)  cut  the  celestial  sphere. 

HORIZON-GLASS.  In  reflecting  astronomical 
instruments,  such  as  the  sextant,  the  horizon- 
glass  is  that  which  is  fixed  in  front  of  the  tele 
scope,  the  lower  portion  of  it  being  a  mirror,  the 
upper  transparent.  It  derives  its  name  from  the 
fact  that  in  taking  an  altitude  the  horizon  is  seen 
by  direct  vision  through  its  upper  portion. 

HORIZON,  RATIONAL.     The  plane  through  the 


centre  of  the  earth  drawn  parallel  to  the  tangent- 
plane  at  the  observer's  station. 

HORIZON,  SEA.  The  small  circle  which 
bounds  the  view  of  a  spectator  in  the  open 
sea. 

HORIZON,  SENSIBLE.  The  plane  touching 
the  earth  at  the  station  of  the  observer,  and  ex 
tended  to  the  celestial  sphere. 

HORIZON,  SHORE.  When  the  sea-horizon  is 
hidden  from  view  by  intervening  land,  the  water- 
line  on  the  beach  often  serves  the  purpose  of  a 
horizon  in  observing  altitudes.  See  DIP. 

HORIZONTAL  PARALLAX.  The  parallax  of  a 
celestial  body  when  in  the  horizon  of  the  ob 
server;  distinguished  from  parallax  in  altitude. 
See  PARALLAX. 

HORIZONTAL  PLAN.  Any  level  plane  or  plan 
to  show  the  length  and  breadth  of  the  object  to 
be  delineated  without  showing  the  height. 

HORIZONTAL  PROJECTION  OF  THE  SPHERE.  A 
projection  of  the  sphere — whether  orthographic, 
stereographic,  or  central — in  which  the  primitive 
plane  or  plane  of  projection  coincides  with,  or  is 
parallel  to,  the  horizon. 

HORIZONTAL  RIBBAND-LINES.  Those  rib 
band-lines  used  in  laying  off  the  ship  upon  the 
mold-loft  floor,  which  are.  taken  off  level  with 
the  ship's  body,  or  square  from  the  centre  line 
at  the  intersection  of  the  frame-lines,  instead  of 
in  the  diagonal  direction,  before  being  applied 
to  the  half-breadth  plan,  where  they  are  used  for 
fairing  the  ship's  body. 

HORIZON,  VISIBLE.  The  boundary  of  our 
view,  whether  of  the  heavens  or  of  the  earth. 

Horn.  One  of  the  arms  of  the  cross-trees,  or 
of  a  cleat.  To  place  anything  to  stand  square 
from  the  middle  line  of  the  ship,  by  setting  off  an 
equal  distance  from  each  side  of  the  middle  line, 
as  in  a  frame. 

Horn-beak.     A  fish.     See  HORN-FISH. 

Horned  Pout.  A  fish  of  the  genus  Pime- 
bodus;  cat-fish.  See  CAT-FISH. 

Horn-fisc.     Anglo-Saxon  for  the  sword-fish. 

Horn-fish.  The  gar-fish,  or  sea-needle,  also 
called  horn-beak. 

Horn-fisted.  Having  hands  inured  to  hauling 
ropes. 

Horn-keck.  An  old  term  for  the  green-back 
fish. 

Hornotinas.  Ancient  vessels  which  were  built 
in  a  year. 

Horologium.    See  CONSTELLATION. 

Horologium  Universale.  An  old  brass  nau 
tical  instrument,  one  of  which  was  supplied  to 
Martin  Frobisher  when  fitting  out  on  his  first 
voyage,  in  1576,  for  the  discovery  of  a  northwest 
passage. 

Horse.  The  iron  rod  placed  between  the  fife- 
rail  stanchions  on  which  the  leading-blocks  are 
rove  or  secured.  Also  in  fore-and-aft  rigged 
vessels  it  is  a  stout  bar  of  iron  v/ith  a  large  ring 
or  thimble  on  it,  which  spans  the  vessel  from  side 
to  side  just  before  the  foremast,  for  the  fore-stay 
sail  sheet,  and  when  required  one  is  also  used  for 
the  fore  and  main  boom  sheets  to  haul  down  to 
and  traverse  on.  A  block  in  a  w-haler  for  cutting 
blubber  on  •  An  old  namfi  for  a  foot-rope,  and  it 
was  also  formerly  applied  to  what  is  now  known 
as  a  lizard.  The  name  is  a'ao  sometimes  given 
to  a  jack-stay  forward  or  abaft;  the  mast,  on  which 
a  yard  or  sail  is  hcist'scL  Salt-horse,  Jack's 
name  for  salt-beef. 


HORSE-BLOCK 


348 


HOSPITAL  GANGRENE 


Horse-block.  A  grating-platform  for  the 
convenience  of  the  officer  in  charge  of  the  deck. 

Horse-buckets.  Covered  buckets  for  carry 
ing  spirits  or  water  in. 

Horse-buckie.     The  great  whelk. 

Horse-cockle.     See  GAWKY. 

Horse-foot.  A  name  of  the  Limulus  polyphe- 
mus ;  called  also  the  horse-shoe  or  lantern-crab. 

Horse-latitudes.  A  space  between  the  west 
erly  winds  of  higher  latitudes  and  the  trade- 
winds,  notorious  for  tedious  calms.  The  name 
arose  from  old  navigators  often  throwing  the 
horses  overboard  which  they  were  transporting 
to  America  and  the  West  Indies. 

Horse-mackerel.  A  large  and  coarse  mem 
ber  of  the  Scomber  family,  remarkably  greedy, 
and  therefore  easily  taken,  but  unwholesome. 

Horse-marine.  An  awkward  lubberly  person. 
One  out  of  place. 

Horse-potatoes.     The  old  word  for  yams. 

Horse-power.  The  unit  of  measure  of  the 
power  of  prime  movers,  represented  by  33,000 
foot-pounds  per  minute.  See  POWER. 

In  the  steam-engine,  indicated  horse-power,  the 
symbol  for  which  is  IHP,  is  computed  by  multi 
plying  the  mean  unbalanced  pressure  on  the 
piston  in  pounds,  as  obtained  by  an  indicator, 
by  the  velocity  of  the  piston  in  feet  per  minute, 
and  dividing 'the  product  by  33,000.  This  in 
cludes  the  energy  absorbed  by  friction  of  the 
loaded  machinery,  power  required  for  working 
pumps,  etc.  ;  but  these  resistances  to  useful  work 
bear  nearly  a  constant  ratio  to  the  power  em 
ployed  in  well-constructed  machinery  of  similar 
type.  Gross  horse-power  includes  all  prejudicial 
resistances,  such  as  friction,  back-pressure,  etc. ; 
and  net  horse-power  is  the  actually  applied  en 
ergy  to  the  work  performed ;  and  nominal  horse- 
poiver  is  a  British  conventional  term  expressive 
of  the  capacity  of  the  cylinder  and  size  of  the 
engine,  in  which  it  is  assumed  that  a  constant 
effective  steam-pressure  of  7  pounds  per  square 
inch  and  a  piston  velocity  of  about  200  feet 
per  minute  corresponds  to  an  indicated  horse 
power. 

Horse-shoe  Clamp.  The  iron  or  copper  straps 
so  shaped,  used  as  the  fastenings  which  connect 
the  gripe  with  the  fore-foot  at  the  scarf  of  the 
keel  and  stem. 

Horse-shoes.  Straps  of  composition  in  the 
form  of  a  horse-shoe,  used  for  securing  the  stem 
to  the  keel,  placed  on  opposite  sides,  let  in  flush 
and  bolted  through ;  rings  are  now  generally 
used  instead. 

Horse-tongue.  A  name  applied  to  a  kind  of 
sole. 

Horsing-iron.  An  iron  fixed  in  a  withy  han 
dle,  sometimes  only  lashed  to  a  stick  or  tree-nail, 
and  used  with  a  beetle  by  calkers.  To  horse-up, 
to  harden  in  the  oakum  of  a  vessel's  seams  with 
a  horsing-iron. 

Hose.  A  long  flexible  pipe,  made  of  leather, 
canvas,  or  gum  and  canvas,  used  for  conveying 
water  for  extinguishing  fires  or  for  other  pur 
poses. 

HOSE-COUPLING.  An  arrangement  for  con 
necting  sections  of  hose  together.  It  consists  of 
a  pair  of  cylindrical  pieces  of  metal,  usually 
brass,  provided  with  a  male  and  female  screw  so 
that  they  can  be  firmly  connected  together  and 
made  water-tight  by  means  of  a  gum  or  leather 
washer.  The  parts  are  secured  to  the  ends  of  the 


sections  of  hose  by  clamps  or  by  being  bound 
with  wire. 

Hose-fish.     A  name  for  a  kind  of  cuttle-fish. 

Hospital.  A  place  appointed  for  the  recep 
tion  of  sick  and  wounded  men,  with  a  regular 
medical  establishment.  An  attacking  force 
should  avoid  firing  on  hospitals  whenever  they 
are  designated  by  flags  or  other  symbols  under 
stood.  It  is  an  act  of  bad  faith,  amounting  to 
infamy,  to  hoist  the  hospital  protective  flag  over 
any  other  building,  unless  the  attacking  force 
should  request  or  consent  that  it  might  be  used 
in  order  to  spare  edifices  dedicated  to  science,  or 
literature,  or  containing  works  of  art.  See  NA 
VAL  HOSPITALS. 

Hospital  Gangrene.  Synonyms.  —  Known 
under  the  various  titles  of  putrid  ulcer,  pulpy 
gangrene,  pourriture  d'hopital,  gangrsena  con- 
tagiosa,  phagedaana  gangrtenosa,  gangraana  noso- 
comialis,  hospital  mortification,  diphtheria  of 
wounds,  etc. 

History. — The  history  of  this  disease  may  be 
traced  backwards,  for  a  period  of  more  than  150 
years,  in  the  records  of  great  wars  and  of  large 
hospitals. 

La  Motte,  in  1722,  mentioned,  and  Pouteau, 
in  1783,  described,  hospital  gangrene.  Hennen, 
Blackadder,  and  Guthrie  wrote  excellent  ac 
counts  of  its  appearance  during  the  Peninsular 
war  of  1813.  The  Crimean  war,  the  war  of  the 
Rebellion  in  1861,  and  the  Franco-Prussian  war, 
all  added  largely  to  the  records  of  this  now  well- 
recognized  disease. 

Nature  and  Cause. — Its  essential  nature  has, 
however,  not  been  understood.  Unsuccessful  at 
tempts  to  explain  its  appearance  and  spread  by 
reference  to  bad  sanitary  surroundings  have  been 
made.  But  it  has  been  found  to  occur  under  the 
best  hospital  conditions,  and  has  failed  to  appear 
where  filth,  overcrowding,  and  neglect  would 
seem  to  have  specially  invited  it. 

Without  stating  various  conflicting  views,  it 
is  suflScient  to  give  what  is  to  the  writer  a  sim 
ple  and  complete  solution  of  the  question  of  the 
origin  and  epidemic  spread  of  hospital  gangrene, 
viz.,  that  it  is  identical  with  diphtheria. 

The  facts  going  to  show  this  are  as  follows  : 

1st.  Historical  proof  s,  as  of  the  co-existence  of 
both  these  diseases  in  epidemic  form  at  the  same 
time  and  place. 

This  occurred  under  the  writer's  observation 
in  Cincinnati,  O.,  during  the  civil  war.  Hos 
pital  gangrene  attacked  the  U.  S.  army  hospitals, 
while  diphtheria  was  rife  in  civil  practice  through 
out  the  city. 

Similar  observations  were  made  in  Philadel 
phia,  Pa.,  and  Nashville,  Tenn.,  and  other 
cities  during  the  war. 

2d.  Similar  causation.  An  atmospheric  miasm 
or  germ,  epidemic  under  favorable  circumstances, 
necessarily  exists  to  account  for  the  origin  and 
spread  of  diphtheria. 

Von  Pitha  and  Fock  declare  the  same  conclu 
sion  as  the  result  of  their  studies  into  the  cause 
of  hospital  gangrene. 

3d.  Inter  changeable  results  from  the  same  poison 
have  been  observed  by  the  writer.  Several  cases 
of  hospital  gangrene  have  occurred  in  his  prac 
tice,  caused  by  direct  infection  of  wounds  by 
diphtheria ;  and  one  case  of  hospital  gangrene 
communicated  diphtheria  to  two  other  "members 
of  a  family. 


HOSPITAL   GANGKENE 


349 


HOT-WELL 


4th.  Contagion  by  contact  and  infection  through 
the  atmosphere  are  known  to  be  modes  of  spread 
ing  both  these  diseases. 

5th.  Pathological  proof  s.  The  microscopic  ap 
pearances  in  hospital  gangrene  are  bacterise,  mi- 
crococci,  and  streptococci,  exactly  as  in  dipth- 
theria.  Both  diseases,  also,  may  be  separated 
into  two  forms,  one  being  catarrhal,  exudative, 
or  pulpy,  the  other  ulcerative,  phagedenic,  ma 
lignant,  and  rapidly  fatal. 

6th.  Both  diseases  are  local  at  first,  general 
infection  of  the  constitution  only  occurring  secon 
darily  in  either  disease. 

7th.  Methods  of  cure  are  similar,  and  identical 
remedies  are  employed  in  both  diseases. 

8th.  Similar  modes  of  death  are  noticed,  and 
especially  is  "  heart-clot"  frequent  in  both  dis 
eases. 

Hospital  gangrene,  therefore,  is  diphtheria  at 
tacking  wounded  surfaces. 

Symptoms. — Such  attack  is  ushered  in  by 
stinging  pain  in  the  part.  The  process  of  heal 
ing  in  the  wound  is  arrested. 

Ash-colored  and  yellowish  exudations  are  seen 
to  spread  over  its  surface.  Loss  of  vitality, 
sloughing,  and  destructive  changes  follow.  Ery 
sipelas  may  complicate.  Hemorrhages  are  apt 
to  set  in,  often  fatally.  Vast  destruction  of  the 
soft  tissues  occurs  in  phagedenic  cases.  In  24 
hours  a  wound  may  become  enlarged  from  the 
size  of  a  silver  dollar  to  an  extent  sufficient  to 
embrace  the  entire  limb.  In  many  there  is  very 
little  or  no  fever  or  constitutional  disorder.  In 
others,  irritative  or  adynamic  forms  of  fever 
may  be  caused  by  absorption  of  putrescent  ma 
terial  from  the  wound.  But  no  constitutional 
disorder  inaugurates  the  attack,  and  no  increased 
liability  is  incurred  by  the  scrofulous,  syphilitic, 
or  scorbutic  men  in  hospitals. 

Treatment. — Isolation  in  tents,  in  the  open 
air,  is  of  the  first  importance,  both  as  a  curative 
and  as  a  preventive  means. 

Next,  the  local'disease  must  be  destroyed  in  its 
nest.  Entire  removal  by  knife,  scissors,  and  cau 
terization  of  all  diseased  tissue  must  be  effected. 

Disinfection  of  the  wound  by  the  most  efficient 
germicide  agents  must  be  thoroughly  accom 
plished. 

Finally,  suitable  protective  and  antiseptic  dress 
ings  must  be  applied  to  guard  the  purified  sur 
faces  from  re  inoculation  by  the  atmospheric 
germs  of  the  disease. 

These  principles  embrace  all  that  is  needed  for 
the  local  cure. 

Either  separately  or  variously  combined,  they 
have  entered  into  all  the  successful  plans  of  treat 
ment  on  record. 

Nitric  acid,  bromine,  and  the  actual  cautery 
have  been  found  the  most  efficient  agents  to  de 
stroy  the  local  disease,  both  from  their  caustic 
and  their  chemical  action. 

Chlorine  was  used  with  complete  success  by 
the  writer  in  the  Cincinnati  U.  S.  army  general 
hospitals. 

These  agents  also  accomplish  the  purpose  of 
disinfection  in  great  measure. 

Dressings  of  creasote,  carbolic  acid,  charcoal, 
buttermilk,  turpentine,  and  the  hydrocarbons, 
all  have  been  successfully  employed,  and  act  by 
protecting  the  wound  from  renewed  atmospheric 
infection,  as  well  as  by  promoting  the  healing 
process. 


In  general,  supporting  treatment  by  food  stim 
ulants,  iron,  quinine,  etc.,  is  strongly  indicated. 

Results. — The  fatality  of  hospital  gangrene 
v/as  enormous  in  the  earlier  wars,  amounting  in 
the  hospitals  of  the  Peninsular  campaign  to  one- 
third  of  all  those  attacked.  But  during  the  late 
war  the  skill  and  originality  of  American  sur 
geons  very  greatly  lessened  the  mortality. 

Goldsmith  records  152  cases  and  4  deaths. 

North  "          60        "          3       " 

Brinton  "          88        "  2       " 

Weeks  "        115        "          6       " 

Herr  "        202        "         14       " 

Over  100  cases  were  treated  at  Cincinnati,  O., 
hospitals  with  but  two  deaths. 

These  results  are  unprecedented,  and  are  due 
to  early  local  treatment  by  strict  disinfectant  and 
antiseptic  means. 

The  malignant  form  of  the  disease,  however, 
is  often  beyond  remedy,  even  under  modern 
methods  of  care.  Death  follows  close  upon  the 
attack,  with  symptoms  of  profound  shock  and 
blood-poisoning. — John  T.  Carpenter,  President 
of  the  Pennsylvania  State  Medical  Society,  and 
late  Medical  Director  U.  S.  Vols. 

Hospital-ship.  A  vessel  fitted  to  receive  the 
sick,  either  remaining  in  port,  or  accompanying 
a  fleet,  as  circumstances  demand. 

Hostage.  A  person  given  up  to  an  enemy  as 
a  pledge  or  security  for  the  performance  of  the 
articles  of  a  treaty. 

Hot-air  Engine.  An  engine  driven  by  the 
expansive  force  of  heated  air,  a  quantity  of  which, 
at  normal  temperature,  is  compressed  by  a 
suitable  apparatus ;  heated  to  a  high  tempera 
ture  ;  then  allowed  to  expand  and  drive  a  piston 
until  the  energy  due  to  its  contained  heat  is 
nearly  expended;  and  finally  expelled  from  the 
cylinder. 

*  Hot-coppers.     See  COPPERS. 

Hot-shot.  Balls  made  red-hot  in  a  furnace. 
Among  the  savages  in  Bergon,  the  women  are 
in  the  rear  of  the  combatants,  and  they  heat  the 
heads  of  the  spears,  exchanging  them  for  such  as 
are  cooled  in  the  fight. 

Hot-water  Pipe.  A  pipe  for  conveying  water 
of  condensation,  etc.,  from  a  condenser  to  a  feed- 
water  reservoir  or  hot-well. 

A  pipe  connected  with  a  steam-boiler  of  a  ves 
sel  of  war,  for  the  purpose  of  throwing  hot  water 
upon  an  enemy. 

A  pipe  for  warming  an  apartment  by  means 
of  hot  water. 

Hot-water  Pump.  A  pump  attached  to  some 
types  of  steam-engine  condenser  for  the  purpose 
of  withdrawing  the  water  of  condensation  and 
discharging  into  a  feed-water  reservoir. 

A  pump  specially  adapted  to  the  transmission 
of  ho*t  water  by  having  its  valves  and  packing 
made  of  material  that  can  withstand  the  tem 
perature.  Leather,  for  instance,  will  not  serve 
for  valves  and  packing,  even  at  a  temperature 
far  below  that  of  boiling  water.  Such  a  pump 
cannot  be  depended  upon  to  draw  water,  but 
must  be  supplied  from  a  head  ;  and  ample  pet- 
cocks  must  be  provided  to  permit  any  accumu 
lated  vapor  to  escape  from  the  barrel-  and  valve- 
chambers. 

Hot-well.  A  reservoir  into  which  is  dis 
charged  the  water  of  condensation  drawn  from 
the  condenser  of  a  steam-engine  by  an  a,ir-pump 
or  hot- water  pump. 


HOUND-FISH 


350 


HOWITZER 


Hound-fish.  The  old  Anglo-Saxon  term  for 
dog-fish  (hund-fisc}. 

Hounding.  The  length  of  the  mast  from  the 
heel  to  the  lower  part  of  the  head. 

Hounds.  Those  projections  at  the  mast-head 
serving  as  supports  for  the  tressle-trees  of  large 
and  rigging  of  smaller  masts  to  rest  upon. 

Houndsid.  A  rope  bound  round  with  ser 
vice. 

Hour-angle.  Generally,  an  angle  at  the  poles 
of  the  heavens  included  between  different  hour- 
circles. 

HOUR-ANGLE  OF  A  HEAVENLY  BODY.  The 
angle  at  the  elevated  pole  included  between  the 
celestial  meridian  of  the  observer  and  the  hour- 
circle  passing  through  the  body.  It  is  reckoned 
positively  from  the  upper  culmination  of  the 
body  westward  from  0  to  360°.  The  hour-angle 
is  sometimes  reckoned  from  the  meridian  in  both 
directions, — positively  to  the  westward,  and  neg 
atively  to  the  eastward  ;  it  would  be  well,  how 
ever,  if  it  were  always  reckoned  in  conformity 
wiih  the  apparent  diurnal  motion,  just  as  right 
ascension  is  reckoned  in  conformity  with  the 
direct  movements  of  the  heavenly  bodies. 

Hour-circle.  A  great  circle  "of  the  celestial 
sphere  passing  through  the  poles  of  the  equinoc 
tial  ;  so  called  because  it  marks  out  all  places 
having  the  same  hour-angle. 

House.  To  cover  from  the  inclemencies  of 
the  weather ;  as,  to  house  a  ship  over  in  harbor 
during  cold  weather.  To  house  a  w,ast,  to  lower 
it  partly,  to  lessen  the  effect  of  a  gale  on  the 
masts  and  rigging.  To  house  the  bowsprit,  to 
ship  it  in  its  proper  place.  To  house  a  gun,  to 
run  it  in  clear  of  its  port  and  secure  it.  To  house 
an  awning,  see  AWNING. 

HOUSE-BOAT.     A  boat  with  a  cabin. 

HOUSING.  That  part  of  a  mast  below  the 
ypar-deck.  The  inboard  part  of  a  bowsprit. 

HOUSING-BOLT.  A  bolt  above  a  port,  over 
which  the  grommet  is  placed  in  housing  a  gun. 

HOUSING-LINE.  A  line  near  the  deck,  to 
which  the  edge  of  an  awning  is  secured  when 
housed. 

Houseline.  Seizing-stuff  made  of  three  fine 
yarns  laid  up  left-handed. 

Houvari.  A  strong  land-wind  of  the  "West 
Indies,  accompanied  by  rain,  thunder,  and  light 
ning. 

Hovellers  (Eng.).  A  Cinque-Port  term  for 
pilots  and  their  boatmen  ;  but  colloquially,  it  is 
also  applied  to  sturdy  vagrants  who  infest  the 
sea-coast  in  bad  weather,  in  expectation  of  wreck 
and  plunder. 

Hover.  To  hang  about ;  to  move  to  and  fro 
in  the  vicinity  of;  as,  a  vessel  hovers  about  a 
coast. 

Howard  of  Effingham,  Lord.  After  many 
years  of  service  in  the  reigns  of  Queen  Mary  and 
Elizabeth,  this  gallant  seaman  rose  to  the  rank 
of  lord  high  admiral,  and  in  that  capacity  was 
mainly  instrumental  in  preventing  the  dangers 
threatened  by  the  Spanish  Armada.  At  a  later 
period  (1596)  he  captured  Cadiz  in  conjunctidn 
with  the  Earl  of  Essex. 

Howe,  Richard,  Earl.  The  chronic  state  of 
war  in  which  England  found  herself  with  France 
during  the  chief  part  of  the  18th  century  af 
forded  naval  officers  a  large  field  of  experience. 
Howe  was  constantly  engaged  in  all  parts  of  the 
world,  and  in  each  grade,  from  midshipman  to 


admiral  of  the  white,  evinced  great  professional 
ability.  Lord  Hawke  said  of  him  that  he  never 
needed  hints  as  to  the  modus  operandi  of  enter 
prises.  Hawke  had  only  to  direct  that  certain 
things  were  to  be  done,  and  Howe  at  once  per 
formed  them.  His  chief  service  was  in  America 
when  D'Estaing  went  to  aid  the  revolted  colo 
nists,  but  he  likewise  did  good  work  in  the  Med 
iterranean  by  supplying  Gibraltar  with  provisions 
during  the  siege,  and  capped  the  climax  of  a 
brilliant  career  by  a  great  victory  over  the 
French  in  the  British  Channel.  The  "glorious 
first  of  June"  is  a  landmark  in  British  history. 

Howell,  John  C.,  Rear-Admiral  U.S.N.  Born 
in  Pennsylvania,  November  24, 1819.  Appointed 
from  Pennsylvania,  June  9,  1836;  sloop  "  Le 
vant,"  West  India  Squadron,  1837-41. 

Promoted  to  passed  midshipman,  July  1,  1842  ; 
frigate  "Congress,"  Mediterranean  Squadron, 
1842-44;  brig  "Perry,"  East  India  Squadron, 
1844-45  ;  naval  storekeeper,  Macao,  1846-48. 

Commissioned  as  lieutenant,  August  2,  1849; 
frigate  "  Raritan,"  Home  Squadron,  1849-50; 
sloop  "Saratoga,"  East  India  Squadron,  1851- 
53  ;  receiving-ship,  Philadelphia,  1854-56  ;  steam- 
frigate  "  Susquehanna,"  Mediterranean  Squad 
ron,  1856-58;  receiving  -  ship,  Philadelphia, 
1859-60;  steam-frigate  "Minnesota,"  North  At 
lantic  Blockading  Squadron,  1861 ;  battle  of 
Hatteras  Inlet. 

Commissioned  as  commander,  July  16,  1862; 
commanding  steamer  "  Tahamo,"  Eastern  Gulf 
Blockading  Squadron,  1862-63  ;  commanding 
steamer  "  Nereus,"  North  Atlantic  Blockading 
Squadron,  1864-65;  two  actions  at  Fort  Fisher, 
December,  1864,  and  January,  1865. 

Commissioned  as  captain,  July  25,  1866  ;  com 
manding  rendezvous,  Philadelphia,  1866-68 ; 
fleet-captain,  European  Squadron,  1869-70;  chief 
of  staff,  European  Fleet,  1871 ;  commanding 
League  Island  Station,  1871-72. 

Commissioned  as  commodore,  January  29, 
1872;  commanding  navy -yard,  Portsmouth, 
N.  H.,  1872-75;  chief  of  Bureau  of  Yards  and 
Docks,  1875-78. 

Commissioned  as  rear-admiral,  1877 ;  special 
duty,  1878-79;  commanding  European  Squad 
ron,  1879-80. 

Howitzer  (derived  by  Grimm  and  Littre  from 
the  Bohemian  haufnice,  "catapult").  A  short, 
light  cannon,  intended  to  throw  large  projectiles 
with  comparatively  small  charges.  A.  howitzer 
is  of  larger  calibre  than  a  gun  of  like  weight ;  is 
mounted  in  a  similar  manner,  and  is  used  for 
shorter  ranges.  It  was  introduced  by  the  Dutch 
in  1606,  and  soon  became  of  general  use,  except 
by  the  French,  who,  considering  it  of  small 
value  because  of  the  short  range  and  inaccurate 
fire,  did  not  introduce  it  until  after  Napoleon's 
wars  had  shown  him  its  value.  The  howitzer 
was  made  with  a  chamber  for  the  powder  (of 
smaller  diameter  than  the  bore),  and  with  a 
length  of  bore  regulated  to  admit  of  the  shell 
being  reached  by  the  hand,  to  adjust  the  fuze  in 
the  axis  of  the  bore,  after  the  gun  was  loaded. 
After  the  adoption  of  sabots  this  could  be  se 
cured  in  long  guns,  and  the  howitzers  were  then 
made  of  greater  length  and  came  into  universal 
use. 

In  the  navy  the  howitzers  are  principally  used 
in  boats  and  in  operations  on  shore  ;  they  would 
also  be  serviceable  in  repelling  boarders.  They 


HOY 


351 


HUGHES 


are  of  small  calibre,  the  24-pounder  smooth-bore 
being  the  largest.  The  smooth-bores  are  being 
superseded  by  breech-loading  rifled  howitzers. 

In  the  army  howitzers  of  8  inches  bore  are 
used  for  saige  purposes,  and  for  the  defense  of 
ditches  in  fortifications. 

Hoy.,  A  small  vessel  usually  rigged  as  a  sloop 
and  employed  in  carrying  freight  and  passengers 
along  the  sea-coast.  It  acquired  its  name  from 
its  stopping  when  called  to  from  the  shore,  to 
take  up  goods  or  passengers.  Hoys  are  now  used 
for  heavy  work  about  a  harbor;  as  transporting 
provisions,  weighing  anchors,  etc. 

HOYMAN.     One  who  navigates  a  hoy. 

Hoyse.     An  old  word  for  hoist. 

Huddock.     The  cabin  of  a  coal-barge. 

Huddum.     An  old  term  for  a  kind  of  whale. 

Hudson,  Henry.  A  company  of  London  mer 
chants,  desirous  of  shortening  the  route  to  China 
and  Hindostan,  fitted  out  an  expedition,  which 
they  placed  under  the  command  of  this  English 
seaman  in  1607.  He  sailed  along  the  coast  of 
Greenland  beyond  the  80th  degree  of  latitude, 
when  he  was  stopped  by  the  ice.  He  had  got 
within  eight  degrees  of  the  pole, — a  point  never 
before  attained  by  any  navigator.  He  then  re 
turned  home,  but  was  soon  employed  by  the 
Dutch  East  India  Company  to  find  a  passage 
by  the  northeast.  Failing  in  this,  through  the 
frozen  condition  of  the  seas,  he  sailed  down  the 
south  coast  of  America,  sighted  Cape  Cod,  dis 
covered  Delaware  Bay,  and  entered  the  great 
inland  waters  on  which  the  city  of  New  York 
stands.  He  went  up  one  river  as  far  as  the  site 
of  Albany,  and  that  river  now  bears  his  name. 
In  1610,  Hudson  was  again  engaged  by  an  Eng 
lish  company  to  attempt  to  find  an  entrance  to 
the  Pacific  in  a  northwest  direction.  He  passed 
through  a  strait  and  bay  opening  westward  from 
the  Greenland  Sea,  and  these  now  bear  his  name. 
But  his  further  explorations  were  stopped  by  the 
mutiny  of  his  crew,  who  sent  him  adrift  in  a 
small  shallop  with  scarcely  any  food.  Neither 
Hudson,  his  son,  nor  the  few  men  who  adhered 
to  him,  were  ever  heard  of  again. 

Huer.  A  man  posted  on  an  elevation  near 
the  sea,  who  by  concerted  signals  directs  the 
fishermen  when  a  shoal  of  fish  is  in  sight.  Also 
the  hot  fountains  in  the  sea  near  Iceland. 

Hug.  To  hug  the  land,  to  sail  as  near  it  as 
possible.  To  hug  the  wind,  to  keep  the  ship  as 
close  to  the  wind  as  possible. 

Hugger-mugger.  Anything  out  of  order  or 
done  in  a  slovenly  way. 

Hughes,  Aaron  K.,  Commodore  U.S.N. 
Born  in  New  York.  Appointed  from  New 
York,  1838;  made  first  cruise  in  the  Pacific 
Ocean  on  board  the  frigate  "Constitution,"  from 
January,  1839,  until  November,  1841 ;  in  Febru 
ary,  1842,  was  ordered  to  the  brig  "Boxer"; 
served  in  her  in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  and  in  the 
West  Indies  until  the  autumn  of  the  same  year  ; 
served  in  the  receiving-ship  "Pennsylvania," 
Norfolk,  Va.,  from  January,  1843,  until  June 
of  the  same  year ;  was  then  ordered  to  the  frigate 
"Macedonian,"  African  Squadron,  and  served  in 
her  until  the  winter  of  1844. 

Promoted  to  passed  midshipman,  May  28, 
1844;  served  in  the  frigate  "Columbia,"  coast 
of  Brazil,  from  the  fall  of  1845  until  the  spring 
of  1846 ;  served  during  the  summer  of  1846  in  the 
office  of  the  United  States  Coast  Survey ;  in  the 


fall  of  same  year  was  ordered  as  passed  midship 
man  to  the  steamer  "  Michigan,"  on  the  western 
lakes,  and  served  in  her  until  the  summer  of 
1848;  served  in  the  receiving-ship  "  North  Car 
olina"  as  passed  midshipman  from  fall  of  1849 
until  summer  of  1850;  was  then  ordered  to  the 
sloop  "Albany,"  and  served  in  her  as  acting 
master  in  the  West  Indies  and  Gulf  of  Mexico 
for  two  years  and  one  month  ;  in  the  winter  of 
1852  was  ordered  as  acting  master  to  the  receiv 
ing-ship  "Ontario,"  where  he  received  a  warrant 
as  master  in  the  line  of  promotion,  and  served  in 
her  until  the  summer  of  1853. 

Promoted  to  lieutenant,  August,  1853,  and  in 
December  of  same  year  was  ordered  as  lieutenant 
in  sloop-of-war  "Decatur,"  Pacific  Squadron, 
until  August  of  1856;  while  attached  to  this 
vessel  in  Puget  Sound,  Washington  Territory, 
in  winter  of  1855-56,  had  an  engagement  on 
shore,  at  the  town  of  Seattle,  with  five  hundred 
hostile  Indians,  who  had  attempted  to  murder 
the  inhabitants,  pillage  and  destroy  the  place  ; 
but  through  the  unremitting  watchfulness  of 
the  late  Com.  Guert  Gansevoort  their  objects 
were  frustrated  by  the  landing  of  the  officers 
and  crew  of  the  "  Decatur"  ;  engagement  com 
menced  at  8  A.M.,  and  ended  at  4  P.M.,  on  the 
26th  day  of  January,  1856.  It  was  estimated 
that  the  Indians  lost  35  killed  and  30  wounded. 
This  ended  hostilities  in  the  territory.  In  the 
winter  of  1856-57,  ordered  as  lieutenant,  and 
served  on  board  the  receiving-ship  "  Alleghany," 
Baltimore,  as  executive-officer  until  the  fall  of 
1857,  when  he  was  ordered  as  lieutenant  and 
executive-officer  to  the  store-ship  "Supply,"  of 
the  African  and  Brazil  Squadrons,  serving  un 
til  the  fall  of  1858;  after  a  month's  leave,  was 
again  ordered  to  the  receiving-ship  "Allegha 
ny,"  where  he  served  as  a  lieutenant  until  June, 
1859 ;  was  then  ordered  as  a  lieutenant  to  the 
"San  Jacinto,"  and  served  in  her  as  second 
lieutenant,  executive-officer,  and  about  six  weeks 
in  command  of  that  vessel,  until  January,  1860  ; 
was  then  ordered  by  the  flag-officer  commanding 
the  African  Squadron  to  the' sloop  "  Portsmouth" 
as  executive-officer,  and  served  in  her  until  June 
of  same  year  ;  was  then  re-ordered  to  the  "  San 
Jacinto,"  at  the  Island  of  Madeira,  and  on  her 
way  to  St.  Paul  de  Loanda,  west  coast  of  Africa, 
was  sent  as  prize-master  of  the  captured  slaver 
"Storm  King,"  and  after  taking  charge  of  that 
vessel  200  miles  to  the  westward  of  the  Congo 
Eiver,  and  conveying  619  recaptured  Africans  to 
Monrovia,  Liberia,  a  distance  of  1500  miles,  deliv 
ered  them  to  the  charge  of  the  Rev.  John  Seys, 
government  agent  there ;  brought  the  prize  to 
Norfolk,  Va.,  in  September,  1860;  in  Decem 
ber,  1860,  ordered  as  lieutenant  to  receiving-ship 
"Princeton,"  at  Philadelphia;  served  in  her  un 
til  April  23,  1861,  on  which  day  he  was  ordered 
to  the  Phihadelphia  City  ice-boat,  which  had  been 
improvised  into  a  man-of-war  in  less  than  twenty- 
four  hours,  as  executive  ;  served  in  her  in  the 
Chesapeake,  convoying  transports  with  troops 
and  munitions  of  war  until  the  middle  of  May 
of  same  year ;  was  then  ordered  to  the  frigate 
"  Mississippi"  ;  served  in  her  as  second  lieuten 
ant  and  executive  in  the  Gulf  Squadron  until 
October  31,  1861,  when  he  was  ordered  in  com 
mand  of  the  steamer  "  Water- Witch,"  serving 
in  same  squadron  until  April,  1862,  when  she 
was  ordered  North  for  repairs  ;  while  in  com- 


HUISSIERS 


352 


HULL 


mand  of  the  "  Water- Witch,"  participated  in 
several  engagements  with  the  enemy. 

In  June,  1863,  was  ordered  to  command  the 
gunboat  "  Cimmaron"  ;  served  in  her  in  South 
Atlantic  Squadron,  under  Rear-Admiral  Dahl- 
gren,  until  May,  1864  ;  while  in  her  participated 
in  the  attack  on  the  enemy's  works  before  Charles 
ton,  August  17,  1863,  and  served  in  other  en 
gagements  at  the  same  place.  In  October,  1864, 
ordered  to  report  to  Acting  Rear-Admiral  Lee  as 
ordnance-officer,  Mississippi  Squadron  ;  in  Feb 
ruary,  1835,  was  transferred  as  executive-officer 
to  the  Mound  City  Naval  Station,  in  which  ca 
pacity  he  served  until  February,  1866  ;  as  light 
house  inspector  of  the  sixth  light-house  dis 
trict  at  Charleston,  S.  C.,  1866-67. 

Promoted  to  lieutenant-commander,  July  16, 
1862. 

Promoted  to  commander,  November  18,  1862. 

Promoted  to  captain,  February  10,  1869;  com 
manding  receiving-ship  "Boston,"  1870;  com 
manding  "  Pensacola"  (second-rate),  Pacific 
Squadron,  1872-74. 

Commissioned  as  commodore,  February  4, 
1875;  commanding  Naval  Station,  Port  Royal, 
S.  C.,  1877-78;  leave  of  absence,  1879;  com 
mandant  navy-yard,  Norfolk,  Va.,  1879-80. 

Huissiers.  The  flat-bottomed  transports  in 
which  horses  were  embarked  in  the  Crusades. 

Hulcock.  A  name  for  the  Squqlus  galeus,  or 
smooth  hound-fish. 

Hulk.  A  vessel  condemned  as  unfit  for  the 
risks  of  the  sea,  dismantled,  and  used  for  harbor 
purposes ;  as,  sheer-hulk,  convict-hulk,  etc. 

Hull.  The  body  of  a  ship  independent  of 
masts,  sails,  rigging,  etc.  To  hull,  to  pierce  the 
hull  with  shot.  A-hull,  the  situation  of  a  ship 
under  bare  poles  with  her  helm  lashed  a-lee,  and 
driving  before  wind  and  sea.  Hull-down,  a  ship 
so  far  distant  that  her  hull  is  below  the  horizon. 

Hull,  York  County,  England,  is  the  third 
port  in  extent  of  business  in  the  kingdom.  Its 
docks  and  basins  are  very  extensive  and  com 
plete,  surrounded  by  broad  quays  and  large  ware 
houses,  and  are  crowded  with  shipping  of  all 
nations.  The  principal  exports  are  cotton  and 
woolen  stuffs,  yarn,  etc.  Its  coasting-trade  is 
highly  important.  Ship-building  and  its  aux 
iliary  manufactures,  including  boilers  and  steam- 
engines,  are  extensively  carried  on.  Lat.  53° 
44'  36"  N.  ;  Ion.  0°  20'  W.  Pop.  140,100. 

Hull,  Isaac,  Commodore  U.S.N.,  was  born 
at  Derby,  Conn.,  on  the  9th  of  March,  1775.  He 
entered  the  merchant  service  at  12,  and  com 
manded  a  vessel  at  19.  Was  appointed  a  lieu 
tenant  in  the  navy  on  the  9th  of  March,  1798. 

He  was  first  lieutenant  of  the  "Constitution" 
on  a  cruise  as  flag-ship  of  Commodore  Talbot  in 
1800,  and  was  given  command  of  an  American 
sloop,  the  "  Sally."  In  her  he  entered  Port 
Platte,  San  Domingo,  and  cut  out  and  carried  to 
sea  the  "Sandwich,"  a  privateer,  rigging  her  in 
a  short  space  of  time.  Returning  home,  he  was 
commissioned  a  lieutenant  at  the  reorganization 
of  the  service  in  1801.  He  sailed  from  New 
York  on  the  10th  June,  1803,  in  command  of  the 
"Enterprise";  in  company  with  the  "John 
Adams"  captured  a  corsair,  which  blew  up, 
June  22.  On  the  arrival  of  the  "Argus,"  No 
vember  11,  he  was  transferred  to  her.  He  was 
promoted  to  master-commandant  in  April,  1804, 
assisted  in  the  capture  of  a  felucca,  April,  1804, 


and  participated  in  the  actions  of  August  3  and 
September  28,  off  Tripoli,  narrowly  escaping 
capture  on  the  9th  of  August.  Conveyed  Gen. 
Eaton  to  Alexandria,  and  afterwards  assisted 
that  officer  in  the  attacks  on  and  capture  of 
Derne,  April  27,  1805.  Returned  home  at  the 
close  of  the  war,  and  was  made  a  captain  April 
23.  1806. 

On  the  breaking  out  of  the  war  of  1812  he  was 
in  command  of  the  "Constitution,"  in  which 
ship  in  1811  he  carried  specie  to  Ireland  for  pay 
ment  of  a  debt  in  Holland,  and  was  chased  by  a 
squadron,  but  escaped.  Sailed  again,  July  12, 
1812,  and  from  the  17th  to  the  20th  was  chased 
by  an  English  squadron  of  7  vessels,  escaping 
by  the  most  consummate  skill  and  seamanship. 
Sailing  again  on  the  2d  of  August,  he  captured 
5  merchantmen,  and  on  the  19th,  after  a  bloody 
fight,  captured  and  destroyed  the  British  frigate 
"Guerriere,"  38.  For  this  he  was  awarded  a 
gold  medal.  He  was  a  naval  commissioner  from 
1815-17.  Commanded  the  Pacific  Fleet,  in  the 
frigate  "  United  States,"  from  1824-27  ;  leave  of 
absence,  1828-29;  navy-yard,  Washington, 
1830-35;  leave  of  absence,  1836-37;  waiting 
orders,  1838-39 ;  commanded  Mediterranean 
Squadron,  1840-41 ;  on  leave,  1842-43.  Died  at 
Philadelphia,  February  13,  1843,  aged  68.— F. 
S.  Bassett,  Lieutenant  U.S.N. 

Hull,  Joseph  B.,  Commodore  U.S.N.  Born 
in  Westchester,  N.  Y.  Appointed  midshipman 
from  Connecticut,  November  9,  1813,  joined 
the  frigate  "  Congress"  and  went  to  Holland 
and  the  Mediterranean,  1815,  returning  in  Com 
modore  Bainbridge's  Squadron  ;  in  the  "  Wash 
ington,"  74,  in '"the  Mediterranean,  1816-17; 
transferred  to  the  frigate  "  United  States"  in 
1818,  and  returned  in  her  to  Norfolk  in  the  sum 
mer  of  1819;  in  1820  attached  to  the  Boston 
Navy- Yard ;  in  the  "Franklin,"  74,  Pacific 
Squadron,  1823,  as  passed  midshipman ;  in  1824 
ordered  to  schooner  "Dolphin"  as  acting  lieu 
tenant ;  rejoined  the  "Franklin"  and  returned 
home  in  her  in  1825. 

Commissioned  as  lieutenant,  January  13,  1825; 
in  frigate  "Constellation,"  West  Indies,  in 
1827;  ordered  to  sloop  "John  Adams,"  1828, 
and  returned  home  ;  in  frigate  "  Guerriere,"  Pa 
cific  Squadron,  1829-31  ;  attached  to  Washington 
Navy- Yard,  1831-33;  in  frigate  "Potomac," 
Mediterranean  Squadron,  1834-37 ;  attached  to 
receiving-ship  at  Boston  from  fall  of  1839  to 
September  8,  1841. 

Commissioned  as  commander  September  8, 
1841  ;  in  command  of  sloop  "  Warren,"  Pacific, 
1843-46,  to  October,  1847,  returning  via  Pan 
ama.  While  in  command  of  the  "  Warren,"  off 
Mazatlan,  sent  in  a  boat  expedition  under  Lieut. 
Radford  (now  rear-admiral),  to  cut  out  the  Mex 
ican  gun-brig  "  Malekadhel,"  which  was  success 
fully  done  ;  was  in  command  of  the  Northern 
District  of  California  for  a  short  period  before 
the  close  of  the  Mexican  war;  commanding  na 
val  rendezvous,  Philadelphia,  from  November, 
1849,  to  December,  1851. 

Commissioned  as  captain,  September  14,  1855; 
in  command  of  frigate  "  St.  Lawrence,"  Brazil 
Squadron  and  Paraguay  Expedition,  1856-59, 
returning  in  May  ;  in  command  of  the  "  Savan 
nah,"  coast  blockade,  from  June  to  September, 
1861. 

Commissioned  as  commodore,  July  16,  1862  ; 


HUMBER-KEEL 


HYDROGRAPHER 


superintending  the  building  of  gunboats  at  St. 
Louis,  from  June,  1862,  until  1864,  when  he  was 
transferred  to  Pittsburgh  ;  in  command  of  navy- 
yard,  Philadelphia,  from  November  10,  1864,  to 
January  1,  1866;  president  of  Examining  Board 
at  Philadelphia  from  December  3,  1866,  to  July 
8,  1867;  light-house  inspector  for  the  first  dis 
trict,  with  headquarters  at  Portland,  1869-73. 
Total  sea-service  (1878),  22  years  3  months; 
shore  and  other  duty,  17  years  6  months.  Re 
tired  December  21,  1861. 

Humber-keel.  A  peculiar  clinchar-built  craft 
used  on  the  Humber. 

Hummock.  A  hill  with  a  rounded  summit 
on  the  sea-coast.  When  in  pairs  they  are  termed 
paps  by  navigators.  Hummocks  of  ice,  pro 
tuberant  lumps  of  ice  thrown  up  by  some  pres 
sure  upon  a  field  or  floe,  or  any  other  frozen 
plane.  The  pieces  which  rise  when  large  frag 
ments  come  in  contact,  and  bits  of  pack  are  frozen 
together  and  covered  with  snow. 

Hump-backed  Whale.  A  species  of  whale 
bone  whale,  the  Megaptera  longimana,  which  at 
tains  to  45  or  50  feet  in  length,  and  is  distin 
guished  by  its  low  rounded  dorsal  fin. 

Hunt,  Timothy  A.,  Commodore  U.S.N.  Born 
in  Connecticut.  Appointed  from  Connecticut, 
1825;  Pacific  Squadron,  1827;  Mediterranean 
Squadron, 1883-34. 

Commissioned  as  lieutenant,  December  17, 
1836;  receiving-ships,  Boston  and  New  York, 
1840-43;  frigate  "  Brandywine,"  East  India 
Squadron,  1845;  commanding  ordnance-trans 
port  "Electra,"  1847-48;  navy-yard,  Boston, 
1850;  frigate  "Columbia,"  Home  Squadron, 
1853-55. 

Commissioned  as  commander,  September  14, 
1855;  ordnance  duty,  1856-59;  commanding 
steam-sloop  "  Narragansett,"  Pacific  Squadron, 
1860-61. 

Commissioned  as  captain,  July  16,  1862. 

Commissioned  as  commodore,  January  2,  1863  ; 
ordnance  duty,  Boston,  1862-67;  special  duty, 
New  London,  1869-71 ;  retired  July  23,  1867. 

Hurd.     The  strand  of  a  rope. 

Hurdigers.  Particular  artificers  employed  in 
constructing  the  castles  in  early  ships. 

Hurleblast.     An  archaic  term  for  hurricane. 

Hurricane.     See  STORMS,  REVOLVING. 

Hurricane-deck.  A  light  deck  over  the 
saloon  of  a  steamer.  The  upper  deck  of  a  river- 
steamer. 

Hurter.  A  brass  casting  at  either  end  of  the 
slide  of  a  gun-carriage  for  the  trucks  to  take 
against. 

Hurtle.     To  send  bodily  on  by  a  swell  or  wind. 

Husband,  or  Ships'  Husband.  An  agent  ap 
pointed  by  deed,  executed  by  all  the  owners, 
with  power  to  advance  and  lend,  to  make  all 
payments,  to  receive  the  prices  of  freights,  and  to 
retain  all  claims.  But  this  office  gives  him  no 
authority  to  insure  or  to  borrow  money  ;  and  he 
is  to  render  a  full  account  to  his  employers. 
Also,  a  person  who  seldom  leaves  his  ship. 

Hush.  A  name  of  the  lump-fish,  denoting 
the  female. 

Hutch-hooks.  Small  pieces  of  oak  used  for 
temporary  fastening  of  any  work,  generally 
placed  over  the  heads  of  shores  in  building  or  in 
docking  a  vessel,  secured  to  the  vessel  with  rib 
band-screws. 

Hutt.     The  breech-pin  of  a  gun. 
23 


Huz-zif.  A  general  corruption  of  housewife, 
a  very  useful  contrivance  for  holding  needles 
and  thread,  and  the  like. 

Hyades.  The  seven  daughters  of  Atlas  and 
^Ethra  ;  Ambrosia,  Eudora,  Coronis,  Pasithoe, 
Plexaris,  Pytho,  and  Tyche.  They  were  changed 
by  Jupiter  into  seven  stars. 

Hydra  (Gr.  hudros,  the  water-snake).  A  con 
stellation  to  the  south  of  Cancer,  Leo,  and  Virgo. 
Its  principal  star,  a  Hydras — called  also  Cor 
Hydrce  and  Alphard — may  be  found  by  continu 
ing  the  line  from  6  and  y  Ursce  Majoris  through 
a  Leonis  to  about  half  its  length ;  the  line 
through  Castor  and  Pollux  also  points  it  out. 

Hydraulic  Block.  A  block  placed  under  a 
ship  in  docking,  and  which  is  worked  by  a  hy 
draulic  pump,  to  be  raised  and  lowered  either  at 
the  bilge-blocks  or  at  the  keel-blocks. 

Hydraulic  Dock.  An  apparatus  by  which  a 
vessel  is  raised  clear  of  the  water  for  examina 
tion  and  repairs  by  means  of  hydraulic  presses. 
The  vessel  is  brought  over  a  platform  suspended 
by  chains  passing  over  pulleys  in  the  side-frame 
of  the  dock,  and  which  are  attached  on  each  side 
to  a  strong  beam  connected  with  the  cross-head 
of  a  hydraulic  press. 

Hydraulic  Press.  A  machine  in  which  the 
pressure  of  a  piston  or  plunger  of  a  pump  acts 
upon  a  small  area  of  a  body  of  liquid,  transmit 
ting  to  a  piston  of  larger  area  in  a  working  cyl 
inder  a  pressure  or  force  proportional  to  the  dif 
ference  in  area  between  the  working  piston  and 
pump- plunger,  and  a  speed  inversely  propor 
tional  to  the  difference.  The  pump  draws  liquid 
from  a  reservoir  and  forces  it  into  the  working 
cylinder ;  and  when  the  return  of  the  working 
piston  is  desired  the  liquid  is  released  by  a  cock. 

Hydrographer  to  the  Bureau  of  Navigation. 
According  to  the  organization  of  the  U.  S.  Hy- 
drographic  Office,  "the  officer  in  charge  will  be 
the  hydrographer  to  the  Bureau  of  Navigation, 
and  will  be  responsible  for  everything  emanating 
from  that  office."  The  regulations  of  the  bureau 
go  on  to  say,  "From  intercourse  with  foreign 
hydrographic  offices,  from  information  received 
from  our  naval  vessels  and  mercantile  marine, 
together  with  the  perusal  of  hydrographic  pub 
lications,  etc.,  he  is  expected  to  be  acquainted 
with  what  has  already  been  done  and  is  doing  in 
this  branch,  and  to  point  out  what  may  be  de 
sirable  from  time  to  time  to  accomplish."  The 
hydrographer  has  the  superintendence  and  gen 
eral  control  of  the  various  divisions  of  which 
the  hydrographic  office  is  composed ;  to  him 
the  head  of  each  division  refers  any  matter 
out  of  the  ordinary  routine  of  duty  for  de 
cision.  The  position  has  always  been  held  by  an 
officer  not  below  the  rank  of  commander;  he  has 
not  been  appointed  for  any  special  period,  but 
has  been  retained  at  the  pleasure  of  the  Navy 
Department. 

There  is  an  assistant  hydrographer  attached  to 
the  office,  whose  duty  it' is  to  act  in  the  absence! 
of  the  hydrographer,  and  also  to  assist  him  in 
any  of  the  duties  of  the  office. 

The  regulations  of  the  bureau  which  established 
the  position  of  hydrographer  were  not  approved 
until  January  21,  1871,  although  the  act  creating 
the  hydrographic  office  was  approved  June  21, 
1866.  There  was  in  the  interval  a  chief  of  the 
office  corresponding  to  the  present  hydrographer, 
but  it  does  not  appear  that  he  had  any  title  until 


HYDROGRAPHIC   OFFICE 


354 


HYDROGRAPHY 


the  approval  of  the  regulations  above  referred  to. 
Since  the  passage  of  the  act  creating  the  Hydro- 
graphic  Office,  the  following-named  officers  have 
been  at  its  head,  viz. :  Commander  Fillebrown, 
Capt.  N.  B.  Harrison,  Commander  Simpson, 
Commodore  Emmons,  Capt.  Wyman, — who  also 
continued  in  the  position  as  commodore  and 
rear-admiral,— Capt.  Franklin,  and  Capt.  De 
Kraift,  the  present  incumbent.  All  maritime 
nations  of  any  importance  have  a  position  cor 
responding  to  that  of  the  h}*drographer,  which 
is  filled,  as  with  us,  by  naval  officers  of  the  dif 
ferent  grades. — S.  R.  Franklin,  Captain  U.S.N. 

Hydrographic  Office.  The  act  of  Congress 
entitled  An  act  to  establish  a  Hydrographic  Of 
fice  in  the  Navy  Department  was  approved  June 
21,  1866. 

Before  the  passage  of  this  act  the  charts  for 
our  naval  vessels  were  issued  from  a  number  of 
different  places  which,  from  time  to  time,  were 
used  as  depots  of  charts.  About  the  year  1835 
the  Depot  of  Charts  was  a  house  on  G  Street  be 
tween  21st  and  22d  Streets.  From  G  Street, 
prior  to  the  sailing  of  the  U.  S.  Exploring  Ex 
pedition,  it  was  removed  to  a  house  on  North 
Capitol  Street,  owned  by  Lieut.  Wilkes.  From 
Capitol  Hill  it  was  moved  to  a  building  on 
Pennsylvania  Avenue,  opposite  to  what  is  now 
the  Columbia  Hospital,  and  known  as  the  For- 
syth  House.  When  the  Observatory  was  com 
pleted  the  charts  were  issued  from  there,  and  in 
1886,  upon  the  establishment  of  a  Hydrographic 
Office,  which  was  located  at  the  corner  of  18th 
Street  and  New  York  Avenue,  they  were  moved 
to  that  building,  which  building  continued  to  be 
the  Hydrographic  Office  until  its  removal  to  the 
Navy  Department  in  1879.  The  Hydrographic 
Office  is  now  an  annex  of  the  Bureau  of  Naviga 
tion,  but  formerly  everything  connected  with 
Hydrography  was  subject  to  the  Bureau  of  Ord 
nance  and  Hydrography.  When  the  Bureau  of 
Navigation  was  created  all  matter  relating  to 
that  subject  was  transferred  to  it. 

This  office  is  divided  into  the  following  de 
partments,  viz.  :  Division  of  Archives,  etc.,  Chart 
Division,  Meteorological  Division,  Division  of 
Drafting  and  Engraving,  and  Division  of  Longi 
tudes.  There  is  also  a  library  connected  with 
the  office,  which  contains  technical  and  other 
works. 

The  Division  of  Archives  is  in  charge  of  a 
naval  officer,  whose  duty  it  is  to  collect  and  file 
all  hydrographic  information,  and  issue  the  same 
in  the  form  of  hydrographic  notices  and  notices 
to  mariners,  which  are  disseminated  for  the  bene 
fit  of  navigation  and  are  sent  gratuitously  to  any 
masters  of  vessels  or  others  interested  in  mari 
time  affairs  who  may  desire  them.  In  the  files 
of  the  archives  are  kept  all  the  data  of  original 
surveys,  and  everything  appertaining  to  that 
subject. 

The  Chart  Division,  which  comprises  the  charts 
of  this  office  and  the  British  admiralty  charts, 
is  Also  in  charge  of  a  naval  officer.  From  this 
division  are  issued  all  the  charts  to  United  States 
ships  of  war,  and  also  to  the  agents  at  the  im 
portant  seaports  of  the  United  States,  by  whom 
they  are  sold  to  mariners  at  the  cost  of  printing 
and  paper.  This  division  has  charge  also  of 
the  printing  of  the  charts.  The  Meteorological 
Division  is  in  charge  of  a  naval  officer,  who, 
with  his  assistants,  is  employed  in  collecting  and 


collating  data  for  the  construction  of  meteoro 
logical  charts,  intended  finally  to  comprise  the 
whole  navigable  ocean. 

The  Division  of  Drafting  and  Engraving  is 
in  charge  of  a  hydrographic  expert  whose  duty 
it  is  to  superintend  the  drafting  and  engraving 
of  all  charts  published  by  the  office,  and  to  see 
that  the  plates  are  corrected  in  accordance  with 
the  latest  hydrographic  information. 

The  Division  of  Longitudes  is  conducted  by 
a  naval  officer,  and  when  there  is  a  doubtful  ques 
tion  of  the  longitude  of  any  point  under  consid 
eration,  this  division  investigates  all  the  au 
thorities  upon  the  subject  before  the  matter  is 
finally  decided.  It  is  at  present  engaged  in  col 
lecting  the  latitudes  and  longitudes  of  the  im 
portant  seaports  of  the  world  from  the  latest  and 
most  reliable  authorities.  The  most  important 
work,  however,  upon  which  it  is  engaged,  and 
that  upon  which  its  other  work  chiefly  depends, 
is  the  reduction  of  the  observations  for  secondary 
positions  of  longitudes  as  determined  by  electric 
cable,  by  parties  under  the  command  of  Lieut. - 
Corns.  Green  and  Davis. 

The  librarian  is  a  naval  officer,  whose  duty  it 
also  is  to  see  to  the  correction  of  nautical  books 
and  sailing  directions,  and  to  their  issue  to  naval 
vessels  and  to  the  agents  of  the  office. 

In  order  that  mariners  may  receive  the  publi 
cations  of  the  office  at  the  lowest  possible  rate, 
the  law  makes  it  obligatory  that  they  be  sold  at 
the  cost  of  printing  and  paper. — S.  II.  Franklin, 
Captain  U.S.N. 

Hydrography.  The  general  term  Hydrography 
is  no  wused  to  include  a  description  of  the  navigable 
waters  of  the  earth,  their  contour  and  character, 
of  the  rocks  and  shoals  likely  to  endanger  navi 
gation,  the  tides,  currents,  and  depths  of  all 
navigable  waters,  of  ocean  meteorology,  and  of 
the  best  methods  to  adopt  in  making  passages 
from  one  port  to  another.  The  same  word  is 
used  to  designate  the  art  of  making  charts  which 
shall  show  this  varied  information  in  .a  conve 
nient  form  for  the  navigator. 

As  such  work  is,  generally  speaking,  too  ex 
tensive  and  costly  to  be  carried  on  by  private  in 
dividuals,  all  maritime  nations  of  importance 
have  found  it  necessary  to  establish  as  a  part  of 
their  administrative  system  a  hydrographic  of 
fice,  the  functions  of  which  are  substantially 
the  same  for  all  countries  and  comprise  the  con 
duct  of  hydrographic  surveys,  the  preparation 
and  publishing  of  charts  and  sailing  directions, 
the  issuing  of  charts  and  books  to  government 
vessels  and  supplying  them  through  agents  to 
the  mercantile  marine,  and  the  constant  inter 
national  interchange  of  all  information  which 
may  be  of  service  to  the  navigator.  If  war  were 
not  to  be  apprehended,  each  government  need 
only  concern  itself  with  the  charts  of  its  own 
shores,  procuring  necessary  charts  of  other  parts 
of  the  world  from  foreign  officer? ;  but  as  at  any 
time  such  a  supply  would  be  subject  to  interrup 
tion,  the  hydrographic  office  of  each  prominent 
maritime  nation  seeks  to  supply  its  public  and  pri 
vate  ships  with  charts  of  all  parts  of  the  world, 
thus  being  independent  in  case  of  hostilities. 
The  English  government  have  published  nearly 
or  quite  3000  different  charts,  and  the  French 
about  the  same  number.  In  the  United  States 
the  hydrographic  establishment  is  divided  into 
two  branches, — the  U.  S.  Coast  and  Geodetic  Sur- 


HYDROGRAPHY 


355 


HYGIENE 


vey,  under  the  Treasury  Department,  dealing 
exclusively  with  the  coasts  of  the  United  States, 
of  which  about  350  charts  have  been  published, 
and  the  Hydrographic  Office  attached  to  the 
Navy  Department,  and  engaged  in  the  construc 
tion  of  charts  of  foreign  coasts,  of  which  about 
700  have  been  published.  This  office  also  sup 
plies  all  vessels  of  war  with  the  necessary 
charts  and  books,  and  disposes  of  its  publica 
tions  through  agents  to  the  mercantile  marine 
and  others.  An  extensive  and  mutually  valu 
able  exchange  of  information  is  constantly  go 
ing  on  between  the  hydrographic  offices  of  the 
United  States,  England,  Prance,  Denmark,  Nor 
way,  Sweden,  Russia,  Spain,  Italy,  Austria, 
Portugal,  Holland,  Belgium,  Germany,  India, 
Japan,  Brazil,  Buenos  Ayres,  and  Chili,  result 
ing,  in  1879,  in  the  publication  by  the  U.  S. 
Hydrographic  Office  of  87  hydrographic  notices 
relative  to  discoveries  and  changes  in  the  natural 
features  of  navigable  regions,  and  119  notices  to 
mariners  relating  to  additions  to  and  changes  in 
artificial  aids  to  navigation.  These  form  a  yearly 
synopsis  of  the  hydrographic  work  of  the  world. 

The  general  object  of  the  hydrographic  survey 
of  a  coast-line  is  to  produce  such  a  chart  that 
every  part  of  the  coast  may  be  readily  recognized 
and  safely  approached  or  passed  by  a  stranger, 
and  that  its  ports  may  be  safely  entered  and  left 
without  the  aid  of  a  pilot.  In  addition  to  the 
charts  of  the  coast-line,  information  as  to  the 
depth,  current,  and  temperature  of  the  sea  is  of 
great  importance  to  the  navigator,  and  is  when 
known  incorporated  into  the  chart.  See  CHART, 
COAST  SURVEY,  DEEP-SEA  SOUNDING. 

It  is  only  since  the  middle  of  the  18th  century 
that  accurate  hydrographic  surveys  have  been 
effected  by  the  officers  of  various  nations, — Capt. 
J.  Cook,  of  the  English  navy;  Des  Barres, 
another  Englishman,  and  Admiral  Beautemps- 
Beaupre,  of  the  French  navy,  being  among  the 
pioneers  in  this  work. 

As  regards  the  extent  of  foreign  coast-line  sur 
veyed,  England  is  in  advance  of  all  other  na 
tions,  and  the  work  of  her  naval  surveyors  is  of 
marked  excellence.  Although  the  surveys  of 
foreign  coasts  by  officers  of  the  United  States 
navy  are  by  no  means  as  extensive,  their  work 
is  of  a  very  high  character,  and  the  hydrographic 
survey  of  the  coast  of  the  United  States  com 
pares  favorably  with  any  other  work  of  the  kind. 

The  surveys  which  have  been  made  of  coast 
lines  vary  largely  in  quality,  and  may  be  divided 
into  three  classes,\iz. :  1st.  Complete  triangulated 
surveys,  where  the  adjacent  waters  have  been 
thoroughly  examined,  leaving  nothing  to  be  de 
sired  in  the  way  of  information  for  the  navi 
gator ;  2d.  Running  surveys  made  from  ships, 
giving  accurate  plans  of  the  harbors,  but  only 
approximately  correct  coast-lines ;  and  3d.  Rec- 
onnoissances,  where  only  the  general  direction 
and  aspect  of  the  coast  is  given,  and  where  the 
navigator  must  be  constantly  on  his  guard 
against  hidden  dangers. 

The  surveys  of  the  Atlantic  coast  of  the  United 
States,  with  those  of  England,  France,  Germany, 
and  one  or  two  other  European  nations,  are  the 
only  ones  to  be  placed  without  reserve  in  the 
first  class,  while  those  of  by  far  the  largest  part 
of  the  earth's  coast-Jine  are  embraced  in  the 
second  class.  The  surveys  of  New  Guinea,  a 
majority  of  the  Pacific  and  East  India  Islands, 


parts  of  the  coasts  of  Africa  and  South  America, 
and  the  Arctic  and  Antarctic  regions  are  to  be 
included  in  the  third  class. 

No  branch  of  hydrographic  knowledge  has  re 
ceived  such  great  accessions  during  the  last 
few  years  as  that  relating  to  the  depths,  tem 
perature,  and  chemical  constituents  of  the  great 
oceans.  In  addition  to  the  knowledge  derived 
from  the  surveys  of  the  United  States  ships 
"  Tuscarora,"  "  Essex,"  and  "  Blake,"  the  Eng 
lish  ships  "  Challenger"  and  "  Alert,"  and  the 
German  ship  "  Gazelle,"  vessels  engaged  in  lay 
ing  submarine  telegraph  cables  are  constantly 
adding  to  our  knowledge  of  the  depths  of  the 
sea. 

For  an  account  of  the  various  methods  in  use 
in  marine-surveying  the  reader  is  referred  to 
"  General  Instructions  for  Hydrographic  Sur 
veyors,"  published  by  the  U/S.  Navy  Depart 
ment;  the  annual  "Report  of  the  U.  S.  Coast 
and  Geodetic  Survey  ;"  "  Nautical  Surveying!" 
by  Capt.  W.  N.  Jeffers,  U.S.N. ;  "  Nautical 
Surveying,"  by  Capt.  E.  Belcher,  R.N.  ;  "  Prac 
tical  and  Theoretical  Nautical  Surveying,"  by 
Prof.  J.  K.  Laugh  ton ;  "  Deep-Sea  Sounding 
and  Dredging,"  by  Lieut.-Com.  C.  D.  Sigsbee, 
U.S.N.  ;  and  "  Cours  de  Navigatione  et  d'Hy- 
drographie,"  by  E.  Dubois. — F.  M.  Green,  Lieu 
tenant-  Commander  U.  S.  N. 

Hydrometer.  An  instrument  for  ascertain 
ing  the  specific  gravity  or  relative  density  of 
liquids.  It  is  made  of  glass  or  metal,  and  con 
sists  of  a  hollow  bulb  or  float  provided  with  a 
slender  stem  which  is  graduated  to  any  arbitrary 
scale  suitable  to  the  purpose  for  which  it  is  used  ; 
projecting  from  the  bottom  of  this  bulb  is  a 
smaller  one  filled  with  shot  or  mercury  for  the 
purpose  of  keeping  the  instrument  upright. 

Hygiene,  Naval.  Though  the  principles  of 
hygiene  are  pretty  much  the  same  everywhere, 
the  practice  on  board  ship  presents  some  pecu 
liarities,  some  difficulties :  good  or  pure  air ;  pure 
water,  and  enough  of  it ;  good  food,  enough  and 
of  such  varieties  as  afford  proper  nourishment; 
proper  employment  for  mind  and  body,  without 
excessive  labor ;  good  discipline  and  other  com 
fortable  surroundings,  are  all  necessary.  Ever 
since  Ulysses,  on  his  raft,  removed  some  of  his 
clothes  to  enable  him  to  swim  ashore  (Odyssey), 
human  ingenuity  has  been  contriving  means  to 
save  life  and  to  preserve  health  on  the  ocean. 

Ventilation. — Pure  air  is  sufficiently  abundant 
on  the  wide  ocean,  so  that  proper  ventilation  is 
the  main  question  with  reference  to  this  matter. 
Respired  air  has  about  the  temperature  of  the 
human  body,  something  near  37°. 78  C.  (=  100° 
F.);  it  is  much  warmer  than  the  air  of  any- 
habitable  apartment,  so  that,  in  obedience  to  di 
minished  specific  gravity,  it  ascends,  escapes  by 
the  hatches ;  thus  any  small  vessel  is  sufficiently 
ventilated  if  only  the  hatches  can  be  kept  open 
But  as  the  vessels  increase  in  size  the  difficulties 
increase  in  such  a  way  that  the  larger  the  vessel 
the  more  numerous  the  sick-list,  the  greater  rel 
ative  mortality,  notwithstanding  the  great  im 
provement  in  most  other  respects.  The  large  ship 
is  subdivided  into  many  apartments,  some  of 
them  not  so  well  arranged  as  they  might  be,  and 
they  contain  chests  of  dirty  clothes,  packages 
of  spoiled  cheese,  and  sometimes  worse  things ; 
the  air  cannot  remove  everything  bad  about  such 
things  unless  it  has  a  fair  chance.  Devices  for 


HYGIENE 


356 


HYGIENE 


mechanical  ventilation  have  been  very  numer 
ous,  and  though  each  one  has  been  useful  under 
the  careful  supervision  of  the  inventor,  all  of 
them,  ancient  and  modern,  have  failed  in  gen 
eral  utility :  the  foul-air  pump,  the  bellows,  and 
the  fans  are  all  effective  in  moving  the  air  that 
comes  within  their  influence,  but  the  openings 
of  the  machines  cannot  reach  every  accumula 
tion  of  foul  air,  or  rather  do  not;  and  hence, 
with  all  their  labor  and  expense,  these  machines 
merely  circulate  to  the  next  aperture  the  air 
that  comes  within  their  power  In  vessels  of  the 
monitor  class  it  has  been  made  possible,  by  the 
use  of  fans  propelled  by  steam,  to  introduce  air 
at  one  end  and  discharge  it  at  the  other,  and  by 
way  of  variety  at  both  ends,  so  as  to  ventilate 
the  interior  and  supply  air  for  the  furnaces  at 
the  same  time.  Formerly  there  was  much  in 
convenience  from  impure  air  caused  by  bilge- 
water,  and  from  decaying  fragments  of  provisions 
and  cargo  ;  but  this  is  so  well  understood  and  so 
easily  remedied  by  keeping  the  ship  dry  and 
clean  that  the  matter  should  no  longer  be  of 
much  interest,  except  as  a  matter  of  history. 

Crowd-poison  and  typhus. — Poor  ventilation 
and  crowding,  besides  general  ill  health,  cause 
typhus  fever,  a  specific  disease,  and  most  fatal 
contagious  pestilence.  It  seems  that  the  mere 
perspiration  of  our  bodies,  unless  promptly  re 
moved  by  free  circulation  of  air,  becomes  very 
quickly  a  terrific  poison  (ochlesis,  crowd-poison), 
which  thus  killed  great  numbers  of  our  immi 
grants  from  Europe.  Ships  arriving  with  crowds 
of  passengers  had  many  deaths,  and  the  sick 
were  transferred  to  the  quarantine  stations, 
•whence  the  disease  was  communicated  to  phy 
sicians  and  nurses  at  the  hospitals ;  there  were 
many  deaths  from  this  so-called  ship-fever,  until 
by  Act  of  Congress  (May  3,  1855),  this  was 
remedied.  The  law  contains  the  following  among 
other  essential  provisions : 

1.  The  number  of  passengers  shall  not  exceed 
1  for  each  2  tons  measurement. 

2.  The  apartments  shall  not  be  less  than  6  feet 
in  height. 

3.  Each  passenger  shall  have  from  14  to  18 
feet  of  floor  space,  varying  according  to  height 
and  position,  and  giving  about  100  cubic  feet. 

4.  Every  vessel  with  capacity  for  100  passen 
gers  shall  have  2  ventilators,  1    at  each   end, 
and  1  of  them  fitted  with  an  exhausting  cowl. 

5.  These  arrangements  are  enforced  by  suffi 
cient  fines  and  other  penalties. 

Coolie  ships. — Curious  as  it  may  seem,  crowds 
of  passengers  have  been  smothered  to  death  on 
board  "coolie"  ships,  both  English  and  Ameri 
can,  within  the  last  25  years. 

Water  supply. — Pure  water  is  essential  to 
health  and  well-being ;  and  generally  there  need 
be  no  difficulty  in  procuring  it.  Distilled  water 
is  even  too  pure,  but  by  aeration  and  the  slight 
mixture  of  sea-water,  unavoidable,  it  becomes 
pleasant  and  wholesome  ;  and,  curious  as  it  may 
seem,  distilled  water  is  generally  cheaper  than 
spring  water.  Formerly  the  supply  of  water 
•was  a  difficult  matter  ;  it  was  carried  in  wooden 
casks,  which  occupied  much  space  and  spoiled 
the  water,  so  that  4  or  5  pints  a  day  was  con 
sidered  a  liberal  allowance  of  the  disgusting 
fluid.  The  first  great  improvement  was  the  in 
troduction  of  iron  tanks  to  preserve  the  water, 
?nd  next  the  simple  devices,  not  yet  generally 


understood,  for  rendering  distilled  water  pala 
table.  The  selection  of  spring- water  calls  for 
some  care  and  judgment.  There  is  no  need  here 
for  any  elaborate  chemical  analysis,  as  in  arrang 
ing  for  city  supplies.  Limpid  water  from  the 
hills  is  pretty  surely  good  unless  it  has  a  de 
cidedly  objectionable  flavor  or  a  bad  local  repu 
tation.  It  is  important  to  avoid  small  streams 
in  which  clothes  are  washed,  into  which  dirt  is 
thrown,  and  streams  which  drain  marshy  land. 
This  caution  at  first  sight  seems  superfluous, 
but  it  is  curious  to  see  with  what  carelessness  dirt 
is  mixed  with  drinking-water  nearly  everywhere, 
from  London  to  Memphis,  as  well  as  on  ship 
board. 

Food. — The  supply  of  suitable  food  is  a  real 
difficulty  ;  we  may  carry  salt  beef  and  salt  pork, 
hard  bread  and  dry  beans,  flour  and  dried  apples, 
tea  and  coffee,  but  no  cabbage  from  the  garden 
or  other  green  thing.  The  importance  of  fresh 
vegetables  is  quite  incomprehensible.  In  Sep 
tember,  1740,  Lord  Anson's  fleet  sailed  from 
England,  and  in  September,  1741,  three  of  the 
ships  reached  the  island  Juan  Fernandez,  on  the 
west  coast  of  South  America ;  of  the  961  men 
who  sailed  325  were  alive  ;  636  had  died  mostly 
of  scorbutus  (sea-scurvy)  during  the  passage 
around  Cape  Horn.  The  first  boat  that  landed 
was  loaded  with  grass  and  such  weeds  as  came  to 
hand.  The  poor  invalids  on  board  ate  it  up  as 
delicious  food,  and  rapidly  regained  their  strength. 
This  terrific  record  is  in  accordance  with  the  ex 
perience  of  the  time.  The  Spanish  fleet  attempt 
ing  the  same  voyage  at  the  same  time  fared 
about  as  badly,  and  the  shattered  remnant  re 
turned  to  Montevideo ;  not  one  of  their  seven 
vessels  reached  the  Pacific,  and  about  half  the 
men  died  in  the  attempt. 

Improvements. — This  difficulty  in  long  voyages 
being  understood,  there  has  been  a  steady  im 
provement  to  the  present  time.  Cook's  voyages 
of  exploration,  the  third  of  a  century  later,  were 
made  with  very  little  loss  of  life  ;  this  is  partly 
due  to  improved  knowledge  and  hygienic  care, 
and  partly  to  the  fact  that  the  passages  were 
short  from  one  landing-place  to  the  next,  and 
much  of  the  time  was  spent  about  lands  where 
fruits  and  fresh  vegetables  were  procurable.  At 
present  it  is  no  rare  thing  for  a  ship  with  200  or 
300  men  to  round  Cape  Horn,  make  a  three 
years'  cruise  in  the  Pacific,  bringing  home  every 
man  that  sailed  in  her  ;  and  there  is  no  one  or 
two  great  things  to  be  pointed  out  as  the  cause 
of  this  great  difference.  There  is  a  better  and 
more  abundant  supply  of  food,  better  discipline, 
more  thoughtfulness,  more  intelligent  attention 
to  small  things.  We  can  mention  only  a  few  of 
the  more  important  changes. 

Flogging  abolished. — The  abolition  of  flogging, 
after  many  regulations  mitigating  and  rendering 
it  less  necessary,  came  in  accordance  with  the 
demands  of  public  sentiment  (1850).  This  gave 
the  men  spirit  to  think  themselves  somewhat 
better  than  beasts,  and  they  behaved  better  ac 
cordingly.  It  did  much  to  infuse  new  life  into 
the  degraded  men ;  it  prevented  the  novices 
from  reaching  such  a  degree  of  degradation  ;  and 
now  the  other  tortures  invented  to  supply  its 
place  are  gradually  passing  to  oblivion. 

The  liquor  ration  abolished. — The  abolition  of 
the  liquor  ration  (1862)  was  still  more  important. 
This  hud  to  be  gradual.  For  twenty  years  or 


HYGIENE 


357 


HYGROMETER 


more  the  allowance  was  reduced  from  time  to 
time,  with  coffee  and  tea,  and  many  other  things 
experimentally  supplied  as  substitutes.  The  ces 
sation  of  drunken  habits  has  rendered  it  possible 
to  indulge  sailors  with  frequent  liberty  on  shore, 
without  the  filth  and  disorder  formerly  in  fashion. 
There  is  ten  times  as  much  liberty,  with  perhaps 
one-tenth  as  much  syphilis. 

Coffee  and  spices, — Furthermore  this  great  im 
provement — from  650  deaths  per  1000  in  Lord 
Anson's  fleet  to  4  or  5  per  1000  in  late  official 
reports — has  come  by  more  persistent  care  about 
small  things.  Ground  coffee,  formerly  supplied 
by  contract,  was  a  vile  mixture  of  spoiled  coffee, 
with  beans  and  chicory,  etc.,  parched  and  ground 
together.  The  mustard  called  English  mustard 
was  mostly  starch  and  saw-dust,  with  potassium 
bichromate  enough  to  make  it  pungent ;  the 
whole  seeds  are  now  purchased  and  manufac 
tured  under  responsible  supervision. 

Fresh  bread  and  early  coffee. — The  hard  bread 
on  board  is  now  varied  by  a  constant  supply  of 
fresh  bread;  a  competent  " ship's  baker,"  with 
his  oven,  belongs  to  the  complement  of  every 
ship  in  the  navy.  Congressional  legislation 
(May  23,  1872),  in  its  liberal  supply  of  coffee, 
has  even  prescribed  the  proper  time  to  use  it, — 
"  an  additional  ration  of  coffee  and  sugar  to  be 
served  at  his  first  turning  out."  The  man  who 
is  obliged  to  spend  the  morning  hours  from  5 
o'clock  to  8  A.M.  in  scrubbing  decks  and  making 
things  neat  till  breakfast-time  fully  appreciates 
this  preliminary  bread  and  coffee. 

Naval  experience  has  made  important  contri 
butions  to  medical  science  and  general  hygiene, 
as  appears  by  the  accumulating  reports  of  medical 
officers  ;  perhaps  the  most  important  of  these  has 
reference  to  malarial  fevers.  When  the  distinc 
tions  between  the  deadly  marsh  fevers  of  the 
tropics  and  yellow  fever  were  hardly  suspected, 
Dr.  Badenoch,  July  7,  1768,  read  a  paper  on  this 
subject  before  the  Royal  Society  of  Edinburgh. 
His  ship  had  been  at  the  Comore  Islands  ( Mozam 
bique  Channel)  for  ten  days,  and  a  few  days  after 
sailing  many  men  sickened  and  died  in  quick  suc 
cession  ;  of  course  it  was  generally  thought  to  be  a 
terrible  contagious  pestilence  that  destroyed  lives 
in  this  way,  but  "  I  observed  that  none  suffered  of 
those  who  returned  on  board  to  sleep  every  night. ' ' 
All  those  who  were  on  shore  at  night  suffered ; 
all  who  came  aboard  to  sleep  escaped.  Lind 
published  very  similar  incidents,  and  subsequent 
experience  all  accords  with  this.  Hence  the 
well-established  facts :  malarial  poison  infects 
only  at  night,  and  the  incubation  period  is  not 


less  than  twelve  or  fourteen  days.  If  we  wish  to 
learn  when  or  how  a  patient  contracted  his  dis 
ease,  we  need  not  ask  where  he  was  last  night  or 
yesterday,  but  where  he  spent  his  nights  two 
weeks  ago.  Even  medical  men  of  eminence  do 
not  always  keep  these  things  in  remembrance ; 
for  instance,  in  an  admirable  work  on  military 
hygiene  (1860)  there  occurs  such  a  slip  as  this : 
"  The  malaria  seems  to  be  principally  active  at 
night,  as  many  men  are  attacked  wh'ile  on  post 
early  in  the  morning."  The  men  had  probably 
been  thus  exposed  every  night  for  two  weeks  or 
more.  And  again  (1878),  we  read  of  a  national 
vessel  at  Monrovia,  Liberia  ;  in  three  or  four  days 
after  anchoring  there  were  numerous  cases  of 
malarial  fever  on  board;  and  hence  the  infer 
ence  that  the  vessel  is  anchored  too  near  the 
marshy  shore,  the  fact  being  quite  neglected  that 
two  weeks  previously  the  ship  was  at  Porto 
Praya,  and  probably  the  disease  was  contracted 
there. 

Bibliography. — The  most  important  books  on 
this  subject  are  the  volumes  of  official  reports  of 
naval  surgeons  published  by  public  authority 
nearly  every  year.  Armstrong,  ''Naval  Hy 
giene,"  1858;  Blane,  "Dissertations,"  3d  ed., 
1803;  Clarke,  "  Long  Voyages,"  1792;  Carpen 
ter,  u  Use  and  Abuse  of  Alcohol"  ;  Dunglison, 
"Human  Health";  Fonssagrives,  "  Traite  d' 
Hygiene  Navale,"  2d  ed.,  1877;  Forget,  "Na 
val  Medicine,"  1835;  Gihon,  "  Naval  Hygiene," 
1873;  Hammond,  "Military  Hygiene,"  1863; 
Larrey,  "Surgical  Memoirs";  Lind,  "Marsh 
Fevers  of  Bengal,"  pamphlet,  1770;  Lind, 
James,  "On  Scurvy,"  London,  1757;  Lind, 
James,  "Diseases  in  Hot  Climates,"  Philadel 
phia,  1811;  Maher,  "Hygiene  Navale,"  1874; 
Plimsoll,  "Our Seamen,"  1873  ;  Turnbull,  "Na 
val  Surgeon,"  1806;  Turner,  "Hygiene,  Naval 
and  Merchant,"  in  Buck's  "Hygiene,"  1880; 
Wilson,  "  Naval  Hygiene,"  2d  ed.,  1879  —  Joseph 
Wilson,  M.D.,  Medical  Director  U.S.N. 

Hygrometer  (Gr.  hugros,  moist;  metrein,  to 
measure).  An  instrument  for  measuring  the 
moisture  of  the  atmosphere.  The  simplest  form 
consists  of  a  combination  of  two  thermometers,  the 
bulb  of  one  being  kept  dry  and  that  of  the  other 
wet.  The  wet  bulb  is  cooled  by  evaporation  as 
much  as  the  state  of  the  atmosphere  admits.  In 
a  very  moist  atmosphere  there  will  be  little  or 
no  difference  in  the  readings  of  the  two  ther 
mometers,  but  when  the  atmosphere  is  dry  the 
wet-bulb  thermometer  will  show  a  temperature 
lower  by  several  degrees  than  that  shown  by  the 
dry-bulb  thermometer. 


ICARUS 


358 


IDOLEERS 


Icarus.  The  son  of  Daedalus,  who,  flying  with 
his  father  out  of  Crete  into  Sicily,  and  soaring  too 
high,  melted  the  wax.  of  his  wings  and  fell  into 
the  sea,  thence  called  the  Icarian  Sea. 

Ice.  Water  or  other  liquid  made  solid  by 
cold.  Water  freezes  at  32°  F.,  and  in  freezing 
expands  rapidly  and  with  great  force.  In  con 
sequence  of  this  expansion  the  ice  becomes  lighter 
than  water,  and  floats  with  one-ninth  of  its  mass 
above  water. 

ICE-ANCHOR.  A  bar  of  round  iron  tapered  to 
a  point,  and  bent  as  a  pot-hook;  a  hole  is  cut  in 
the  ice,  the  point  entered,  and  a  hawser  bent  to 
the  shorter  hook ;  by  this  vessels  ride  safely  till 
any  motion  of  the  ice  capsizes  it,  and  then  it  is 
hauled  in.  The  ice  is  usually  entered  by  a  lance, 
which  cuts  its  hole  easily. 

ICE-BEAMS.     Strengtheners  for  whalers. 

ICEBERG.  An  insulated  mountain  of  ice, 
whether  on  Arctic  lands  or  floating  in  the  sea. 
Some  have  been  known  to  be  aground  in  1500 
feet  water,  and  rise  to  the  height  of  250  feet 
above  it.  Cook's  obtaining  fresh  water  from 
floating  icebergs  was  not  a  new  discovery.  The 
Hudson's  Bay  ships  had  long  made  use  of  it; 
and  in  July,  1585,  Capt.  Davis  met  with  ice 
"which  melted  into  very  good  fresh  water." 

ICE-BIRDS.  Small  sea-fowl  in  the  polar  regions. 

ICE-BLINK.  A  streak  or  stratum  of  lucid 
whiteness  which  appears  over  the  ice  in  that 
part  of  the  atmosphere  adjoining  the  horizon, 
and  proceeds  from  an  extensive  aggregation  of 
ice  reflecting  the  rays  of  light  into  the  circum 
ambient  air. 

ICE-BOAT.  A  heavy  boat  with  great  steam- 
power,  for  breaking  a  passage-way  through  ice. 
A  boat  fitted  with  runners  shod  with  iron  for 
sailing  on  the  surface  of  the  ice.  They  have 
one  large  sail,  and  lie  up  very  close  to  the  wind. 
In  this  situation  their  speed  is  greater  than  the 
velocity  of  the  wind. 

ICE-BOUND.  A  vessel  so  surrounded  by  ice  as 
to  be  prevented  from  proceeding  on  her  voyage. 

ICE-CHISEL.  A  large  socket-chisel  into  which 
a  pole  is  inserted,  used  to  cut  holes  in  the  ice. 

ICE- CLAWS.  A  flat  claw  with  two  prongs 
spread  like  a  can-hook. 

ICE-FENDERS.  Fenders  of  any  kind,  used  to 
protect  a  vessel  from  injury  by  ice. 

ICE-LANE,  or  ICE-VEIN.  A  narrow  temporary 
channel  of  water  in  the  packs  or  other  large  col 
lections  of  ice. 

ICE-MASTER.  A  pilot,  or  man  of  experience, 
for  the  Arctic  Sea. 

ICE-PLANK.     See  SPIKE-PLANK. 

ICE-QUAKE.  The  rending  crash  which  accom 
panies  the  breaking  of  floes  of  ice. 

ICE-SAW.  A  huge  saw  for  cutting  through 
ice ;  it  is  made  of  f  to  f  inch  plates  of  iron,  and 
varies  in  length  from  10  to  24  feet. 

ICE-SLUDGE.  Small  comminuted  ice,  or  bay- 
ice  broken  up  by  the  wind. 


ICE-TONGUE.  A  mass  of  ice  projecting  hori 
zontally  under  water  from  an  iceberg  or  floe. 

Ichthyosaurus  (G-r.  ichthus,  a  fish,  and  sauros, 
a  lizard).  A  genus  of  extinct  marine  animals 
which  combined  the  characteristics  of  Saurian 
reptiles  and  of  fishes,  with  some  of  the  peculiar 
ities  of  the  Cetacea.  The  head  was  large,  and 
resembled  in  structure  that  of  the  crocodile,  ex 
cept  that  the  orbit  was  much  larger,  and  the 
nostrils  were  placed,  not  as  in  the  crocodile  near 
the  point  of  the  snout,  but  close  to  the  anterior 
part  of  the  orbit.  The  teeth,  conical  in  shape 
and  hollow,  were  lodged  close  together  in  a  con 
tinuous  groove,  in  which  the  divisions  for  sockets, 
which  exist  in  the  crocodile,  were  indicated  by  the 
vertical  ridges  on  the  maxillary  bone.  The  most 
remarkable  feature  in  the  head  was  the  eye,  which 
was  not  only  very  large, — in  some  specimens 
measuring  13  inches  in  diameter, — but  was  spe 
cially  fitted  to  accommodate  itself  for  vision  in 
air  or  water,  as  well  as  for  speedily  altering  the 
focal  distance  while  pursuing  its  prey.  The 
structure  which  thus  fitted  the  eye  so  remark 
ably  to  the  wants  of  the  animal  consisted  of  a 
circle  of  13  or  more  overlapping  sclerotic  bony 
plates  surrounding  the  pupil,  as  in  birds.  This 
circle  acted  as  a  sort  of  self-adjusting  telescope, 
and  with  the  extraordinary  amount  of  light  ad 
mitted  by  the  large  pupil,  enabled  the  ichthyo 
saurus  to  discover  its  prey  at  great  or  little  dis 
tances,  in  the  obscurity  of  the  night,  and  in  the 
depths  of  the  sea.  The  body,  shaped  like  that 
of  a  fish,  was  furnished  with  limbs  developed 
into  paddles,  and  terminated  in  a  long  lizard- 
like  tail,  which  is  supposed  to  have  been  sup 
plied  with  a  vertical  fin. 

From  the  form  and  position  of  masses  of  crushed 
and  apparently  half-digested  fish-bones  and  scales 
in  the  abdominal  cavity  of  the  ichthyosaurus,  it 
is  concluded  that  it  preyed  chiefly  on  fish. 

The  remains  of  the  ichthyosauri  are  peculiar 
to  the  Secondary  strata.  They  occur  in  the 
various  members  of  the  series  from  the  Lower 
Lias  to  the  Chalk,  but  have  their  greatest  devel 
opment  in  the  Lias  and  Oolite.  More  than  30 
species  have  been  discovered,  differing  from  each 
other  mainly  in  the  form  of  the  head,  some  hav 
ing  a  long  and  slender  snout,  like 'the  gavial  of 
the  Ganges,  and  some  a  short  and  broad  head, 
more  like  the  common  crocodile. 

Ick.     A  term  for  a  creek  or  gullet. 

Ide.  A  small  fish  (Leuciscus  idus]  allied  to 
the  graining,  and  found  in  the  northern  parts  of 
Europe. 

Idler.  A  general  designation  for  all  those  on 
board  a  ship-of-war  who  are  not  required  to 
keep  watch  on  deck.  A  cog-wheel  placed  be 
tween  two  others  to  communicate  the  motion  of 
one  to  the  other;  by  its  interposition  they  are 
caused  to  revolve  in  the  same  direction. 

Idoleers.  The  name  by  which  the  Dutch  au 
thorities  are  known  in  their  oriental  colonies, 


IGNORANCE 


359 


INCLINED-CYLINDER 


the  designation  being  a  corruption  of  edle  her- 
ren. 

Ignorance.  If  a  loss  happen  through  the 
ignorance  of  the  master  of  a  ship,  it  is  not  con 
sidered  as  a  peril  of  the  sea,  consequently  the 
assurers  are  not  liable.  Nor  is  his  ignorance  of 
admiralty  law  admissible  as  an  excuse. 

Iguana.  A  lizard  used  for  food  in  tropical 
climates. 

Ilde.     An  archaic  term  for  island. 

Ilet.     See  EYELET. 

Immer.  The  Colymbus  immer  of  Linnaeus  ;  the 
great  plunger  of  Buffon. 

Immersion  (Lat.  immergere,  to  plunge  in). 
The  commencement  of  an  occultation,  or  the 
moment  when  the  occulted  body  disappears  be 
hind  the  nearer  one. 

Imp.  One  length  of  twisted  hair  in  a  fishing- 
line. 

Impact  (Lat.  impingere,  impactum,  to  push, 
strike  against).  In  mechanics,  the  single,  in 
stantaneous  blow  or  stroke  of  a  body  in  motion 
against  another,  either  in  motion  or  at  rest. 

"impetus  (Lat.  force,  from  impetere,  to  rush 
upon,  attack).  In  mechanics,  nearly  synonymous 
with  momentum,  yet  differing  from  it  as  indicat 
ing  the  origin  and  intensity  of  motion,  rather 
than  its  quantity  or  effectiveness.  In  gunnery, 
impetus  is  the  altitude  through  which  a. heavy 
body  must  fall  to  acquire  a  velocity  equal  to  that 
with  which  the  ball  is  discharged  from  the 
piece. 

Imports.  The  articles  brought  into  the  coun 
try  in  the  course  of  commercial  transactions. 
By  the  articles  for  the  government  of  the  navy 
all  persons  connected  with  the  navy  are  forbidden 
to  import  in  a  naval  vessel  any  thing  which  is 
liable  to  the  payment  of  duty. 

Impressment.  The  act  of  seizing  for  public 
use,  or  of  impressing  into  public  service  ;  com 
pulsion  to  serve.  In  England  impressment  was 
formerly  a  means  much  resorted  to  for  supplying 
the  royal  navy  with  seamen.  The  practice,  ac 
cording  to  Lord  Mansfield,  was  "  deduced  from 
that  trite  maxim  of  the  constitutional  law  of 
England,  '  that  private  mischief  had  better  be 
submitted  to  than  that  public  detriment  and 
inconvenience  should  ensue.'  "  Seamen,  river- 
watermen,  and  at  times  landsmen  were  the  cus 
tomary  victims  of  this  arbitrary  procedure.  A 
press-gang  could  board  a  merchant  vessel  or  priv 
ateer  of  its  own  nation  in  any  part  of  the  world, 
and  carry  off  as  many  men  as  could  be  taken 
without  actually  endangering  the  vessel.  Al 
though  the  laws  which  sanctioned  impressment 
have  not  been  repealed,  the  adoption  of  a  system 
of  bounties  has  in  recent  times  proved  a  suffi 
ciently  effective  means  of  procuring  seamen 
without  recourse  to  the  oppressive  practice  of 
former  years.  One  of  the  principal  causes  of 
the  war  between  this  country  and  England 
(1812-15)  was  the  assertion  by  the  latter  of  a 
right  to  impress  English  seamen  out  of  Amer 
ican  vessels  on  the  high  seas,  thus  elevating  a 
practice  which  derived  its  warrant  solely  from 
the  municipal  law  of  England  into  a  right  sanc 
tioned  by  the  law  of  nations.  This  asserted  right, 
sufficiently  aggravating  when  confined  in  prac 
tice,  as  it  was  in  theory,  to  subjects  of  Great 
Britain  serving  in  American  ships,  became  in 
tolerable  when  extended  to  native-born- Ameri 
cans  owing  no  allegiance  to  the  British  crown. 


This  was  constantly  done,  the  English  boarding- 
officers  acting,  in  effect,  on  the  principle  that  the 
seaman  who  failed  to  prove  that  he  was  an  Amer 
ican  should  be  seized  as  an  Englishman,  and  it 
has  been  authoritatively  stated  that  the  number 
of  impressed  Americans  on  board  British  ships 
of  war  was  seldom  less  than  the  entire  number 
of  seamen  in  the  United  States  navy  between  the 
years  1802  and  1812.  On  the  declaration  of  war 
in  the  latter  year,  the  number  that  was  turned 
over  to  the  prison-ships  for  refusing  to  fight 
against  their  own  country  is  said  to  have  ex 
ceeded  2000.  Impressment  has  never  been 
adopted  in  our  country.  There  is  nothing 
(remarks  Judge  Tucker)  in  the  Constitution  of 
the  United  States  which  warrants  a  supposition 
that  such  a  power  as  that  of  impressment  can 
ever  be  authorized  or  exercised  under  the  gov 
ernment  of  the  United  States.  On  the  contrary, 
the  principles  of  the  Constitution  and  the 
nature  of  the  government  strongly  militate 
against  the  assumption  or  countenancing  of 
such  a  power. 

IMPRESS-GANG.  A  party  of  officers  and  men 
engaged  in  the  act  of  impressment.  More  com 
monly  called  press-gang. 

Impulse.  In  mechanics,  the  single  or  mo 
mentary  force  by  which  a  body  is  impelled,  in 
contradistinction  to  continued  force  ;  force  com 
municated  without  appreciable  gradations  ;  mo 
tion  produced  by  suddenly  communicated  force. 

In.  Within ;  on  board.  The  situation  of  a 
sail  when  it  is  furled  ;  to  take  in  a  sail,  to  clew 
it  up  preparatory  to  furling.  In  boats !  the  or 
der  to  hoist  in  the  boom-boats.  In  bows !  the 
order  to  the  bow-oarsmen  to  lay  their  oars  in. 
In  the  wind,  the  situation  of  a  ship  so  close  to  the 
wind  that  the  sails  shiver. 

In-and-out  Bolts.  The  bolts  that  are  driven 
through  the  ship's  side. 

Inboard.  Within  the  hull  of  a  vessel.  Nearer 
the  centre-line. 

Incendiary  Shell.  A  shell  filled  with  a  highly-, 
inflammable  composition,  for  the  purpose  of  set 
ting  fire  to  buildings  ;  a  carcass. 

Inchcape  Bell.  Tradition  says  that  the  ab 
bots  of  the  ancient  monastery  of  Aberbrothrock 
fixed  the  bell  in  such  a  manner  that  it  was  rung 
by  the  heaving  of  the  sea,  thus  warning  mari 
ners  of  their  danger.  Tradition  also  tells  us  that 
the  bell  was  carried  away  by  a  Dutchman,  who, 
with  his  ship  and  crew,  was  afterwards  lost  upon 
the  rock.  The  site  is  now  occupied  by  a  fine 
light-house,  which  was  erected  in  1806-10. 

Incidence,  Angle  of.  A  term  which  is  used 
by  writers  on  Mechanics  and  Optics  in  different 
senses.  Thus,  in  the  case  of  a  body  striking 
against  a  plane  the  angle  of  incidence  'is  by  some 
understood  to  signify  the  angle  formed  by  the 
line  in  which  the  body  moved  with  a  straight 
line  perpendicular  to  the  plane ;  while  others 
use  the  term  to  denote  the  angle  which  the  line 
of  incidence  makes  with  the  plane  itself.  When 
light  or  any  elastic  body  is  reflected  from  a  sur 
face,  the  angle  of  incidence  is  equal  to  the  angle 
of  reflection  ;  and  in  case  of  refraction,  the  sine 
of  the  angle  of  incidence  has  to  the  sine  of  the 
angle  of  refraction  a  constant  ratio. 

Inclinatory  Needle.     An  old  term  for  the  dip 
ping  needle  (which  see). 

Inclined-cylinder  Steam-engine.  One  in 
which  the  axis  of  the  cylinder  is  inclined  to  the 


INCOMPETENCY 


360 


INERTIA 


horizon,  in  contradistinction  to  the  horizontal 
and  vertical  types.  Called  also  inclined-engine. 

Incompetency,  or  Insufficiency.  A  bar  to 
any  claim  on  warrantry,  as  it  is  an  implied  con 
dition  in  the  seaworthiness  of  a  ship  that  at 
sailing  she  must  have  a  master  of  competent 
skill,  and  a  crew  sufficient  to  navigate  her  on 
the  voyage. 

Incrustation.  The  deposit  from  the  water, 
adhering  to  the  inside  of  a  boiler.  See  SCALE. 

Indemnification.  A  stipulated  compensation 
for  damage  done. 

Indemnity.  Amnesty  ;  security  against  pun 
ishment. 

Indentures,  Pair  of.   A  term  for  charter-party. 

Independence,  Declaration  of.  The  written 
instrument  adopted  by  the  Continental  Congress 
assembled  at  Philadelphia  on  the  4th  of  July ,  1776, 
whereby  the  13  American  colonies  declared  their 
independence  of  the  crown  of  Great  Britain. 
This  memorable  instrument  asserts  the  right  and 
duty  of  a  people,  whenever  their  form  of  govern 
ment  becomes  destructive  of  the  ends  for  which 
governments  are  instituted,  to  wit:  the  security 
of  life,  liberty,  and  the  pursuit  of  happiness,  to 
throw  off  such  government  and  to  provide  new 
guards  for  their  future  security.  It  recapitu 
lates  the  oppressions  of  the  British  king,  and 
closes  with  the  following  solemn  appeal  and  dec 
laration  :  "We  therefore,  the  Representatives 
of  the  United  States  of  America,  in  General  Con 
gress  Assembled,  appealing  to  the  Supreme 
Judge  of  the  world  for  the  rectitude  of  our  inten 
tions,  do,  in  the  Name,  and  by  Authority  of  the 
good  People  of  these  Colonies,  solemnly*publish 
and  declare,  That  these  United  Colonies  are,  and 
of  right  ought  to  be,  Free  and  Independent 
States ;  That  they  are  Absolved  from  all  Alle 
giance  to  the  British  Crown,  and  that  all  politi 
cal  connection  between  them  and  the  State  of 
Great  Britain  is,  and  ought  to  be,  totally  dis 
solved  ;  and,  that  as  Free  and  Independent  States, 
they  have  full  Power  to  levy  War,  conclude 
Peace,  contract  Alliances,  establish  Commerce, 
and  to  do  all  other  Acts  and  Things  which  Inde 
pendent  States  may  of  right  do.  And  for  the 
support  of  this  Declaration,  with  a  lirm  reliance 
on  the  Protection  of  Divine  Providence,  we 
mutually  pledge  to  each  other  our  Lives,  our 
Fortunes,  and  our  sacred  Honor." 

Index.  The  flat  bar  which  carries  the  index- 
glass  of  a  quadrant,  octant,  sextant,  etc.  The 
integer  part  of  a  logarithm. 

INDEX-ERROR.  A  correction  to  be  applied  to 
the  reading  of  an  astronomical  instrument.  See 
SEXTANT. 

INDEX-GLASS.  A  mirror  which  moves  with 
the  index  of  an  astronomical  instrument,  and 
reflects  the  image  of  the  sun  or  other  object  upon 
the  horizon-glass,  whence  it  is  again  reflected  to 
the  eye  of  the  observer. 

Indiaman.  A  term  occasionally  applied  to 
any  ship  in  the  East  India  trade,  but  in  strict 
parlance  the  large  ships  formerly  officered  by  the 
East  India  Company  for  that  trade,  and  gener 
ally  armed. 

indicator.  An  instrument,  originally  invented 
by  Watt  for  recording,  by  means  of  a  diagram, 
the  pressure  per  unit  of  area  upon  the  piston  of 
a  steam-engine  at  all  points  of  its  stroke.  From 
the  diagram,  which  is  drawn  upon  a  piece  of 
paper  called  an  indicator  card,  the  mean  pressure 


throughout  the  stroke  may  be  ascertained,  and 
mal-adjustment  of  valves  or  leakage  through 
valves,  piston,  or  other  parts  of  the  cylinder  de 
tected.  The  instrument  consists  essentially  of  a 
small  vertical  cylinder,  open  at  the  top  and  com 
municating  at  the  bottom  with  the  engine-cylin,- 
der,  provided  with  a  delicately-fitting  piston  of 
accurately  determined  area,  which  is  held  in  po 
sition  by  a  spiral  spring  of  known  tension,  so 
that  the  pressure  of  steam  on  the  bottom  of  the 
piston  or  that  of  the  atmosphere  on  the  top  will 
be  indicated  by  a  pencil  attached  to  a  rod  of  the 
small  piston  by  suitable  mechanism.  The  pencil 
is  brought  to  bear  upon  a  piece  of  paper  closely 
wrapped  around  a  cylinder,  which  is  caused  to  par 
tially  revolve  in  alternate  directions  by  a  motion 
coincident  with  that  of  the  piston  of  the  engine 
while  the  pencil  i,s  moving  up  and  down,  thus  de 
scribing  an  irregular  continuous  line  inclosing  a 
space,  the  area  of  which  represents  the  unbal 
anced  pressure  on  the  engine-piston.  The  vertical 
ordinate  of  any  point  of  the  line,  when  measured 
with  a  scale  corresponding  to  the  stiffness  of  the 
spring,  indicates  the  pressure  per  unit  of  area  at 
that  point,  and  the  mean  of  a  number  of  ordinates 
gives  the  mean  pressure  throughout  the  stroke. 

INDICATOR  CARD.  A  piece  of  paper  on  which 
an  indicator  diagram  is  drawn.  Upon  the  card 
should  be  noted  the  pressure  of  the  steam  per 
gauge  in  the  boilers ;  the  vacuum  in  the  con 
denser  per  gauge ;  reading  of  barometer ;  the 
revolutions  of  the  engines  per  minute;  the  rel 
ative  amount  of  opening  of  the  throttle-valve ; 
temperatures  of  the  air,  injection-  or  sea- water, 
discharge-water,  and  hot- well ;  the  direction  and 
force  of  the  wind  relative  to  the  ship  ;  the  state 
and  direction  of  the  sea  ;  the  amount  of  sail  set ; 
and  any  abnormal  condition  of  the  machinery. 
These  notes  should  be  made  at  the  instant  the 
diagram  is  taken,  and  the  card  should  bear  the 
name  of  the  vessel,  the  date,  and  the  exact  hour 
and  minute  of  taking. 

Indraught.  A  particular  flowing  of  the  ocean 
towards  any  contracting  part  of  a  coast  or  coasts, 
as  that  which  sets  from  the  Atlantic  into  the 
Straits  of  Gibraltar.  It  usually  applies  to  a 
strong  current  apt  to  engender  a  sort  of  vortex. 

Induction-pipe.  The  main  steam-pipe  of  the 
steam-engine,  conducting  steam  from  the  boiler 
to  the  steam-chest. 

Induction-valve.  The  main  steam-valve,  or 
valve  admitting  steam  from  the  steam-chest  to 
the  cylinder. 

Indulto.  The  duty  formerly  exacted  by  the 
crown  of  Spain  upon  colonial  commodities. 

Indus.     See  CONSTELLATION. 

Inertia  (Lat.  iners,  slothful).  That  inherent 
property  of  matter  which  renders  all  bodies  ab 
solutely  passive  or  indifferent  to  a  state  of  rest 
or  motion,  so  that  they  would  continue  forever 
at  rest,  or  persevere  in  the  same  uniform  and 
rectilinear  motion,  unless  disturbed  by  the  ac 
tion  of  some  extrinsic  force.  The  ancients  attrib 
uted  to  matter  a  certain  inaptitude  or  reluctance 
to  motion  ;  but  that  a  body  in  motion  required 
the  operation  of  an  extrinsic  cause  to  bring  it  to 
rest  was  first  discovered  by  Galileo.  Kepler, 
conceiving  the  disposition  of  a  body  to  main 
tain  its  motion  as  indicating  an  exertion  of  power, 
prefixed  the  word  vis;  and  the  compound  ex 
pression  vis  inertice,  though  less  accurate,  has 
been  generally  retained. 


INFEKIOK   CONJUNCTION 


361 


INMAN 


Inferior  Conjunction.     See  CONJUNCTION. 

Inferior  Planets.     See  PLANETS. 

Ingraham,  Duncan  Nathaniel,  Captain 
U.S.N.  Born  in  Charleston,  S.  C.,  December  6, 
1802;  died  there  June  10,  1863.  Midshipman, 
June  18,  1812;  lieutenant,  April  1,  1818;  com 
mander,  May  24,  1838 ;  captain,  September  14, 
1855.  Nathaniel,  his  father,  was  a  friend  of 
Paul  Jones,  and  was  in  the  action  with  the 
British  brig  "  Serapis."  His  uncle  Joseph,  Cap 
tain  U.S.N.,  was  lost  at  sea  in  the  U.  S.  ship 
"Pickering."  His  cousin,  William,  a  lieuten 
ant  in  the  navy,  was  killed  at  the  age  of  20. 
Capt.  Ingraham  married  Harriet  R.,  grand- 
daughter'of  Henry  Laurens.  His  seizure  of 
Martin  Kostza,  an  American  citizen,  from  the 
Austrian  brig-of- war  "Hussar,  "at  Smyrna,  July 
2,  1853,  gave  rise  to  an  elaborate  discussion  at 
Washington  between  M.  Hulseman,  the  Aus 
trian  charge  d'affaires,  and  Mr.  Marcy,  Secretary 
of  State.  Congress,  by  joint  resolution,  August 
4,  1854,  requested  the  President  to  present  a 
medal  to  him  for  his  conduct  on  this  occasion. 
In  March,  1856,  he  was  appointed  chief  of  the 
Bureau  of  Ordnance  and  Hydrography,  which 
position  he  resigned  February  4,  1861,  and  was 
made  chief  of  ordnance,  construction,  and  re 
pair  in  the  Confederate  navy. 

Inia  (Jnia  Boliviensix).  A  cetaceous  animal 
of  the  family  Delphinidce,  in  form  resembling  a 
dolphin,  with  a  long  and  slender  snout.  It  is 
the  only  known  species  of  its  genus,  and  is  one 
of  the  few  Cetacea  which  inhabit  fresh  water. 
It  is  found  in  some  of  the  upper  tributaries  of 
the  Amazon  and  in  the  lakes  near  the  Cordille 
ras.  It  is  from  7  to  12  or  14  feet  long.  Its  food 
consists  of  fish.  It  is  generally  found  in  little 
troops  of  three  or  four,  and  is  taken  for  the 
sake  of  the  oil  which  it  yields.  The  females 
show  great  affection  for  their  young. 

Initial  Velocity.     See  VELOCITY. 

Injection.  In  the  steam-engine,  a  stream  or 
jet  of  water  admitted  to  the  condenser  for  the 
purpose  of  condensing  the  steam,  after  having 
performed  its  work. 

INJECTION-COCK,  or  INJECTION-VALVE.  A 
cock  or  valve  by  which  the  quantity  of  injec 
tion-water  is  governed. 

INJ  ECTION-,  or  J ET-CONDENSER.  A  condenser 
in  which  the  refrigerating  water  comes  in  direct 
coiitact  with  the  steam  and  mingles  with  the 
water  of  condensation.  See  CONDENSER. 

INJECTION-PIPE.  A  pipe  that  conducts  the 
refrigerating  water  to  the  condenser  of  a  steam- 
engine. 

Injector.  An  instrument  for  supplying  feed- 
Water  to  steam-boilers,  the  action  of  which  de 
pends  upon  fluid  friction  or  "induction,"  and 
the  energy  due  to  the  latent  heat  of  steam  being 
transferred  to  a  stream  of  water.  In  the  sim 
plest  form  of  the  instrument,  a  small  jet  or 
stream  from  the  boiler  is  projected  from  a  tube 
passing  partly  through  a  chamber,  to  which  is 
attached  the  water-supply  pipe,  into  a  conical  or 
bell-mouthed  tube  of  larger  dimensions,  which 
passes  into  another  chamber  provided  with  an 
overflow,  and  terminates  at  the  entrance  of  the 
discharge-pipe  leading  to  the  boiler.  The  dis 
charge-pipe  is  provided  with  a  check-valve,  and 
the  steam-jet  and  water-supply  are  adjusted  by 
suitable  mechanism.  When  started  in  opera 
tion,  the  steam-jet,  by  its  friction  or  adhesion, 


exhausts  the  air  or  vapor,  if  any,  from  the  sup 
ply-pipe  and  chamber,  ejecting  it  through  the 
overflow  ;  the  water  fills  the  vacuum,  and,  pass 
ing  through  the  annular  space  between  the  noz 
zle  of  the  jet-pipe  and  the  conical  tube,  comes  in 
contact  with  the  steam  and  condenses  it ;  the 
energy  due  to  the  weight  and  high  velocity  of 
the  steam  is,  after  condensation,  transmitted  to  a 
greater  weight  of  water,  the  combination  moving 
at  a  slower  velocity,  the  heat  extracted  from  the 
steam  by  condensation  being  the  means  of  such 
transmission,  enabling  the  stream  to  overcome  a 
much  greater  resistance  than  that  due  to  the 
pressure  which  supplies  the  steam-jet.  The 
overflow  permits  the  escape  of  any  excess  of 
steam  or  water  resulting  from  lack  of  proper 
adjustment.  The  weight  of  water  delivered  rel 
ative  to  that  of  the  steam  consumed  may  be  con 
sidered  as  a  function  of  the  difference  between  the 
temperature  of  the  stream  and  the  total  heat  of 
the  steam.  There  are  several  designs  of  the  in 
strument,  their  difference  depending  principally 
upon  proportions  and  mechanism  for  adjustment ; 
but  none  are  considered  reliable  when  hot  feed- 
water  is  used. 

Injuries  to  Cannon.  The  injuries  from  the 
powder  generally  occur  in  the  rear  of  the  projec 
tile.  They  consist  of  enlargement  of  the  bore ; 
cavities  produced  by  the  melting  of  a  portion  of 
the  metal  by  the  heat  generated  by  the  combus 
tion  of  the  charge  ;  cracks  ;  and  furrows  or  scor 
ing  produced  by  the  erosive  action  of  the  gases. 
The  injuries  from  the  projectile  consist  of  an 
indentation  at  the  seat  of  the  projectile,  and  a 
corresponding  burr  in  front  of  the  projectile;  en 
largements  formed  by  the  balloting  of  the  pro 
jectile  in  the  bore  and  at  the  muzzle;  scratches 
and  cuts  made  by  an  imperfect  projectile  or  by 
the  fragments  of  broken  ones  ;  wearing  away  of 
the  edges  of  the  lands ;  and  cracks  on  the  exte 
rior. 

Ink-fish.     The  cuttle-fish  (which  see). 
Inland  Sea.     A  very  large  gulf  surrounded 
by  land,  except  at  the  communication  with  the 
ocean,  as   the   Baltic,  Eed,  and   Mediterranean 
Seas. 

Inland  Trade.  That  which  is  wholly  man 
aged  at  home,  and  the  term  is  in  contradistinction 
to  commerce. 

Inlet.  A  term  in  some  cases  synonymous  with 
cove  and  creek,  in  contradistinction  to  outlet, 
when  speaking  of  the  supply  and  discharge  of 
lakes  and  broad  waters,  or  an  opening  in  the 
land  forming  a  passage  to  any  inclosed  water. 

Inman,  William,  Commodore  U.S.N.  Born 
in  New  York.  Appointed  midshipman  from 
New  York,  January  1,  1812  ;  served  on  the  lakes 
during  the  war  of  1812,  afterward  on  the  Atlantic. 
Commissioned  as  lieutenant,  April  1,  1818; 
served  in  the  Mediterranean  and  on  the  Atlantic 
in  1823  ;  commanded  one  of  two  boats  capturing 
a  pirate  vessel  mounting  3  guns,  on  the  coast 
of  Cuba  ;  from  1834-37  served  as  executive-lieu 
tenant  of  a  flag-ship  frigate  in  the  Pacific. 

Commissioned  as  commander,  May,  1838 ; 
commanded  steamer  "Michigan,"  on  the  lakes, 
1844-46. 

Commissioned  as  captain,  June  2,  1850;  com 
manded  steam-frigate  "  Susquehanna,"  1851; 
from  1859-61,  commanded  the  African  Squadron 
which  recaptured  and  landed  in  Liberia  3600 
slaves.  Ketired  December  21,  1861. 


INNER  POST 


362 


INSPECTION 


Commissioned  as  commodore,  March  12,  1867. 
Died,  1872. 

Inner  Post.  "Worked  on  the  inside  of  the 
main  post  running  down  to  the  throat  of  the 
stern-post  knee. 

Inquiry,  Court  of.  A  court  of  inquiry  is  held 
by  the  same  authority  as  a  general  court-mar 
tial  ;  that  is,  may  be  ordered  by  the  President, 
the  Secretary  of  the  Navy,  or  the  commander  of 
a  fleet  or  squadron  without  restriction  as  to  "  ex 
press  authority." 

Their  origin  is  not  found  in  law,  but  in  the 
exercise  of  kingly  prerogative.  Custom  grafted 
them  into  the  military  judicature  of  England, 
and  the  United  States  did  not  provide  for  them 
by  statute  (although  they  were  probably  held 
earlier)  until  April  23,  1800.  It  is  gratifying  to 
say  that  the  laws  relating  to  their  organization 
and  powers  have  not  undergone  the  slightest 
change  since  then.  Their  object  is  to  ascertain 
facts  in  complicated  or  difficult  cases  for  the  in 
formation  of  superior  authority.  They  may  be 
convened  to  establish  responsibility,  or  crimi 
nality,  as  a  preliminary  proceeding  to  trial  by 
court-martial,  or  to  clear  up  matters  of  public 
welfare ;  or  to  exculpate  individuals  believing 
themselves  aggrieved.  In  any  case,  they  record, 
sift,  and  methodize  the  information  obtained, 
and  upon  their  report  is  determined  whether  or 
not  further  action  is  necessary  or  expedient. 

The  functions  of  courts  of  inquiry  are  there 
fore  semi-judicial,  and  their  proceedings  are 
marked  by  great  precision,  though,  as  regards 
documentary  evidence,  the  same  strictness  does 
not  prevail  as  in  courts-martial.  Their  duties 
depend  almost  entirely  upon  their  instructions, 
which  should  be  minute  and  definite,  and  the 
procedure  is  that  of  courts-martial  so  far  as  ap 
plicable.  Being  assimilated  to,  and  held  in  many 
respects  in  the  light  of  a  grand  jury,  its  members 
are,  as  a  rule,  disqualified  to  sit  as  "judge  and 
juror"  in  the  court-martial  which  may  follow. 
"Whether  they  give  the  facts  of  the  case  only,  or 
an  opinion,  they  are  held  to  have  been  exposed 
to  impressions  which  might  operate  against  a 
fair  trial  of  the  accused. 

"  A  court  of  inquiry  shall  consist  of  not  more 
than  three  commissioned  officers  as  members,  and 
»  judge-advocate,  or  person  officiating  as  such." 
(Rev.  Stat.,  Sec.  1624.)  They  have  power  to 
summon  witnesses,  administer  oaths,  and  punish 
contempts  in  the  same  manner  as  courts-martial,- 
but  they  shall  only  state  facts,  and  shall  not  give 
their  opinion  unless  expressly  required  so  to  do 
in  the  order  for  convening. 

In  all  investigations,  the  party  whose  conduct 
is  the  subject  of  inquiry  and  his  counsel  have 
the  right  to  be  present,  to  challenge  members,  to 
address  the  court,  and  cross-examine  all  of  the 
witnesses.  His  presence  is  not  obligatory,  but 
is  customary  and  advisable.  He  is  usually  called 
before  the  court ;  also  the  complainant  ('if  there 
be  one),  before  the  subject  to  be  investigated  is 
announced.  The  judge-advocate  administers  to 
the  members  the  oath,  or  affirmation,  "  well  and 
truly  to  examine  and  inquire"  into  the  matter 
before  them  (see  OATHS),  after  which  the  presi 
dent  swears  the  judge-advocate  to  keep  "a  true 
record,"  etc.  It  will  be  observed  that  this  order 
of  administering  the  oaths  is  exactly  the  reverse 
of  that  prescribed  by  law  for  general  courts- 
martial,  and  that  for  general  courts  is  the  reverse 


of  that  for  summary  courts,  and  that  for  an 
army  general  court  is  the-  reverse  of  that  for  a 
navy  general  court ;  and  yet  any  departure  from 
the  order  laid  down  in  either  case  would,  of 
course,  be  illegal. 

These  courts  hold  open  sessions  unless  there  be 
good  reason  to  the  contrary,  which  they  decide 
when  not  anticipated  by  the  convening  author 
ity.  There  is  no  statute  of  limitations  for  them. 
Two  very  notable  and  illustrative  courts  recently 
assembled  in  the  State  of  New  York  (1878-80) 
upon  the  personal  applications  of  Fitz-John  Por 
ter  and  Lieut.-Col.  Gr.  K.  Warren,  U.S.A.,  who 
were  major-generals  of  United  States  Volunteers 
during  the  Rebellion  of  1861-65,  to  examine 
into  and  review  their  military  conduct  at  that 
time.  Civil  and  military  witnesses  of  all  ranks, 
many  of  whom  had  served  in  the  opposing  army, 
were  summoned  from  all  parts  of  the  country, 
and  subjected  to  crucial  examinations. 

When  a  court  is  ordered  to  report  facts,  it 
does  not  mean  the  testimony  simply,  "  but  the 
result  and  conclusion  of  the  court  from  hearing 
the  evidence."  An  opinion  is  held  by  the  Navy 
Department  to  be  different  from  a  "  conclusion," 
and  to  relate  to  the  merits  of  the  case.  The  pro 
ceedings  of  a  court  are  authenticated  by  the  sig 
natures  of  the  president  and  judge-advocate,  and 
"  in  all  cases  not  capital,  nor  extending  to  the 
dismissal  of  a  commissioned  or  warrant-officer," 
may  be  evidence  before  a  court-martial,  provided 
oral  testimony  cannot  be  obtained. 

Courts  of  inquiry  cannot  award  punishment, 
and  are  dissolved  by  the  authority  which  ordered 
them  to  convene.  "  A  commanding  officer  act 
ing  singly"  has  no  power  to  order  a  court  of 
inquiry,  but  can  order  a  board  of  three  officers  to 
investigate  any  casualty,  occurrence,  or  trans 
action  in  regard  to  which  the  government  should 
be  informed.  Commanders  of  squadrons  are  re 
quired  to  order  courts  of  inquiry  promptly 
whenever  called  for,  and  transmit  proceedings 
without  delay  to  the  Secretary  of  the  Navy. — 
Henry  C.  Cochrane,  Captain  U.S.M.C. 

Inshore.     Toward  the  shore  ;  nearer  the  shore. 

Inspection.  Solving  a  problem  by  inspection 
is  the  obtaining  the  result  at  once  by  looking  into 
a  table,  the  arguments  of  which  are  the  data  of 
the  problem.  Though  few  problems  can  be 
wholly  solved  in  this  manner,  still  the  method 
is  used  in  the  different  steps  and  portions  of 
nearly  every  problem  in  navigation. 

Inspection,  Board  of.  A  board  was  convened 
for  the  first  time  in  our  navy  in  1870,  at  the  in 
stance  and  under  the  direction  of  Admiral  Por 
ter.  Its  purpose  is  to  inspect  all  vessels  of  war 
going  on,  or  returning  from,  a  cruise,  and  it  was 
at  first  composed  of  three  line-officers  of  rank 
and  experience.  At  present  its  composition  is 
1  commodore,  2  captains,  1  medical  and  1  pay 
inspector,  1  chief  engineer,  1  captain  of  marines, 
and  a  recorder. 

When  visiting  a  vessel  the  board  is  received 
with  the  honors  due  its  senior  officer. 

The  first  step  in  the  inspection  is  the  assem 
bling  of  the  officers  and  crew  at  quarters,  every 
part  of  the  ship  being  thrown  open.  Her  decks, 
holds,  store-rooms,  engine-  and  fire-rooms,  mag 
azines  and  shell-rooms,  and  every  part  of  the 
vessel,  with  her  various  fitments,  are  closely 
scrutinized.  She  is  then  "cleared  for  action," 
and  the  battery  provided  in  accordance  with  the 


INSTANCE  COUKT 


363 


INTEKNATIONAL  LAW 


ordnance  instructions.  The  officers  in  charge  of 
divisions  and  departments  report  their  readiness 
for  battle  to  the  executive-officer,  who  in  turn 
reports  to  the  commander, — the  guns  and  imple 
ments  for  serving  them  are  carefully  inspected. 

The  board  then  directs  the  exercises,  consist 
ing  of  loading  and  firing;  fighting  one  and  both 
sides  at  the  same  time.  The  assembling  of  board 
ers,  riflemen,  and  pikemen;  of  boarding  and  re 
pelling  the  enemy.  Injuries  to  gun-carriages, 
their  tackling  or  implements,  provided  for.  One 
or  more  guns  are  shifted  from  one  carriage,  port, 
or  side  to  the  other.  Spars  and  rigging  supposed 
to  be  shot  away  or  wounded  replaced  or  repaired. 
Shot-holes  and  leaks  stopped.  Fire  incident  to 
battle  extinguished.  Torpedoes  fitted  and  ex 
ploded.  The  supply  and  character  of  powder 
charges  and  projectiles  examined.  The  use  of 
small-arms  and  Gatling-guns  by  marines  and 
seamen,  and  other  expedients  for  purposes  offen 
sive  and  defensive. 

The  boats  are  then  armed  and  equipped  for 
"distant  service,"  with  their  respective  details, 
and  are  exercised  under  sail  and  oars  in  the  vari 
ous  evolutions  of  fleet  movements  of  attack  and 
landing, — in  the  latter  case  the  crews  are  organ 
ized  to  form  a  battalion,  with  a  battery  of  how 
itzers  or  Gatling-guns. 

The  spar  and  sail  exercises  are  then  had, 
consisting  of  sending  down  and  up  light  masts 
and  yards,  of  making  and  reducing  sail,  reef 
ing  topsails  and  courses,  and  shifting  the  same 
by  unbending  one  set  and  bending  another.  The 
extinguishing  of  fire  when  not  engaged  in  battle 
closes  the  exercises. 

The  watch-,  quarter-,  and  station-bills,  quality 
of  clothing  and  provisions  for  the  crew,  are  closely 
inspected,  as  well  the  engines,  boilers,  and  their 
appurtenances,  and  whatever  may  tend  to  affect 
the  health  of  the  crew. 

Some  of  the  above  exercises  are  dispensed  with 
in  ships  newly  commissioned. 

The  results  of  the  inspection  are  reported  in 
duplicate  to  the  admiral  of  the  navy  by  the 
senior  officer.  The  admiral  forwards  a  copy  to 
the  Navy  Department  with  such  recommenda 
tions  as  may  to  him  seem  advisable. 

It  is  obvious  that  it  being  known  to  the  navy- 
yard  authorities  where  a  ship  is  fitted  out,  and 
to  the  officers  and  men  attached  to  a  vessel  that 
such  an  inspection  is  inevitable,  stimulates  them 
to  do  their  utmost  to  render  her  efficient.- — 
J.  H.  Upshur,  Commodore  U.S.N. 

Instance  Court  (Eng.}.  A  department  of  the 
admiralty  court,  governed  by  the  civil  laws  of 
Oleron,  and  the  customs  of  the  admiralty,  modi 
fied  by  statute  law. 

Insulated  Wire.  A  wire  suspended  by  insula 
tors,  as  the  ordinary  telegraph-wire.  Wire  covered 
with  some  insulating  material,  as  gutta-percha, 
Hooper's  material,  etc.  See  CABLE,  ELECTRICAL. 

Insulator.  A  substance  of  relatively  small 
conductivity.  See  ELECTRICITY. 

Insult.  In  a  military  sense,  to  attack  boldly 
and  in  open  day,  without  going  through  the 
slow  operations  of  trenches,  working  by  mines 
and  saps,  or  having  recourse  to  those  usual 
forms  of  war,  by  advancing  gradually  towards 
the  object  in  view.  An  enemy  is  said  to  insult 
a  coast  when  he  suddenly  appears  upon  it  and 
debarks  with  an  immediate  purpose  to  attack. 

Insurance.    See  MARINE  INSURANCE. 


Insured.  The  party  who  obtains  the  policy 
and  pays  the  premium. 

Insurer.  The  party  taking  the  risk  of  a  pol 
icy.  See  UNDERWRITERS. 

Intercalary  Day.     See  DAY,  INTERCALARY. 

Intermediate-shaft.  The  shaft  crossing  the 
frame  of  a  marine  engine  between  the  two  en 
gines  and  connecting  the  two  paddle-shafts, 
sometimes  applied  to  counter-shafts. 

Internal  Contact.  This,  in  a  transit  of  Mer 
cury  or  Venus  across  the  solar  disk,  occurs  when 
the  planet  is  just  within  the  sun's  margin. 

Internal  Planking.  This  is  termed  the  ceiling 
of  the  ship. 

Internal  Safety-valve.  A  valve  on  a  boiler 
opening  inward  by  excess  of  external  pressure  to 
prevent  collapsing  in  case  the  internal  pressure 
of  steam  becomes  reduced  by  condensation  much 
below  the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere.  Called 
also  reverse  valve  and  vacuum  valve. 

International  Law.  1.  Sources,  authority, 
sanction. — International  law  is  a  collection  of 
rules  governing  the  intercourse  of  civilized  states. 
The  rules  are  derived  partly  from  general  princi 
ples  of  right  and  justice,  and  partly  from  consid 
erations  of  general  convenience.  The  safest 
method  of  determining  them  is  by  induction 
from  the  widest  and  most  lasting  usage.  Usages 
vary  considerably  at  different  periods,  and  in  the 
practice  of  different  states,  but  no  usage  is  likely 
to  be  lasting  which  is  opposed  either  to  justice  or 
the  general  convenience.  In  cases  of  conflicting 
usage,  the  preference  must  be  given  to  that  which 
accords  most  nearly  with  these  two  final  tests. 
This  process  does  not  always  bring  about  a  uni 
form  result,  because  there  is  no  single  authority 
to  pronounce  finally  upon  the  validity  of  any 
given  rule,  and  individual  views  of  justice  and 
of  the  general  good  are  apt  to  be  clouded  'by 
considerations  of  individual  interest.  But  in  the 
present  state  of  international  relations  it  affords 
the  nearest  method  of  approach  to  a  universal 
public  law.  There  is  no  international  legislature 
to  formulate  the  law,  no  common  judiciary  to  in 
terpret  it,  and  no  executive  to  enforce  it.  Hence 
it  is  somewhat  variable  and  shifting,  both  in 
principle  and  practice.  Its  authority  is  derived 
from  the  general  consent  of  nations,  tacit  or  ex 
press.  Its  doctrines  are  laid  down  with  more  or 
less  variety  in  the  works  of  text-writers,  in  state 
papers,  in  the  decisions  of  courts,  and  occasion 
ally  in  statutes  and  treaties,  though  the  last  more 
frequently  embody  exceptions  to  the  law  than 
rules  of  the  law.  It  is  enforced  by  the  govern 
ments  of  independent  states  acting'separately  or 
by  their  agents.  Of  sanctions,  in  the  sense  of  a 
penalty  attached  to  the  law  for  its  violation,  in 
ternational  law  knows  little.  Acts  in  violation 
of  international  law,  committed  by  individuals, 
are  punished  by  the  government  having  juris 
diction  over  the  offender,  if  its  laws  take  cog 
nizance  of  the  offense;  and,  in  some  cases,  as 
breaches  of  blockade,  or  carrying  contraband, 
by  a  judicial  confiscation  by  courts  of  the  in 
jured  state.  But  in  the  first  case  it  is  a  breach  of 
municipal,  not  of  international,  law  that  is  pun 
ished,  and  in  the  second  the  penalty  is  inflicted 
by  a  tribunal  whose  authority  is  derived  wholly 
from  the  injured  state.  Where  governments  or 
the  states  they  represent  are  the  offenders,  there 
are  no  sanctions  except  public  opinion  and  war ; 
the  first  of  which  can  be  called  a  sanction  only 


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by  a  figure  of  speech,  and  the  second  is  one  that 
benefits  only  the  stronger  party.  War  is  a  pen 
alty  that  cannot  be  successfully  imposed  by  a 
weak  state  upon  a  powerful  one,  where  the  lat 
ter  has  violated  its  international  duties.  ^The 
game  is  true,  though  to  a  less  extent,  of  reprisals. 

In  determining  the  rules  of  international  law, 
the  greatest  reliance  is  to  be  placed  upon  state 
papers  and  decisions  of  courts,  as  embodying 
principles  adopted  to  meet  actual  cases  and  car 
ried  out  in  actual  practice.  In  the  former,  how 
ever,  allowance  must  be  made  for  the  interested 
leanings  of  statesmen  who  are  advocating  a  cause, 
rather  than  judging  impartially  both  sides  of  a 
question.  Even  in  the  decisions  of  courts,  a  cer 
tain  partiality  for  national  views  of  public  policy 
is  almost  unavoidable.  Treatises  are  valuable 
guides,  but,  as  their  authors  are  under  no  respon 
sibility,  they  may  give  way  to  speculative  tenden 
cies,  and  they  often  fail  to  distinguish  between  the 
law  as  it  actually  is  and  their  views  of  what  it 
ought  to  be.  Even  here  it  is  necessary  to  know 
the  nationality  of  the  writer,  for  each  nation  has 
its  own  school  of 'publicists,  who  view  the  law 
largely  from  an  interested  stand-point.  The 
principal  authorities  are  Halleck,  Kent,  Whea- 
ton,  and  Woolsey  in  the  United  States,  Philli- 
more,  Twiss,  Ward,  and  Manning  in  England, 
HefFter  in  Germany,  and  Ortolan  and  Hautefeu- 
ille  in  France,  though  the  last  advocates  a  theory 
of  international  law  which  is  far  from  receiving 
general  support.  The  best  modern  treatise  is  that 
of  Calvo,  a  South  American,  published  in  French 
and  Spanish.  Treaties  sometimes  contain  state 
ments  or  definitions  of  rules' of  international  law, 
but  they  are  only  binding  upon  the  parties 
to  the  treaty.  Treaties  in  which  a  large  num 
ber  of  states  have  united  in  the  adoption  of  a 
rule,  as  in  the  Declaration  of  Paris  of  1856,  some 
times  go  far  towards  fixing  or  modifying  a  hith 
erto  unsettled  doctrine. 

2.  States  and  their  attributes. — As  i  nternational 
law  governs  the  intercourse  of  states,  it  is  upon 
states  as  units,  rather  than  upon  individuals, 
that  the  law  primarily  operates.  But  it  also  con 
cerns  closely  certain  officers  as  agents  of  states, 
and  citizens  who  are  brought  into  relation  with 
governments  other  than  their  own.  A  state  is  a 
collection  of  persons  united  by  a  political  organ 
ization,  occupying  a  fixed  territory,  and  subject 
in  its  relations  to  other  political  bodies  to  no  rec 
ognized  control  or  authority  outside  of  its  own 
organization.  The  supreme  control  which  a 
state,  through  its  government,  exercises  over  all 
its  concerns^  called  sovereignty.  This  attribute 
of  states  is  a  thing  independent  of  forms  of  gov 
ernment.  It  resides  in  the  body  or  bodies  to  which 
the  state  by  its  constitution  or  organic  law  has 
deputed  the  powers  of  government,  and  which 
are  designated  collectively  as  the  sovereign.  The 
sovereign  may  be  an  individual,  as  in  an  abso 
lute  monarchy,  or  it  may  be  an  assemblage  of 
individuals  or  bodies  of  varying  complexity  and 
organization,  as  in  most  modern  states.  There 
are  two  kinds  of  sovereignty, — internal  sov 
ereignty,  which  concerns  the  interior  adminis 
tration  of  a  state,  and  external  sovereignty, 
which  concerns  its  foreign  relations.  From  one 
or  the  other  all  the  particular  powers  of  govern 
ment  are  derived ;  but  it  is  with  the  second  alone 
that  the  system  of  international  law  has  to  do. 
In  a  newly-established  state  the  acknowledgment 


of  its  independence  by  other  states,  or  recog 
nition,  as  it  is  called,  is  necessary  to  the  full  ex 
ercise  of  external  sovereignty.  The  question  of 
according  this  recognition  in  doubtful  cases  is  a 
question  of  policy  rather  than  of  law  ;  but  when 
the  new  state  gives  sufficient  assurance  of  per 
manence,  recognition  generally  follows  as  a  mat 
ter  of  course.  In  a  civil  war,  when  two  parties 
are  contending  for  power,  the  question  arises 
which  of  the  two  parties  shall  be  recognized  by 
foreign  states  when  each  claims  to  be  exercising 
the  powers  of  government.  Here  again  the 
question  is  largely  one  of  policy,  as  long  as  the 
issue  is  doubtful,  but  it  is  the  general  practice 
for  foreign  states  to  recognize,  in  the  end,  the 
government  de  facto  without  inquiring  into  the 
justice  of  its  foundation. 

For  certain  limited  and  temporary  purposes,  a 
government  may  sometimes  be  recognized  with 
out  the  recognition  of  the  state  which  it  repre 
sents.  This  case  only  arises  when  a  civil  war  or 
insurrection  has  assumed  extensive  proportions, 
and  it  becomes  necessary  to  maintain  relations 
with  the  insurgents  analogous  to  those  between 
state  and  state.  Such  a  limited  and  partial  rec 
ognition  is  known  as  "recognition  of  belliger 
ency,"  and  it  only  lasts  during  the  continuance 
of  the  civil  war  or  insurrection.  It  exists  only 
for  war  purposes,  and  its  effect  is  to  place  both 
parties  to  the  contest  on  the  footing  of  belliger 
ents,  with  all  the  rights  and  duties  towards  each 
other  and  towards  neutrals  that  result  from  such 
a  condition. 

From  the  possession  of  sovereignty  flow  the 
three  primary  rights  of  states.  These  are  the 
rights  of  self-preservation,  of  independence,  and 
of  equality.  The  right  of  self-preservation  is 
the  right  of  every  state  to  take  hostile  measures 
to  protect  itself  from  foreign  aggression.  The 
right  of  independence  is  the  right  of  a  state  to 
manage  its  own  concerns  without  interference 
or  dictation  from  without.  The  right  of  equality 
is  that  by  which  all  states  are  equal  before  the 
law  ;  that  is,  equally  subject  to  the  operation  of 
its  rules,  apart  from  their  size,  power,  or  impor 
tance.  By  it  the  obligations  of  a  powerful  state 
to  a  weak  state  are  the  same,  under  the  law,  as 
those  between  states  equal  in  power.  From 
these  three  primary  and  permanent  rights  all  the 
specific  rights  of  states  are  derived, — the  right 
of  making  war  and  peace,  of  negotiation,  of 
legislative  and  judicial  control  of  foreigners 
within  the  territory,  and,  in  fact,  all  the  rights 
conceded  to  sovereign  states  by  the  law. 

Though  states  are  not  moral  persons,  in  the 
strict  sense  that  all  the  principles  of  ethics  apply 
to  them  in  the  same  way  as  to  individuals,  yet 
there  are  certain  duties  or  moral  claims,  as  they 
have  been  well  called,  which  lie  at  the  basis  of 
the  system  governing  their  relations.  Of  these, 
four  well-defined  classes  may  be  mentioned  as 
receiving  general  acceptance.  These  are  the 
duties  of  humanity,  of  good  faith,  of  comity  of 
international  civility,  and  of  respecting  the  un 
questioned  rights  of  another  state,  and  repairing 
injuries.  Other  obligations,  more  or  less  vague 
in  character  and  extent,  have  been  referred  to  by 
different  political  moralists  ;  but  it  is  eminently 
unsafe  to  reason  in  international  law  from  indi 
vidual  views  of  international  morality  ;  and  the 
four  obligations  mentioned  are  all  that  can  rea 
sonably  be  assumed  as  universally  binding. 


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States  are  sometimes  joined  with  other  states 
in  a  formal  union,  by  which  each  parts  more  or 
less  with  its  sovereignty.  These  unions  vary  in 
character,  and  may  be  divided  into  three  general 
classes,  viz.  :  Unions  under  a  reigning  prince, 
federal  unions,  and  protective  unions.  In  the 
first  class  are:  (1)  Personal  union,  which  exists 
when  two  states  have  a  reigning  prince  in  com 
mon,  but  are  otherwise  entirely  independent. 
An  example  of  this  is  the  union  of  Holland  and 
Luxemburg,  the  king  of  Holland  being  also 
grand  duke  of  Luxemburg,  but  each  state  re 
taining  its  individuality  and  full  powers  of  sov 
ereignty.  (2)  Real  union,  where  internal  sov 
ereignty  is  reserved  to  the  members,  but  external 
sovereignty  is  given  up  to  the  union  as  a  whole. 
The  states  of  the  Austro-Hungarian  monarchy 
are  an  example.  (3)  Incorporate  union,  where 
both  internal  and  external  sovereignty  reside  in 
the  body  politic  as  a  whole.  The  union  of  Great 
Britain  and  Ireland  is  an  example.  Federal 
unions  are  of  two  kinds,  a  federal  state,  such  as 
the  United  States  of  America,  where  external 
sovereignty  resides  in  the  union,  and  a  confed 
eration  of  states,  where  it  is  reserved  to  the  mem 
bers,  as  in  the  German  Confederation  of  1815. 
Protective  unions  exist  in  great  variety,  but  they 
are  all  based  on  the  surrender  of  some  part  of  the 
power  of  independent  action  in  foreign  affairs  to 
the  protecting  state.  The  dependencies  are  gen 
erally  known  as  semi-sovereign  states. 

3.  Diplomatic  and  other  agents. — Diplomatic 
agents  are  of  four  classes :  ambassadors,  min 
isters  plenipotentiary,  ministers  resident,  and 
charges  d'affaires.  The  United  States  are  repre 
sented  by  agents  only  of  the  last  three  classes. 
In  order  that  these  agents  may  be  perfectly  free 
and  unrestricted  in  the  performance  of  their  du 
ties  they  are  granted  a  general  immunity  from 
the  legal  jurisdiction  of  the  government  to  which 
they  are  accredited.  The  immunity  extends  to 
their  family  and  suite,  and,  within  limits  that 
have  never  been  clearly  defined,  to  their  resi 
dence.  The  immunity  consists  in  exemption 
from  arrest,  from  civil  or  criminal  process,  and 
from  being  required  to  attend  as  a  witness  in 
court.  The  property  of  the  minister  is  also  ex 
empt  from  all  proceedings  in  rem.  As  to  the 
immunity  of  the  official  residence,  the  better 
opinion  is  that  no  judicial  process  can  be  served 
therein,  though  some  governments — the  British, 
for  example — claim  the  right  to  enter  and  make 
arrests,  after  giving  notice.  The  only  general 
exception  to  diplomatic  immunity  is  where  the 
acts  of  a  minister  endanger  the  safety  of  the 
state,  as  by  inciting  to  insurrection,  and  where 
the  emergency  admits  of  no  delay.  Here  the  par 
amount  right  of  self-preservation  justifies  a  disre 
gard  of  the  diplomatic  privilege.  But  in  all 
cases  but  those  requiring  instant  action  the  gov 
ernment  to  which  the  minister  is  accredited  must 
proceed  by  demanding  his  recall. 

Consuls. — Consuls  are  commercial  agents,  hav 
ing,  in  general,  no  diplomatic  functions  or  di 
plomatic  immunities.  A  state  is  not  bound  to 
allow  the  residence  of  foreign  consuls,  though,  at 
present,  the  practice  is  universal  among  civilized 
states.  Consuls  cannot  enter  upon  their  duties 
until  they  have  received  an  exequatur,  or  permis 
sion  to  act,  from  the  local  government.  If  guilty 
of  offenses  against  the  law,  they  may  be  tried  in 
the  courts  of  the  country  where  they  reside,  or 


they  may  have  their  exequatur  withdrawn,  and 
be  sent  back  to  their  own  country.  The  duties  of 
consuls  of  the  United  States  consist  in  receiving 
the  protests  of  masters  and  seamen  ;  in  adminis 
tering  the  estates  of  Americans  dying  abroad  in 
testate  ;  securing  the  effects  of  stranded  vessels  ; 
sending  home  destitute  seamen,  etc.  In  the  East 
and  in  the  Mohammedan  countries  of  the  Medi 
terranean  they  have  judicial  functions,  which  are 
defined  in  the  treaties  between  the  United  States 
and  those  states,  and  the}7  are  granted  immunity 
from  the  operation  of  the  local  law,  similar  to 
that  accorded  to  diplomatic  agents. 

Naval  commanders. — The  commanders  of  ships 
of  war,  at  sea  and  on  foreign  stations,  are  in  a 
sense  agents  of  the  government,  and  as  such 
must  come  directly  under  the  operation  of  inter 
national  law.  While  on  shore  in  foreign  coun 
tries  they  have  no  immunity  from  local  juris 
diction,  unless  clothed  with  the  diplomatic 
character,  by  virtue  of  special  instructions. 
Among  their  duties  as  agents  of  the  government 
are,  in  time  of  war,  the  examination  of  the  mer 
chant  vessels  of  all  countries,  and  the  capture  of 
those  found  violating  the  laws  of  war ;  in  time 
of  peace,  the  police  of  the  ocean,  which  requires 
them  to  apprehend  pirates,  and  the  protection  of 
American  interests  wherever  such  protection  de 
mands  their  interference.  It  must  be  remem 
bered,  however,  that  a  forcible  demonstration  of 
any  kind  is  a  hostile  act,  which,  if  unwarranted, 
violates  the  sovereignty  of  the  state  against 
which  it  is  directed,  and  interrupts,  as  far  as  the 
act  is  concerned,  the  peaceful  relations  of  the 
government.  The  injured  state  is  likely  to  de 
mand  reparation,  and  if  a  blunder  has  been  com 
mitted  by  a  naval  commander,  the  government 
will  be  compelled  to  sacrifice  him,  even  though 
he  may  have  supposed  that  he  was  acting  in  the 
discharge  of  his  duty.  If  such  acts  are  performed 
at  the  request  of  a  consul,  the  officer's  individual 
responsibility  will  not  thereby  be  taken  away. 
Though  it  is  the  duty  of  a  naval  commander  to 
render  every  reasonable  assistance  to  a  consul, 
yet  the  consul  cannot  give  him  orders,  nor  can 
the  officer  throw  the  responsibility  for  his  acts, 
upon  the  consul.  He  must,  therefore,  be  sure 
that  he  keeps  within  the  bounds  imposed  by  in 
ternational  law. 

4.  Nationality. — (a)  Persons.  As  international 
law  is  concerned  (1)  with  states,  and  (2)  with 
the  agents  of  states,  it  also  affects  (3)  individu 
als,  as  the  members  of  a  state,  whenever  they 
come  into  relations  with  any  other  government 
than  their  own.  It  is,  therefore,  of  great  im 
portance  to  determine  exactly  the  tests  by  which 
membership  of  a  state,  or  nationality,  as  it  is 
called,  is  known.  A  person  who  has  always  re 
sided  in  the  country  of  his  birth,  and  whose 
parents  were  natives  of  the  country,  clearly  be 
longs  to  that  country.  But  if  he  removes  to 
another  country,  or  if  he  engages  in  a  business 
which  is  partially  conducted'in  foreign  territory, 
he  enters  upon  new  relations.  While  residing 
abroad,  he  may  retain  his  allegiance  to  his  native 
country,  or  he  may  transfer  it.  In  the  first  case 
he  obtains  a  new  domicile,  in  the  second,  a  new 
citizenship  ;  in  other  words,  he  becomes  natural 
ized.  A  man's  domicile  is  the  place  in  which  he 
resides  with  the  intention  of  remaining.  If  a 
man  goes  to  a  country,  sine  animo  revertendi,  or 
with  only  the  general  intention  of  returning 


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after  many  years,  he  acquires  a  domicile  there. 
If  he  has  been  there  only  a  short  time,  the  pre 
sumption  is  that  he  has  not  acquired  a  domicile ; 
but  this  presumption  may  be  removed  by  proof 
of  intention  to  remain.  If  he  goes  to  a  country 
only  temporarily,  with  the  intention  of  return 
ing  shortly,  he  does  not  acquire  domicile.  If  he 
has  a  house  of  trade  in  a  foreign  country,  though 
retaining  his  original  residence,  he  is  considered 
as  domiciled  there,  so  far  as  the  trade  of  his 
foreign  house  is  concerned.  Short  absences  do 
not  destroy  domicile ;  but,  in  the  case  of  a  long 
absence,  the  presumption  is  that  the  domicile  is 
changed,  especially  if  the  person  has  returned  to 
his  native  country.  A  man  simply  domiciled  in 
a  foreign  country  retains  his  original  allegiance. 
If  he  wishes  to  change  this,  he  must  go  through 
the  process  of  naturalization.  The  laws  govern 
ing  naturalization  differ  in  different  countries, 
but  they  agree  in  requiring  a  certain  period  of 
residence,  a  formal  renunciation  of  former  alle 
giance,  and  a  formal  adoption  of  the  new  alle 
giance.  Naturalized  citizens  are  regarded  in  the 
same  lightas  natives  by  international  law,  except 
that  on  their  return  to  their  native  country  they 
may  be  made  accountable  for  any  obligations  to 
the  state  which  they  had  incurred,  but  had  not 
fulfilled,  before  the  change  of  allegiance. 

(b)  Ships.  Ships,  as  well  as  persons,  must  have 
a  distinct  nationality,  and  certain  rights  and 
duties  result  from  it.  The  conditions  upon  which 
nationality  is  acquired  are  determined  by  each 
state  in  its  municipal  law.  Laws  determining  the 
national  character  of  ships  are  known  as  naviga 
tion  laws.  They  vary  in  detail  in  different  coun 
tries,  but  they  agree  in  looking  to  three  main 
facts:  (1)  place  of  construction  of  the  ship,  (2) 
ownership,  and  (3)  nationality  of  officers  and 
crew.  In  regard  to  (1),  most  of  the  states  of 
Europe  and  America  admit  foreign-built  vessels 
to  their  registry.  The  exceptions  are  the  United 
States,  Brazil,  Portugal,  Greece,  Mexico,  and  Co 
lombia,  which  require  that  a  vessel  should  be  na 
tive-built.  As  to  (2),  in  most  countries  merchant 
ships,  in  order  to  obtain  a  register,  must  be  wholly 
owned  by  subjects.  In  Belgium  and  Holland, 
however,  three-eighths  of  a  ship  may  be  owned 
by  foreigners;  in  France  and  Greece,  one-half, 
while  in  Italy,  Sweden,  and  Chili  ships  may  be 
owned  by  domiciled  residents.  As  to  (3),  na 
tionality 'of  officers  and  crew,  England,  Belgium, 
Norway,  Germany,  Holland,  Chili,  and  Uru 
guay  make  no  limitation  ;  Austria  and  Mexico 
require  that  the  captain  and  two-thirds  of  the 
crew  shall  be  subjects ;  Brazil  and  Portugal,  the 
captain  and  three-fourths  of  the  crew  ;  Peru,  the 
captain  and  one-fifth  of  the  crew  ;  Denmark,  all 
the  officers  and  crew  ;  Sweden,  only  the  captain  ; 
Russia,  one-fourth  of  the  crew ;  the  United 
States,  Spain,  and  Italy,  the  officers  and  two- 
thirds  of  the  crew  ;  France  and  Greece,  the  offi 
cers  and  three-fourths  of  the  crew.  Evidence  of 
the  nationality  of  a  vessel  is  to  be  found  in  her 
flag  and  papers.  The  flag  alone  is  not  conclu 
sive  evidence,  and  in  time  of  war  the  question 
can  never  be  decided  without  reference  to  the 
papers.  Ships'  papers  relate  to  the  nationality 
of  the  vessel,  the  course  of  the  voyage,  and  the 
cargo.  The  most  important  are:  1.  Register  or 
certificate  of  nationality,  sometimes  "replaced 
or  accompanied  by  2.  Passport,  issued  by  the 
sovereign  authority,  or  3.  Sea-letter,  issued  by 


local  authorities  where  the  ship  was  fitted  out. 
4.  Charter-party,  or  contract  by  which  the  ves 
sel  is  let  to  hire.  5.  Log-book,  or  daily  record  of 
the  voyage.  6.  Bill  of  sale  (when  the  ship  has 
been  sold).  7.  Bills  of  lading,  or  duplicate  re 
ceipts  of  cargo  from  master  to  shipper.  8.  In 
voices,  detailed  statements  of  separate  lots  of 
goods.  9.  Manifest,  a  general  statement  of  the 
cargo.  10.  Clearance,  a  permission  to  sail,  given 
by  local  authorities  of  port  from  which  the  ves 
sel  sets  out.  11.  Muster-roll,  statement  of1  crew. 
12.  Shipping  articles,  agreement  for  the  hiring 
of  seamen.  13.  Bill  of  health. 

5.  Rights  of  navigation. — The  high  seas   are 
open  to  the  free  navigation  of  ships  of  all  nations. 
No  state  can  exercise  sovereignty  or  jurisdiction 
thereon,  except  on  board  of  its  own  vessels,  pub 
lic  or  private.     These  the  municipal  law  follows, 
as  long  as  they  are  at  sea  ;  and  offenses  committed 
on  board  of  them  at  sea  are  cognizable  only  by 
the  courts  of  the  country  to  which  the  ship  be 
longs.     No   visit,  search,  or  detention  of  mer 
chant  vessels  by  men-of-war  can  be  exercised, 
except  in  time  of  war,  when  the  usage  of  nations 
makes  an  exception  in  favor  of  the  belligerent 
right  of  search.      Another  exception  is  in  the 
case  of  vessels  suspected  of  piracy  ;  but,  in  gen 
eral,  no  act  of  sovereignty  can  be  exercised  by 
the  agents  of  any  state  on  the  high  seas,  except 
on  board  of  its  own  vessels. 

The  territorial  waters  of  a  state  include  the 
open  sea  to  a  distance  of  3  miles  from  the  coast, 
and  all  rivers,  lakes,  inland  seas,  harbors,  and 
roadsteads,  and  bays  included  between  neighbor 
ing  headlands.  Within  these  limits  foreign  ves 
sels  must  conform  to  the  local  laws  and  regula 
tions.  They  may  even  be  refused  an  entrance, 
if  the  government  exercising  sovereignty  sees  fit 
to  close  its  ports  to  foreign  commerce.  States 
within  whose  borders  lie  rivers  or  straits,  by 
which  alone  access  from  without  can  be  obtained 
to  another  state,  cannot  deny  to  the  other  state 
the  right  to  use  these  means  of  access.  They 
may,  however,  subject  vessels  passing  through 
their  waters  to  reasonable  tolls  and  regulations. 

6.  Local  jurisdiction  over  foreign  ships  in  ter 
ritorial   waters. — A    distinction    must   here   be 
drawn  between  public  and  private  ships.    Public 
ships  are  those  employed  in  the  service  of  the 
state,  commanded  by  naval  officers,  acting  under 
a  commission  from  the  government.     The  ship 
may  not  be  owned  by  the  government,  it  may 
carry  no  guns,  it  may  have  a  cargo  on  board  ; 
but  it  will  still  be  a  public  ship  if  it  answers  the 
conditions  named.    Public  ships  carry  no  papers, 
in  the  sense  in  which  merchantmen  carry  them  ; 
but  if  the  flag  and  pennant  do  not  sufficiently 
establish  their  nationality  and  their  public  char 
acter,  the  captain's  commission  and  orders  are 
always  conclusive.    In  foreign  ports  public  ships 
have  peculiar  immunities.     The  state  to  which 
the  port  belongs  has  no  authority  on  board,  can 
exercise  no  police  functions,  and  can  serve  no 
judicial  process.     Offenses  committed  on  board 
the  ship,  by  which  the  local  laws  are  violated, 
are  not  cognizable  by  the  local  courts.     But  if 
an  offense  is  committed  on  shipboard  by  an  in 
habitant  of  the  place,  and  the  commander  of  the 
ship  sees  fit — as  he  always  would — to  deliver  him 
up  to  the  local  authorities,  they  can  try  the  of 
fense.     But  they  could  not  arrest  the  offender  on 
board  the  foreign  ship  of  war.     To  private  or 


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merchant  vessels  no  such  immunity  is  granted. 
They  have  no  exemption  from  the  jurisdiction  of 
the  state  in  which  they  are,  except  by  express 
convention.  Police-officers  may  go  on  board  of 
such  vessels,  their  officers  or  seamen  may  be  ar 
rested  on  board,  writs  may  be  served,  and  crimes 
occurring  on  board,  by  whomsoever  committed, 
are  triable  in  the  local  courts.  The  law  of 
France  differs  from  the  general  practice  in  this, 
that  it  allows  much  greater  privileges  to  foreign 
merchantmen  than  that  of  other  states.  Ac 
cording  to  the  French  rule,  acts  relating  to  the 
interior  discipline  of  the  ship,  and  crimes  to 
which  the  crew  alone  are  parties,  whereby  the 
peace  of  the  port  is  not  disturbed,  are  left  en 
tirely  to  the  authorities  of  the  ship ;  but  crimes 
committed  on  board  the  ship  by  subjects  of  the 
state  where  the  vessel  lies,  or  against  subjects,  or 
any  offenses  by  which  the  peace  of  the  port  is 
disturbed,  or  in  relation  to  which  the  assistance 
of  the  authorities  is  invoked,  are  tried  in  the 
local  courts.  This  rule  is  confined  to  France 
alone,  and  must  be  considered  as  a  waiver  on  the 
part  of  the  French  government  of  rights  con 
ceded  by  the  law  of  nations.  In  all  cases  of  of 
fenses  committed  on  shore  by  the  officers  or  crews 
of  foreign  vessels,  public  or  private,  the  offender 
may  be  arrested  on  shore,  and  tried  and  punished 
by  the  local  courts.  But  if  the  offender  belongs 
to  a  ship  of  war,  and  escapes  to  his  ship,  the  law 
cannot  follow  him  there,  nor  can  it  compel  the 
commander  of  the  ship  to  surrender  him. 

7.  Refugees  and  deserters. — (a)  From  the  shore 
to  the  ship.  The  captains  of  ships  of  war  and 
the  masters  of  merchantmen  have  the  right  to 
refuse  asylum  to  fugitives ;  and  they  ought  al 
ways  to  refuse  it  to  persons  under  accusation  or 
sentence  of  crimes,  generally  known  as  such. 
Persons  charged  with  light  offenses,  or  with  of 
fenses  that  are  only  crimes  by  the  local  law  (as 
in  Mohammedan  countries),  or  with  political  of 
fenses,  may  be  received ;  but  all  these  cases  call 
for  the  exercise  of  great  judgment.  In  a  civil 
war  or  revolution,  care  must  be  taken  to  give  no 
assistance  to  either  party ;  as,  by  the  transporta 
tion  of  an  insurgent  chief  from  point  to  point. 
In  ships  of  war  especially,  the  commander  must 
do  nothing  that  will  compromise  his  government. 
The  general  rule  is  that  the  captain  may  receive 
such  persons,  or  may  refuse  to  receive  them,  or, 
after  receiving  them,  may  put  them  off,  being 
guided  always,  first,  by  the  paramount  necessi 
ties  of  the  service,  and, 'secondly,  by  such  humane 
consideration  as  the  fugitive  may  deserve.  Fel 
low-subjects  demanding  an  asylum  should  always 
be  received,  unless  there  are  grave  reasons  for  re 
fusal.  The  rights  of  the  local  government  are 
in  accordance  with  the  rules  governing  local 
jurisdiction,  already  given.  Neither  search  nor 
arrest  can  be  made  on  board  a  public  vessel ;  but 
in  merchant  ships  the  local  courts  have  full 
powers,  and  the  master  may  even  be  prosecuted 
for  harboring  fugitives. 

(b)  From  the  ship  to  the  shore.  If  the  fugi 
tives  are  prisoners  of  war  escaping  from  a  bel 
ligerent  cruiser,  they  become  free  immediately 
upon  landing  in  neutral  territory,  and  no  claim 
for  their  recovery  or  surrender  will  be  enter 
tained.  Fugitives  belonging  to  the  ship,  or  de 
serters,  may  be  reclaimed  of  the  local  authorities. 
The  universal  usage  is  for  the  consul  to  furnish 
information,  or  if  there  is  no  consul,  the  captain 


or  master  of  the  ship,  and  the  authorities  there 
upon  give  such  assistance  as  they  see  fit.  There 
is  great  difference  in  the  ease  with  which  desert 
ers  are  recovered  in  different  countries  and  in  the 
assistance  that  the  local  government  and  police 
are  willing  to  render.  The  policy  of  the  United 
States  has  generally  been  to  insert  a  clause  in 
consular  treaties  by  which  consuls  of  both  con 
tracting  parties  are  authorized  to  arrest  deserters 
from  ships  of  war  and  merchant  vessels  of  their 
country,  and  to  require  the  aid  of  the  local  au 
thorities.  There  are  22  such  conventions  be 
tween  the  United  States  and  foreign  powers,  but 
Great  Britain  is  not  included  in  the  list. 

8.  Piracy. — Piracy  is  robbery  or  murder  on 
the  high   seas,  done  animo  furandi,  and  in   a 
spirit  of  general  hostility.     Pirates  are  consid 
ered  as  having  no  nationality,  and  the  crime  is 
one  against  the  whole  human  race.     They  may 
be  seized  by  any  one,  and  tried  in  the  courts  of 
any  state.     It  is  the  duty  of  naval  commanders 
to  apprehend  them  wherever  they  may  be,  or 
against  whomsoever  the  crime  has  been  commit 
ted  ;  provided  always,  that  the  sovereignty  of  an 
other  state  is  not  violated  by  hostile  acts  com 
mitted  therein.     Vessels  suspected  of  a  piratical 
character  may  even  be  searched  in  time  of  peace 
by  the  cruisers  of  any  state;  but  if  the  vessels 
so  searched  should  be  found  to  be  innocent,  the 
government  whose  cruiser  makes  the  search  will 
be  responsible  to  the  state  to  which  the  searched 
vessel  belongs.     Search  should  therefore  only  be 
made  upon  strong  suspicion.     Acts  have  some 
times  been  made  piracy  by  the  municipal  law 
of  a  particular  state  which  are  not  piracy  by  in 
ternational  law.     These  cases  are  purely  national 
in  their  character,  and  concern  only  subjects  of 
the   state  making  the  law.     Persons  guilty  of 
acts  which  are  made  piracy  by  municipal  law  can 
only  be  seized  by  cruisers  of  their  own  state, 
and  can  only  be  tried  in  their  own  courts. 

LAWS  OF  WAR. 

9.  Hostile   measures  falling   short   of    actual 
war. — It  often  happens  that  a  state  or  its  agents 
may   find    it   necessary   to    redress    injuries   or 
repel    aggressions   that  are  hardly  considerable 
enough  to  be  a  casus  belli.     In 'these  cases  the 
right   of  self-preservation   justifies   the   use   of 
such  measures  as  may  secure  the  safety  of  the 
state  without  going  to  war.     Every  effort  must 
first  have  been  made  to  obtain  redress  by  peace 
ful   means ;   but   if    this   is   refused,    or    if  the 
emergency  is  such  as  to  leave  no  time  for  ap 
peal  to  higher  authorities,  resort  must   be  had 
to  force.     In  the  first  case,  forcible  measures  can 
only  be  ordered  by  the  sovereign  authority  ;  in 
the  second,  action  must  be  taken  by  the  agent 
of  the  government  on  the  spot.     Hostile  acts  on 
the  part  of  the  sovereign  authority  may  take  the 
form  of  embargo,  retorsion,  or  reprisals.     A  civil 
embargo  is  laid  by  the  state  upon  its  ports  in  the 
form  of  a  prohibition  to  merchant  vessels  of  one 
or  more  foreign  states  from  entering  the  ports. 
A  hostile  embargo  is  a  detention  of  foreign  mer 
chant  vessels.     If  a  hostile   embargo   develops 
into  a  war,  the  vessels  detained  may  be  regarded 
as   prize.     Retorsion  is   simply  retaliation,  and 
consists  in  redressing  an  injury  by  the  infliction 
of  a  like  injury.     Reprisals  consist  in  the  seizure 
of  property  belonging  to  the  offending  state  or 
to  its  subjects.     It  was  effectively  used  by  the 


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'United  States  against  France  in  1798.  To  these 
three  forms  of  hostility  may  be  added  pacific 
blockade,  which  has  been  attempted  several 
times,  but  which  is  open  to  many  objections 
and  has  never  received  general  support,  and  the 
performance  of  treaty  guarantees,  under  which 
we  have  occasionally  landed  forces  at  Panama. 
The  last  is  of  an  anomalous  character,  and  only 
arises  in  the  cases  provided  by  treaty. 

Forcible  measures  are  taken  by  the  commander 
of  a  military  or  naval  force  on  the  spot  only  when 
the  emergency  admits  of  no  delay.  Such  cases 
frequently  arise  in  barbarous  or  semi-civilized 
countries  when  outrages  have  been  committed 
against  citizens  of  the  state  to  which  the  force 
belongs,  and  in  revolutionary  countries  when 
the  lives  and  property  of  foreigners  are  in  dan 
ger.  Cases  may  even  arise  in  civilized  countries 
where  an  immediate  application  of  force  is  neces 
sary.  The  latter  are  the  most  delicate  cases  that 
can  arise  in  the  conduct  of  international  relations. 
They  are  so  various  and  unforeseen  in  character 
as  to  admit  of  no  general  rules,  and  they  must  be 
determined  by  the  special  circumstances  of  each 
case  as  it  arises.  A  commander  must  fulfill  the 
duty  of  protecting  the  citizens  of  the  state  on 
the  one  hand,  and*the  obligation  to  respect  the 
rights  of  a  foreign  and  friendly  state  on  the 
other.  Further  than  this  it  is  impossible  to  pre 
scribe  rules,  and  merely  to  mention  the  cases  that 
have  occurred  would  exceed  the  limits  of  this 
article. 

10.  War  and  its  prosecution. — The  question 
whether  a  war  is  just  or  unjust  is  one  which 
hardly  enters  into  international  law,  though  it 
is  generally  discussed  in  treatises  on  the  subject. 
A  nation  has  received  injuries  that  cannot  be  re 
dressed,  or  to  which  redress  is  refused,  and  de 
clares  war  against  the  offender.  The  injured 
state  is  alone  the  judge  of  the  extent  and  gravity 
of  its  wrongs,  and  it  goes  to  war  because  war  is 
the  only  remedy  left  to  it.  There  is  nothing  to 
prevent  it  from  going  to  war  on  a  frivolous  pre 
text,  or  for  purely  aggressive  reasons ;  third  par 
ties  will  not  interfere  by  force  unless  their  own 
safety  is  threatened.  Modern  practice  varies  in 
regard  to  declarations  of  war;  but  it  is  always 
desirable  that  a  formal  declaration  should  be 
made,  in  order  that  both  subjects  and  neutrals 
may  be  sufficiently  apprised  of  the  new  state  of 
affjiirs.  If  hostilities  break  out  gradually,  a  sub 
sequent  declaration  legalizes  all  hostile  acts  that 
have  preceded  it.  The  outbreak  of  war  puts  a 
stop  to  all  trade  and  other  intercourse  between 
subjects  of  opposing  belligerents.  Contracts 
made  with  an  enemy  before  the  war  are  post 
poned  ;  those  made  during  war  are  void.  Part 
nerships  entered  into  before  the  war  are  dis 
solved.  A  government  may  make  exceptions  to 
the  general  stoppage  of  trade,  but  licenses  are 
only  respected  by  agents  of  the  government 
granting  them.  The  grant  of  a  license  is  a  high 
act  of  sovereignty,  and  can  only  be  made  by  the 
supreme  authority  in  a  state.  The  license  of  an 
admiral,  commander-in-chief  on  a  station,  binds 
only  those  under  his  orders.  The  possession  of 
an  enemy's  license  is  enough  to  condemn  a  ship. 
At  the  beginning  of  a  war,  enemies  in  the  coun 
try  are  generally  given  a  reasonable  time  to  with 
draw  with  their  effects.  The  general  rule  with  re 
gard  to  enemies'  private  property  during  war  is 
that  it  is  liable  to  capture  at  sea,  but  not  on  land. 


The  distinction  is  based  on  the  fact  that  one  of 
the  speediest  and  most  humane  methods  of  bring 
ing  an  enemy  to  terms  is  by  crippling  his  com 
merce  ;  while  capture  of  property  on  land  serves 
no  such  purpose,  and  is  attended  with  the  greatest 
hardship  to  individuals.  Property  is  not  wholly 
exempt  from  capture,  even  on  land ;  an  invading 
army  is  always  justified  in  obtaining  supplies,  on 
requisition,  either  with  or  without  payment,  and, 
in  general,  in  living  upon  the  enemy.  But  there 
is  no  such  general  right  of  confiscation  as  at  sea. 
The  laws  of  war  have  been  improved  consider 
ably  in  recent  years,  and  they  are  better  defined 
than  formerly.  The  Geneva  conventions  of  1864 
and  1868,  for  securing  immunity  to  the  medical 
service  and  the  wounded,  the  Brussels  confer 
ence  of  1874,  and  the  St.  Petersburg  treaty  of 
1868,  prohibiting  the  use  of  explosive  bullets  for 
small-arms,  are  steps  in  this  direction,  though 
the  second  of  these  failed  to  corne  to  an  under 
standing.  As  to  persons,  the  general  rule  is  that 
non-combatants  shall  be  unmolested  ;  but  severe 
penalties  are  inflicted  upon  those  who  take  up 
arms  against  an  invading  force  without  being 
distinctly  soldiers,  and  belonging  to  an  author 
ized  organization.  This  would  include  guerrillas 
and  partisan  bands  whose  officers  held  no  com 
mission  from  the  government,  and  who  bore  no 
distinguishing  badge  or  uniform.  An  excep 
tion  is  made,  however,  in  the  case  of  a  levee  en 
masse.  The  practice  of  private  war  on  the 
ocean,  or  privateering,  seems  to  be  falling  into 
disuse.  Privateers  are  private  persons  to  whom 
a  commission,  called  a  letter  of  marque,  is  issued 
by  the  government,  allowing  them  to  cruise  for 
the  purpose  of  destroying  an  enemy's  commerce. 
They  are  placed  under  heavy  bonds  to  observe 
the  laws  of  war  and  to  send  in  their  prizes  •  but 
the  practice  is  open  to  many  objections,  as  it  is 
difficult  to  maintain  the  necessary  supervision 
and  restraint  over  their  movements.  The  Con 
gress  of  Paris  in  1856  abolished  privateering  as 
between  the  contracting  powers;  and  though  the 
United  States,  and  some  smaller  powers,  have 
not  acceded  to  it,  yet  the  Declaration  has  gone 
far  to  discourage  the  practice.  War  should  be 
carried  on  as  humanely  as  possible  consistently 
with  the  end  in  view,  which  is  to  break  the 
power  of  the  enemy.  The  bombardment  and 
destruction  of  unprotected  cities  is  contrary  to 
civilized  practice;  but  a  city  defended  by  iorts 
may  be  bombarded,  as  a  means  of  reducing  the 
forts.  Good  faith  is  to  be  kept  even  with  ene 
mies,  but  ruses  and  stratagems  of  war  are  per 
mitted.  False  colors  may  be  carried  to  deceive 
an  enemy;  a  ship  may  even  chase,  though  she 
may  never  fire,  under  false  colors.  Surrender 
is  indicated  by  hauling  down  the  flag,  or  by  a 
white  flag,  which  puts  a  stop  to  fighting  at  once ; 
but  a  vessel  that  undertakes  to  escape,  or  to 
renew  the  fight,  after  the  cessation  of  hostilities 
caused  by  hauling  down  the  flag,  may  be  severely 
dealt  with.  When  a  seaport  surrenders  to  the 
army  or  navy  it  may  be  occupied,  and  regula 
tions  established  for  its  government  during  the 
occupation  ;  and  the  commander-in-chief  of  the 
forces  of  occupation  may  prescribe  a  tariff  for 
foreign  vessels  and  goods,  and  levy  duties  ac 
cordingly. 

11.  Search,  detention,  and  capture. — The  right 
of  search  is  the  right  to  stop  and  examine  mer 
chant  vessels  in  time  of  war  to  ascertain  their 


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nationality  and  character,  and  the  nature  of  their 
cargo  and  of  their  voyage.  It  can  only  be  exer 
cised  by  ships  of  war,  and  only  upon  merchant 
vessels.  It  may  be  exercised  anywhere  except 
within  the  territorial  waters  of  a  neutral  state. 
The  usual  mode  of  conducting  a  search  is  by 
sending  a  junior  officer  on  board  the  vessel  to 
be  searched,  who  inspects  the  ship's  papers,  in 
terrogates  the  master,  officers,  and  crew,  and,  if 
necessary,  examines  in  detail  the  cargo  and  all 
parts  of  the  ship.  The  ship  of  war  is  not  to  use 
force,  unless  the  merchantman  willfully  evades  or 
resists  search.  If,  upon  examination,  the  vessel 
is  clearly  neutral  property,  and  if  she  is  engaged 
in  innocent  trade,  she  is  allowed  to  proceed  on 
her  voyage  ;  otherwise  she  will  be  detained.  The 
circumstances,  any  one  of  which  will  justify  de 
tention,  are  as  follows :  that  the  ship  is  enemy's 
property ;  that  she  has  undergone  a  fictitious  and 
fraudulent  transfer  from  an  enemy  owner;  that 
her  papers  are  false,  missing,  or  mutilated;  that 
she  is  herself  contraband,  or  is  carrying  contra 
band  goods,  persons,  or  dispatches  ;  breach  of 
blockade ;  sailing  under  enemy's  convoy  ;  sail 
ing  under  enemy's  license,  and  trading  with  the 
enemy,  if  the  vessel  belongs  to  a  subject  or  to  an 
ally  ;  enemy's  prize  ;  recaptured  or  rescued  prize. 
It  is  not  necessary  that  the  guilt  of  the  vessel 
should  be  absolutely  proved.  If  circumstances 
show  a  reasonable  ground  of  suspicion,  the  cap 
tain  of  the  cruiser  is  justified  in  detaining  her. 
But  if  the  vessel  be  detained  without  a  reasonable 
ground  of  suspicion,  the  captor  will  be  liable  in 
costs  and  damages.  If  the  circumstances  war 
rant  capture,  the  captor  will  put  an  officer  as 
prize-master  and  a  crew  on  board  the  vessel, 
who  will  take  her  to  the  most  convenient  port 
where  a  prize-court  may  be  sitting  for  adjudica 
tion,  with  all  her  papers  and  cargo  intact.  Re 
sistance  to  search  will  subject  the  vessel  to  cap 
ture  and  subsequent  condemnation,  though  she 
may  be  innocent  of  any  other  offense.  Vessels 
sailing  under  neutral  convoy  are  not  on  that  ac 
count  exempt  from  search,  and  the  resistance  of 
the  convoying  ship  to  the  search  of  any  vessel 
under  her  escort  will  subject  both  the  convoying 
and  the  convoyed  ships  to  capture.  All  prizes 
must  be  sent  in  for  adjudication,  unless  special 
circumstances,  such  as  the  want  of  men  foraprize- 
crew,  or  the  unseaworthiness  of  the  prize,  make 
it  impossible.  In  this  case,  if  the  prize  is  clearly 
enemy's  property,  she  will  be  destroyed,  other 
wise  she  must  be  released.  If  the  prize  is  de 
stroyed,  her  papers,  and  any  part  of  her  cargo 
that  may  be  saved,  must  be  sent  to  a  prize-court. 
If,  for  any  reason,  the  prize  cannot  be  sent  to  a 
port  of  the  captor,  it  may  be  sent  to  a  neutral 
port,  if  the  neutral  authorities  make  no  objec 
tion  ;  and  the  cargo,  if  perishable,  may  be  sold 
there  after  the  proper  survey ;  but  the  ship's 
papers,  the  most  important  witnesses,  and  the 
proceeds  of  all  sales  must  be  sent  to  a  prize- 
court  in  charge  of  an  officer,  with  a  full  state 
ment  and  explanation  of  all  proceedings  in  rela 
tion  to  the  prize.  The  papers,  proceeds,  and 
witnesses  will  be  delivered  to  the  officers  of  the 
court,  as  well  as  the  prize  itself,  if  brought  to  the 
place  where  the  court  is  sitting. 

12.  Prize-courts. — The  court  to  which  the  prize 
is  sent  must  be  a  prize-court  of  the  captor,  and 
it  can  only  sit  in  the  territory  of  the  captor  or  of 
his  ally.  The  prize-master,  upon  his  arrival, 


should  immediately  cause  proceedings  for  adju 
dication  to  be  instituted  by  the  proper  officer. 
In  the  United  States  the  district  courts  have  cog 
nizance  of  all  cases  of  prize,  and  proceedings  are 
instituted  by  the  U.  S.  district  attorney.  The 
hearing  of  the  case  is  rather  in  the  nature  of  an 
inquiry  by  the  government,  rather  than  of  liti 
gation  inter  paries.  The  witnesses  belonging  to 
the  prize  are  examined  privately  upon  certain 
standing  interrogatories.  Upon  this  testimony, 
together  with  the  evidence  of  the  ship's  papers, 
the  decision  of  the  court  is  based.  The  examina 
tion  is  called  the  examination  in  prceparatorio, — 
i.e.,  preparatory  to  judgment  by  the  court.  In 
ordinary  cases,  no  further  examination  is  held, 
and  no  testimony  is  taken  in  behalf  of  the  cap 
tors.  If,  however,  the  preparatory  examination 
leaves  the  case  in  doubt,  the  court  may  order 
further  proof,  in  which  any  evidence  may  be  re 
ceived  bearing  upon  the  case.  If  the  prize  is 
condemned,  the  court  orders  a  sale,  and  mukes 
the  distribution  of  the  proceeds  under  the  statute. 
If  the  prize  is  not  enemy's  property,  and  if  no 
illegal  act  has  been  committed,  the  prize  is  re 
stored  to  the  claimants,  if  they  have  proved  their 
title  to  the  property.  Damages  may  be  awarded 
against  the  captor  in  case  of  detention  without 
probable  cause. 

13.  Enemy's  property  and  neutral  property. — 
Until  the  year  1856  it  had  been  a  general  princi 
ple  of  prize  law  that  ownership  determined  the 
national  character  of  ship's  cargoes,  irrespective 
of  the  flag  under  which  the  ship  might  be. 
Enemy's  property  in  a  neutral  vessel  was  liable 
to  capture,  but  neutral  property  in  an  enemy's 
vessel  was  not.  The  Declaration  of  Paris  re 
affirmed  the  second  of  these  rules,  but  reversed 
the  first.  By  the  new  rule  free  ships  made  free 
goods;  the  neutral  flag  covered  the  enemy's 
cargo,  and  exempted  it  from  seizure.  Although 
the  Declaration  has  not  been  universally  adopted, 
the  United  States  among  other  nations  having 
refused  to  accede  to  it,  it  is  not  improbable  that 
the  rule,  "  free  ships  make  free  goods,"  may  be 
come  general.  As  the  law  stands,  however, 
apart  from  express  conventions,  vessels  laden 
with  enemy's  property  will  be  seized  and  sent  in. 
They  are  not  condemned,  and  they  receive  freight 
for  the  whole  voyage,  but  no  damages  for  deten 
tion.  The  enemy's  cargo  is  confiscated.  The 
other  rule  simply  restores  the  neutral  cargo  taken 
out  of  an  enemy's  ship.  Freight  is  paid  to  the 
captor  if  the  goods  are  taken  to  their  port  of 
destination,  otherwise  not.  The  character  of  the 
property,  that  is,  the  question  whether  it  is  neu 
tral  or  hostile,  is  determined  by  the  domicile  of 
the  owner,  independently  of  his  nationality ; 
property  is  neutral  whose  owner  is  domiciled  in 
a  neutral  country,  and  property  is  hostile  whose 
owner  is  domiciled  in  the  enemy's  country.  But 
these  rules  are  interpreted  somewhat  in  the  in 
terest  of  captors.  Thus,  if  a  person  has  a  neu 
tral  domicile,  but  a  house  of  trade  in  the  enemy's 
country,  property  connected  with  this  house  is 
deemed  hostile ;  but  if  he  has  an  enemy  domi 
cile,  all  his  property  is  deemed  hostile,  wherever 
his  house  of  trade  may  be.  Ships  sailing  under 
the  enemy's  flag,  wherever  owned,  have  always 
a  hostile  character ;  and  ships  that  have  been 
transferred  from  an  enemy  owner  to  a  neutral, 
after  the  war  has  begun,  are  regarded  with  pecu 
liar  suspicion.  la  determining  questions  of 


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INTERNATIONAL   LAW 


domicile,  territory  in  the  military  occupation  of 
the  enemy  is  regarded  as  hostile  territory ;  and 
the  produce  of  the  soil  of  hostile  territory  is  al 
ways  regarded  as  enemy's  property,  no  matter 
who  may  be  the  owner. 

14.  Contraband. — Contraband  goods  are  goods 
useful  for  military  operations  and  destined  to  the 
service  of  a  belligerent.     Two  things  are  there 
fore  necessary  to  constitute  contraband, — 1,  war 
like  use  ;  2,  hostile  destination.    The  list  of  arti 
cles  held  to  be  contraband,  when  destined  for  the 
enemy's  country,  is  not  definitely  settled.  Goods 
may  be  divided  into  three  classes,  according  to 
their  employment, — (1 )  those  useful  primarily  and 
chiefly  in  war,  (2)  those  useful  only  for  purposes 
unconnected  with  war,  and  (3)  those  useful  alike 
in  peace  and   in  war,  or  sometimes  in  one  and 
sometimes  in  the  other.     The  first  are  always 
contraband,  the  second  never  ;  while  the  charac 
ter  of  the  third  must  be  determined  by  circum 
stances.     In   the  first   class   may  be  mentioned 
arms,  ammunition,  and  projectiles,  their  appur 
tenances,  and  the  materials  and  machinery  for 
their  manufacture  ;  explosives  ;  military  equip 
ments  and  clothing ;  military  and  naval  stores, 
including  spars,  hemp,  cordage,  marine-engines, 
anchors,   iron   plates,  and   bars.     In   the  third 
class  are  telegraphic  materials,  railway  materials, 
coal,  horses,  money,   and  provisions.     The  last 
class  are  contraband  when  there  is  a  presumption 
that  they  are  intended  for  warlike  use  ;  as,  when 
they  are  going  to  a  fleet  or  to  a  port  of  military 
or  naval  outfit,  or  when  the  character  of  the 
war  is  such  as  to  create  a  special  demand  for 
them.     The  immediate  destination  of  the  ship  is 
not  always  held  to  be  conclusive  as  to  the  desti 
nation  of  the  contraband   goods.      The   vessel 
may  be  bound  for  a  neutral  port ;  but  if  it  can 
be  shown  that  this  is  only  a  screen,  and  that  the 
goods  are  ultimately  destined  for  the  enemy,  she 
may  be  captured  and  condemned.     The  penalty 
in  cases  of  contraband  is  the  confiscation  of  the 
contraband  goods,  and  of  all  other  parts  of  the 
cargo  belonging  to  the  owner  of  the  contraband 

Is.  The  ship  is  not  confiscated  unless  she 
jlongs  to  the  owner  of  the  contraband  goods, 
or  unless  she  sails  with  false  papers  ;  but  in  any 
case,  no  freight  for  the  contraband  goods,  or 
damages  for  detention,  are  allowed  to  the  ship. 
Liability  begins  when  the  ship  carrying  contra 
band  has  started,  with  an  immediate  or  ulterior 
destination  for  an  enemy's  port.  Liability  ceases 
with  the  delivery  of  the  contraband  cargo  ;  and 
the  ship  cannot  be  captured  on  her  return  voyage, 
unless  she  is  shown  to  have  made  the  outward 
voyage  with  simulated  papers.  A  ship  is  contra 
band  when  she  is  fitted  for  war  and  destined  for 
the  enemy.  If  a  contraband  ship  is  captured 
she  will  be  condemned,  together  with  all  contra 
band  goods  in  her  cargo,  and  all  innocent  goods 
belonging  to  the  owner  of  the  ship  or  of  the 
contraband  cargo. 

15.  Carrying    contraband    persons    and    dis 
patches. — Contraband    persons    are    persons    in 
the  military  or  naval  service  of  the  enemy,  and 
civil  officers  of  the  enemy  sent   out  on  public 
duty  and  at   the   public  expense.     Contraband 
dispatches   are  official  dispatches  of  the  enemy 
not  in  the  ordinary  mails  and  not  diplomatic  in 
character.     Ships  engaged  in  carrying  such  per 
sons  or  dispatches  are  liable  to  seizure  and  con 
demnation,  together  with  all  their  cargoes  that 


belong  to  the  owner  of  the  vessel.  The  ships 
are  looked  upon  as  being  for  the  time  in  the  ene 
my's  service.  To  establish  their  offense  it  is  not 
necessary  that  they  should  be  bound  for  an  ene 
my's  port,  nor  is  it  considered  a  justification  that 
they  are  acting  under  constraint.  Diplomatic 
persons  and  papers  are  not  considered  contra 
band.  In  all  cases,  vessels  captured  must  be 
sent  in  for  adjudication,  and  the  obnoxious  per 
sons  and  dispatches  must  be  sent  in  with  them. 
Neither  persons  nor  papers  can  be  taken  out  of  a 
neutral  ship  without  capturing  and  sending  in 
the  prize. 

16.  Blockade. — Blockade  is  the  stationing  of  a 
naval  force  near  a  port,  river-mouth,  or  coast  of 
the  enemy,  and  the  capture  of  all  merchant  ves 
sels,  neutral  or  otherwise,  that  attempt  entrance 
or  egress  past  the  blockading  force.  Blockades, 
to  be  binding,  must  be  effective;  that  is,  main 
tained  continuously  by  a  force  sufficient  to  make 
the  passage  dangerous.  Paper  blockades,  or 
blockades  established  by  proclamation,  without 
stationing  an  adequate  force  near  the  blockaded 
port,  are  illegal.  In  order  to  justify  the  deten 
tion  of  a  vessel  attempting  to  enter  or  leave  a 
blockaded  port,  it  is  necessary  that  the  vessel 
should  have  had  notice  of  the  existence  of  the 
blockade.  This  notice  may  be  actual  or  con 
structive.  Actual  notice  is  notice  by  the  block 
ading  squadron  on  its  station.  It  is  usually  put 
in  the  form  of  a  statement  indorsed  on  the  regis 
ter  of  the  merchant  vessel  by  the  boarding  officer. 
Constructive  notice  is  notice  which  may  be  pre 
sumed  to  have  been  given  either  by  a  proclama 
tion  or  diplomatic  circular  of  the  blockading  gov 
ernment,  or  by  the  notoriety  of  the  fact.  At  the 
beginning  of  a  blockade,  a  reasonable  time  may 
be  allowed  for  the  proclamation  to  become  gen 
erally  known  ;  and  during  this  time  actual  notice 
must  be  given.  After  the  period  has  elapsed,  it 
is  no  longer  necessary,  and  the  fact  of  notice  may 
be  constructively  assumed.  The  only  exception 
is  in  the  blockade  of  remote  places,  ordered  by 
thecommander-in-chief  on  the  spot,  where  diplo 
matic  notice  cannot  be  given ;  in  this  case,  known 
as  blockade  de  facto,  actual  notice  or  warning 
must  be  conceded  during  the  whole  period  of 
the  blockade,  and  neutral  vessels  may  sail  with 
a  contingent  destination  to  the  blockaded  port. 
But  they  are  not  allowed  to  anchor,  or  remain 
in  the  neighborhood  of  the  entrance.  The  pres 
ence  of  the  blockading  squadron  is  considered 
sufficient  notice  to  vessels  lying  in  the  blockaded 
port ;  but  it  is  customary  to  allow  neutral  vessels 
a  short  time  to  leave  the  blockaded  port  in  bal 
last,  or  with  cargoes  previously  laden ;  but  this 
privilege  must  have  been  expressly  granted.  The 
penalty  for  breach  of  blockade  is  confiscation  of 
the  ship  and  cargo.  An  unsuccessful  attempt  is 
regarded  by  the  courts  in  the  same  light  as  a  suc 
cessful  attempt,  if  the  intention  is  proved.  In 
attempts  to  break  blockade  inwards,  where  gen 
eral  notification  has  been  given,  liability  begins 
when  the  vessel,  whose  destination  is  the  block 
aded  port,  has  started  on  her  voyage,  knowing 
the  port  to  be  blockaded.  In  breach  of  the  block 
ade  outwards,  liability  continues  till  the  end  of 
the  voyage,  unless  in  the  mean  time  the  blockade 
has  been  raised  ;  in  which  case  the  liability  ceases. 
A  blockade  ceases  when  the  blockading  force  vol 
untarily  withdraws,  or  when  it  is  driven  off  by 
a  force  of  the  enemy.  In  these  cases,  a  new 


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371 


INVALID 


blockade  requires  a  new  notification.  But  if  the 
blockading  squadron  is  only  temporarily  dis 
persed  by  stress  of  weather,  and  immediately 
resumes  its  station,  the  blockade  is  not  held  to 
have  ceased.  In  strict  law,  neutral  men-of-war 
have  not  the  right  to  enter  a  blockaded  port ; 
but  in  practice,  the  privilege  is  usually  conceded 
by  the  blockading  squadron. 

17.  Recapture  and  rescue. — Recapture  is   the 
taking  of  a  vessel  which,  at  some  previous  time, 
had  been  captured  by  the  enemy.     Rescue  is  the 
recovery  of  a  prize  by  the  original  crew,  and  is 
effected  by  overcoming  the  prize  crew.     Vessels 
which  have  been  made  prize  by  the  enemy  may 
be  recaptured  by  cruisers  of  the  other  belliger 
ent  ;  but  neutral  ships  of  war  cannot  recapture 
prizes  made  by  a  belligerent,  even  though  the 
prize  was  originally  owned  by  subjects  of  the 
neutral  state  to  which  the  cruiser  belongs.     A 
recaptured  prize  reverts  to  the  original  owner, 
if  it  has  not  yet  been  condemned  in  the  enemy's 
prize-court,  and  salvage  is  awarded  to  the  recap- 
tor.     The  rule  by  which  the  prize  returns  to  its 
original  owner  is  called  the  right  of  postliminy. 
It  can  only  take  place  before  condemnation.     If 
the  prize  has  been  condemned,  the  proceeds  are 
distributed  according  to  the  provisions  of  the 
prize  act,  without  regard  to  the  previous  own 
er's  claims.     If  an  enemy's  vessel  has  been  made 
prize,  and  is  recaptured  by  the  enemy,  and  again 
subsequently  recaptured   from  the   enemy,   the 
proceeds  go  to  the  last  captors.     A  rescued  prize, 
on  recapture  from  the  rescuers,  is  always  con 
demned,  though  it  may  not  have  been  subject  to 
condemnation  before  it  was  rescued.     The  mere 
act  of  rescue  is  considered  as  a  resistance  to  the 
exercise  of  belligerent  rights,  like  resistance  to 
search,  and  it  subjects  all  the  property  rescued 
to  the  extreme  penalty. 

18.  Rights  and  duties  of  neutrals. — When    a 
war  breaks  out  between  two  states,  other  states 
may  decide  for  themselves  whether  the  occasion 
justifies  or  requires  their  joining  in  the  war,  or 
whether  they  will  remain   neutral.     This   is   a 
question  of  policy,  mixed  with  ethics,  but  it  is  in 
no  sense  a  question  of  law.     The  policy  of  neu 
trality  being    once   decided   on,  certain  conse 
quences  flow  from  it.     The  belligerent  must  re 
spect  neutral  rights,  and  the  neutral  must  fulfill 
neutral  obligations.     Among  the  first  rights  of 
neutrals   is   that  of  having  their  territory  free 
from  the  operations  of  the  war.     No  hostile  act 
can  be  performed  within  the  borders  of  a  neutral 
state,  or  within  its  territorial  waters.     Within 
these  limits  belligerent  cruisers  may  not  attack 
or  capture  vessels.     The  only  exception  is  when 
a  fight  has  been  begun  outside  of  neutral  terri 
tory,  and   the   enemy,  during   the   fight,   takes 
refuge  within  the  limit.     It  is  then  said  that  the 
pressure  of  instant,  overwhelming  necessity  may 
justify  her   capture.      A   belligerent  may  not, 
within  neutral  territory,  increase  his  armament 
or  military  stores,  recruit  men,  or  employ  force 
or  stratagem  to  rescue  prisoners  or  recover  prizes 
from  the  enemy ;   nor  may  he  make  a  neutral 
port  the  base  of  hostile  operations.     In  case  of 
the  violation  of  neutral  territory,  the  belligerent 
is  bound  to  make  reparation  for  his  unlawful 
acts.     Land  forces  may  not  march  through  neu 
tral  territory,  but  the  rule  is  not  so  strict  with 
regard  to  cruisers ;   and  though  a  neutral  may 
allow  or  forbid,  as  he  chooses,  the  entry  of  bel 


ligerent  cruisers  into  his  ports,  there  is  no  re 
striction  in  regard  to  their  passage  within  the 
three-mile  limit  along  the  open  coast.  On  the 
other  hand,  neutrals  have  certain  obligations  to 
wards  the  belligerents.  Neutral  governments 
are  forbidden  to  send  supplies  of  men,  ships, 
arms,  or  money  to  either  belligerent.  It  is  their 
duty  to  prevent  the  forming  of  armed  expedi 
tions,  and  the  building,  equipment,  or  armament 
of  ships  of  war  for  belligerent  use;  to  exercise 
diligence  in  the  detection  and  suppression  of  such 
attempts,  and,  if  necessary,  to  pass  laws  for  their 
prevention ;  but  they  are  not  responsible  for  sup 
plies  of  arms,  or  other  contraband,  made  by  pri 
vate  citizens  in  the'way  of  trade,  nor  for  loans  to 
belligerent  governments  made  by  private  parties. 
It  is  their  duty  to  prevent  hostile  acts  between 
belligerents  within  their  territory.  They  are  re 
sponsible  to  the  state  which  suffers  by  such  acts, 
and  they  are  called  upon  to  demand  reparation 
from  the  aggressor.  If  troops  of  either  belliger 
ent  enter  neutral  territory  the  neutral  must  in 
tern  them, — i.e.,  disarm  them,  and  put  them 
under  either  surveillance  or  parole.  A  neutral 
government  regulates  the  entry  into  its  ports  of 
belligerent  cruisers  and  their  prizes,  and  the  sup^ 
ply  of  coal  to  steamers,  as  seems  best  to  it,  but 
with  the  general  limitation  that  all  privileges 
granted  to  one  party  must  be  granted  to  the 
other. 

19.  Treaties  of  peace. — A  treaty  of  peace  is 
binding  from  the  date  of  its  ratification,  but  a 
prospective  date  is  sometimes  fixed  for  the  treaty 
to  take  effect  in  distant  parts  of  the  world.  Cap 
tures  made  after  this  date  are  unlawful,  and 
must  be  restored  ;  as  is  also  true  of  captures  made 
before  the  date,  with  knowledge  that  peace  had 
been  concluded.  Other  captures  made  previously 
to  the  treaty  are  retained,  the  treaty  being  under 
stood  to  be  upon  the  basis  of  present  possession, 
unless  otherwise  stated. — J.  Russell  Soley,  Pro 
fessor  U.S.N. 

Interpolation.  The  finding  a  value  of  an  ele 
ment  which  falls  between  two  given  values. 
This  process  is  called  into  constant  requisition. 
in  navigation.  The  different  elements  tabulated 
in  the  Nautical  Almanac  are  given  for  particular 
times  at  Greenwich,  and  to  find  their  value  at 
any  instant  between  any  two  of  these,  a  propor 
tion  must  be  worked.  In  most  cases  an  approx 
imation  is  sufficient,  which  may  be 'found  either 
by  applying  roughly  a  fractional  part  of  their 
difference  to  one  of  them,  or  more  accurately  by 
the  use  of  tables  given  in  works  on  navigation. 
When  extreme  precision,  however,  is  required, 
it  must  be  remembered  that  these  elements  do 
not  change  uniformly,  and  a  correction  has  to  be 
applied  which  is  called  the  equation  of  second  dif 
ferences. 

Inundations.  In  ancient  Egypt  officers  esti 
mated  the  case  of  sufferers  from  the  inundations 
of  the  Nile.  The  changes  of  property  in  Ben 
gal  by  alluvion  are  equally  attended  to.  Inun 
dation  is  also  a  method  of  impeding  the  approach 
of  an  enemy,  by  damming  up  the  course  of  a 
brook  or  river,  so  as  to  intercept  the  water  and 
set  the  neighborhood  afloat.  In  Egypt  the  plan 
was  diametrically  opposite,  for  by  flooding  Lake 
Mareotis  the  English  gunboats  were  enabled 
greatly  to  annoy  the  French  garrison  at  Alexan 
dria. 

Invalid  (Eng.].     A  maimed  or  sick  soldier  or 


INVER 


372 


IRON  AND  STEEL 


sailor.     To  invalid  is  to  cause  to  retire  from  act 
ive  service  from  inability. 

Inver.  A  Gaelic  name,  still  retained  in  Scot 
land,  for  the  mouth  of  a  river. 

Inverted-cylinder  Steam-engine.  One  hav 
ing  its  cylinder  inverted  over  the  shaft  with 
direct  action  downward  to  the  crank;  much 
used  in  the  mercantile  marine  on  account  of  its 
economy  of  space,  but  objectionable  for  naval 
purposes,  as  the  cylinders  being  high  are  exposed 
to  the  enemy's  fire.  Called  also  inverted  engine. 

Invincible  Armada.  See  ARMADA,  INYINCI- 
BLE. 

Invoice.  An  account  from  a  merchant  to  his 
factor,  containing  the  particulars  and  prices  of 
each  parcel  of  goods  in  the  cargo,  with  the 
amount  of  the  freight,  duties,  and  other  charges 
thereon. 

Inward  Charges.  Pilotage  and  other  expenses 
incurred  in  entering  any  port. 

Ipswich.  A  town  of  England,  capital  of  Suf 
folk  County,  on  the  Orwell.  Although  the  Or 
well  is  only  navigable  to  the  town  for  vessels  of 
500  tons  burden,  the  town  contains  docks  at 
which  some  of  the  largest  vessels  have  been  built, 
and  at  one  time  Ipswich-built  vessels  were  con 
sidered  equal  to  those  built  in  any  other  part  of 
the  globe. 

Iridium.  A  metal  discovered  by  Dr.  Wollas- 
ton,  associated  with  the  ore  of  platinum.  It  is 
gray,  brittle,  very  infusible,  and  its  specific  grav 
ity  is  about  13.6.  It  forms  several  oxides  and 
chlorides,  and  combines  readily  with  carbon.  It 
takes  its  name  from  the  Latin  iris,  the  rainbow, 
in  consequence  of  the  variety  of  colors  exhibited 
by  its  solutions. 

Iris  Ears.  A  name  applied  to  the  shells  of 
the  Haliotis, — a  univalve  mollusk  found  clinging 
like  limpets  to  rocks. 

Irish  Horse.     Old  salt  beef. 

Irish  Pennants.  Rope-yarns  hanging  about 
the  rigging;  loose  reef-points  or  gaskets  flying 
about ;  fag-ends  of  ropes. 

Iron  and  Steel.  Nomenclature. — The  ordi 
nary  classification  of  iron  products  has  been  pig- 
iron,  steel,  and  wrought  iron.  Karsten  estab 
lished  the  logical,  scientific  basis  of  this  nomen 
clature.  But  within  about  15  years  methods 
have  been  developed  which  produce  large  homo 
geneous  masses  of  iron  or  steel  at  a  single  opera 
tion.  Thirty  years  ago  homogeneous  masses  of 
steel  or  iron  were  limited  in  size  to  a  few  hun 
dred  pounds  at  most,  and  the  iron  and  steel  of 
commerce  was,  with  the  exception  of  crucible 
tool-steel,  produced  in  a  pasty  state  as  the  imme 
diate  product. 

The  homogeneity  of  the  new  products  was  so 
striking  as  to  suggest  a  classification  based  solely 
on  the  fact  of  the  product  having  been  actually 
melted,  calling  these  products  steel.  This  was 
highly  illogical ;  for  on  the  one  hand  usual  ho 
mogeneous  cast-iron  castings  would  properly  be 
called  steel,  and  on  the  other,  Mushet  and  others 
in  France  and  England  had  long  ago  melted 
pure  wrought  or  bar  iron,  which  should  also 
be  called  steel.  This  system  has  justly  fallen 
still-born  among  metallurgists.  Since  1876  the 
classification  proposed  by  the  International  Com 
mittee  of  the  American  Institute  of  Mining 
Engineers  has  been  recognized  as  the  best  nomen 
clature  for  all  practical  purposes.  It  has  been 
universally  accepted  in  Europe,  and  forms  the 


I. 

II. 

Forgeable  ;  difficult  to  melt. 

Not  forgeable  ;  easy  to  melt. 

A. 

B. 

C. 

Produced  in  a 

Produced    in 

Pig-iron. 

fluid  state. 

a    non-fluid 

state. 

1.  Ingot  -  iron 

3.  Weld  -iron 

5.  White    pig-iron    without 

not  harden 

not  harden 

graphite. 

ing. 

ing. 

2.  Ingot  -steel 

4.   Weld-*teel 

6.  Gray  pig-iron  with  graph 

hardening. 

hardening. 

ite. 

basis  of  the  official  records  of  the  German  em 
pire.  It  is  therefore  adopted  in  this  article  on 
account  of  its  general  use,  as  well  as  its  intrinsic 
value. 

All  products  of  iron  ores  group  themselves 
naturally  in  this  nomenclature,  except  "native 
iron,"  i.e.,  meteoric  iron,  which  we  may  regard 
as  a  cosmical  curiosity. 


Or  in  the  order  in  which  the  products  appear  in 
manufacture : 

1.  Pig-iron. 

2.  Weld-iron  (Schweisseisen,  Fer  soude,  Wall- 
Jem). 

3.  Weld-steel    (Schweissstahl,    Acier    soude, 
Wallstal). 

4.  Ingot-iron    (Flusseisen,   Fer  fondu,    Got- 
jern). 

5.  Ingot-steel  (Flussstahl,  Acier  fondu,  Got- 
stal). 

The  term  weld-iron  designates  all  varieties  of 
wrought  iron  in  which  merchantable  iron  has 
been  produced  by  welding  up  blooms  from  a 
pasty  mass,  or  by  welding  together  bars  pre 
viously  rolled  from  a  puddled  ball,  or  otherwise. 
It  includes  all  kinds  of  iron  not  melted  and 
poured.  These  latter  are  properly  grouped  in 
the  term  ingot-iron,  the  different  kinds  of  which 
have  been  melted  in  a  furnace  or  pot  and  poured 
into  ingots.  These  are  the  u  homogeneous  iron" 
(Howell,  1856)  with  very  little  carbon  melted 
in  crucibles,  and  the  same  metal  melted  in  the 
Siemens  "open-hearth"  furnace,  or  Bessemer 
converter.  The  weld-iron  from  its  mode  of  man 
ufacture  and  the  presence  of  cinder  among  its 
particles  retains  a  distinctively  fibrous  character, 
while  the  ingot-iron  being  free  from  cinder  re 
mains  distinctively  granular  in  all  ordinary  pro 
ducts. 

It  is  an  interesting  fact  that  every  known  pro 
cess  of  making  iron  will  also  make  steel.  There 
fore  we  need  the  term  weld-steel  to  designate  steel 
made  in  Catalan  and  finery  forges,  and  the  direct 
reduction  processes  in  blooms,  from  the  puddling- 
furnace  in  balls  rolled  to  bars,  and  from  the 
cementing-furnace  in  bars.  The  products  of 
the  forge  are  commercially  known  as  "  German 
steel,"  of  the  cementing-furnace,  as  "blister 
steel"  in  bars,  as  they  leave  the  furnace,  or  as 
"shear  steel,"  when  welded  and  drawn  down 
for  cutlery.  The  products  of  this  class  are  all 
used  as  the  raw  material  for  cast  steel,  as  steel 
containing  a  high  percentage  of  carbon  is  called. 

All  steels  which  have  been  melted  in  any  man 
ner  and  poured  into  ingots  are  termed  ingot-steel. 
Ingots  of  pot  steel  for  tool  and  cutlery  purposes 
are  usually  limited  to  the  capacity  of  a  single  pot, 
in  the  Bessemer  and  Martin  processes  to  10  or  15 
tons ;  but  by  methodical  arrangements  ingots 
over  45  tons  in  weight  can  be  made  at  Essen  by 


IKON  AND   STEEL 


373 


IKON  AND  STEEL 


Krupp,  and  at  Creusot  by  Schneider,  and  ex 
tremely  heavy  ingots  at  Bochum,  at  the  Kus- 
sian  Imperial  Works,  and  at  Firth's  and  Vickers' 
works  in  Sheffield. 

The  essential  element  of  commercial  iron  is 
carbon.  So  extremely  intimate  is  the  connec 
tion  that  in  practice  iron  without  carbon  is  un 
known,  and  so  great  is  the  influence  of  carbon 
that  a  very  slight  change  in  its  percentage  vastly 
changes  the  properties  of  the  metal. 

The  total  amount  of  carbon  iron  in  any  form 
is  able  to  take  up  seems  to  be  about  6  per  cent. 
The  least  that  exists  in  the  purest  merchant  iron 
is  about  0.06  per  cent.  Iron  or  steel  capable  of 
being  wrought  never  contains  more  than  2.3  per 
cent  carbon,  cast  iron,  fusible,  and  unworkable, 
beginning  at  that  point.  Nothing  above  2.3  pos 
sesses  market  value  as  steel,  and  the  only  article 
that  possesses  any  special  value  at  this  point  is 
the  Wildstahl,  a  product  of  Styrian  forges,  used 
for  its  extreme  hardness  as  draw  plates  for  wire. 

In  the  other  direction,  the  separation  of  steel 
from  iron  is  quite  as  distinctly  marked  at  and 
below  0.20  per  cent,  carbon  ;  Karsten  placed  the 
line  at  0.25  per  cent,  carbon,  at  which  the  metal 
would  not  harden  even  in  mercury,  while  recent 
European  authorities,  like  Akerman  and  Wed 
ding,  define  0.4  per  cent,  carbon  as  the  point  of 
division  at  which  the  difference  in  hardness  be 
fore  and  after  hardening  begins  to  be  noticeable. 

Commercial  steel  is  not,  of  course,  a  compound 
of  iron  and  carbon  alone,  but  contains  usually, 
in  addition,  small  quantities  of  silicon,  sulphur, 
phosphorus,  manganese,  and  copper,  and  also 
chromium,  titanium,  and  tungsten.  These  ele 
ments,  so  commonly  present,  reduce  the  percent 
age  of  carbon  required  to  impart  sufficient  hard 
ness  to  give  sparks  with  a  flint  to  about  0.5  per 
cent. ;  in  steel  very  free  from  these  elements 
0.65  per  cent,  would  be  required  for  the  same 
effect.  In  the  best  Swedish  and  Styrian  makes 
0.35  per  cent,  carbon  produces  sufficient  hard 
ness  to  cause  the  iron  to  be  denominated  "steely." 

These  statements  are  based  on  the  use  of  a 
heat  at  hardening  proportioned  to  the  content 
of  carbon  in  the  steel.  But  when  the  carbon 
falls  below  0.15  per  cent.,  the  highest  heat  and 
the  use  of  mercury  as  the  most  energetic  cooling 
medium  fail  to  produce  any  perceptible  increase 
of  the  hardness. 

When  the  percentage  of  carbon  falls  below 
0.15,  every  effort  to  harden  the  metal  results  in 
toughening  it  and  making  it  more  ductile.  When 
a  square  bar  of  ingot-iron  is  broken  cold  after 
nicking,  the  fracture  is  abrupt  and  the  grain 
coarsely  crystalline,  while  the  other  end  of  the 
same  piece,  nicked  in  the  same  way  and  broken 
after  "hardening,"  will  break  with  great  diffi 
culty,  being  distorted  by  the  force  required,  and 
will  present  a  silky,  substantially  fibrous  frac 
ture.  Siemens-Martin  boiler-plate  is  tested  by 
means  of  this  fact.  Any  ingot-iron  plate  is  re 
jected  which,  after  being  heated  to  bright  red 
and  plunged  into  water,  cracks  when  bent  back 
180°  on  itself.  But  the  ductility  developed  is  so 
striking  that  a  common  quality  will  stand  much 
severer  bending  tests  after  this  treatment  than 
before  it.  All  the  splendidly  bent  specimens  of 
open-hearth  boiler-plate  makers  are  thus  tough 
ened,  and  the  boiler  plates  used  at  Crewe  by  the 
London  and  Northwestern  Railway  are  tough 
ened  or  annealed  bodily  before  use.  The  tough 


ness  produced  may  be  measured  by  the  ratio  of 
the  elastic  limit  to  the  breaking  weight  before 
and  after  "hardening."  In  30  specimens  of 
Bessemer  iron-plate  from  three  Swedish  works, 
given  by  Akerman,  this  ratio  was  reduced  from 
0.502  in  the  unhardened  to  0.398  in  the  hardened, 
and  in  4  specimens  of  Siemens-Martin  iron-plate, 
from  0.418  in  the  unhardened  to  0.389  in  the 
hardened.  Bessemer  iron,  ult.  ten.  58,884  and 
91,739  pounds  resp. ;  limit  elasticity,  29,584  and 
36,553  pounds  resp.  Siemens-Martin  iron,  ult. 
ten.  54,759  and  77,232  pounds  resp.  ;  and  limit 
elasticity  22,899  and  30,011  pounds  resp.  In 
the  case  of  phosphoriferous  weld-irons  this  effect 
is  very  striking,  and  the  tenacity,  elongation, 
and  contraction  of  area  of  fracture  may  be  in 
creased  by  hardening.  Poor  open-hearth  boiler 
plate  with  0.15  phosphorus  will  stand  much 
severer  bending  tests  after,  hardening  than  be 
fore.  The  writer  proposed  in  1875  this  great 
development  of  toughness  and  ductility  as  an 
independent  method  of  distinguishing  steel  from 
ingot-iron,  and  corroborated  as  it  has  since  been 
by  many  facts  and  experiments,  it  may  be  used 
with  advantage. 

Ingot-iron  is  chosen  for  comparison  as  exhibit 
ing  this  property  best,  but  it  is  as  well  shown  in 
kind,  though  not  in  degree,  by  weld-irons.  In 
proportion  as  the  weld-iron  is  denser  or  freer 
from  cinder,  "hardening"  has  a  greater  effect 
upon  it,  and  the  great  increase  of  strength  and 
toughness  in  pretty  dense  iron  has  been  so  long 
known  that  even  Sefstrom  refers  to  it,  as  Aker 
man  states.  The  property  has  of  late  been  turned 
to  account  for  cannon,  with  the  use  of  oil  instead 
of  water. 

METALLURGICAL  CHEMISTRY. — The  most  im 
portant  compounds  are  the  oxides  of  iron.  In 
its  treatment  for  the  production  of  refined  metal, 
iron  is  not  directly  acted  upon  by  air  or  oxygen, 
except  in  the  Bessemer  and  refinery  processes. 
In  all  others  it  is  indirectly  affected  by  oxygen 
absorbed  in  the  cinder  associated  with  the  iron. 
Of  this  cinder  protoxide  of  iron  forms  the  base, 
the  acid  silica,  and  also  alumina,  being  supplied 
by  the  ores,  the  iron,  and  the  brick  of  the  fur 
naces.  The  protoxide  possesses  a  great  affinity 
for  oxygen,  and  will  part  with  it  freely  and  reab- 
sorb  it  so  long  as  the  proper  temperature  is  main 
tained'.  This  fact  and  the  affinity  of  iron  for  car 
bon  form  the  basis  of  iron  metallurgy. 

The  oxides  of  iron  are  noted  with  an  atomic 
weight  of  56  for  iron,  the  old  nomenclature  with 
28  atomic  weight  being  inclosed  in  brackets. 


Protoxide,  Fe"0"(FeO), 
Magnetic  oxide,  Fe"(  Feo)"0"4(Fe304), 
Sesqnioxide,  ( lt>2)T'0'Vf'esQjJl 
Hydrated  sesquioxide,  (Fe2) 


77.77  p.  c.  iron. 
72.41    "      " 
7d.UO    "      " 


0"6(2Fe203,3HO),  59.92    " 

O          J 

The  protoxide  never  occurs  free  in  manufac 
ture,  possesses  a  strong  affinity  for  oxygen  and 
the  power  of  decomposing  water.  The  magnetic 
oxide  occurs  free  as  an*  ore,  containing,  when 
pure,  31.04  per  cent,  protoxide  and  68.96  per  cent, 
sesquioxide.  The  sesquioxide  forms,  with  water, 
a  true  chemical  combination,  the  basis  of  all 
brown  hematite  iron  ores. 

When  metallic  iron  is  heated  the  air  oxidizes 
it  rapidly,  forming  hammer-scale  richer  in  oxy 
gen  than  the  protoxide,  and  sometimes  reaching 
the  sesquioxide  itself.  Moisture,  especially  when 
associated  with  carbonic  acid  or  ammonia,  oxi- 


IKON  AND  STEEL 


374 


IRON  AND  STEEL 


dizes  iron  rapidly,  which  can  be  counteracted  by 
a  coating  of  zinc,  or  the  presence  of  lime  or  alka 
lies.  Iron  burns  freely  at  a  very  high  tempera 
ture  in  air,  but  can  scarcely  be  volatilized  by  the 
highest  attainable  temperature. 

The  affinity  of  iron  for  carbon  is  most  charac 
teristic.  Within  a  range  of  0.06  to  6.0  per  cent, 
we  see  almost  entirely  different  metals  with  prop 
erties  varying  in  extraordinary  ways.  This  af 
finity  enables  the  blast-furnace  to  be  successfully 
worked. 

In  speaking  of  "trow,"  it  must  be  noted  that 
a  combination  of  carbon  and  iron  is  always  meant, 
pure  iron  being  unknown  in  practice.  The  alloys 
of  iron  are  unimportant,  except  that  with  zinc, 
which  is  commercially  applied  in  galvanizing ,  with 
a  coat  of  metallic  zinc.  The  combination  of  iron 
and  carbon  with  tin  enables  plates  to  be  covered 
in  a  similar  way  with  a  coat  of  metallic  tin.  Iron 
and  carbon  also  combine  easily  with  chromium 
and  aluminium,  and  with  difficulty  with  tita 
nium  and  tungsten. 

The  combination  of  carbon  with  iron  is  both 
chemical  and  mechanical ;  the  latter  when  the 
carbon  separates  in  flakes  as  graphite  in  pig- 
iron,  in  which,  in  those  varieties  containing  most 
carbon,  it  may  be  separated  as  graphite  by  slow 
cooling,  and  be  recombined  by  quick  cooling, 
i.e.,  chilling. 

In  true  steel  the  combination  is  purely  chem 
ical,  though  free  graphite  is  often,  if  not  usually, 
present.  The  effect  of  hardening  is  to  cause  the 
carbon  to  entirely  combine  with  the  iron  in  steel, 
and  the  experiments  of  Caron  have  shown  that 
hammering  has  the  same  effect. 

The  other  elements  most  intimately  associated 
with  iron  (and  carbon)  are  sulphur,  phosphorus, 
silicon,  manganese,  and  copper. 

Sulphur  has  great  affinity  for  iron  at  a  low  red 
heat,  and  is  almost  universally  associated  in  the 
form  of  pyrites  with  the  ores,  and  by  reduction 
with  the  iron.  It  tends  to  prevent  the  formation 
of  graphite  in  pig-iron ;  to  reduce  the  total  percent 
age  of  carbon ;  also,  to  make  pig-iron  melt  with 
difficulty  and  run  pastily  and  shrink  strongly,  so 
as  to  unfit  itfor  castings  when  present  over  0.6  per 
cent.  The  influence  of  sulphur  on  wrought  iron 
makes  it  rotten  at  a  red  heat  (red  shortness),  and 
injures  its  weldability  materially;  its  effect  on 
steel  is  similar.  A  percentage  of  0.01  is  quite 
perceptible,  of  0.05  quite  injurious,  and  0.1  makes 
both  bar-iron  and  steel  nearly  useless.  It  must 
be  removed  in  the  blast-furnace. 

Phosphorus  is  as  intimately  associated  with 
iron  as  sulphur.  It  increases  the  fusibility  of 
pig-iron,  and  up  to  say  0.5  per  cent,  improves  it 
for  castings,  but  more  reduces  the  strength.  It 
assists  the  separation  of  graphite.  It  is  often 
present  up  to  1.0  in  good  pig-iron,  and  5  or  6 
per  cent,  in  iron  used  for  Berlin  castings.  In 
wrought  iron  phosphorus  causes  the  iron  to 
weld  and  work  easily  when  hot,  thus  antago 
nizing  sulphur  (but  not  neutralizing  it,  in  a  strict 
sense),  but  makes  cold  iron  hard  and  brittle 
(cold  shortness).  A  weld-iron  low  in  carbon 
may  contain  0.3  per  cent,  without  injury,  and 
when  harder  0.2  without  injury,  the  latter 
amount  also  being  possible  in  passable  ingot-iron 
with  0.10  per  cent,  carbon  or  less.  Steel,  how 
ever,  of  any  kind  is  injured  materially  by  phos 
phorus  ;  one  can  note  the  presence  of  even  0.01 
per  cent,  distinctly,  and  no  reliable  steel  can  con 


tain  more  than  0.10  if  soft,  or  0.04  per  cent,  if 
harder.  Phosphorus  is  freely  removed  in  pud 
dling  and  reheating,  by  its  sweating  out  with  the 
cinder ;  it  cannot  be  removed  in  the  blast-fur 
nace. 

Silicon  is  found  in  all  kinds  of  iron,  and  its 
effects  are  similar  to  those  of  phosphorus,  but 
graver.  It  makes  wrought  iron  rotten  at  a  red 
heat,  0.05  per  cent,  injures  iron  or  steel  seriously, 
and  0.4  makes  both  entirely  useless  in  presence 
of  other  deleterious  elements.  If,  however,  steel 
is  quite  free  from  phosphorus  and  sulphur,  as 
are  crucible  steels,  it  will  bear  from  0.15  to  0.25. 
The  presence  of  this  amount  of  silicon  is  charac 
teristic,  as  other  steels — as  Bessemer,  etc. — usually 
contain  less  than  0.1.  The  presence  of  silicon 
enables  steel  to  be  poured  free  from  blow-holes. 
But  for  metallurgical  purposes  silicon  is  an  essen 
tial  element  of  pig-iron,  as  its  burning  during 
refining  forms  necessary  cinder  and  generates 
great  heat.  White  pig-iron  contains  seldom 
more  than  1.0  per  cent.,  gray  usually  2.0,  often 
as  much  as  5.0  (Scotch),  and  for  Bessemer  pur 
poses  3.0  is  generally  liked. 

Manganese  is  a  common  and  most  beneficial 
element.  In  pig-iron  it  is  present  up  to  40.0  per 
cent,  from  the  blast-furnace  when  specially  made  ; 
often  up  to  10.0  or  12.0  per  cent,  from  manganifer- 
ous  ores.  It  may  be  combined  with  iron  and 
carbon  up  to  90.0  per  cent,  manganese  (ferro- 
manganese)  for  the  Bessemer  and  Siemens-Mar 
tin  processes,  a  white  soft  leadlike  substance 
extremely  oxidizable.  In  pig-iron  it  makes 
the  metal  white,  and  causes  the  chemical  combi 
nation  of  the  carbon  up  to  the  greatest  possible 
content,  nearly  6.0  per  cent.  This  form  of  iron  is 
called  Spiegel  iron  (mirror  iron),  from  its  broad, 
brilliant  crystals.  Manganese  develops  great 
heat  in  burning,  forms  an  easily  fusible  cinder, 
and  materially  aids  in  removing  the  ordinary 
impurities  from  iron  in  refining,  while  in  the 
blast-furnace  it  increases  the  fluidity  of  the  slag. 
It  is  seldom  present  in  iron  to  any  great  extent, 
but  is  usual  and  beneficial  to  steel  up  to  0.3  per 
cent.,  or  even  1.0  per  cent,  in  special  cases.  It 
antagonizes  red  shortness.  Being  extremely 
oxidizable  it  takes  the  function  of  carbon,  when 
the  latter  is  purposely  kept  low,  in  removing  ox 
ides  from  the  metal  and  enables  a  milder  steel  to 
be  made.  So  long,  however,  as  carbon  is  present 
in  any  considerable  quantity  the  rmmganese 
remains  but  slightly  acted  on  and  goes  into  the 
metal.  Manganese,  if  present  in  decided  quan 
tity,  say  over  0.4  per  cent.,  is  apt  to  make  steel 
fly  to  pieces  or  crack  in  hardening  ;  0.25  per  cent, 
will  have  this  effect  if  phosphorus  be  present 
over  0.02  per  cent.  More  than  1.0  per  cent, 
makes  low  steel  brittle  when  cold. 

Copper  is  a  very  common  impurity  of  iron, 
more  seldom  of  steel,  as  it  is  where  possible  ex 
cluded  from  the  latter  by  the  choice  of  material. 
It  acts  similarly  to  sulphur,  and  about  as  strongly. 
A  percentage  of  0.5  is  highly  injurious. 

A  statement  of  the  relative  hardening  power 
of  these  elements  on  steel  very  approximately 
exhibits  relations  of  importance.  If  one  unit  of 
phosphorus,  say  0.01  per  cent.,  will  produce  a 
certain  amount  of  hardness  or  brittleness,  2-3 
units  silicon,  5  units  carbon,  and  7-8  units  man 
ganese  will  produce  the  same  effect.  It  would 
be  truer  to  say  that  carbon  increases  strength 
and  the  other  elements  brittleness,  for  the  best 


IKON  AND  STEEL 


375 


IRON   AND  STEEL 


steel  is  that  which  contains  least  phosphorus, 
sulphur,  and  silicon. 

ORES  OF  IRON. — 1.  Magnetic  iron  ore.  This 
consists  mainly  of  the  magnetic  oxide  of  iron, 
and  can,  of  course,  never  contain  more  than 
72.41  per  cent,  metallic  iron.  It  often  contains 
a  sesquioxide,  and  rarely  carbonate  of  iron. 
Quartz,  chlorite,  or  hornblende  are  its  principal 
gangue,  and  magnetic  pyrites,  iron  pyrites,  cop 
per  pyrites,  and  apatite  its  principal  impurities. 
The  amount  of  impurity  varies  of  course,  but  the 
ore  ranges  from  40  to  60  per  cent.  iron.  In  the 
Lake  Superior  region  the  No.  1  ore  is  guaranteed 
60  per  cent. 

It  occurs  principally  in  primary  massive  or 
schistose  rocks,  exceptionally  in  the  Devonian 
(Siegen  district)  or  Lias  (Rosendale,  England). 

It  is  in  general  a  red,  short  ore,  tending  to 
produce  a  hard,  not  very  gray  iron,  on  account 
of  its  comparatively  difficult  fusibility. 

2.  Franklinite,  a  combination   of  iron,  zinc, 
manganese,  and  oxygen  with  45  per  cent,  iron 
and  20  per  cent,  zinc  may  be  regarded  as  an  ore 
of  iron.     Its   principal  use  is  for  Spiegel  iron, 
rich  in  manganese,  after  the  extraction  of  the 
zinc  for  zinc  paints.     It  occurs   only  in  New 
Jersey,  near  Franklin. 

3.  lied  hematite,  or  Specular  ore.     The  ore 
occurs  crystalline  in  plates  or  crystals  (rhombo- 
hedric),  as  specular  ore  in  Elba  and  Lake   Su 
perior.     In  spherical  aggregations  with  fibrous 
texture  in  the  west  of  England  associated  with 
the  ore  in  a  sandy  form  more  or  less  hard.     Also 
massive,  as  red  hematite  in  England,  Spain,  Lake 
Superior,  and  Algeria.     Also  in  oolitic  beds  with 
lenticular  formation,  as  in  Northern  New  York. 

The  ore  in  whatever  form  leaves  a  character 
istic  red  streak  when  rubbed  on  rough  porcelain. 
Its  principal  gangues  are  calc  spar  in  Spain, 
quartz  in  Lake  Superior.  Generally  clay  and 
often  pyrites  and  apatite  occur  with  it,  the  latter 
in  inconsiderable  amount.  The  average  contents 
of  iron  is  30  to  40  per  cent.,  though  the  Spanish 
and  Algerian  ore  is  generally  over  50  per  cent., 
and  Lake  Superior  over  50,  with  enough  of 
greater  purity  to  form,  a  grade  of  60  per  cent, 
guaranteed. 

It  is  found  in  all  rocks,  from  the  oldest  to  those 
of  the  coal  formations.  It  occurs  abundantly  in 
all  parts  of  the  world,  and  makes  as  a  rule  the 
best  iron.  The  Spanish  swOrds  owe  their  fame 
from  immemorial  time  to  the  splendid  deposits 
near  Bilbao,  which  are  now  used  in  all  countries 
for  pig-iron  for  steel. 

Massive  red  hematite  makes  in  the  blast-fur 
nace  a  neutral  iron  of  great  purity,  which  is  now 
almost  exclusively  devoted  to  the  manufacture 
of  steel  of  all  kinds. 

4.  Brown  hematite  is  a  widely-distributed  ore 
in  all  formations.     It  consists  of  the  hydrated 
sesquioxide  of  iron,  and  is  often  associated  with 
other  ores  as  the  result  of  their  decomposition. 
The  brown  hematite  in  the  soil  of  the  valleys 
along  the  edges  of  the  Silurian  formation  in  the 
United  States  seems  largely  derived  from   the 
oxidation  of  the  iron  pyrites  in  the  older  slates. 

The  ore  occurs  in  every  form  with  a  principal 
gangue  or  admixture  of  clay,  also  quartz  in  the 
massive  forms,  and  in  general  calc  spar  and  dolo 
mite.  A  very  frequent  accompaniment  is  man 
ganese  ore.  The  Bog-iron  ores  come  under  this 
variety,  and  are  now  in  process  of  formation  in 


ponds  or  bogs  along  our  eastern  coast  and  in 
Sweden.  Sand  is,  of  course,  a  large  impurity, 
and  the  bog  ores  are  almost  valueless  from  their 
cold  shortness. 

The  value  of  the  ore  varies  greatly,  and  that 
which  occurs  massive  is  generally  the  most  valu 
able  and  most  used.  Although  seldom  injuri 
ously  red  short,  the  ore  occurring  in  the  older 
formations  are  generally  red  short,  while  that  of 
the  new  formations  is  cold  short  often  to  a  very 
great  extent. 

In  the  purest  varieties  the  percentage  of  iron 
may  sometimes,  but  rarely,  be  as  high  as  60  per 
cent.,  but  will  probably  not  average  more  than  30 
per  cent.,  often  falling  lower.  Much  of  this  ore 
cannot  be  worked  at  all  on  account  of  small  per 
centage  of  iron. 

5.  Spathic  iron  ore.     This  ore  is  a  carbonate 
of  the  protoxide  of  iron,  and   cannot  contain 
more  than  48.2  per  cent.  iron.     It  also  contains 
carbonate  of  protoxide  of  manganese  in  the  crys 
talline  varieties,  having  often  as  much  as  11  per 
cent,  manganese  oxide.     What  goes  under  this 
title   is   usually   more   or    less   crystalline.      It 
usually  contains  little  or  no  hurtful  impurity. 

The  percentage  averages  between  30  and  40, 
but  may  always  be  increased  by  roasting,  often 
to  more  than  50  per  cent.  It  makes  iron  of  the 
greatest  purity  and  value  for  all  purposes,  especi 
ally  steel.  Its  greatest  development  occurs  in 
the  Siegen  district  of  Westphalia,  where  500  veins, 
of  6  to  20  feet  thickness,  are  worked,  and  in 
Styria  and  Carinthia,  in  Austria,  where  enor 
mous  deposit  exists  ;  over  150  feet  of  ore  at  Eisen- 
erz.  Krupp  and  the  Austrian  Royal  Works 
depend  largely  on  this  ore. 

A  variety  of  this  ore,  however,  occurs  massive 
in  the  Lias  formation  near  Cleveland,  15  to  22 
feet  thick,  which  has  given  rise  to  the  most  con 
siderable  iron  district  in  England,  since  its  dis 
covery  by  Bolkow  in  1847.  Its  percentage  of 
iron  averages  about  34,  always  enriched  to  more 
than  40  by  roasting,  and  it  is  quite  cold  sheet. 

6.  Clay    ironstone,   or   argillaceous  iron   ore. 
This  consists  of  the  carbonate  of  iron  in  admix 
ture  with  clay,  and  sometimes  sand,  and  more  or 
less  water.    The  carbonate  is  found  generally  in 
timately  mixed  with  clay  in  nodular  masses  with 
conchoidal  fracture,  which  are  distinctively  ar 
gillaceous  iron  ore,  often  in  this  country  called 
carbonate  ore.     Often,  in  England,  these  nodules 
disappear,  and  the  ore  and  clay  form  a  continu 
ous  stratum  called  day  band.  The  percentage  of 
iron  varies  between  25  and  35,  but  may  be  en 
riched  by  roasting.     This  ore  is  found  in  this 
country,  principally  in  the  lower  coal-measures 
of  Pennsylvania  and  Ohio.     In  England  nearly 
two-thirds  of  the  iron  product  is  derived  from 
this  ore  in  its  different  varieties. 

Black-band  Ore. — When  the  argillaceous  iron 
ore  is  found  in  connection  with  coal  veins  it 
carries  a  considerable  quantity  of  coal,  makes  a 
black  streak  on  porcelain,  and  is  called  black 
band,  the  term  given  by  the  Scottish  miners.  Its 
principal  occurrence  and  first  discovery  (Mushet, 
1801)  are  in  Scotland,  near  Glasgow,  where  it 
yearly  produces  in  a  small  district  about  900,000 
tons  of  pig-iron. 

It  carries  10  to  25  per  cent,  of  coal,  which 
enables  the  ore  to  roast  itself,  burning  with  a 
good  deal  of  vigor.  Its  content  of  iron  varies 
much,  and  will  average  25  to  30. 


IKON  AND  STEEL 


376 


IKON  AND  STEEL 


In  the  United  States  this  ore  is  of  very  little 
value,  occurring  seldom,  and  very  sandy. 

Analyses  of  Iron  Ores. 


I. 

II. 

III. 

IV. 

V. 

VI. 

Peroxide  of  iron  

63.18 
26  5'-* 

70.98 

57.88 

64.57 

0.70 

4950 

'4330 

Mangano-manganic 

012 

: 

060 

1  45 

Protoxide    of  inaii- 

164 

1.08 

Sesquioxide    of   co 
balt 

0.18 

a  23 

201 

405 

2.63 

1.15 

Lime  

0.38 

0.45 

0.16 

0.05 

1.86 

1.26 

trace 

0.20 

108 

0.05 

2.0J 

2.67 

Silica  

6.08 

25.12 

24.40 

19.02 

5.79 

7.20 

3490 

2846 

Water    etc        

1.08 

11.05 

10.97 

1  40 

Phosphoric  acid  

0.05 

0.13 

3.46 

1.03 
001 

0.21 

O.G7 

Sulphur  

001 

003 

none 

0.26 

Carbonaceous    mat 
ter 

073 

1510 

Totals 

10019 

10000 

99  69 

99  96 

9990 

100  00 

Metallic  iron  
Phosphorus  
Sulphur  

64.86 
0.02 
0004 

49.33 
0.05 
003 

40.50 
1.51 

42.20 
0.45 
0003 

39.00 
0.09 
001 

33.68 
0.29 
026 

I.  Is  the  best  grade  of  Crown  Point,  Lake  Champlain  mag 
netic  ore.     It  often  contains  much  more  phosphorus,  and  some 
times  as  much  as  16  per  cent,  titanic  acid. 

II.  Second  class   Lake    Superior    red    hematite,   McCracken 
mine.     The  first-class  ore  contains  over  60  per  cent,  iron,  and 
less  than  8  per  cent,  quartz  or  silica. 

III.  FiiMil  red  hematite  from  Clinton,  Northern  New  York, 
representing  the  oolitic  varieties  of  the  ore. 

IV.  Brown  hematite  from  Chestnut  Hill,  Pa.,  representing  the 
best  ores  of  the  Siluro-Cambrian  formation.      They  are  fre 
quently  far  more  cold  short,  and  seldom  richer  in  iron. 

V.  Carbonate  ore  from  Pittsburgh  Coal  Horizon,  in  Fayette 
County,  Pa.    These  ores  are  usually  more  cold  short. 

VI.  Black  band  from  Llanelly,  Wales,  characteristic  "  Mu- 
shet  stone,"  contains  from  3.3  to  8.0  per  cent,  coaly  matter  in 
the  vein  proper.    The  sulphur  exists  as  pyrites. 

METHODS  OF  IRON  PRODUCTION. — Only  two 
methods  are  open  to  iron-workers.  Either  the 
ores  are  reduced  at  a  low  temperature  directly  to 
steel,  and  after  reduction,  if  iron  be  desired," the 
carbon  burnt  out  sufficiently  by  exposing  the 
"  loup"  to  the  blast,  or  the  ores  are  powerfully  re 
duced  with  an  excess  of  carbon,  and  the  resulting 
iron  forced  to  take  up  carbon  with  formation  of 
pig-iron.  The  older  methods  using  the  Catalan 
and  associated  forges,  all  proceeded  in  the  first 
way,  and  make  to  this  day  both  steel  and  iron 
wherever  the  richest  ores  occur  with  plenty  of 
charcoal,  as  in  the  Adirondacks  and  Germany. 
But  it  was  long  ago  apparent  that  the  best  product 
was  got  by  first  making  pig-iron,  and  then  oxidi 
zing  it  to  burn  out  the  carbon  and  other  elements 
by  various  refining  processes.  This  change  took 
place  about  1545,  as  described  by  Agricola.  We 
shall  consider  the  reduction  process  first,  as  its 
logical  place  in  the  operations  of  the  present  day. 

^The  Blast-furnace. — The  general  idea  of  a 
blast-furnace'  may  be  put  as  that  of  a  tall  cylin 
drical  shaft  of  considerable  capacity,  whose  in 
ternal  shape  is  in  general  the  result  of  placing  a 
cone  on  the  base  of  another  cone  inverted. 
Three  or  more  cones  may  often  be  traced,  or 
the  section  may  be  formed  by  a  segment  of  a 
circle  sweeping  from  top  to  bottom.  Th«  shapes 
are  not  the  result  of  fancy ;  the  process  itself 
dictates  some  details,  the  kind  of  pig-iron  sought 
and  the  fuel  used  the  rest. 


Where  the  bases  of  the  two  cones  meet  the 
greatest  area  for  a  given  height  is  found,  and 
this  is  called  the  boshes.  As  the  inverted  cone 
narrows  downward  it  takes  the  name  of  crucible, 
and  that  of  hearth  in  its  smallest  dimensions  at  the 
bottom.  In  this  country  only  hearth  and  boshes 
are  usually  distinguished.  The  top  of  the  upper 
cone  is  called  the  throat,  and  its  opening  the 
tunnel-head  of  the  furnace.  The  tuyeres  pierce 
the  walls  of  the  crucible  at  a  height  (30  to  70 
inches)  sufficient  to  contain  all  the  iron  that  can 
be  melted  in  8  hours,  along  with  a  covering  of 
10  to  18  inches  of  slag,  for  the  pig-iron  must 
not,  when  formed,  be  exposed  to  the  action  of 
the  blast. 

The  object  of  the  shape  is  to  supply  the  mate 
rials  regularly  as  they  are  melted  in  the  hearth, 
and  at  the  same  time  in  a  condition  open  enough 
to  be  acted  on  and  reduced  by  the  ascending 
gases.  The  object  of  the  boshes  is  both  to  hold 
such  a  supply  as  will  cover  all  irregularities  in 
melting,  and  to  reduce  the  temperature  quickly 
to  such  a  degree  that  the  ore  cannot  be  melted 
into  cinder  before  its  entire  reduction  and  the 
carbonization  of  the  iron.  The  carbonization 
takes  place  in  the  zone  of  greatest  heat,  a  frus 
tum  of  the  cone  above  the  tuyeres  not  more 
than  2  feet  high.  The  coal,  limestone,  and  iron- 
sponge  preserve  their  shape  even  at  this  point, 
which  they  reach  so  hot  as  to  melt  away  like 
wax.  A  tapping-hole  is  provided  at  the  lowest 
point  for  the  iron,  and  a  cinder-notch  just  below 
the  tuyeres  lets  the  slag  out  at  proper  intervals. 

The  exterior  of  the  furnace  is  now  as  nearly 
cylindrical  as  may  be  for  convenience  of  bracing, 
either  by  an  entire  iron  shell  inside  of  which 
the  furnace  is  built,  or  by  flat  bars  tightened 
round  the  brick-work  after  its  erection.  In  both 
methods  the  lower  part  of  the  furnace  is  sup 
ported  on  columns  to  afford  free  access  all  round 
to  the  hearth  and  tuyeres. 

The  size  of  furnaces  varies  greatly,  owing  to 
the  great  difference  in  ores  and  fuel.  The  small 
est  are  charcoal  furnaces,  ranging  from  452  to 
about  2000  cubic  feet  internal  contents.  The 
anthracite  furnaces  of  Pennsylvania  and  Wales 
vary  from  2000  to  6000  cubic  feet.  Coke  fur 
naces  vary  from  about  3000  to  42,000  cubic  feet. 
Raw  coal  furnaces  in  Scotland  average  7000  cubic 
feet  and  a  product  of  180  tons  a  week. 

The  product  of  charcoal  furnaces  varies  from 
7j  to  30  tons  a  day,  according  to  size  and  ore. 
In  the  other  classes  20  to  40  cubic  feet  produce 
a  ton  of  iron  per  week  with  good  management. 
In  the  largest  furnaces  with  poor  ores  50  cubic 
feet  per  ton  per  week  are  often  required  in  Cleve 
land,  and  on  the  other  hand,  with  the  richest  ores, 
high  heat,  and  an  ample  blast,  about  11  feet  of 
cubic  contents  produce  a  ton  per  week  at  the 
Edgar  Thomson  Works  near  Pittsburgh  ;  where 
1300  tons  are  made  in  a  furnace  of  20  feet  bosh. 

Blast-furnace  accessories. — The  heart  of  the 
whole  process  is  the  blowing-engine,  which  as 
now  made  is  usually  a  short-stroke  engine,  about 
4  feet  stroke,  making  30  to  70  revolutions  per 
minute,  and  with  a  blast-cylinder  60  to  84  inches 
diameter,  according  to  volume  of  blast  desired. 
The  steam-cylinder  varies  in  diameter  according 
to  pressure  desired,  for  a  72-inch  cylinder  32  to 
38  inches.  The  fly-wheels  vary  with  the  en 
gines  from  9  to  16  tons  to  preserve  uniformity 
of  motion.  It  is  useless  to  cut  off  steam  less 


IRON   AND  STEEL 


377 


IRON  AND  STEEL 


than  |  stroke  or  more  than  f  as  engines  are  or 
dinarily  situated,  counting  the  vicissitudes  of 
steam-supply  and  the  necessity  of  blast  of  uni 
form  pressure.  An  engine  taking  steam  more 
than  |  stroke  would  take  more  than  its  share  of 
the  available  heat.  Long-stroke  engines  have 
been  considered  more  durable,  and  in  this  coun 
try,  with  84-inch  blast-cylinders  and  7-foot 
stroke,  they  have  a  very  good  record. 

The  blast,  if  used  cold,  would  have  very  little 
power  except  in  small  charcoal  furnaces  with 
easily  reducible  ores,  and  it  has  been  used  hot 
since  Condie  invented  the  water-cooled  tuyere 
in  1830.  The  waste  gases  had  been  in  1814  used 
for  steam  by  Aubertot,  and  they  were  immedi 
ately  applied  to  heating  the  blast,  thus  render 
ing  the  blast-furnace  a  complete  organism  inde 
pendent  of  any  source  of  heat  except  the  coal 
charged  with  the  ore. 

Hot-blast  stoves  were  at  first  cast-iron  pipes  of 
every  imaginable  form,  the  object  being  to  ex 
pose  the  greatest  amount  of  heating  surface  in 
the  stove  where  the  gas  was  burnt.  The  Scotch 
U  pipe,  where  the  cold-air  pipe  ran  along  one  side 
of  the  stove  carrying  a  number  of  U  or  siphon- 
pipes  connected  with  the  hot-blast  pipe  on  the 
other,  has  been  superseded  by  a  form  of  stoves  in 
which  several  bed-pipes  run  across  the  stove  car 
rying  close-legged  U  pipes,  often  14  feet  high 
and  9  inches  in  diameter,  the  bed-pipe  being  in 
tercepted  by  diaphragms,  which  force  the  blast  up 
and  down  through  5  double  legs,  or  about  140  feet, 
before  reaching  the  hot-blast  side  or  connection. 
In  order  to  avoid  unequal  heating  and  burning 
the  pipes  the  waste  gas  is  now  burnt  in  a  special 
chamber  below  and  connecting  with  that  con 
taining  the  pipes,  and  called  the  combustion- 
chamber. 

Cast-iron  stoves  rarely,  if  ever,  have  more 
than  3  square  feet  of  heating  surface  to  the  cubic 
foot  of  blast.  The  majority  probably  not  more 
than  1|  square  feet.  The  limit  of  constant  heat 
producible  with  safety  to  the  pipes  is  900°,  or 
thereabout,  and  the  friction  of  the  blast  in  pass 
ing  through  them  is  considerable.  As  far  as 
possible  the  area  of  the  pipes  should  be  increased 
in  accordance  with  the  formula  1  -f-  0.003£ ;  t 
being  temperature  to  which  blast  is  heated.  At 
the  Moselem  Furnace,  in  Pennsylvania,  where 
cold-blast  anthracite  iron  used  sometimes  to  be 
made  for  short  periods,  the  engine  made  38  revo 
lutions  with  3  pounds  pressure,  but  when  the 
blast  was  turned  through  the  stove  for  ordinary 
iron  only  28  revolutions  could  be  made  at  a 
pressure  of  5  pounds  per  square  inch. 

Of  late  years,  however,  the  regenerative  fire 
brick  stoves,  incapable  of  injury,  and  with  a  vast 
heating  surface,  have  been  found  preferable, 
where  the  expense  can  be  met.  They  afford 
about  8  square  feet  of  heating  surface  to  the  lj 
of  a  cast-iron  stove,  and  blast  may  be  delivered  at 
1500°  unvaryingly.  They  are  used  in  sets  of  3 
or  of  4,  with  one  to  spare,  the  gas  being  burnt  in 
two  while  the  third  is  heating  blast.  They  are 
of  the  Whitwell  and  Cowper  types,  both  covered 
by  the  Siemens  principle. 

The  other  accessories  are  steam-boilers  fitted 
to  be  fired  with  the  waste  gas  from  the  furnace ; 
pumps  to  supply  the  tuyeres,  etc.,  with  water, 
1500  to  2500  gallons  per  hour  being  used  by  a 
furnace  with  bosh  14  feet  in  diameter. 

The  hoists,  by  means  of  which  the  charges  are 


raised  to  the  tunnel-head,  are  of  almost  every 
possible  construction,  some  with  a  water  coun 
terbalance,  others  with  steam  hoisting-engines, 
with  air-cylinders  working  by  vacuum  or  by 
pressure,  with  steam  direct,  and  water-pressure 
direct  and  indirect. 

Materials. — Ore,  fuel,  air,  and  flux  are  the 
materials  of  the  process. 

The  ores  are  generally  prepared,  except  in  the 
case  of  open  red  hematites,  by  crushing  to  con 
venient  size,  and  roasting  before  they  are  charged. 
They  are  sometimes  washed  with  water  to  re 
move  sulphates  formed  in  roasting,  and  in  Bo 
hemia,  with  weak  sulphurous  acid,  to  remove 
phosphate  of  lime.  Uniformity  and  moderately 
small  size  improves  the  working  of  the  furnace. 
An  average  of  "2\  tons  of  ore  to  the  ton  of  iron  is 
thought  a  good  one  in  the  United  States,  and 
about  If  tons  is  the  best  attainable.  It  does  not 
pay  to  work  ores  which  will  not  make  a  ton  of 
iron  with  less  than  3|  tons. 

The  fuel  may  be  either  raw  bituminous  block- 
coal,  as  in  Scotland,  Ohio,  and  Indiana;  coke, 
as  universally  used ;  anthracite,  in  Eastern 
Pennsylvania  and  Wales;  or  charcoal,  as  in 
Sweden,  Germany,  Russia,  and  United  States. 
Coke  well  made,  from  coal  washed  to  remove 
pyrites  and  ash,  is  probably  the  kindest  and  best 
fuel,  enabling  the  quickest  work.  Anthracite  is 
more  refractory,  requiring  a  higher  temperature 
and  blast-pressure.  Charcoal  burns  so  easily 
that  it  will  not  support  either  a  high  tempera 
ture  or  much  blast.  With  coke,  1  ton  'to  the 
ton  of  iron  is  the  best  practice ;  with  anthracite, 
about  1^  tons,  usually  1£  tons ;  with  raw  coal,  2 
tons  (Scotland)  to  3£  tons  (U.S.);  and  with 
charcoal,  110  bushels,  or  about  1980  pounds  per 
ton,  with  hot  blast,  and  205  bushels,  or  3690 
pounds,  with  cold  blast. 

Air  is  required  to  furnish  oxygen.  By  volume 
air  contains  about  21  per  cent,  oxygen,  and  by 
weight  23  per  cent.  By  weight,  averaged  the 
year  round,  the  percentage  of  water  is  not  less 
than  0.2,  as  furnaces  must  be  situated  in  valleys 
where  they  can  get  water.  WTater  vapor  is  dele 
terious,  as  returning  less  heat  than  it  takes  to 
decompose  it,  and  furnaces  which  make  gray  iron 
in  winter  often  cannot  keep  up  heat  enough,  from 
this  cause,  to  do  so  in  the  spring  when  the  air  is 
saturated.  Under  ordinary  conditions  about  6 
tons  of  air  are  required  per  ton  of  iron,  and 
more  can  be  profitably  used. 

The  flux  is  usually  limestone,  as  free  from 
magnesia  as  possible,  and  must  be  charged  in 
such  proportions  as  to  maintain  a  slag  acid,  with 
silica  for  charcoal  furnaces,  and  basic  with  lime 
for  coal  and  coke  furnaces.  On  an  average  1£ 
tons  to  the  ton  of  iron  is  required,  much  depend 
ing,  however,  on  the  original  composition  and 
mixture  of  the  ores. 

About  6  tons  of  solid  material  is  estimated  as 
the  average  required  for  a  ton  of  iron. 

Process. — This  is  mainly  a  powerful  reduction 
in  the  upper  part  of  the  furnace  by  means  of 
carbonic  oxide  at  a  comparatively  low  tempera 
ture,  and  a  carbonization  in  the  zone  of  great 
est  heat.  Before  the  tuyeres  carbonic  acid  is 
formed,  which,  as  it  ascends,  is  soon  reduced  to 
carbonic  oxide  by  the  glowing  coal  in  the  charges. 
Other  metals  are  reduced,  of  course,  beside  iron, 
and  the  hotter  the  furnace  the  more  silicon  and 
the  less  sulphur  are  present.  In  manganiferous 


IKON   AND  STEEL 


378 


IKON  AND  STEEL 


ores,  the  greater  the  heat  the  more  manganese  is 
reduced,  and  the  less  graphite  is  present.  Sub 
stantially  all  the  phosphorus  in  the  ore  and  coal 
goes  into  the  iron. 

The  shape  of  the  hearth  and  boshes  depends 
on  the  iron  desired.  For  forge-iron  a  capacious 
hearth  is  used,  quickly  widening  upward,  that 
the  heat  filling  a  large  space  may  be  less  intense ; 
this  is  especially  the  case  where  spiegel  or  full 
white  iron  is  made.  But  for  gray  iron  the 
hearth  is  comparatively  contracted,  and  every 
means  taken  to  increase  the  temperature.  In 
using  the  Cowper  and  Whitwell  hot-blast  stoves, 
with  enormous  reserve  of  heat,  it  is  found  that  one 
is  comparatively  independent  of  form  of  hearth 
or  of  moisture,  and  production  can  be  driven  to 
the  utmost  extent.  We  are  beginning  to  find 
that  it  is  advisable  to  use  a  great  amount  of  blast, 
both  for  regularity  of  working  and  quality  of  iron. 

Products. — Gas,  slag,  and  pig-iron.  The  gas 
consists  of  nitrogen,  with  carbonic  oxide  and 
acid,  some  cyanides,  and  the  fumes  of  any  vola- 
tilizable  oxides  there  may  be,  such  as  zinc  oxide. 
The  carbonic  oxide,  although  only  about  20  to 
28  per  cent,  by  volume,  produces  more  than  suf 
ficient  heat  for  steam  and  heating  blast,  with 
some  available  for  roasting  ores. 

The  gases  furnish  the  means  of  regulating  the 
operations  of  a  blast-furnace  and  calculating  its 
economy.  Bell  found  that  with  Cleveland  ores 
the  gases  should  contain  about  737  pounds  car 
bon  to  the  gross  ton  of  iron  produced  and  escape 
at  about  600°.  In  this  country,  Mr.  J.  M.  Hart- 
man  finds  that  with  a  healthy  furnace  the  gases 
should  not  escape  higher  than  275°,  and  are  often 
as  low  as  180°.  Mr.  Hartman  has  suggested  a 
most  useful  "  carbon  duty"  formula,  based  on  the 
fact  of  the  furnace  having  a  constant  requirement 
of  2179.19  calories  for  the  heat  carried  off  by  con 
duction,  and  in  the  gas,  cinder,  and  iron,  and 


throwing  the  duty  on  one  ton  of  carbon.  Thus, 
the  duty  performed  may  be  ascertained  by  the 
weight  ratio  of  the  carbonic  acid  to  the  carbonic 
oxide  in  the  gas.  Thus,  in  a  year's  work  of  a 
coke  furnace  this  ratio  amounted  to  0.99  of  the 
carbonic  oxide,  and  the  constant  requirements  to 
23  per  cent,  of  the  entire  heat  produced.  The 
furnace  is  doing  good  work  in  proportion  as  its 
constant  requirement  falls  below  23  per  cent,  and 
as  the  ratio  of  carbonic  acid  to  oxide  approaches 
1  to  1. 

The  slag  makes  considerable  labor  to  dispose 
of  it,  as  rarely  less  than  1|  tons  and  often  4  tons 
or  more  are  made  per  ton  of  iron  ;  the  poorer  the 
ores  the  more  slag.  It  is  capable  of  application, 
for  bricks,  for  cement,  and  for  mineral  wool. 

Pig-iron  is  not  by  any  means  pure  iron  ;  char 
coal  iron  containing  not  less  than  3.5  per  cent., 
and  that  made  with  mineral  fuels  rarely  less  than 
6.6,  and  sometimes  10.0  per  cent,  of  other  ele 
ments.  In  spiegel  iron  17  to  27  per  cent,  is  of 
other  elements,  of  which  9  to  22  is  manganese. 
This  is  an  important  feature  in  refining. 

According  to  the  state  of  the  carbon  and  the 
varying  grain  and  color,  iron  is  graded  often  into 
8  grades,  but  in  U.  S.  usually  into  5. 

1.  No.  1  Foundry.     Dark  gray,  large  crystals, 
graphitic,  soft. 

2.  No.  2  Foundry.     Lighter  gray,  small  crys 
tals,  less  free  graphite,  and  less  open  texture. 

3.  No.  3  Foundry,  or  gray  forge.     Quite  light 
gray,  little  free  graphite  apparent,  and  close  tex 
ture,  crystals  hardly  showing. 

4.  Mottled  iron.     A  mixture  of  gray  iron  with 
white   iron,    hard.      An   intermediate   grade   is 
often  inserted  as  a  No.  4,  in  which  the  white  iron 
is  less  than  about  £th,  mottled  being  then  called 
full  motile. 

5.  White  iron.     Full  white,  crystals  more  or 
less  large,  brittle. 


Analysis  of  Pig-iron. 


I. 

II. 

III. 

IV. 

V. 

VI. 

VII. 

VIII. 

IX. 

X. 

XI. 

Graphite 

2  970 

2  860 

0  43 

3  760 

2  936 

206 

292 

209 

2  12 

Combined  carbon  
Silicon  

0.110 
3.114 

1.380 
1409 

3.06 
129 

4.770 
0.820 

4.632 
0.367 

0.658 
1.017 

1.095 
2200 

1.78 
0.85 

076 
1.59 

2.08 
0.59 

0.78 
099 

Slag    

015 

048 

012 

notdet'd 

Sulphur 

0  101 

0198 

010 

0021 

001 

006 

Phosphorus  

0999 

0546 

095 

0.134 

0196 

0106 

0  <>70 

0.53 

029 

1  037 

0289 

2  99 

11  120 

11  586 

0756 

3450 

232 

015 

0130 

Cobalt  

0.081 

Calcium    

0141 

005 

'* 

trace 



003 

Aluminium  

0021 



0.12 

Sodium  and  potassium  . 

" 

001 

91458 

93050 

91  18 

83156 

83250 

93  661 

90  249 

9250 

9561 

100.000 

99.873 

100.00 

100.000 

100.031 

100.000 

100.000 

100.41 

100.000 

I.  Is  Dunbar  foundry  pig-iron  from  carbonate  ores  and  coke.  Analyst,  McCreath.  II.  Isabella  forge  pig  from  Lake  Supe 
rior  ores,  mill  cinder  and  coke.  McCreath.  III.  Nearly  white  iron  from  Gleiwitz,  brown  hematite  and  coke.  Finkener.  IV. 
Characteristic  German  spiegel  iron.  Tookey.  V.  Franklinite  spiegel  iron,  New  Jersey  ores.  McCreath.  VI.  Bessemer  pig  No. 
1,  Crane  Iron  Co.,  Lehigh  Valley,  from  magnetic  ores  and  anthracite.  McCreath.  VII.  Bessemer  pig,  manganiferous ; 
Zwickau,  quoted  by  Petzholdt.  VIII.  Average  composition  of  13  first-class  U.  S.  guns  (regulations  of  1841),  by  Morflt.  The 
per  cent,  iron  is  too  high,  probably  containing  phosphorus,  owing  to  method  of  analysis.  IX.  Average  composition,  hot-blast 


charcoal  iron,  in  U.  S.  guns,  for  elements  q\ 

Morfit.    XI.  Belgian  ordnance  cast  iron,  analyzed  by  Abel. 


X.  Average  composition,  cold-blast  charcoal  pig,  in  U.  S.  guns. 


The  melting-points  of  white  iron  may  be  taken 
at  1900°  to  2000°,  and  that  of  gray  iron  at  2000° 
to  2100°.  Gray  iron  becomes  fluid  at  once,  while 
white  goes  through  a  pasty  state  on  melting. 


The  specific  gravity  of  dark-gray  iron  is  6.635 
to  7.275;  of  medium  gray,  6.916  to  7.572;  and 
of  white  iron,  7.056  to  7.889. 

The  specific  gravity,  tenacity,  and  hardness  of 


IKON  AND  STEEL 


379 


IRON   AND  STEEL 


Greenwood  charcoal  pig-iron  were  determined 
by  Wade,  as  follows  : 


Pigs.  Sp.  Gravity. 

No.  1 7.1)04 

No.  2 7.153 

No.  3 7.245 


Tenacity.  Hardness. 

14,486  8.48 

27,153  13.86 

34,424  21.40 


The  highest  tenacity,  40,897,  of  Greenwood  iron 
was  associated  with  a  specific  gravity  of  7.272, 
the  strength  decreasing  from  that  point  as  the 
density  increased.  Each  pig  or  mixture  of  iron 
has  a  similar  definite  point  of  highest  tenacity, 
the  range  of  density  for  ordnance  lying  between 
7.20  and  7.35  as  extremes. 

In  castings  of  this  high  grade  charcoal  iron  for 
guns,  the  appearance  of  the  fracture  shows  the 
quality.  In  smaller  castings,  a  somewhat  close 
grain  of  regular  gray  fracture,  with  a  jagged  un 
even  surface,  taking  hold  of  the  finger  like  a 
rasp,  indicate  a  metal  of  the  highest  tenacity. 
If  the  grain  be  uneven  in  color  and  texture,  and 
the  surface  comparatively  smooth,  the  tenacity  is 
lower.  In  large  masses  the  grain  will  be  quite 
coarse  and  fracture  more  jagged,  and  the  color 
very  light  gray,  with  darker  spots  rather  sparsely 
intermixed. 

WELD-IRON — WELD-STEEL. — As  iron  and 
steel  are  habitually  made  by  the  same  methods, 
in  the  same  apparatus,  they  must  logically  be 
associated  in  any  description  of  processes  in 
volved. 

Either  may  be  made  by  reducing  directly  from 
the  ore,  that  is,  burning  its  oxygen  out  with 
carbon,  or  by  burning  out  the  carbon  of  pig-iron 
by  means  of  the  oxygen  of  the  air.  In  either 
method  the  action  may  be  carried  further  than 
necessary  to  produce  steel,  and  the  carbon  be  in 
troduced  again  by  cementation  with  charcoal. 
As  a  curiosity,  steel  can  be  made  from  pig-iron 
bars  heated 'in  sand  with  slight  access  of  air 
(Tunner?s  steel). 

The  first  of  these  methods  is  usually  called  the 
direct,  the  second  the  indirect,  method  of  pro 
ducing  iron. 

The  direct  methods  include  the  following: 

1.  Catalan  forges. 

2.  The  iron-sponge  processes. 
The  indirect  methods  are, — 

1.  The  finery  forge. 

2.  Puddling. 

a.  Puddling  proper,  including  refining. 

b.  Boiling. 

c.  Rotary  puddling. 

3.  Cementation. 

The  Catalan  forge  is  the  oldest  known  method, 
having  been  practiced  in  some  form  from  the  re 
motest  antiquity.  It  is  synonymous  with  the 
old  English  bloomery,  although  the  method  was 
abandoned  in  England  nearly  150  years  ago. 

The  Catalan  forge,  as  improved  in  Catalonia,  a 
province  of  Spain,  is  a  low  small  hearth,  in  which 
a  single  tuyere  is  used,  blown  by  a  bellows,  or  a 
trompe  or  water-jet  blast  apparatus,  at  a  pressure 
of  about  \  to  £  pound  per  square  inch  (power 
utilized,  10  per  cent.).  The  fire  of  charcoal  is 
built  in  the  small  nearly  square  hearth,  mainly 
in  two  different  ways.  In  the  old  Catalan  the 
charcoal  is  at  the  back,  over  the  tuyere,  and  the 
ore  is  laid  in,  and  afterwards  fed,  at  the  front. 
The  bottom  is  of  charcoal.  In  working,  the  ore 
partially  reduces,  partially  goes  into  a  cinder, 
which  covers  the  iron  as  it  forms.  The  loup  is 
kept  in  the  hottest  place  before  the  tuyere,  and 


the  first  cinder  is  tapped  off  as  impure,  and  after 
ward  let  off  every  hour.  The  forgeman  works 
the  ore  into  the  fire  with  his  bar,  opening  up  the 
fire  also,  and  when  enough  ore  has  been  supplied 
clears  away  the  charcoal,  presses  the  loup  to 
gether,  and  lifts  it  out  to  the  hammer.  The 
loup  weighs  about  350  pounds,  and  the  process 
lasts  6  hours.  The  loup  is  cut  at  first  into  3 
pieces,  which  are  reheated  over  the  fire  at  the 
next  heat  and  drawn  down.  About  1000  pounds 
of  ore  are  used  each  time,  and  100  pounds  of  iron 
require  about  300  pounds  ore  and  340  pounds  of 
charcoal.  In  the  Genoese  forge  the  ore  is  roasted 
beforehand  by  the  waste  heat,  and  scrap-iron  is 
used  along  with  the  ore.  The  yield  is  thus  in 
creased  to  5  heats  a  day,  and  the  consumption 
of  charcoal  diminished  about  a  third.  The 
weekly  product  is  about  4  tons. 

The  German  Catalan  forge  is  worked  differ 
ently.  On  a  bed  of  charcoal  waste  ore  is  first 
melted,  and  then  the  rest  of  the  charge  of  ore  is 
laid  on  in  layers  alternating  with  the  charcoal. 
The  heat  lasted  6  hours,  and  the  loups  weighed 
about  75  pounds.  To  100  pounds  iron  about  800 
pounds  ore  and  438  pounds  of  charcoal  were  used. 

These  German  bloomeries  have  been  devel 
oped  in  the  United  States  on  rich  magnetic  ores 
with  very  good  results.  Their  greatest  number 
is  now  in  the  Adirondacks,  where  they  have  the 
characteristic  feature  of  using  a  hot  blast  heated 
by  traversing  pipes  placed  in  the  flame  of  the 
fire,  which  is  sometimes  also  used  for  steam  for 
blowing-engine,  with  slight  additional  fuel.  In 
the  Adirondacks  the  hearths  average  about  22  X 
30  inches  (660  square  inches),  by  13  inches  deep, 
with  walls  at  the  sides,  open  at  the  front,  and  the 
D-shaped  tuyere  at  the  back.  The  ore  thrown 
on  the  fire  is  reduced,  some  of  it  being  converted 
to  slag  as  it  works  down  through  the  fire.  At 
frequent  intervals  the  cinder  is  tapped  out,  and 
every  3  hours  the  loup  is  dug  up,  weighing 
about  300  pounds.  A  fire  makes  about  2400  to 
3000  pounds  per  day.  The  loups  are  forged  into 
slabs  for  boiler-plate,  or  billets  for  cast  steel. 
One  gross  ton  of  blooms  requires  1|  tons  dressed 
ore  (or  about  3  tons  raw  ore),  and  2  tons,  or  250 
bushels  of  charcoal,  with  warm  blast,  against 
2T^  tons,  or  300  bushels,  with  cold  blast. 

The  Damascus  or  wootz  steel,  and  the  "Wolf" 
of  iron  or  steel,  were  made  in  a  high  forge, 
which  may  be  called  by  its  Swedish  name  of 
Osmund  furnace  or  forge.  It  gave  rise  to  the 
blast-furnace,  increasing  in  size  and  product  as 
the  means  of  blowing  it  were  invented.  The 
small  East  Indian  forges  were  of  clay,  built  in  a 
bank  or  wooden  frame,  about  3  to  6  feet  high 
and  18  inches  square.  They  produced  10  to  180 
pounds  per  charge  or  heat,  which  was  often  al 
lowed  to  cool  in  the  forge.  The  German  Wolf 
furnace  produced  "  wolves"  of  about  500  pounds 
of  iron  in  8  hours  with  about  2189  pounds  char 
coal. 

The  iron-sponge  processes  represent  a  vast  deal 
of  fruitless  labor.  Of  all  tried  only  the  Siemens 
and  the  Wilson  methods  are  in  use  in  each  case, 
so  far  as  we  know,  by  the  inventors  only.  Che- 
not  (1831)  endeavored  to  reduce  ore  by  charcoal 
or  carbonic  oxide  in  vertical  chambers  externally 
heated.  The  resulting  mass  was  powdered  and 
the  sponge  separated  by  a  magnet,  and  used  for 
cast  steel  by  melting  in  crucibles.  Clay  (1837) 
reduced  ore  with  charcoal  in  clay  retorts  opea- 


IRON   AND  STEEL 


380 


IEON   AND  STEEL 


ing  into  a  puddling-furnace,  where  the  sponge 
was  worked  out.  Renton  (1851)  substantially 
the  same,  except  attempting  to  weld  the  sponge 
into  blooms,  and  Harvey  the  same,  with  the  sub 
stitution  of  inclined  soapstone  trays.  Smith 
(1855)  attempted  to  reduce  ore  direct  in  the 
puddling-furnace,  using  petroleum  vapor  to  car 
bonize  the  sponge;  Gurlt  (1857)  used  Chenot's 
apparatus  in  a  similar  way,  letting  the  sponge 
fall  with  its  impurities  upon  a  furnace  hearth, 
where  it  was  melted.  Whelpley  $  Storer  applied 
the  same  method,  blowing  a  mixture  of  pow 
dered  ore  and  coal  upon  the  hearth  of  a  puddling- 
furnace.  Rogers  (1862)  used  Clay's  methods, 
but  substituted  a  rotating  retort.  Dupuy  (1874) 
proposes  a  mixture  of  ore  and  charcoal  in  a  box 
of  sheet-iron  to  hinder  oxidation.  Wilson  ap 
plies  the  inclined  tray  or  surface,  reducing  the 
ore  on  it  and  using  the  resulting  sponge  in  a 
bloomery  forge.  Siemens  (1870)  combined  Clay's 
and  Roger's  plans,  melting  the  sponge  in  a  bath 
of  pig-iron  in  a  rotary  furnace.  This  is  still  in 
operation  at  Landore,  and  is  not  strictly  a  direct 
process.  Blair  (1872)  improved  Chenot's  plans; 
cooled  the  sponge  before  contact  with  air,  com 
pressed  it  cold  to  a  bloom,  which  was  either 
worked  in  the  heating  furnace  or  melted  into 
soft  steel.  The  objections  to  the  sponge  pro 
cesses  proper  are  great  waste  of  iron  and  of  fuel, 
the  difficulty  of  welding  the  sponge,  and  the  in 
termittent  character  of  the  work. 

The  indirect  methods  all  demand  pig-iron  as 
their  raw  material. 

The  oldest  one  is  the  finery  forge.  It  produced 
till  1784  all  the  iron,  and  till  1839  the  most  of  the 
steel  used,  and  was  worked  on  almost  number 
less  methods,  dictated  by  the  circumstances  or 
caprice  of  the  operators.  It  made  iron  or  steel 
with  equal  facility,  a  change  of  the  force  and 
direction  of  blast  and  the  quantity  of  cinder  al 
lowed  to  cover  the  ball  constituting  the  only 
changes  ;  for  steel  the  ball  is  protected  as  much 
as  possible,  and  for  iron  exposed  to  oxidation  as 
much  as  is  safe.  The  process  is  slow  as  com 
pared  with  its  successors, — 5  tons  per  week  being 
a  good  yield.  This  quantity  would  be  puddled 
in  \\  days,  or  made  into  Bessemer  steel  in  20 
minutes.  The  product  is  adapted  to  special  pur 
poses,  and  in  this  country  now  furnishes  most  of 
the  best  boiler-plate  (C.  H.  No.  1  Flange  and 
better  grades)  and  sheet-iron,  while  in  Wales  it 
makes  tin-plate  iron.  The  Lancashire  and  Wal 
loon  methods  are  most  followed,  the  latter  in 
Sweden,  for  the  production  of  Dannemora  iron. 

In  the  Morfa  tin-plate  works,  as  described  by 
Percy,  and  in  the  other  Welsh  works,  the  iron 
was  first  melted  in  a  coke  melting  finery,  and  then 
about  250  pounds  run  into  the  charcoal  finery, 
prepared  from  the  previous  heat.  The  cold  blast 
was  let  on,  and  the  iron  becoming  pasty,  was 
broken  up  and  exposed  to  the  blast.  In  43  min 
utes  cinder  was  tapped  off,  and  the  metal  begun 
to  be  pressed  into  a  ball.  The  cinder  was  tapped 
out  frequently,  and  in  an  hour  the  blast  dimin 
ished.  In  73  minutes  the  blast  was  lessened  and 
the  ball  taken  out  and  hammered  into  a  flat  slab, 
which  is  afterward  broken  up  into  stamps  of  26 
pounds  each.  These  are  then  piled  on  a  porter- 
bar  (about  80  pounds),  and  being  heated  in  a 
hollow  coke-fire,  like  a  blacksmith's  fire,  are 
welded,  hammered  into  slabs  about  6  inches  wide 
and  3  inches  thick.  These  slabs  are  nicked,  and 


one-half  double  back,  and  welded  on  the  other, 
so  as  to  make  both  sides  of  the  tin-plate  alike, 
hammered  down  again,  cut  off  from  the  bar  and 
rolled  into  plates.  This  process  is  substantially 
used  in  Pittsburgh  under  the  name  of  "  knobbling 
fire." 

In  Sweden  pig-iron  is  used  in  plates  which 
have  been  broken  up  and  heated  beforehand  by 
the  waste  heat  of  the  fire.  The  hot  fragments 
are  placed  in  the  hearth  with  the  charcoal,  and 
in  half  an  hour  the  iron  is  melted  down,  and 
partially  oxidizing,  forms  a  cinder  rich  in  iron. 
This  cinder  is  left  in  when  not  too  abundant, 
and  the  metal  is  worked  in  it  and  subjected  to 
the  refining  proper  for  half  an  hour.  Then  the 
heat  is  increased,  and  the  ball  is  formed  and 
taken  out,  and  about  1£  hours  from  the  start  is 
taken  out,  hammered,  reheated,  and  hammered 
into  bars  for  the  English  steel  market. 

This  is  in  general  the  Lancashire  process.  The 
hearths  now  have  commonly  two  tuyeres  oppo 
site  each  other,  through  which  the  blast  enters 
at  a  pressure  of  3.5  inches  of  mercury  and  about 
220°.  The  charge  is  about  180  pounds  of  pig- 
iron,  though  sometimes  as  heavy  as  290  pounds. 
The  work  goes  on  uninterruptedly  for  6  days, 
with  two  to  three  men  per  shift  with  a  produc 
tion  of  6  to  14  gross  tons  of  blooms,  a  waste  of 
13  per  cent,  of  the  pig-iron,  and  the  consumption 
of  1220  to  2064  pounds  charcoal  per  ton. 

The  blooms  are  reheated  in  the  Ekman  reheat 
ing  furnace  with  blast  and  wood,  or  in  Siemens 
furnaces  with  the  Lundin  condenser  for  moisture 
in  the  gas  from  the  sawdust  or  wet  peat  used. 
Loss  of  weight  in  heating,  9  to  12  per  cent. 

In  the  Dannemora  district  two  hearths  work 
together  (Walloon  method),  one  reheating  the 
other's  bloom,  producing  8  to  12  gross  tons  per 
week  with  4700  to  7000  pounds  charcoal  per  ton. 

In  Pennsylvania  a  finery  forge  is  worked  with 
about  230  pounds  in  pigs  laid  on  top  of  the  char 
coal,  and  the  iron  as  melted  drips  down  before 
the  tuyere.  When  fully  melted  the  blast  is 
turned  down  upon  the  iron,  which  is  also  stirred 
with  a  bar.  The  cinder  is  let  off  frequently 
when  soft  weld-iron  is  desired,  and  the  loup  is 
squeezed  with  the  bar  to  free  it  from  cinder  as 
much  as  possible.  The  loup  is  raised  and  forged 
into  billets.  A  fire  works  13  hours  a  day,  mak 
ing  6  loups,  or  about  1000  pounds,  that  is,  about 
3  tons  per  week.  With  refined  iron  6  tons  per 
week  are  made.  About  0.9  tons  charcoal  and 
24  cwt.  of  pig-iron  are  required  to  the  ton  of 
billets. 

Steel  made  in  fineries  is  produced  by  the  Sie- 
gen,  Styrian,  and  Carinthian  methods,  of  which 
the  Styrian  is  perhaps  most  widely  practiced. 
Most  of  the  cheap  cutlery  and  mechanics'  tools 
sold  as  German  are  made  in  Westphalia,  or 
vicinity,  of  steel  from  the  finery,  and  the  Styrian 
scythes,  the  quality  of  which  is  highly  renowned, 
are  of  steel  from  the  Styrian  finery  forges.  In 
Styria  the  hearth  is  23  inches  long,  20  broad,  and 
10  to  12  inches  below  the  tuyere.  It  has  a  loam 
bottom,  above  which  charcoal  is  stamped  in. 
The  white  crystalline  pig  in  flat  cakes  2  or  3 
inches  thick  and  some  finery  cinder  are  first 
melted  down  for  a  bath  in  which  to  work  the  steel. 
The  cinder  should  be  greater  in  quantity  and  less 
rich  in  oxide  of  iron  than  when  iron  is  intended. 
The  steel  from  the  previous  heat  is  reheated  in 
this  bath,  the  new  pig  being  allowed  during  the 


IRON   AND  STEEL 


381 


IRON  AND  STEEL 


reheating  to  melt  and  drop  down  before  the 
tuyere.  When  the  reheating  is  concluded,  the 
iron  will  generally  be  found  very  near  the  proper 
degree  of  decarbonization,  and  the  fining  is  tnen 
soon  finished  by  working  the  metal  up  with  a 
bar  to  expose  it  to  the  blast.  The  cinder  is  used 
to  prevent  the  burning  out  carbon  beyond  proper 
amoun-t,  and  is  let  out  after  the  reheating,  and 
perhaps  once  or  twice  more  if  too  abundant. 
One  heat  requires  about  3.}  hours,  and  2  fineries 
with  4  men  make  about  1200  pounds  in  16  hours 
with  the  loss  of  9  to  10  per  cent,  iron,  and  a  con 
sumption  of  charcoal  of  297  to  338  pounds  per 
120  pounds  of  steel. 

The  process  has  the  closest  resemblance  to  that 
foriron,  so  that  strangers  can  detect  no  difference, 
and  the  men  themselves  often  make  a  lump  of 
iron  instead  of  steel.  Not  unfrequently  one 
finery  makes  iron  while  the  exactly  similar  one 
next  it  makes  steel. 

Puddling  is  at  present  the  principal  source  of 
iron,  the  product  of  steel  by  this  process  being 
irregular  in  quality,  and  now  mainly  used  for 
remelting  in  crucibles.  For  a  long  while  after 
its  first  production  in  1835  puddled  steel  was 
largely  made,  but  has  now  been  almost  wholly 
superseded  by  Bessemer  steel. 

There  are  two  kinds  of  puddling,  viz.,  pud 
dling  proper,  or  dry  puddling  of  pig-iron  pre 
viously  refined,  as  invented  by  Onions  and  made 
successful  by  Cort,  both  in  1784;  and  wet  pud 
dling,  or  boiling,  as  it  is  called,  in  which  gray 
forge-iron  is  used  without  refining.  Boiling 
makes  the  best  iron,  puddling  probably  the  most. 
The  distinction  lies  in  the  fact  that  in  puddling 
the  air  acts  more  directly  upon  the  iron,  while 
in  boiling  the  action  is  mainly  through  the  cinder 
of  silicate  of  protoxide  of  iron,  which  absorbs 
oxygen,  giving  it  up  to  the  carbon  of  the  pig- 
iron.  The  great  liquidity  of  both  iron  and  cinder 
enables  the  impurities  to  separate  more  readily, 
and  the  iron  to  be  purer,  more  uniform  in 
composition,  and  freer  from  cinder  than  when 
puddled. 

There  have  been  many  modifications  of  the 
process,  the  principal  one  of  late  years  being  a 
modification  of  the  Uchatius  (really  Wood,  1761) 
steel  process  applied  to  pig-iron  as  it  runs  from 
the  blast-furnace.  Pulverized  magnetic  or  spec 
ular  ore  was  poured  into  the  stream  of  iron, 
oxidizing  the  latter  somewhat,  but  mainly  chill 
ing  it  into  a  mush,  which,  when  cold,  was  termed 
pig-bloom.  These  were  sweated  or  welded  up  in 
the  heating  furnace  and  rolled  into  bars.  The 
process  known  as  the  Ellershausen  wasted  too 
much  iron  and  attacked  the  furnace-bed  too 
much,  and  has  long  gone  out  of  use. 

The  refinery  is  a  most  important  piece  of  appa 
ratus  at  a  works  where  common  iron  is  made  for 
rails  and  from  forge  pig  specially  smelted  from 
puddling-  and  heating-furnace  cinder  with  little 
u  mine"  ore,  as  in  the  Welsh  works.  There  are 
two  objects  sought, — to  remove  silicon,  graphite, 
and  other  elements  from  the  iron,  thereby  making 
the  iron  white,  to  as  great  an  extent  as  possible 
with  reasonable  waste ;  and  by  producing  white 
iron  to  have  a  material  which  will  be  pasty  as 
soon  as  melted,  and  require  comparatively  little 
labor  and  time  for  its  conversion  into  weld-iron. 

The  modern  refinery  appears  to  have  been  in 
vented  in  1771  by  Cockshutt,  and  is  in  gen 
eral  a  rectangular  hearth,  say  40  inches  wide, 


60  long,  and  12  to  18  deep,  to  contain  about 
a  ton  of  pig-iron.  It  has  3  tuyeres  on  each  side 
inclining  downward  to  the  centre,  and  its  sides 
and  back  are  formed  of  hollow  iron  castings  or 
"  water-blocks,"  cooled  by  water;  its  bottom  of 
sand,  on  solid  brick-work,  and  the  front  a  solid 
iron  plate  with  a  tap-hole.  Coke  is  the  fuel,  and 
cold  blast  is  used  at  3  pounds  per  square  inch. 
When  refined,  the  metal  is  let  out  upon  a  long 
iron  trough  kept  cool  by  water,  on  which  it  chills 
in  plates,  called  plate-metal  or  refined  metal. 

The  coke  is  thrown  into  the  heated  refinery, 
and  on  it  about  one  ton  of  pig-iron  with  30 
pounds  of  hammer-scale.  The  metal  melts  in 
about  1^  hours  under  gentle  blast,  and  after  £ 
hour  of  strong  blowing  with  the  production  of 
considerable  cinder,  the  metal  and  cinder  is  let 
out,  water  thrown  on  the  cinder,  and  the  metal 
separated  in  plates  about  3  inches  thick,  gen 
erally  honey-combed  at  the  top.  About  £  the 
iron  represents  weight  of  coke  used,  and  8  per 
cent,  the  waste  of  iron.  Gray  pig-iron,  contain 
ing  3  per  cent,  silicon  and  0.2  sulphur,  will  re 
tain,  after  refining,  about  0.3  per  cent,  silicon 
and  0.15  sulphur;  white  pig-iron,  with  0.4  per 
cent,  silicon  and  2.0  per  cent,  sulphur,  will  retain 
about  0.1  silicon  and  1.0  sulphur.  Such  white 
iron  is  cheap,  but  utterly  useless  without  re 
fining. 

In  all  puddling  processes  the  furnace  is  the 
same :  a  reverberatory  furnace,  with  a  bed  about 
60  inches  long,  48  inches  wide,  covered  by  an 
arched  roof  20  to  24  inches  high.  Thereof  in 
clines  downward  from  the  end  next  the  fire-space, 
and  the  two  sides  converging  also  in  the  same 
direction,  form  with  the  bed  a  neck  about  20 
inches  square,  inclining  downward  to  the  draft- 
stack.  The  bed  may  be  about  18  square  feet, 
and  the  grate-surface  12  to  16  square  feet,  accord 
ing  to  quality  of  coal  used,  and  the  whole  con 
struction  is  such  as  to  throw  the  flame  strongly 
down  on  the  bed.  The  latter — originally  sand — 
was  in  1818  made  of  a  single  thickness  of  iron 

Slates  carefully  joined,  and  usually  cooled  by  air 
rawn  through  a  chamber  beneath  them  by  the 
intense  heat.  The  product  was  thus  increased 
from  8  tons  per  week  to  20  or  24  tons  per  week. 
All  parts  exposed  to  heat  are  cooled  with  water, 
and  the  door  has  a  small  hole  through  which  all 
the  work  is  done,  the  door  itself  being  opened 
only  to  remove  the  balls. 

In  puddling,  the  heat  is  made  on  a  bed  formed 
on  the  iron  bottom  by  melting  and  oxidizing 
scrap-iron  to  cinder,  mixed  with  some  cinder 
richest  in  iron  from  the  furnace  itself,  and  on 
this,  when  hot,  about  500  to  600  pounds  of  re 
fined  iron  are  charged.  When  melted  the  whole 
soon  comes  into  a  pasty  state,  and  is  worked  and 
stirred  about  by  rabbles  (iron  bars).  At  first 
jets  of  flame  are  emitted  like  a  fermentation,  but 
afterward  the  iron  becomes  stiff,  and  must  be 
broken  up  and  exposed  to  the  air.  In  about  45 
minutes  it  begins  to  form  metallic  iron,  and  the 
whole  soon  comes  to  nature,  and  is  carefully 
worked  together,  and  then  separated  into  4  to  6 
balls.  At  this  stage  the  iron  burns  and  the  mass 
becomes  decidedly  hotter  and  more  coherent,  and 
absorbs  the  cinder  formed,  and  the  bed  appears 
dry.  The  cinder  is  let  out  only  once  in  two  or 
more  heats.  In  Wales  6  balls  are  got  to  a  heat, 
and  8  heats  worked  in  12  hours,  with  a  waste  of 
9  to  12  per  cent. 


IKON  AND   STEEL 


382 


IKON  AND  STEEL 


.  In  boiling,  however,  the  furnace  is  differently 
prepared.  On  a  bed,  first  made  up  like  the  other, 
ground  specular  ore  or  roasted  cinder  is  thickly 
spread,  and  the  sides  are  laid  up  thickly  with  the 
same  ore  or  cinder,  and  the  whole  fired  till  it  is 
solid,  and  with  repairs  will  last  a  week.  This 
material  supplies  a  great  reserve  of  oxidizing 
agents,  the  waste  of  which  must  be  made  good 
every  day.  After  the  cinder  has  been  tapped  off 
from  the  preceding  heat,  about  600  pounds  of 
No.  3  iron  or  best  gray  forge  of  good  quality  are 
charged  with  about  120  pounds  of  roll  scale, 
hammer-slag,  and  furnace-cinder.  The  furnace 
is  carefully  closed  and  fired  hard  for  about  35 
minutes,  when  the  iron  is  melted.  When  partly 
melted  it  "  frizzles"  or  simmers,  and  the  boiler 
sees  that  no  solid  iron  sticks  to  the  bottom.  The 
metal  becomes  covered  with  fluid  cinder,  and  in 
about  48  minutes  the  bath  looks  as  if  in  a  full 
boil,  jets  of  flame  and  metal  spurting  up  con 
stantly.  It  is  kept  well  stirred,  and  in  a  few  min 
utes  becomes  frothy,  rises  to  the  working-hole, 
and  becomes  whiter  and  hotter  when  the  damper 
is  lowered  and  the  fire  slackened  somewhat.  In 
about  65  minutes  most  of  the  iron  "  comes  to  na 
ture,"  forming  pasty  masses  in  the  bath  of  cinder, 
and  the  whole  then  sinks,  becomes  pasty,  with 
little  apparent  fluid-cinder,  and  the  boiler  works 
the  mass  into  5  or  more  balls,  with  his  rabble  work 
ing  out  the  cinder  and  patting  the  balls  together. 
They  seem  to  be  in  a  bath  of  fluid-cinder,  and 
in  about  80  minutes  the  first  ball  is  taken  out 
and  the  rest  follow  at  intervals  of  2  minutes. 
While  the  metal  is  melting  and  the  balls  being 
taken  out  the  furnace  is  kept  full  of  somewhat 
smoky,  reducing  flame,  but  during  the  boil  is 
kept  sharply  oxidizing,  firing  being  done  as 
lightly  as  possible.  When  the  balls  are  out  the 
cinder  is  tapped  out,  a  little  ore  put  in  and  the 
next  heat  charged.  The  boiler  and  his  helper 
take  turn  about  7  times  on  usual  forge-irons, 
each  doing  all  he  can.  In  working  purer  irons, 
like  charcoal  iron,  the  metal  comes  to  nature  in 
about  4  or  6  similar  turns,  the  boiler  always 
making  the  balls  himself,  as  he  is  responsible  and 
paid  for  good  iron  only.  In  the  boiling  process 
about  f  to  1  £  tons  of  coal  are  required,  according 
to  quality,  and  owing  to  the  ore  used  about  as 
much  iron  is  got  out  as  is  put  in,  the  waste  not 
exceeding  2  to  3  per  cent.  The  product  of  a 
single  furnace  is  about  12  tons  a  week  on  best 
quality  iron,  and  of  a  double  one  about  22  tons. 

The  balls  are  taken  hot  as  possible  to  a  hammer 
or  squeezer,  the  cinder  quickly  squeezed  out,  and 
the  resulting  longish  cylinder  rolled  into  puddle- 
bars  about  2£  to  6  inches  wide  and  \  to  1  inch 
thick.  These  are  nowadays  the  basis  of  all  weld- 
iron  manufacture. 

In  rotary  puddling,  principally  by  the  Danks 
furnace,  the  most  successful  form  of  mechanical 
puddling*-fiirnace  yet  introduced,  the  boiling 
process  is  substantially  carried  out  as  by  hand. 
But  the  body  or  bed  of  the  furnace  being  a  cylin 
der  rotating  on  its  horizontal  axis  the  charge  is 
thoroughly  stirred  at  all  periods,  and  the  ball  is 
taken  out  whole,  often  weighing  1500  pounds. 
A  charge  of  refined  metal,  about  1600  pounds  in 
weight,  can  be  puddled  in  35  minutes,  or  a  ton 
in  40  minutes,  with  a  production  of  50  to  85  tons 
per  week.  At  Middleboro',  England,  1000  pounds 
coal  and  1000  pounds  fettling  (ore)  were  used  per 
ton  of  bars  with  no  loss  of  iron. 


Mr.  Williams,  of  Graff,  Bennet  &  Co.,  says  the 
Danks  furnace  as  a  worker  of  metals  has  no 
equal ;  as  a  melter  is  inferior  to  many  ;  as  to  en 
durance,  the  shortest  lived  of  any  ;  as  to  repairs, 
one  of  the  most  difficult ;  as  to*  quality  of  iron 
made,  it  has  surpassed  all  others,  standing  pre 
eminent  ;  and  as  to  product,  9  furnaces  made  on 
single  turn  in  37  days,  or  1941  heats,  755  gross 
tons  of  bars,  thus  doubling  the  product  of  the 
puddling-furnace.  Test  made  of  the  iron  by  the 
Keystone  Bridge  Company  of  a  grade  for  bridge- 
work,  showed  an  average  tenacity  of  67,972 
pounds  per  square  inch.  A  more  ductile  metal 
has  been  rolled  thinner  than  0.001  inch. 

In  1850,  puddled  steel  was  regularly  fabricated 
in  Lippe,  then  in  Westphalia,  and  soon  after 
ward  in  England,  all  in  the  puddling-furnace  in 
the  same  vf&y  as  for  wrought  iron.  The  art  es 
sentially  consists  in  a  nice  regulation  of  the  tem 
perature,  and  in  arresting  the  process  at  the 
proper  stage  of  decarbonization  during  the  boil. 
About  450  to  500  pounds  No.  3  or  low  No.  2  pig- 
iron  are  charged.  If  the  iron  be  not  manganif- 
erous,  manganese  must  be  added  in  some  shape 
to  render  the  cinder  more  fluid  ;  the  amount  of 
cinder  is  the  same  as  in  puddling.  The  pig  is 
melted  as  usual,  but  then  the  temperature  must 
be  so  reduced  as  to  keep  the  bath  in  the  consist 
ency  of  thin  cream,  and  the  iron  be  well  rabbled 
with  the  cinder.  Boiling  now  takes  place  at  a 
lower  heat  than  for  iron,  but  hot  enough  to  en 
able  thorough  working,  that  the  steel  may  be 
uniform.  When  the  metal  comes  to  nature  in 
floating  particles  of  steel  the  temperature  must 
be  lowered  to  yellow  heat,  but  otherwise  the 
operation  of  balling  gone  through  with  as  usual. 
If  the  temperature  at  this  stage  be  too  high,  iron 
results.  The  time  occupied  is  about  15  to  20 
minutes  longer  than  for  boiling,  and  the  coal  1J- 
to  1£  tons  per  ton  of  steel.  Waste  about  the 
same  as  in  puddling.  Owing  to  its  having  so 
much  manganese,  and  so  little  silicon,  spiegel 
iron  makes  the  best  puddled  steel.  Of  late  years 
^t  has  been  principally  used  for  heads  of  rails, 
and  for  rernelting  into  cast  steel.  Much  of  the 
product  of  the  Low  Moor  Works  is  really  pud 
dled  steel  of  the  softest  grades.  It  is  welded  and 
wrought  as  iron  is,  but  at  slightly  lower  heat. 

Chemical  Composition. 


I. 

II. 

III. 

IV. 

Carbon  

Silicon 

0.045 
0148 

0.037 
0158 

0.053 
0260 

0.501 
0  10R 

Sulphur  

0002 

0003 

0064 

0002 

Phosphorus  „ 
Manganese  
Copper  

0.248 
0.020 
0056 

0.197 
0019 
0011 

0.186 
0.029 

0.096 
0.144 

Cobalt  .    .. 

0051 

0049 

Nickel 

0027 

0021 

Slag  and  oxide  of 

2164 

2  191 

0020 

Metallic  iron  

97.239 

97.314 

99.360 

99.151 

Total  iron 

100.000 
98753 

100.000 
98  817 

99.972 

100.000 

I.  Sir  W.  G.  Armstrong  &  Co.,  "  Ridsdale"  iron,  coil  bar  for 
gun-tube.     Analyst,  McCreath. 

II.  "  Ulster"  iron,  coil  bar  for  gun-tube:  four  times  worked. 
McCreath. 

III.  Best  neutral  bar-iron  from  Etna  Works  of  Spang,  Chal- 
fant  &  Co.,  Pittsburgh.    McCreath. 

IV.  Average   composition   of  puddled  steel  made  at  Ebbw 
Yale.    Parry. 


IRON  AND  STEEL 


383 


IKON  AND  STEEL 


Bar-iron  may  be  converted  in  a  few  hours  into 
weld-steel  by  exposure  at  a  white  heat  to  carbu- 
retted  hydrogen,  or  gases  charged  with  carbon  ; 
but  the  only  method  practically  followed  to  effect 
a  similar  conversion  is  that  of  cementation,  a 
process  more  than  200  years  old,  having  been 
described  by  Keaumur  in  1722. 

The  converting  oven  is  a  large  conical  chim 
ney,  like  that  of  a  glass-house,  containing  at  its 
base  a  long  furnace  with  a  high  arch,  under 
which  two  long  chests  of  fire-brick  slabs  are 
placed  side  by  side.  These  chests  average  150 
inches  long  by  32  wide  and  36  deep.  Below 
these  chests  a  coal  fire  is  placed,  whose  heat 
escapes  by  flues  between  the  chests  and  up  each 
side,  so  that  the  most  uniform  temperature  may 
be  secured  for  long  periods.  They  are  made  as 
air-tight  as  possible.  The  iron  bars — about  f 
inch  thick  by  3  inches  broad  and  some  12  feet 
long — are  placed  at  first  on  a  bed  of  hard- wood 
charcoal  (ground  so  as  to  go  through  a  sieve  of 
about  £-inch  mesh),  on  the  flat  and  nearly  touch 
ing  each  other,  but  with  room  for  expansion  in 
each  direction.  On  these  bars  a  layer  of  the 
same  charcoal,  f  inch  thick,  is  laid,  then  another 
layer  of  bars,  another  layer  of  charcoal,  and  so 
on  till  the  chest  is  full  with  a  charge  of  8  to  9 
tons,  or  16  to  18  tons  in  the  furnace.  The  whole 
is  then  covered  with  grinder's  sand  or  swarf,  in 
Sheffield,  or  clay,  or  loam,  in  a  layer  which  must 
become  air-tight  when  heated.  Openings  are 
left  in  the  chests  for  removing  special  short  test 
bars  from  time  to  time,  but  all  openings  are 
luted  up  tight  during  conversion.  "When  ready 
the  fire  is  started,  and  in  24  hours  the  chests 
reach  a  sufficient  heat  for  cementation  to  take 
place.  The  heat  is  then  kept  steady  for  about  7 
days  for  spring-steel,  8  days  for  shear-steel,  and 
9  to  10  days  for  steel  for  remelting  in  crucibles. 
When  the  trial  bars  show  the  proper  "  temper," 
all  openings  are  closed,  and  very  gradual  cooling 
allowed  for  4  days,  when  the  furnace  may  be 
opened.  About  27  per  cent,  charcoal  and  80  per 
cent,  coal  are  used  to  the  steel  produced  ;  and  the 
steel  produced  weighs  0.5  to  0.75  per  cent,  more 
than  the  iron  charged. 

After  conversion  the  bars  are  covered  with 
blisters  of  all  sizes,  whence  the  name  blister-steel, 
used  in  the  trade,  and  their  internal  structure 
has  been  entirely  changed.  Instead  of  being 
more  or  less. fibrous,  with  bright,  soft,  gray  color, 
the  fracture  has  become  very  coarsely  crystalline, 
with  a  dull  whitish  color,  with  great  brittleness. 
They  must  be  sorted  by  their  fracture,  and  steel 
of  the  same  "temper*'  kept  together  for  subse 
quent  use. 

For  the  convenience  of  the  trade  six  varieties 
have  been  graded  and  named,  as  follows  : 
No.  1.  Spring  heat,  0.5      per  cent,  carbon. 

"    2.  Country  heat,         0.625         "  " 

"    3.  Single  shear  heat,  0.75  "  " 

"    4.  Double  shear  heat,  1.00  "  " 

"    5.  Steel  through  heat,  1.25  "  " 

"    6.  Melting  heat,  1.50  " 

The  spring  heat  shows  steel  round  the  outside 
of  the  bar,  the  inside  having  become  crystalline 
and  deadened  in  color.  The  envelope  of  steel 
gradually  thickens,  till  in  the  double  shear  heat 
the  fracture  shows  about  equal  parts  of  iron  and 
steel,  the  latter  rather  predominating.  The  de- 
markation  should  be  gradual,  not  an  abrupt  line. 
The  steel  through  heat  shows  no  iron,  but  small 


crystals  of  steel,  while  in  the  melting  heat  the 
crystals  are  large,  often  shooting  across  the  whole 
thickness  of  the  bar. 

This  easy  method  of  selecting  exactly  the  steel 
desired  has  led  to  the  result  that  the  highest 
grades  of  ingot  or  cast  steel  are  almost  exclu 
sively  made  by  remelting  blister-steel.  Sulphur 
is  also  removed  by  the  process  to  a  large  extent, 
thus  further  improving  the  product. 

The  most  probable  theory  of  the  process  is  that 
it  is  effected  by  the  permeation  of  the  iron  by 
hydrocarbons  evolved  from  the  charcoal. 

A  modification  of  cementation,  called  case- 
hardening,  is  a  valuable  one.  Iron  forgings 
heated  for  some  hours  in  a  coating  of  nitrogenous 
matter,  as  horn,  ferrocyanide  of  potassium,  or 
leather  parings.  The  surface  of  the  forging  be 
comes  hard  and  capable  of  resisting  great  wear. 

A  process  the  reverse  of  cementation,  although 
carried  out  in  similar  chests,  is  Tunner's  process 
of  converting  cast-iron  bars  into  steel  by  heat 
ing  them  in  quartz  sand  with  very  slight  access 
of  air.  It  is  practiced  at  Donawitz,  in  Styria. 
The  pig-iron  is  Styrian  white  pig,  from  spathic 
iron  ore,  and  the  conversion  requires  6  weeks. 
Four  grades  of  steel  are  made, — No.  1  the  hardest, 
No.  4  the  softest.  It  is  used  for  common  pur 
poses,  though  some  of  it  is  good  enough  for 
punches. 

INGOT-IRON — INGOT-STEEL. — As  we  have  seen 
from  the  method  of  production,  any  kind  of  iron 
or  steel  not  melted  is  apt  to  be  more  or  less  a 
mush,  consisting  of  layers  or  particles  of  iron  in 
terlaid  with  cinder.  For  many  purposes,  both 
the  cinder  and  the  weakness  of  the  weld  along 
the  line  of  cinder  are  great  objections;  but  it 
was  not  till  about  1760  that  the  problem  of  melt 
ing  steel  was  solved  by  Huntsman  at  Attercliffe, 
near  Sheffield.  The  Hindoo  wootz,  although 
melted,  requires  subsequent  refining  before  use, 
while  Huntsman's  cast  steel  was  ready  for  any 
application  as  it  lay  in  the  ingot. 

For  the  production  of  ingot-iron,  any  bar-iron 
(weld -iron)  may  be  melted  direct  with  proper 
fluxes.  This  has  been  done  in  France.  But 
Mushet,  in  1800,  while  experimenting  on  the 
production  of  cast  steel,  found  that  if  he  melted 
iron  with  0.0066  of  its  weight  in  charcoal  "  the 
resulting  product  occupies  a  kind  of  middle  state 
between  malleable  iron  and  steel,"  and  if  he 
melted  iron  with  only  0.005  "  the  quality  result 
ing  is  nearly  analogous  to  the  fusion  of  iron  per 
se,  or  that  obtained  by  the  fusion  of  iron  with 
earths."  This  is  the  modern  homogeneous  metal 
at  present  synonymous  with  ingot-iron,  and  first 
so  termed  by  Howell  in  a  patent  for  it  in  1856. 
The  thin  tubes  exhibited  in  1862  by  Shortridge, 
Howell  &  Co.  were  so  soft  that  they  were  mis 
taken  for  caoutchouc.  By  modern  processes,  es 
pecially  the  Siemens-Martin,  ingot-iron  may  be 
made  still  softer. 

Its  principal  sources  at  present  are  the  Besse 
mer  and  Siemens-Martin  processes,  in  which,  by 
their  easy  attainment  of  high  heat,  and  by  means 
of  ferro-manga nese,  with  a  large  per  cent,  of  man 
ganese,  iron  with  less  than  0.1  per  cent,  carbon 
can  readily  be  made.  The  Bethlehem  Iron  and 
Steel  Co.  have  made  a  great  deal  of  iron  for  wire 
drawing  at  Washburn  &  Moen  Co.'s  works  with 
0.12  to  0.14  per  cent,  carbon,  by  the  Bessemer 
process.  And  the  homogeneous  iron  boiler-plate, 
now  so  largely  used,  does  not  contain  more  than 


IRON  AND  STEEL 


384 


IRON  AND  STEEL 


fc.10  to  0.18  per  cent,  carbon.  The  only  differ 
ence  between  making  these  irons  and  the  steels 
made  by  the  same  methods  is  that  the  decarbon- 
ization  is  carried  further,  and  the  recarbonization 
necess/iry  to  destroy  oxides  in  the  metal  is  effected 
with  substances  which  contain  as  little  carbon 
as  possible.  As  the  process  is  similar,  and  the 
amount  of  product  the  same  in  either,  on  iron 
or  steel,  full  descriptions  of  methods  will  be  given 
under  those  of  ingot-steel. 

We  may  premise  that  the  steel  known  as  cast 
steel  was  the  only  kind  of  ingot-steel  known  com 
mercially  before  1862,  or  in  any  quantity  before 
1866.  Cast  steel  and  German  steel,  both  true 
high  steels,  comprised  the  whole  of  the  material 
in  use  before  those  dates,  while  the  use  of  any 
kind  of  steel  on  the  large  scale  was  unknown. 
"What  was  not  cutlery  or  tools  was  always  iron. 
So  rapid  has  been  the  progress  of  metallurgy  in 
this  branch  during  the  last  fifteen  years,  the 
most  eventful  known  to  the  metallurgy  of  iron. 

Cast  steel  may  be  made  either  in  pots  or  cruci 
bles,  or  in  the  Bessemer  converter,  or  the  Siernens- 
Marti  n  open-hearth  furnace. 

The  most  ancient  way  of  steel-making  in  pots 
is  by  fusing  compact  iron  with  carbonaceous  mat 
ter.  This  is  the  method  of  the  Hindoos.  The 
production  of  wootz,  the  hardest  variety  of  cast 
steel,  is  effected  by  fusing  about  \\  pounds  of 
Hindoo  iron  with  531  grains  of  cassia-wood,  in 
a  small  unbaked  clay  crucible  holding  about  a 
pint.  Fourteen  of  these  closely  luted  are  built 
up  over  a  little  circular  pit  in  the  ground,  fur 
nished  with  blast  from  a  leathern  bellows.  Fuel 
is  supplied  through  the  top,  and  fusion  effected 
in  about  4  fours  ;  70  pots,  or  about  140  pounds, 
can  be  melted  in  a  da3r,  and  the  production  of 
the  district  was  formerly  152  cwt.  annually. 

This  method  has  become  the  ordinary  one,  and 
since  Heath's  discovery  of  the  application  of 
manganese,  in  1839,  it  produces  all  the  ordinary 
varieties  of  cast  or  ingot  steel.  Huntsman's  dis 
coveries  embraced  a  proper  flux  (reputed  to  be 
bottle-glass),  probably  the  use  of  blister-steel, 
and  the  method  of  conducting  the  melting.  The 
Sheffield  furnaces  now  used  are  said  to  be  identi 
cal  with  his.  In  many  works,  particularly  on 
the  continent  of  Europe,  it  has  been  customary 
to  use  charcoal  as  the  carbonizing  agent  in  the 
pot.  But  charcoal  may  be  replaced  by  Spiegel 
iron,  or  any  pure  gray  pig-iron  containing  man 
ganese.  The  impurities'  of  the  pig  go  over,  of 
course,  into  the  steel,  but  for  common  grades, 
where  cheapness  is  desirable,  this  has  been  held 
to  be  no  insuperable  objection. 

For  many  years  a  second  method  of  melting 
pig-iron  in  contact  with  substances  capable  of 
yielding  oxygen  was  formerly  experimented  with. 
It  is  very  old,  but  was  revived  in  1855  as  the 
Uchatius  process  by  the  Austrian  general  of  that 
name.  Spiegel  iron,  or  pure  white  iron  granu 
lated  or  in  small  pieces,  is  charged  in  a  pot  with 
20  per  cent,  roasted  and  powdered  spathic  iron 
ore,  or  corresponding  quantity  of  other  pure  ore, 
and  4  per  cent,  clay,  and  melted  in  an  ordinary 
steel  furnace.  The  finer  the  granulation  the 
softer  the  steel,  and  charcoal  must  be  added  for 
the  harder  sorts  of  steel.  It  is  useful  only  for 
small  quantities  of  very  pure  material,  and  is 
generally  inclined  to  be  honey-combed  in  the 
ingot.  It  is  now  unimportant  in  a  manufac 
turing  sense. 


The  third  plan  which  has  been  generally  fol 
lowed  in  Sheffield  for  the  best  steel  is  to  remelt 
blister-steel  assorted  so  as  to  produce  the  desired 
hardness.  The  best  and  most  uniform  steel  is 
undoubtedly  attained  by  this  method.  It  may 
be  varied  with  advantage  by  using  Bessemer 
steel  of  various  grades.  In  1839,  Heath  intro 
duced  the  use  of  a  carburet  of  manganese,  really 
a  compound  of  manganese  and  carbon,  contain 
ing  a  considerable  quantity  of  silicon,  according 
to  Henry,  and  found  that  1  to  3  per  cent,  of  it 
would  yield  malleable,  weldable  cast  steel  from 
blister-steel  of  low-priced  British  bar-iron.  Be 
fore  this  invention  only  blistered  Swedish  or 
Russian  bars  could  be  used.  Manganese  is  a 
correction  of  red  shortness,  so  that  cast  steel, 
which  could  only  be  hammered  or  rolled  at  a 
low  red  heat,  may  be  worked  at  even  a  welding 
temperature  when  combined  with  0.2  to  0.5  per 
cent.  The  presence  of  more  than  0.3  per  cent, 
undoubtedly  increases  the  brittleness  of  the  metal 
when  cold,  and  in  tool-steel  the  less  the  better,  on 
account  of  its  tendency  to  cause  cracking  in  hard 
ening. 

Mr.  Seebohm  gives  the  following  estimate  of 
the  effect  of  these  methods  on  crucible  tool-steel 
with  1.0  per  cent,  carbon.  It  may  be  made  in 
four  ways : 

A.  Charging   blister-steel   double   shear  heat 
known  to  contain  1.0  per  cent,  carbon. 

B.  Charging  50  pounds  unconverted  iron  and 
8  ounces  charcoal. 

C.  Charging  40  pounds  unconverted  iron  and 
10  pounds  spiegel  iron  with  5  per  cent,  carbon. 

D.  Charging  34  pounds  blister-steel  through 
heat-steel  of  1|  per  cent,  carbon  with  16  pounds 
mild  steel  scrap  containing  %  per  cent,  carbon. 
The  value  of  each  method  is  indicated  by  the 
order  of  the  letter  after  the  quality  stated. 

Welding  easiest B  C  A  D 

Combining  must  hardness  and  most  elasticity 

when  hardened A  D  B  C 

Hardest  and  toughest  when  nnhardened C  B  A  D 

Soundest  ingots C  "D  B  A 

Least  tendency  to  water  crack  in  hardening D  B  A  C 

Cast  steel  is  melted  in  England  mostly  in  clay 
pots,  and  in  this  country  mostly  in  plumbago 
pots,  the  greater  product  of  the  latter  offsetting 
the  cheapness  of  the  former.  The  clajr  pots, 
weight  about  25  pounds  each,  are  made  of  88  per 
cent,  fire-clay,  8  per  cent,  old  pots,  and  4  per  cent, 
coke  cinders ;  plumbago  pots  are  about  44  per 
cent,  graphite,  44  of  burnt  clay  or  old  pots,  and 
12  per  cent,  fresh  clay.  They  are  about  10  inches 
high,  8  inches  wide  at  the  middle,  and  taper 
more  to  the  bottom  than  to  the  top.  They  hold 
about  50  pounds  for  the  clay,  or  100  pounds  for 
the  .  plumbago  pots.  Before  using  they  are 
brought  to  red  heat,  and  always  kept  so,  lasting 
about  3  meltings.  Two  such  pots  are  placed  in 
a  square  furnace,  about  40  inches(deep,  32  inches 
on  a  side,  the  opening  being  on  the  floor-level, 
on  a  "stand,"  a  circular  brick  resting  on  the 
grate-bars.  The  pots  are  charged  with  funnel- 
shaped  charges,  holding  the  full  charge,  covered 
with  refractory  covers,  the  furnace  filled  with 
coke  or  anthracite,  and  full  draft  applied.  In  45 
minutes  the  furnace  is  refilled  with  fuel,  and  in 
45  minutes  more  the  melter  takes  off  the  lid,  and 
putting  more  or  less  fuel  in,  according  to  the 
state  of  fusion.  The  full  fusion  is  got  as  the 
white  hot  fuel  descends  below  the  top  of  the  pot, 


IKON  AND  STEEL 


385 


IRON  AND  STEEL 


and  the  metal  must  present  a  perfectly  quiet, 
brilliant,  mirror-like  surface,  with  a  little  per 
fectly  fluid  slag.  When  thus  "dead  melted," 
as  it  is  termed,  the  melter  encases  his  legs  in 
gunny-bags,  wets  them  thoroughly,  and  stand 
ing  immediately  over  the  hole,  pulls  up  the  pot 
on  the  floor  with  a  pair  of  tongs ;  a  boy  knocks 
the  cover  off,  and  the  melter  pours  the  steel  into 
the  ingot-mold.  The  ingot  may  be  made  of 
any  size,  but  for  tool-steel  one  about  3  inches 
square  by  12  to  18  inches  long  is  usual.  If 
melted  the  ingot,  with  1  per  cent,  car- 


>on,  will  "pipe"  at  the  top, — that  is,  the  steel 
will  remain  fluid,  so  that  the  top  can  feed  the 
bottom  of  the  ingot,  making  it  sound.  When 
used  the  top  is  broken  off.  *The  pipe  may  extend 
so  far  down  as  to  render  the  ingot  useless. 

The  consumption  of  fuel  is  about  3£  times  the 
weight  of  steel  produced,  and  the  waste  about  4 
per  cent,  in  melting;  12  per  cent,  loss  in  forging, 
and  also  12  per  cent,  from  ends  and  rejected 
bars. 

Although  the  product  of  the  single  pot  is  so 
small,  yet  a  system  of  organization  and  mechan 
ical  appliances  for  raising  the  pots  up  and  quickly 
transporting  them  to  a  pool,  in  which  at  least  2 
pots  are  always  pouring  (so  as  to  insure  a  con 
tinuous  stream  into  the  mold),  enabled  Krupp 
as  early  as  1862  to  make  castings  of  25  tons 
weight.  Since  then  he  has  made  even  50-ton 
ingots.  His  method  of  making  forgings  may 
be  briefly  described  as  follows,  with  a  probabil 
ity  of  accuracy : 

Krupp  has  1600  pots  at  disposal,  each  holding 
70  pounds  of  steel.  The  product  is  a  soft  steel 
with  about  0.5  per  cent,  carbon,  obtained  by  melt 
ing  puddled  or  Bessemer  steel  with  iron,  special 
attention  being  paid  to  uniformity  of  grade.  The 
ingots  are  made  in  a  cast-iron  mold  in  a  casting- 
pit,  and  cast  solid.  The  pots  as  they  come  are 
poured  into  a  pool  over  the  mold,  out  of  the 
bottom  of  which  the  stream  of  steel  falls,  thus 
separating  cinder,  etc.  As  soon  as  cooled  suffi 
ciently  to  handle,  the  ingot  is  placed  in  a  bed  of 
ashes  to  anneal  for  several  months,  coal  being 
thrown  on  occasionally  to  keep  up  the  heat. 
Great  stress  is  laid  on  this  annealing  as  the  vital 
part  of  the  treatment.  The  ingots  are  then  put 
into  large  furnaces,  most  carefully  and  slowly 
heated  through,  to  secure  uniform  work,  and 
forged  under  25-ton  or  50-ton  hammers  accord 
ing  to  size.  A  large  excess  of  metal  is  used,  the 
forging  losing  half  its  weight  in  the  lathe,  count 
ing,  of  course,  the  bore  cut  out  by  a  Wahlbach 
drill,  which  leaves  a  core. 

The  writer  is  enabled,  however,  to  give  an  ac 
count  of  ordnance  steel  manufacture  at  Obuchow, 
Imperial  Russian  Ordnance  Works,  which  is  au 
thentic,  having  been  reported  by  Tunner  in  1871 
at  the  instance  of  the  Russian  government.  The 
works  are  in  the  form  of  a  Latin  cross  of  equal 
arms,  the  casting-pit  at  the  centre  with  a  dome 
roof  over  it.  In  each  arm  there  are  20  melting- 
fires,  10  on  a  front  standing  back  to  back,  each 
fire  with  4  pots,  or  320  pots  available  in  each 
arm,  or  1280  in  the  works.  Each  pot  holds  72 
pounds,  or  together  92,160  pounds,  so  that  cast 
ings  of  41  gross  tons  can  be  made  if  necessary. 
The  raw  materials  are  puddled  steel  from  Sibe 
rian  charcoal  pig-iron,  English  coke  for  melting, 
English  coal  for  the  puddling  and  heating  fur 
naces,  and  wood  for  the  other  operations.  The 
25 


puddled  steel  bars  are  sorted  into  3  grades,  the 
relative  quantity  of  which  is  fixed  in  the  charge 
by  the  grade  of  steel  desired.  No  spiegel  iron 
or  bar-iron  is  added  to  the  charge.  In  melting 
the  pot  is  charged  cold,  and  only  used  once ;  it 
is  gently  heated  for  1£  hours  and  then  for  3 
hours  with  full  draft,  300  pounds  of  coke  being 
required  to  melt  100  pounds  of  steel.  Tunner 
saw  an  ingot  cast  from  112  pots  each  of  71£ 
pounds  ;  the  ingot  weighed  8000  pounds,  and  42 
men  were  engaged  about  it.  The  mold  was  in 
two  halves  vertically,  with  usual  bottom  plate, 
and  a  bracket  upon  the  rim  of  the  pit  sustained 
the  pouring-ladle  or  pool,  which  had  an  opening 
If  inch  diameter  at  centre  of  its  bottom,  and 
held  about  a  ton  of  steel.  An  equal  number  of 
fires  in  two  opposite  arms  of  the  cross  were  used, 
consequently  the  pots  were  continually  brought 
to  each  side  of  the  pool.  They  were  so  quickly 
brought  that  2  or  3  full  ones  were  always  wait 
ing  on  each  side  to  be  taken  up  by  two  men  each, 
emptied,  and  thrown  away.  At  the  pool  on  op 
posite  sides  stood.  2  men  with  poles  to  help  in 
pouring,  and  occasionally  skim  the  steel.  In 
pouring,  the  pots  remaining  covered  were  emp 
tied  through  a  semicircular  hole.  Generally  2 
pots  were  pouring  at  once,  sometimes  only  one, 
and  once  for  a  few  seconds  none,  without  inter 
rupting  the  stream  into  the  mold;  but  toward 
the  last,  when  the  men  were  tired  and  delayed  in 
pulling  the  pots  up  out  of  the  fires,  the  stream 
was  twice  momentarily  interrupted  without  in 
jury  of  any  kind.  The  pouring  lasted  9  min 
utes,  at  the  rate  of  12  to  13  pots  per  minute;  the 
pool  was  then  quickly  swung  away,  the  top  of 
the  steel  covered  with  fine  sand,  then  with  a 
thin  iron  plate,  on  top  of  which  a  good  deal  of 
sand  was  thrown.  In  the  case  of  heavy  castings, 
where  4  or  often  6  pots  are  pouring  together,  a 
runner  is  used  with  several  arms,  each  emptying 
into  the  pool.  The  pool  is  also  much  larger,  and 
remains  closed  till  a  good  deal  of  steel  is  collected. 
The  ingots  were  forged  under  a  35-ton  hammer, 
which  was  found  too  light  for  guns  over  9-inch 
calibre,  and  in  1871  one  of  50  tons  was  erected. 
Four  specimens  for  testing  were  taken  from  each 
forging, — outside,  centre,  and  each  end.  The 
tubes  for  guns  were  tempered  in  oil,  but  in  the 
Imperial  Works  at  Perm  this  was  not  done,  as  it 
was  not  believed  to  increase  the  strength.  When 
rough  turned  and  bored,  the  tubes,  or  bodies  of 
guns,  were  heated  singly  in  a  special  gas-fur 
nace,  in  which  the  tube  lies  between  two  rows 
of  small  exit  flues,  and  is  slowly  heated  to  a 
uniform  red  heat.  Withdrawn  from  this  fur 
nace,  the  tube  is  lifted  by  a  crane  raised  high 
on  a  masonry  pedestal,  lowered  vertically  into, 
and  kept  for  5  to  8  minutes  in,  an  iron  tank  of  oil 
surrounded  by  water.  It  is  then  raised  and  low 
ered  into  an  adjacent  brick  shaft  or  oven,  previ 
ously  well  heated  with  wood,  where  it  is  left  24 
hours  to  cool,  with  a  cover  over  the  mouth  of 
the  oven.  On  removal  it  is  so  warm  that  the 
hand  can  scarcely  be  held  on  it. 

The  Imperial  Works  at  Perm  went  into  opera 
tion  in  1867  ;  produced  in  two  years  19  8-inch 
steel  guns,  a  trial  9-inch,  and  several  small  guns, 
and  in  1870,  after  the  expenditure  of  $1,213,000, 
were  able  to  produce  yearly  40  steel  guns  of 
8-inch  calibre.  The  works  were  like  the  Obuchow 
works,  except  that  the  melting-furnaces  were 
blown  by  fans,  requiring  each  250  cubic  feet 


IKON   AND  STEEL 


386 


IRON  AND  STEEL 


'of  air  per  minute.  The  pots  hold  63  pounds, 
are  made  of  a  mixture  of  fire-clay,  old  pots,  and 
graphite,  32  per  cent,  each,  with  4  per  cent,  of 
birch  charcoal.  When  new  they  weigh  42 
pounds;  after  drying  6  weeks  at  100°,  and  6 
weeks  more  at  212°,  they  weigh  34  pounds,  ready 
for  use.  The  raw  material  is  puddled  steel  made 
at  the  works  from  Siberian  pig,  and  graded  into 
three  sorts, — first,  full  steel ;  second,  steel  contain 
ing  some  iron  ;  third,  that  which  when  hardened 
still  bends  and  is  hard  to  break.  The  charge 
used  for  soft  steel  is  50.6  pounds  hard  steel,  8.8 
pounds  soft  steel,  and  2.75  pounds  pure,  pow 
dered  magnetic  ore.  The  melting  requires  5  to  6 
hours  in  all,  and  for  100  pounds  steel  ingots  700 
to  900  pounds  of  pine  charcoal  are  used.  Tun- 
ner  saw  a  4£-ton  ingot  cast  which  required  60 
fires,  or  180  pots  in  all ;  also  75  men  at  the  fires, 
and  as  many  more  for  the  other  work,  or  150  in 
all.  The  molds,  in  two  halves,  are  2  to  4  inches 
thick,  and  weigh  about  as  much  as  the  ingots 
cast  in  them.  The  4^-ton  ingot  was  cast  in  10 
minutes  without  a  pool,  the  mold  being  covered 
by  an  iron  plate  with  two  8-inch  holes.  At  each 
hole  stood  a  man  with  a  pole  to  aid  two  others, 
who,  with  pouring-tongs,  lifted  and  emptied  the 
pots.  All  movements  were  made  on  the  run, 
and  the  places  for  the  full  and  empty  pots  dis 
tinctly  understood,  a  regular  drill  preceding 
casting. 

Tunner  saw  an  11-ton  ingot  forged  under  their 
16-ton  hammer  with  steam  over  the  piston. 
Under  this  hammer  the  forging  of  16-ton  ingots 
for  the  bodies  of  9-inch  guns  was  effected  with 
the  greatest  difficulty  ;  breakages  of  the  tup,  the 
piston-rod,  and  dies  were  frequent.  Here,  also, 
a  50-ton  hammer  was  being  erected. 

The  11-ton  ingot,  a  square  block  31  inches  on 
a  side,  and  with  the  corners  taken  off,  was  han 
dled  by  means  of  &  porter-bar  of  iron  20  feet  long 
by  1  foot  square,  on  one  end  of  which  4  clamps 
were  fastened.  Just  behind  the  clamps  was  a 
disk  like  a  capstan-head  for  bars  to  turn  the 
forging,  and  at  the  far  end  two  heavy  counter 
weights.  The  clamps  were  heated,  fitted  to  the 
ingot,  and  fastened  to  it  by  iron  bands  shrunk 
over  them.  The  crane  chain  was  slung  so  as  to 
leave  a  preponderance  to  the  ingot,  which  was 
raised,  when  required,  by  the  weight  of  the  work 
men  on  the  far  end  of  the  porter-bar.  Some 
40  men  were  required  on  the  bar,  10  on  the 
cranks,  and  10  to  swing  the  heavy  hand-crane 
used. 

The  ingot  was  heated  to  a  full  yellow  heat  in  15 
hours,  or  rather  the  half  of  its  length  inside  the 
furnace.  It  was  then  forged  35  minutes,  re 
turned  to  the  heating  furnace  for  a  wash-heat 
of  about  2  hours,  and  in  40  minutes  further  forg 
ing,  the  top  of  the  ingot  was  drawn  out  to  11 
inches  square,  and  7  feet  long.  The  first  porter- 
bar  is  withdrawn  and  another  fastened  to  the 
forged  end  of  the  ingot.  The  bottom  half,  which 
is  to  form  the  gun,  is  then  heated  for  12  hours, 
and  forged  down  to  an  octagon  to  contain,  in 
scribed,  the  cylinder  desired.  The  forging  is 
then  heated  for  the  fourth  time,  and  drawn  down 
to  a  cylindrical  form  carefully  measured.  For 
an  8-inch  gun  the  forging  was  20  inches  in  diam 
eter  by  10  feet  long.  The  top  part,  11  inches 
square,  is  now  cut  off  under  the  hammer,  a  por 
ter-bar  fastened  to  the  lower  end  of  the  forging 
(or  ingot),  and  the  free  end  heated  for  the  fifth 


time,  and  forged  into  a  cone  about  7  feet  long  for 
the  chase  of  the  gun ;  this  operation  often  re 
quires  a  sixth  heat  before  its  satisfactory  comple 
tion.  The  forging  is  at  least  1J  inch  greater  in 
diameter  than  the  finished  gun. 

The  forging  of  the  rings  is  followed  in  the 
same  way  so  far  as  the  cylinder,  which  is  then 
cut  up  under  the  hammer  into  a  number  of 
disks  of  proper  thickness.  These  are  then 
punched,  and  the  holes  worked  out  over  the 
horn  of  the  anvil  to  the  proper  diameter.  For 
the  trunnion-bands  the  disks  are  forged  ellipti 
cal,  and  as  nearly  as  possible  to  shape  while  the 
hole  is  being  worked  out.  The  trunnions  are 
afterward  cut  out  by  machine  tools. 

The  cost  of  the  finished  guns  was  stated  to  be 
75  cents  per  pound  for  8-  and  9-inch  guns. 

The  chemical  composition  according  to  a  series 
of  analyses,  unfortunately  incomplete,  averaged 
as  follows : 

Pig-Iron.      Tube-Steel.      Ring-Steel. 

Graphite 3.03  0.21  0.30 

Combined  carbon not  det'd  0.338  0.375 

Silicium 0.66  0.15  0.27 

Sulphur trace  not  det'd        not  det'd 

Copper 0.04  0.04  0.02 

The  steel  for  the  tube  or  body  of  the  gun  varies 
as  to  its  elastic  limit  from  30,000  "to  40,000 
pounds,  with  an  extension  of  0.8  to  1.8  per  cent., 
and  as  to  its  ultimate  tenacity  from  70,000  to( 
85,000  pounds,  with  an  extension  at  fracture  of 
8  to  20  per  cent.  The  steel  of  the  rings  has  its 
elastic  limit  between  46,000  and  54,000  pounds, 
with  an  extension  of  0.14  to  0.16  per  cent.,  while 
its  ultimate  tenacity  is  80,000  to  100,000  pounds 
per  square  inch,  with  an  extension  of  6  to  10  per 
cent.  It  owes  its  greater  strength  largely  to  its 
having  suffered  a  comparatively  great  amount 
of  work  under  the  hammer. 

The  rings  are  selected  for  each  tube  according 
to  their  respective  mechanical  tests,  in  order  that 
they  may  support  the  tube  equally  and  uni 
formly,  leaving  no  weak  portions.  For  a  9-inch 
gun,  the  body  forged  out  of  a  16-ton  ingot,  120 
tests  for  tenacity  were  executed  for  the  proper 
selection  of  the  parts. 

The  tube  or  body  of  this  9-inch  gun  weighed, 
when  finished,  14,410  pounds ;  the  rings,  21  in 
number,  including  trunnion-band  weighed  21,615 
pounds ;  the  breech-plug  on  the  Chambers  or 
French  system  weighed  1622  pounds  with  the 
noseplate  and  Broadwell  ring.  The  length  of 
bore  was  173  inches,  number  of  grooves  32, 
their  depth  being  0.11  inch ;  the  length  of  an 
entire  revolution  of  the  grooves  was  540  inches. 
The  weight  of  shot  was  278  pounds,  and  that  of 
the  powder  47  pounds  ;  with  this  charge  the  gun 
had  been  fired  700  times  without  injury  or  any 
change  worth  mention. 

The  method  of  hardening  mild  steel  in  oil, 
practiced  at  the  Royal  Gun-Factory,  Woolwich, 
may  be  described  as  follows :  A  tube  of  mild 
cast  steel  is  placed,  perpendicularly,  in  a  vertical 
furnace,  upon  an  iron  coil  about  6  inches  deep 
and  an  inch  larger  in  diameter  than  the  tube. 
This  coil  rests  upon  an  iron  plate  laid  on  the 
grate-bars  of  the  furnace,  to  prevent  passage  of 
air  through  the  coil.  Previous  to  receiving  the 
steel  the  furnace  has  been  heated  to  a  red  heat 
with  wood,  and  the  coil  becomes  filled  with  wood 
ashes.  When  the  tube  is  put  in  its  lower  end  is 
first  carefully  heated  to  a  low  red  heat  with  short 
blocks  of  wood  and  damper  nearly  down.  The 


IKON  AND  STEEL 


387 


IKON  AND  STEEL 


tube  is  then  entirely  surrounded  with  cord-wood, 
and  slowly  heated  to  a  bright-red  heat.  At  this 
point  the  damper  is  closed  for  a  while,  that  the 
steel  may  soak  or  receive  a  uniform  tempera 
ture.  The  more  equable  the  temperature  of  the 
steel  the  straighter  the  block  will  keep  and  the 
more  uniform  the  temper. 

When  the  steel  has  reached  a  proper  heat 
throughout,  a  traveling-crane  lifts  the  tube  out 
with  a  pair  of  tongs  and  lowers  it  into  the  oil- 
tank,  about  20  feet  deep  and  holding  several 
hundred  gallons.  The  oil-tank  is  cylindrical  and 
funished  with  covers  closing  round  the  chain, 
and  stands  in  a  cylindrical  water-tank  sunk  ver 
tically  endwise  into  the  ground.  The  tube  has 
a  narrow  collar  turned  round  the  top  to  prevent 
the  tongs  from  slipping.  When  the  red-hot 
tube  is  lowered  into  the  tank  the  surface  oil 
takes  lire,  but  the  flame  is  extinguished  by  clos 
ing  the  covers  and  covering  them  with  canvas.  A 
gentle  stream  of  water  kept  flowing  through  the 
outer  tank  gradually  carries  off  the  heat  of  the 
oil,  so  that  the  tube  cools  uniformly  in  about  12 
hours.  The  coating  of  charred  oil  round  the 
steel  retards  its  rate  of  cooling. 

This  operation  in  soft  steel  is  really  annealing, 
the  interior  metal  varying  little  from  the  outer ; 
on  harder  steel  some  noticeable  hardening  takes 
place.  But  in  both  the  tenacity  and  ductility 
are  greatly  increased,  thus  rendering  the  steel 
tougher.  This  effect  is  probably  caused  by  the 
removal  of  internal  strains  in  the  metal  of  the 
tube  and  its  uniformity  of  molecular  state,  caused 
by  the  slow  cooling  in  a  liquid  of  low  conducting 
power. 

A  competent  metallurgist  filling  out  this  out 
line  with  his  own  experience  will  not  fail  of 
making  proper  steel  forgings  for  ordnance. 
After  an  experience  of  more  than  7  years  in 
charge  of  special  steel-making,  during  which  the 
metallurgical  problems  relating  to  the  introduc 
tion  of  Bessemer  steel-making  into  this  country 
were  successfully  solved,  it  is  the  conviction  of 
the  writer  that  there  are  no  secrets  in  the  pots  of 
Abouchoff,  or  of  any  other  works,  that  amount 
to  anything  more  than  the  satisfaction  of  per 
sonal  vanity.  Krupp  offers  to  lend  a  gun  for 
£15,000  sterling  to  the  British  or  United  States 
governments,  provided  either  will  guarantee  an 
order  to  him  of  £2,000,000  sterling  should  the 
trial  prove  satisfactory.  Now,  if  the  United 
States  will  make  a  similar  contract  with  its  own 
citizens,  the  writer  has  authority  for  asserting  that 
the  necessary  capital  will  be  forthcoming  to  make 
the  guns  here  in  the  best  possible  manner.  An 
8-inch  "  Krupp"  breech-loader,  constructed  by 
the  South  Boston  Foundry  on  the  designs  of  the 
Ordnance  Department,  has  already  fired  700 
rounds,  180  pounds  Butler  battering  shot  and  35 
pounds  hexagonal  powder,  without  the  slightest 
injury. 

The  reasons  why  such  works  have  not  hitherto 
been  established  in  this  country,  are  the  absence 
of  proper  spirit  and  foresight  on  the  part  of  Con 
gress,  and  the  consequent  piddling  character  of 
orders  received  by  the  Ordnance-Foundries  since 
the  war.  The  establishments  of  Krupp  and 
Firth  owe  the  existence  of  their  ordnance  de 
partments,  at  least,  to  the  direct  encouragement 
of  their  respective  governments  by  the  advance 
of  capital,  it  is  believed  to  Krupp,  but  to  both 
by  the  assurance  of  steady  work. 


Analyses. 


I. 

II. 

III. 

IV. 

Combined  carbon  
Graphite         

1.333 
0.312 

0.47 

1,18 

0.384 

Silicinm                  

0045 

0.24 

033 

0136 

Sulphur  

0.181 

007 

none 

0.008 

0.02 

002 

0024 

010 

not  det'd 

Cobalt  and  nickel 

012 

030 

0.01 

0037 

Iron  

98092 

99.09 

9805 

100.000 

100.00 

100.00 

It  is  difficult  to  adduce  reliable  characteristic  analyses  of 
crucible  steel,  there  are  so  few  accessible.  No.  I.  is  an  analysis 
of  wootz  by  Henry.  It  is  a  red,  short,  brittle  steel,  capable  of 
being  worked  only  at  a  dark-red  heat.  No.  II.  Characteristic 
softest  tool  cast  steel,  except  as  to  sulphur,  which  is  rather  high. 
Analyst,  Dick.  No.  III.  Analysis  by  Abel  of  a  cast  steel  Krupp 
gun,  which  exploded  on  first  fire.  Steel  is  too  high  in  carbon 
and  silicium.  No.  IV.  Average  of  3  samples  of  Vicker's  cru 
cible  steel  axles  of  great  toughness.  McCreath. 

In  1856,  Mr.  Bessemer  communicated  to  the 
British  Association  a  paper  on  the  "  Manufacture 
of  Iron  and  Steel  without  Fuel,"  meaning  by  this 
title  the  production  of  iron  or  steel  from  molten 
pig-iron  without  any  other  fuel  than  the  carbon, 
silicon,  manganese,  and  a  small  part  of  the  iron 
therein  contained.  The  combustion  of  these  ele 
ments  is  effected  by  means  of  air  forced  at  a  high 
pressure  up  through  the  molten  metal  from  be 
low  in  numerous  streams,  so  that  it  may  com 
pletely  search  and  penetrate  every  part  of  the 
metal.  The  air  causes  a  rapid  increase  in  the 
temperature,  the  metal  coming  rapidly  to  an  in 
tense  white  heat.  Bessemer  clearly  discovered 
the  fact  that  malleable  iron  could  thus  be  pro 
duced,  but  for  some  reason  failed  to  make  his 
ingots  merchantable,  as  they  were  more  or  less  un 
sound  from  honey-combing, — unworkable  from 
oxide  of  iron  contained  in  the  metal.  This  diffi 
culty  was  removed  by  Mushet,  who,  in  1856, 
poured  spiegel  iron,  or  a  triple  compound  of  iron, 
manganese,  and  carbon,  into  the  malleable  iron. 
The  carbon  of  the  spiegel  removes  the  oxide  from 
the  metal,  while  most  of  its  manganese  remains 
behind  in  the  steel  to  remove  the  red  shortness 
of  the  latter  and  render  it  sound  and  workable. 

The  process  was  carried  on  in  this  country  un 
der  the  patents  of  Kelly,  as  well  as  Mushet  and 
Bessemer,  all  relating  to  the  process  having  now 
expired.  But  it  would  seem  that  Martien  had 
equal  claims  with  Kelly,  both  having  had  in 
mind  the  operation  of  refining,  in  which  Kelly 
seems  to  have  been  anticipated  some  300  years  by 
the  operation  of  refining  in  the  blast-furnace  itself, 
practiced  in  the  Eifel  Mountains. 

Special  machinery  was  invented  by  Bessemer 
for  the  process.  The  mixture  of  gray  iron  is 
melted  in  a  cupola,  the  spiegel  iron  preferably  in 
a  cupola.  The  gray  iron  is  then  run  into  a  large, 
nearly  spherical  vessel  or  converter,  which  can 
be  rotated  on  trunnions,  and  has  an  opening  be 
low  for  the  tuyere  box  and  another  large  opening  or 
nose  at  the  top  for  the  emission  of  the  gases.  The 
blast  passing  through  one  of  the  trunnions,  may 
be  supplied  to  the  converter  in  any  position  of 
the  latter,  and  going  down  from  that  trunnion 
through  a  pipe  into  the  tuyere  box,  it  enters  the 


IKON  AND  STEEL 


388 


IKON  AND  STEEL 


'interior  through  8  to  15  tuyeres,  each  with  12 
holes  about  f  inch  diameter, — that  is,  an  area  of 
about  2.0  to  3.0  square  inches  per  ton  of  metal, 
and  at  a  pressure  of  15  to  28  pounds  per  square 
inch.  The  metal  is  poured  into  the  belly  of  the 
vessel  while  horizontal,  the  blast  is  let  on  to  pro 
tect  the  tuyeres  and  tuyere  box,  and  the  vessel  is 
rotated  into  the  vertical  position  by  a  rack  driven 
by  a  hydraulic  cylinder  at  300  pounds  pressure, 
meshing  into  a  pinion  keyed  on  to  that  trunnion, 
through  which  the  blast  does  not  enter ;  range 
of  rotation  usually  about  260°.  After  the  blow 
ing  has  continued  long  enough,  the  spiegel  is  run 
in  and  the  contents  of  the  converter  emptied  into 
a  large  pouring-ladle,  which  is  supported  on  a 
hydraulic  crane,  so  as  to  be  readily  raised,  low 
ered,  and  swung  around  from  the  vessel  to  the 
ingot-molds,  which  are  ranged  in  a  circle  round 
the  casting-pit.  When  the  ladle  comes  over  the 
first  ingot-mold  a  stopper  is  lifted  from  the  fire 
brick  nozzle,  in  which  it  fits,  and  a  stream  of  steel 
is  let  out.  The  stopper  is  keyed  on  an  iron  rod 
covered  with  loam,  which,  curving  over  the  side, 
runs  down  through  the  steel,  and  at  the  front  is 
held  in  a  frame,  which  is  raised  and  lowered  by 
a  lever.  After  pouring,  the  cinder  that  remains 
in  the  ladle  is  got  rid  of  by  rotating  the  ladle  (by 
gearing  on  its  trunnions)  upside  down,  when  the 
cinder  runs  out.  The  ladles  are  lined  with  a 
mixture  of  sand  and  loam. 

In  the  English  type  of  plant  the  casting-pit  is 
deep  and  contracted,  and  the  cranes  are  self-con 
tained,  the  leverage  afforded  the  ram  being  so 
short  as  to  make  the  crane  weak  and  expensive. 
In  the  American  type  of  plant  introduced  by 
Holley,  he  has  added  to  the  details  of  the  Eng 
lish  a  ladle  to  collect  molten  iron  before  conver 
sion,  a  platform  round  the  converters,  and  the 
crane-rams  are  guided  in  the  roof  as  well  as 
below.  Both  types  are  expensive,  and  a  third 
has  been  designed  by  the  writer  with  the  view  of 
cheapness  and  still  further  handiness  of  work, 
one  of  which  is  now  being  erected  at  Pittsburgh. 

The  process  requires  pure  gray  pig-iron,  with 
about  2.5  per  cent,  silicon,  less  than  0^05  sulphur, 
and  0.08  phosphorus,  and  0.05  copper,  and  ad 
vantageously  with  1.0  per  cent,  of  manganese. 
If  more  manganese  be  present  the  flame  is  ob 
scured,  and  if  the  iron  be  too  gray,  the  conver 
sion  lasts  too  long ;  6  tons  of  steel  should  be 
converted  in  14  to  20  minutes.  In  the  course 
of  blowing  three  periods  are  easily  distinguished. 
The  first,  in  a  blow  of  15  minutes,  on  hot  metal, 
lasts  about  5  minutes,  and  during  it  the  graphite  is 
converted  to  combined  carbon,  and  the  silicon  and 
most  of  the  manganese  are  burnt  out,  some  of  the 
iron  being  also  burnt ;  this  period  is  marked  by 
an  intense  heat,  and  a  weak,  rather  reddish  flame, 
gradually  becoming  brighter.  The  second  period 
is  marked  by  the  characteristic  pasty  condition 
of  white  iron,  and  the  burning  out  of  the  carbon, 
as  in  the  boil  in  a  puddling-furnace.  The  metal 
froths  up  like  soda-water,  often  filling  the  vessel 
and  slopping  over.  The  carbonic  oxide  gener 
ated  carries  off  a  great  deal  of  heat,  facilitating 
the  conversion,  just  as  the  cooling  does  during 
the  boil.  The  flame  is  very  hot,  full,  yellow,  and 
intensely  brilliant  like  the  sun.  The  third  period 
begins  at  the  12th  to  13th  minute  after  the  car 
bon  has  been  nearly  burnt  out,  and  is  marked  by 
a  transparent  bluish  flame  and  a  cessation  of  bril 
liancy.  Iron-smoke  indicates  the  combustion  of 


iron,  and  the  heat  rises  rapidly.  The  removal 
of  the  last  portions  of  carbon  proceeds  slowly ; 
the  hotter  the  metal  is  the  less  is  the  carbon 
acted  on,  and  it  is  never  wholly  removed  in  a 
well-conducted  blow  for  steel.  This  third  period 
lasts  2  to  3  minutes,  and  the  end  of  the  blow  is 
marked  by  a  sudden  cessation  of  light  and 
dropping  or  drawing  in  of  the  flame,  which  has 
previously  fluttered  a  good  deal,  as  the  carbonic 
oxide  ceased  being  evolved.  The  heat  generated 
is  so  intense  as  to  maintain  iron  itself  in  fusion 
15  or  20  minutes.  About  0.1  per  cent,  carbon 
remains  in  the  metal  at  the  end  of  the  blow. 
But  as  considerable  oxide  of  iron  remains  in  the 
metal  at  this  stage,  it  must  be  removed  by  add 
ing  spiegel  iron,  usually  melted,  which  diffuses 
itself  through  the  metal,  its  carbon  burning  out 
the  oxide  with  a  brilliant  burst  of  flame  and  the 
sound  of  boiling,  heard,  in  a  good  heat,  all  over 
the  shop.  The  steel,  now  ready,  is  poured  into 
the  ladle,  running  out  in  a  milk-white,  limpid 
stream.  When  iron  is  being  made  the  blow  is 
kept  slightly  longer,  and  the  removal  of  oxide 
of  iron  effected  by  ferro-manganese, — 70  per  cent, 
manganese,  30  per  cent,  iron  and  carbon, — which 
is  heated  and  thrown  in  lumps  into  the  metal. 

The  heat  in  the  metal  must  be  kept  high  for 
successful  working,  and  the  blast  strong.  With 
very  graphitic  iron  the  writer  has  known  blows 
60  minutes  long  successfully  made,  and  trials 
have  been  made  with  spiegel  iron  (8  to  10  per 
cent.)  in  which  the  blow  lasted  only  8  or  9  min 
utes,  half  the  metal  being  thrown  out  by  the  vio 
lent  frothing.  A  mixture  averaging  between 
Nos.  2  and  3  pig  is  about  the  best,  and  the 
waste  should  not  exceed  12  per  cent.,  nor  the 
scrap-steel  3  per  cent.,  while  the  ingots  in  good 
work  should  not  be  less  than  85  per  cent.  About 
0.4  to  0.5  ton  of  fuel  is  used,  per  ton  of  ingots 
cast,  for  the  blowing  engines  and  cupolas  and 
warming  vessels  and  ladles. 

At  Neuberg,  an  Imperial  Austrian  steel 
works,  the  Bessemer  steel  as  it  comes  from  the 
converter  is  poured  into  an  open-hearth  Siemens 
furnace,  where  it  is  held  in  fusion  at  the  highest 
heat,  and  refined  by  testing  and  supplying  qual 
ities  needed.  By  th'is  means  the  grade  and  quality 
of  the  steel  may  be  very  largely  controlled.  A 
metal  of  high  quality,  known  as  Refined  Bessemer, 
is  thus  made  there  for  ordnance  purposes,  which 
is  very  little  inferior  to  the  best  pot  steel. 

Good  steel  should  not  rise  in  the  ingot-mold, 
should  throw  off  gas  with  slight  effervescence 
while  pouring,  and  should  not  form  honey-comb 
or  sponge-like  surfaces  anywhere  except  at  the 
very  top  of  the  ingot.  It  is  best  made  sound  by 
casting  it  from  the  top  into  large  molds  holding 
2  tons  or  more,  and  subjecting  the  metal  imme 
diately  to  the  compressing  action  of  a  hydraulic 
press  (Whitworth),  or  in  ordinary  work  to  the 
pressure  of  steam  at  least  100  pounds  to  the  square 
inch  (Jones).  The  fracture  should  be  coarsely 
crystalline,  with  a  mild  grayish-white  color  and 
a  rather  fatty  glance.  If  the  color  be  white  and 
the  glance  hard  and  "  staring,"  the  steel  is  cold 
short  and  brittle. 

The  gases  cannot  escape  from  low  steel  and 
iron  as  readily  as  from  high  steel,  and  in  both 
large  ingots  are  exposed  to  unsoundness  or  even 
to  cracking  during  cooling.  Whitworth  states 
that  extreme  pressures  like  20  tons  per  square 
inch  would  drive  out  the  gas  and  compress  the 


IRON  AND  STEEL 


389 


IKON   AND  STEEL 


metal  to  absolute  soundness.  Five  minutes  after 
application  of  pressure  the  ingot  has  shortened 
one-eighth  of  its  length.  After  suffering  20  tons 
per  square  inch  the  ingots  are  strong  and  ductile 
as  if  worked,  but  at  low  pressures  the  ingot  re 
quires  further  working.  To  facilitate  compres 
sion  Whitworth  casts  hollow. 

The  product  of  American  Bessemer  works  has 
been  steadily  increasing  owing  to  improvements 
in  cupolas,  vessel  bottoms,  and  refractory  ma 
terials.  /The  process  became  a  commercial  suc 
cess  at  the  Pennsylvania  Steel-  Works  in  1869. 
Their  steel  department  was  built  in  1867  for  3 
blows,  or  14  tons  ingots,  per  day,  at  a  cost  of 
$600,000.  In  1868  it  made  8  blows,  or  34  tons 
steel,  per  half-day  ;  in  1869  they  were  able  to 
make  per  day  about  80  tons  ;  in  1870  the  greatest 
product  was  162  tons  in  a  day  ;  and  in  1873  in  a 
week  180  blows,  or  890  tons  of  ingots  ;  in  1874 
the  Troy  (Kensselaer)  works  made  972  tons  in 
gots  in  a  week  ;  in  1876  the  Cambria  (Johnstown) 
works  made  1475  tons  per  week,  6075  tons  per 
month,  and  the  North  Chicago  works  1583  tons 
per  week,  and  6457  per  month,  as  the  greatest 
product.  Now  the  leading  works  is  probably 
the  Edgar  Thomson,  at  Braddock's  Field,  and 
its  figures,  furnished  by  Mr.  Jones,  exhibit  not 
only  the  wonderful  results  attained,  but  also  the 
relations  of  the  products  of  the  Bessemer  process. 

The  operations  for  5  months,  January  27  to 
June  30,  1880,  are  as  follows  : 

Gross  Tons. 
Total  pig,  spiegel,  and  scrap  melted  ...........................  64,61931 

Per  cent,  ingots  yielded  ........................  85.78        55,428.75 

3.50          2,262.08 
10.72          6,928.48 


"          scrap        " 
"         loss  made 
(Of  the  loss,  4.21  was  in  cupola.) 


Gross  Tons. 

Total  ingots  bloomed 55.782.56 

Per  cent,  blooms  produced 94.67        52,807.76 

scrap  "         3.91          2,181.51 

"         loss  made 1.42  793.29 

Total  blooms  rolled  into  rails : 

Per  cent,  rails  produced 89.02        43,272.33 

scrap        "      7.57          3,678.34 

"          loss  made 3.41          1,656.40 

Total  blooms  hammered 1,722.34 

"     ingots  "      158.65 


Total. 


Per  cent,  billets  produced 90.85          1,708.91 

"         scrap  «       5.69  107.00 

"         loss  made 3.46  65.07 

Quality  of  product : 

Per  cent,  first  quality  of  rails 98.95 

"         second        "  1.05 

Largest  product  in  24  hours : 

Ingots 50651 

Rails 445.00 

The  effect  of  the  process  may  be  best  shown  by 
the  following  analyses  of  Neuberg  (Styria)  char 
coal  pig  and  its  products  : 


I. 

II. 

III. 

IV. 

V. 

Graphite 

3180 

Comb,  carbon.... 
Silicon  
Phosphorus  
Sulphur  

0.750 
1.960 
0.040 
0018 

2.465 
0.443 
0.040 

0.949 
0.112 
0.045 

0.087 
0.028 
0.045 

0.234 
0.033 
0.044 
trace 

Manganese  
Copper  

3.460 
0.085 

1.645 
0.091 

0.429 
0.095 

0.113 
0.120 

0.139 
0.105 

I.,  original  pig ;  II.,  metal  at  end  of  first  period ;  III.,  metal 
after  the  boil ;  IV.,  iron  at  end  of  blowing ;  V.,  ingot-iron  or 
steely  iron  after  addition  of  the  original  gray  pig  instead  of 
spiegel  iron. 


Bessemer  Steels  and  Irons. 


VI. 

VII. 

VIII. 

IX. 

X. 

XI. 

XII. 

XIII. 

Carbon       

0401 

047 

043 

0  408 

0  191 

minute 

0  01  A 

1  (\£ 

Silicium  

0050 

0038 

0027 

0047 

quantity 

0  004 

0  05 

0047 

007 

0095 

0  123 

0  145 

0  02 

0004 

0  06 

0  178 

0  117 

0  145 

Manganese  

0212 

039 

0749 

0152 

trace 

Copper  

0.022 

002 

0373 

' 

0  OS 

Iron  

98  57 

99.85 

VI.  Good  Bessemer  steel  rail  from  Ternitz.  Kerpely.  VII.  Good  Sheffield  Bessemer  rail.  VIII.  Cold  short  Bessemer  rail, 
too  high  in  phosphorus.  IX.  Red  short  Bessemer  rail,  too  high  in  sulphur  and  copper.  X.  Rotten  red  short  Bessemer  (iron) 
rail,  too  high  in  sulphur  and  phosphorus,  and  too  low  in  carbon  and  manganese  to  counteract  the  red  short  tendency ;  last  three 
under  writer's  own  observation.  XI.  Bessemer  iron  unusually  free  from  all  foreign  constituents.  Analyst,  Abel,  quoted  by 
then  Col.  Sir  Eardley  Wilmot.  XII.  Bessemer  iron,  Armstrong  6-pounder,  made  in  1858.  Riley.  XIII.  Tool-steel  made  at 
Graz  Bessemer  Works.  Probiramt,  Vienna. 


Although  the  production  of  steel  by  the  method 
of  dissolving  iron  in  a  bath  of  pig-iron  was  described 
by  Agricola  and  Biringuccio  in  the  16th  cen 
tury,  yet  the  method  progressed  substantially  no 
further  till  about  I860.  Shortly  after  that  date 
the  Emperor  Napoleon  paid  the  expenses  of  a 
trial  by  M.  Sudre  of  melting  steel  in  a  reverber- 
atory  furnace.  Fusion  was  effected  under  a  cov 
ering  of  bottle-glass,  or  blast-furnace  cinder, 
without  altering  the  qualities  of  the  steel,  of 
which  2  tons  could  be  melted  in  the  furnace 
with  a  notable  economy  of  fuel.  But  it  was  not 
till  the  Siemens  regenerative  furnace  was  used 
by  Martin,  at  Sireuil,  in  France,  that  the  pro 
cess  became  a  success.  It  was  largely  used  at 


first  for  the  production  of  a  soft  ingot-iron  for 
Chassepot  barrels,  just  as  the  Springfield  Armory 
now  uses  the  same  material  from  the  Midvate 
Steel- Works.  It  was  used  till  about  1872  prin 
cipally  as  an  adjunct  of  the  Bessemer  process, 
except  at  the  Landore  Works  at  Swansea,  where 
everything  was  made  by  it.  But  since  that 
date  the  improvement  in  refractory  materials, 
and  the  general  increase  in  the  size  of  the  fur 
naces  used,  have  made  the  process  an  economical 
one  everywhere,  except  for  rails,  in  which  it  can 
not  compete  with  Bessemer  steel. 

The  gas-furnaces  used  have  an  open  hearth  of 
the  most  refractory  sand  rammed  upon  cast-iron 
plates,  cooled  below  by  air,  and  covered  with  an 


IKON  AND  STEEL 


390 


IKON  AND  STEEL 


arch  of  Dinas  or  similar  silica  brick.  The  regen 
erative  chambers  are  located  below  the  hearth 
and  below  the  level  of  the  floor,  two  on  each  side, 
one  each  for  gas  and  for  air.  A  main  flue  is  at 
each  end  of  the  furnace,  communicating  down 
ward  with  both  chambers.  When  at  work  the 
gases  pass  at  their  exit  through  two  chambers, 
parting  with  their  heat,  which  is  taken  up  again 
by  reversing  the  current  so  as  to  throw  the  fresh 
gas  and  air  through  the  hot  chambers.  As  the  hot 
gas  meets  the  hot  air  above  the  flue  it  burns  with 
an  intensely  hot  flame,  which  may  be  kept  at  will 
reducing,  oxidizing,  or  neutral  for  long  periods, 
thus  meeting  the  necessities  of  steel  melting. 

The  hearths  usually  have  a  length  of  13  to  18 
feet,  and  a  width  of  6.5  to  10  feet,  the  arch  being 
31  to  39  inches  high  at  the  centre.  They  have  a 
door  on  the  working  side,  and  the  steel  is  tapped 
out  on  the  other  side  into  a  ladle,  either  on  a 
crane,  like  the  Bessemer  ladle,  or  running  along 
on  a  car  over  the  ingots  placed  in  a  straight  line. 
A  large  part  of  the  working  side  of  the  furnace 
is  capable  of  being  taken  down  for  hearth  re 
pairs,  and  quickly  built  up.  In  order  to  save  the 
furnace  as  much  as  possible,  the  charges,  except 
pig-iron,  are  heated  in  a  special  smaller  furnace. 

The  process  consists  in  first  melting  a  bath  of 
pure  gray  pig-iron, — the  more  pig  being  charged 
the  more  wrought  scrap-iron  is  intended  to  be 
used.  When  the  bath  is  fully  melted  and  the 
hearth  clean,  the  first  iron  or  steel  is  charged 
about  a  full  red  heat  in  lots  of  100  to  400  pounds. 
The  metal  is  rabbled  with  a  bar,  and  this  pro 
cess  repeated  till  the  charge  is  all  melted.  Steel 
is  usually  charged  before  iron  scrap,  and  with 
steel  alone  about  10  times  the  weight  of  the  pig 
bath  can  be  charged.  Tests  are  dipped  with  a 
ladle,  cooled  in  water  and  broken,  and  spiegel 
iron  or  ferro-manganese  are  added,  as  in  the  Bes 
semer  process,  in  kind  and  quantity  according 
to  the  material  sought,  whether  iron  or  steel. 
When  the  fracture  indicates  sufficient  decarbon- 
ization  the  metal  is  tapped  and  cast. 

The  charge  melted  is  seldom  under  2  tons  or 
over  15  tons.  For  a  charge  of  about  6  tons  the 
proportions  would  be  about  as  follows:  2640 
pounds  pig-iron,  3410  pounds  steel  scrap,  and 
6864  iron  scrap,  with  from  935  to  1265  pounds 
of  spiegel  iron  added  at  the  last.  The  waste  by 
oxidation  averages  about  6  per  cent.,  and  the 
fuel  used  is  about  ton  for  ton.  Two  or  three  heats 
are  made  in  a  day,  17  per  week  being  good  work. 

The  purity  of  the  steel  depends  on  that  of  the 
pig  used  and  that  of  the  scrap.  The  latter  if  iron 
may  have  a  serious  amount  of  cinder  in  it,  which 
is  disadvantageous  here,  as  well  as  in  the  crucible. 
But  with  proper  care  as  to  purity,  and  the  use  of 
the  Martin  process,  steel  very  closely  approach 
ing  the  best  crucible  steel  may  be  made  in  the 
open-hearth  furnace  with  far  greater  convenience 
of  manipulation.  Of  course,  a  number  of  the 
methods  previously  described  may  be  applied  in 
the  open-hearth  furnace  with  the  view  of  greater 
cheapness,  prominent  among  which  is  the  pig 
and  ore  process,  in  which  the  pig  is  decarbonized 
by  the  oxygen  of  lumps  of  ore  thrown  in  it ;  the 
iron  of  the  ore  being  also  reduced  and  adding  to 
the  product.  After  special  experience  required 
to  keep  oxygen  out  of  the  metal  was  attained, 
this  process  was  found  well  suited  to  structural 
uses.  With  the  same  case  as  to  exclusion  of 
oxygen  in  the  early  periods  of  the  melting,  ab 


solutely  sound  ingots,  by  the  scrap  process,  have 
been  .made  of  the  best  grade  for  ordnance  purposes. 

By  the  cheap  production  of  pig-iron  rich  in 
manganese  (20  per  cent.)  and  silicon  (10  per 
cent.)  the  Terre  Noire  Company  have  been  able 
to  carry  out  the  ideas  of  Schafhautt,  Bessemer, 
and  Chernoff  in  regard  to  steel,  and  produce 
steel  castings  of  remarkable  quality.  They  are 
capable  of  being  tempered,  and  thereby,  it  is 
claimed,  receive  without  hammering  the  prop 
erties  of  wrought  steel.  The  name  "cast  steel 
without  blow-holes"  is  given  it  and  the  metal, 
and  it  contains  from  0.26  to  0.55  per  cent,  sili 
con  and  0.41  to  1.05  per  cent,  manganese,  with 
0.26  to  0.65  per  cent,  carbon.  The  steel  is  made 
in  the  open-hearth  furnace,  very  much  in  the 
usual  way,  but  with  care  as  to  the  point  at  which 
the  special  manganese-silicon-pig  is  introduced. 
When  cast  the  articles  are  tempered  at  a  good 
cherry-red,  with  very  gradual  heating  and  care 
ful  cooling  in  oil.  Projectiles,  after  tempering, 
show  a  density  of  7.9,  which  is  quite  high,  and  is 
apparently  due  to  a  hardening  of  the  steel  and 
consequent  compression. 

The  higher  the  carbon  in  steel  the  less  must  be 
the  quantity  of  the  deleterious  elements,  silicon, 
sulphur,  phosphorus.  The  highest  grade  metal 
must  be  practically  free  from  sulphur  and  phos 
phorus,  and  the  less  the  quantity  of  all  the  better 
will  all  steel  stand  concussive  or  repeated  shocks. 
Now,  by  diminishing  the  carbon  the  percentage 
of  these  elements  may  be  increased  without  great 
injury  to  ordinary  metal.  Since  the  cheap  pro 
duction  of  ferro-manganese  at  Terre  Noire  with 
little  carbon,  these  works  have  introduced  a  so- 
called  " phosphorus  steel,"  the  main  merit  of 
which  is  the  cheap  conversion  of  old  iron  rails 
into  steel  rails.  Where  rails  with  0.4  to  0.6  per 
cent,  carbon  could  stand  no  more  than  0.8  per 
cent,  phosphorus,  the  phosphorus  steel  with 
less  than  0.2  per  cent,  carbon  could  carry  0.2  to 
0.3  per  cent,  phosphorus,  with  0.5  to  1.0  per 
cent,  manganese,  which  has  an  advantageous 
effect  on  the  metal.  This  variety  of  steel  is 
inferior  (v.  tests  of  Etna  iron  bars  for  cold  short 
ness),  and  requires  heavier  machinery  for  rolling, 
as  it  cannot  be  worked  so  hot  as  purer  metal. 

Trials  of  various  steels,  at  Creusot,  showed  that 
Siemens-Martin  steel  of  the  softest  grade  was 
found  admirably  adapted  for  ordnance  (the  trial 
guns  being  of  3  to  3.74  inches  calibre),  while 
similar  iron  was  far  too  soft  and  extensible.  The 
composition  of  both  is  given  below,  each  being 
abnormal  in  the  presence  of  so  much  calcium 
and  magnesium,  while  normal  material  in  other 
respects,  except  as  to  copper,  which  is  high  for 
the  very  best  grade. 


I.  Iron. 

II.  Steel. 

III. 

Steel. 

IV.  Silicon 
Steel. 

V.  Phos 
phorus 
Iron. 

Combined 
carbon  
Silicon  
Sulphur  
Phosphorus... 
Manganese.... 

Cast  612 
0.155 
0.111 
0.013 
0.020 
0.108 
0099 

Cast  938 
0.338 
0.034 
0.022 
0.031 
0.089 
0  109 

0.364 
0.012 
0.029 
0.063 
0.302 

0.875 
0.322 
trace 
0.085 
0.772 

0120 
0.025 
0.007 
0.275 
0.072 

Calcium  

0098 

0151 

Magnesium  .. 
Iron  

0.038 
99458 

0.022 
99  204 

90275 



100.000 

100.000 

100.045 

IRON  AND  STEEL 


391 


IRON  AND  STEEL 


Nos.  I.  and  II.  are  analyses  of  Creusot  Siemens-Martin  iron 
and  steel,  given  by  M.  Bobillier  in  his  report  "  Sur  1'Acier  a 
Canons,"  1873.  No.  III.  is  a  sample  of  Nashua  Iron  and  Steel 
Co.  open-hearth  steel,  scrap-process ;  analyst,  McCreath.  IV.  is 
so-called  cast  steel  without  blow-holes,  from  Terre  Noire.  V. 
is  a  red  short  ingot-iron,  called  at  one  time  "  Phosphorus 
steel,"  from  Trenton,  N.  J.  Its  red  shortness  is  due  to  presence 
of  oxides  and  deficiency  of  manganese. 

PRODUCTION  OF  MERCHANTABLE  PRODUCTS. 
— The  direct  products  of  the  processes  above  de 
scribed  are  not,  except  pig-iron,  those  in  common 
use.  The.  blooms  and  slabs  of  the  bloomery, 
the  billets  and  slabs  of  the  finery,  the  muck  bar 
of  the  puddling-furnace,  and  the  ingot  of  steel, 
are  all  intermediate  products  requiring  further 
work.  All  may  be  hammered  direct  into  bars ; 
but  the  usual  course  is  to  roll  all  forms  of  iron 
into  flat  bars  about  3  to  8  inches  wide,  pile  these 
on  each  other,  weld  them  in  a  heating  furnace, 
and  roll  them  in  powerful  trains  into  various 
shapes. 

For  bar-iron,  bars  are  used  about  2£  to  4  inches 
wide  by  f  inch  thick,  cut  up  into  about  2  to  4 
feet  long,  and  the  pile  made  somewhat  higher 
than  wide,  with  its  length  according  to  length 
of  bar  desired.  For  special  grades  of  bar,  the 
iron  is  thus  piled  and  rolled  into  flat  bars  from 
two  to  three  times  before  final  piling.  Iron  made 
from  bars  thrice  rolled  is  refined  as  much  as  pos 
sible,  as  further  piling  makes  it  too  dry,  or  too 
free  from  cinder  and  difficult  to  weld. 

The  grades  are  in  England,  ordinary,  best, 
best  best,  and  best  best  best  bars  ;  in  this  country, 
refined,  best  refined,  and  for  higher  grades  twice 
or  thrice  worked,  or  a  special  brand,  "  United 
States"  iron,  for  instance,  four  times  worked, 
made  during  the  war  by  the  Wayne  Iron-Works, 
Pittsburgh,  for  musket-barrels. 

For  boiler-plate,  usually  twice  worked,  either 
from  puddled  iron  (C.  No.  1)  or  from  finery 
charcoal  slabs  (C.  H.  No.  1),  another  method  of 
piling  is  sometimes  used,  viz.,  cross-piling,  in 
which  some  bars  are  sheared  to  the  width  of  the 
pile,  which  is  built  of  alternate  lengthwise  and 
crosswise  layers,  with  the  object  of  securing  equal 
strength  in  both  directions. 

For  rails  the  pile  is  usually  8  or  9  inches  high 
by  7  to  9  inches  wide,  but  is  made  of  different 
kinds  of  bars,  special,  bars  called  lops  and  bot 
toms  being  made.  The  top  is  usually  some  special 
hard,  cold  short  iron,  fresh  puddled,  and  the 
bottom  a  tough  iron  for  the  flange  as  free  from 
red  shortness  as  may  be  also  fresh  puddled,  so 
that  each  may  thoroughly  weld  to  the  bars  be 
tween  ;  next  these  often  come  bars  from  old  rails, 
the  rest  puddled  iron.  The  Reading  Railroad 
made  iron  rails  with  tops  of  thrice-rolled,  the 
rest  twice-rolled  iron,  about  the  best  made  in  this 
country.  This  same  method  of  piling  is  used 
for  many  other  kinds  of  products,  and  if  the 
article  be  large,  like  some  I  beams,  the  pile  is 
made  the  shape  of  the  finished  article,  but,  of\ 
course,  greatly  larger. 

The  strength  of  the  product  depends  on  the 
amount  of  work  upon  it,  the  greater  the  reduc 
tion  of  the  pile  the  stronger  the  bar.  Not  less  than 
6  times  area  of  bar  is  required  for  good  iron ;  if 
this  is  impossible,  the  work  must  be  put  on  the 
bars  before  final  rolling.  Mr.  Clay,  of  the  Mer 
sey  Steel-Works,  has  shown  the  effect  of  repeated 
working  by  piling  and  rolling  puddled  bars,  re- 
piling  the  bars  from  each  rolling  twelve  success 
ive  times. 


Tenacity. 

Original  bars 43,004  pounds  per  square  inch. 

2d  working 5^,640      "         "        "  " 

3d        "        59,584      "          "        «  " 

6th      "       maximum  ...61,600      "         "        "  " 

9th      "        60,480      "         "        "  " 

12th      "        43,904      "         "        "  " 

Col.  Wilmot  stated  that  ingots  of  Bessemer 
metal  exhibited  the  following  improvement  from 
working: 

Tenacity. 

Ingot-iron  ingota 41,242 

Same  ingots  rolled  to  large  bars 72,613 

Same  ingots  rolled  to  boiler-plate 68,347 

Ingot-steel  ingots 68,259 

Same  ingots  hammered  or  rolled 154,825 

Steel  is  usually  hammered  direct  for  best  tool- 
steel,  or  rolled  direct  from  the  ingot  for  other 
kinds.  The  choice  between  hammer  or  rolls  de 
pends  on  the  quality  of  the  raw  material  and 
that  of  finished  product  desired,  the  hammer 
making  the  best  product  from  average  material, 
the  rolls  the  cheapest.  For  steel  rails  at  the  Cam 
bria  Iron- Works,  large  ingots  (over  2  tons)  are 
rolled  in  a  reversing-mill  into  long  bars  about  7 
inches  square,  each  of  which  is  cut  up  into  6  to 
8  blooms  for  single  rails.  Six  gross  tons  of  steel 
(about  one  charge  of  the  Bessemer  vessel)  are 
rolled  in  15  minutes  or  less,  and  the  estimated 
capacity  of  the  mill  is  600  tons  of  steel  reduced 
from  16£  inches  square  (average)  to  7  inches 
square  in  24  hours.  Elsewhere  smaller  ingots 
are  less  advantageously  rolled  in  a  three  high 
blooming -mill,  for  3  to  4  single  rails  each.  Trains 
of  rolls  are  spoken  of  as  2  high  or  3  high,  when 
two  or  three  rolls  are  used.  In  the  3  high  train 
the  piece  is  rolled  from  back  to  front  as  well  as 
to  the  back  only,  as  in  the  2  high  train,  thus 
saving  the  time  required  to  pass  the  piece  back 
over  the  top  roll.  A  peculiar  3  high  train,  known 
as  Lauth's  plate-mill,  uses  a  small  roll  opposed 
to  a  large  one,  the  former  being  prevented  from 
breaking  by  its  rolling  against  the  large  roll 
above  or  below  it.  This  rolls  out  the  plate 
quicker  than  two  large  rolls  could,  for  the  same 
reason  that  a  hammer  with  narrow  dies  draws 
its  bars  quicker  than  with  wide  dies,  the  latter  to 
some  degree  holding  the  bar. 

The  essential  rule  of  rolling  is  that  the  piece  in 
every  groove  or  pass  must  be  free  sidewise.  The 
greater  the  draft  of  the  pass,  the  more  room  must 
be  left  at  the  sides  to  secure  proper  extension. 

This  is  especially  the  case  in  rolling  wire  rod, 
where  the  greatest  proportional  reductions  be 
tween  successive  grooves  are  applied.  A  1£- 
inch  square  bar,  12  feet  long,  is  rolled  in  17 
passes  to  a  rod  about  0.17  inch  diameter  and  175 
to  250  feet  long  in  one  minute,  toward  the  last 
being  rolled  in  2  or  3  passes  at  once.  This  rod 
is  rolled  on  a  reel  ready  for  the  draw-bench.  As 
an  instance  of  the  ductility  of  iron  from  the  finery 
forge,  it  may  be  mentioned  that  the  St.  Engidy 
and  Kindberg  Iron  and  Steel  Co.  exhibited  at 
Vienna  a  wire  only  0.011  inch  diameter  in  un 
broken  coils,  each  49,310  feet  long,  drawn  with 
previous  rolling  from  a  single  bar. 

APPLICATION  OF  INGOT-IRON  AND  STEEL. — 
Cast  steel  containing  less  than  0.75  per  cent, 
carbon  hardens  so  little  as  to  be  practically  use 
less  to  the  mechanical  engineer.  Ingot  (cast) 
steel  of  good  quality  may  be  chosen  as  follows, 
according  to  percentage  of  carbon,  the  steel  or 
iron  being  low  in  sulphur  and  phosphorus  : 


IKON  AND  STEEL 


392 


IRON   AND  STEEL 


TOOLS. 
Carbon. 

1.5    per  cent.    Razor  and  best  lathe  tools ;  very  easily  burnt. 

1.375      "  Saw-file  hardness ;  must  be  worked  below  cherry- 

red. 

1.25        "  Turning  and  planing  tools  and  drills.    With 

skill  this  grade  may  be  welded  with  diffi 
culty. 

1.125      "  Mill  picks,  milling  tools,  and  hot  sets.  Requires 

great  care  in  welding. 

1.00        "  Chisel  grade ;  tough,  uuhardened,  and  welded 

with  some  difficulty. 

0.875      "  Set  grade ;  where,  as  in  smiths'  sets  and  farmers', 

the  soft  end  of  set  must  stand  blow  of  a  heavy 
hammer. 

0.75        "  Die  grade ;  where  surface  is  required  hard,  the 

rest  tough  and  able  to  stand  pressure.  Also 
for  shear-blades,  etc. 

STRUCTURAL. 
(Principally  Bessemer,  and  Siemens-Martin  steel  and  iron.) 

0.65  per  cent.    Machinery  steel  for  arbors,  shafts,  springs,  etc. 

(and  over.)  Hardens  well,  but  will  scarcely  weld,  being 

inferior  in  this  respect  to  cast  steel.     May  be 

called  very  hard  steel  considered  structurally. 

0.55        "  Springs  of  all  kinds,  saw-steel,  rock-drills,  etc. 

Hard  steel  structurally. 

0.45        "  Tires,  nails,  connecting  rods,  guides,  etc.    Me 

dium  hard  or  medium  soft  steel.  Welds  badly 
and  hardens  badly. 

0.35        "  Ordnance,  axles,  tires,   rails,  armor-plate,  etc. 

Welds  somewhat  more  easily  than  preceding, 
but  hardens  very  imperfectly.  Soft  or  low 
steel.  Hardens  scarcely  at  all ;  welds  well. 

0.25        "  Rifle-barrels,  ordnance,   sheet-steel,   etc.    For 

merly  called  extra  soft  steel,  now  called  ingot- 
iron,  or  better,  hard  ingot-iron.  Does  not 
harden  at  all,  and  welds  with  sand-like  iron. 

0.10        "  Boiler-plate,  rivets,    horseshoe  nails,  and    all 

purposes  to  which  best  weld-iron  is  applicable. 
Soft  ingot-iron.  Becomes  tougher  and  more 
ductile  when  "  hardened,"  and  welds  readily. 

TESTS  OF  IRON  AND  STEEL. — Mechanical  tests, 
though  quickly  made,  throw  little  light  on  the 
origin  or  composition  of  the  metal,  unless  asso 
ciated  with  Smith  tests  of  its  characteristics. 
These  are  tests  for  red  shortness,  for  cold  short 
ness,  for  ability  to  work  and  weld,  for  ability  to 
harden,  and  for  ductility,  as  shown  by  the  angle 
to  which  a  given  bar  or  plate  will  bend  with  or 
across  the  grain.  This  information,  combined  with 
the  tenacity  and  elastic  limit  of  the  metal,  will 
enable  an  experienced  person  to  decide  very  ac 
curately  as  to  the  composition  and  origin  of  the 
metal,  and  Adamson  has  introduced  a  "color 
test,"  which  will  enable  one  to  say  very  nearly 
how  the  metal  was  made.  Special  experience  in 
this  direction  can  be  carried  to  wonderful  perfec 
tion.  While  thorough  experience  in  this  depart 
ment  is  essential  to  making  reliable  products,  it  is 
believed  that  the  following  notes,  indicating  the 
general  methods,  will  afford  considerable  aid  to 
intelligent  criticism.  Interference  with  the  man 
ufacturer  should  at  all  events  have  no  further 
scope  than  an  intelligible  statement  of  the  objects 
in  view. 

When  one  takes  a  bar  for  criticism,  a  cold 
fracture  is  usually  the  first  indication  sought. 
If  the  bar  breaks  easily  without  nicking,  the 
metal  is  very  hard  steel,  or  cold  short  wrought 
iron.  The  latter  usually  shows  a  crystalline 
structure  of  glaring  whiteness,  while  the  crys 
tals  of  the  steel  will  be  small,  and  its  color  gray 
ish  white  and  mild.  If  the  bar  requires  nicking, 
it  may  be  a  tough,  generally  red  short  iron,  an 
ingot-iron,  or  a  medium  steel.  In  this  case  the 
fracture  will  decide  between  the  weld-iron  and 
weld-steel,  but  not  between  ingot-iron  and  ingot- 
steel  ;  these  latter  must  be  separated  by  their  abil 
ity  to  harden  and  weld,  and  by  ductility,  repre 
sented  by  comparative  softness  under  the  ham 


mer.  If  the  bar  be  red  short  iron,  its  fracture 
will  generally  be  of  a  gray  silky  color,  more  or 
less  fibrous  according  to  the  toughness  of  the 
iron,  while  the  ingot-iron  will  have  a  quite 
coarsely  granular  structure,  gray  in  color  for 

food  metal,  and  the  ingot-steel  have  a  more 
nely  granular  structure  of  similar  color  (in 
each  case  modified  by  the  presence  of  impuri 
ties).  Puddled  steel  can  be  distinguished  by  its 
more  or  less  lamellar  structure  and  frequent  pres 
ence  of  spots  of  iron  darker  in  color  than  the  steel. 
Blister-steel  would  be  distinguished  by  its  some 
what  yellowish  color,  unusually  coarse  structure, 
and  its  blisters.  The  above  are  the  usual  varie 
ties  met  with  in  construction. 

The  iron  or  steel  may  have  been  overheated 
and  rendered  coarsely  cr37stalline  with  change 
of  color,  or  red  short  iron  may  have  been  made 
crystalline  by  vibration,  as  in  a  car-axle,  or  con 
cussion,  as  in  an  armor-plate.  In  such  cases  iron 
is  weak.  The  origin  of  the  metal  will  throw 
light  on  such  exceptions. 

If,  on  heating  the  bar,  it  will  stand  a  heat  so 
high  that  sparks  fly  from  its  corners  on  exposure  to 
air,  it  may  be  either  weld- or  ingot-iron.  Weld- 
iron  or  ordinary  piled  bars  will  not  work  with 
anything  like  the  perfection  or  soundness  of 
ingot-iron,  but  it  will  weld  with  greater  sound 
ness,  on  the  average,  because  it  contains  cinder. 
The  lowest  rail-steel,  about  the  softest  steel  in  the 
trade,  cannot  be  brought  to  full  iron-welding 
heat  without  burning.  Steel  welds  at  a  lower 
temperature  the  harder  it  is, — that  is,  the  more 
carbon  it  contains. 

In  grading  steel,  one  must  bear  in  mind  the 
exceedingly  marked  difference  in  welding  ability 
possessed  by  the  different  grades  and  kinds,  well 
exhibited  in  the  table  for  selection  of  steel.  By 
observing  the  heat  required  to  weld,  the  facility 
with  which  the  bar  welds,  and  the  character  of 
the  metal  as  above  described,  one  can  state  very 
exactly  the  kind  of  steel  in  hand  and  its  percent 
age  of  carbon. 

The  best  method  of  ascertaining  red  shortness 
is  that  of  drawing  down  at  a  high  heat  a  flat,  thin 
strip  about  £  inch  wide  by  £  inch  thick  by  9 
inches  long.  Cut  it  off,  reheat  to  a  full  yellow, 
and  begin  by  bending  one  end  at  right  angles  at 
the  high  heat,  bending,  rebending,  and  hammer 
ing  down  the  strip  each  time  on  itself,  like  flat 
tening  down  an  S.  Doing  this  slowly,  about 
6  bends  can  be  made  before  the  heat  is  *  lowered 
to  black  heat.  The  bends  being  all  made  at  dif 
ferent  temperatures  will  indicate  at  which,  if  any, 
the  bar  is  red  short, — that  is,  tears  or  cracks 
while  being  worked.  The  degree  of  cracking 
will  usually  indicate  the  amount  of  sulphur. 
If  copper  and  silicon  be  present  in  quantity, 
the  break  will  be  rotten,  and  if  a  large  percent 
age  .of  manganese  has  been  added  to  counteract 
these  elements,  the  fatty  glance  and  quite  gray 
color  of  the  cold  fracture  will  indicate  this  fact. 

Cold  shortness  is  very  easily  determined  by 
attempting  to  bend  a  bar  about  f  inch  square.  If 
iron,  it  will  not  bend  to  an  angle  of  90°  with  its 
original  direction,  and  if  high  steel,  will  scarcely 
bend  at  all.  The  appearance  of  the  fracture  will 
somewhat  indicate  the  cold  shortness  by  the  de 
gree  of  whiteness.  The  influence  of  phosphorus 
is  well  shown  in  appended  tests  on  excellent  bar- 
irons,  practically  identical  in  every  respect,  ex 
cept  the  amount  of  phosphorus.  All  were  boiled 


IKON  AND  STEEL 


393 


IKON  AND  STEEL 


from  Isabella  forge  pig,  four  bars  containing  0.22 
per  cent,  phosphorus  and  four  others  0.32  per 
cent,  phosphorus.  Those  with  0.22  per  cent,  bent 
cold  to  S  shape,  and  were  hammered  down  flat 
without  injury,  and  three  of  the  four  did  the 
same  at  a  nick  without  breaking,  but  the  fibres 
tore  out  to  the  neutral  axis.  All  those  with  0.32 
per  cent,  broke  short  off  at  the  nick,  with  crys 
talline  fracture  ;  two  broke  in  the  uninjured  sec 
tion  before  bending  153°,  one  at  162°,  and  only 
one  bent  180°.  All  these  tests  were  made  with 
the  fibre,  and  the  face  of  welds  parallel  to  sur 
face  bent.  Bars  containing  over  0.65  per  cent, 
phosphorus  will  not  bend  to  90°.  While  no  ap 
prehension  need  be  felt  in  structural  use  for  bars 
containing  0.3  per  cent,  phosphorus,  yet  nothing 
with  over  0.2  per  cent,  is  entitled  to  be  consid 
ered  first-class  soft  iron,  like  the  "  Ulster"  and 
"Pembroke"  brands. 

Soft  rail-steel  with  0.35  to  0.5  per  cent,  carbon 
and  0.1  per  cent,  phosphorus  is  safe,  if  otherwise 
good;  with  0.2  per  cent.,  decidedly  cold  short 
and  unsafe.  Tool-steel  with  more  than  0.02 
phosphorus  is  inferior  in  toughness  and  ability 
to  keep  its  edge.  A  test  bar  f  inch  square,  from 
a  Bessemer  rail,  will  not  bend  at  all  when  it  has 
over  0.25  per  cent,  phosphorus  and  over  0.25  car 
bon,  and  the  rails  therefrom  will  be  very  brittle. 

As  to  working  or  ductility,  which  is  of  high 
importance,  the  smith  usually  determines  it  in  a 
test  associated  with  that  for  red  shortness.  If 
a  bar  about  1  inch  wide  by  £  inch  thick  be 
slit  at  the  end  about  an  inch  in,  the  ends  bent 
sideways,  and  inside  the  bottom  of  the  slit  a  hole 
be  punched  and  enlarged  till  the  metal  breaks  at 
the  slit,  the  most  crucial  test  for  soundness  and 
workability  will  have  been  performed.  Only  the 
softest  ingot-irons  and  steels  of  the  highest  quality 
will  suffer  this  treatment  without  tearing  in  any 
part.  The  very  best  wrought  iron  will  permit 
the  hole  to  be  enlarged  till  the  metal  is  black- 
hot,  but  only  the  very  highest  quality,  if  the  bar 
has  been  slit. 

Another  method  of  ascertaining  this  quality 
is  to  draw  down  the  metal,  at  proper  heat,  into 
the  smallest  square-tapered  rod  it  will  bear  with 
out  splitting.  The  best  steel  will  thus  draw 
down  almost  as  fine  as  a  needle,  and  also  allow 
this  tapered  point  to  be  flattened  down,  at  a  black 
heat,  without  injury. 

A  further  measure  of  ductility  is  given  by  the 
behavior  of  a  small  square  bar  bent  cold  into  an 
U  shape.  The  ingot-irons  and  softest  steels  per 
mit  this  to  be  suddenly  done  with  a  bar  |  inch 
square  and  the  sides  hammered  close  together 
without  injury.  Steel  of  ordinary  quality  will 
break,  as  above,  with  0.6  to  0.7  carbon  after 
bending  50°.  The  angle  of  flexure  seems  to  be 
proportional  to  the  amount  of  carbon,  as  Greiner 
asserts.  Yickers  corroborates  this  statement,  by 
his  tests  of  best  crucible  steel,  showing  that  a 
T5¥  plate  with  1.25  per  cent,  carbon  will  break  at 
38°,  while  a  similar  plate  with  0.33  per  cent, 
carbon  will  bend  180°  and  hammered  down 
flat. 

The  forge  tests  prescribed  by  the  British  Ad 
miralty  are  prescribed  on  a  strip  48  inches  long 
with  fibre  and  full  width  of  plate  across  it. 
Bends  to  be  made  on  smooth  cast-iron  slab  with 
corner  rounded  to  radius  of  0.5  inch. 

Hot  test.  All  plates  1  inch  thick  or  less  must 
bend  hot,  without  fracture,  125°  lengthwise,  90° 


crosswise  for  first-class,  and  90°  lengthwise  and 
60°  crosswise  for  second-class  plates. 

Cold  test.     Plates  should  bend  cold  without 
fracture  as  follows : 


Thick. 

1st  Class  or  B.  B. 

2<1  Class  or  B. 

Length 
wise. 

Cross 
wise. 

Length 
wise. 

Cross 
wise. 

1"  

15° 
25 
35 
70 
90 

5° 
10 
15 
30 
40 

10° 
20 
30 
55 
75 

"5° 
10 
20 
30 

Y 

3-16  or  under... 

The  ability  to  harden  is  a  very  striking  one. 
From  time  immemorial  it  has  been  the  distinc 
tive  characteristic  of  steel,  and  is  its  specially 
valuable  property.  By  their  ability  to  harden 
the  different  grades  may  be  distinguished  with 
out  the  least  uncertainty.  The  fracture  of  two 
kinds  after  hardening  is  so  different  as  to  be  as 
tonishing,  although  their  previous  separation  by 
color  and  grain  may  have  been  uncertain. 

Weld- iron  bars  will  often  be  made  weak  with 
disintegration  of  structure  when  heated  nearly 
white-hot  and  cooled  in  brine,  because  such  bars 
are  wanting  in  homogeneity,  containing  some 
times  steely  particles,  and  always  cinder.  This 
exhibition,  readily  distinguished  from  hardening 


tempted  to  stick  dirty  little  granules  of  iron  to 
gether,  and  then  squeeze  the  impure  mass  until 
it  is  so  small  as  to  be  useless  until  it  is  again 
fagoted  up  and  imperfectly  united,  and  thus  for 
ever  to  multiply  the  defects  which  its  first  treat 
ment  entails?" 

Ingot-iron  is  distinctly  separated  from  weld- 
iron  by  its  crystalline  homogeneous  structure 
and  the  characteristics  in  hardening  described  in 
the  nomenclature  of  this  article.  It  will  be  noted 
that  the  attempt  to  harden  ingot-iron  requires 
the  highest  temperature  the  metal  will  bear. 
This  is  because  each  grade  of  steel  hardens  at  a 
temperature  decreasing  with  its  percentage  of 
carbon,  the  hardest  steel,  like  the  Mushet  and 
others,  obtaining  its  proper  greatest  hardness  at 
the  darkest  red  heat.  When  steel  is  what  is 
termed  good  the  heat  at  which  it  is  hardened 
should  not  exceed  low  redness.  The  grade  of 
steel  is  determined  by  taking  a  bar  about  \  inch 
square,  nicking  it  while  cold  at  equal  distances, 
and  then  so  heating  it  that  one  end  be  yellow, 
while  the  other  is  black-hot.  In  this  condition  cool 
suddenly  in  brine,  and  the  character  of  the  frac^ 
ture  at  each  neck  will  indicate  the  temperature 
at  which  the  steel  hardens  best,  and  consequently, 
in  general,  the  grade.  In  the  shop  this  test  is 
often  used  before  working  up  any  new  lot  of 
steel,  so  as  to  know  its  proper  hardening  heat. 
The  proper  fracture  for  hardened  steel  is  an  ex 
tremely  close-grained  surface  with  conchoidal 
fracture,  full  white  in  hard  steel,  and  growing 
grayer  with  slightly  more  open  crystalline  tex 
ture  as  the  steel  becomes  softer. 

When  tungsten  is  present,  hardened  steel  is 
often  tougher  than  usual ;  chromium  and  tita 
nium  seem  to  increase  the  hardness. 

When  steel  is  hardened,  and  then  reheated  at 


IKON  AND  STEEL 


394 


IKON   AND  STEEL 


•lower  temperature,  even  far  below  redness,  and 
again  suddenly  cooled,  the  original  hardness  is 
softened  to  a  degree  inversely  proportionate  to 
the  temperature.  The  degree  of  hardness  left  in 
the  steel  is  called  temper.  When  the  scale  is 
taken  oif  with  a  file,  the  metallic  surface  exhibits 
different  colors. 


Temper 
ature. 

Color. 

Use. 

Exact, 

Practical. 

430°  F. 
450    " 

Pale  yellowish. 
Pale  straw. 

|  Straw. 

Lancets,  razors,  etc. 

470    " 

Full  yellow. 

Gold. 

Penknives,    turning 

tools,   etc.,   where 

hardness   is   more 

important       than 

elasticity. 

490    '" 

Brown. 

) 

510    " 

Brown        with 

V  Chocolate. 

Axes,  plane-bits,  etc. 

530    " 

purple  spots. 
Purple. 

Purple. 

Cutlery,  wood  tools, 

etc. 

550    " 

Bright  blue. 

Violet 

Swords,  cold  chisels, 

light  springs,  etc. 

560    « 
600    " 

Full  blue. 
Dark  blue. 

|  Blue. 

Augers,  saws,  stone 
chisels,       springs, 

etc.,   where    elas 

ticity  is  more  im 

portant  than  hard- 
uess. 

These  great  differences  in  hardness  may  be  ap 
plied  to  testing  as  a  scale  to  indicate  the  quality 
of  a  sample  by  its  ability  to  maintain  toughness 
and  uniformity  of  edge  and  grain,  the  readiest 
test  being  to  make  a  flat  cold  chisel,  temper  it, 
and  t/y  it  on  hard  cast  iron.  The  greater  the 
hardness  at  which  it  is  able  to  hold  its  edge  the 
better  the  steel,  and  the  freer  from  cold  shortness. 

"When  a  bar  of  ingot-iron  or  steel  is  fully 
heated  through  to  a  temperature  of  600°  (dark 
blue)  in  a  bath  of  molten  lead,  the  molecular  co 
hesion  of  its  particles  seems  to  be  lessened.  When 
the  bar  is  broken  at  that  temperature,  at  a  nick 
made  when  cold,  the  break  will  be  found  differ 
ing  very  greatly  from  that  made  cold.  The 
closer  the  original  grain  the  greater  the  homo 
geneity  of  the  iracture,  and  the  higher  the  tem 
perature  at  which  the  steel  was  made  the  less 
the  change  which  occurs  in  the  appearance  of 
the  fracture.  Cast  steel  of  good  quality  scarcely 
changes  its  appearance  at  all.  The  change  in 
Bessemer,  open-hearth,  and  finery  steels  is  very 
marked  indeed,  compared  with  the  change  in 
cast  steel,  each  having  quite  a  characteristic 
fracture.  The  circumstances  of  production  being 
generally  known,  this  "color  test"  will  enable 
one  to  conclude  as  to  the  temperature  and  method 
of  conducting  the  respective  processes,  the  amount 
and  influence  of  silicium  and  manganese,  and 
hence  very  closely  the  manner  and  often  the  lo 
cality  in  which  the  specimen  was  made. 

Another  important  application  of  this  color 
test  is  the  distinguishing  of  the  metal  best 
adapted  by  its  chemical  composition  to  resist 
percussive  action  between  450°  and  600°  F. 
The  poorer  class  of  metals  with  notable  amounts 
of  sulphur  and  phosphorus  are  simply  rotten 
between  these  temperatures,  although  enduring 
considerable  when  cold.  But  it  seems  clear  that 
the  purer  the  metal  is  the  better  will  it  resist 
when  heated  within  its  elasticity,  although 


weaker  when  cold  than  the  -poorer  metal.  Great 
endurance  can  only  be  attained  by  a  pure  iron 
as  little  as  possible  combined  with  other  elements 
except  carbon.  Ordinary  iron,  though  good  for 
cables  and  tension  rods,  would  be  unsafe  in  a 
fowling-piece  or  military  rifle,  as  by  quick  firing 
a  color  heat  may  be  approximately  developed, 
and  the  barrel  be  liable  to  burst.  The  barrel 
should  not  be  allowed  to  become  unduly  hot  in 
use,  but  the  selection  of  the  metal  should  be  such 
as  to  make  the  endurance  of  accidental  overheat 
ing  as  certain  as  possible.  This  consideration  ap 
plies  with  force  to  the  selection  of  ordnance  ma 
terial.  The  forgings  should  not  be  worked  at  a 
color  heat  in  any  case.  This  dangerous  state 
frequently  occurs  in  engine  fly-wheel  shafts  and 
car-axles  run  dry,  and  steel  forgings  are  fre 
quently  cracked  in  the  journal  by  water  applied 
to  cool  them  quickly. 

MECHANICAL    PROPERTIES. 

Ordinary  Cast  Iron. 


Property. 

Maximum. 

Minimum. 

Mean. 

Tenacity,  pounds  
Ult.    elongation,    per 
cent  

23,520 
0.2 

10,976 
0.12 

15,232 
0.16 

Crushing,  pounds  
Ult.    shortening,    per 
cent  

120,512 
200 

55,328 
100 

86,240 

Katio      tenacity      to 
crushing  

1  to  6.7 

1  to  4.5 

1  to  5.66 

Transverse  resistance, 
s_lXwt. 

7  840 

4816 

6  104 

Specific  gravity  

7.35 

6.85 

7.1 

These  determinations,  for  which  we  are  in 
debted  to  Fairbairn  and  Hodgkinson,  are  on 
English  irons,  which  do  not  vary  much  from 
ordinary  American.  The  striking  superiority 
of  American  charcoal  iron  to  even  the  best  Eng 
lish  irons  will  be  seen  under  ordnance  cast  iron. 

Bar-Irons. 


Kind. 

Maximum. 

Minimum. 

Mean. 

English  "Yorkshire," 
like  Low  Moor.  Te 
nacity,  pounds  
Ult.     extension,    per 

68,848 
28.36 

44,584 
9.14 

57,555 
20.62 

Swedish;  Styffe.    Te 
nacity,  pounds  
Ult.    extension,     per 

53,729 
22.85 

43,710 
17.29 

45,607 
21.97 

Salisbury  "  gun-bars," 
1837,  Johnson.    Te- 

58,009 

Greatest    elastic 
strength  in  tension* 
Greatest    elastic 
strength      in    com- 





33,600 
26,880 

Angle-iron,  tenacity... 
Ult.    elongation,    per 
cent. 

Best  rolled  bars,  Eng 
lish 

59,000 
15.4 
Sp.gr. 
7  7626 

42,500 
5.8 
Sp.  gr. 
7.5333 

Sp.  gr. 
7.6623 

Angle-iron,  English... 
Forged    iron     shafts, 
English  

7.7310 
7.6585 

7.5297 
7.6077 

7.6006 
7.6307 

Common          puddled 
iron,  English  

7.5381 

7.2898 

7.4276 

*  Hodgkinson's  experiments  on  Con  way  Bridge. 


IKON  AND  STEEL 


395 


IRON  AND  STEEL 


The  tenacity  alone  does  not  express  the  value 
of  the  iron  ;  the  elongation  and  reduction  of  area 
must  also  be  considered.  A  very  useful  com 
parison  is  Poncelet's  or  Mallet's  co-efficient,  got 
by  multiplying  half  the  breaking  weight  per 
square  inch,  in  pounds,  by  the  ultimate  elonga 
tion,  in  inches,  in  one  foot  of  length.  This  rep 
resents  the  toughness  of  the  material,  or  perhaps 
the  best  criterion  is  the  ratio  of  the  elastic  limit 


These  results  are  Kirkcaldy's.  For  admiralty 
forge-tests  of  plate,  v.  tests  of  iron  and  steel. 

Large  Forgings. — In  small  forgings  iron  or 
steel  may  be  hammer-hardened  and  its  tenacity 
increased.  This  is  not  the  case  with  large  forg 
ings,  which  are  always  weaker.  Mallet  found 
results  as  follows : 


to  the  tenacity. 

Plates. 

Maximum. 

Minimum. 

Mean. 

Tenacity. 
Best  plates,  pounds.... 
Ult.    elongation,    per 

62,720 
17.0 

47,040 
11.0 

54,880 
134 

All  lengthwise. 
Diminution  of  tenac 
ity  across  fibre  in  per 
cent,  of  longitudinal 

180 

100 

Diminution   of   elon- 

450 

Ordinary  plates  in  lon 
gitudinal  tension... 
Ult.  elongation  

Admiralty  tests. 

Tenacity,  lengthwise. 
"          crosswise... 

61,040 
13.0 

1st  class. 
Best  Best. 

49,280 
40,320 

36,960 
3.3 

2d  class. 
Best. 

44,800 
38,080 

""s.o 

Specimen. 

Tenacity. 

Ultimate 
Elongation. 

Original  bars  before  piling 
From  forging  from  

48,056 
43,680 

5.5  per  cent. 
4.3 

Down  to  

40,736 

0.6        " 

In  a  large  forging  exposed 
to  heat  and  percussion 
six  weeks  

14560 

0  35  per  cent. 

Specimens  from  "  Peace 
maker."  Original  bars 

46950 

Reduction  Area. 

Specimen  from  gun  after 
bursting  

38595 

16  6  per  cent. 

This  was  Commodore  Stockton's  gun,  burst  on  board  U.  S.  S. 
"  Princeton,"  1844.  It  was  made  by  Ward  &  Co.,  from  bars 
about  4  inches  square  by  8%  feet  long,  drawn  from  blooms 
made  on  the  Ausable  River  in  the  Adirondacks. 


Tenacity  of  Ingot-Irons  and  Steels. 
Neuberg  classification  (Tunner's)  compared  with  other  results. 


Grade. 

Number. 

Neuberg—  Bessemer. 

Ticker's  Crucible  Steel. 

Carlsdal  —  Bessemer. 

<* 

Mean  Tenacity- 
Pounds. 

Ultimate  Elon 
gation  —  Per 
Cent. 

Number. 

Approximate  Per 
Cent.  Carbon. 

Specific  Gravity. 

£l 

|| 

§p< 

H 

Per  Cent.  Carbon. 

Limit  Elasticity 
—Pounds. 

Ultimate  Tenacity 
—Pounds. 

Ultimate  Elonga 
tion—  Per  Cent. 

'  1 

6  - 

18 
17 
16 
15 
14 
13 
12 
11 
10 
9 
8 
7 
6 
5 
4 
3 
2 
1 

0.05 
0.12 
0.16 
0.22 
0.28 
0.36 
0.42 
0.50 
0.58 
0.67 
0.75 
0.83 
0.92 
1.00 
1.08 
1.17 
1.25 
1.50 

57,390 
61,981 
65,424 
68,868 
73,459 
78,050 
82,641 
91,824 
99,858 
105,597 
113,632 
122,814 
130,849 
137,736 
146,918 
154,953 
not  det'd 

30 





25 
20 
10 

*5 

2 
4 
5 
6 
7 
8 
10 
12 

033 
0.42 
0.48 
0.53 
0.58 
0.63 
0.74 
0.84 

7.871 
7.867 
7.855 

7.852* 
7.848 
7.847 
7.840 

68,096 
76,160 
84,000 
95,200 
92,960 
100,800 
101,920 
123,200 

5 

0.32 
0.40 

34,990 
34,310 

64,708 
70,472 

16.7 
15.2; 

4  - 



3  - 

15 

1.00 

7.836 

134,400 

0.985 

65,875 

107,492 

3.8 

... 

1.19 

67,933 

139,916 

4.1 

1 

20 

1.25 

7.823 

154,560 

1.89 
1.85 

t» 

69,992 
57,640 
64,502 

135,936 
99,842 
86,804 

5.5 
1.75 
2.96 

' 

The  Neuberg  Bessemer  classification  was  worked  up  by  the  direction  of  the  Imperial  Works  at  Neuberg,  on  specimens 
cut  from  rolled  bars  about  one  inch  square.  For  ordinary  purposes  they  separate  the  grades  thus :  VII.,  57,390  pounds  to 
68,868  pounds;  VI.,  68,868  pounds  to  80,346  pounds;  V.,  80,346  pounds  to  103,302  pounds  ;  IV.,  103,302  pounds  to  126,258  pounds; 
III.,  126,258  pounds  to  149,214  pounds.  Nos.  II.  and  I.  are  rarely  made.  The  table  for  crucible  steels  was  prepared  by  Mr.  Thos. 
E.  Vickers  from  steel  of  the  River  Don  Works,  on  test  bars  with  turned  section  1  inch  diameter,  uniform  for  14  inches.  The 
bar  marked  *  was  slightly  defective. 

The  Carlsdal  tests  were  made  for  the  Royal  Railway  Commission  of  Sweden,  on  rolled  bars  from  that  works,  and  reported 
by  Knut  Styffe.  Besides  corroborating  the  others  they  show  how  steel  decreases  in  strength  on  passing  1.17  to  1.25  per  cent,  car 
bon,  its  maximum  point  of  tenacity.  The  Carlsdal  steel  contained  0.023  per  cent,  phosphorus. 

These  general  results  may  be  safely  taken  as  a  I  arid  the  general  published  results   on  similar 

metal.     It  will  be  remembered  that  when  speci 
mens  are  tested  for  limit  of  elasticity,  they  give 


guide.  They  were  independently  prepared  by 
careful  men,  and  are  corroborated  further  by 
their  agreement  with  the  results  of  Serai ng  steel 
(Durre),  of  Fagersta  steel  and  iron  (Kirkally), 


y 

a  lower  tenacity  (Carlsdal)  than  when  broken  at 
once  for  tenacity  (Neuberg). 


IRON  AND  STEEL 


396 


IRON  AND  STEEL 


Effect  of  Hardening  on  Strength  of  Steel. 


Maker. 

Nature. 

No.  of 
Specimens 
tested. 

Average  Tenacity—  Pounds  per  Square  Inch. 

Hardened 
and 
Temper 
drawn. 

As  re 
ceived. 

After  hardening  in  Oil  at  a 

Hardened 
in  Water. 

High 
Heat. 

Med. 
Heat. 

Low 
Heat. 

Not  stated. 

Firth  &  Sons  
Cammell  &  Co  

Homogeneous 
steel  

Cast  steel  
Steel  
Steel  

217 
61 
9 
2 
12 

70,874 
66,036 
71,893 
85,568 
119,459 

106,893 
122,248 
146,463 

107,431 
102,279 
121,823 
107,968 
217,417 

99,524 
115,372 
126,426 

109,684 

114,464 



Whitworth  &  Co  
Park  Bros.  &  Co  

141,856 

165,506 

The  first  four  sets  of  tests  were  made  at  the  Royal  Gun-Factories,  Woolwich,  for  ordnance.  The  last  set  was  made  by  W. 
H.  Shock,  U.S.N.,  on  steel  for  St-.  Louis  Bridge  experiments;  all  his  specimens  were  from  the  same  bar,  all  heated  to  a  light 
cherry-red.  The  specimens  hardened  in  water  were  tested  at  their  maximum  hardness ;  those  tempered  were  drawn  to  a  plum- 
blue. 

The  Woolwich  specimens  were  short  cylinders  0.5  inch  diameter,  and  2.0  inch  long  between  shoulders  ;  those  of  Mr.  Shock 
were  0.62  inch  diameter  at  the  bottom  of  a  circular  notch  cut  in  at  the  middle  of  breaking  cylinder. 


ORDNANCE   CAST  IRON. 

English. 


Property. 

Max. 

Min. 

Mean. 

Tenacity  

34279 

9417 

23  257 

140056 

44563 

91  061 

Transverse      "       

11,200 

2,576 

7056 

Torsional         " 
s      trfX' 

9773 

3705 

6  056 

d8     " 
Specific  gravity 

7340 

6822 

7140 

The  gun-metal  (iron)  of  the  Bowling  Iron 
Co.  was  7.233,  with  tenacity  of  27,838,  and  trans 
verse  strength  10,095  pounds,  and  from  a  gun- 
head  resp.  7.233,  26,896,  and  9386  pounds.  These 
figures  are  mean  results  from  the  experiments  on 
850  samples  of  metal  for  cannon  at  Woolwich, 
1858.  The  form  of  specimens  and  machine  itself 
were  exactly  similar  to  the  Wade  machine  and 
specimens  of  Ordnance  Department,  U.S.A. 

The  gun-iron  used  in  the  United  States  will 
he  best  described  by  referring  to  the  trial  cyl 
inders  for  the  first  15-inch  Rodman  gun  cast  at 
Fort  Pitt  Foundry  in  1859,  and  for  the  12.25" 
Palliser  rifle-casing  cast  in  1877  at  South  Boston 
Foundry. 

Mean  Results. 


Property. 

15" 
Trial 
Cylinder. 

12."25 
Trial 
Cylinder. 

Density  

72704 

7  2771 

30  899 

33  875 

7500 

9  750 

0  00318 

0  00337 

Elastic             " 

0  00033 

120  410 

114  143 

Elastic  limit  in  compression  
"      elongation        "          

9,500 
0.00061 
8626 

8,200 
0.00093 
11  556 

42908 

63  184 

18  0    ^ 

Copper  L 
4.16    j 

The  15-inch  trial  cylinder  was  of  Bloomfield 
-iron,   while  the    other   was   of  Dover   and 
uirkirk  irons. 


General  Uchatius  has  determined  the  absolute 
and  the  elastic  strength  of  Austrian  gun-iron 
brought  into  tension  by  blows  of  a  falling  weight. 
Although  the  small  size  of  the  specimens  prob 
ably  aifects  the  result  unfavorably,  they  are, 
nevertheless,  important.  The  specimens  had  the 
form  of  a  cylinder  with  two  conical  ends  broad 
ening  outwards,  the  area  was  0.5  square  centi 
metre,  the  length  75  millimetres,  and  the  fall 
ing  weight  1.15  kilogramme.  I  have  added  a 
comparison  in  foot-pounds. 

Gun-Iron  Tenacity  under  Shock. 


Weight,  2.5353  pounds.   Specimen,  0.0775  square  inch  area 
X  2.95  inches  long. 


Fall  in 
Inches. 

Foot-Pounds. 

Blows  re 
ceived  before 
Fracture. 

Foot-Pounds 
per  Square 
Inch. 

Ratios. 

28.346 

5.9833 

1 

77.202 

24 

24.803 

5.2353 

2 

67.551 

21 

21.261 

4.4874 

4 

57.900 

18 

17.716 

3.7395 

8 

48.250 

15 

14.173 

2.9916 

14 

38.600 

12 

10.630 

2.2437 

37 

28.950 

9 

7.086 

1.4958 

352 

19.300 

6 

3.543 

0.7479 

2052 

9.650 

3 

1.181 

0.2484 

elast.  limit. 

3.205 

1 

The  toughness  of  gun-iron  has  been  compared 
with  that  of  ordinary  cast  iron  by  Mr.  F.  Alger 
for  the  South  Boston  Iron  Company.  The  test 
was  made  with  a  50  pound  falling  weight  striking 
the  centre  of  a  bar  of  4  square  inches  area  lying  on 
supports  20  inches  apart.  Both  the  striking  and 
the  supporting  edges  were  rounded  to  £  inch 
radius. 


Best  Ordinary 
Cupola  Iron. 

Gun-Iron  from 
Air  Furnace. 

Transverse  strength  
Specific  gravity  

5,220 
7  0419 

9,630 
72916 

Tenacity 

15  542 

33334 

Number  of  blows  (50  foot 
pounds)  before  fracture- 
Greatest  number  blows  
Least  number  blows  
Number  of  experiments.... 

9.44 
18 
2 
24 

463.0 
563 
S58 
6 

IKON  AND  STEEL 


397 


IRON  AND  STEEL 


That  this  represents  most  wonderful  toughness 
need  not  be  enlarged  upon.  Some  tests  showed 
that  gun-iron  melted  in  the  cupola  stood  234 
similar  blows  as  the  average  of  5  experiments. 
This  relation  between  the  two  kinds  is  partly 
corroborated  by  the  test  of  5  guns  made  at  Bank 
Quay  by  Mr.  Fairbairn,  and  proved  at  Wool 
wich  in  1855.  From  an  identical  mixture  the 
air-furnace  gun  withstood  33  rounds,  the  cupola 
gun  only  17  rounds  before  bursting  ;  the  average 
respective  densities  were  7.210  and  7.081,  and 
tenacities  28,515  and  18,100. 

An  inference  from  these  facts  may  be  that  a 
homogeneous  gun  subjected  to  a  charge  which 
strains  it  to  3  times  its  elastic  limit  will  endure 
more  than  2000  rounds.  But  if  strained  to  24 


times  its  elastic  limit  under  shock  it  will  burst 
at  the  first  fire. 

Kaiser,  in  his  work  on  "  Theorie  der  Elastici- 
tat  und  Festigkeit  rohrenformiger  Korper," 
gives  an  important  table  of  comparative  elastic 
resistances  of  hollow  cylinders.  It  shows  the 
inadvisability  of  exceeding  one  calibre  thickness 
of  wall  in  homogeneous  guns.  Above  1  calibre 
the  addition  of  40.6  per  cent.  (1.25  cal.)  to  weight 
adds  only  4.5  per  cent,  to  the  strength.  He 
takes  the  following  limits  of  elasticity : 

"  A.  Ordinary  gun  bronze 11,379  pounds. 

B.  Gun-iron,  Mariazell,  Austria 15,646       " 

C.  "  Steel  bronze" 34,136       " 

D.  Neuberg  refined  Bessemer  for  can 

non 35,558       " 

E.  Krupp  steel  for  cannon 38,403       " 


Types  of  Ordnance  Metal. 


I. 

II. 

III. 

IV. 

Gun-Iron. 

Coil  Tube-Iron. 

Steel. 

Steel. 

Weight  per  Square  Inch  of 
Section. 

Extensions  in  O."00001  Per  Inch  of  Length. 

Exten 

Permanent 

Exten 

Permanent 

Exten 

Permanent 

Exten 

Permanent 

sion. 

Set. 

sion. 

Set. 

sion. 

Set. 

sion. 

Set. 

1,000 

5 

0 

0 

1 

2,000 

14 

0 

0 

3 

"  .'. 

3,000 

19 

0 

5 

6 

4,000 

24 

0 

10 

... 

10 

'.'. 

5,000 

28 

0 

* 

16 

6,000 

31 

0 

20 

... 

20 

7,000 

36 

0 

* 

... 

21 

'.'.  '.'. 

8,000 

43 

50 

30 

26 

f 

9,000 

50 

50 

34 

30 

10,000 

53 

* 

33 

"   ", 

11,000 

58 

i 

100 

35 

40 

12,000 

63 

2 

* 

40 

m 

40 

15,000 

82 

3 

100 

50 

43 

18,000 

101 

6 

150 

62 

'..'. 

55 

'.  '.'. 

21,000 

128 

13 

150 

78 

66 

24,000 

161 

27 

200 

'"so 

86 

""2 

75 

'.  '.'. 

26,000 

191 

42 

200 

100 

88 

4 

86 

30,000 

283 

103 

250 

150 

110 

5 

105 

31,000 

318 

126 

* 

* 

* 

* 

118 

'.  ". 

32,000 

..... 

broke 

900 

750 

115 

5 

123 

34,000 

..... 

1,300 

1,200 

154 

40 

166 

"*33 

40,000 



2,550 

2,400 

918 

720 

333 

167 

50,000 

..... 

M 

11,350 

11,100 

2080 

1905 

833 

600 

52,000 

29,650 

broke 

2220 

2028 

983 

750 

60,000 

4150 

3910 

1,750 

1,450 

66,000 

7175 

6890 

2,566 

2,233 

72,000 

. 

broke 

3^566 

3^183 

80,000 

6033 

5,550 

85,000 

.  .. 

... 

m 





...... 

9^116 

8J600 

89,000 

19,316 

l>roko 

Ultimate  tenacity  

32,000 
11,000 
0.0005 

52,632 
23,000 
0.0015 

72,000 
24,000 
0.00083 

89,000 
33,000 
0.0014 

Elastic  limit  

Elongation  at  elastic  limit... 

Ultimate  elongation  

0.0031 

0.2965 

0.1650 

0.1931 

Area  of  fracture  . 

0.9985 

0.5535 

0.5378 

0  5324 

Specific  gravity 

7^7259 
18 

7'.6861 
8.92 

7^8634 

7^8491 
16.25 

Hardness  

Ratio  elastic  to  ultimate  te 

nacity  

0.343 

0.436 

0.333 

0.370 

Diameter  specimen- 

1.377 

0/'582 

0."649 

0."653 

Length  between  shoulders... 

30.'"0 

l'."996 

lO/'O 

6/'0 

I.  Gun-  (east)  iron.    Specimen  from  the  experimental  cylinder  for  12."25  experimental  ML.  rifle,  of  which  average  tenacity 
when  cast  was  36,089  pounds  per  square  inch,  and  specific  gravity  7.2979,  as  average  of  7  specimens  from  the  gun-head. 

II.  Sample  was  from  a  bar  of  Ridsdale  weld-iron,  3."75  X  2."625  X  2",  with  the  fibre.     The  averages  of  this  iron  for  4  tests 
are,  specific  gravity,  7.6660;  tenacity,  53.110;  elastic  limit,  22,375  pounds  per  square  inch. 

III.  Specimen  of  mild  crucible  steel  from  Bochum ;  averaged  in  3  other  tests,  specific  gravity,  7.8687 ;  tenacity,  73,000 ;  elas 
tic  limit,  '24,333  pounds  per  square  inch.     A  similar  tube,  of  specific  gravity  7.8945  and  tenacity  88,019  pounds,  cracked  through 
from  vent  to  muzzle  in  an  8-inch  converted  rifle  at  175th  round,  the  cast-iron  casing  sustaining  286  full  rounds  further  till  it 
burst  at  456th  round.     At  3  feet  from  bottom  2  tests  indicated  an  average  of  7.8531,  and  78,664  pounds  for  the  ruptured  tube. 

IV.  Whitworth  Fluid  Compressed  Steel.     When  broken  for  tenacity  only  its  strength  was  110,000  pounds  per  square  inch. 
Its  mean  mechanical  properties  are,  tenacity,  86,000  pounds ;  elastic  limit,  38,500  pound's  ;  ultimate  elongation,  O."1750 ;  elastic 
elongation,  O."0023  per  inch.     Both  III.  and  IV.  were  large  forgings. 

All  figures  for  hardness  refer  to  a  scale  in  which  copper  is  5. 

The  "Prussian  Ordnance  Manual,"  edition  1877,  gives  determinations  of  the  Royal  Ordnance  Foundry  of  the  strength  of 
"  Krupp's  Steel  for  Cannon,"  as  follows :  tenacity,  74,655  pounds ;  elastic  limit,  in  tension,  28,440  pounds,  in  compression,  28,440 
pounds;  compressive  strength,  241,740  pounds  per  square  inch. 


IKON 


398 


IRONCLADS 


Internal  Pressure  (Pounds  per  Square  Inch)  Straining  Walls  to  Elastic  Limit  at  Thickness  of 


Calibre. 


Materials. 

0.1 

0.25 

0.50 

0.75 

1.0 

1.25 

1.50 

1.75 

2.0 

Pressures. 

A 

1970 

3,866 

5.689 

6600 

7174 

7512 

7747 

7  850 

7967 

B  

2675 

5,307 

7,820 

9,070 

9,864 

10,334 

10658 

10790 

10952 

c        

5821 

11,598 

17,067 

19,801 

21,521 

22  535 

23  941 

23549 

23902 

D 

6056 

12,083 

17,787 

20624 

22418 

23476 

24911 

24549 

24902 

E  

6527 

13,068 

19,213 

22,285 

24,196 

25,358 

26,122 

26504 

26886 

— John  B.  Pearse,  Manager  South  Boston  Iron-  Works. 


Iron,  Angle-.  Various  angular  forms  of  rolled 
iron,  much  used  in  bridge-construction  for  gird 
ers,  beams,  rails,  etc.,  and  for  staying  the  flat 
sides  of  rectangular  boilers. 

Iron-bound  Blocks.  Those  which  are  fitted 
with  iron  straps. 

Iron-bound  Coast.  A  coast  where  the  shores 
are  composed  of  rocks  which  mostly  rise  per 
pendicularly  from  the  sea,  and,  having  no  an 
chorage  near  to  them,  are  therefore  dangerous 
for  vessels. 

Ironclads.  The  term  applies  to  all  vessels 
clad  with  iron  for  defense.  The  introduction  of 
iron  armor  for  the  protection  of  ships  is  of  very 
recent  date.  Formerly,  as  we  find  by  allusions 
in  history,  there  had  been  instances  where  ef 
forts  were  made  to  protect  the  sides  of  ships  by 
timber  or  hides,  but  these  seem  to  have  been 
isolated  cases  due  to  the  ideas  of  some  individual 
commander.  With  the  artillery  that  was  in 
use  in  the  15th,  16th,  and  17th  centuries  there 
was  no  call  for  any  aid  in  the  defense  of  ships, 
and  the  term  "  wooden  walls"  conveyed  the  idea 
of  an  all-sufficient  protection ;  and  the  correct 
ness  of  the  idea  is  sufficiently  apparent  when 
we  refer  to  the  actions  of  such  commanders  as 
Blake  and  Van  Tromp  being  continued  day  after 
day,  and  being  finally  closed  without  definite 
result. 

In  the  18th  century  artillery  had  become  much 
more  formidable,  but  it  was  not  until  early  in 
the  19th  century  that  any  definite  shape  was 
given  to  the  idea  of  protecting  the  sides  of  a  ship 
from  the  fire  of  an  enemy ;  and  even  when  it  was 
first  seriously  proposed  it  met  with  great  dis 
favor,  and  has  had  to  fight  its  way  against  deter 
mined  opposition  and  prejudice. 

Thomas  Gregg,  of  Pennsylvania,  is  given  the 
credit  of  the  first  definite  proposition  for  an  iron 
clad  vessel  in  1813,  but  no  decided  step  in  devel 
oping  the  subject  was  taken  until  Mr.  Stevens, 
of  New  York,  made  his  contract  with  the  U.  S. 
government  in  1843  for  the  construction  of  an 
armed  vessel. 

The  date  of  this,  the  first  decided  step  in  the 
direction  of  armor  for  ships  made  by  any  gov 
ernment,  is  worthy  of  note,  for  we  find  that  it 
was  at  about  the  same  period  of  time  that  hori 
zontal  firing  of  explosive  projectiles  from  the 
batteries  of  ships  of  war  became  general.  The 
connection  between  the  two  circumstances  is  ap 
parent,  and  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  intro 
duction  of  the  shell  as  a  projectile  has  caused 
the  use  of  iron  for  armor. 


The  development  of  armor  ceased  at  this  time 
with  the  above  contract  for  the  Stevens  battery, 
and  it  was  not  until  after  the  Crimean  war 
(1855)  that  efforts  were  renewed  to  introduce 
armor. 

During  the  Crimean  war  a  few  ironclad  bat 
teries  had  been  constructed  by  the  French,  and 
it  was  the  behavior  of  these  vessels  in  their  abil 
ity  to  resist  the  effect  of  shells  which  induced 
the  English  and  French  governments  to  com 
mence  the  construction  of  ironclad  ships.  In 
1858  the  work  of  conversion  and  construction 
was  commenced  in  earnest,  and  it  has  been  car 
ried  on  unremittingly  to  the  present  day.  As 
the  capacity  for  defense  increased,  the  power  of 
offense  was  added  to  by  increasing  the  power  of 
the  guns,  and  thus  have  arisen  the  wonderful 
fleets  of  ironclads  that  we  now  see  on  the 
ocean. 

The  different  types  of  ironclads  are  so  numer 
ous  that  it  is  impossible  to  enumerate  them  in  a 
paper  of  this  character ;  they  can  be  generally 
ranged  under  two  heads,  namely,  as  broadside 
and  turreted  vessels.  The  first  efforts  were  nat 
urally  confined  to  the  construction  of  broadside 
ironclads  ;  the  turreted  vessels  were  of  later  date 
of  construction,  due  to  an  invention  of  Mr. 
Ericsson,  of  which  mention  will  be  made  later. 
The  broadside  ironclads  will  be  first  presented, 
and  the  rate  of  development  during  the  past 
twenty  years  can  be  estimated  by  citing  a  few 
instances  in  the  course  of  the  application  of  the 
system.  The  work  of  developing  the  system  was 
assumed  by  England  and  France  alone,  and 
after  a  certain  point  had  been  reached  England 
was  left  alone  to  continue  the  work,  carrying  it 
to  its  present  state.  The  conclusions  that  have 
been  reached  by  her  investigations  and  experi 
ments  have  been  adopted  and  applied  by  other 
nations,  but  the  English  ironclads  are  the  proper 
citations  to  make  in  tracing  the  advancement  of 
the  system. 

In  1858  the  French  built  "La  Gloire,"  and 
the  English  built  the  "  Warrior."  The  "  Gloire" 
was  a  wooden  hull,  but  the  "  Warrior"  was  iron 
built.  This  error  in  the  French  construction 
was  continued  for  many  years,  and  had  the  effect 
of  throwing  her  back  in  the  struggle  for  suprem 
acy,  as  the  deterioration  of  the  wood  covered  by 
iron-plating  made  repairs  frequent,  and  increased 
expense. 

The  following  table  presents  the  first  experi 
ments  made  in  the  development  of  sea-going 
broadside  ironclads : 


IRONCLADS 


399 


IRONCLADS 


d 

13 

o.2 

a 

§ 

i 

1 

l| 

& 

t> 

a 

•r  a 

•S    CD 

<~-r 

Name  of  Ship. 

Length  in  1 

& 
ja 

Displaceme 
tons. 

Draft  fon 

feet  and  i 

Draft  aft  in 
inch< 

Thickness  c 
at  Water 
inches. 

Warrior 

380 

58 

9681 

256 

265 

\\/. 

Gloire  

252 

56 

5530 

23.1 

27.10 

4.Y2 

The  "  Gloire"  carried  a  battery  of  thirty-six 
6-inch  guns,  but  the  "  Warrior"  carried  a  bat 
tery  of  ten  12-ton  (9-inch)  and  sixteen  6£-ton 
(7-inch)  guns,  which  made  her  much  the  more 
formidable  vessel. 

After  the  construction  of  these  vessels  the 
mode  of  procedure  of  the  two  governments  was 
very  unlike,  the  French  plan  being  to  build  a 
large  number  of  similar  vessels,  while  the  Eng 
lish  plan  is  apparent  in  numerous  vessels  of  dis- 
s^milar  construction.  Two  examples  are  cited  of 
d  type  that  has  been  repeated  very  often  in  the 
French  service,  thus  forming  the  chief  part  of 
her  ironclad  fleet. 


1 

d 

B  4 

1 

0-.2 

S     jf 

*» 

I"8 

15 

11 

Name  of  Ship. 

| 

d 

If 

%2 

i| 

«J 

11 

83  * 

fi  '->•   £* 

J 

1 

£H   t5 

fl~ 

2 

M 

P 

Flandre  

259 

56 

5703 

23.6V£ 

26.10 

5.9 

Belliqueuse  

230 

46 

3675 

18.10 

23.9 

6 

The  class  of  the  "  Flandre"  type  is  armed  with 
eight  12-ton  guns  and  four  7-ton  guns.  The 
class  of  the  "Belliqueuse"  type  is  armed  with 
six  7-ton  guns. 

The  following  examples  (taken ,  as  are  the  above, 
from  King's  "  .Report  on  European  Ships  of 
War")  illustrate  the  progress  made  in  England 
in  the  development  of  ironclads  of  the  broadside 
type: 


d 

.* 

0.3 

. 

a 

•a  J 

03 

g  f 

Name  of  Ship. 

VH 
C 

1 

1^ 

|| 

d  j— 

2s 

6 

d 

12  i 

"S-- 

ajSj 

to 

1 

1 

u 

i 

s^-s 

"* 

1 

P 

p 

Q 

H 

Agincourt  
Bellerophon  
Iron  Duke  

400 
300 

280 

59 
56 
54 

10,395 

7,540 
6,034 

26.0 
21.0 
22.0 

270 
260 
23.0 

f* 

8  to  6 

Hercules  

325 

59 

8700 

230 

265 

9  to  3 

Nelson  

280 

60 

7  323 

24  2 

24  2 

g 

Alexandra  

325 

64 

9,492 

1    26.0 

26.6 

12  to  8 

_  Since  the  time  of  the  completion  of  the  "War 
rior"  there  has  taken  place  a  great  change  in  the 
way  of  disposing  the  armor,  and  this  has  been 
influenced  by  the  change  in  the  artillery,  which 
concentrates  a  greater  power  now  in  a  few  guns 
than  was  developed  in  the  "  Warrior's"  arma 


ment  by  a  larger  number  of  guns.  The  "  War 
rior"  was  armored  amidships  only, — that  is, 
abreast  of  her  battery;  the  ends  were  unpro 
tected.  In  later  constructions  a  continuous  belt 
of  armor  is  considered  indispensable  all  around 
at  the  water-line,  and  the  side-armor  is  carried 
up  around  the  more  contracted  space  devoted  to 
the  battery.  In  some  cases,  notably  in  the  "  Nel 
son"  type,  the  broadside  of  the  battery  is  left 
unprotected,  the  amount  of  armor  that  would 
have  been  placed  at  that  place  being  disposed  in 
the  form  of  vertical  bulkheads  and  horizontal 
decks  forward  and  abaft  of  the  battery;  all  the 
vital  portions  of  the  vessel  are  thus  amply  pro 
tected,  and  the  battery  itself  is  protected  from 
a  fire  from  directly  ahead  or  astern. 

It  has  always  been  very  desirable  to  give  the 
guns  as  much  lateral  train  as  possible,  but  when 
the  guns,  few  in  number,  were  concentrated  in 
the  central  part  of  the  vessel,  it  became  the  more 
necessary  to  increase  this  property  in  them. 
From  the  effort  to  achieve  this  object  have 
arisen  many  of  the  modifications  in  the  devel 
opment  of  the  fleet  of  ironclads,  which  account 
for  the  diversity  in  their  construction.  In  some 
cases  the  forward  and  after  iron  bulkheads  are 
curved  to  form  bow  and  quarter  ports,  in  which 
guns  are  mounted  and  protected  even  when  the 
broadside  battery  is  unprotected.  In  other  cases, 
where  the  broadside  battery  is  protected,  and  the 
side-armor  is  connected  with  the  athwartship 
bulkheads  forward  and  abaft  the  battery,  a  port  is 
cut  in  the  bulkheads  near  the  corners,  and  the 
forward  and  after  guns  on  each  side  are  made 
"  shifting  guns,"  to  fire  out  of  either  port  at  will. 
In  other  cases,  an  additional  iron  casemate  is  con 
structed  above  the  main  battery.  In  other  cases, 
the  fire  ahead  and  astern  is  delivered  from  sta 
tionary  turrets  placed  at  the  bow  and  stern,  the 
guns  being  uncovered,  mounted  in  barbette.  By 
these  means  an  all-around  fire  is  obtained  from 
broadside  ships  without  interfering  with  the  use 
of  the  whole  battery  on  the  broadside. 

The  introduction  of  turreted  ironclads  is  due 
to  a  call  for  ironclads  made  by  the  U.  S.  gov 
ernment  during  the  war  of  the  Rebellion  of 
1861.  Among  those  who  responded  to  this  call 
was  Mr.  John  Ericsson,  of  New  York,  who  sub 
mitted  the  plans  of  the  "  Monitor." 

Agreeably  to  the  conditions  named  by  the 
Navy  Department,  the  following  problem  was 
presented  to  him  :  an  ironclad  vessel  of  small 
dimensions  capable  of  navigating  the  Southern 
rivers,  and  absolutely  impregnable  against  the 
ordnance  possessed  by  the  Southern  States. 

The  draft  of  water  being  thus  limited  to 
about  11  feet,  impregnability  could  only  be  in 
sured  by  nearly  immersing  the  hull,  as  high 
freeboard  and  impregnability  would  have  called 
for  an  amount  of  weight  incompatible  with  light 
draft  and  small  tonnage. 

Absolute  protection  to  guns  and  guns'  crews 
being  also  an  imperative  condition,  called  for 
the  adoption  of  a  covered  battery,  which  was 
made  cylindrical,  and,  in  order  to  obviate  the 
necessity  of  manoeuvring  the  vessel  in  narrow 
rivers,  the  battery  or  turret  was  made  to  revolve 
around  a  vertical  axis,  in  order  to  insure  an  all- 
around  fire  while  the  vessel  remained  stationary. 

As  the  light  draft  of  this  small  ironclad 
brought  the  top  of  the  propeller  very  near  the 
water-line,  a  projecting  deck,  or  stern-overhang, 


IKONCLADS 


400 


IKONCLADS 


•  was  adopted  for  the  protection  of  the  propeller- 
blades. 

The  principal  object  of  the  "  Monitor"  being 
that  of  engaging  shore-batteries  at  short  ranges, 
facilities  for  dropping  and  lifting  the  anchor 
without  exposing  the  crew  also  presented  a  prob 
lem  for  solution,  hence  the  adoption  of  the  over 
hang-deck  at  the  bow,  provided  with  a  cylindri 
cal  well  in  which  the  anchor  was  suspended  after 
being  lifted  by  mechanism  arranged  within  the 
hull.  In  order  to  give  thorough  protection,  the 
steam  machinery,  as  well  as  the  quarters  for  offi 
cers  and  men,  were  located  below  the  water-line, 
and  further  protected  by  a  continuous  side-over 
hang.  This  consisted  of  the  armor  and  wood 
backing,  first  styled  "  armor  timber,"  which  was 
bolted  to  the  iron  hull,  being  supported  by  a  hori 
zontal  girder  running  all  along  the  side,  called  an 
"armor  shelf,"  which  was  assisted  by  vertical 
gussets  of  iron  secured  at  intervals  to  the  side  by 
angle-irons.  The  wood  backing  was  disposed  in 
two  layers  between  these  gussets,  and  the  armor, 
consisting  of  five  1-inch  plates,  was  bolted  on  out 
side  of  all.  The  armor  shelf,  disposed  as  a  hori 
zontal  girder,  formed  the  base  of  this  projection 
from  the  side,  and  presented  a  very  formidable 
resistance  to  any  inclination  or  tendency  to  roll 
that  might  be  induced  by  the  action  of  the  waves. 
The  whole  structure  was  like  a  raft  on  the  water, 
and  this  was  the  original  design  as  conceived  by 
the  inventor.  It  was  a  most  perfect  gunnery 
platform.  The  guns  that  were  mounted  on  this 
vessel  had  to  be  inclosed,  and  the  most  conve 
nient  form  of  inclosure  was  circular ;  this  was 
arranged  so  as  to  give  lateral  training  to  the 
guns  by  revolving,  and  thus  we  have  the  origin 
of  the  system  of  revolving  turrets  for  ironclad 
vessels. 

The  principle  of  the  Ericsson  turret,  with 
modifications  in  the  plan  of  revolving  it,  has 
been  adopted  by  other  nations,  notably  by  Eng 
land,  and  is  perpetuated  in  her  large  fleet  of 
turreted  vessels,  but  a  decided  departure  is  taken 
in  their  construction  from  the  original  design  of 
the  "  Monitor."  In  fact,  it  is  a  misnomer  to  style 
all  turreted  vessels  monitors,  for  they  are  only 
such  in  the  one  point  of  common  resemblance, 
that  the  battery  is  inclosed  in  a  turret.  With  the 
heavy  guns  now  in  use  a  turret  is  necessary  for 
the  manipulation  of  them,  but  in  the  "  Monitor" 
the  turret  was  adopted  as  a  convenience,  for  the 
guns  that  were  mounted  in  the  "  Monitor"  (11- 
inch  Dahlgrens)  could  be  worked  by  man-power. 
The  turret  was  not  the  only  principle  involved 
in  the  "Monitor:"  the  low  freeboard  was  quite 
as  essential  a  feature ;  thus  the  foreign  turreted 
vessels,  with  their  high  freeboards  and  breast 
works  and  curved  bottoms,  inducing  and  favor 
ing  the  rolling  motion,  do  not  embody  the  idea 
of  the  "Monitor." 

By  common,  tacit  consent  of  nations,  turreted 
vessels  are  not  supplied  with  masts  and  sails. 
The  experiment  was  tried  in  England,  where 
were  built  the  "  Monarch"  and  the  "  Captain"  ; 
both  of  these  vessels  had  comparatively  high  free 
boards,  that  of  the  "Monarch"  being  8  feet 
in  height.  The  "  Monarch"  has  not  been  dupli 
cated,  and  the  "  Captain"  capsized  under  sail 
and  foundered  during  her  first  experimental 
cruise.  The  effort  in  these  vessels  was  to  raise 
the  turret-ports  higher  above  the  water;  this  was 
done  by  raising  all  the  weights  and  building  up 


the  armored  sides  to  the  required  height.  The 
effect  of  this  plan  was  demonstrated  in  the  mel 
ancholy  catastrophe  that  befell  the  "Captain." 
The  same  result,  so  far  as  raising  the  ports 
higher  is  concerned,  is  achieved  now  by  the 
English  Admiralty  in  their  turreted  vessels  of 
later  date  by  building,  on  a  deck  of  low  freeboard, 
a  breastwork  which  protects  the  lower  portions 
of  the  turrets  and  smoke-stacks,  and  affords  a 
shelter  to  the  hatchways  from  water  that  may 
come  on  deck.  The  breastwork-turreted  vessels 
carry  two  turrets,  and  the  space  inclosed  by  the 
breastworks  occupies  a  large  portion  of  the 
length  of  the  vessel,  consequently  this  provides 
a  large  surface  to  resist  the  wash  of  seas  that  find 
their  way  over  the  rail  on  to  the  deck,  and  thus 
a  rolling  motion  is  induced  which  does  not  obtain 
in  the  Ericsson  monitor.  The  rail  itself  of  the 
breastwork-turreted  vessels  is  much  higher  than 
in  the  monitor  as  designed,  and  every  inch  of 
height  of  freeboard  increases  this  tendency  to 
roll  to  a  great  degree. 

There  is  one  point  about  the  breastwork- 
turreted  vessel  which  is  referred  to  as  a  great 
advantage,  but  which  is  more  imaginary  than, 
real ;  it  Is  that  the  breastwork  affords  a  protec 
tion  to  the  hatchways,  which  can  be  left  open 
when  the  seas  are  flowing  across  the  deck,  and 
thus  allows  natural  ventilation  to  the  ship.  Care 
fully-prepared  statistics,  gathered  from  the  ex 
perience  of  the  Ericsson  monitors  during  the  war 
of  the  Eebellion,  show  that  the  health  of  the  crews 
of  the  monitors  was  better  than  that  of  the  crews 
of  the  rest  of  the  blockading  squadrons.  The 
artificial  ventilation  of  the  monitors,  effected  by 
centrifugal  suction-blowers  operated  by  steam,  is 
thus  proved  to  be  all-sufficient. 

In  comparing  the  original  design  of  the  "  Moni 
tor"  with  the  turreted  vessels  of  other  nations,  we 
find  that  for  harbor  defense  the  monitor  is  the 
more  steady  gunnery  platform,  but  for  service  at 
sea  the  breastwork-turreted  vessel  is  the  more 
efficient. 

Besides  England,  the  only  nations  in  Europe 
that  have  adopted  the  turret  system  to  any  ex 
tent  are  Holland  and  Italy.  The  Russian  navy 
is  provided  with  a  few  monitors  of  the  "  Passaic" 
class.  The  following  tables  present  examples  of 
turreted  vessels  in  the  navies  of  the  three  na 
tions  who  have  adopted  the  system  in  whole  or 
in  part. 

The  fighting  force  of  the  Dutch  navy  is  com 
posed  entirely  of  turreted  vessels.  They  are  de 
signed  for  harbor  defense,'  and  are  considered  of 
sufficient  power  to  cope  with  such  vessels  of  an 
enemy  as  have  light  draft  sufficient  to  enable 
them  to  approach  a  shallow  coast. 


+i 
i 

*5 

"1 

•a 
a 

i 

o.3 

Name  of 
Ship. 

3 

fl 

1 

a 

Battery. 

11 

£•§ 

c  2 

is 

Un 

bo 

a 

| 

«| 

i 

Is  *  ••* 

* 

• 

ft- 

Q 

H 

Cerberus  
Scorpion  
Buffel.  
Prince  Hen- 

187 
193 
205 

44 
36 
40 

Two  12-ton  guns 
Two  9-inch  guns 
Two  9-inch  guns 

8.6 
15.6 
15.6 

8.6 
15.6 
15.6 

« 

drik  

230 

44 

Four  9-inch  guns 

17.10 

18.10 

6% 

IRONCLADS 


401 


IRON-WORK 


The  following  are  examples  taken  from  the 
list  of  English  turreted  vessels  : 

.2 

.2 

rg   § 

1 

S.S 
If 

jg 

.J 

•5 

g-g 

<£  M 

Name  of  Ship. 

a 
I 

3 

I1 

"3, 

3 

V«    Q> 

3J 

|'-2 

Is  . 

Jfl 

J 

1 

1 

ft"* 

ft 

H 

Viper 

160 

224 

32 
42 

1,220 
2  777 

10.8 
IK  1  1 

11.7^ 

16  2 

81 

225 

45 

3430'   165 

16  5 

10  to  6 

Glatton 

245 

54 

4912    190 

190 

14  to  12 

Ajax  

260 

66 

8,492    230 

240 

18 

Thunderer  

285 

62 

9,190    26.2 

26.3       14  to  12 

Inflexible 

320 

75 

11,500 

23.3 

25.4 

24  to  16 

The  broadside  ironclads  of  Italy  are  armored 
with  iron  of  from  4£  to  6  inches,  but  in  the  de 
velopment  of  the  turret  system  they  have  taken 
a  step  in  advance  of  the  rest  of  the  world.  The 
following  table  cites  the  latest  efforts  of  Italy  in 
this  respect : 


Name  of  Ship. 

1 

ja 

1 

a 

Displacement  in 
tons. 

Draft  forward  in 
feet  and  inches. 

Draft  aft  in  feet  and 
inches. 

Thickness  of  A  rmor 
at  Water-line,  in 
inches. 

Duilio       

340 

65 

10650 

255 

265 

22 

340 

65 

10650 

255 

265 

22 

Italia  

400 

74 

13,480 

254 

304 

36 

400 

74 

13480 

254 

304 

36 

These  vessels  are  armed  with  four  100-ton 
Armstrong  guns.  The  central  portion  of  these 
vessels  is  plated  with  steel  instead  of  iron,  in 
consequence  of  the  result  of  experiments  made 
with  the  100-ton  gun  against  targets  constructed 
on  different  systems  of  steel  and  iron. 

In  reference  to  the  weight  of  the  guns  that  can 
be  carried  by  vessels  of  the  broadside  and  tur 
reted  systems,  respectively,  it  is  shown  that  it  has 
not  been  attempted  to  work  a  heavier  piece  than 
a  25-ton  gun  in  a  broadside  battery,  while  we  see 
that  the  armament  of  the  "Duilio"  (turreted 
vessel)  consists  of  100-ton  guns.  So  far,  then,  as 
capacity  to  manipulate  the  heavier  gun  is  con 
cerned,  the  turreted  vessel  has  the  advantage 
over  broadside  ironclads. 

The  necessity  of  providing  ironclad  vessels 
with  capacity  to  float  the  increased  weight  due 
to  their  armor  has  forced  great  changes  in  naval 
architecture.  The  V-shaped  cross-section  of  the 
"  Warrior"  has  given  place  to  one  of  a  U  form, 
and  a  comparison  of  the  dimensions  of  the  lightly- 
armored  "Warrior"  with  the  heavily-armored 
"Alexandra"  show  the  modifications  that  have 
been  introduced  in  this  respect.  The  graceful 
overhanging  bows  have  been  suppressed,  and  the 
sterns  are  designed  so  as  to  afford  protection  to 
the  screw  and  rudder. 

So  great  is  the  thickness  of  plates  that  have 
now  been  called  into  use  in  consequence  of  the 
development  of  power  in  guns,  that  efforts  are 
26 


being  made  to  utilize  other  metals  than  iron  in 
hope  of  reducing  the  weight  of  the  armor  while 
retaining  power  of  resistance  to  impact.  It  has 
been  mentioned  above  that  steel  is  being  used  for 
the  plates  of  the  Italian  turreted  vessels,  and  it 
has  also  been  discovered  that  an  iron  plate  faced 
with  steel,  by  welding  when  the  steel  is  in  a 
liquid  state,  increases  the  power  of  resistance  to 
a  great  degree.  It  is  probable  that  the  latter 
plan  will  be  very  generally  adopted  for  the  armor 
of  ironclads. — E.  Simpson,  Commodore  U.S.N. 

Iron  Garters.     A  cant  word  for  leg-irons. 

Iron-horse.  The  horse  of  the  fore-sheet  or 
boom-sheet  traveler. 

Iron-rust  Cement.  A  cement  sometimes  used 
in  soft-patching  boilers ;  it  is  composed  of  iron 
borings  or  filings,  sal-ammoniac,  and  white  lead, 
with  sometimes  a  little  sulphur,  the  object  being 
to  form  a  solid  rust. 

Irons.  The  wedge-shaped  tools  used  by  calk- 
ers.  The  fetters  used  to  confine  a  prisoner.  A 
ship  is  in  irons  when,  owing  to  her  bad  working 
qualities  or  to  mismanagement,  she,  in  the  op 
eration  of  tacking,  comes  up  head  to  the  wind, 
and  loses  her  way,  lying  dead  in  the  water.  If 
she  gathers  sternway  she  may  be  made  to  fall 
off  the  right  way  by  shifting  the  helm  ;  the  long 
ships  of  the  present  day  very  seldom  go  around 
without  getting  sternway  on.  To  fill  the  sails 
on  the  same  tack,  the  mainsail  and  spanker  are 
taken  in,  the  after-yards  are  squared,  and,  if  ne 
cessary,  the  head-yards  are  braced  abox. 

Iron-sick.  The  condition  of  vessels  when  the 
iron-work  becomes  loose  in  the  timbers  from 
corrosion  by  gallic  acid. 

Ironsides.  A  sobriquet  for  a  favorite  veteran 
man-of-war.  The  famous  frigate  "  Constitu 
tion"  was  familiarly  known  as  "  Old  Ironsides." 

Iron  Vessel.  A  vessel  in  which  the  keel, 
stem  and  stern-posts,  keelsons,  frames,  string 
ers,  deck-beams,  stanchions,  knees,  stern  and 
breast-hooks,  bulkheads,  fastenings,  etc.,  and 
the  outside  covering  or  skin,  are  of  iron.  The 
lower  masts  are  frequently  made  of  iron,  and 
sometimes  other  heavy  spars.  The  decks  are  of 
wood,  or  sheathed  with  wood;  some  parts  of  the 
interior  are  ceiled  with  the  same  material,  and 
some  light  bulkheads  and  "joiner-work"  are  also 
of  wood.  In  some  iron  vessels  of  war  the  bottom 
of  the  hull  is  covered  outside  the  iron  skin  with 
wooden  planking,  which  is  sheathed  with  copper 
to  a  short  distance  above  the  load  water-line. 
This  is  done  to  protect  the  iron  and  prevent 
fouling  of  the  bottom  by  grass,  barnacles,  etc. 
Vessels  having  iron  frames  and  the  outer  skin 
made  of  planks  bolted  directly  to  the  frames 
without  the  intervention  of  an  iron  skin  are 
called  composite.  This  method  is  advocated  for 
parts  of  unarmored  vessels  of  war  that  are  ex 
posed  to  shot,  in  order  to  avoid  the  well-known 
evil  effects  of  shot  passing  through  thin  iron 
plates.  Iron  vessels  are  lighter,  stronger,  and 
far  more  durable  than  wooden  ones,  which  they 
are  rapidly  superseding. 

The  principal  cause  of  deterioration  of  iron 
vessels  is  the  corrosion  of  inaccessible  parts  of 
the  interior;  but  if  these  parts  are  thoroughly 
covered  with  asphalt,  paint,  or  cement  while 
building,  corrosion  does  not  occur  to  a  serious 
extent.  It  is  necessary  to  prevent  all  contact  of 
copper  with  the  iron. 

Iron-work.     A  general  name  for  all  pieces  of 


IKKADIATION 


402 


ITALY 


'iron,  of  whatever  figure  or  size,  which  are  used 
in  the  construction  and  equipment  of  ships. 

Irradiation  (Lat.  irradiare,  to  cast  forth  beams 
upon).  The  apparent  enlargement  of  the  disk 
of  a  heavenly  body,  caused  by  the  vivid  impres 
sion  of  its  light  on  the  eye.  This  phenomenon 
is  perhaps  best  illustrated  by  the  appearance  of 
the  new  moon ;  the  slender,  bright  crescent,  ap 
pears  to  the  eye  to  be  a  portion  of  a  larger  circle 
than  the  part  of  the  disk  which  is  visible  in  the 
shade.  The  effect  of  irradiation  on  the  apparent 
diameter  of  the  sun  may  amount  to  as  much  as 
6",  but  so  small  a  quantity  as  this  is  of  no  prac 
tical  importance.  It  may,  however,  be  removed 
by  observing  both  limbs. 

Islands.  An  island  is  a  tract  of  land  sur 
rounded  by  water.  From  this  definition  are, 
however,  excluded  the  great  continents,  Eastern 
and  Western,  and  Australia.  The  seas  of  the 
globe  are  dotted  with  islands,  and  their  number 
is  legion.  An  islet  is  a  diminutive  island,  and  a 
still  smaller  spot  at  the  surface  of  the  sea  is  known 
as  a  reef.  For  the  most  part  islands  are  collected 
together  in  groups,  and  large  collections  of 
islands  in  one  locality  give  it  the  name  of  archi 
pelago,  a  name  originally  applied  to  the  chief  sea 
of  the  Greeks,  full  of  islands.  We  have  also  the 
Farsan  and  Dhalse  Archipelagoes  in  the  Ked  Sea, 
the  Low  Archipelago  in  the  Pacific,  and  the 
Mahe  Archipelago  in  the  Indian  Ocean.  An 
abundance  of  islands  has  given  a  name  to  a  cer 
tain  quarter  of  the  globe, — Polynesia,  "many 
islands."  The  least  number  of  islands  is  found 
in  the  Black  Sea,  of  all  the  large  sheets  of  water, 
there  being  no  more  than  half  a  dozen  small 
islands  in  it  near  the  coast  of  Turkey.  The  Dead 
Sea  has  no  islands,  but  most  inland  sheets  of 
water  have  several. 

Many  islands  are  volcanic  in  origin,  whole 
groups  in  the  Pacific  being  formed  on  the  craters 
of  extinct  volcanoes,  and  on  many,  active  vol 
canoes  exist,  as  in  the  well-known  Lipari  Islands. 
Others  have  been  thrown  up  by  earthquakes,  and 
many  have  disappeared  in,  "like  convulsions. 
Other  islands  have  been  formed,  or  their  size  in 
creased,  by  the  alluvium  brought  down  by  rivers, 
or  by  the  drifting-  sands  brought  by  ocean  cur 
rents  in  shallow  waters.  Numbers  of  islands 
owe  their  origin  to  the  labors  of  marine  animals, 
the  coral  islands  of  the  Pacific  embracing  nearly 
all  of  the  groups.  Such  islands  are  atolls,  with 
circular  lagoons  in  their  centres,  barrier  reefs 
or  fringing  reefs,  the  former  gradually  sinking, 
the  latter  rising  from  the  surface  of  the  water. 
Many  islands  have  been  artificially  made — as  on 
the  coast  of  Holland — by  the  formation  of  canals. 
The  great  rivers  of  the  world  contain  many 
islands,  some  of  considerable  size.  On  many 
islands  are  situated  cities  of  greater  or  less  size, 
notably  New  York,  London,  Edinburgh,  Dublin, 
Venice,  Palermo,  Aden,  Bombay,  Yeddo,  Hong- 
Kong,  etc.  By  far  the  greater  part  of  the  islands 
of  the  world  are  inhabited,  and  at  least  two  of 
the  great  kingdoms  of  the  world,  Great  Britain 
and  Japan,  are  island  empires.  The  largest  island 
in  the  world  is  Borneo,  containing  260,000  square 
miles,  while  NovaZembla,  Iceland,  Great  Britain, 
Ireland,  Corsica,  Sardinia,  Sicily,  Ceylon,  Su 
matra,  Java,  Luzon,  Celebes,  Mindanao,  Hai 
nan,  Formosa,  Kiu-Siu,  Nippon,  Yesso,  Sagha- 
lien,  Papua,  Tasmania,  New  Zealand,  Vancou 
ver's,  Tierra  del  Fuego,  Marajo,  Hayti,  Cuba, 


Newfoundland,  and  Madagascar  are  among  the 
largest  in  the  world.  Many  islands  are  remark 
able  for  their  products,  some  for  fisheries,  as 
Newfoundland ;  some  for  seals  and  walrus,  as 
the  Aleutian  Islands ;  for  cotton,  as  the  islands 
on  the  southern  coast  of  the  United  States; 
for  coral,  as  Corsica;  for  pearls,  as  the  Bahrein 
Islands,  in  the  Persian  Gulf,  and  the  Pearl 
Islands,  in  the  Caribbean  Sea  ;  for  fertilizing 
phosphates,  as  the  Guano  and  Chincha  Islands, 
on  the  Peruvian  coasts,  and  for  many  other 
valuable  products. 

The  Atlantic  contains  few  islands  in  mid- 
ocean.  The  Madeira,  Azores,  Bermuda,  Ascen 
sion,  St.  Helena,  St.  Paul's,  Martin  Vaz,  and 
Tristan  d'Acunha  are  the  principal  ones.  But 
near  its  shores  are  situated  many  of  the  more  im 
portant  islands  of  the  globe.  The  Mediterra 
nean  contains  many  large  and  important  islands 
scattered  about  its  basin.  The  Arctic  Ocean 
contains  many  islands,  some  of  them  being  of 
great  size,  but  few  are  found  in  the  Antarctic 
waters.  The  Indian  Ocean  contains  several  large 
islands,  and  many  important  groups.  The  Pa 
cific  Ocean  contains  by  far  the  larger  portion  of 
the  islands  of  the  globe,  both  in  size  and  num 
ber.  Many  of  its  large  islands  have  been  enu 
merated.  Chief  among  its  groups  are  the  Kiu- 
Shiu,  Japan,  Loochoo,  Aleutian,  Sandwich,  Gal 
apagos,  Paumoto,  Marquesas,  Society,  Friendly, 
Cook's,  Austral,  Fiji,  Samoan,  Union,  Ellice, 
Phoenix,  Gilbert,  Marshall,  Caroline,  Ladrone, 
Philippine,  Celebes,  Moluccas,  Kermadac  and 
Chatham,  and  New  Caledonia  and  New  Hebrides. 

Islands  are  important  to  the  navigator,  form 
ing  a  haven  in  storms  and  shipwreck,  being  im 
portant,  stations  for  supplies,  often  serving  as 
bases  for  light-houses,  and  centres  for  maritime 
operations  in  war.  They  will  prove  important 
as  coaling  stations  for  future  steam  fleets,  even 
when  otherwise  useless. — F.  S.  Bassett,  Lieuten 
ant  U.S.N. 

ISLAND  HARBOR.  One  which  is  protected 
from  the  violence  of  the  sea  by  one  or  more 
islands  or  islets  screening  its  mouth. 

ISLAND  or  ICE.  A  name  given  to  a  great 
quantity  of  ice  collected  into  one  solid  mass  and 
floating  upon  the  sea ;  thej7  are  often  met  with 
on  the  coast  of  Spitzbergen,  to  the  great  danger 
of  the  shipping  employed  in  the  Greenland 
fishery. 

ISLANDS  OF  THE  BLESSED.  According  to  an 
old  Greek  myth,  certain  happy  isles  in  the  West 
ern  Ocean  where  the  favorites  of  the  gods,  res 
cued  from  death,  dwelt  in  joy. 

Isle  of  Wight  Parson  (Eng.}.  A  cormorant. 

Islet,  or  Islot.  An  insular  spot  smaller  than 
an  island,  yet  larger  than  a  key. 

Isthmus.  A  narrow  neck  of  land  which  joins 
a  peninsula  to  its  continent,  or  two  islands  to 
gether,  or  two  peninsulas,  without  reference  to 
size.  The  Isthmus  of  Suez  alone  prevents  Af 
rica  from  being  an  island,  as  that  of  Darien  con 
nects  North  and  South  America. 

Italy,  Navy  of.  This  kingdom  was  never  able 
to  boast  of  a  very  large  navy  until  the  abolition 
of  the  Austrian  power  in  Lombardy  and  the  re 
moval  of  the  territorial  rule  of  the  Pope  expanded 
the  monarchy  of  Sardinia  to  the  sovereignty  of 
all  Italy.  A  considerable  maritime  force  is  now 
maintained  and  is  still  on  the  increase.  At  the 
end  of  December,  1879,  it  consisted  of  86  steamers, 


ITALY 


403 


JACULATOK 


armed  with  676  guns,  16  of  which  vessels  were 
armor-clad.  Two  of  the  first-class  ironclads 
alone  had  7500  horse-power  each,  and  carried  four 
100-ton  guns.  Moreover,  they  were  double-tur- 
reted  and  considered  the  most  powerful  types 
of  men-of-war  ever  constructed.  Yet  two  more 
ironclads  are  on  the  stocks,  and  they  will  each 
be  of  14,000  tons,  carrying  guns  and  horse-power 
in  proportion.  In  1879  the  Italian  navy  was 
manned  by  11,200  sailors  and  660  engineers  and 
workingmen,  with  1271  officers,  including  1  ad 


miral,  2  vice-  and  10  rear-admirals,  and  83  cap 
tains.  The  marine-service  is  comprised  in  2  regi 
ments  of  205  officers  and  2700  soldiers. 

lurram.  A  Gaelic  word  signifying  a  boat- 
song,  intended  to  regulate  the  stroke  of  the  oars. 
Also,  a  song  sung  during  any  kind  of  work. 

Ivigar.  A  name  for  the  sea-urchin,  Echinus 
marinus. 

Ivory  Gull,  or  Snow-bird.  The  Larus  ebur- 
neus  of  Arctic  seas.  It  has  a  yellowish  beak,  jet- 
black  legs,  and  plumage  of  a  dazzling  white. 


J. 


Jab.  A  peculiar  net  used  in  catching  the  fry 
of  the  coal-fish. 

Jack.  A  flag  corresponding  in  appearance  to 
the  union  of  the  national  flag.  Thus,  in  our 
service  it  is  a  blue  flag  containing  a  star  for 
each  State.  It  is  hoisted  at  the  jack-staff  shipped 
at  the  bowsprit-cap  when  in  port,  with  topgal 
lant  yards  across.  An  athwartship  bar  of  iron 
at  the  topgallant  mast-head,  to  give  spread  to 
the  royal  shrouds.  A  popular  name  for  a  sailor. 
A  young  male  pike.  A  portable  machine  for 
moving  great  weights  or  resistances  slowly  or 
through  a  small  space,  by  human  force  exerted 
rapidly  or  through  a  great  space.  Its  principle 
of  action  may  be  either  that  of  a  lever,  a  rack 
and  pinion,  a  screw,  or  a  hydraulic  press. 

Jack  Afloat.     A  popular  name  for  a  sailor. 

Jackass.  A  heavy  rough  boat  used  in  New 
foundland.  A  canvas  bag  stuffed  with  oakum, 
used  for  making  the  hawse-holes  water-tight 
when  the  chains  are  bent. 

Jackass  Frigate.  A  vessel  between  a  frigate 
and  a  sloop-of-war,  carrying  a  whole  tier  of  guns 
on  a  covered  deck  and  a  few  on  the  quarter-deck 
and  forecastle. 

Jackass  Penguin.  A  name  given  to  the  pen 
guin  on  account  of  its  stupidity,  and  its  peculiar 
cry  somewhat  resembling  the  braying  of  an  ass. 

Jack-block.  A  block  under  the  eyes  of  the 
rigging  for  the  topgallant  or  royal  yard-rope, 
used  in  sending  the  light  masts  and  yards  up 
and  down.  It  obviates  the  necessity  of  reeving 
or  unreeving  the  yard-rope  during  the  operation. 

Jack  Cross-trees.  An  athwartship  iron  bar 
at  the  topgallant  mast-head,  to  give  spread  to 
the  royal  shrouds.  It  is  usually  called  a  jack. 

Jackee-ja.     A  Greenland  canoe. 

Jacket.  A  close-fitting  outer  garment  extend 
ing  downward  to  the  hips.  An  envelope  or  cov 
ering  of  heat  non-conducting  properties,  used  to 
prevent  radiation  of  heat  from  a  body,  such  as  a 
steam-boiler,  cylinder,  chimney,  etc.  An  annu 
lar  space  surrounding  the  cylinder  of  a  steam- 
engine  containing  live-steam  or  hot  gases,  to  pre 
vent  initial  condensation  when  working  steam 
expansively.  A  casing  used  to  confine  separate 
parts  of  material  together. 

Jack-hern.     A  name  for  the  heron. 

Jacking.     Taking  the  skin  off  a  seal. 

Jack  in  the  Basket.     A  sort  of  wooden  cap  or 


basket  on  the  top  of  a  pole,  to  mark  a  sand-bank 
or  hidden  danger. 

Jack  in  the  Box.  A  very  handy  engine,  con 
sisting  of  a  large  wooden  male  screw  turning  in 
a  female  one,  which  forms  the  upper  part  of  a 
strong  wooden  box,  shaped  like  the  frustum  of  a 
pyramid.  It  is  used  by  means  of  levers  passing 
through  holes  in  it  as  a  press  in  packing,  and 
for  other  purposes. 

Jack-knife.  A  horn-handled  clasp-knife  with 
a  laniard,  worn  by  seamen. 

Jack  Nasty-face.     A  cook's  assistant. 

Jack  of  Dover.  An  old  sea-dish,  the  compo 
sition  of  which  is  now  lost. 

Jack  O'  Lantern.  The  corpo  santo,  or  St. 
Elmo's  light,  is  sometimes  so  called. 

Jack-o'-the-dust.  The  assistant  of  the  pay 
master's  yeoman. 

Jack-pins  (Eng.}>  A  name  applied  to  the 
fife-rail  pins. 

Jack's  Alive.     A  once  popular  seaport  dance. 

Jack-shark.  A  common  sobriquet  of  the 
Squalus  tribe. 

Jack-sharp.  A  small  fresh-water  fish,  other 
wise  known  as  prickly-back. 

Jack's  Quarter-deck,  The  topgallant  fore 
castle. 

Jack-staff.  A  short  staff  raised  at  the  bow 
sprit-cap,  upon  which  the  jack  is  hoisted. 

Jackstay.  A  rope  or  rod  of  iron  running 
along  a  mast,  yard,  the  water-ways,  etc.,  and 
serving  as  a  traveler,  as  a  means  of  attaching  a 
sail  to  its  yard,  etc. 

Jack  Tar.     A  popular  name  for  a  sailor. 

Jacob's  Ladder.  The  assemblages  of  shakes 
and  short  fractures,  rising  one  above  another, 
in  a  defective  spar.  Also,  a  short  ladder  with 
wooden  rungs  and  rope  sides  for  getting  into  the 
lower  rigging,  or  up  to  the  jack. 

Jacob's  Staff,  or  Cross-staff.  A  mathematical 
instrument  to  take  altitudes,  consisting  of  a 
brass  circle,  divided  into  four  equal  parts  by  two 
lines  cutting  each  other  in  the  centre;  at  each 
extremity  of  either  line  is  fixed  a  sight  perpen 
dicularly  over  the  lines,  with  holes  below  each 
slit  for  the  better  discovery  of  distant  objects. 
The  cross  is  mounted  on  a  staff  or  stand  for  use. 
Sometimes,  instead  of  four  sights,  there  are 
eight. 

Jaculator.     A  fish  whose  chief  sustenance  is 


JAG 


404 


JEFFER9 


flies,    which  it  secures  by  shooting  a  drop  of 
water  at  them  from  its  mouth. 

Jag.     To  notch  an  edge  irregularly. 

JAGGED.  A  term  applied  to  denticulated  edges, 
as  in  jagged  bolts  to  prevent  their  coming  out. 

Jagara^  or  Joggaree.  A  coarse  brown  sugar 
of  India. 

Jalias.  Small  craft  on  the  Arracan  and  Pegu 
coasts. 

Jam.  To  confine  by  pressing  against ;  to  ren 
der  immovable.  Generally  applied  to  running- 
gear  when  it  will  not  render  through  the  blocks. 
Figuratively,  to  involve  in  a  difficulty  from 
which  there  is  no  escape. 

Jamaica  Discipline.  The  buccaneer  regula 
tions  respecting  prize  shares,  requiring  that  all 
prizes  be  divided  among  the  captors. 

Jangada.  A  sort  of  fishing  float,  or  rather 
raft,  composed  of  three  or  four  long  pieces  of 
wood  lashed  together,  used  on  the  coasts  of  Peru 
and  Brazil.  The  owner  is  called  a  jangadeira, 
but  the  term  is  evidently  an  application  of  jer- 
gado  (which  see). 

Jangar.  A  kind  of  pontoon  constructed  of 
two  boats  with  a  platform  laid  across  them  ;  used 
by  the  natives  in  the  East  Indies  to  convey  horses, 
cattle,  etc.,  across  rivers. 

Janissary.  A  term  derived  from  jeni  cheri, 
meaning  new  soldiers,  in  the  Turkish  service. 

Jarganee.  A  term  for  small  worms  on  the 
sea-shore,  used  as  bait. 

Jason.  A  Thessalian  prince,  son  of  ^Eson, 
who,  with  Medea's  help,  brought  away  the  golden 
fleece  from  Colchis. 

Java  Pot.  A  kind  of  sponge  of  the  species 
Alcyonum. 

Javels.  An  old  term  for  dirty,  idle  fellows, 
wandering  about  quays  and  docks. 

Jaws.  Anything  resembling  the  jaws  of  an 
animal ;  the  points  of  the  jaws  are  called  horns. 
The  inner  end  of  a  gaff.  The  space  in  a  block  in 
which  the  sheave  revolves.  One  of  the  adjust 
able  opposing  parts  of  a  holding  implement,  as 
the  jaws  of  a  vise  or  wrench. 

JAW-BREAKERS.    Long  and  infrequent  words. 

JAWING-TACKLE.  The  organs  of  speech.  Clap 
a  stopper  on  your  jawing -tackle,  stop  talking. 

JAWING-TACKS.  When  a  person  speaks  with 
vociferous  fluency,  he  is  said  to  have  hauled  his 
jawing-tacks  on 'board. 

JAW-ME-DOWN.  An  arrogant,  overbearing, 
and  unsound  loud  arguer. 

JAW-ROPE.  A  line  attached  to  the  horns  of 
the  jaws  to  prevent  the  gaff  from  coming  off  the 
mast.  It  is  usually  furnished  with  bull's  eyes 
(perforated  balls)  to  make  it  shift  easily  up  or 
down  the  mast. 

Jayls.  The  cracks  and  fissures  of  timbers  in 
seasoning. 

Jeers.  A  heavy  purchase  for  swaying  up  and 
lowering  the  fore-  or  main-yard. 

JEER-BITTS.  Those  to  which  the  jeers  are 
fastened  and  belayed. 

JEER-BLOCKS.  Twofold  or  threefold  blocks, 
through  which  the  jeer-falls  are  rove  to  hoist 
and  lower  the  main-  and  fore-yards. 

JEER-CAPSTAN.  One  placed  between  the  ?ore- 
and  mainmasts,  serving  to  stretch  a  rope,  hsave 
upon  the  jeers,  etc.  It  was  the  spare  capstan, 
and  was  frequently  housed  in  by  sheep-pens  and 
fowl-racks. 

JEER-FALL.     The  rope  rove  through  the  jeer- 


blocks,  forming  the  purchase  known  as  the 
jeers. 

Jcffers,  William  Nicholson,  Commodore 
U.S.N.,  chief  of  Bureau  of  Ordnance.  Born  in 
New  Jersey.  Appointed  from  New  Jersey  act 
ing  midshipman,  September  25, 1840  ;  ordered  to 
U.  S.  S.  "North  Carolina,"  74;  served  in  brig 
"Washington,"  tender  to  that  ship,  for  several 
winter  months  on  coast  relief  of  ships  in  distress; 
September,  1841,  to  frigate  "  United  States,"  44; 
served  four  years  in  that  ship,  and  frigate  "  Con 
gress,"  44,  on  Pacific  and  Brazil  Stations ;  October 
10, 1845,  to  Naval  School  at  Annapolis ;  graduated 
No.  4,  and  promoted  to  passed  midshipman,  July 
11,  1846;  ordered  to  steamer  "Vixen,"  3,  ancl 
served  through  the  war  with  Mexico  ;  present  at 
attack  on  forts  of  Alvarado,  under  Commodore 
Connor ;  at  two  attacks  on  and  capture  of  Ta 
basco,  under  Commodore  Perry  ;  at  capture  of 
Tuspan  ;  of  Coatzocoalcos  and  Laguna  de  Termi- 
nos ;  covered  the  landing  of  the  U.  S.  army  at 
siege  of  Vera  Cruz,  and  took  part  with  others 
of  "Mosquito  Fleet  in  the  bombardment  of  the 
city  of  Vera  Cruz,  and  of  the  castle  of  San  Juan 
de  Ulloa ;  in  1848-49,  on  duty  at  Naval  School 
as  acting  master  and  assistant  professor  of  mathe 
matics  ;  December,  1849,  to  October,  1850, 
schooner  "Morris,"  coast  survey,  harbor  of 
Galveston  and  Gulf  of  Mexico ;  October,  1850, 
to  March,  1852,  mail-steamer  service,  between 
New  York  and  Aspinwall,  Havana,  Kingston, 
and  New  Orleans,  a  part  of  the  time  in  com 
mand  ;  March,  1852,  to  screw-sloop  "  Princeton," 
10,  as  acting  master  ;  November,  1852,  transferred 
to  frigate  "  Macedonian,"  22,  as  acting  master  ; 
December,  1852,  exploration  of  Isthmus  of  Hon 
duras  ;  September,  1858,  to  screw-sloop  "  Alle- 
ghany,"  10,  as  acting  master;  October,  1853, 
transferred  to  sloop  "  Germantown,"  20 ;  1853-54, 
sloop  "Germantown,"  Brazil  Squadron. 

Promoted  to  master,  June,  1854. 

Commissioned  as  lieutenant,  January,  1855  ; 
transferred  to  U.  S.  S.  "  Water- Witch,?'  3,  sur 
vey  of  La  Plata  and  Parana,  1855-56  ;  presented 
with  a  sword,  with  gold  hilt  and  scabbard,  by 
her  majesty  the  queen  of  Spain,  for  saving  the 
schooner  "'Cartagenera,"  of  10  guns,  in  October, 
1855  (assent  of  Congress,  April,  1858)  ;  had  an 
engagement  with  the  fort  at  Paso  de  la  Patria, 
which  caused  the  expedition  to  Paraguay,  under 
Commodore  Shubrick,  and  extorted  apology  by 
Paraguay  ;  1857,  preliminary  survey  of  Isthmus 
of  Honduras  for  Interoceanic  Railway  ;  1858-59, 
gunnery-ship  "Plymouth, "9,  West  Indies;  Jan 
uary,  1859-60,  screw-sloop  "  Brooklyn,"'  22,  and 
sloop  "Saratoga, ''20,  West  Indies  ;  surveyed  Chi- 
riqui  Isthmus  while  attached  to  "Brooklyn"; 
when  the  Rebellion  broke  out  he  was  on  sick- 
leave  ac  his  home,  but  he  at  once  applied  for 
service. 

Be  was  immediately  detailed  to  relieve  Lieut. 
G.  T.  Sinclair  on  ordnance  duty  at  Norfolk,  but 
that  yard  having  been  destroyed  before  he  could 
reach  there,  was  detailed  to' keep  the  Potomac 
River  open  ;  April  and  May,  1861,  command  of 
steamer  "Philadelphia,"  on  Potomac  River; 
May  to  December,  1861,  frigate  "  Roanoke," 
on  blockade  Atlantic  coast  and  off  Charleston  ; 
engagement  with  batteries  at  Sewell's  Bluff; 
December,  1861,  command  of  steamer  "  Under 
writer,"  Pamlico  Sound;  battles  of  Roanoke 
Island,  Elizabeth  City,  and  numerous  skirmishes, 


JELBA 


405 


JENKINS 


under  Commodore  Goldsborough  and  Comman 
der  Kowan  ;  expedition  to  Currituck  Sound, 
March,  1862,  command  of  "  Monitor,"  after 
Worden  was  wounded  ;  various  bombardments 
and  battles  of  Drury's  Bluff,  under  Commander 
John  Rogers. 

Commissioned  as  lieutenant-commander,  July 
16,  1862;  September,  1862,  ordnance  duty  at 
Philadelphia;  September,  1863,  to  duty  as  in 
spector  of  ordnance,  and  in  charge  of  exper 
iments  at  the  ordnance  yard,  Washington. 

Commissioned  as  commander,  March,  1865 ; 
July,  1865,  to  command  screw-sloop  "  Swatara," 
10,  West  Indies,  Mediterranean,  and  Africa; 
1865-68,  under  Admirals  Goldsborough  and  Far- 
ragut;  December,  1868-69,  Naval  Observatory; 
1869-70,  Board  of  Examiners. 

Commissioned  as  captain,  July,  1870;  Sep 
tember  30,  1870,  to  duty  as  assistant  in  Bureau 
of  Ordnance ;  October,  1871,  to  command  gun 
nery-ship  "  Constellation,"  West  Indies  and 
coast ;  April  10,  1873,  chief  of  Bureau  of  Ord 
nance,  with  relative  rank  of  commodore  ;  in  1875, 
introduced  a  system  of  B.  L.  boat  howitzers  of 
bronze  and  of  steel ;  and  in  1876  doubled  the 
power  of  the  Dahlgren  M.  L.  11-inch  smooth 
bore  by  converting  it  into  an  8-inch  rifle ;  also 
commenced  the  conversion  of  Farrott  100- 
pounder  to  B.  L.  on  the  slotted  screw  princi 
ple  ;  worked  up  the  details  of  a  system  of  breech- 
loading  for  every  calibre  up  to  12-inch ;  April  10, 
1877,  renominated  chief  of  Bureau  of  Ordnance 
for  four  years ;  author  of  "  Short  Methods  in 
Navigation,"  1849;  "Theory  and  Practice  of 
Naval  Gunnery,"  1850;  "  Marine  Surveying," 
1871 ;  and  of  numerous  pamphlets  on  professional 
subjects;  editor  of  "  Inspection  and  Proof  of 
Cannon,"  1864;  "Ordnance  Instructions  for 
U.  S.  Navy,"  editions  of  1866  and  1880. 

Commissioned  as  commodore,  February  26, 
1878. 

Jelba.     A  large  coasting-boat  of  the  Red  Sea. 

Jelly-fish.  A  common  name  for  the  Medusce, 
soft  gelatinous  marine  animals,  belonging  to  the 
class  Acalephce. 

Jemmy.  A  finical  fellow.  Also,  a  handy  crow 
bar  or  lever. 

Jemmy  Ducks.  The  ship's  poulterer.  A  sobri 
quet  which  has  universally  obtained  in  English 
men-of-war. 

Jenkins,  Thornton  A.,  Rear-Admiral  U.S.N. 
Born  in  Virginia,  and  appointed  midshipman 
from  that  State,  November  1,  1828;  attached  to 
sloop-of-war  "  Natchez,"  West  Indies,  1828-31 ; 
in  boat  squadron,  in  1829,  cruising  for  pirates 
on  coast  of  Cuba  ;  in  sloop-of-war  "  Vandalia," 
West  Indies,  in  1831-33. 

Passed  examination  for  promotion  to  lieu 
tenant,  June  2,  1834,  and  awarded  by  the  Ex 
amining  Board  No.  1  of  the  class  of  82  grad 
uates.  On  the  coast  survey,  1834-42. 

Commissioned  as  lieutenant,  December  9, 
1839;  served  in  the  frigate  ''Congress,"  Brazil 
and  Mediterranean  Squadron,  1842-45,  being 
present  at  the  capture  of  the  Buenos  Ayrean 
squadron,  off  Montevideo,  September  29,  1844 ; 
on  special  service  in  Europe  in  1845-46  ;  was  ex 
ecutive-officer  of  sloop-of-war  "  German  town,"' 
in  Gulf  of  Mexico,  during  the  Mexican  war  ;\and 
latter  part,  commanding  store-ship  "  Relief," 
same  squadron,  1847-48 ;  commanded  part  of 
the  forces  employed  in  the  capture  of  Tuspan 


and  Tabasco;  on  the  coast  survey,  1848-52; 
acted  as  secretary  of  Light-House  Board  from 
1858-58. 

Commissioned  as  commander,  September  14, 
1855;  commanding  sloop-of-war  u  Preble"  on 
Paraguay  Expedition,  on  Brazil  Station,  coast 
of  Central  America,  and  in  Gulf  of  Mexico, 
1858-60.  Present  at  the  capture  of  the  armed 
vessels  "  Miramon"  and  "  Marquis  of  Havana," 
off  Vera  Cruz,  and  under  the  walls  of  that  city 
and  the  Fort  of  St.  Juan  de  Ulloa,  during  the 
siege  and  bombardment  by  the  insurgent  forces 
of  Gen.  Miramon.  Charged  with  conveying  the 
prizes  "  Miramon"  and  "  Marquis  of  Havana" 
and  transporting  their  crew  and  passengers  as 
prisoners  to  New  Orleans.  Secretary  of  Light- 
House  Board,  1861. 

Commissioned  as  captain,  July  16,  1862 ;  com 
manding  steam-sloop  "  Wachusett,"  on  James 
and  Potomac  Rivers,  1862 ;  being  senior  officer, 
present  at  repulse  of  the  enemy  at  Coggin's 
Point,  James  River,  and  at  the  attack  on  our 
flotilla,  off  City  Point,  James  River,  August, 
1862;  commanded  steam-sloop  "Oneida,"  West 
Gulf  Blockading  Squadron,  off  Mobile,  in  the 
fall  of  1862 ;  was  appointed  fleet-captain  and 
chief-of-staff  of  Farragut's  squadron,  and  was 

?  resent  at  the  passage  of  Port  Hudson,  March 
4,  1863  (see  Farragut's  Report) ;  fought  Grand 
Gulf  batteries,  March  19,  1863;  Warrenton, 
March  21,  23,  25,  and  28,  1863;  Grand  Gulf, 
March  30,  1863 ;  on  the  blockade  of,  during  the 
siege  prior  to  the  surrender  and  attack  on  Port 
Hudson,  May  24,  27,  and  28,  1863.  Wounded 
on  board  steamer  u  Monongahela"  in  fight  with 
enemy's  batteries  stationed  on  Madame  Win 
chester's  farm,  College  Point,  Mississippi  River, 
being  in  command  of  three  armed  vessels  con 
veying  provisions,  arms,  and  ammunition  to  the 
army  and  navy  operating  below  Port  Hudson  ; 
commanding  steam-sloop  "  Richmond,"  and 
senior  naval  officer  in  command  of  naval  forces 
below,  at  the  time  of  the  surrender  of  Port  Hud 
son,  July  9,  1863  ;  commanding  division,  block 
ading  Mobile  entrance,  etc.,  from  December, 
1863,  to  battle  of  Mobile  Bay,  August  5,  1864, 
in  which  he  took  part,  as  well  as  the  surrender 
of  Forts  Morgan,  Gaines,  and  Powell,  August 
29  ;  left  in  command  of  the  Mobile  Bay  Division, 
until  February,  1865 ;  March  14,  1865,  ordered 
to  James  River,  remained  there  until  after  Lee 
surrendered  to  Gen.  Grant. 

Admiral  Farragut,  in  his  detailed  report  of  the 
Mobile  affair,  says,  "  Before  closing  this  report, 
there  is  one  other  officer  of  my  squadron  of  whom 
I  feel  bound  to  speak,  Capt.  T.  A.  Jenkins,  of 
the  'Richmond,'  who  was  formerly  my  chief- 
of-staff,  not  because  of  his  having  held  that  posi 
tion,  but  because  he  never  forgets  to  do  his  duty 
to  the  government,  and  takes  now  the  same  in 
terest  in  the  fleet  as  when  he  stood  in  that  rela 
tion  to  me.  He  is  also  commanding  officer  of 
the  second  division  of  my  squadron,  and  as  such, 
has  shown  ability  and  the  most  untiring  zeal. 
He  carries  out  the  spirit  of  one  of  Lord  Colling- 
wood's  best  sayings, — '  not  to  be  afraid  of  doing 
too  much  ;  those  who  are,  seldom  do  as  much  as 
they  ought.'  When  in  Pensacola,  he  spent  days 
on  the  bar,  placing  buoys  in  the  best  position, 
was  always  looking  after  the  interests  of  the  ser 
vice,  and  keeping  the  vessels  from  being  detained 
in  port  one  moment  more  than  necessary.  The 


JERBE 


406 


JIB 


'gallant  Craven  told  me  only  the  night  before  the 
action  in  which  he  lost  his  life,  '  I  regret,  ad 
miral,  that  I  have  detained  you  ;  but  had  it  not 
been  for  Capt.  Jenkins,  God  knows  when  I 
should  have  been  here.  When  your  order  came 
I  had  not  received  an  ounce  of  coal.'  I  feel  that 
I  should  not  be  doing  my  duty  if  I  did  not  call 
the  attention  of  the  Department  to  an  officer  who 
has  performed  all  his  various  duties  with  so  much 
zeal  and  fidelity." 

Commissioned  as  commodore,  July  25,  1866 ; 
in  August,  1865,  appointed  chief  of  Bureau  of 
Navigation  and  Detail,  and  held  that  position 
until  April,  1869,  when  he  resigned,  and  was 
ordered  to  duty  as  secretary  of  the  Light-House 
Board. 

Promoted  to  rear-admiral,  August  15,  1870; 
ordered  to  command  the  U.  S.  naval  forces  on 
Asiatic  Station,  in  December,  1871  ;  relieved  in 
China,  December,  1873;  retired,  December  11, 
1873  ;  appointed  by  the  President,  March  25, 
1874,  commissioner  to  represent  the  Navy  De 
partment  at  the  United  States  International 
Centennial  Exhibition  of  1876,  at  Fairmount 
Park,  Philadelphia. 

Jerbe.     See  JELBA. 

Jeremitas.     An  ancient  name  for  fire-ships. 

Jergado,  or  Gingado.  A  term  for  a  light  skiff 
of  the  16th  century. 

Jerkin:  An  old  name  for  a  coatee,  or  skirted 
jacket. 

Jerome.     A  trading  vessel  of  Egypt. 

Jerquer  (Eng.}.  A  customs  officer,  whose 
duty  is  to  examine  the  landwaiters'  books,  and 
check  them. 

JERQUING  A  VESSEL.  A  search  performed  by 
the  jerquer  of  the  customs,  after  a  vessel  is  un 
loaded,  to  see  that  no  unentered  goods  have  been 
concealed. 

Jersey.  Fine  wool,  formerly  called  gearnsey, 
ganzee,  or  guernsey.  Jersey  frocks,  woolen  frocks 
supplied  to  seamen. 

Jersey  City.  The  principal  city  of  New 
Jersey,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Hudson  Eiver, 
opposite  New  York  City,  from  which  it  is  1 
mile  distant  and  in  constant  communication 
with  by  means  of  5  large  ferries  running  over  30 
boats.  The  Cunard,  White  Star,  Red  Star,  and 
Cardiff  lines  of  ocean  steamers  have  extensive 
docks  in  Jersey  City,  and  it  is  also  the  terminus 
of  the  Pennsylvania,  Delaware,  Lacka wanna 
and  Western,  New  Jersey  Central,  Erie,  New 
Jersey  Midland,  Northern  New  Jersey,  and 
several  smaller  lines  of  railroads.  Large  manu 
factories  of  all  kinds,  sugar-refineries,  stock 
yards  and  ship-yards,  are  located  here.  Pop. 
120,000. 

Jervis,  John  (Earl  St.  Vincent).  British  ad 
miral.  Born  January  9,  1734.  Commissioned 
lieutenant,  1755.  Promoted  to  rear-admiral, 
1787.  This  officer  saw  much  service  afloat,  and 
when  a  post-captain  in  the  British  navy  took  the 
islands  of  Guaduloupe  and  Martinique  from  the 
French.  But  the  event  which  procured  his  ele 
vation  to  the  peerage  was  his  signal  defeat  of  a 
Spanish  fleet  off  Cape  St.  Vincent.  Died  March 
13,  1823. 

Jet.  A  stream  of  fluid  issuing  from  an  orifice, 
as  a  jet  of  steam,  a  jet  of  water,  etc. 

JET-CONDENSER.  The  vessel  in  whicu  the  ex 
haust  steam  of  a  steam-engine  is  condensed  by 
mingling  with  a  jet  or  spray  of  cold  water. 


Jetsam,  or  Jetson  (Fr.  jeter,  to  throw).  Goods 
thrown  overboard,  for  the  purpose  of  lightening 
the  ship  in  case  of  extreme  peril,  which  sink  and 
remain  under  water.  Goods  which  remain  upon 
the  surface  after  being  cast  overboard  are  called 
flotsam  ;  if  they  are  buoyed  they  are  called  ligan. 

Jettison.  A  word  allied  to  jetsam  and  by 
some  considered  as  synonymous  with  it ;  more 
properly,  however,  it  signifies  the  act  of  throw 
ing  goods  overboard,  or  the  cutting  or  casting 
away  of  anything  appertaining  to  the  vessel,  to 
lighten  the  ship  when  in  extreme  peril.  The 
object  of  a  jettison  being  to  secure  the  safety  of 
the  vessel  and  remaining  cargo,  the  loss  incurred 
becomes  the  subject  of  general  average  (which 
see).  It  is  to  be  observed,  however,  that  not 
every  casting  of  goods  overboard,  cutting  away 
of  masts,  etc.,  constitutes  such  a  jettison  as  to 
make  a  case  for  general  average.  To  bring  the 
jettison  within  the  rules  governing  general 
average  it  must  be  voluntary  ;  the  peril  must  be 
not  merely  great,  but  extreme  ;  and  it  must  be 
the  price  of  safety  to  the  ship  and  remaining 
cargo. 

Jetty.  An  erection  projecting  into  the  water, 
of  the  nature  of  a  pier,  dike,  or  embankment, 
constructed  of  timber,  earth,  fascines,  stone,  etc., 
or  a  combination  thereof.  By  means  of  jetties 
at  the  mouths  of  rivers  and  the  entrance  to  tidal 
harbors,  the  channel  may  be  so  narrowed  and  the 
current  so  concentrated  as  to  much  deepen  the 
water  over  the  entrance  bars.  Numerous  in 
stances  of  this  application  of  jetties  exist  in  Eu 
rope  and  this  country,  one  of  the  most  notable 
of  which  is  the  recently  constructed  Eads  jetties 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi  River. 

JETTY-HEAD.  The  projecting  part  of  a  wharf ; 
the  front  of  a  wharf  whose  side  forms  one  of  the 
cheeks  of  a  dock. 

Jew-balance.  A  Mediterranean  name  of  the 
Zycjasna  malleus,  or  hammer-headed  shark. 

jewel-block.  A  small  block  at  the  extreme 
end  of  the  topsail  and  topgallant-yard,  through 
which  reeve  the  halliards  of  the  topmast  and  top 
gallant  studding-sails. 

Jew's-harp.  The  shackle  for  joining  a  chain- 
cable  to  the  anchor-ring. 

Jib.  A  large  triangular  sail  set  on  a  head- 
stay.  In  large  vessels  it  extends  from  the  outer 
end  of  the  jib-boom  well  up  towards  the  fore 
topmast-head.  In  cutters  and  sloops  it  extends 
from  the  bowsprit  towards  the  lower  mast-head. 
Of  the  various  sails  enumerated  below,  only  the 
jib  and  flying  jib  are  in  common  use.  Also,  the 
arm  of  a  crane,  one  end  of  which  is  jointed  to 
the  post,  the  other  connected  to  the  post  by  a  tie, 
so  that  the  downward  pull  of  a  suspended  weight 
is  decomposed  into  a  tensile  strain  on  the  tie,  and 
a  compressional  strain  on  the  jib,  which  acts  as  a 
strut. 

JIB  AND  STAY-SAIL  JAPK.  A  designation  for 
a  fidgety  officer  who  harasses  the  watch  by  con 
tinually  calling jujpo'ri  them  to  make,  shorten,  or 
trim  sail.  / 

JIB-BOOM"."  A  ,  spar  rigged  out  through  the 
bowsprit-^ap^  the  heel  being  clamped  to  the 
bowsprj.^ 

JIB-BOOM,  FLYING.  A  light  spar  rigged  out 
through  a  wvthe  at  the  end  of  the  jib-boom. 

JIB,  FLYING.  A  sail  set  on  a  stay  extending 
from  the  outer  end  of  the  flying  jib-boom  to  the 
topgallant  mast-head. 


JIBBER   THE    KIBBER 


407 


JOHNNY   CRAPAUD 


J  IB-FORESAIL.     The  stay-foresail  of  a  sloop. 

JIB-FRAME.  The  upright  frame  at  the  sides 
of  a  marine-engine,  connecting  the  cylinder, 
condenser,  and  framing ;  when  applied  to  the 
beam-engine  it  is  sometimes  called  the  gallows- 
frame. 

JIB-GUYS.  Ropes  which  give  lateral  support 
to  the  jib-boom.  They  lead  from  the  outer  end 
of  the  jib-boom  to  the  ends  of  the  whiskers,  and 
thence  to  the  bows  where  they  set  up. 

JIB-GUYS,  FLYING.  Ropes  which  bear  the 
same  relation  to  the  flying  jib-boom  that  the  jib- 
guys  do  to  the  jib-boom.  See  JIB-GUYS. 

JIB,  PNNER.  A  head-sail  which  is  sometimes 
set  just  abaft  the  jib  proper,  which  is  then  called 
the  outer  jib. 

JIB-NETTING.  A  triangular  net- work  under 
the  jib-boom,  which  is  seized  to  the  whiskers 
and  jib-guys. 

JIB-NETTING,  FLYING.  A  small  net-work 
under  the  flying  jib-boom,  which  is  seized  to  the 
flying  jib-guys. 

JIB-O'-JIB.  A  sail  known  only  to  flying  kite- 
men,  it  being  the  outermost  of  the  head-sails. 

JIB,  OUTER.     See  JIB,  INNER. 

JIB,  SPINDLE-.  A  jib  set  between  the  flying 
jib  and  jib-o'-jib. 

JIB-STAY.  A  stay  leading  from  the  fore  top 
mast-head  through  a  sheave  in  the  outer  end  of 
the  jib-boom.  In  the  steam-engine,  the  jib-stay 
is  a  portion  of  the  jib-frame. 

JIB-STAY,  FLYING.  A  stay  leading  from  the 
fore  topgallant  mast-head  through  a  sheave  in 
the  outer  end  of  the  flying  jib-boom. 

JIB-TOPSAIL.  A  light  sail  set  on  the  topmast 
stay  of  a  fore-and-after. 

JIB-TRAVELER  (0!)s.}.  An  iron  ring  fitted  to 
run  out  and  in  on  the  jib-boom,  for  the  purpose  of 
bringing  outwards  or  inwards  the  tack  of  the  jib. 

Jibber  the  Kibber.  A  cant  term  for  the  trick 
of  decoying  vessels  on  shore  for  plunder.  A 
lantern  is -suspended  from  a  horse's  neck,  and 
one  of  his  fore-legs  is  hobbled ;  being  driven 
along  the  beach,  the  irregular  motion  of  the  lan 
tern  resembles  the  motion  of  a  ship's  light.  See 
ing  a  light  inshore,  the  impression  is  given  that 
there  is  plenty  of  sea-room,  and  the  ship  is  likely 
to  be  stranded. 

Jibe.  To  shift  over  the  boom  of  a  fore-and-aft 
sail,  with  the  wind  aft  or  on  the  quarter. 

Jiddah.  A  seaport  town  and  one  of  the  prin 
cipal  trading  entrepots  of  Arabia.  Lat.  21°  28' 
3"  N.  ;  lon.1"39°  13'  E.  Pop.  18,500.  The  har 
bor  is  good,  and  the  imports  from  Abyssinia, 
Egypt,  India,  Malay  Archipelago,  and  England 
are  very  extensive.  Slaves  are  also  imported 
from  Zanzibar.  Exports  consist  of  coral,  Egyp 
tian  cotton  goods,  sword-blades,  matchlocks,  and 
Oriental  goods  of  all  kinds,  with  dates,  coffee, 
etc. 

Jiffy.     In  a  jiffy,  in  an  instant. 

Jig.  The  weight  furnished  with  hooks,  used 
in  jigging  (which  see).  To  make  short  pulls  on 
a  rope  or  tackle. 

Jiggamaree.  A  mongrel  makeshift  manoeuvre. 
Any  absurd  attempt  to  substitute  a  bad  contriv 
ance  for  what  the  custom  of  the  sea  may  be. 

Jigger.  A  very  teazing  sand-flea,  which  pene 
trates  and  breeds  under  the  skin  of  the  feet,  but 
particularly  at  the  toes.  It  must  be  removed,  or 
it  occasions  much  pain.  The  operation  is  effected 
by  a  needle,  and  the  sac  which  contains  the  brood 


must  not  be  broken,  or  the  whole  foot  would  be 
infected.  A  light  tackle  used  about  the  decks,  in 
the  tops,  etc.  ;  a  handy-billy.  A  sail  set  on  a 
jigger-mast. 

JIGGER-MAST.  A  small  mast  stepped  on  the 
extreme  after-part  of  small  craft. 

Jiggered-up.     Done  up  ;  tired  out. 

Jigging.  A  mode  of  catching  fish  by  dropping 
a  weighted  line  with  several  hooks  set  back  to 
back  among  them,  and  jerking  it  suddenly  up 
wards  ;  the  weight  is  frequently  cast  in  the  form 
of  a  small  fish.  Also,  short  pulls  at  a  tackle  fall. 

Jilalo.  A  large  passage-boat  of  Manilla,  fitted 
with  outriggers. 

Jimmals,  or  Jimbles.     See  GIMBALS. 

Jimmy  Legs.  A  sobriquet  for  the  master-at- 
arms. 

Jingal.  A  kind  of  long  heavy  musket  sup 
ported  about  the  centre  of  its  length  on  a  pivot, 
carrying  a  ball  of  from  a  quarter  to  half  a  pound, 
and  generally  fired  by  a  matchlock  ;  much  used 
in  China  and  the  Indies.  It  is  charged  by  a  sep 
arate  chamber,  dropped  into  the  breech  and 
keyed. 

Jinny-spinner.  One  of  the  names  for  the 
cockroach. 

Jobation.  A  private  but  severe  lecture  and 
reprimand. 

Job  Captain  (Eng.}.  One  who  gets  a  tempo 
rary  appointment  to  a  ship,  whose  regular  com 
mander  is  a  member  of  Parliament,  etc. 

Job-watch.     A  hack-watch. 

Jocks.     Scotch  seamen. 

Jog-the-loo.  To  work  the  pump-brake,  or  to 
pump  briskly. 

John.  A  name  given  to  dried  fish.  See  POOR 
JOHN. 

John  Bull.  The  origin  of  this  nickname  is 
traced  to  a  satire  written  in  the  reign  of  Queen 
Anne,  by  Dr.  Arbuthnot,  to  throw  ridicule  011 
the  politics  of  the  Spanish  succession.  In  this 
satire,  which  is  usually  published  in  Swift's 
works,  the  French  are  designated  as  Lewis 
Baboon,  the  Dutch  as  Nicholas  Frog,  etc. 

John  Chinaman.  A  popular  name  for  the 
Chinese.  The  earliest  known  instance  of  its  use 
is  in  "  A  letter  to  the  Committee  of  Management 
of  Drury  Lane  Theatre,"  London,  1819,  p.  64. 

John  Company  (Eng.}.  The  former  board  of 
directors  for  East  India  affairs. 

John  Dory.  A  corruption  ofjaune  dore,  which 
is  the  color  of  this  fish.  It  is  one  of  the  Scom- 
beridse,  Zeus  faber.  John  Dory  was  also  the 
name  of  a  celebrated  French  pirate. 

Johnny  Crapaud.  A  jocose  designation  of  a 
Frenchman,  or  of  the  French  nation  taken  col 
lectively.  In  Seward's  Anecdotes  occurs  the 
following  account  of  the  origin  of  this  designa 
tion:  a  When  the  French  took  the  city  of  Aras 
from  the  Spaniards,  under  Louis  XIV.,  after  a 
long  and  most  desperate  siege,  it  was  remem 
bered  that  Nostradamus  had  said,  '  Les  anciens 
crapauds  prendront  Sara.'  (The  ancient  toads 
shall  Sara  take.)  This  line  was  then  applied 
to  this  event  in  a  very  roundabout  manner. 
Sara  is  Aras  backward.  By  ancient  toads  were 
meant  the  French  ;  as  that  nation  formerly  had 
for  its  armorial  bearings  three  of  those  odious 
reptiles  instead  of  the  three  flowers-de-luce  which 
it  now  bears." 

The  grounds  for  the  belief  that  three  toads  or 
three  frogs  were  the  old  arms  of  France  are  very 


JOHNNY  KAW 


408 


JUDGE- ADVOCATE 


fully  set  forth  in  Elliott's  "Horae  Apocalypticse," 
vol.  iv.  p.  64,  ed.  1847. 

Johnny  Raw,  or  Johnny  Newcome.  An  in 
experienced  youngster  commencing  his  career; 
also  applied  to  landsmen  in  general. 

Johnny  Shark.  A  common  sobriquet  of  the 
Squalus  tribe. 

John-O'-Groat's  Buckie  (Eng.}.  A  northern 
name  for  the  Cyprcea  pediculus,  a  small  shell 
found  on  the  sea-coast. 

John  Tuck.  The  galley  corruption  of  chan- 
tuck,  or  jantook,  a  Chinese  viceroy,  specially 
meaning  the  viceroy  of  Canton. 

Jol.     A  Danish  yawl. 

Jolly  (Eng.).  This  term  is  usually  applied  to 
a  comely  and  corpulent  person,  but  afloat  it  is  a 
familiar  name  for  a  soldier.  Tame  jolly,  a 
militia-man  ;  royal  jolly,  a  marine. 

Jolly-boat  (Eng.).  A  smaller  boat  than  the 
cutter,  but  likewise  clincher-built.  It  is  gener 
ally  a  hack  boat  for  small  work,  being  about  4 
feet  beam  to  12  feet  length,  with  a  bluff  bowand 
very  wide  transom  ;  a  kind  of  washing-tub. 

Jolly  Jumpers.     Sails  above  the  moon-rakers. 

Jolly  Roger.  A  pirate's  flag ;  a  white  skull 
in  a  black  iield. 

Jones,  John  Paul,  was  the  son  of  John  Paul, 
and  was  born  at  Kirkcudbright,  in  Scotland,  July 
6,  1747.  Went  to  sea  as  apprentice  at  the  age 
of  12,  voyaging  to  America.  Made  several  voy 
ages  as  third  mate  of  a  slaver,  and  at  19  was  first 
mate,  and  at  21  had  command  of  the  "John,"  a 
ship  in  the  West  India  trade.  Afterwards  traded 
in  a  vessel  on  his  own  account,  and  left  the  sea 
at  the  age  of  26,  adopting  the  name  of  Jones. 
In  December,  1775,  was  appointed  lieutenant  in 
the  navy,  and  ordered  as  first  lieutenant  of  the 
"Alfred,"  our  first  flag-ship.  He  hoisted  the 
first  flag  of  the  colonies  afloat, — the  yellow  flag 
with  the  pine-tree  and  rattlesnake.  He  partici 
pated  in  the  capture  of  the  "New  Providence" 
and  the  attack  on  the  "Glasgow."  Was  made 
captain  of  the  "Providence,"  and  being  chased  by 
a  squadron  off  New  York,  escaped  them  by  good 
seamanship,  June  13,  1776 ;  and  he  afterwards 
made  16  prizes,  some  valuable.  On  October  10 
he  was  named  eighteenth  captain,  and  in  com 
mand  of  the  "  Alfred"  and  "  Providence"  cap 
tured  a  valuable  armed  ship  and  two  prizes, 
and  eluded  a  recapture  by  good  seamanship. 
He  next  went  to  Europe  in  command  of  the 
"  Hanger,"  18,  and  received  from  the  French 
squadron  the  first  salute  to  the  stars  and  stripes. 
He  cruised  in  English  waters,  burning  ship 
ping  at  Whitehaven  and  spiking  guns  ashore, 
and  then  attempted  to  carry  off  the  Earl  of  Sel 
kirk,  but  failed.  Some  plate  having  been  car 
ried  away,  he  gained  the  name  of  "Pirate." 
On  the  24th  of  April  he  took  the  "  Drake,"  20 
guns.  Received  from  the  French  the  "  Due  de 
Duras,"  an  old  Indiaman,  and  sailed  in  her,  in 
company  with  6  other  ships,  naming  his  new 
vessel  the  "  Bon  Homme  Richard."  He  had  40 
guns  and  a  mixed  crew  of  various  nationalities. 
The  conditions  under  which  he  sailed  prevented 
him  from  carrying  out  several  projects,  but  on 
the  23d  September  he  fell  in  with  a  Baltic  fleet 
convoyed  by  the  "  Serapis,"  44,  and  "  Countess 
of  Scarborough,"  20.  The  latter  was  captured  by 
one  of  his  squadron,  and  Jones,  in  one  of  the 
most  desperate  fights  on  record,  in  which  his 
own  ship  was  so  disabled  as  to  sink  soon  after 


wards,  captured  the  "Serapis,"  a  superior  ship 
to  his  own.  He  sailed  for  home  in  the  "  Ariel," 
20,  in  September,  1780;  lost  his  masts,  put  back, 
and  sailed  again  on  the  18th  December.  He  was 
launched  in  the  "America,"  74,  and  transferred 
her  to  the  French,  making  a  cruise  as  a  volunteer 
in  her.  He  was  a  prize  agent  in  Europe  in  1783, 
and  finally,  in  1787,  while  in  Denmark,  he  en 
tered  the  Russian  navy.  Hoisted  his  flag  as  rear- 
admiral  in  the  "  Walodomir,"  26th  May,  1788, 
but  found  so  much  jealousy  and  enmity  towards 
him  that  he  resigned  in  1789.  He  resided  in 
Holland  and  France  afterwards,  and  was  ap 
pointed  commissioner  to  Algiers  just  as  his  death 
occurred,  on  the  18th  of  July,  1792,  aged  45. 
He  was  brave  and  energetic,  but  violent  and 
vain. — F.  S.  Bassett,  Lieutenant  U.  S.  Navy. 

/ones,  Thomas  Catesby,  Commodore  U.S.N. 
Welsh  descent.  Born  in  1789  ;  died  in  George 
town,  D.  C.,  May  30,  1858.  Entering  the  navy 
November  22,  1805,  he  became  lieutenant  May 
24,  1812,  commander  March  28,  1820,  and  cap 
tain  March  11,  1829.  From  1808  to  1812  he  was 
engaged  in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  and  distin 
guished  himself  in  the  suppression  of  piracy, 
smuggling,  and  the  slave-trade.  When  the 
British  naval  expedition  agains't  New  Orleans 
entered  Lake  Borgne,  he,  with  a  small  flotilla, 
endeavored  to  intercept  40  British  boats.  Al 
though  wounded  and  compelled  to  surrender, 
his  conduct  was  highly  commended.  In  1842  he 
commanded  the  Pacific  Squadron,  and  having, 
from  erroneous  information  as  to  the  existence 
of  war  between  the  United  States  and  Mexico, 
caused  the  governor  of  Monterey  to  surrender 
that  place,  he  was  for  this  indiscretion  relieved 
from  his  command. 

Jonk.     See  JUNK. 

Joso.     A  small  fish  of  the  gudgeon  kind. 

Joule's  Equivalent.  The"  quantity  of  heat 
that  will  raise  one  pound  of  pure  water,  at  the 
maximum  density  and  temperature  of  39.1°,  one 
degree  F. ;  the  equivalent  in  work  being  772 
foot-pounds. 

Journal.  Ensigns  and  midshipmen  are  re 
quired  to  keep  journals,  which  are  presented 
monthly  for  the  inspection  of  the  commanding 
officer.  In  some  ships  this  journal  must  be  a 
copy  of  the  log-book  ;  in  others,  only  an  abstract 
is  required.  Journal  is  also  the  part  of  a  revolv 
ing  or  oscillating  portion  of  a  machine  which  is 
supported  by  or  runs  in  bearings.  It  may  be 
cylindrical,  conical,  or  spherical/ 

JOURNAL-BEARING.  The  support  of  the  shaft 
or  axle,  composed  of  the  brasses  or  boxes  in  a 
pillow-block,  or  that  part  of  the  engine  frame 
intended  for  the  purpose. 

JOURNAL-BOX.  The  composition  lining  of 
bearings  to  reduce  friction. 

JOURNAL-BOX  METAL.  Usually  an  alloy  of 
copper,  tin,  and  zinc,  and  sometimes  antimony. 

Jowder.  A  term  to  denote  a  retail  dealer  in 
fish. 

Juan-Mooar.     The  black-backed  gull. 

Jubaltare.  The  early  English  word  for  Gi 
braltar. 

Judge-advocate.  The  person  appointed  to 
act  as  public  prosecutor  at  a  court-martial  is 
designated  by  law  as  the  judge-advocate.  Re 
garded  etymologically,  this  term  is  certainly  a 
misnomer,  for  the  subject  is,  in  point  of  function, 
neither  a  judge  nor  an  advocate.  He  has  no 


JUDGE-ADVOCATE 


409 


JUDGE-ADVOCATE 


power  to  hear  and  determine  cases,  nor  to  pass 
sentence,  and  it  is  not  his  duty  to  plead  the  cause 
of  any  one.  Bather  is  he  a  prosecuting  recorder. 
While  his  duties  are  multifarious  and  highly  im 
portant,  the  chief  ones  are  to  produce  and  lay 
before  the  court  all  of  the  evidence  against  the 
person  accused,  and  to  record  with  exactness, 
under  a  solemn  oath,  all  that  transpires  which  it 
is  necessary  for  the  convening  and  ultimate  re 
viewing  authority  to  know.  We  are  probably 
indebted  for  the  imposing  title  to  a  fusion  of  two 
expressions  formerly  applied  to  a  higher  office  in 
Great  Britain,  viz.,  "judge-martial"  and  "  advo 
cate-general,"  and  since  nearly  all  language  is 
arbitrary,  should  not  seriously  object.  See  JUDGE- 
ADVOCATE-GENERAL. 

Usually  a  commissioned  officer  of  the  army  or 
navy  is  appointed  to  this  office,  although  civilians 
are  eligible,  and  until  within  the  last  ten  years  were 
frequently  thus  employed.  Theemolumentsof  the 
office  were  so  liberal  to  them  that  in  March,  1865, 
Congress  found  it  necessary  to  enact  that  "  the 
fees  for  record  in  naval  courts-martial  shall  not 
exceed  in  any  one  case  $200."  Instances  were 
known  where  officers  had  temporarily  resigned 
their  positions  in  order  to  become  entitled  to  the 
large  fees,  as  citizens,  when  appointed  judge-ad 
vocate.  The  practice  of  appointing  civilians  is 
strenuously  objected  to  on  different  grounds  by 
all  writers  on  military  law,  and  may  now  be 
considered  obsolete.  Only  military  persons  should 
so  act,  and  they  should  be  selected  for  their 
special  fitness.  Simmons,  a  distinguished  au 
thority,  speaks  of  the  judge-advocate  as  "  the 
PRIMUM  MOBILE  of  a  court-martial,"  and 
Hughes,  author  of  "  Duties  of  Judge-Advo 
cates,"  says  that  fitness  consists  in  the  possession 
of  a  superior  attainments  and  abilities  as  lawyers 
and  soldiers,  the  qualifications  of  both  professions 
being  requisite  for  this  specific  duty."  As  they 
are  called  upon  to  act  in  the  threefold  capacity 
of  representative  of  the  government,  recorder  of 
the  proceedings,  and  as  the  legal  adviser  of  the 
court  (and  not  unfrequently  as  counsel  for  the 
accused),  it  is  necessary  that  they  should  have  a 
correct  knowledge  of  the  fundamental  principles 
of  law  in  general,  and  a  thorough  special  knowl 
edge  of  the  practice  of  courts-martial. 

The  "  Regulations  for  the  Administration  of 
Law  in  the  Navy"  (Sec.  161)  prescribe  that 
"Judge-advocates  of  all  naval  general  courts- 
martial,  whether  convened  in  the  United  States 
or  abroad,  will  be  appointed  by  the  Secretary  of 
the  Navy  only,  who  will  select  a  competent  com 
missioned  officer  to  perform  this  important  and 
responsible  duty  in  each  foreign  fleet  or  squad 
ron."  The  detail  generally  falls  to  the  officers 
of  the  marine  corps,  many  of  whom  have  made 
military  law  a-  special  study,  and  all  of  whom, 
prior  to  July  1,  1870,  received  an  allowance  of 
$2.50  per  diem  for  every  day  necessarily  employed 
in  the  duty  of  the  court. 

The  first  semblance  of  a  court-martial  with 
judge-advocate  and  provost-marshal  in  England 
— our  prototype — was  authorized  by  an  ordi 
nance  of  Parliament  in  1644,  during  the  reign 
of  Charles  I.  The  Earl  of  Essex,  general  of  the 
forces,  and  56  others  named  in  the  ordinance,  or 
any  12  of  them,  were  made  commissioners  to 
try  "  all  such  causes  as  belonged  to  military  cog 
nizance,"  and  were  empowered  to  appoint  "a 
judge-advocate,  a  provost-marshal,  and  all  other 


officers  needful."  The  Swiss  Guards,  in  the  ser 
vice  of  France,  had  a  juge,  who  was  a  sort  of 
judge  or  provost-marshal  for  each  company,  and 
each  regiment  had  a  superior  one  who  presided 
over  the  others.  Their  duties  seem  to  have  par 
taken  of  the  nature  of  those  of  both  judge-advo 
cate  and  provost-marshal. 

Notwithstanding  the  antiquity  of  the  office,  its 
functions  are  so  faintly  described  by  statute  that 
in  summing  them  up  one  is  obliged  to  resort  to 
the  less  positive  though  equally  binding  authority 
of  established  usage  and  practice,  which,  as  be 
tween  army  and  navy,  is  in  this,  as  in  other  re 
spects  already  set  forth,  far  from  uniform.  (See 
COURTS-MARTIAL.)  For  some  reason,  possibly 
a  morbid  jealousy  of  authority,  the  office  of 
judge-advocate  in  the  navy,  though  equally  in 
dispensable,  is  much  less  potential  than  in  the 
army,  and  unless  the  former  is  familiar  with  and 
tenacious  of  his  powers  and  privileges,  his  char 
acter  as  the  representative  of  the  government  is 
apt  to  be  dwarfed  into  that  of  clerk  to  the  court. 

While  the  army  judge-advocate  is  not  only  the 
medium  of  communication  between  the  appoint 
ing  power  and  the  court,  but  between  the  court 
and  the  accused,  and  the  witnesses,  and  is  the 
first  person  furnished  with  the  charges,  list  of 
witnesses,  and  other  papers  bearing  on  the  case, 
which  he  has  to  prepare  for  trial  and  present, 
the  naval  judge-advocate  finds  the  president, 
disinterested  and  distant  (sometimes  500  miles), 
in  possession  of  them,  and  often  enters  court  at 
12  M.  of  the  day  appointed  to  get  his  first  knowl 
edge  of  what  is  to  be  done.  The  president  then 
turns  over  to  him  the  papers,  and  he  asks  for 
time  to  "  especially  instruct  himself  in  all  the 
circumstances,"  etc.,  as  required  by  Regulations. 
A  few  other  points  of  difference  are  worthy  of 
note.  In  the  army  the  judge-advocate  has  au 
thority  to  alter  or  amend  the  charges,  and  may 
even  substitute  a  new  set,  but  in  the  navy, 
when  faulty,  they  must  be  returned  to  the  con 
vening  authority.  The  naval  judge-advocate 
is  sworn  "  to  keep  a  true  record"  and  to  secrecy, 
but  he  of  the  army  to  secrecy  only.  The  latter 
orders  the  attendance  of  prisoners,  swears  the 
witnesses,  receives  the  reports  of  absent  members 
stating  cause  of  non-appearance,  and  notifies  the 
convening  officer  of  any  changes  in  the  court, 
or  adjournments  in  certain  cases  ;  in  the  navy  all 
this  is  done  by  the  president. 

The  duties  of  a  naval  judge-advocate,  as  laid 
down  by  the  Regulations  above  cited,  and  other 
wise  understood,  are,  when  practicable,  briefly  as 
follows  :  "  Upon  being  notified  that  a  court  is  to 
convene,  and  furnished  (?)  with  such  papers  and 
instructions  as  may  be  considered  necessary  for 
his  guidance,"  he  will  ascertain  that  the  accused 
has  a  true  copy  of  the  charges  and  specifications 
preferred  against  him,  at  least  24  hours  before 
trial,  also  a  list  of  the  witnesses  who  are  to  ap 
pear  against  him  ;  call  upon  him  for  a  list  of 
persons  he  may  desire  to  testify  in  his  behalf,  and 
summon  all  that  may  be  necessary  for  either 
prosecution  or  defense;  inquire  what  facts  they 
can  establish  prior  to  their  introduction,  and 
prepare  a  short  analysis  or  plan  for  the  conduct 
of  the  case.  (See  WITNESS.)  Under  the  au 
thority  of  the  commanding  officer  of  the  station 
or  vessel  where  the  court  is  td  convene,  he  sees 
that  a  suitable  place  is  provided,  and  supplied  t 
with  writing  materials  and  such  other  articles  as  ' 


JUDGE-ADVOCATE 


410 


JUDGE-ADVOCATE-GENERAL 


may  be  needed  for  the  use  and  comfort  of  the 
court ;  obtains  such  books  of  reference  as  may 
be  called  for ;  has  the  necessary  guards  and  or 
derly  detailed,  and  some  accommodations  made 
for  spectators  who  may  attend.  He  then  "  ex 
amines  critically"  the  charges  and  specifications, 
and  advises  the  court  of  any  errors  discovered  ; 
notifies  the  accused  of  any  alterations  which  may 
be  directed ;  sees  that  the  whole  is  embodied  in 
the  record  ;  and  furnishes  the  court  with  a  dupli 
cate  for  its  use.  He  appoints  a  clerk,  or  reporter  ; 
procures  an  interpreter  if  required  ;  observes  that 
the  court  is  organized  agreeably  to  precept,  and 
notes  each  day  in  the  record  who  are  present  or 
absent.  He  takes  care  that  the  accused  has 
counsel  if  he  so  desires,  and  that  he  enjoys  the 
right  of  challenge,  and,  if  he  declines  counsel, 
will  himself  act  so  far  as  to  see  that  he  has  every 
facility  afforded  him,  that  his  rights  are  not  in 
fringed,  and  that  he  suffers  no  disadvantage 
through  ignorance.  The  record  must  be  kept  in 
prescribed  form  on  prescribed  paper,  and  show 
most  particularly  that  the  court,  judge-advocate, 
and  all  of  the  witnesses  were  duly  sworn  in  the 
presence  of  the  accused ;  that  he  was  allowed 
every  opportunity  to  examine  witnesses ;  that 
they  pronounced  their  testimony  correct  before 
being  discharged ;  that  he  was  allowed  time  to 

Erepare  a  statement  or  defense  in  writing ;  that 
e  is  the  person  convicted  and  sentenced,  or  ac 
quitted  ;  and  that  the  whole  is  properly  authen 
ticated  by  the  signatures  of  all  of  the  members 
and  himself.  A  smooth  and  legible  record  made 
from  the  rough  notes  of  the  preceding  day  is  to 
be  presented  and  read  by  him  to  the  court  im 
mediately  upon  convening  each  day,  and  all  er 
rors  corrected  without  erasure  or  interlineation. 
Each  case  must  be  kept  separately,  and  show  all 
changes  in  tbe  composition  of  the  court,  all  ques 
tions  and  answers,  motions,  rulings,  etc.,  and 
have  all  accompanying  documents  appended  and 
numbered,  or  lettered,  for  reference.  The  pro 
ceedings  of  each  day  appear  as  a  chapter  marked 
"Second  Day,"  "Third  Day,"  and  so  on,  and 
the  finding  and  sentence  must  be  in  his  own 
handwriting.  Questions  put  to  witnesses  by 
others  than  himself,  and  all  motions  and  objec 
tions  by  the  accused  are  written  on  slips  of  paper 
and  pasted  to  the  rough  notes. 

He  may  assist  the  accused  to  prepare  his  de 
fense,  or  read  it  for  him,  after  which  he  has  the 
right  of  reply  and  to  the  last  word.  He  takes 
the  vote  of  the  court  as  to  finding  and  sentence ; 
but  the  president  obtains  the  opinion  of  the  court 
on  questions  of  evidence,  adjournment,  etc.  De 
cisions  of  the  court  are  announced  to  the  witness 
or  accused  by  the  judge  advocate.  Not  being  a 
member  he  has  no  vote,  is  not  responsible  to 
the  civil  authority  for  his  opinions,  and  cannot 
be  challenged,  although  he  has  the  right  to  chal 
lenge  any  member  suspected  of  undue  partiality 
for,  or  interest  in,  the  accused.  While  he  may 
sum  up  the  evidence,  and  call  attention  to  facts, 
it  is  not  proper  for  him  to  give  an  opinion  as  to 
the  guilt  of  the  accused,  nor  earlier  in  the  trial 
to  advise  the  accused  to  plead  guilty.  He  is  a 
competent  witness  for  either  side,  and,  if  called, 
should  be  sworn  by  the  president,  interrogated 
by  the  court  or  the  accused  as  the  case  may  be, 
and  have  his  testimony  recorded  by  the  clerk  ;  or 
if  necessary  he  may  do  it  himself.  Should  he  die, 
or  be  disabled,  pending  the  proceedings,  another 


may  be  detailed,  unless  it  happens  between  the 
conclusion  of  the  trial  and  the  authentication  of 
the  record,  in  which  rare  event  the  sentence  is 
inoperative  (Holt's  Digest).  The  court  cannot 
appoint  a  judge-advocate,  no  member  can  act  as 
such,  and  a  vacancy  must  be  referred  to  the  con 
vening  officer.  His  absence  during  the  trial 
does  not  invalidate  the  proceedings,  but  should 
be  avoided  if  possible.  When  it  cannot  be 
helped  it  is  better  for  the  court  to  adjourn  from 
day  to  day  until  his  return. 

Finally,  he  gives  certificates  of  attendance  to 
the  witnesses  and  such  members  as  are  entitled 
to  allowances  ;  forwards  the  record  through  the 
president,  and  if  he  has  been  patient,  respectful, 
impartial,  and  sedulously  careful  of  the  rights 
of  all  concerned,  he  has  performed  an  arduous 
duty  well.— Henry  C.  Cochrane,  Captain  U.S.M.C. 

Judge-advocate-general.  This  title  is  com 
paratively  new  in  the  United  States,  where  it  is 
given  to  two  officials  who  are  appointed  by  the 
President,  by  and  with  the  advice  and  consent 
of  the  Senate.  In  the  army  it  is  held  by  the  se 
nior  law  officer,  who  is  also  chief  of  the  Bureau 
of  Military  Justice,  an  outgrowth  of  the  Rebel 
lion,  and  enjoys  the  rank,  pay,  and  allowances 
of  a  brigadier-general.  The  first  judge-advocate- 
general  in  this  country  was  the  Hon.  Joseph 
Holt,  of  Kentucky,  who  was  appointed  colonel 
and  judge-advocate-general,  September  3,  1862; 
promoted  to  brigadier-general,  June  22,  1864, 
and  retired  at  his  own  request  (being  over  sixty- 
two  years  of  age),  December  1,  1875.  He  was 
succeeded  by  Brig. -Gen.  Wm.  McKee  Dunn, 
the  present  incumbent,  who  has  under  his  direc 
tion  a  corps  of  eight  judge-advocates  with  the 
rank  and  pay  of  major  of  cavalry.  Prior  to  the 
institution  of  the  office  of  judge-ad  vocnte-general 
(1862),  there  was  but  one  judge-advocate  for  the 
entire  army,  and  he  was  required  to  be  selected 
from  the  captains  of  the  line  of  the  army,  and 
given  the  brevet  rank  and  pay  of  a  major  of  cav 
alry.  The  office  seems  to  have  been  finst  estab 
lished  in  the  regular  army  March  3,  1797,  by  an 
act  which  authorized  a  judge-advocate  to  be 
taken  from  the  commissioned  officers  of  the  line, 
and  granted  extra  pay  and  rations. 

In  the  navy,  we  find  that  Congress,  by  act  of 
March  2,  1865,  authorized  the  President  to  ap 
point  "  for  service  during  the  Rebellion,  and  one 
year  thereafter,  an  officer  in  the  Navy  Depart 
ment  to  be  called  the  Solicitor  and  Naval  Judge- 
Advocate-General."  To  this  office  was  appointed 
a  civilian,  the  Hon.  John  A.  Bolles,  of  Massa 
chusetts,  who  held  it  until  his  death,  in  1878. 
After  the  term  for  which  it  was  created  had  ex 
pired,  it  was  with  great  difficulty  that  the  Con 
gress  was  induced  to  continue  it.  Indeed,  one 
year  passed  without  any  appropriation  being 
made  for  the  salary  of  the  incumbent.  When 
the  office  of  the  Attorney-General  of  the  United 
States  was  reorganized,  and  the  Department  of 
Justice  established  in  1870,  there  was  included 
in  its  personnel  "a  naval  solicitor,  at  a  salary 
of  $3500  a  year,"  and  that  is  all  that  was  said  of 
this  important  office.  Mr.  Bolles's  name  was 
dropped  from  the  navy  register  and  placed  upon 
the  rolls  of  the  new  department.  At  his  death 
he  was  succeeded  by  Capt.  William  B.  Remey, 
U.  S.  Marine  Corps,  as  "acting  judge-advo 
cate-general"  until  June  8,  1880,  when,  mainly 
through  his  exertions,  a  bill  was  passed  by  Con- 


JUDGE-ADVOCATE-GENEKAL         411 


JUPITER 


gress  which  placed  the  office  upon  a  better  foot 
ing  than  it  had  ever  known.  This  measure 
authorized  the  President  to  appoint  from  the 
officers  of  the  navy  or  marine  corps,  for  the  term 
of  four  years,  a  judge-advocate-general  of  the 
navy,  with  the  rank,  pay,  and  allowances  of  a 
captain  in  the  navy  or  a  colonel  of  the  marine 
corps,  as  may  be,  and  Capt.  Remey  was  the  first 
appointee,  with  the  rank  of  colonel. 

His  place  of  duty,  or  office,  was  fixed  in  the 
Navy  Department,  "  where  he  shall,  under  the 
direction  of  the  Secretary  of  the  Navy,  receive, 
revise,  and  have  recorded  the  proceedings  of  all 
courts-martial,  courts  of  inquiry,  and  boards  for 
the  examination  of  officers  for  retirement  and 
promotion  in  the  naval  service,  and  perform  such 
other  duties  as  have  heretofore  been  performed 
by  the  solicitor  and  naval  judge-advocate-gen 
eral,"  a  title,  by  the  way,  then  extinct  fbr  ten 
years.  As  these  duties  had  never  been  very  par 
ticularly  defined,  or  generally  understood,  the 
Secretary  of  the  Navy,  Hon.  R.  "W.  Thompson, 
issued  a  circular  June  28,  1880,  also  a  general 
order  of  same  date  (No.  250),  prescribing  them 
minutely,  and  thus  the  law  was  promptly  made 
operative  and  the  office  strongly  established. 

The  circular  announced  that  all  matter  sub 
mitted  to  the  Secretary  involving  questions  of 
law  or  regulation  would  be  referred  by  him,  or 
the  chief  clerk  acting  under  him,  to  the  judge- 
advocate-general  for  examination  and  report,  and 
directed  that  the  chiefs  of  the  several  bureaus 
and  the  officers  connected  with  the  Navy  De 
partment,  and  the  clerks  of  the  Secretary's  office, 
should  furnish  the  judge-advocate-general  with 
all  such  facts  and  information  of  record,  bearing 
upon  cases  under  consideration  by  him,  as  he 
might  require,  and  that  the  records  of  all  courts, 
boards,  etc.,  should  be  filed  in  his  office.  The 
general  order  informed  the  service  of  the  crea 
tion  of  the  office,  and  ordered  that  the  proceed 
ings  of  all  courts,  boards,  etc.,  convened  by  order 
of  the  Secretary  of  the  Navy  should  be  forwarded 
direct  to  the  judge-advocate-general,  who  shall 
report  upon  and  have  them  recorded ;  and  all 
proceedings  of  courts,  boards,  etc.,  convened  by 
other  naval  authority  shall,  after  action  thereon 
by  the  convening  and  reviewing  officers,  be  for 
warded  and  treated  in  the  same  manner.  All 
communications  pertaining  to  questions  of  law 
or  regulation  arising  before  courts  and  boards 
which  may  require  the  action  of  the  Department 
are  also  to  be  sent  to  this  officer  direct. 

Turning  to  England,  we  find  that  there  was  in 
the  olden  time  a  "judge-martial,"  or  "  advocate- 
general,"  who  was  the  supreme  judge  in  martial 
law  as  to  the  jurisdiction  and  powers  of  military 
courts.  It  devolved  upon  him,  as  well  as  upon 
his  deputies,  "  to  be  well  acquainted  with  the 
laws  of  the  land,  that  they  may  admonish  the 
court,  or  president,  when  the  proceedings  tend 
to  infringe  the  civil  law."  He  was  "  the  regis 
ter  of  courts-martial,"  and  took  down  the  evi 
dence  "in  the  very  words  of  the  witness,"  but 
was  neither  a  judge  nor  a  juror  as  to  the  charge. 

This  official  is  now  "  The  Rt.  Hon.  the  Judge- 
Advocate-General,  London,"  the  adviser  of  the 
crown  in  matters  of  military  law,  a  barrister, 
member  of  Parliament,  and  of  the  Privy  Council. 
The  proceedings  of  all  district,  garrison,  and 
general  courts-martial  are  submitted  to  him  for 
approval,  the  latter  being  laid  before  the  queen 


by  him  for  confirmation.  A  deputy  judge-advo 
cate  is  appointed  to  attend  at  all  general  courts- 
martial  and  advise  the  courts  as  to  points  of  law. 
In  general  courts  he  prepares  the  charges  against 
the  accused,  but  in  other  courts  this  is  done  by 
the  commanding  officer.  See  JUDGE-ADYOCATE. 
— Henry  C.  Cochrane,  Captain  U.S.M.C. 

Julian  Period.  A  period  of  7980  years,  dating 
from  B.C.  4713 ;  being  the  product  of  the  num 
bers  15,  19,  and  28  multiplied  into  each  other, 
they  being  respectively  the  lengths,  in  Julian 
years,  of  the  Indiction,  Metonic  Cycle,  and  Solar 
Cycle.  The  Julian  year  was  a  period  of  365£ 
days,  which  was  adopted  as  the  length  of  the 
year  after  the  reformation  of  the  calendar  by 
Julius  Csesar.  See  CALENDAR. 

Jumper.  A  loose  frock  descending  to  the  ship 
and  worn  outside  the  trousers.  A  rope  attached 
to  the  outer  end  of  the  whiskers  to  keep  them 
from  canting  upwards. 

Jump-jointed.  Flush-jointed  ;  applied  to  the 
plates  of  an  iron  vessel. 

Jumgada.     See  JANGADA. 

Junk.  The  Chinese  junk  is  the  largest  vessel 
built  by  that  nation,  and  at  one  period  exceeded 
in  tonnage  any  war-vessel  then  possessed  by 
England.  The  extreme  beam  is  one-third  from 
the  stern;  it  shows  no  stem,  it  being  chamfered 
off.  The  bow  on  deck  is  square,  over  which  the 
anchors  slide  fore  and  aft.  Having  no  keel,  and 
being  very  full  at  the  stern,  a  huge  rudder  is 
suspended,  which  at  sea  is  lowered  below  the 
depth  of  the  bottom.  The  masts  are  immense, 
in  one  piece.  The  hull  is  divided  into  water 
tight  compartments,  like  tanks.  Junk  is  also 
remnants  or  pieces  of  old  cable  or  condemned 
rope,  cut  into  small  portions  for  the  purpose  of 
making  points,  mats,  swabs,  gaskets,  sennit, 
oakum,  and  the  like.  Also,  a  dense  cellular  tis 
sue  in  the  head  of  the  sperm-whale,  infiltrated 
with  spermaceti.  Also,  salt  beef,  as  tough  to  the 
teeth  as  bits  of  rope,  whence  the  epithet. 

JUNK- WAD.     See  WAD. 

Junket.     A  long  basket  for  catching  fish. 

Junketing.  Good  cheer  and  hearty  jollifica 
tion. 

Jupiter.  The  largest  planet  of  the  solar  sys 
tem.  The  mean  distance  of  Jupiter  from  the 
sun  is  496  millions  of  miles,  and,  since  the  eccen 
tricity  of  its  orbit  is  about  l-20th,  this  distance 
is  augmented  in  perihelion  and  diminished  in 
aphelion  by  about  24  millions  of  miles.  Jupi 
ter  makes  a  revolution  about  the  sun  in  11.8 
years;  it  revolves  on  its  axis  in  9h  55m ;  its 
equatorial  diameter  is  92  millions  of  miles ;  ap 
parent  diameter  30/x  to  48/x,  and  its  volume  is 
1400  times  that  of  the  earth.  Viewed  through  a 
powerful  telescope  Jupiter  exhibits  a  light  yel 
lowish  color,  having  a  series  of  brownish-gray 
streaks,  called  belts,  running  nearly  parallel  to 
the  equator.  Jupiter  is  attended  by  4  satellites 
at  distances  varying  from  280  to  1200  thousand 
miles,  and  varying  in  size  from  12  hundred  to  35 
hundred  miles.  Jupiter  is  a  body  of  the  greatest 
importance  to  the  navigator  ;  for  besides  serving 
in  a  pre-eminent  manner  the  ordinary  purposes 
of  bright  stars,  such  as  determining  the  lati 
tude,  and  also  by  its  lunar  distances  furnishing 
the  means  of  finding  the  longitude,  the  eclipses 
of  Jupiter's  satellites  give  an  independent  method 
of  obtaining  the  longitude.  Symbol  1J,  from  the 
initial  of  Zeus,  the  Greek  name  of  Jupiter. 


JUREBASSO 


412 


KANE 


Jurebasso  (Eng.}.  A  rating  in  former  times 
given  to  a  handy  man,  who  was  partly  inter 
preter  arid  partly  purchaser  of  stock. 

Jurisdiction.  The  legal  power  or  authority 
of  the  government  or  of  a  branch  thereof.  The 
limit  within  which  power  may  be  exercised  ;  ex 
tent  of  power  or  authority.  See  INTERNATIONAL 
LAW. 

Jury-anchor.     See  ANCHOR.  • 

Jury-mast.  A  temporary  mast  erected  in  a 
ship  in  the  place  of  one  which  has  been  carried 
away  in  a  gale,  battle,  etc.  Jury-masts  are  some 
times  erected  in  a  new  ship  to  navigate  her  down 


a  river,  or  to  a  neighboring  port,  where  her 
proper  masts  are  prepared  for  her. 

Jury-rudder.  A  contrivance,  of  which  there 
are  several  kinds,  for  supplying  a  vessel  with  the 
means  of  steering  when  an  accident  has  befallen 
the  rudder. 

Jus  Piscandi.     The  right  of  fishing. 

Jute.  The  fibre  of  an  East  Indian  plant  (Cor- 
chorus  capsularis),  and,  also,  of  the  plant  Cor- 
chorus  olitorius.  It  is  used  for  making  rope, 
matting,  gunny,  and  other  coarse  fabrics. 

Juwaur.  The  spring-flood  of  the  Ganges  and 
adjacent  rivers. 


K. 


Kabbilow.  Codfish  salted  but  not  thoroughly 
dried. 

Kabozir.  A  chief  or  governor  on  the  African 
coast. 

Kaburns.     An  old  word  for  nippers. 

Kafila.  An  old  word  for  a  convoy  of  merchant- 
vessels. 

Kalmar.  A  fortified  town  and  seaport  of 
Sweden,  capital  of  a  Isen  of  the  same  name.  It 
is  situated  on  the  southeast  coast,  on  the  Kalmar 
Sound,  opposite  the  island  Gland,  about  200 
miles  S.S.W.  of  Stockholm.  It  is  the  terminus 
of  a  railway,  and  has  a  good  harbor,  a  fine 
church,  a  prefecture,  a  strong  castle,  now  a  house 
of  correction,  an  academy,  a  gymnasium,  a  dock 
yard,  and  manufactories  of  woolen  stuffs,  tobacco, 
and  potash.  In  its  castle  the  treaty  called  the 
"Union  of  Kalmar,"  which  settled  the  succes 
sion  of  the  three  northern  kingdoms  upon  Queen 
Margaret  of  Denmark  and  her  heirs  forever,  was 
agreed  to  by  the  deputies  of  the  three  kingdoms 
on  the  12th  of  July,  1397.  The  union,  however, 
lasted  only  till  the  death  of  Margaret.  Pop. 
about  10,000. 

Kamsin.  A  southwesterly  wind  which  blows 
over  Egypt  during  March  and  April. 

Kanagawa.  A  town  of  Japan,  situated  on 
the  west  side  of  the  bay  of  Tokio,  and  on  the 
railway  from  Tokio  to  Yokohama,  15  miles  S. 
of  Tokio  and  3  miles  N.  of  Yokohama,  from 
which  it  is  separated  by  a  lagoon.  It  has  a  fort 
and  barracks,  and  is  one  of  the  treaty  ports.  It 
formerly  had  a  larger  foreign  trade  than  any 
other  port  of  Japan,  but  with  the  rise  in  impor 
tance  of  Yokohama,  Kanagawa  has  declined. 
Pop.  4000. 

Kanaris,  Konstantin.  A  native  of  the  isle 
of  Ipsara,  distinguished  for  his  exploits  in  the 
Greek  war  of  independence.  In  1822  he  blew 
up  the  Turkish  admiral's  ship  in  the  Strait  of 
Chios,  and  the  same  year  performed  a  similar 
exploit  in  the  harbor  of  Tenedos.  On  the  17th 
of  August,  1824,  he  avenged  the  wrongs  which 
his  native  isle  had  suffered  from  the  Turks 
by  burning  a  large  Turkish  frigate  and  some 
transport-ships  which  were  carrying  troops  to 
Samos,  thereby  also  saving  Samos  from  the  rav 
ages  which  Chios  and  Ipsara  had  endured.  In 


1825  he  formed  the  bold  design  of  burning  the 
Egyptian  fleet  then  lying  in  the  harbor  of  Alex 
andria  ready  to  carry  troops  to  the  Peloponnesus, 
and  only  the  springing  up  of  an  unfavorable 
wind  prevented  the  success  of  his  undertaking. 
He  held  important  commands  under  the  Greek 
president,  Capo  d'Istrias,and  in  1848-49  was  war 
minister  and  president  of  the  cabinet.  In  1862, 
as  admiral  of  the  fleet,  he  took  part  in  the  revo 
lution  which  overthrew  the  government  of  King 
Otho. 

Kane,  Elisha  Kent,  was  born  in  Philadelphia, 
Pa.,  February  3,  1820,  being  the  eldest  of  the 
seven  children  of  the  Hon.  John  K.  Kane, 
United  States  judge  for  the  Eastern  District  of 
Pennsylvania. 

Dr.  Kane  numbered  among  his  ancestors  the 
Kanes  and  Van  Kensselaers,  of  New  York,  and 
the  Grays  and  Leipers,  of  Pennsylvania, — all 
well-known  and  highly-honored  names. 

As  a  boy  he  was  small  for  his  age,  but  very 
active  and  daring ;  noted  for  venturous  escapades 
and  for  his  skill  as  a  rider, — and  though  early 
devoted  to  experimental  chemistry  and  physics, 
showing  no  great  fondness  for  books. 

At  sixteen,  however,  he  began  to  work, — his 
studies  being  directed  with  a  view  to  his  ulti 
mately  becoming  a  civil  engineer.  When  about 
to  enter  Yale  College  he  discovered  symptoms  of 
disease  of  the  heart,  from  which  he  was  never 
afterwards  entirely  free.  This  caused  a  change 
in  the  plan  of  his  education,  it  being  thought 
better,  both  on  account  of  the  climate  and  the 
ability  to  select  his  course  of  study,  to  enter  him 
at  the  University  of  Virginia.  Here  he  pursued 
the  natural  sciences  —  chemistry,  mineralogy, 
physical  geography,  and  geology — under  the  cel 
ebrated  Professor  Rogers,  with  the  usual  course 
of  mathematics  and  classics.  He  was  a  good  stu 
dent  in  all  of  them,  and  they  were  destined  to 
prove  of  the  utmost  value  to  him  in  his  subse 
quent  labors.  He  took  no  degree,  his  studies 
being  interrupted  by  an  attack  of  rheumatism 
involving  the  heart.  He  was  long  almost  hope 
lessly  ill,  with  a  slow  arid  doubtful  recovery, 
which  left  him  subject  to  sudden  death  at  any 
moment.  During  his  whole  after-life  he  suffered 
from  rheumatism  and  cardiac  disease,  except 


KANE 


413 


KANE 


when  in  the  high  northern  latitudes,  when 
scurvy,  which  in  his  case  seemed  incompatible 
with  them,  took  their  place.  The  breaking  down 
of  his  health  caused  him  to  give  up  the  profes 
sion  of  engineering  and  to  take  industriously  to 
the  study  of  medicine,  following  his  father's  ad 
vice,  "  If  he  was  to  die,  to  die  in  harness." 

In  his  21st  year,  while  still  an  under-gradu- 
ate,  and  still  in  a  critical  condition  of  health, 
he  was  made  one  of  the  resident  physicians  of  the 
Philadelphia  Hospital.  In  addition  to  bestow 
ing  sedulous  attention  upon  his  regular  duties, 
he  here  made  many  original  experiments  upon  a 
subject  relating  to  pregnancy,  which  was  then 
much  occupying  the  medical  mind, — which  ex 
periments  were  of  so  thorough  and  scientific  a  na 
ture  as  to  satisfy  the  profession  both  in  this  coun 
try  and  in  Europe.  His  graduating  thesis,  on  the 
same  subject,  was  published  at  the  request  of  the 
medical  faculty  of  the  University  of  Pennsyl 
vania. 

Without  the  son's  knowledge,  Kane's  father 
had  applied  for  permission  for  him  to  enter  the 
navy  as  an  assistant  surgeon,  and  he  was  at  first 
much  opposed  to  doing  so,  but  finally  yielded 
and  worked  hard  to  prepare  for  the  examination. 
After  passing  he  told  the  board  of  his  disability, 
but  he  just  then  seemed  so  well,  and  had  exhib 
ited  such  proficiency,  that  they  declined  to  revoke 
their  favorable  decision. 

While  waiting  a  vacancy,  Dr.  Kane  was  ap 
pointed  physician  to  Mr.  Cushing's  embassy  to 
China,  and  sailed  in  May,  1843, ^in  the  frigate 
"  Brandywine,"  for  Bombay,  there  to  meet  the 
minister,  who  was  to  go  overland.  The  Secre 
tary  of  the  Navy  had  given  permission  for  him 
to  accept  this  post  without  prejudice  to  his  posi 
tion  in  the  navy. 

On  the  voyage  out  the  "  Brandywine"  was  de 
tained  for  some  time  at  Rio  Janeiro,  and  Kane 
seized  the  opportunity  of  making  a  geological 
reconnoissance  of  the  Eastern  Brazilian  moun 
tains,  occupying  his  time  while  at  sea  in  study 
ing  navigation  and  languages.  Mr.  Gushing 
was  delayed  for  a  long  time  by  the  burning  of 
the  steam-frigate  "  Missouri"  at  Gibraltar,  and 
the  "  Brandywine"  waited  at  Bombay,  Kane 
making  several  extended  trips,  and  even  going 
as  far  as  Ceylon  and  there  joining  in  an  elephant 
hunt. 

When  the  "  Brandywine,"  with  the  embassy, 
at  length  reached  Macao,  Kane  found  his  com 
mission  there  waiting  for  him,  but  he  continued 
attached  to  the  commissioner's  staff  until  July, 
1844,  when  the  treaty  was  signed. 

With  Mr.  Cushing's  sanction  he  had,  in  the 
mean  time,  gone  to  Luzon,  traversed  that  little- 
known  island  to  its  Pacific  shores,  explored  the 
asphaltic  lakes,  and  descended,  with  extreme  la 
bor  and  peril,  to  the  bottom  of  the  crater  of  the 
great  volcano  of  Jael,  and,  in  consequence,  nearly 
lost  his  life  at  the  hands  of  the  savages,  who 
resented  his  exploration  of  the  mysteries  which 
they  worshiped.  Only  one  person  had  before 
attempted  this  perilous  feat,  and  he  was  unsuc 
cessful. 

Upon  Mr.  Cushing's  return  to  the  United 
States,  Kane  resigned  his  place  in  the  embassy, 
and  intended  to  resign  from  the  navy,  with  a  view 
to  practicing  in  Whampoa  until  he  had  amassed 
a  sufficient  sum  to  enable  him  to  carry  out  a  dar 
ling  scheme, — the  exploration  of  the  remoter  parts 


of  Eastern  Asia.  After  a  short  time,  however, 
he  broke  down  with  fever  and  was  obliged  to 
change  the  climate. 

By  way  of  Singapore  and  Ceylon  he  i cached 
India,  when  he  traveled  up  the  country  and 
made  an  ascent  of  the  Himalayas.  From  India 
he  passed  through  Persia  and  Syria  to  Egypt, 
ascending  the  Nile,  and  having  a  number  of  ad 
ventures,  among  others,  a  fight  with  a  party  of 
Bedouins,  losing  all  his  luggage,  and  receiving 
a  wound  in  the'  leg.  This'necessitated  a  return 
to  Alexandria  for  treatment,  during  which  he 
suffered  a  nearly  fatal  attack  of  plague  ;  his  con 
valescence  from  which  was  rendered  doubly 
tedious  by  the  annoyance  caused  by  the  loss  of 
some  prized  collections  which  he  had  sent  down 
the  river  in  a  native  boat. 

As  soon  as  he  was  able  to  travel  he  set  out  for 
Greece,  which  country  he  explored,  mostly  on 
foot.  Thence  he  visited  Italy,  Germany,  and 
Switzerland,  examining  glaciers,  and  forming 
theories  as  to  ice  action^  which  he  was  destined 
to  put  to  practical  use.  From  Switzerland  he 
went  to  Paris,  and  while  there  endeavored,  by 
correspondence,  to  obtain  permission  from  the 
Spanish  government  to  practice  his  profession 
in  Luzon,  with  a  view  to  further  exploration 
there,  but  in  this  he  failed. 

He  now  returned  to  Philadelphia,  and,  at  the 
earnest  solicitation  of  his  family,  engaged  for 
one  winter  in  professional  occupations,  with  fair 
prospects.  At  this  time  he  would  have  resigned 
from  the  navy  had  there  not  been  a  prospect  of 
hostilities  with  Mexico ;  and  when  war  with 
that  country  broke  out,  he  at  once  applied  for 
duty.  Instead  of  being  sent  to  Mexico,  how 
ever,  he  was,  in  May,  1846,  ordered  to  the  coast 
of  Africa,  in  the  frigate  "United  States,"  Com 
modore  Read. 

During  his  visit  to  Brazil  Kane  had  met,  and 
put  under  obligations,  the  great  slave-trader, 
De  Souza,  who  had  given  him  letters  to  his 
agents  in  Africa.  These  now  proved  useful,  and 
he  visited  most  of  the  slave-factories  from  Cape 
Mount  to  the  Bonny  River,  and  even  accom 
panied  (with  Commodore  Read's  permission)  a 
caravan  from  one  of  De  Souza's  factories,  Avhich 
carried  a  present  to  the  king  of  Dahomey. 

Some  months  after  this  he  was  prostrated  by  a 
severe  attack  of  the  coast  fever,  and  in  March, 
1847,  it  was  found  necessary  to  invalid  him 
home,  from  Liberia.  Kane  always  maintained 
that  this  illness  was  the  most  shattering  of  the 
many  which  he  experienced. 

By  the  time  he  had  partially  recovered  the 
American  army  was  in  possession  of  the  city  of 
Mexico,  but  Col.  Childs  was  besieged  in  Puebla, 
and  communication  with  the  coast  was  much  in 
terrupted.  An  important  dispatch  had  been  three 
times  sent  to  Gen.  Scott,  and  no  answer  had 
been  received.  Just  then  Kane  appeared  in 
Washington,  highly  recommended,  and  anxious 
for  any  service  in  which  he  could  distinguish 
himself;  and  the  President  resolved  to  confide 
the  verbal  message  to  him,  as  well  as  important 
written  orders. 

He  set  out  in  November,  sailing  from  New 
Orleans.  The  steam-transport  which  carried  him 
was  nearly  lost  in  a  severe  "  norther,"  the  pas 
sengers  being  obliged  to  bail  the  vessel  with 
camp-kettles ;  but  they  at  last  succeeded  in 
reaching  Vera  Cruz.  From  this  point  he  went 


KANE 


414 


KANE 


'as  far  as  Perote  with  a  detachment  of  American 
troops;  and  as  they  went  no  farther  he  then 
joined  a  renegade  spy  company,  under  the  com 
mand  of  the  notorious  Col.  Dominguez. 

On  the  6th  of  January,  1848,  the  escort  ^  en 
countered,  near  Nopuluca,  a  band  of  Mexican 
guerrillas,  who  were  escorting  some  Mexican 
officers  to  Orizaba. 

A  sharp  engagement  at  once  ensued,  the  spy 
company  fighting  "  with  ropes  round  their 
necks,"  and  so  desperately  that  Gens.  Gaona 
and  Torrejon,  Col.  Gaona,  2  captains  and  38 
men  were  taken  prisoners. 

In  the  charge  Kane  was  wounded  and  had  his 
horse  killed.  Gen.  Gaona,  who  was  also  wounded, 
surrendered  to  Kane,  who  had  great  difficulty  in 
preventing  the  murder  of  his  prisoner  by  the 
renegades ;  and  then,  in  spite  of  his  own  condi 
tion,  had  to  act  as  surgeon  to  the  general  and 
other  wounded.  After  this  adventure  Kane  re 
mained  for  a  long  time  ill  at  Puebla,  from  the 
effects  of  his  injury  and  from  typhus  fever,  and 
his  life  was  saved,  he  always  declared,  by  the  at 
tention  and  nursing  he  received  from  the  grate 
ful  family  of  Gen.  Gaona,  who  were  residents  of 
the  town. 

When  Kane  finally  reached  home  he  was  pre 
sented  with  a  handsome  sword  by  some  of  the 
foremost  citizens  of  Philadelphia. 

In  the  succeeding  year  he  was  attached  to  the 
U.  S.  ship  "  Supply,"  in  which  he  visited  Lisbon 
and  the  Mediterranean,  as  well  as  Bio  Janeiro. 
During  this  cruise  he  had  another  dangerous  ill 
ness,  nearly  losing  his  life  from  lock-jaw.  In 
deed,  his  whole  life  seems  to  have  been  a  struggle 
against  disease  of  some  kind,  which  renders  his 
wonderful  energy  and  industry  the  more  re 
markable. 

Having  passed  his  examination  for  promotion, 
and  while  serving  in  Mobile  Bay  upon  the  coast 
survey,  he  was,  in  18-30,  upon  his  urgent  appli 
cation,  appointed  to  the  United  States  Grinnell 
Expedition;  and,  in  two  days  after  reporting  at 
New  York,  found  himself  on  his  way  to  the  ex 
treme  north.  The  vessels,  supplied  by  the  liber 
ality  of  Mr.  Henry  Grinnell,  were  two  herma 
phrodite  brigs, — the  "  Advance,"  of  144  tons, 
and  the  "  Bescue,"  of  91  tons.  Kane  was  medi 
cal  officer  of  the  "  Advance." 

Lieut.  De  Haven,  who  commanded  the  expe 
dition,  had  had  some  experience  in  the  Antarctic, 
under  Wilkes,  and  was  an  excellent  officer,  with 
qualities  peculiarly  fitting  him  for  his  arduous 
duties. 

The  year  1850  was  prolific  in  Polar  expedi 
tions,  no  less  than  10  British  vessels  being  in 
search  of  traces  of  Franklin,  beside  a  land-party 
under  Dr.  Bae. 

Twenty  thousand  pounds  sterling  were  offered 
for  the  discovery  and  effectual  relief  of  Frank 
lin's  party,  but  the  officers  and  men  of  the  Amer 
ican  expedition  signed  a  bond  not  to  claim  the 
reward  in  case  of  success. 

Kane  started  on  the  voyage  in  very  indifferent 
health,  and  was  so  prostrated  by  sea-sickness  that 
De  Haven  urged  him  to  go  home  from  Green 
land,  fearing  his  ability  to  endure  the  necessary 
hardships  of  the  cruise.  This  he  could  not  be 
persuaded  to  do  ;  and  his  health  improved  when 
the  real  work  of  the  expedition  began. 

In  the  passage  up  Wellington  Channel,  De  Ha 
ven  saw  and  named  Grinnell  Land,  which  was 


named  Albert  Land  by  Penny,  eight  months 
afterwards.  Very  considerable  discussion  arose 
afterwards  about  this  point,  but  the  prior  discov 
ery  of  De  Haven  was  at  last  allowed  by  geogT 
raphers,  greatly  through  the  exertions  of  Kane, 
who  became  the  historian  of  this  eventful  voyage, 
which  occupied  16  months,  during  nine  of  which 
the  vessels  were  ice-locked  and  drifting. 

In  1852,  before  the  book  was  fairly  through 
the  press,  Kane  was  off  to  the  Polar  regions  again, 
— this  time  in  command.  Mr.  Grinnell  again 
gave  the  "  Advance,"  in  which  Kane  placed  the 
generous  donor's  name  much  farther  north  than 
the  previous  expedition  had  done. 

The  funds  for  this  expedition  were  derived  part 
ly  from  the  government,  which  contributed  ten 
naval  seamen  and  their  rations,  and  instruments, 
books,  and  medical  stores.  The  American  Philo 
sophical  Society,  the  Smithsonian  Institution, 
the  Naval  Observatory,  and  the  Naval  Medical 
Bureau  also  added  to  the  rather  meagre  outfit, 
while  Kane  himself  contributed  his  pay  and  the 
proceeds  of  a  number  of  lectures  delivered  by  him 
upon  Polar  Exploration.  He  also  received  con 
tributions  from  private  persons,  chief  among 
whom  was  Mr.  Peabody,  who  gave  $10,000. 

There  was  no  Congressional  aid.  Mr.  Ken 
nedy  had  promised  certain  assistance  within  his 
own  powers,  and  when  he  left  the  Navy  Depart 
ment  his  successor,  Mr.  Dobbin,  though  luke 
warm,  would  not  undo  his  predecessor's  work. 

Just  as  the  time  for  sailing  came  Kane  had  a 
violent  attack  of  inflammatory  rheumatism,  but 
he  persevered,  was  carried  on  board,  and  in  good 
time  reached  Upernavik. 

On  July  25,  1853,  having  completed  his  pur 
chases  of  furs  and  dogs,  and  engaged  his  Esqui 
maux,  he  sent  off  his  last  letters  and  plunged  into 
the  unknown  regions  of  the  North.  He  had  full 
faith  in  the  survival  of  some  of  Sir  John  Frank 
lin's  people;  hut  while  he  took  every  means  of 
inquiry  in  regard  to  them,  he  was  also  careful  to 
keep  up  the  various  observations  which  he  was 
so  competent  to  make. 

He  spent  two  winters  in  the  ice,  having  a  more 
than  usually  severe  experience  of  the  Arctic  win 
ter.  In  June,  1854,  the  brig  then  ice-bound  in 
Bensselaer  harbor  (78°  37/  10"  N.,  and  70°  40' 
W.),  Kane  and  Sontag,  the  astronomer,  being 
sick  with  scurvy,  and  Dr.  Hayes,  the  surgeon, 
snow-blind  from  a  survey  of  Grinnell's  Land, 
Kane  sent  one  of  his  petty  officers  (Morton)  to 
81°  north  to  look  for  the  open  Polar  sea.  Morton 
brought  back  the  report  of  having  seen  such  a 
body  of  open  water, — which  has  ever  since  pro 
voked  so  much  discussion  and  comment. 

Far  exceeding  all  other  trials  during  the  expe 
dition  was  his  search,  in  March,  1855,  for  a 
sledge-party  which  became  exhausted  upon  the 
ice  during  an  unusually  severe  storm,  when  the 
thermometer  reached  78°  below  freezing.  For 
tunately,  the  party  was  found  and  rescued. 

By  the  second  winter  of  the  absence  of  the  ex 
pedition  great  anxiety  concerning  it  began  to  be 
felt,  especially  as  the  first  winter  had  been  a  se 
vere  one,  and  it  was  known  that  the  outfit  was, 
in  some  respects,  deficient.  Congress  was  me 
morialized,  and  public  opinion  favored  an  expe 
dition  of  relief.  By  authority  of  Congress  such 
an  expedition  sailed  in  the  early  summer,  well 
provided,  and  well  officered  and  manned.  The 
vessels  were  the  propeller  "  Arctic"  and  the  bark 


KANE 


415 


KAYU-PUTIH 


"  Release,"  under  command  of  Lieut.  Hartstene, 
U.  S.  Navy,  who  made  a  request  to  the  Secretary 
of  the  Navy  that,  in  case  they  did  not  return 
within  the  expected  time,  no  expedition  should 
be  sent  in  search  of  them,  "  to  avoid  further  risk 
of  human  life." 

After  a  tour  of  Baffin's  Bay,  encountering 
heavy  ice,  Hartstene  picked  up  the  adventurers 
of  Kane's  party,  who  were  upon  their  return  to 
civilization.  They  had  abandoned  their  vessel, 
hopelessly  ice-bound,  and  accomplished  their 
own  delivery  by  means  of  a  perilous  journey  over 
the  ice,  bringing  their  own  boats  with  them  on 
sledges,  and  making  a  trip  of  1300  miles  through 
Smith's  Sound  and  Melville  Bay.  They  were 
found  at  Lievely,  on  the  eve  of  taking  passage  in 
a  Danish  vessel  for  Europe.  Hartstene  took  them 
on  board,  and  they  reached  New  York  October 
11,  1855,  after  an  absence  of  thirty  months. 

Kane  at  once  set  about  his  interesting  and  com 
plete  work,  entitled  "  Arctic  Explorations:  The 
Second  Grinnell  Expedition  in  Search  of  Sir  John 
Franklin,  1853-54-55." 

Kane's  health,  always  wretched,  now  steadily 
failed, — as  he  himself  thought  from  the  combined 
effects  of  rheumatism  and  the  scurvy  taint.  But 
he  worked  early  and  late  to  get  his  charming 
book  finished,  of  which  he  said,  "  poor  as  it  is,  it 
has  been  my  coffin."  On  the  contrary,  it  is  his 
best  monument. 

The  admirable  illustrations  of  this  work  are 
all  from  sketches  by  himself,  afterwards  worked 
up  by  the  distinguished  marine  painter,  Hamil 
ton,  who  thought  very  highly  of  them  ;  and 
Blackwood  and  other  reviews  of  the  time  praised 
these  sketches  made  in  a  killing  temperature  by 
a  sick  man,  with  mittened  hands,  upon  a  com 
panion's  shoulders.  His  book  was  a  tremendous 
success,  the  copyright  upon  the  first  year's  sales 
amounting  to  $65,000. 

Kane  fully  intended,  if  he  ever  rallied  suffi 
ciently,  to  publish  for  "reputation's  sake," 
either  through  the  government  or  the  Smithso 
nian  Institution,  a  scientific  work  upon  ice. 

No  public  recognition  of  his  services  was  ever 
given  by  Congress  ;  not  even  the  extra  pay  and 
emoluments  usually  voted  to  such  explorers. 
Secretary  Dobbin  referred  to  the  expedition 
(which  he  had  no  hand  in  promoting)  in  his 
annual  report,  remarking  that  "he  had  ad 
vanced  far  beyond  his  intrepid  predecessors," 
and  especially  remarking  his  "  miraculous  and 
successful  journey  over  the  ice  in  open  sledges 
for  eighty-four  days." 

A  gold  medal  was,  indeed,  ordered  by  Con 
gress,  but  not  until  after  his  death.  But  from 
other  sources  the  recognition  of  his  services  came 
in  thick  and  fast.  He  received  the  gold  medal 
of  the  Eoyal  Geographical  Society  with  favor 
able  mention — a  high  honor  :  the  queen's  medal 
for  Arctic  explorers — arid  a  testimonial  from 
the  British  residents  of  New  York.  The  Legis 
latures  of  New  Jersey,  Pennsylvania,  and  Ma 
ryland  also  gave  him  a  vote  of  thanks  for  his 
exertions. 

The  principal  results  of  Kane's  expedition 
may  be  briefly  stated  as — 

1st.  The  discovery  of  960  miles  of  coast-line, 
principally  by  2000  miles  of  travel  on  foot  and 
by  dog-teams. 

2d.  The  Greenland  coast  traced  to  its  northern 
face. 


3d.  The  survey  of  the  Humboldt  glacier. 

4th.  The  discovery  and  delineation  of  the  coast 
of  Washington  Land. 

5th.  The  same  accomplished  for  a  large  tract 
forming  the  northern  extremity  of  our  continent. 

6th.  "The  discovery  of  a  large  channel  to  the 
northwest  free  from  ice,  and  supposed  to  lead 
into  the  open  Polar  Sea. 

By  the  time  the  book  was  published  the  au 
thor's  condition  of  health  became  most  alarm 
ing,  but  his  friends  still  clung  to  hope  of  recov 
ery  on  account  of  his  well-proved  tenacity  of  life. 
The  hand  of  death  was,  however,  upon  him,  but, 
with  faint  hopes  of  improvement  from  change  of 
climate,  he  sailed  for  England.  Finding  himself 
worse  there,  he  sailed  for  St.  Thomas,  and  thence 
managed  to  rpach  Havana,  where  his  mother  and 
brother  arrived  about  the  same  time,  to  find  him 
paralyzed,  but  consumed  with  a  dying  man's 
anxiety  to  die  at  home.  His  last  wish  was  not 

f ratified,  for  he  died  at  Havana,  February  16. 
857. 

Just  thirty-seven  years  old  at  the  time  of  his 
death,  Kane  had  probably  accomplished  more 
arduous  travel  than  any  other  explorer  of  his 
day.  Eather  spare,  and  below  the  average  height, 
with  large  and  well-formed  head  and  chest,  he 
had  dark-brown  hair,  gray  eyes,  and  fair  com 
plexion.  With  temperate  habits  and  a  delicate 
eater,  he  possessed  great  muscular  power,  and 
was  a  skillful  horseman,  a  capital  pedestrian, 
and  a  good  shot.  His  self-reliance  was  perfect, 
and  his  power  to  govern  his  subordinates  was 
very  great.  His  expedition  towards  the  Pole 
was  a  private  venture,  the  men  volunteers,  and 
yet  in  the  most  perilous  and  doubtful  periods 
they  never  questioned  his  movements  or  orders. 
He  showed  especial  capacity  in  his  management 
of  the  natives  at  Etah,  an  Esquimaux  village, 
converting  them  from  attempting  plunder  of 
the  vessel  and  threatening  the  lives  of  the  white 
men  to  a  friendly  condition,  in  which  they  ren 
dered  the  greatest  assistance  to  the  distressed 
party. 

His  professional  and  scientific  attainments, 
undoubtedly  great,  were  held  by  him  as  adju 
vants  to  the  great  object  of  his  life, — exploration, 
by  which  he  built  up  the  world  with  fame  not 
only  for  himself,  but  for  his  country. 

His  remains  were  brought  from  Havana  to 
Uew  Orleans,  and  thence  by  the  river  to  Pitts 
burgh,  and  finally  to  his  native  city,  being  re 
ceived  at  all  points  with  the  highest  honors, 
civic,  military,  and  Masonic. 

He  was  finally,  after  lying  in  state  in  Inde 
pendence  Hall,  interred  at  Laurel  Hill  Cemetery, 
on  the  banks  of  the  Schuylkill.— E.  Shippen. 

Kanjia.     A  passage-bo^t  of  the  Nile. 

Karavalla.     See  CARAVEL. 

Karbatz.     A  common  boat  of  Lapland. 

Kava.  A  beverage  in  the  South  Sea  Islands, 
made  by  steeping  the  Piper  inebrians  in  water. 

Kayak.  A  fishing-boat  common  in  northern 
regions,  probably  a  corruption  of  caique. 

Kaynard  (Fr.  cagnard,  a  skulker).  An  ob 
solete  term  for  a  rascal ;  a  cowardly,  good-for- 
nothing  fellow. 

Kayu-putih,  or  Cajeputi  Oil.  (From  the  Ma 
lay  words  putih,  white,  and  kdyu,  tree.)  An 
essential  oil  obtained  from  the  leaves  of  two 
species  of  Melaleuca.  It  is  fragrant,  and  has  a 
strong,  pungent  taste. 


KAZTE 


416 


KELP 


•  Kazie.  A  fishing-boat  used  by  the  inhabitants 
of  the  Shetland  Islands. 

Keavie.     A  kind  of  crab. 

KEAVIE-CLEEK.  An  instrument  used  for  catch 
ing  the  keavie  in  the  north  of  England. 

Keckling.  Small  rope  or  strands  wound  about 
cables  or  hawsers  to  protect  them  from  chafe. 

Kedge.  A  small  anchor  used  for  moving  a 
vessel  from  one  part  of  a  harbor  to  another,  or 
for  a  temporary  anchorage.  It  is  usually  carried 
out  in  a  boat  and  dropped  as  required.  To  kedge, 
to  move  a  vessel  by  means  of  a  kedge. 

KEDGER.  An  old  English  name  for  a  fisher 
man. 

KEDGE-ROPE.  The  rope  or  hawser  used  with  a 
kedge. 

Keel.  The  principal  timber  of  a  ship,  and 
that  which  is  first  placed  upon  the  keel-blocks. 
It  extends  from  the  stem  to  the  stern-post,  both 
of  which  may  be  considered  as  continuations  of 
it.  It  is  composed  of  several  sections  scarfed 
together,  each  of  which  should  be  of  sufficient 
length  to  allow  the  fastening  of  four  frames. 
White  oak  is  used  for  this  purpose  in  naval  ves 
sels.  A  flat-bottomed  vessel  or  lighter  used  in  the 
river  Tyne,  in  England,  for  carrying  coal.  A 
bilge  keel  is  a  construction  of  keel  peculiar  to 
ironclad  vessels,  extending  only  a  portion  of  the 
length  of  the  vessel  under  the  bilges.  A  keel- 
boat  is  a  kind  of  freight-boat  used  on  Western 
rivers.  A.  false  keel  is  made  of  oak  planks  bolted 
to  the  under  side  of  the  keel,  to  protect  it  from 
injury  in  case  of  grounding.  A  vessel  is  on  an 
even  keel  when  the  draft  of  water  at  the  bow  and 
stern  is  the  same.  The  rabbet  of  the  keel  is  the 
groove  which  is  cut  in  each  side  of  the  keel  to 
receive  the  edges  of  the  garboard  strake. 

KEELAGE.  The  duty  or  tax  which  is  imposed 
upon  a  vessel  while  in  port. 

KEEL-BLOCKS.  One  of  the  short  pieces  of  tim 
ber  upon  which  the  keel  of  a  vessel  rests  when 
being  built,  or  when  in  a  dry-dock  undergoing 
repairs. 

KEEL-DEETER.  The  woman  who  sweeps  out 
the  keels  or  coal-lighters  used  in  Newcastle,  Eng 
land. 

KEEL-HAULING.  A  punishment  inflicted  for 
merly  in  the  English  and  Dutch  navies  for  a  cer 
tain  class  of  offenses.  It  consisted  in  hauling 
the  offender  under  the  vessel's  bottom  from  one 
fore-yard-arm  to  the  other  by  means  of  whirjs, 
weights  being  attached  to  his  body  to  cause  him 
to  sink  rapidly  in  the  water. 

KEELMAN.  A  bargeman  of  Newcastle,  Eng 
land.  One  who  manages  a  keel. 

KEEL-PIECE.  One  of  the  timbers  or  sections 
of  which  the  keel  is  composed. 

KEKL-RAKE.     To  keel-haul. 

KEEL-ROPE.  The  name  of  a  rope  formerly  used 
to  keep  the  limber-holes  clear. 

KEELSON.  A  timber  of  white-  or  live-oak 
placed  above  the  keel  and  bolted  to  it,  which 
serves  to  bind  the  floor-timbers  to  the  keel. 
Bilge  or  boiler  keelson,  one  of  the  timbers 
placed  in  the  bilge  of  a  steamer  parallel  to  the 
main  keelson,  upon  which  the  boilers  rest.  En 
gine  keelson,  one  of  the  timbers  upon  which  the 
bed-plates  rest,  and  which  form  the  foundation 
for  the  engine.  Sister  keelson,  a  timber  placed 
at  the  side  of  the  main  keelson,  and  bolted  to  it. 
It  is  also  bolted  through  each  timber  to  the  gar- 
board  strake. 


KEELSON,  RIDER-.  A  timber  bolted  on  top  of 
the  main  keelson,  sometimes  called  capping ;  the 
term  rider  is  used  generally  when  an  increase  of 
strength  is  required, — such  as  an  additional  tim 
ber  or  timbers  which  are  not  included  in  the 
framing  of  the  ship. 

KEEL-STAPLE.  A  large  staple  used  in  fastening 
the  false  keel  to  the  main  keel. 

Keeling.     A  kind  of  small  cod. 

Keep  a  Good  Hold  of  the  Land.  To  keep 
the  land  in  plain  sight. 

Keep  a  Good  Offing.  To  keep  at  a  safe  dis 
tance  from  the  land. 

Keep  a  Watch.  To  be  in  charge  of  the  deck, 
or  to  be  on  duty  with  the  watch. 

Keeper.  A  jam-nut,  set-screw,  or  other  de 
vice  used  to  prevent  a  nut  working  off'  or  key 
drawing. 

Keep  Full  for  Stays.  An  order  to  the  helms 
man,  by  which  the  vessel  may  have  greater  speed 
previous  to  tacking,  or  going  into  stays. 

Keep  Her  Own.  Said  of  a  vessel  when  her 
speed  against  a  current  is  equal  to  the  force  of 
the  current,  or  when  she  holds  her  position. 

Keep  Her  Way.  To  retain  speed  through  the 
water  after  the  vessel  is  deprived  of  her  motive- 
power,  as  by  stopping  the  engines  or  reducing 
sail. 

Keep  Off.  To  keep  a  vessel  away  from  the 
wind.  To  keep  at  a  distance. 

Keep  the  Land  Aboard.  To  keep  within 
sight  of  the  land  and  at  a  moderate  distance 
from  it. 

Keep  the  Sea.  To  retain  mastery  over  the 
sea.  The  importance  of  controlling  the  English 
Channel  was  evident  during  the  reign  of  Henry 
V.,  when  his  successes  against  the  French  de 
pended  in  a  great  degree  upon  the  possession  of 
the  Channel,  or  "  Narrowe  Sea."  In  lieu  of 
naval  vessels,  merchants  were  required  to  "  keepe 
the  sea"  with  their  ships,  and  from  May,  1406, 
to  September,  1407,  the  British  coast  was  guarded 
in  this  manner. 

Keep  Your  Luff.  An  order  to  the  helmsman 
to  keep  close  to  the  wind,  when  close-hauled. 

Keg.  A  small  cask.  (Eng.]  A  cant  word, 
meaning  to  irritate. 

Kelk  (Eng.).  The  roe  of  fish.  A  large  stone. 
To  stone. 

Kelp.  A  common  term  for  sea-weed,  or  vraic, 
which  consists  of  different  species  of  Fucus.  In 
a  strict  sense  the  term  kelp  is  confined  to  the 
produce  of  sea-weeds  when  burned.  These  being 
first  dried  in  the  sun,  are  burned  in  shallow  ex 
cavations  at  a  low  heat.  About  20  or  24  tons 
of  sea-weed  yield  one  ton  of  kelp,  which,  as  met 
with  in  commerce,  consists  of  hard,  dark-gray,  or 
bluish  masses,  which  have  an  acrid,  caustic  taste, 
and  are  composed  of  chloride  of  sodium,  of  car 
bonate  of  soda  (formed  by  the  decomposition  of 
the  organic  salts  of  soda),  sulphates  of  soda 
and  potash,  chloride  of  potassium,  iodide  of  po 
tassium  or  sodium,  insoluble  salts,  and  coloring 
matter.  It  used  to  be  the  great  source  of  soda 
(the  crude  carbonate),  but  as  this  salt  can  now 
be  obtained  of  better  quality  and  less  cost  from 
the  decomposition  of  sea-salt,  it  is  prepared  in 
far  less  quantity  than  formerly.  Kelp  is  largely 
used  as  a  source  of  iodine,  and  it  is  said  that  a 
ton  of  good  kelp  will  yield  about  8  pounds  of 
iodine,  large  quantities  of  chloride  of  potassium, 
and  additionally,  by  destructive  distillation,  from 


KELPER 


417 


KHALISHEES 


4  to  10  gallons  of  volatile  oil,  from  4  to  15  gal 
lons  of  paraffine  oil,  3  or  4  gallons  of  naphtha,  and 
from  1^  to  4  hundred-weight  of  sulphate  of  am 
monia. 

Kelper  (Eng.}.  An  imaginary  being  or  spirit 
believed  by  the  ignorant  and  superstitious  to 
haunt  certain  localities  and  warn  people  of 
danger. 

Kelt.  The  name  in  Scotland  for  a  salmon 
after  spawning. 

Kelter.     Order  or  condition. 

Kemstock.     An  old  name  for  a  capstan. 

Ken.     To  recognize  ;  to  know. 

Kennet.     See  KEVEL. 

Kenning  by  Kenning.  An  old  expression 
among  whalers,  denoting  that  a  man  received 
pay  according  to  the  value  of  his  services. 

Kenning  Glass.  An  obsolete  term  for  a  spy 
glass. 

Kenspeckle.  To  mark  in  such  a  way  as  to  be 
easily  recognized. 

Kentledge.     Pig-iron  used  for  ballast. 

KENTLEDGE  GOODS.  Heavy  portions  of  the 
lading  of  a  vessel  that  can  be  used  as  ballast. 

Kent-purchase  (a  corruption  of  cant-purchase}. 
A  tackle  used  by  whalers  to  cant  or  turn  the  whale 
during  the  operation  of  flensing. 

Kepler's  Laws.  Three  natural  laws  discov 
ered  by  Kepler, — 1st.  Each  of  the  primary  plan 
ets  revolves  in  an  ellipse,  having  one  of  its  foci 
in  the  sun.  2d.  That  equal  areas  are  described 
in  equal  times.  3d.  That  the  squares  of  the 
periodic  times  of  the  planets  are  proportional  to 
the  cubes  of  their  mean  distances  from  the  sun. 

Kerfe.  The  notch  or  slit  made  in  cutting  or 
sawing  timber. 

Kerguelen's  Land,  or  Island  of  Desolation. 
A  rocky  island  about  100  miles  long  and  50 
broad,  lying  in  the  Antarctic  Ocean,  the  lati 
tude  and  longitude  of  its  southern  extremity, 
Cape  George,  being  49°  54'  S.,  and  70°  12'  E. 
It  was  discovered  in  1772  by  the  French  navi 
gator  Ives  Joseph  de  Kerguelen  Tremarec,  and 
is  said  to  contain  <?oal  fit  for  steamships. 

KERGUELEN'S  LAND  CABBAGE  (Pringlea  anti- 
scorbutica).  The  only  known  species  of  a  very 
curious  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural  order 
Cruciferce,  and  found  only  in  Kerguelen's  Land. 
It  is  very  useful  to  the  crews  of  whalers  and 
other  vessels  which  have  occasion  to  touch  there. 
It  has  a  long,  stout,  perennial  root-stock,  and  a 
boiled  head  of  leaves  very  similar  to  those  of  the 
common  garden  cabbage.  The  root-stocks  have 
the  flavor  of  horse-radish.  The  dense  white 
heart  of  the  cluster  of  leaves  tastes  like  mustard 
and  cress,  but  is  coarser.  The  whole  foliage 
abounds  in  a  very  pungent,  pale-yellow,  essen 
tial  oil,  which  is  confined  in  vessels  that  run  par 
allel  to  the  veins  of  the  leaf.  This  plant  was 
first  discovered  and  brought  into  notice  by  Capt. 
Cook.  It  is  used  by  voyagers,  boiled  either  alone, 
or  with  beef,  pork,  etc.,  and  is  highly  valued  by 
them  for  its  antiscorbutic  properties. 

Kermes.  Dried  bodies  of  the  females  of  the 
Coccus  ilicis,  an  insect  found  near  the  shores  of 
the  Mediterranean.  They  are  valuable  as  a 
dye. 

Kert.     An  obsolete  term  for  chart. 

Kertch.     A  fortified  town  of  Russia,  in  the 

Crimea,  on  the  peninsula  of  Kertch.     Lat.  45° 

20'  N. ;  Ion.  36°  28'  E.     In  1827  it  was  declared 

a  free  port.     It  has  a  navy-yard  and  foundry, 

27 


and  a  large  export  trade  in  stone,  fish,  hides, 
grain,  etc.  Pop.  23,000. 

Kertk,  Admiral  Sir  David,  commander  of  a 
successful  expedition  against  Canada  ;  had,  been 
a  master-mariner  at  Dieppe,  France,  but  entered 
the  English  naval  service  in  the  reign  of  Charles  I. 
Placed  in  charge  of  a  formidable  force,  and  ac 
companied  by  his  two  brothers,  he  arrived  at 
Tadoussac,  in  midsummer,  1628,  and  after  de 
stroying  the  stores,  etc.,  sent  a  summons  to 
Champlain  to  surrender,  which  was  refused. 
Kertk,  thinking  Quebec  strongly  fortified,  after 
capturing  a  French  convoy  on  its  way  to  Quebec, 
went  home.  In  July,  1629,  he  returned  again, 
demanded  a  surrender ;  and  Champlain,  being 
weaker  than  ever,  capitulated.  Kertk,  leaving 
his  brother  Lewis  in  command  of  the  city,  pro 
ceeded  to  England,  taking  Champlain  and  others 
with  him  as  prisoners  of  war.  He  afterward 
captured  Cape  Breton,  which  was  recaptured  by 
Capt.  Daniel.  These  events  took  place  two  months 
after  peace  had  been  concluded  between  France 
and  England,  and  were  not  recognized  by  either 
nation.  As  late  as  1645  he  was  on  the  coast  of 
Newfoundland.' 

Ketch.  A  small  vessel  formerly  used  as  a 
yacht,  and  still  later  as  an  armed  vessel.  It  was 
rigged  with  two  masts,  which  were  placed  in 
nearly  the  positions  of  the  main-  and  mizzen- 
masts  of  a  ship,  thus  leaving  a  clear  deck  for 
ward  of  the  mainmast.  On  this  account  they 
were  greatly  used  as  bomb-vessels. 

Kettle-bottom.  A  name  applied  to  a  vessel 
with  a  flat  floor. 

Kettle-net.  A  net  formerly  used  in  catching 
mackerel. 

Kettle  of  Fish.  A  person  makes  a  pretty 
kettle  of  fish  when  he  has  involved  himself  in 
difficulties  by  bungling. 

Kevel.  A  large  cleat  for  belaying  ropes,  usu 
ally  called  a  cavil. 

KEVEL-HEAD.  The  upper  end  of  a  timber  used 
for  belaying  ropes. 

Keveling.  A  name  on  the  English  coast  for 
the  skate. 

Key.  A  wooden  pin  driven  into  a  scarf  to 
prevent  the  pieces  from  slipping.  An  iron  pin 
driven  through  a  hole  in  the  end  of  a  bolt  to 
prevent  it  from  slipping  out  of  its  socket.  A 
piece  of  metal  made  tapering,  and  used  to  secure 
wheels,  pulleys,  couplings,  etc.,  on  shafts,  and  to 
tighten  journal-boxes.  A  device  used  for  closing 
and  breaking  an  .electric  circuit.  A  wharf  or 

?ier  (see  QUAY).  The  low  islands  of  the  West 
ndies  are  called  keys,  or  cays,  the  term  being 
derived  from  the  Spanish  word  cayo. 

KEYAGE.  The  charges  for  the  use  of  a  key  or 
quay. 

KEY-BOLT.    One  secured  by  a  cotter  or  wedge. 

Keyle.     See  KEEL. 

Key-model.  A  model  of  a  vessel  formed  by 
different  layers  of  board  fastened  together  by- 
keys  and  screws. 

Key  West.  A  port  of  entry  and  capital  of 
Monroe  Countv,  Fla.,  on  Thompson's  Island,  in 
lat.  24°  32'  N.",  Ion.  81°  48'  W.  It  has  a  safe 
harbor,  of  which  the  entrance  is  protected  by 
Fort  Taylor.  Vessels  drawing  20  feet  or  more 
of  water  can  be  easily  admitted.  It  has  exten 
sive  manufactories  of  cigars,  important  sponge- 
fisheries,  and  some  salt-works.  Pop.  5000. 

Khalishees.     Native  East  Indian  sailors. 


KHANIA 


418 


KIMBALL 


Khania.     A  fortified  seaport  and  the  principal 
commercial  town  of  Crete.  Its  fortifications,  built 
by  the  Venetians,  are  inferior  to  those  of  Candia, 
but  its  port  is  the  finest  in  Crete,  capable  of  hold 
ing  many  vessels.     The   town   has  an  arsenal, 
docks,  soap-factories,  etc.     Pop.  8500. 
Khizr.     An  East  Indian  sea-god. 
Kibblings.     Portions  of  a  fish  which  are  used 
for  bait  in  the  vicinity  of  Newfoundland. 

Kick.  To  recoil.  A  common  term  used  in 
relation  to  fire-arms. 

Kick  the  Bucket.  An  irreverent  expression 
for  dying. 

Kid.  A  small  wooden  tub.  A  slang  phrase 
for  a  young  child.  A  heap  of  bushes  planted  on 
a  beach  to  gather  sand,  gravel,  etc.,  to  prevent 
the  washing  away  of  the  land. 

Kidders.     A  fence  formed  of  stakes  in  a  river 
for  catching  fish.     Also  an  obstruction  to  vessels. 
Kidleywink  (Eng.).     A  low  beer-shop. 
Kidnap.     To  carry  off  a  human  being  by  force 
or  artifice. 

Kidney.  Kind  or  habits,  as  "  men  of  the  same 
kidney." 

Kiel.  A  seaport  town  of  Holstein,  Prussia,  on 
a  fine  bay  of  the  Baltic.  It  has  manufactories  of 
iron,  goods,  and  machines,  tobacco,  starch,  and 
sugar,  a  good  harbor,  ship-building,  a  great 
navy-yard,  arsenals,  docks,  and  fortifications. 
Pop.  41,000. 

Kiftis.  Passenger-boats  used  on  the  rivers  of 
India. 

Kihaia.  A  Turkish  officer  of  customs  of  high 
grade. 

Kilderkin.  A  liquid  measure  containing  two 
firkins,  or  from  16  to  18  gallons. 

Kill.     A  narrow  channel  or  arm  of  the  sea. 
Kill-devil.     Spirits   of  poor   quality ;    some 
times  called  lightning  from,  the  rapidity  of  its 
effects. 

Killer.  The  name  given  to.  the  grampus  by 
whalers  on  account  of  its  ferocity. 

Killie-leepie  (Scotch).  The  common  sand-piper. 
Killock.     A  small  anchor  for  a  boat,  or  a  stone 
used  as  an  anchor. 

Kilty,  A.  H.,  Rear-Admiral  U.S.N.  Born 
in  Maryland.  Appointed  from  Maryland,  July 
4,  1821 ;  first  cruise,  "  Franklin,"  74,  Commo 
dore  Stewart,  Pacific,  1821-24;  store-ship  "  De 
coy,"  West  Indies,  sloop  "John  Adams,"  Pen- 
sacola  Station,  frigate  "Constellation,"  1825-27; 
Brazil  Station,  frigate  "Hudson,"  sloop  "Bos 
ton,"  1828-29;  surveying  coast  of  Louisiana, 
1830-31. 

Promoted  to  passed  midshipman,  April  28, 
1832;  schooner  "Grampus,"  West  Indies,  1832- 
34;  receiving-ship  "Sea-Gull,"  Philadelphia, 
1835-36. 

Commissioned  as  lieutenant,  September  6, 
1837;  sloop  "John  Adams,"  East  India  Squad 
ron,  1838-40;  present  at  the  attack  on  Qualla 
Battoo  and  Muckie,  by  Commodore  Reid;  "Co 
lumbus,"  74,  Mediterranean  and  Brazil,  1843-44  ; 
frigate  "  United  States,"  coast  of  Africa  and 
Mediterranean,  1846-49;  rendezvous,  Balti 
more,  1851-52;  receiving-ship  "North  Caro 
lina,"  New  York,  1854-55. 

Commissioned  as  commander,  September  14, 
1855;  commanding  rendezvous,  Baltimore,  1860; 
ordered  to  St.  Louis,  1861,  to  aid  in  organizing 
naval  flotilla  under  Foote ;  took  command  of 
gunboat  "Mound  City,"  and  was  engaged  at 


Island  No.  10  and  Fort  Pillow.  The  "Mound 
City"  being  sunk  in  the  latter  engagement,  she 
was  raised,  repaired  at  Mound  City,  and  rejoined 
the  flotilla. 

In  June,  1862,  was  placed  in  command  of  an 
expedition  to  White  River,  Arkansas ;  on  the 
17th,  attacked  Fort  St.  Charles,  about  100  miles 
from  the  mouth  of  the  river,  and,  with  the  aid 
of  military  force  under  Col.  Fitch,  took  it ;  but 
near  the  close  of  action  a  shot  entered  the  steam- 
drum  of  the  "  Mound  City,"  and  the  escape  of 
steam  caused  the  death  of  more  than  a  hundred 
officers  and  men,  the  commanding  officer  receiv 
ing  a  severe  scald,  which  caused  the  loss  of  his 
left  arm. 

Commissioned  as  captain,  July  16,  1862;  ord 
nance  duty,  Baltimore,  1863 ;  command  of  iron 
clad  frigate  "Roanoke,"  North  Atlantic  Squad 
ron,  and  receiving-ship  "Vermont,"  1864-65. 

Commissioned  as  commodore,  July  25,  1866 ; 
command  of  Norfolk  Navy-Yard,  1867-70.  Re 
tired  November  25,  1868. 

Commissioned  as  rear-admiral,  July  13,  1870. 
Died  November  10,  1879. 

Kimball,  Sumner  Increase,  general  superin 
tendent  of  the  U.  S.  Life-Saving  Service.  He  was 
born  in  Lebanon,  York  County,  Me.,  on  Septem 
ber  2, 1834.  He  graduated  at  Bowdoin  College  in 
1855,  clerking  and  teaching  school  in  the  vaca 
tions  to  obtain  funds  to  pay  for  his  college  course. 
Immediately  after  graduating,  he  commenced 
the  study  of  law  with  his  father,  the  Hon.  In 
crease  S.  Kimball,  one  of  the  most  distinguished 
lawyers  in  the  State  of  Maine.  He  discontinued 
his  law  studies  after  a  year,  to  occupy  the  posi 
tion  of  commission  clerk  in  the  office  of  the  Sec 
retary  of  State  at  the  capital  of  Maine.  This 
position  he  resigned  in  the  spring  of  1857,  and 
resumed  his  legal  studies.  He  was  admitted 
to  the  bar  in  1858,  and  at  once  commenced  the 
practice  of  his  profession  at  North  Berwick,  Me. 
In  September,  1859,  he  was  elected  representa 
tive  to  the  State  Legislature  as  a  Republican, 
and  although  the  youngest  member  of  the  house, 
took  high  rank  in  that  body.  In  January,  1860, 
he  accepted  a  first-class  clerkship  in  the  office  of 
the  Second  Auditor  of  the  Treasury,  and  success 
ively  passed  through  all  the  grades  until  he  be 
came  chief  clerk,  now  called  deputy  auditor. 
His  recognized  ability  as  an  organizer  in  that 
office,  which  the  war  had  increased  from  a  per 
sonnel  of  21  to  more  than  5UO,  caused  the  Secre 
tary  of  the  Treasury,  in  1871,  to  invite  him  to 
take  charge  of  the  Revenue  Marine  Service, 
which  at  that  time  was  in  a  very  unsatisfactory 
condition.  This  trust  he  accepted,  and  under 
his  administration  the  service  was  almost  revo 
lutionized,  the  results  appearing  in  a  great  dimi 
nution  in  the  running  expenses  and  the  increase 
of  its  efficiency  fivefold.  He  has  twice  been 
offered  the  position  of  chief  clerk  of  the  Treasury 
Department,  which  he  declined.  He  consented, 
however,  to  act  in  that  capacity  during  the  short 
administration  of  Secretary  Merrill,  retaining 
charge  at  the  same  time  of  the  Revenue  Marine 
and  Life-Saving  Service.  Connected  with  the 
Revenue  Marine  Service  he  found  the  nucleus 
from  which  he  has  developed  the  present  Life- 
Saving  Service.  The  establishment  then  merely 
consisted  of  a  few  buildings  confined  to  the  coasts 
of  Long  Island  and  New  Jersey,  designed  for  the 
storage  of  surf-boats  and  a  few  other  meagre  life- 


KING  ARTHUR 


419 


KNEE 


saving  appliances,  intended  for  volunteer  use  on 
occasion  of  shipwreck  by  the  local  fishermen  and 
wreckers.  Both  houses  and  apparatus  had  fallen 
into  a  state  of  dilapidation  through  neglect  and 
depredation.  There  was  no  organization  nor 
system  connected  with  the  establishment,  and  it 
was  productive  of  comparatively  little  benefit. 
After  personal  inspection,  Mr.  Kimball  took 
measures  for  the  creation  of  an  efficient  service 
upon  these  coasts,  and  the  proper  appropriation 
having  been  procured,  he  increased  the  number 
of  stations,  and  organized  an  effective  corps  of 
surfmen  to  man  them.  He  furnished  the  sta 
tions  with  the  latest  life-saving  appliances,  and 
introduced  the  patrol  system,  by  which  the  entire 
coast  is  placed  under  constant  watch,  and  the  im 
mediate  discovery  of  wrecks  secured.  The  result 
of  this  organization  for  the  first  year  was  strik 
ing,  not  a  life  being  lost  by  shipwreck  upon 
either  of  these  dangerous  coasts.  This  fact 
caused  the  extension  of  the  service  to  other  por 
tions  of  the  Atlantic  coast,  where  similar  success 
followed,  the  final  result  being  the  formal  estab 
lishment  of  the  service  upon  all  the  coasts  of  the 
country,  both  ocean  and  lake,  by  the  act  of  June 
18,  1878,  which  also  organized  the  Life-Saving 
Service  into  a  distinct  bureau,  with  Mr.  Kimball 
at  its  head,  detaching  it  from  the  Revenue  Marine. 

King  Arthur  (Eng.}.  A  game  sometimes 
played  by  sailors  in  warm  climates.  One,  rep 
resenting  the  king,  allows  water  to  be  dashed 
upon  him  until  another,  by  laughing,  is  forced  to 
take  his  place. 

King-crab.  The  Limulus  polyphemus,  a  large 
crustacean  in  the  form  of  a  horse's  foot.  It  is 
common  in  the  West  Indies. 

King-fish.  A  large  flat  fish  (Lampris  gutta- 
tus)  showing  brilliant  colors. 

King-fisher.  The  Alcedo  ispida  of  Europe 
and  the  Alcedo  alcyon  of  America.  It  is  a  bird 
of  gay  plumage,  inhabiting  the  vicinity  of  lakes 
and  streams,  and  lives  upon  fish. 

King's  Bargain  (Eng.}.  Refers  to  a  sailor's 
merits,  whether  good  or  bad. 

King's  Bencher  (Eng.}.  A  man  of  many 
words  and  little  work.  A  sea-lawyer. 

King's  Hard  Bargain  (Eng.}.  A  worthless 
fellow. 

King's  Letter  Man  (Eng.}.  A  former  class 
of  officers  in  the  English  navy,  ranking  with 
midshipmen,  and  holding  a  promise  or  letter 
that  good  conduct  should  be  rewarded  with  a 
lieutenant's  commission. 

King's  Own  (Eng.).  A  term  applied  to  all 
articles  issued  from  the  royal  store-houses  or 
magazines,  and  marked  with  a  broad  arrow. 

King's  Parade  (Eng.}.     The  quarter-deck. 

Kingston,  Ontario,  is  situated  at  the  outlet  of 
Lake  Ontario,  in  lat.  44°  12/  N.,  Ion.  76°  41'  W. 
The  harbor  is  formed  at  the  mouth  of  Cataraqui 
River,  which  here  enters  the  lake.  The  west 
side  is  bold,  and  shipping  of  any  size  can  lie 
here  in  safety.  The  city  contains 'manufactories 
of  iron-castings,  machinery,  steam-engines,  loco 
motives,  etc.  Ship-  and  boat-building  is  carried 
on  to  a  great  extent,  and  vessels  for  both  lake  and 
ocean  navigation  are  fitted  out.  Pop.  13,000. 

Kingston,  the  principal  commercial  city  and 
seaport  of  Jamaica,  has  a  very  fine  harbor,  which 
is  a  landlocked  basin  available  for  the  largest 
ships,  and  is  defended  by  several  forts.  Lat. 
17°  58'  N. ;  Ion.  79°  47'  30"  W.  Pop.  34,500. 


Kingston.  A  shark  (Aquatina  angelus}  hav 
ing  broad  lateral  fins,  like  a  ray,  whence  it  is 
also  called  shark-ray,  angel-fish^  etc.  It  is  found 
in  the  North  Atlantic.  (Written  also  king's- 
stone. } 

Kingston  Valve.  A  valve  for  closing  an 
orifice  in  a  ship's  side  or  bottom  below  the  water- 
line.  It  is  a  conical-faced  valve,  fitted  to  a  suit 
able  seat  and  opening  outwards,  and  so  arranged 
that  the  outside  pressure  of  water  will  close  it 
when  the  force  holding  it  open  is  removed.  It 
is  manipulated  from  the  inside  of  the  vessel  by 
means  of  a  stem  passing  through  a  stuffing- 
box. 

Kink.  A  short  curl  or  loop  in  a  rope,  and  oc 
casioned  by  an  excess  of  lay  or  twist. 

Kinkling  (Eng.}.     A  periwinkle. 

Kinn  (Scotch).     Head  or  promontory. 

Kintlidge.     See  KENTLEDGE. 

Kippage.  An  obsolete  term  for  the  crew  of  a 
vessel. 

Kipper.  A  salmon  in  the  state  of  spawning. 
The  word  kipper  originally  denoted  a  salmon 
directly  after  the  spawning  season,  and  as  fish  in 
this  state  are  not  good  for  use  while  fresh,  they 
were  usually  cured  and  hung  up.  Hence  the 
word  which  properly  denotes  a  spawning  salmon 
came  to  be  generally  used  for  one  that  is  salted 
and  dried. 

KIPPER-TIME  (Eng.}.  The  months  during  the 
year  when  the  taking  of  salmon  is  prohibited. 

Kismiss.     A  seedless  raisin  raised  in  India. 

Kist.     A  Scotch  pronunciation  of  chest. 

Kit.  A  tub  or  basket  used  for  fish.  An  out 
fit,  either  of  tools  required  in  a  particular  trade, 
or  of  clothing. 

Kite.  A  fish  of  the  genus  Rhombus  (R.  vul- 
garis}.  Called  also  brill. 

Kites.     Lofty  sails.     See  FLYING  KITES. 

Kittiwake.  A  gull  found  in  high  northern 
latitudes  (Larus  tridactylus}. 

Kitty- witch.     A  small  kind  of  crab. 

Kleg.     A  fish  of  the  genus  Gadus  barbatus. 

Kleptes.  The  Greek  word  for  robbers.  The 
term  was  applied  to  the  corsairs  of  the  Archi 
pelago. 

Klick-hooks.  A  peculiar  kind  of  hook  for 
catching  salmon. 

Klinker.  A  lighter  or  boat  used  on  the  coasts 
of  Denmark  and  Sweden. 

Klippen.     A  German  word  meaning  cliffs. 

Knag.  The  rocky  summit  of  a  hill.  A  knot 
in  wood. 

KNAGGY.    Rough  and  knotty.    Bad  tempered. 

Knap  (Anglo-Saxon  cncep,  a  knob  or  button). 
The  top  of  a  hill. 

Knar.     A  knot  in  wood. 

Kneck  (Eng.}.  The  twisting  of  a  rope  as  it  is 
running  out. 

Knee.  A  timber  of  natural  growth  with  two 
arms,  nearly  in  shape  of  a  right-angle,  or  a  heavy 
iron  bar  bent  to  a  similar  shape.  They  are  used 
to  connect  different  beams  and  timbers  in  ship 
building,  and  are  named  from  the  position  in 
which  they  are  placed.  A  hanging  knee  se 
cures  a  deck  beam  to  the  side  of  the  vessel,  and 
is  placed  in  a  perpendicular  position  under  the 
beam.  A  lodging  knee  is  secured  to  the  forward 
side  of  the  beam,  and  to  the  vessel's  side  in  a 
horizontal  position,  and  a  lap  or  bosom  knee  to 
the  after  side  of  the  beam.  A  dagger  knee  is 
placed  obliquely  against  the  side  of  a  vessel  when 


KNETTAK 


420 


LACE 


it  would  otherwise  interfere  with  a  gun-port. 
The  stern-post  knee  is  placed  in  the  angle  which 
is  formed  by  the  stern-post  and  keel. 

KNEE-TIMBER.  Timber  that  can  be  used  for 
knees. 

Knettar  (Eng.}.  The  string  by  which  the 
mouth  of  a  bag  is  secured. 

Knife.  Formerly  used  in  the  sense  of  sword 
or  dagger. 

Knight-heads.  The  timbers  in  a  wooden  ship 
which  are  bolted  next  to  the  apron  or  dead-wood, 
one  on  each  side ;  they  extend  upward  on  each 
side  of  the  bowsprit,  the  apron  or  dead-wood 
being  sided  large  enough  to  admit  of  the  bow 
sprit's  being  placed  between  the  knight-heads. 

Knittles.  The  small  cords  formed  from  the 
outside  yarns  of  a  rope  with  which  a  rope's  end 
is  pointed  or  grafted.  See  NETTLE. 

Knocker.  The  name  given  to  a  kind  of  cock 
roach,  from  the  noise  that  they  make. 

Knock  off.  To  stop;  to  desist;  as,  to  knock 
off  talking. 

Knoll  (Anglo-Saxon  cnoll).  The  round  top 
of  a  hill,  or  the  highest  part  of  a  shoal. 

Knopp.     See  KNAP. 

Knot.  A  bunch  made  in  a  rope  or  cord,  either 
for  ornament  or  use.  They  are  made  in  the 
ends  of  ropes  to  prevent  them  from  slipping  or 
unreeving,  by  unlaying  the  strands  and  inter 
weaving  them  in  regular  order  ;  and  are  named 
either  from  the  manner  in  which  they  are  made, 
or  the  use  to  which  they  are  applied,  as  stopper 
knot,  diamond  knot,  double-diamond  knot,  single 
and  double  wall  knots,  etc.  The  ends  of  ropes 
are  bent  together  by  square  knots,  single  and 
double  bends,  fisherman's  bend,  Carrick  bend,  etc. 
The  log-line  is  divided  into  knots,  each  of  which 
bears  the  same  proportion  to  a  mile  as  30  seconds 
does  to  an  hour.  Hence,  in  speaking  of  a  vessel's 
speed,  knots  are  used,  meaning  nautical  miles. 

Knuckle.  An  angle  made  on  some  timbers 
either  at  the  bow  or  the  stern,  such  as  at  the 
counter-  or  stern-timbers,  and  the  bulwarks 
which  fall  back  from  the  line  of  the  forward 


cant-timbers  by  a  quick  reverse  of  the  shape, 
like  a  knee. 

KNUCKLE-JOINT.  A  method  of  coupling  shafts 
whose  axes  are  not  in  the  same  straight  line, 
but  meet  in  a  common  point,  by  means  of  which 
power  can  be  transmitted  obliquely. 

KNUCKLE-RAIL.  A  rail  worked  at  the  height 
of  the  knuckle. 

KNUCKLE-TIMBERS.  Those  top-timbers  in  the 
forward  or  after  body  whose  heads  stand  nearly 
perpendicular,  or  tumble  home. 

KNUCKLE-UNDER.     To  submit. 

Kochab.  The  name  of  the  star  (3  Ursce  Mi- 
noris. 

Koff.  A  Dutch  coasting- vessel,  fitted  with 
sprit-sails,  flying  topsails,  and  jibs. 

Koond.     A  cistern  in  India. 

Kopeck.  A  Russian  coin,  .01  of  a  rouble;  in 
value  about  two-thirds  of  a  cent. 

Korocora.  A  vessel  with  a  high  curved  stem 
and  stern,  used  by  the  Malays. 

Koster.     A  kind  of  sturgeon. 

Kota.     Turpentine  of  East  Indian  production. 

Koupang,  or  Chobang.  A  Japanese  gold 
coin,  equal  in  value  to  $3.57. 

Kowdie,  Kaurie,  or  Cowdie.  A  coniferous 
tree  of  New  Zealand,  valuable  for  spars  (Dam- 
mara  Australis). 

Krabla.     An  Archangel  whaling-vessel. 

Kraken.  A  fabled  Norwegian  sea-monster 
of  enormous  size. 

Krang,  or  Kreng.  The  carcass  of  the  whale 
after  the  blubber  has  been  removed. 

Kreel,  or  Creel.  A  frame  for  taking  salmon 
in  Scotland.  A  basket  used  by  anglers. 

Kris,  or  Crease.  A  large  dagger  used  by  the 
Malays. 

Kroo-men.  A  tribe  of  Africans  on  the  west 
coast.  They  are  employed  on  board  of  vessels 
for  boat-service,  where  exposure  to  the  heat  of 
the  sun  would  be  injurious  to  foreigners. 

Kyar,  or  Coir.  Fibre  of  the  cocoanut  and  the 
cordage  made  therefrom  in  India. 

Kyle.   A  Scotch  name  for  a  small  bay  or  creek. 


L. 


L.  The  three  L's  refer  to  lead,  latitude,  and 
look-out.  The  frequent  use  of  the  first,  a  correct 
knowledge  of  the  second,  and  the  faithful  per 
formance  of  the  latter  will  generally  insure 
safety  in  the  vicinity  of  the  coast.  Of  the  letters 
used  in  the  log-book  to  indicate  the  state  of  the 
weather,  I  denotes  lightning. 

Labarum.  The  standard  borne  before  the 
Emperor  Constantine,  and  afterwards  applied  to 
any  flag  or  standard  * 

Labor.  The  heavy  straining  of  a  vessel  caused 
by  violent  motion  in  a  gale. 

LABORSOME.  Having  a  tendency  to  labor,  on 
account  of  the  cargo  or  fault  in  construction. 

Labridse.  A  family  of  osseous  fishes,  ranked 
by  Cuvier  in  the  order  Acanthopterygii,  by  Miil- 
ler  in  his  artificial  order,  Pharyngognathi.  The 


fishes  of  this  family  may  be  recognized  by  their 
oblong,  scaly  body,  a  single  dorsal  fin  supported 
in  fr~ont  by  spines,  each  of  which  is  generally 
furnished  with  membranous  appendages ;  the 
jaws  are  covered  with  fleshy  lips,  and  the  pha- 
ryngeal  bones  are  armed  with  numerous  and 
strong  teeth,  so  disposed  as  to  be  especially 
adapted  for  crushing  hard  bodies  and  vegetable 
stems.  The  most  valuable  of  the  family  is  the 
Tautog  (which  see). 

Labrus.  A  genus  of  fishes,  several  species  of 
which  are  characterized  by  an  elegant  and  regu 
lar  oval  form  and  beautiful  colors  ;  the  wrasse. 

Lace.  To  fasten  with  a  cord  or  lacing.  To 
beat  or  flog.  Gold  lace  sewed  upon  the  cuff  de 
notes  the  rank  of  naval  officers. 

LACING.     The  cord  or  rope  which  is  passed 


LACE-PIECE 


421 


LAKE 


through  eyelet-holes  in  a  sail  to  secure  it  to  a 
stay,  or  to  secure  the  edges  of  awnings  or  sails  to 
each  other. 

Lace-piece.  One  of  the  principal  pieces 
which  compose  the  knee  of  the  head  in  wooden 
ships  ;  it  is  the  upper  piece,  and  the  figure-head 
and  head-rails  are  secured  to  it. 

Lacerta.     See  CONSTELLATION. 

Laches  (Fr.  lache).  A  term  in  law  meaning 
negligence. 

Lacquer.  A  varnish  composed  of  gum-shellac 
dissolved  in  alcohol.  Used  upon  lower  decks 
and  other  unpainted  wood-work. 

Lacustrine.     Pertaining  to  lakes. 

Ladder.  A  frame  consisting  of  side  pieces 
connected  by  rounds  or  steps.  A  Jacob's  ladder 
is  made  by  inserting  rounds,  at  regular  inter 
vals,  through  the  lay  of  two  ropes  which  serve 
as  sides.  They  are  used  on  lower  booms,  between 
the  spar-deck  and  lower  rigging,  abaft  the  top 
gallant-masts  when  there  are  no  ratlines  upon 
the  topgallant  rigging,  and  over  the  stern  of 
vessels  for  convenience  in  getting  into  or  out 
of  boats  which  are  moored  astern.  Wooden 
ladders  or  steps  are  used  for  going  from  one  deck 
to  another,  and  are  named  from  the  hatchway 
or  deck  to  which  they  belong.  An  accommoda 
tion  ladder  is  a  stairway  extending  from  the 
gangway  nearly  to  the  water's  edge,  by  which 
persons  can  gain  access  to  a  vessel  from  a  boat. 

Lade  (Anglo-Saxon  lladan).  To  load.  For 
merly  used  in  the  sense  of  throwing  out  or  bailing. 

LADEN.    The  condition  of  a  vessel  when  loaded. 

LADEN  IN  BULK.  A  cargo  not  in  packages, 
but  thrown  loosely  into  the  hold.  Grain  and  salt 
are  often  carried  in  this  manner. 

LADING.     Cargo. 

Ladia.     A  Russian  river-boat  or  lighter. 

Ladle.  An  instrument  for  drawing  the  shell 
from  a  gun,  or  for  handling  hot  shot.  A  small 
scoop  used  for  dipping  or  handling  liquids. 

Ladron  (Sp.  ladrone).     A  rogue  or  thief. 

LADRONE  SHIP.  A  name  given  by  the  Chi 
nese  to  a  man-of-war  or  an  armed  vessel,  prob 
ably  on  account  of  the  roving  character  of  armed 
junks. 

Lag.  One  of  the  boards  or  staves  forming  the 
covering  of  the  non-conducting  material  used  on 
steam-cylinders,  boilers,  and  steam-pipes. 

LAGGING.  The  non-conducting  covering  which 
is  placed  upon  stearn-boilers  and  pipes  to  prevent 
the  loss  of  heat  by  radiation. 

Lagger.  An  idler  or  loiterer.  (Eng.)  One 
who  is  transported  for  crime. 

Laggin.  The  extension  of  a  barrel-stave  be 
yond  the  heads. 

Lagoon.  A  shallow  lake  connected  with  the 
sea.  They  are  usually  found  on  low  coasts,  or' 
near  the  deltas  of  rivers,  and  also  in  coral  islands 
where  the  water  is  supplied  by  channels  or  by 
the  breaking  of  the  surf  over  the  reefs  which 
separate  the  lagoon  from  the  sea. 

LAGOON  ISLAND.  An  island  formed  by  the 
coral  insect,  the  peculiar  feature  of  which  con 
sists  of  a  narrow  reef  encircling  a  lagoon. 

La  Guayra  is  the  principal  seaport  of  Venez 
uela,  on  the  Caribbean  Sea,  in  lat.  10°  36'  42" 
N.,  Ion.  66°  56'  30"  W.,  closely  surrounded  by 
high  mountains,  except  to  seaward.  Its  trade 
is  extensive,  the  chief  exports  being  coffee,  cacao, 
indigo,  hides,  cotton,  etc.  The  harbor  is  not  a 
very  good  one,  the  continued  east  winds  keeping 


the  water  in  a  constant  state  of  turmoil.  The 
anchorage-ground,  in  from  6  to  30  fathoms  ac 
cording  to  distance  from  land,  is  very  good.  The 
town  is  defended  by  forts  and  batteries.  Pop. 
7000. 

Lag-wood  (Eng.).  Wood  from  the  large 
branches  near  the  head  of  an  oak-tree. 

Laid.  A  name  formerly  given  to  the  pullack 
by  fishermen. 

Lake.  A  lake  is  a  large  quantity  of  water 
contained  in  a  hollow  cavity  in  the  earth's  sur 
face.  Lakes,  then,  are  nearly  or  entirely  sur 
rounded  by  land.  A  small  lake  is  called  a  pond, 
in  France  an  etang.  A  shallow  lake  near  a  coast 
is  called  a  lagoon,  and  such  in  Ceylon  are  called 
jeels,  and  in  Prussia  haffs.  Lakes  in  England 
are  called  water;  in  Ireland,  lough]  in  Scot 
land,  loch',  in  Italy,  valle ;  in  Holland,  meer ;  in 
Hanover,  Prussia,  and  Austria,  see.  A  shallow 
lake,  filled  with  vegetation,  is  called  a  marsh,  or 
morass,  and  a  large  collection  of  such  in  Florida 
goes  by  the  name  of  everglades.  Ponds  some 
times  become  lakes  in  times  of  great  rainfall, 
especially  in  desert  districts.  Lakes  are  nearly 
everywhere  abundant,  and  with  them  are  con 
nected  some  of  the  most  remarkable  phenomena 
of  science.  Anciently,  many  lakes  were  the 
habitations  of  primitive  men,  who  built  their 
villages  on  piles  driven  in  them,  and  a  tribe  of 
Indians  still  build  such  villages  in  Lake  Mara- 
caybo,  in  Venezuela.  Lakes  are  either  salt  or 
fresh.  Those  that  have  a  considerable  outlet  are 
generally  fresh,  but  the  lakes  of  desert  tracts  are 
nearly  always  salt.  The  most  remarkable  salt 
lakes  are  the  Dead  Sea,  Lake  of  Tiberias,  Sea  of 
Aral,  Urumyeh  in  Armenia,  and  the  Great  Salt 
Lake  of  Utah.  The  quantity  of  salts  furnished 
is  frequently  important,  and  bitumen,  naphtha, 
petroleum,  etc.,  are  often  derived  from  lakes. 

Many  lakes  occupy  the  craters  of  extinct  vol 
canoes,  and  many  are  at  a  great  elevation  above 
the  sea.  In  most  of  the  mountain  ranges  of  the 
world  are  found  such  lakes.  Others  are  far  below 
the  level  of  the  sea,  filling  depressions  often  the 
result  of  volcanic,  glacier,  or  earthquake  action. 
Lakes  also  exist  in  caverns,  far  below  the  sur 
face  of  the  earth.  They  are  often  the  sources  of 
mighty  rivers,  and  the  waters  of  the  Amazon, 
the  Mississippi,  and  other  great  rivers  find  their 
beginning  in  small  lakes.  Lakes  are  often  but 
the  expansion  of  rivers,  and  the  great  American 
lakes  are  of  this  class,  as  are- the  Swiss  lakes. 

The  finest  scenery  is  often  found  near  lakes, 
and  the  lakes  of  Killarney  and  the  Swiss  and 
Italian  lakes  are  particularly  celebrated  for  this. 
Some  lakes  are  doubtless  the  remains  of  greater 
seas,  as  the  Sea  of  Aral,  formerly  a  part  of  the 
Caspian.  Large  lakes  are  particularly  remark 
able  for  their  sudden  and  terrible  storms.  In 
Lake  Constance  a  peculiar  swell,  called  the  ruhss, 
sometimes  occurs  without  any  apparent  cause. 
Nonnenworth  Lake,  in  the  Black  Forest,  con 
tains  an  island  of  floating  turf,  rising  and  fall 
ing  on  its  bosom.  A  lake  in  Tunis  completely 
evaporates  during  the  dry  season,  leaving  an  in 
crustation  of  salt  on  the  soil,  gradually  increas 
ing  in  depth  from  an  inch  to  a  foot  towards  the 
centre.  In  the  island  of  Trinidad  is  the  cele 
brated  Pitch  Lake,  boiling  at  its  centre.  Lake 
Jordan,  in  Friesland,  is  so  completely  covered 
by  a  vegetable  growth  that  a  wagon  may  be 
driven  across  it.  The  Zirkneh  See,  in  Illyria,  is 


LAMANTIN 


422 


LANDING-PAKTIES 


remarkable  for  emptying  its  bed  in  the  summer, 
so  that  crops  may  be  raised  in  it,  and  the  holes 
by  which  the  water  leaves  are  seen,  fish  appear 
ing  with  the  return  of  the  water.  In  North 
India  a  lake  appeared  in  1819  after  an  earth 
quake.  Several  lakes  contain  springs  of  mineral 
water,  some  hot  water,  and  many  salt  lakes  have 
fresh- water  fountains  in  them.  Lake  Ala-Kal, 
in  the  Hindoo  Koosh,  contains  an  island  vol 
cano,  and  Lake  Palte,  in  Thibet,  is  merely  a 
circular  ring  about  an  island. 

Switzerland,  Finland,  Sweden,  and  the  north 
ern  half  of  North  America  are  best  provided 
with  lakes. 

Lake  Ladoga  is  the  largest  in  Europe.  It 
contains  6300  square  miles.  It  receives  about 
60  rivers  and  the  waters  of  2  other  large  lakes, 
Onega  and  Saima,  pouring  its  waters  into  the 
Gulf  of  Finland  by  the  Neva  Kiver.  The  lakes 
of  Kussia  are  very  large. 

Lake  Baikal,  in  Asia,  is  one  of  the  largest  in 
the  world,  being  400  miles  long  and  60  broad. 
It  is  shallow,  but  is  well  stocked  with  fish  and 
seal.  Many  of  the  high  plateaus  of  Asia  are  ev 
idently  the  beds  of  former  lakes.  Lake  Urum- 
yeh,  in  Armenia,  is  so  salt  that  a  storm  covers 
the  shores  with  foam  to  a  great  distance.  The 
Dead  Sea,  famous  in  history,  is  particularly 
remarkable  for  the  absence  of  all  animal  life, 
owing  to  its  salts  and  to  the  petrifying  charac 
ter  of  its  water.  It  is  so  salt  that  storms  do  not 
raise  waves,  and  is  1300  feet  below  the  sea,  the 
greatest  depression  known. 

The  greatest  lakes  of  the  world  are  the  six 
contained  in  the  St.  Lawrence  Basin,  containing 
93,000  square  miles,  the  largest  being  Lake  Su 
perior  and  the  smallest  St.  Clair.  The  lakes  of 
Africa  are  probably  nearly  as  large,  and  give 
rise  to  the  Nile,  Zambesi,  and  other  large 
rivers. 

The  five  lakes  occupying  the  plateau  of  Mex 
ico  are  remarkable  as  having  been  the  seat  of 
civilization  there.  In  Tezcuco  was  the  ancient 
city  of  Mexico,  and  in  these  lakes  are  now  float 
ing  gardens,  islands  of  turf  of  great  size,  on 
which  gardens  are  planted. 

In  South  America,  Lake  Titicaca,  12,847  feet 
above  the  sea,  was  equally  remarkable  as  the 
seat  of  Peruvian  civilization.  A  temple  on  an 
island  in  it  marks  the  former  seat  of  Manco 
Capac,  founder  of  the  Inca  kingdom. 

Australian  lakes  are  remarkable  for  their 
want  of  permanency,  being  very  shallow,  and 
sometimes  drying  up  very  suddenly. 

Artificial  lakes  are  numerous  in  Holland.  Lake 
Moeris,  in  Egypt,  was  celebrated  as  having  been 
constructed  by  one  of  the  Pharaohs  to  contain 
and  store  up  the  surplus  waters  of  the  Nile  in 
undation  for  a  time  of  need. 

France,  Spain,  and  Portugal  contain  few  lakes, 
and  those  very  small ;  and  the  only  lakes  in  Hin- 
dostan  are  the  salt  marshes  near  the  coasts,  called 
runns. — F.  S.  Bassett,  Lieutenant  U.  S,  Navy. 

Lamantin.  An  old  name  for  the  manatus,  or 
sea-cow. 

Lambasting.  The  use  of  a  rope's  end  as  an 
incentive  to  action.  (Probably  a  corruption  of 
the  obsolete  word  lambskin,  to  beat.) 

Lamb's-wool  Sky.  The  appearance  of  the 
sky  when  small  circular  clouds  are  seen. 

Lamprey,  or  Lamper-eel.  An  eel-like  fish 
of  the  genus  Petromyzon,  having  a  round,  suck 


ing  mouth  set  with  numerous  minute  teeth,  and 
two  large  teeth  on  the  palate.  It  was  formerly 
esteemed  a  great  delicacy,  and  is  still  eaten.  The 
European  sea  lamprey  is  P.  marinus ;  the  Amer 
ican,  P.  Americanus.  The  river  lamprey  is  P. 
fluviatilis. 

Lamp-shell.  A  common  name  for  the  Tere- 
bratula  of  zoology. 

Lancaster  Gun.     See  ORDNANCE. 

Lance-corporal.  A  private  who  performs  the 
duty  of  corporal. 

Lanchang.  A  Malay  proa,  or  swift-sailing 
boat. 

Land.  The  earth  as  distinguished  from  the 
sea.  The  space  between  the  grooves  in  a  rifled 
gun.  The  lap  of  the  planks  in  lap-jointed  work. 
To  land  signifies  to  set  foot  on  shore,  also  to 
place  any  object;  as,  aTo  land  a  yard  on  deck." 
To  make  land  means  to  sight  it.  To  shut  in  the 
land  is  to  lose  sight  of  it  by  reason  of  fog  or  in 
tervening  land. 

LAND-BLINK.  The  peculiar  brightness  in  the 
atmosphere  which  is  seen  in  the  Arctic  regions 
when  in  the  vicinity  of  land  covered  with  snow. 

LAND-BREEZE.  The  wind  which  blows  from 
the  land  during  the  night  in  the  tropics.  See 
BREEZE. 

LAND-FALL.  A  good  land-fall  is  made  when 
land  is  sighted  with  the  bearing  and  distance  pre 
viously  expected.  It  is  the  proof  of  the  correct 
ness  of  the  navigator's  work,  whereas  a  bad  land 
fall  would  indicate  errors  in  a  vessel's  navigation, 
or  the  effect  of  unknown  currents. 

LAND-HO  1     The  cry  that  is  given  when  land 


Ice  that  extends  out  from   the 


is  first  seen. 

LAND-ICE. 
shore. 

LANDING.  A  pier,  wharf,  etc.,  where  passen 
gers  are  landed. 

LANDING-STRAKE.  The  second  strake  or  plank 
of  a  boat  from  the  gunwale. 

LANDING-SURVEYOR  (Eng.}.  A  grade  of  cus 
tom-house  officer  who  superintends  the  landing- 
waiters. 

LANDING- WAITER  (Eng.}.  An  officer  of  cus 
toms  who  attends  to  the  landing  and  inspection 
of  goods  subject  to  duty. 

LAND-LOUPER  (Dutch}.  A  vagabond  or  va 
grant. 

LAND-LUBBER.  A  sailor's  term  of  contempt 
for  one  who  lives  on  shore. 

LANDMARK.  Any  object  on  shore  serving  as 
a  guide  by  which  to  enter  a  harbor,  or  by  which 
the  land  may  be  recognized. 

LAND-SHARKS.  The  class  of  people  in  seaports 
who  subsist  by  defrauding  sailors  of  their  money. 

LAND-SLIP  or  LAND-SLIDE.  The  sliding  of  a 
quantity  of  land  on  the  side  of  a  mountain. 

LANDSMAN.  A  rate  in  the  navy  which  in 
cludes  persons  who  have  no  knowledge  of  the 
duties  of  a  seaman. 

LAND-TURN.     A  land-breeze. 

Landing-parties.  The  organization  of  land 
ing-parties  is  outlined  in  the  Ordnance  Instruc 
tions,  but  the  details  are  left  to  commanding 
officers,  as  they  have  to  be  varied  to  suit  the 
circumstances  under  which  a  landing  is  to  be 
made.  In  well-organized  ships  something  simi 
lar  to  the  following  obtains. 

For  expeditions  at  a  distance  from  the  ship, 
where  the  journey  has  to  be  performed  by  water 
in  the  ship's  boats,  what  is  called  the  organiza- 


LANDING-PARTIES 


423 


LANDING-PARTIES 


tion  for  "  distant  service"  is  followed.  The  boats 
are  manned  by  their  "  fighting  crews."  Each 
boat  carries,  besides,  a  number  of  marines  or  good 
marksmen  to  act  as  riflemen.  As  supplies  and 
extra  ammunition  have  to  be  carried,  the  boats, 
to  be  perfectly  serviceable,  must  not  be  over 
loaded.  Each  fighting  division  of  the  ship  mans 
two  boats,  one  large  and  one  small  one,  the  ofiicer 
of  the  division  commanding  the  section  going 
in  the  larger  boat,  one  of  his  aids  or  a  petty 
officer  having  charge  of  the  other.  In  the  boats 
carrying  howitzers  or  machine-guns  there  is  an 
extra  officer,  who  acts  as  chief  of  piece.  The 
boats  are  all  numbered,  and  are  arranged  so  that 
when  in  line  the  artillery  will  be  on  the  flanks, 
and  that  the  two  boats  commanded  by  a  division 
officer  shall  be  together.  The  steam-launch,  or 
cutter,  is  not  assigned  a  permanent  position  in 
the  line.  This  boat  is  assigned  to  the  command 
ing  officer  of  the  expedition,  and  carries  a  ma 
chine-gun.  In  moving  long  distances  she  takes 
the  other  boats  in  tow,  the  latter  being  formed 
in  column  of  boats.  Oars  and  sails  should  be 
used  in  the  boats  when  possible,  to  assist  the  tow. 

The  equipment  of  the  boats  and  men  must  vary, 
of  course,  with  the  service  to  be  performed.  On 
civilized  and  armed  coasts  a  boat  expedition 
would  rarely  be  attempted,  but  on  uncivilized  or 
unarmed  coasts  great  advantages  are  derived 
from  them  when  properly  carried  out. 

We  will  assume  that  an  expedition  is  to  be  sent 
from  a  ship  of  the  class  of  the  a  Pensacola,"  to 
operate  50  miles  up  a  river  against  an  Indian 
village.  The  "  Pensacola"  is  provided  with  a 
steam-launch,  a  sailing-launch,  three  cutters,  a 
cutter-barge,  two  whale-boats,  a  gig,  and  two 
dingeys.  It  has  been  decided,  for  example,  that 
it  will  be  safe  to  send  all  the  boats  away  from  the 
ship ;  if  it  had  not,  one  or  more  divisions,  with 
their  boats,  could  have  been  left  behind.  It  is 
supposed  that  the  raid  can  be  accomplished  in 
two  days,  but  an  extra  day's  stores  are  to  be  car 
ried  in  case  of  accidents.  The  boats  are  assigned 
to  the  divisions  as  follows  :  1st  division,  sailing- 
launch  and  3d  cutter  ;  2d  division,  1st  cutter  and 
1st  whale-boat;  3d  division,  2d  cutter  and  2d 
whale-boat ;  4th  division,  barge  and  gig  ;  hospital- 
boat,  1st  dingey,  the  2d  dingey  being  left  for 
ship's  use.  The  steam-launch  is  manned  from 
the  master's  division.  The  sailing-launch  and 
1st  cutter  carry  howitzers,  the  steam-launch,  a 
Gatling. 

The  boats  are  supplied  for  pulling  and  sailing, 
and  are  furnished  with  anchors,  or  grapnels,  and 
cables.  Provisions  (cooked)  are  carried  for  three 
days ;  the  coffee  roasted  and  ground,  ready  for 
use.  Water  is  carried  for  five  days.  The  how 
itzers  are  supplied  with  80  rounds  of  assorted 
ammunition  ;  more  should  be  carried  if  stowage 
room  can  be  found.  The  field-carriages  are  taken 
if  the  guns  are  to  be  landed.  It  will  generally 
be  found  best  to  take  one  at  least.  Spare  sponges 
and  rammers  are  necessary.  The  men  are  armed 
with  rifles  and  sword-bayonets,  except  the  8  lower 
numbers  of  the  guns'  crews,  who  are  armed  with 
cutlasses.  Each  man  carries  40  rounds  of  am 
munition,  and  1000  rounds  of  spare  ammunition 
is  carried  in  each  boat.  Pea-coats  and  blankets 
are  carried  by  all.  Care  is  taken  that  the  men 
are  well  supplied  with  tobacco.  If  wet  weather 
is  anticipated  oil-skins  are  taken,  and  a  change 
of  clothing ;  plenty  of  tarpaulins  are  also  sup 


plied  with  which  to  cover  the  stores,  ammuni 
tion,  and  clothing.  Each  boat  carries  a  kettle  to 
boil  coffee,  and  each  person  a  pot,  pan,  and  spoon. 
The  boat-boxes,  with  tools  and  materials  for 
slight  repairs,  flint  and  steel,  fish-hooks  and  lines, 
lead  and  line,  lantern  and  candles,  etc.,  are  car 
ried.  Boat-compasses  and  glasses  are  distributed 
as  far  as  they  will  go.  The  steam-launch  is  sup 
plied  with  a  set  of  signals,  and  the  boats  with 
answering  pennants.  The  surgeon,  with  his  in 
struments  and  medicine-chests,  embarks  in  the 
hospital-boat. 

The  marines  are  distributed  among  the  lighter 
boats,  and  a  few  of  the  best  shots  are  detailed 
for  the  others.  Every  officer  is  provided  with 
a  full  list  of  what  he  must  take  in  his  boat,  and 
when  the  order  is  passed  to  fit  out  he  collects 
all  his  material,  and  inspects  it  thoroughly.  He 
then  inspects  his  men  fully  armed  and  equipped. 
Having  seen  that  his  boat  is  completely  pro 
vided,  he  has  her  stowed,  and  then  manned,  and 
when  ready  reports  for  service.  When  all  the 
boats  are  ready,  line  is  formed,  and  the  senior 
officer  inspects  his  flotilla.  Column  is  then 
formed,  and  the  steam-launch  takes  up  the  tow. 
A  few  oars  in  each  boat  are  kept  going,  and,  if 
the  wind  is  favorable,  sails  are  set. 

In  moving  up  the  river  care  is  taken  not  to 
be  ambushed.  Scouting-parties  may  be  landed, 
if  favorable  eminences  are  near  at  hand,  from 
which  the  banks  may  be  viewed  ahead.  If  at 
tacked  in  force  in  a  narrow  river  a  fight  should 
be  made,  and  the  advance  continued  after  the 
enemy  is  repulsed ;  in  a  broad  river  it  may  be 
safe  to  run  by  the  enemy  if  he  is  unprovided 
with  boats.  Care  should  be  taken  to  destroy  all 
boats  which  may  be  discovered  on  the  way,  as 
they  might  be  used  to  cut  off  a  retreat.  If  it  is 
found  necessary  to  land  to  cook  the  coffee,  one 
boat  only  should  be  detailed  for  the  work,  the 
others  lying  off  ready  for  a  surprise.  If  the  regula 
tion  boat-stoves  have  been  provided  for  the  larger 
boats,  the  cooking  may  be  done  without  landing. 
Having  arrived  within  shelling  distance  of  the 
town,  a  well-directed  slow  fire  should  be  opened 
on  it.  The  howitzer-boats  should  take  up  com 
manding  positions ;  the  lighter  boats,  after  the 
beach  or  landing  has  been  cleared,  should  move 
in  and  land  their  men,  with  the  exception  of 
those  detailed  as  boat-keepers,  the  steam-launch 
with  the  Gatling  moving  close  in  to  cover  the 
landing.  If  possible,  the  work  of  destruction 
should  be  carried  out  by  this  party.  It  may  be 
found  necessary  to  send  in  some  of  the  heavier 
boats,  but  all  should  not  be  landed,  except  in  a 
great  emergency.  The  object  of  the  expedition 
having  been  accomplished,  the  people  should 
embark,  and  return  to  the  ship  as  soon  as  possi 
ble,  using  the  same  precautions  as  in  advancing. 

For  expeditions  away  from  the  ship,  where  the 
service  has  to  be  performed  by  land,  the  ship's 
battalion,  or  part  of  it,  should  be  employed. 
As  in  the  previous  case,  we  will  take  the  "  Pen 
sacola"  as  our  example,  and  give  her  organiza 
tion  just  as  it  stands. 

The  battalion  is  commanded  by  the  executive- 
officer,  and  consists  of  four  companies  of  blue 
jacket  riflemen,  one  company  of  marines,  a 
platoon  of  howitzers,  a  Gatling  section,  an  am 
munition  squad,  a  provision  squad,  a  pioneer 
corps,  a  hospital  detachment,  and  a  band,  whose 
members  in  the  field  act  as  aids  to  the  wounded. 


LANDING-PARTIES 


424 


LANTERN 


The  rifle  companies  are  the  1st,  2d,  3d,  and  4th 
Divisions  of  the  ship's  organization,  the  last  being 
augmented  by  a  detail  from  the  powder  division. 
The  division  officers  command  their  own  men. 
Each  company  numbers  36  men,  including  2 
guides  and  2  file-closers.  This  leaves  a  number 
of  men  unassigned  in  each  division. 

The  crew  of  No.  1  gun,  1st  division,  forms  the 
crew  of  the  Gatling.  The  first  12  men  of  No.  2 
gun,  1st  division,  form  the  crew  of  No.  1  how 
itzer.  The  first  6  men  of  No.  5  gun,  2d  divis 
ion,  and  the  second  6  men  of  No.  6  gun,  form 
the  crew  of  No.  2  howitzer. 

The  supply  squads  are  taken  from  the  different 
divisions.  The  pioneer  corps  from  the  engineer 
division.  The  medical  detachment  consists  of 
the  apothecary  and  several  stretcher-men. 

The  men  and  officers,  when  fully  equipped, 
carry  blankets  rolled,  in  which,  if  necessary, 
extra  clothing  and  shoes  are  packed ;  a  haver 
sack,  made  of  canvas  aboard  ship,  in  which  are 
carried  eating-utensils,  rations,  tobacco,  and 
spare  ammunition  ;  a  water-bottle,  made  by  cov 
ering  old  bottles  with  flannel  and  securing  a 
shoulder-sling  to  them;  and  canvas  legging, 
made  by  the  men  themselves.  In  cold  weather 
pea-coats  are  added.  For  long  expeditions  the 
hammock,  unslung  and  fitted  with  side  eyelets, 
would  be  carried  rolled  over  the  blanket,  for  use 
as  a  shelter,  several  being  laced  together  to  form 
a  tent,  or  to  be  placed  under  the  men  on  the 
ground,  or  slung  between  poles  as  cots.  They 
would  also  furnish  cover  to  the  men  when  throw 
ing  up  rifle-pits,  and  could  be  used,  in  combina 
tion  with  poles,  for  hand-barrows  or  stretchers. 
Each  man  has  a  waist-belt,  on  which  the  rifle 
men  carry  a  cartridge-box  and  bayonet.  On 
actual  service  the  cartridge-box  would  be  re 
placed  by  an  improvised  prairie-belt.  The  can 
noneers  and  supply-squad  men  wear  cutlasses,  to 
which  the  latter  add  a  pistol.  The  officers  wear 
their  swords,  and  revolvers  with  cartridge- 
boxes.  The  officers  are  ordered  besides  to  carry 
glasses, pocket-compasses,  paper,  pencil,  etc.,  and, 
if  possible,  a  sketched  map  of  the  ground  to  be 
operated  over.  The  supply-squads  are  furnished 
with  carrying-poles,  on  which  are  slung  ammu 
nition-boxes,  or  mess-kettles,  and  packages  of 
supplies.  The  hospital  detachment  has  two 
complete  field-stretchers  and  a  carrying-pole  for 
the  medicine-chest.  These  men  ca'rry  no  arms, 
and  wear  a  "red  cross"  arm-badge.  A  small 
"  red  cross"  hospital  flag  is  carried  by  one  of 
the  detachment.  The  pioneer  corps  consists  of 
12  men,  commanded  by  an  engineer  officer ; 
they  are  armed  with  rifles  without  bayonets, 
and  each  "man  carries  slung  over  his  shoulders  two 
tools.  The  tools  include  shovels,  picks,  crows, 
axes,  hammers,  cold-chisels,  etc. 

Only  one  howitzer  is  intended  for  landing  for 
distant  service ;  the  second  carriage  is  fitted  as  a 
limber,  and  used  for  carrying  an  extra  supply  of 
ammunition,  a  spare  wheel,  some  tools,  and  a 
coil  of  rope.  Both  crews  man  this  howitzer,  and 
the  infantry  companies  assist  over  heavy  ground. 
The  Gatling  is  taken,  an  extra  tank  of  ammuni 
tion  being  slung  to  the  carriage.  The  admiral's 
and  captain's  coxswains  carry  the  national 
colors  and  a  battalion  flag  (a  jack,  with  the 
name  of  the  ship  in  the  centre).  The  markers, 
who  also  act  as  signal-men,  carry  hand-signal 
flags. 


"When  the  battalion,  or  any  part  of  it,  is 
landed,  the  boats  are  towed  by  the  launch  as 
much  as  possible.  Regular  boat-keepers  under 
an  officer  are  detailed  for  all  the  boats  from  men 
not  belonging  to  the  battalion. 

There  is  another  variety  of  landing-party, 
which,  although  not  intended  for  war  purposes, 
would  seem  to  come  appropriately  within  the 
limits  of  this  article  ;  it  is  the  fire-brigade.  All 
well-organized  ships  have  such  an  organization, 
intended  for  landing  to  assist  in  extinguishing 
fires  on  shore,  or  to  be  sent  to  vessels  on  fire. 
The  company  organization,  when  the  companies 
are  taken  from  the  same  divisions,  is  the  best, 
one  company  being  equipped  as  wreckers,  with 
axes,  picks,  shovels,  crows,  grapnels  and  chains, 
and  Jacob's  ladders,  another  as  bucket-men.  If 
there  are  efficient  handy-billies,  they  may  be 
fitted  on  the  howitzer  field-carriages,  and  taken 
in  charge  of  the  artillery-men.  The  fire-extin 
guishers  should  be  carried  by  reliable  men,  and 
a  supply  of  tarpaulins  will  be  found  useful. — 
Theo.  B.  M.  Mason,  Lieutenant  U.S.N. 

Lane.  A  passage  through  ice,  or  through  a 
crowd. 

Langrage,  or  Langrel.  A  projectile  which 
was  formerly  used  for  the  purpose  of  injuring 
the  sails  and  rigging  of  an  enemy's  vessel  during 
action.  It  consisted  of  various  pieces  of  iron 
bound  together,  with  sufficient  size  to  fit  the 
bore  of  the  gun. 

Languet  (Fr.  languette).  That  part  of  the 
hilt  of  a  sword  that  overlaps  the  scabbard. 

Laniard,  or  Lanyard.  The  rope  which  con 
nects  the  upper  and  lower  dead-eyes  of  standing 
rigging,  and  by  which  the  rigging  is  set  up  or 
tightened.  The  laniard  serves  as  the  fall  of 
a  tackle,  the  dead-eyes  being  used  in  place  of 
blocks.  A  lock-laniard  is  the  long  string  at 
tached  to  the  lock  of  a  gun,  by  which  it  is  fired. 
A  port-laniard  is  a  line  by  which  a  port  is  closed, 
and  by  which  it  is  held  in  position  when  square 
or  extended  parallel  with  the  water.  Each  port 
is  fitted  with  two  laniards.  A  knife-laniard  is 
the  white  cord  or  braided  line,  worn  about  the 
neck,  and  to  which  the  knife  is  attached,  to 
secure  it  from  falling  from  aloft,  and  the  word  is 
applied  to  any  small  line  used  for  a  similar  pur 
pose.  A  bucket-laniard  is  the  rope  handle  of  a 
bucket. 

Lantcha.     The  name  of  a  Malay  vessel. 

Lantern.  A  large  light  which  vessels  are  re 
quired  by  law  to  exhibit  from  sunset  to  sunrise, 
when  they  are  under  way.  A  vessel  under  steam 
has  a  lantern  at  the  foremast  head,  which  shows 
a  white  light,  and  vessels  whether  under  steam 
or  sail  carry  side-lanterns,  that  on  the  starboard 
bow  being  green,  and  on  the  port  bow  red. 
The  white  light  is  required  to  show  its  rays  over 
an  arc  of  20  points  of  the  compass,  or  225°  ; 
while  the  side  lights  each  show  their  rays  over 
an  arc  of  10  points,  or  112°  30'.  By  means  of 
this  arrangement  of  lanterns  the  general  direc 
tion  in  which  a  vessel  is  steering  may  be  known 
to  others,  and  by  following  the  "Rule  of  the 
Road"  the  danger  of  collision  is  usually  avoided. 
Signal-lanterns  are  used  in  communicating  be 
tween  ships  of  war,  and  are  of  the  three  colors, 
red,  white,  and  green.  Battle-lanterns  are  made 
of  a  frame- work  of  copper,  in  which  glass  slides 
are  placed.  They  are  hung  in  the  rear  of  the 
guns  on  a  covered  deck  during  an  action  at  night. 


LANTIONE 


425 


LAKBOAKD 


LANTERN-BRACE.  The  iron  fixture  or  rod  by 
which  a  lantern  is  secured. 

LANTERN-FISH  (Eng.}.     The  sole. 

Lantione.     The  name  of  a  Chinese  row-boat. 

Lap.  The  amount  which  a  slide-valve  extends 
over  the  ports  when  in  mid-position,  when  work 
ing  steam  expansively.  It  acts  by  closing  the 
port  before  the  piston  arrives  at  the  end  of  the 
stroke  ;  this  is  called  steam-lap^  and  necessitates 
lap  on  the  exhaust  side,  called  exhaust  lap,  to 
prevent  the  steam  being  exhausted  too  soon. 

Lapel,  or  Lapelle.  Part  of  a  coat.  Previous 
to  1812  the  white  lapel  denoted  the  rank  of 
lieutenant  in  the  English  navy. 

La  Perouse  (Jean~Fran9ois  de  Galoup,  Comte 
de),  the  celebrated  and  unfortunate  French  navi 
gator,  was  born  in  1741,  and  died  in  or  near  the 
island  of  Vanikoro  at  an  uncertain  date,  supposed 
to  be  during  the  year  1788. 

La  Perouse  entered  the  French  navy  at  15, 
and  was  at  once  actively  employed,  being  wounded 
and  made  prisoner  at  the  action  of  Belle  Isle,  in 
1759.  Soon  exchanged,  he  returned  to  duty. 
"Was  made  ensign  in  1764,  and  lieutenant  de 
vaisseau  in  1775,  when  he  distinguished  him 
self,  in  command  of  the  "  Amazon,"  by  the  cap 
ture  of  the  English  frigate  "  Ariel." 

In  1782  he  commanded  at  the  destruction  of 
the  Hudson  Bay  establishments,  previous  to 
which  he  had  made  many  captures  of  English 
vessels,  and  had  been  promoted  to  captain. 

In  1785  the  French  government,  stirred  by 
the  discoveries  of  Cook  and  other  explorers, 
wished  to  take  part  in  the  survey  of  unknown 
seas  thus  happily  commenced;  and  an  expedi 
tion  was  resolved  upon  to  search  for  the  north 
west  passage,  and  to  explore  the  Japan  Sea,  the 
Solomon  Islands,  and  the  southwest  part  of 
New  Holland.  Besides  scientific  purposes,  the 
expedition  was  to  have  commercial  aims,  espe 
cially  in  the  development  of  the  fur-trade  and 
the  whale-fishery.  The  field  thus  blocked  out 
proved  too  extensive,  and  the  instructions  for 
the  voyage,  drawn  up  under  the  directions  of 
Louis  XVI.  himself,  were  entirely  too  minute 
and  complicated. 

The  appropriately-named  frigates  u  Boussole" 
and  "  Astrolabe,"  the  latter  under  Capt.  de  Lan- 
gle,  were  fitted  out  with  every  instrument  and 
appliance  known  at  that  day,  and  had  a  full 
corps  of  scientific  men  and  artists.  The  two 
vessels  sailed  from  Brest  on  the  1st  of  August, 
1785,  and,  after  touching  at  various  points  in  the 
Atlantic,  doubled  Cape^Horn  and  put  in  at  Con- 
cepcion,  Chili.  Proceeding  thence  to  Easter  Isl 
and  and  the  Sandwich  Islands,  they  sailed  for  the 
American  coast,  in  the  neighborhood  of  Mount 
St.  Elias.  Here  bad  weather  and  other  causes 
prevented  him  from  doing  much  work.  Indeed, 
it  took  Vancouver  three  years  to  make  an  in 
complete  reconnoissance  of  these  shores.  Aban 
doning  the  northwest  course,  La  Perouse  coasted 
down  to  Monterey,  and  then  struck  across  for  the 
Japan  Sea,  discovering  islands  and  reefs  on  the 
way. 

In  January,  1787,  he  was  at  Macao.  Sailing 
thence  he  touched  at  the  Philippines,  and  recon 
noitred  Formosa,  and  in  May  reached  the  Corean 
Strait,  of  which  country,  as  well  as  Japan,  little 
or  nothing  was  then  known.  Then  followed  a 
laborious  exploration  of  the  coast  of  Tartary, 
Japan,  and  the  Kurile  Islands,  during  which 


many  bays,  islands,  and  straits  were  plotted  and 
named,  he  being  the  first  to  recognize  the  separa 
tion  of  Saghalien  from  Japan. 

In  September,  1787,  the  expedition  was  at  St. 
Peter  and  St.  Paul,  in  Kamschatka,  where  it 
was,  by  the  order  of  the  Empress  Catherine, 
well  entertained.  Here  they  received  dispatches, 
and  sent  home  reports  and  charts.  Soon  at  sea 
again,  La  Perouse  searched  in  vain  for  a  large 
island  laid  down  in  the  old  Spanish  charts  to 
the  eastward  of  Japan. 

On  December  9  he  reached  the  Navigator 
group, — lovely  islands,  with  ferocious  inhabit 
ants.  Here  Capt.  de  Langle  and  11  men  were 
killed  by  the  natives,  and  20  wounded.  With 
out  making  reprisals,  La  Perouse  went  on  to 
the  Friendly  Islands,  and  thence  to  Botany  Bay, 
where  he  arrived  in  January,  1788.  The  expe 
dition  sailed  from  Botany  Bay  in  the  latter  part  of 
February,  and  from  that  time  forty  years  elapsed 
before  any  trace  of  them  could  be  discovered. 

The  French  Kevolution,  with  its  entire  up 
heaval  of  social  and  official  life,  prevented  any 
action  in  regard  to  them  until  1791,  when  a 
decree  of  the  National  Assembly  ordered  a 
search.  In  the  same  year  Admiral  d'Entre- 
casteaux  sailed  upon  the  mission.  He  had  no 
success  in  his  search,  passed  within  a  short  dis 
tance  of  Vanikoro  without  touching  there,  and 
died  during  the  voyage.  Nothing  more  of  any 
moment  was  done  until  1826-28,  when  the  English 
Capt.  Dillon  and  the  French  navigator  Dumont 
d'lJrville  each  went  over  the  ground  where  in 
formation  as  to  the  fate  of  La  Perouse  was  sup 
posed  to  be  accessible. 

On  the  island  of  Vanikoro,  or  Pitt's,  in  lat. 
11°  36'  BO"  S.,  and  Ion.  166°  58'  24"  E.,  some 
traces  of  the  French  discovery  ships  were  found. 
According  to  the  reports  the  two  vessels  must 
have  been  lost  on  the  reefs  surrounding  the  isl 
and.  The  crew  of  one  of  them  were,  after  a  fight, 
all  massacred.  Those  of  the  other  ship  purchased 
peace  with  some  goods  saved,  and  then  built  a 
small  vessel  from  the  wreck  of  their  own.  In 
this  they  left  the  island,  never  to  be  heard  of 
again.  They  left  a  few  of  their  number  behind 
in  the  service  of  the  chiefs,  but  they  were  all 
dead  when  the  searchers  arrived.  AH  the  arti 
cles  which  Dillon  recovered  from  the  wrecks  form 
a  pyramid  in  the  marine  department  of  the 
museum  of  the  Louvre. — E.  Shippen. 

Lap-joint.  The  method  of  joining  the  plates 
in  iron  ships  and  in  boiler  construction  ;  there 
are  two  kinds,  double  and  single  riveted  lap- 
joints  ;  their  relative  strength  as  compared  with 
the  plate  is  as  follows  :  entire  plate  100,  double- 
riveted  joint  70,  single-riveted  56. 

Lapland  Witch.  A  Laplander  who  professes 
to  have  the  power  to  make  the  wind  blow  fair  or 
foul. 

Lapping.  The  name  given  to  thin  ice  in  the 
Arctic  Seas  where  one  piece  overlaps  another. 
The  sound  made  by  ripples  breaking  against  the 
shore. 

Lap's  Course.     See  LOB-SCOIJSE. 

Lap-sided.  A  term  expressive  of  the  condi 
tion  of  a  vessel  when  it  will  not  float  or  sit  up 
right  in  the  water.  Lop-sided. 

Lap-streak.  A  term  used  in  boat-building  to 
denote  that  the  planks  overlap. 

Larboard.  The  left  side  of  a  vessel  when 
facing  towards  the  bow.  On  account  of  the  re- 


LARDNER 


426 


LATES 


semblance  of  the  word  to  starboard,  and  the 
consequent  liability  to  mistake,  port  has  been 
substituted,  and  is  now  in  general  use. 

LARBOARD  WATCH.  The  former  name  for 
port  watch,  one  division  of  the  crew  of  a  vessel. 

LARBOLINES.  Formerly,  a  name  given  to  the 
men  of  the  larboard  watch. 

Lardner,  James  L.,  Rear-Admiral  U.S.N. 
Born  in  Pennsylvania.  Appointed  midshipman 
from  that  State,  May  10,  1820;  served  in  the 
schooner  "Dolphin"  and  ship  "Franklin,"  80 
guns,  flag-ship  Commodore  Stewart,  Pacific 
Ocean,  in"l821-24;  August,  1825,  joined  frigate 
"Brandywine,"  and  sailed  to  France,  carrying 
to  his  home  Gen.  Lafayette,  "  the  Nation's 
Guest."  Sailed  after  ward  to  the  Mediterranean, 
and  returned  to  New  York  in  1826.  October, 
1826,  sailed  in  frigate  "Brandywine,"  flag 
ship  of  Commodore  Jacob  Jones,  to  the  Pacific 
Ocean,  and  served  in  that  ship,  schooner  "  Dol 
phin,"  and  ship  "  Vincennes"  until  June,  1830, 
— nearly  three  years  of  which  as  navigating-offi- 
eer  of  the  latter  ship,  in  which  he  circumnavi 
gated  the  globe  in  1829-30. 

Commissioned  as  lieutenant,  May  17,  1828. 
Summer  of  1832,  served  as  senior  lieutenant  in 
schooner  "  Experiment"  ;.  1833-34,  served  in  the 
"  Delaware,"  86  guns,  flag  ship  of  Mediterranean 
Squadron,  Commodore  Patterson.  April,  1837, 
ordered  to  "Independence,"  60  guns,  flag-ship 
of  Brazil  Squadron,  Commodore  Nicholson,  and 
served  in  Russia,  England,  and  in  Brazil,  1837- 
38.  In  the  years  1841-44  served  as  senior  lieu 
tenant  in  sloop  "  Cyane"  and  frigate  "  United 
States,"  flag-ship  of  the  Pacific  Squadron,  nearly 
three  years" in  the  latter  ship.  Commanded  re 
ceiving-ship,  at  Philadelphia,  in  the  years  1845- 
48.  May,  1850,  sailed  in  command  of  brig 
"  Porpoise"  to  the  coast  of  Africa,  and  made  a 
cruise  of  three  years  in  command  of  that  vessel 
and  the  sloop-of-war  "  Dale,"  returning  to  Bos 
ton  in  April,  1853. 

Commissioned  as  commander,  May  17,  1851. 
Served  as  fleet-captain  of  the  West  India.  Squad 
ron,  in  the  summer  of  1855.  1860,  ordered  to 
the  Philadelphia  Navy-Yard. 

Commission  as  captain  dated  May  19,  1861. 
September,  1861,  ordered  to  command  the  steam- 
frigate  "Susquehanna,"  North  Atlantic  Block 
ading  Squadron ;  was  with  Dupont  at  the  cap 
ture  of  Port  Royal  and  blockading  South  Caro 
lina  and  Georgia,  for  which  service  his  name 
was  sent  to  Congress  by  President  Lincoln,  for 
a  vote  of  thanks,  which  passed  the  House,  but 
was  thrown  out  in  the  Senate.  After  the  battle 
of  Port  Royal,  Capt.  Lardner  received  a  compli 
mentary  letter  from  Flag-Officer  Dupont,  of 
which  the  following  is  a  copy  : 

"WABASH,  OFF  HILTON  HEAD, 
PORT  ROYAL,  S.  C.,  November  9,  1861. 
********* 

"I  inclose  a  general  order,  to  be  read  to  the 
officers  and  crew  of  the  '  Susquehanna,'  and  I 
take  the  occasion  to  say  that  your  noble  ship, 
throughout  the  whole  of  the  battle,  was  precisely 
where  I  wanted  her  to  be,  and  doing  precisely 
what  I  wanted  her  to  do,  and  that  your  close 
support  of  this  ship  was  a  very  gallant  thing. 

"  Truly  your  friend, 
(Signed)    '  "  S.  F.  DUPONT. 

"  Capt.  J.  L.  LARDNER, 

Commanding  'Susquehanna.'  " 


May,  1862,  assumed  command  of  the  East 
Gulf  Blockading  Squadron,  with  the  flag  of  rear- 
admiral.  Returned  home  in  December,  invalided  "• 
by  a  severe  attack  of  yellow  fever  at  Key  West. 
Admiral  Lardner  lost,  by  yellow  fever,  40  gal 
lant  officers  and  men,  from  his  flag-ship,  in  the 
summer  of  1862.  In  May,  1863,  took  command 
of  the  West  India  Squadron  ;  squadron  with 
drawn,  October,  1864.  Retired  November  20, 
1864. 

Commissioned  as  commodore,  July  16,  1862. 

Commissioned  as  rear-admiral,  July  25,  1866. 
On  special  duty  from  1864  to  1869.  Governor 
of  Naval  Asylum,  Philadelphia,  1869-71. 

Large.  Said  of  the  wind  when  it  is  fair,  so 
that  the  sails  receive  its  full  effect.  A  vessel  is 
then  said  to  sail  large.  By  and  large,  "  at  all 
points."  See  BY. 

Lark.     A  frolic. 

Larrup.     An  old  word  meaning  to  flog. 

Lascar.  A  native  East  Indian  sailor  em 
ployed  on  European  vessels. 

Lash.     To  secure  with  a  rope  or  lashing. 

LASH  AND  CARRY.  The  order  given  to  the 
watch  below  when  it  is  called  at  night,  meaning 
that  the  hammocks  are  to  be  lashed  and  stowed 
in  the  nettings. 

LASHING.  A  rope  used  to  secure  a  movable 
object,  or  to  fasten  one  object  to  another. 

LASHING  EYES.  Eyes  or  eye-splices  made 
in  the  ends  of  a  rope  by  which  they  may  be 
lashed  together. 

Lasher  Bull-head  (Eng.).  The  Coitus  scor- 
pius. 

Lask.  An  obsolete  term  for  sailing  with  the 
wind  aft. 

Laskets.  Small  loops  made  of  cord  for  lacing 
one  sail  to  another,  as  the  bonnet  to  the  jib. 

Last  (Eng.}.  A  cargo.  A  weight  which 
varied  with  different  articles,  but  was  generally 
estimated  at  4000  pounds.  A  last  of  herrings 
or  cod-fish  was  12  barrels,  of  gunpowder  24  bar 
rels,  and  of  pitch  or  tar  14  barrels. 

LASTAGE  (Eng.).  The  duties  paid  upon  such 
articles  as  were  bought  and  sold  by  the  last. 
Also  a  term  which  was  used  to  denote  the  cargo 
of  a  vessel. 

Laster  (Eng.).     The  flow  of  the  tide 

Latching  Key.  The  centre  loop  or  lasket 
which  serves  as  a  key  to  the  rest,  and  prevents 
them  from  unreeving.  See  LASKETS. 

Lateen-sail.  A  triangular  sail  used  on  native 
vessels  from  the  northern  coast  of  Africa  and 
Turkey,  and  seldom  seen  but  in  the  Mediter 
ranean.  It  is  bent  to  a  long  tapering  yard  which 
hoists  to  a  comparatively  short  mast,  the  hal 
liards  being  secured  to  the  yard  at  one-quarter 
of  the  distance  from  the  forward  or  lower  end. 

Lateen-yard.  The  yard  to  which  a  lateen- 
sail  is  bent. 

Lateral  Resistance.  The  resistance  of  the 
water  against  the  side  of  a  vessel  in  a  direction 
perpendicular  to  her  length. 

Lates  (Lates  Niloticus).  A  fish  of  the  perch 
family,  one  of  the  most  delicate  and  best-flavored 
fishes  of  the  Nile.  It  grows  to  a  large  size, 
sometimes  3  feet  long.  It  is  mentioned  by  sev 
eral  ancient  authors.  In  form  it  resembles  a 
perch.  Another  species  of  this  genus  is  the 
Vacti,  called  Cock-up  by  the  English  in  Calcutta, 
one  of  the  most  esteemed  fishes  of  the  Ganges, 
which  it  ascends  as  far  as  the  tide  does. 


LATHE 


427 


LA  YALLETTE 


Lathe.  The  name  of  a  cross-bow  used  in  the 
early  days  of  the  English  navy. 

Lather.     To  beat  soundly. 

Latitude.  The  latitude  of  a  point  on  the 
earth's  surface  may  be  denned  as  its  angular  dis 
tance  from  the  equator  measured  on  a  meridian. 
This  is  the  geographical  latitude  as  found  by 
astronomical  observations,  and  if  the  earth  were 
a  sphere  would  coincide  with  the  geocentric  or 
true  latitude,  which  is  an  angle  formed  between 
a  line  drawn  from  the  place  in  question  to  the 
centre  of  the  earth  and  the  plane  of  the  equator. 

The  difference  between  the  two  latitudes  is  not 
great,  but  enters  into  the  rigid  determination  of 
longitude  by  the  method  of  lunar  distances,  as 
well  as  into  other  astronomical  problems.  This 
correction  has,  therefore,  been  tabulated  for  use 
in  such  cases.  It  is  called  the  angle  of  the  ver 
tical,  and  attains  a  maximum  of  II7  30X/  at  the 
latitude  of  45°. 

The  direction  of  the  centre  of  the  earth  can 
only  be  determined  by  the  plumb-line,  or  by  the 
perpendicular  to  a  fluid  surface. 

Astronomical  or  geographical  latitude  is  de 
termined  in  many  ways.  At  sea,  the  methods 
most  in  use  are  the  measurement  of  the  altitude 
while  on  the  meridian  of  a  celestial  body,  the 
declination  of  which  is  known,  and  by  the  deter 
mination  of  two  lines  of  equal  altitude  by  what 
is  called  Sumner's  method.  (See  NAVIGATION.) 
On  shore,  latitudes  can  be  determined  with  great 
exactness  by  numerous  methods.  Besides  the 
methods  in  use  in  fixed  observatories,  there  are 
three  of  great  precision  in  use  by  surveyors,  viz., 
by  circum-meridian  altitudes  of  stars,  by  either 
the  common  or  the  prismatic  sextant  and  the 
artificial  horizon,  by  measurement  of  the  differ 
ence  of  zenith  distance  of  pairs  of  stars  with  the 
zenith  telescope,  and  by  observations  of  the  transit 
of  stars  over  the  prime  vertical.  (See  Chau- 
venet's  "Spherical  and  Practical  Astronomy.") 
— F.  M.  Green,  Lieutenant- Commander  U.S.N. 

LATITUDE  BY  ACCOUNT.  The  latitude  de 
duced  from  the  course  and  distance  sailed  since 
the  last  observation. 

LATITUDE  BY  OBSERVATION.  The  latitude 
deduced  from  an  observation  of  a  heavenly 
body. 

LATITUDE  (TERRESTRIAL),  PARALLELS  OF. 
Lesser  circles  of  the  sphere  parallel  to  the 
equator. 

LATITUDE,  DIFFERENCE  OF.  The  difference 
of  latitude  of  two  places  is  the  arc  of  a  meridian 
included  between  their  parallels  of  latitude. 

LATITUDE  OF  A  HEAVENLY  BODY.  The  an 
gular  distance  of  the  body  from  the  ecliptic. 

LATITUDE  (CELESTIAL),  CIRCLES  OF.  Great 
circles  of  the  celestial  sphere  passing  through  the 
poles  of  the  ecliptic  ;  so  called  because  latitude  is 
measured  upon  them. 

LATITUDE  (CELESTIAL),  PARALLELS  OF. 
Lesser  circles  of  the  celestial  sphere  parallel  to 
the  ecliptic. 

LATITUDE,  HELIOCENTRIC  AND  GEOCENTRIC 
(Gr.  helios,  the  sun ;  ge,  the  earth ;  and  kentron,  the 
centre).  Terms  applied  especially  to  the  planets. 
The  distance  of  the  planets  from  the  earth  is 
small  compared  with  that  of  the  fixed  stars,  and 
hence  the  place  of  any  one  of  them  on  the  celes 
tial  sphere  varies  with  the  position  of  the  spec 
tator  in  different  parts  of  the  earth's  orbit. 
Thus,  viewed  from  the  earth  as  centre  we  have 


the  geocentric  place  of  a  planet  and  the  corre 
sponding  geocentric  latitude  and  longitude.  On 
the  contrary,  if  viewed  from  the  sun  as  centre 
we  have  the  heliocentric  place  of  the  planet,  and 
the  corresponding  heliocentric  latitude  and  longi 
tude.  The  geocentric  differs  from  the  heliocen 
tric  place  of  a  planet  by  reason  of  that  parallactic 
change  of  apparent  situation  which  arises  from 
the  earth's  motion  in  her  orbit. 

Launce  (Eng.}.  From  the  Danish  word  loens, 
exhausted.  A  term  used  when  the  pump  sucks. 

Launch.  The  heaviest  boat  in  a  ship  of  war. 
Each  ship  usually  carries  two  launches, — one  a 
steam-launch  and  the  other  a  sailing-launch. 
The  former  is  fitted  for  the  use  of  torpedoes,  and 
is  of  great  utility  in  towing  the  remaining  boats 
of  a  vessel,  or  in  making  trips  of  considerable 
extent  from  the  vessel.  The  sailing-launch  is 
sloop-rigged,  and  is  also  fitted  with  16  oars.  A 
howitzerls  carried  in  the  bow,  and  by  means  of 
a  field-carriage  it  can  be  landed  and  used  as 
light  artillery.  Boats  of  this  class  are  used  for 
heavy  work,  such  as  carrying  stores  or  laying 
out  and  weighing  an  anchor  in  shoal  water,  and 
also  in  expeditions  against  an  enemy's  coast  or 
small  vessels. 

To  launch  a  vessel  is  to  cause  it  to  slide  from 
the  ways  upon  which  it  has  been  built  into  the 
water.  To  launch  a  spar  or  any  heavy  object  is 
to  push  or  slide  it.  To  launch  a  topgallant-mast 
is  to  slack  the  mast-rope  and  allow  the  weight 
of  the  mast  to  be  supported  by  the  fid,  after  the 
mast  has  been  swayed  aloft. 

LAUNCH-ENGINE.  A  small  engine  for  pro 
pelling  a  steam-launch,  usually  similar  in  con 
struction  to  the  ordinary  marine-engine,  though 
sometimes  the  boiler  and  engine  are  attached  for 
compactness. 

LAUNCHING-RIBBAND.  An  oak  plank  bolted 
to  the  outside  of  the  launching-ways  to  guide 
the  cradle  in  its  descent  in  launching. 

LAUNCHING-WAYS.  A  platform  built  upon 
each  side  of  the  ship,  whereon  the  bilge-ways 
slide  in  the  process  of  launching. 

La  Vallette,  Jean  Parisot  de.  Forty-eighth 
grand  master  of  the  Knights  of  Malta.  Born 
1494,  died  1568. 

Always  prominent  in  the  order,  La  Vallette 
was  especially  distinguished  for  great  courage 
and  ability  in  constant  war  with  the  Turks.  He 
became  governor  of  Tripoli,  grand  prior  of  St. 
Gilles,  and  of  the  "  Langue  de  Provence,"  and 
lieutenant-general  under  the  grand  master, 
Claude  de  La  Sangle,  at  whose  death,  in  1557, 
La  Vallette  was  thought  most  worthy  to  succeed 
to  the  grand  mastership.  He  at  once  instituted 
needed  reforms,  exercising  his  power  freely  in 
the  interests  of  the  order ;  making  the  priors 
and  commanders  of  the  German  and  Venetian 
branches  pay  their  arrears  of  tax,  restoring 
military  discipline,  which  had  become  very  lax, 
and  increasing  very  considerably  the  fleet  of  the 
order. 

Desiring  to  recapture  Tripoli,  which  had  been 
abandoned  to  the  Turks,  he  allied  himself  with 
the  viceroy  of  Sicily,  but  owing  to  the  miscon 
duct  of  the  latter  the  expedition  became  a  failure. 

La  Vallette  had,  however,  better  success  in 
his  contests  with  the  Turkish  fleet,  of  which  he 
captured  a  very  large  number  in  various  engage 
ments.  This  so  enraged  Solyman  II.  that  he  re 
solved  to  attempt  the  capture  of  Malta,  and,  to  this 


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\ 


end,  made  extensive  preparations.  In  1565  Malta 
^was  besieged  by  40,000  Turks  in  200  vessels.  La 
"Vallette,  in  his  arid  and  unproductive  island, 
resisted  this  formidable  attack  in  the  most  heroic 
manner  for  more  than  four  months,  when  rein 
forcements  arrived  and  the  Turks  were  forced 
to  raise  the  siege. 

Having  saved  Malta,  he  proceeded  to  make  it 
impregnable,  and,  in  addition  to  the  well-known 
defensive  works,  built  the  new  city,  which  still 
bears  his  name,  and  which  is  not  very  much 
altered  in  appearance  at  the  present  day. — E. 
Shippen. 

Laver.     The  leaves  of  an  edible  seaweed. 

Lavy.  The  name  of  a  sea-bird  which  fre 
quents  the  Hebrides,  and  whose  movements  are 
believed  by  the  inhabitants  to  indicate  changes  of 
weather. 

Law,  Richard  L.,  Captain  U.S.N.  Born  in 
Indiana;  appointed  midshipman,  1841 ;  "Dela 
ware,"  Brazil  Station,  1841-43;  "Lawrence," 
Home  Station,  1843-45. 

Promoted  to  passed  midshipman,  1847; 
"Perry"  and  "  Brandy  wine,"  Brazil  Station, 
1847-50  ;  coast  survey,  1851-53. 

Commissioned  as  lieutenant,  1855;  "Constel 
lation,"  Mediterranean  Station,  1856-57;  Naval 
Academy,  1858-59  ;  "  Hartford,"  Asiatic  Station, 
1859-61. 

Commissioned  as  lieutenant-commander,  1862  ; 
commanding  "  Clifton,"  West  Gulf  Blockading 
Squadron,  1862-63  ;  three  engagements  at  Gal- 
veston,  and  one  at  Lavacca ;  store-ship  "  New 
Hampshire,"  South  Atlantic  Blockading  Squad 
ron,  1865-66. 

Commissioned  as  commander,  1866  ;  receiving- 
ship  "New  Hampshire,"  1866-67;  "  Tacony," 
North  Atlantic  Station,  1867;  "Suwanee,"  North 
Pacific  Station,  1868;  "  Ashuelot"  and  "  Iro- 
quois,"  Asiatic  Station,  1868-70;  navy-yard, 
Philadelphia,  1871-72;  Naval  Asylum,  1873-74; 
"Dictator,"  North  Atlantic  Station,  1874-75; 
Bureau  of  Yards  and  Docks.  1877-78;  chief  of 
Bureau  of  Yards  and  Docks,  1878-81. 

Commissioned  as  captain,  1879. 

Law  of  Nations.  The  code  of  laws  by  which 
the  intercourse  between  different  sovereign  states 
is  regulated.  "  It  consists  of  those  rules  of  con 
duct  which  reason  deduces  as  consonant  to  justice, 
from  the  nature  of  the  society  existing  among 
independent  nations,  with  such  modifications  and 
deviations  as  may  be  established  by  general  con 
sent."  See  INTERNATIONAL  LAW. 

Lawrence,  James,  Captain  U.S.N.,  was  born 
October  1,  1787,  at  Burlington,  N.  J.  Appointed 
midshipman  September  4,  1798,  he  served  in  the 
"  Ganges,"  Capt.  Tinghey,  and  in  the  "  Adams," 
Capt.  Robinson.  When  the  navy  was  reorgan 
ized  he  was  still  named  as  midshipman  (1801). 
He  was  soon  after  promoted  to  lieutenant,  and 
went  to  the  Mediterranean  in  the  "  Enterprise.." 
He  distinguished  himself  in  an  attack  on  boats 
in  Tripoli  harbor,  led  by  Porter,  and  was  en 
gaged  in  the  destruction  of  the  "  Philadelphia," 
in  the  ketch  "Intrepid,"  February  15,  1804. 
He  was  first  lieutenant  of  the  "Constitution" 
in  1808,  commanded  the  "Vixen,"  14,  in  1809, 
the  "  Wasp,"  18,  in  1810,  and  the  "Argus"  the 
same  year.  He  was  promoted  to  master  com 
mandant  in  1811,  and  commanded  the  "  Hornet," 
18.  He  went  twice  to  Europe  with  dispatches, 
and  sailed  for  the  West  Indies  in  Commodore 


Rogers's  squadron  in  June,  1812;  captured  i, 
letter  of  marque  and  the  brig  "  Resolution,"  and 
on  the  24th  of  February,  1813,  the  British  sloop 
"  Peacock,"  18,  after  a  sharp  engagement  of 
thirty  minutes.  For  this  he  was  promoted  to 
captain,  given  a  medal,  and  the  command  of  the 
frigute  "Chesapeake."  On  the  1st  of  June,  1813, 
he  engaged  the  British  frigate  "Shannon"  off 
Boston  harbor.  Capt.  Lawrence  was  soon 
wounded,  exclaiming,  as  he  was  carried  below, 
"  Don't  give  up  the  ship  !"  Weakened  by  losses 
and  by  disaffection  among  the  crew,  his  ship  was 
captured  by  a  boarding-party  and  carried  to  Hali 
fax,  where  Capt.  Lawrence  was  buried,  having 
died  on  the  way,  on  the  6th  of  June,  at  the  age 
of  32.  He  was  a  fine  seaman,  brave,  chivalrous, 
and  just. — F.  S.  Bassett,  Lieutenant  U.S.N. 

Lay.  A  share  in  the  proceeds  of  a  whaling 
voyage  paid  to  each  of  the  crew  instead  of 
monthly  wages.  The  direction  given  to  the 
strands  of  a  rope  in  laying  it  up.  To  lay  is  used 
in  the  sense  of  to  go  or  come  ;  as,  lay  forward,  lay 
down  from  aloft,  etc.  To  lay  a  gun  is  to  point  it 
at  an  object.  To  lay  up  a  rope  is  to  twist  the 
strands  together.  To  lay  on  oars  is  to  cease  row 
ing,  and  keep  the  oars  parallel  with  the  water. 
To  lay  in  stores  is  to  take  provisions  on  board. 
A  ship  lays  her  course  when  being  close-hauled, 
the  wind  permits  the  desired  course  to  be  steered. 
Lay  to.  (See  LIE  To.)  To  lay  up  a  vessel  is  to 
dismantle  her. 

LAY-DAYS.  The  number  of  days  specified  in 
a  charter-party  which  are  allowed  for  the  load 
ing  and  unloading  of  a  vessel,  and  beyond  which 
a  certain  sum  per  diem,  called  demurrage,  must 
be  paid  for  the  detention. 

LAYING  DOWN.  The  delineation  of  the  differ 
ent  parts  of  a  ship  to  their  full  size  upon  the 
mold-loft  floor. 

Lay-lords  (Eng.}.  The  civil  members  of  the 
board  of  admiralty. 

Lazaretto.  A  hospital  for  the  treatment  of  in 
fectious  diseases.  A  place  near  the  stern  in  some 
merchant  vessels  where  provisions  are  stowed. 

Lazy-bars.  Bars  of  iron  temporarily  placed 
across  the  mouth  of  a  furnace  to  support  the  fire- 
irons  in  working  at  the  back  end  of  a  furnace. 

Lazy-guy.  A  light  rope  or  tackle  used  for 
steadying  the  spanker-boom. 

Lazy-painter.  A  small  rope  used  for  securing 
a  boat  in  smooth  water. 

Lead.  An  apparatus  used  on  board  vessels  to  de 
termine  the  depth  of  water.  It  is  generally  made 
of  lead,  of  prismatic  shape,  tapering  to  the  upper 
end,  through  which  a  hole  is  made-for  a  strap,  to 
which  is  attached  a  marked  line.  The  lead  is 
thrown  overboard  from  the  vessel,  and  when  it 
reaches  the  bottom,  and  the  line  is  vertical,  the 
depths  are  shown  by  the  marks  on  the  line. 

There  are  three  classes  of  leads  in  use, — the 
hand-lead,  weighing  from  7  to  14  pounds,  and 
from  6  to  10  inches  in  length ;  the  coasting-lead, 
weighing  from  25  to  50 "pounds,  and  about  18 
inches  long  ;  and  the  deep-sea-lead  (pronounced 
dipsey-lead],  weighing  from  75  to  120  pounds, 
and  about  2  feet  long.  The  line  used  with  the 
hand-lead  is  about  30  fathoms  long,  and  is  used 
in  depths  of  25  fathoms  and  under,  that  of  the 
coasting-lead  120  fathoms  long,  and  used  in 
water  from  25  to  100  fathoms  in  depth,  and  of 
the  deep-sea-lead  300  fathoms,  and  used  in  depths 
over  100  fathoms. 


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429 


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These  lines  are  marked, — hand-lead,  at  1 
fathom  from  the  lead,  generally,  a  toggle  is 
placed  for  the  leadsman  to  handle  it  by,  at  2 
fathoms  2  strips  of  leather,  at  3  fathoms  3  strips, 
at  5  fathoms  a  white  rag,  at  7  fathoms  a  red  rag, 
at  10  fathoms  a  piece  of  leather  with  a  hole  in  it, 
at  13  fathoms  the  same  as  at  3,  at  15  fathoms  the 
same  as  at  5,  at  17  fathoms  the  same  as  at  7,  at 
20  fathoms  a  piece  of  leather  with  two  .holes  in 
it,  or  a  piece  of  line  with  2  knots,  at  25  fathoms 
one  knot,  at  30  fathoms  3  knots. 

The  coasting-  and  deep-sea-lead-lines  are  both 
usually  marked  in  the  same  manner,  viz. :  at  10 
fathoms  one  knot,  at  20  fathoms  2  knots,  at  30 
fathoms  3  knots,  etc.,  and  each  5  fathoms  is 
marked  by  a  piece  of  line  with  no  knot,  at  100 
fathoms  a  piece  of  red  bunting,  at  200  fathoms 
a  piece  of  white,  and  at  300  fathoms  a  piece 
of  blue. 

Heaving  or  casting  the  lead.  To  ascertain  the 
depth  of  water  by  the  use  of  the  leads  and  their 
lines. 

By  the  hand-lead. — The  leadsman  takes  his 
place  generally  in  the  main  chains  of  the  vessel, 
or  any  place  outside  where  he  can  have  a  good 
foothold  and  a  clear  swing,  with  a  broad  belt 
passing  around  his  waist  fastened  at  both  ends, 
to  prevent  him  from  falling  overboard.  From 
his  waist  down  he  is  protected  from  the  drippings 
of  the  line  by  a  tarpaulin.  The  end  of  the  lead-line 
is  fastened  near  by.  He  takes  a  coil  of  line  in 
his  hand  sufficient,  as  he  estimates,  to  reach  the 
bottom,  holding  it  clear  for  running  out,,  and  in 
the  other  hand  the  line  at  the  toggle,  swings  the 
lead  to  and  fro  until  it  has  sufficient  velocity  to 
carry  the  line  out,  when  he  lets  it  go  in  the  di 
rection  in  which  the  vessel  is  moving,  letting  the 
lead  take  the  line  from  the  hand  having  the  coil, 
as  the  ship  advances,  so  that  when  the  ship  arrives 
at  where  the  lead  reached  the  water  the  line  is 
up  and  down,  when  he  can  feel  if  the  lead  has 
touched  bottom.  If  the  lead  reaches  bottom,  he 
notes  the  mark  at  the  water's  surface,  or  esti 
mates  the  depth  from  the  nearest  mark. 

There  are  several  nautical  terms  used  by  leads 
men  in  reporting  soundings.  They  are  reported 
in  fathoms  and  quarters.  All  the  depths  marked 
on  the  line  are  called  marks,  and  the  fathoms 
not  marked,  "  deeps."  For  example,  if  the  depth 
were  3  fathoms,  it  would  be  reported  as  "  by  the 
mark  3"  ;  if  4  fathoms,  as  "  by  the  deep  4"  ;  if 
3£  fathoms,  as  "  and  a  quarter  3"  ;  if  3^  fathoms, 
as  "  and  a  half  3"  ;  if  3|  fathoms,  as  "  and  a  quar 
ter  less  4-"  If  no  bottom  is  reached,  it  is  reported 
as  "no  bottom"  at  so  many  fathoms,  the  length 
of  line  thrown  out. 

When  a  vessel  is  going  at  a  greater  rate  of 
speed  than  8  knots,  it  is  very  difficult  to  get 
soundings  in  this  manner  in  depths  greater  than 
10  fathoms,  and  then  the  lead  must  be  whirled 
around  the  head  to  make  it  carry  out  enough 
line. 

A  hand-lead  as  small  as  from  3  to  5  pounds 
weight,  with  a  very  light  line  marked  to  feet,  is 
used  from  boats  for  running  lines  of  soundings  in 
shoal  water. 

By  the  coasting-  and  deep-sea-leads. — As  it  is 
important  to  know  the  character  of  the  bottom, 
these  leads  have  the  lower  end  cup-shaped,  and 
the  hollow  filled  with  soft  clean  tallow  before 
being  cast  (called  arming  the  lead).  If  the 
lead  reach  bottom,  it  is  known  by  a  sample 


sticking  to  the  tallow ;  usually  there  is  enough 
to  indicate  roughly  the  nature  of  the  ground. 

To  get  a  sounding  or  cast  with  these  leads,  it 
is  necessary  to  reduce  the  speed  of  the  vessel,  and 
if  the  water  is  deep,  to  stop  her  way  altogether, 
and  keep  her  in  as  near  the  same  position  as 
possible,  which  is  done  by  "  luffing  up,"  or 
"  heaving  to,"  in  a  sailing-vessel,  or  by  stopping 
and  backing  the  engines  in  a  steamer. 

The  lead  is  armed  and  taken  to  the  bows  of  the 
vessel,  a  sufficient  number  of  the  crew  stationed 
outside  along  the  weather  side  of  the  ship.  The 
line,  either  wound  up  on  a  reel  or  coiled  down  in 
a  tub,  is  placed  at  the  stern,  the  end  rove  through 
a  snatch-block  made  fast  outside  the  vessel  at  the 
stern  in  a  convenient  place,  carried  forward  out 
side  of  everything  and  made  fast  to  the  lead. 
Each  man  stationed  on  the  outside  takes  a  coil 
of  the  line  in  his  hand  and  keeps  it  clear  for  run 
ning  until  sufficient  is  judged  to  be  out  to  reach 
bottom.  When  the  vessel's  way  has  been  suffi 
ciently  checked,  or  she  has  been  brought  to  a 
stationary  position,  the  order  is  given,  "Stand 
by!"  "Heave!"  When  the  lead  is  thrown  over 
board,  the  person  doing  it  cries  out,  "  Watch-oh- 
watch  !"  As  the  lead  sinks  each  man  lets  it  take 
the  line  from  his  hand,  so  that  he  can  feel  if  it 
has  reached  bottom;  if  so,  he  cries  out,  "Bot 
tom!"  when  the  mark  is  noted  and  the  line 
hauled  in  through  the  block  aft.  If  no  bottom 
is  felt  as  the  last  part  of  the  line  leaves  the  man's 
hand,  he  calls  out  to  his  next  aft,  "  Watch-oh- 
watch!"  and  so  on  to  the  stern,  where  the  rest 
of  the  line  may  be  left  to  run  off  the  reel  or  out 
of  the  tub,  watching  to  see  if  the  lead  touch  bot 
tom,  which  will  be  known  by  the  line  slacking. 
If  the  cast  is  satisfactory,  the  line  is  hauled  in, 
the  depth  and  character  of  the  bottom  noted,  and 
the  vessel  resumes  her  way. 

If  the  ship  is  in  heavy  weather,  or  drifting  to 
leeward,  it  is  best  to  take  the  line  outside  around 
the  stern  from  to  "windward,"  so  that  by  the 
time  it  has  run  out  it  will  be  nearly  up  and 
down,  the  ship  having  drifted  to  that  place 
while  the  line  was  running  out.  Sometimes  a 
buoy  and  nipper  is  used  to  insure  an  up-and- 
down  cast  (called  Burt's  buoy  and  nipper).  The 
line  is  run  through  a  spring  catch  on  the  buoy, 
and  the  buoy  thrown  overboard  with  the  lead 
and  line ;  the  line  will  run  through  the  nipper 
as  long  as  the  weight  of  the  lead  is  felt,  but  when 
it  reaches  the  bottom  the  spring  of  the  nipper 
will  catch  the  line  and  hold  fast,  so  that  the 
depth  may  be  measured  on  the  line  from  the 
buoy. 

The  above  methods  are  used  to  obtain  sound 
ings  by  vessels  approaching  an  unknown  coast, 
and  so  as  to  enable  the  navigator  to  tell  from  the 
depth  and  character  of  the  soundings  his  ap 
proximate  position  in  foggy  weather  on  a  coast 
of  which  there  are  good  charts. 

For  soundings  to  be  plotted  on  surveys  and 
for  scientific  purposes  finer  work  is  needed,  espe 
cially  in  deep-sea  soundings. 

Moderate  soundings  may  be  accurately  deter 
mined  by  the  hand-lead,  as  before  described, 
moderating  the  speed  of  the  vessel  for  the  pur 
pose. 

A  lead  coming  very  much  into  use  of  late 
years  is  Thompson's  pressure-lead,  which  con 
sists  of  a  glass  tube  fitted  into  the  lead,  so  as  to 
give  free  access  to  the  water  at  its  lower  end. 


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This  tube  has  a  chemical  preparation  on  the  in 
side,  which  the  water  discolors  as  it  forces  its 
way  up  in  the  interior,  which  it  will  do  in  pro 
portion  to  the  depth  the  lead  descends,  and  from 
the  known  laws  of  hydrostatics  we  can  deter 
mine  from  the  length  of  the  discolored  part  of 
the  tube  the  depth  the  lead  has  reached. — J.  E. 
Noel,  Lieutenant- Commander  U.S.N. 

LEAD-LINE.  The  line  to  which  the  lead  is  at 
tached,  and  by  which  the  depth  of  water  is 
measured. 

LEADSMAN.  A  man  stationed  to  heave  the  lead. 

Lead.  The  distance  the  main  steam-valve 
has  opened  the  port,  when  the  piston  is  at  the 
end  of  the  stroke,  or  the  crank  is  on  the  centre ; 
if  referred  to  the  steam-port  it  is  called  steam- 
lead,  if  to  the  exhaust-port,  exhaust-lead.  When 
two  engines  are  connected  to  one  shaft,  as  in 
marine  engines,  the  cranks  are  usually  placed 
at  right  angles  to  each  other,  but  sometimes  this 
angle  exceeds  90°,  and  one  crank  placed  as  much 
as  115°  ahead  of  the  other;  this  angular  ad 
vance  above  90°  is  termed  the  lead  of  the  crank. 
A  navigable  channel  through  field-ice.  The 
course  of  a  rope  from  end  to  end ;  a  rope  leads 
clear  when  it  passes  directly  from  one  block  to 
another,  or  to  the  deck,  without  obstruction. 

LEADER,  or  FAIR-LEADER.  A  piece  of  wood 
(usually  lignum-vitse)  through  which  holes  are 
bored,  used  for  the  purpose  of  leading  ropes  in 
their  proper  places. 

LEADING-BLOCK.  A  block,  secured  to  the  deck, 
through  which  a  rope  is  led  for  the  purpose  of 
convenience  in  pulling. 

LEADING-MARKS.  "Elevated  objects  on  shore, 
which,  when  in  range,  serve  as  a  guide  in  enter 
ing  port. 

LEADING-PART.  That  part  of  the  fall  of  a 
tackle  which  is  led  out  and  hauled  upon. 

LEADING-STRINGS  (Eng.).  Yoke-ropes,  used 
in  steering  a  boat  in  place  of  a  tiller. 

LEADING  WIND.  A  wind  abeam  or  quar 
tering. 

League.  A  measure  of  distance,  more  com 
monly  used  at  sea,  but  in  use  by  some  European 
nations  as  a  measure  of  distance  on  land.  Among 
different  nations  the  length  of  a  sea  league  varies, 
as  follows  :  United  States,  Great  Britain,  France, 
and  Italy,  6075  yards ;  Holland  and  Germany, 
8100  yards ;  Spain,  7416  yards ;  Russia,  8468 
yards,  etc.  The  marine  league  is  the  distance 
from  the  coast  over  which  a  government  has 
jurisdiction,  and  this  distance  has  been  chosen 
as  being  the  limit  of  effective  range  of  artillery. 

Leaguer  -(Eng.}.  A  long  water-cask  used  be 
fore  the  introduction  of  water-tanks.  Its  ca 
pacity  was  159  imperial  gallons. 

Leak.  A  hole  through  which  the  water  finds 
entrance  into  a  vessel.  To  spring  a  leak  is  to 
strain  the  seams  sufficiently  to  cause  leakage. 

LEAKAGE.  The  loss  from  a  cask  by  leaking. 
The  allowance  which  is  made  for  the  waste  and 
leaking  from  casks  of  wines,  liquors,  etc.,  when 
duties  are  imposed. 

LEAKIES  (Scotch}.  Irregularities  in  the  changes 
of  the  tide  in  the  Frith  of  Forth. 

LEAKY.  The  condition  of  a  vessel  which  ad 
mits  water  through  the  seatns,  or  that  of  a  cask 
which  will  not  retain  liquid. 

Lean.    Thin  or  sharp,  like  the  bow  of  a  clipper. 

Leaper  (Eng.).  A  sea  that  breaks  on  board. 
Also,  the  spray  from  the  waves  under  the  bow. 


Leap-year.     See  BISSEXTILE. 

Leather.     See  LATHER.  i 

LE ATH ER-JACKET.  A  fish  found  in  the  tropics, 
and  so  called  from  the  thickness  of  its  skin. 

Leave,  or  Leave  of  Absence.  Permission  to 
be  absent  from  a  ship  or  station.  A  person  takes 
French  leave  when  he  absents  himself  without 
permission,  and  breaks  his  leave  or  liberty  when 
he  does  not  return  at  the  time  specified. 

Le  Clanche  Battery.  See  GALVANIC  BAT 
TERY. 

Ledge.  A  line  of  rocks  below  the  surface  of 
the  water.  A  short  piece  of  timber  in  the  deck- 
frame  of  a  vessel,  which  is  placed  between  the 
beams  and  let  into  the  carline  and  knee. 

Ledo.  An  old  Latin  law-term  for  the  flow  of 
the  tide. 

Lee,  Samuel  Phillips,  Rear-Admiral  U.S.N. 
Born  in  Virginia,  February  13,  1812.  Ap 
pointed  midshipman  from  his  native  State,  No 
vember  22,  1825;  attached  to  frigate  "Java," 
Mediterranean  Squadron,  1828-32. 

Promoted  to  passed  midshipman,  June  10, 
1833;  frigate  "  Brandywine,"  Pacific  Squadron, 
1834-35,  and  to  sloop  "  Vincennes,"  same  squad 
ron,  1836-37. 

Commissioned  as  lieutenant,  February  9, 1837 ; 
attached  to  West  India  Squadron,  1839-42; 
coast  survey,  1841-44;  Pensacola  Navy- Yard, 
1845-46 ;  coast  survey,  1847-51 ;  commanding 
brig  "Dolphin,"  special  service,  1852;  hydro- 
graphical  duty,  1852-54;  Naval  Observatory, 
Washington,  1855. 

Commissioned  as  commander,  September  14, 
1855;  special  service,  1856-60.  In  1861,  Com 
mander  Lee  was  ordered  to  command  the  sloop- 
of-war  "Oneida,"  and  in  that  vessel  took  part 
in  the  attack  and  passage  of  Forts  Jackson  and 
St.  Philip,  and  the  various  battles  on  the  Mis 
sissippi  from  New  Orleans  to  Vicksburg,  winning 
a  high  reputation  for  gallantry  and  devotion  to 
duty. 

Commissioned  as  captain,  July  16,  1862,  and 
ordered  to  the  command  of  the  North  Atlantic 
Blockading  Squadron,  with  the  rank  of  acting 
rear-admiral.  While  in  command  of  the  North 
Atlantic  Blockading  Squadron,  he  greatly  har 
assed  the  enemy  by  numerous  expeditions  up 
the  navigable  streams  within  the  limits  of  his 
squadron.  He  was  at  all  times  ready  to  co 
operate  with  the  army,  and  on  more  than  one 
occasion  the  presence  of  his  vessels  saved  the 
military  forces  from  serious  disaster.  Wilming 
ton,  N.  C.,  was  the  most  difficult  port  on  the 
coast  to  blockade,  but  Acting  Rear-Admiral 
Lee,  by  a  wise  distribution  of  the  vessels  of  his 
squadron,  made  the  blockade  as  effective  as  it 
was  possible  to  make  it.  In  the  summer  of  1864, 
he  was  transferred  to  the  command  of  the  Mis 
sissippi  Squadron.  In  December  of  the  same 
year  he  rendered  good  service  to  the  country, 
'by  keeping  open  the  Cumberland  River  at  the 
time  Hood's  army  was  advancing  on  Nashville, 
and  when  the  safety  of  the  army  under  Gen. 
Thomas  depended  in  a  great  measure  upon  rein 
forcements  and  supplies  reaching  them  promptly  ; 
the  railroad  communication  between  Louisville 
and  Nashville  having  been>interrupted,  the  Cum 
berland  River  was  the  only  channel  of  communi 
cation.  During  this  campaign  he  was  several 
times  under  fire,  and  for  his  services  received  a 
vote  of  thanks  from  Congress.  In  1805  the 


LEE 


431 


LEND  YOUK  POUND 


Mississippi  Squadron  was  disbanded  and  most  of 
the  vessels  were  sold,  Captain  Lee  being  ordered 
East. 

Commissioned  as  commodore,  July  25,  1866 ; 
in  1866-67,  he  was  president  of  the  board  to 
examine  volunteer  officers  for  admission  into  the 
regular  navy ;  on  special  duty  at  Washington, 
D.  C.,  1868-70. 

Commissioned  as  rear-admiral,  June,  1870, 
and  to  the  command  of  the  North  Atlantic  Fleet. 
Retired,  1873. 

Lee.  The  direction  towards  which  the  wind 
blows,  used  in  contradistinction  to  weather,  or 
the  direction  from  whence  it  comes.  Hence  the 
lee  side  of  a  vessel  is  the  side  opposite  to  that 
against  which  the  wind  blows.  The  word  is  also 
used  in  the  sense  of  shelter;  as,  "The  ship  is 
under  the  lee  of  the  land,"  or  protected  by  the 
land.  A  ship  is  brought  by  the  lee  when  her 
course  is  changed  so  as  to  cause  the  wind  to  blow 
against  what  was  before  the  lee  side,  thus  laying 
the  sails  aback. 

LEE-ANCHOR.  The  anchor  on  the  lee-bow 
when  the  vessel  is  under  way.  "When  moored, 
the  lee-anchor  is  the  one  to  which  the  vessel  is 
not  riding. 

LEE-BEAM.  The  position  of  an  object  on  the 
lee  side  of  a  vessel  when  a  line  drawn  from  the 
object  to  the  vessel  would  be  at  right  angles 
to  the  keel. 

LEE-BOARD.  A  board  or  frame  fastened  to  the 
side  of  a  small  vessel,  to  serve  as  a  keel  and 
lessen  the  amount  of  leeway  when  close-hauled. 

LEE-FANG  (Eng.}.  A  rope  passed  through  the 
sheet-cringle  of  a  jib,  for  hauling  it  amidships 
while  the  bonnet  is  being  laced. 

LEE-FANGE  (Eng.}.  The  iron  bar  or  traveler 
secured  to  the  deck  in  small  fore-and-aft  vessels 
upon  which  the  sheets  slide. 

LEE-GAUGE.  The  position  of  a  vessel  when  to 
leeward  of  another.  See  WEATHER-GAUGE. 

LEE-GUNWALE  UNDER.  Said  of  a  boat  when 
carrying  such  a  press  of  sail  that  the  lee-gunwale 
is  at  the  water's  edge. 

LEE-HATCH.  A  former  order  to  the  helmsman 
not  to  steer  to  leeward  of  the  course  was,  "  Take 
care  of  the  lee-hatch.'11 

LEE-LURCH.    A  heavy,  sudden  roll  to  leeward. 

LEE-SHORE.  A  coast  against  which  the  wind 
is  blowing. 

LEE-SIDE,,  The  side  of  a  ship  which  is  far 
thest  from  the  wind.  Junior  officers  of  the 
watch,  and  officers  not  on  duty,  are  allowed  to 
promenade  on  the  lee  side  of  the  quarter-deck. 

LEE-TIDE.  A  tide  which  runs  in  the  direction 
of  the  wind. 

LEEWARD.  Towards  the  lee, — used  in  a  general 
sense. 

LEEWARDLY.  Said  of  a  vessel  which  sags  to 
leeward  when  close-hauled,  showing  a  lack  of 
weatherly  qualities. 

LEEWAY.  The  drift  which  a  vessel  makes 
when  close-hauled.  The  amount  is  greater  or 
less  according  to  the  weatherly  qualities  of  the 
vessel,  the  force  of  the  wind  and  sea,  and  the 
amount  of  sail  which  the  vessel  can  carry. 

LEE-WHEEL.  The  lee  side  of  the  wheel,  where 
the  assistant  to  the  helmsman  is  stationed. 

Leech.  The  side  of  a  square-sail,  and  the 
after  edge  of  a  fore-and-aft  sail. 

LEECH-LINE.  A  rope  with  which  the  leech  of 
a  course  is  pulled  up  to  the  yard. 


LEECH-LINE  BLOCK.  A  block  fastened  to  the 
fore-  or  main-yard,  through  which  the  leech-line 
is  rove. 

LEECH-ROPE.  The  rope  which  is  sewed  to  the 
leeches.  See  SAILS. 

Left-handed  Rope.  Hope  laid  up  against 
the  sun. 

Leg.  The  course  and  distance  made  upon  one 
tack.  A  good  leg  is  made  when  the  course  on  a 
tack  is  near  the  desired  course.  Long  and  short 
legs  refer  to  the  comparative  distances  sailed 
upon  different  tacks.  The  spars  of  which  a  pair 
of  sheers  are  formed  are  called  sheer-legs.  The 
ends  of  two  ropes  spliced  together,  as  bunt-lines 
are  sometimes  made,  are  also  called  legs.  A  ship 
is  said  to  have  legs  when  she  is  a  fast  sailer. 

LEG-ALONG  (Eng.}.  To  lead  out  a  rope  ready 
to  be  manned. 

LEG-BAIL.  To  give  leg-bail  is  to  escape  from 
custody. 

LEGS  OF  THE  MARTINETS.  Two  ropes,  fast 
ened  to  the  leech-rope  of  a  course  and  spliced 
together,  to  which  the  martinet  was  secured. 

LEGS  AND  WINGS.  Said  of  a  vessel  with  masts 
of  great  height,  and  which  consequently  has  too 
great  spread  of  sail. 

Legger.  A  mis-pronunciation  of  leaguer 
(which  see). 

Leghorn,  Italy,  one  of  the  best  known  of 
the  Mediterranean  ports,  is  situated  on  a  tongue 
of  land  extending  into  the  Mediterranean,  in 
lat.  43°  32'  42"  N.,  Ion.  10°  27'  45"  E.  The 
exports  consist  chiefly  of  manufactured  articles 
of  coral,  woolen,  and  silk  goods,  straw  bonnets, 
cordage,  leather,  etc.  The  harbor  is  of  large  ex 
tent,  but  is  somewhat  difficult  of  entrance.  The 
roadstead  W.N.W.  of  the  harbor  is  protected  by 
a  long  sand-bank,  and  has  good  anchorage. 
Originally  a  Roman  port,  it  had  dwindled  to  a 
fishing-village,  when  its  fine  capabilities  for 
commerce  were  discerned  by  the  celebrated  Me 
dici  family,  who  constructed  its  harbor  and  sur 
rounded  it  with  fortifications,  and  bestowed  upon 
it  the  privilege  of  full  toleration  for  all  nations 
and  creeds.  Pop.  98,000. 

Leister  (Eng.}.  A  spear  with  three  prongs 
used  for  taking  fish. 

Leit  (Eng.}.  A  fishing-line  made  of  horse 
hair. 

Leith,  Scotland,  is  the  seaport  of  Edinburgh, 
from  which  it  is  distant  2  miles,  on  the  south 
shore  of  the  Frith  of  Forth.  Lat.  55°  68'  54" 
N.  ;  Ion.  3°  10'  30"  W.  The  chief  manu 
factures  consist  of  ropes,  cordage,  sails,  chem 
icals,  glassware,  etc.  It  has  extensive  ship-build 
ing  yards,  sugar-refineries,  and  breweries.  The 
harbor  is  an  excellent  one,  and  is  protected  by 
two  piers  or  breakwaters,  which  advance  from 
opposite  shores  toward  each  other,  making  the 
entrance  but  250  feet  in  width.  There  are  ex 
tensive  wet-docks,  graving-docks,  dry-docks,  and 
the  harbor  is  also  protected  by  a  battery.  Pop. 
45,000. 

Leith  (Swe.}.     A  channel. 

Lembus.  An  ancient  name  for  a  small  pi 
ratical  craft  having  no  deck. 

Leming-star.  The  name  formerly  given  to 
a  comet. 

Lemon  Rob  (Eng.}.  Lemon-juice  thickened 
by  evaporation. 

Lend  a  Hand.     To  give  assistance. 

Lend  Your  Pound.  To  assist  by  one's  weight, 


LENGTHENING 


432 


LESSEE  CIECLE 


as  in  hauling  upon  a  rope.  It  refers  to  the  al 
lowance  of  meat  in  the  navy  ration. 

Lengthening.  In  a  ship,  is  adding  to  the 
length.  It  is  sometimes  performed  on  the  ends 
of  a  ship,  and  nowadays  100  feet  is  often  put 
into  the  middle  of  the  long  steamships.  It  is 
done  by  driving  out  all  of  the  fastenings  in  the 
wake  of  the  butts  which  secure  the  ship  amid 
ships  ;  the  ends  are  then  drawn  apart  to  the  dis 
tance  required,  the  keel  is  then  made  good,  and 
new  floors,  frames,  and  keelsons  put  in,  as  was 
practiced  when  commencing  the  ship,  and  a  new 
ship  practically  built  in  the  space  which  has 
been  made  by  the  separation  of  the  two  ends. 
Great  care  and  good  judgment  are  required  in 
connecting  the  work  again,  and  proper  arrange 
ments  made  to  retain  the  strength  which  is  lost 
to  the  structure  by  the  addition  of  this  central 
piece. 

Length  of  a  Wave.  The  horizontal  distance 
between  two  adjacent  crests,  or  two  adjacent 
hollows. 

Lens.  A  glass  used  in  magnifying  instru 
ments. 

Lentria.  An  ancient  name  of  a  small  vessel 
used  in  river  navigation. 

Lenunculus.     An  ancient  fishing-boat. 

Leo,  Constellation  of  (Lai.  "The  Lion"). 
The  fifth  constellation  of  the  zodiac,  coming  be 
tween  Cancer  and  Yirgo,  and  situated  near  the 
Great  Bear  on  the  opposite  side  of  it  to  the  pole 
star.  Its  four  principal  stars  form  a  trapezium. 
a  Leonis,  called  also  Cor  Leonis  ("The  Lion's 
Heart")  and  Regulus,  may  be  found  by  joining 
a  and  p  Ursse  Majoris  ("The  Pointers")  and 
continuing  the  line  about  twice  the  length  of 
that  constellation  ;  this  line  also  passes  y  Leonis. 
8  Leonis,  called  also  Denebola  ("  The  Lion's 
Tail"),  is  found  by  joining  ij  Ursae  Majoris  (the 
last  star  in  the  tail  of  the  Great  Bear)  with  Cor 
Caroli,  and  continuing  it  to  about  twice  its 
length. 

Leo,  Sign  of.  The  fifth  sign  of  the  ecliptic, 
including  from  120°  to  150°  of  longitude.  Owing 
to  the  precession  of  the  equinoxes,  the  constella 
tion  Cancer,  and  not  Leo,  is  at  present  in  this 
sign.  The  sun  is  in  Leo  from  22d  July  to  23d 
August.  Symbol  &. 

Leo  Minor.    See  CONSTELLATION. 

Lepadogaster.  A  genus  of  fishes  having  the 
ventral  fins  expanded  and  curved  forward,  so  as 
to  form  the  boundary  of  an  adhesive  disk  beneath 
the  throat,  and  the  body  smooth  and  without 
scales. 

Lepidosiren.  A  very  remarkable  genus  of 
animals,  by  some  regarded  as  a  fish,  and  by  others 
as  a  batrachian.  The  bones  are  very  soft  and 
cartilaginous,  or  even  gelatinous,  except  those 
of  the  head,  which  resemble  those  of  no  other 
known  vertebrate,  though  most  like  fishes.  The 
scales  are  cycloid.  The  dentition  is  very  re 
markable.  The  jaws  are  covered  with  an  undu 
lating  ribbon  of  bone,  covered  with  enamel,  the 
undulations  of  the  upper  and  lower  jaw  adapted 
to  each  other,  and  along  the  edges  are  small, 
sharp  teeth.  There  are  free  filamentary  gills 
situated  under  gill-covers,  as  in  osseous  fishes, 
but  two  of  the  arterial  arches,  which  ordinarily 
supply  the  gills  of  fishes  with  blood,  are  repre 
sented  by  trunks,  which  proceed  to  the  double 
air-bladder,  and  ramify  over  its  cellular  surface, 
so  that  the  air-bladder,  having  a  communication 


with  the  mouth,  is  capable  of  serving  to  a  certain 
extent  the  purpose  of  lungs,  and  the  animal  is 
enabled  to  sustain  a  torpid  existence  during  the 
dry  season  in  mud,  in  which  it  forms  for  itself  a 
kind  of  nest,  which  has  been  likened  to  the  co 
coon  of  an  insect,  by  means  of  a  mucous  secre 
tion  from  its  body.  It  is  found  in  ponds  and 
rivers  of  intertropical  Africa  and  South  America. 

Leppo.  A  composition  used  by  the  Chinese 
for  paying  the  seams  of  a  vessel. 

Lepus.  a  Leporis,  Arneb.  See  CONSTELLA 
TION. 

Le  Roy,  William  E.,  Rear-Admiral  U.S.N. 
Born  in  New  York,  March  24,  1818.  Appointed 
from  New  York,  January  11,  1832;  attached  to 
frigate  "Delaware,"  Mediterranean  Squadron, 
1833-36;  brig  "Dolphin,"  Brazil  Squadron, 
1837-38. 

Promoted  to  passed  midshipman,  June  23, 
1838  ;  frigate  "  Constitution,"  Pacific  Squadron, 
1839-40;  store-ship  "Erie,"  1842-43. 

Commissioned  as  lieutenant,  July  13,  1843 ; 
steamer  "Mississippi,"  Home  Squadron,  1846 ; 
steamer  "Princeton,"  Home  Squadron,  1847; 
engagement  with  Mexican  soldiers  at  Rio  Ari- 
biqua,  while  assisting  to  water  the  "  Princeton"  ; 
sloop  "Savannah,"  Pacific  Squadron,  1849-51 ; 
waiting  orders,  1852;  frigate  "Savannah," 
Brazil  Squadron,  1853-55;  Naval  Station,  Sack- 
ett's  Harbor,  New  York,  1857-58;  frigate  "  Sa- 
bine,"  Brazil  Squadron,  1859;  commanding 
steamer  "Mystic,"  coast  of  Africa,  1861. 

Commissioned  as  commander,  July  1,  1861 ; 
commanding  steamer  "Keystone  State,"  South 
Atlantic  Blockading  Squadron,  1862-63  ;  cap 
ture  of  Fernandina,  1862;  engagement  with 
ironclads,  off  Charleston,  S.  C.,  January,  1863; 
commanding  steam-sloop  "Oneida,"  "Western 
Gulf  Squadron,  1864;  commanding  steam-sloop 
"Ossipee,"  Western  Gulf  Squadron,  1864-65. 
Commanded  the  "  Ossipee"  at  the  battle  of  Mo 
bile  Bay,  August  5,  1864 ;  his  vessel  was  struck 
many  times,  but,  fortunately,  not  disabled. 
When  about  running  down  the  "  Tennessee," 
that  vessel  displayed  a  white  flag,  and  Capt.  Le 
Roy  received  her  surrender  from  Capt.  Johnson, 
her  commander,  the  rebel  admiral,  Buchanan, 
being  wounded ;  naval  rendezvous,  New  York, 
1866-67. 

Commissioned  as  captain,  July  25, 1866  ;  fleet- 
captain,  European  Squadron,  under  Admiral 
Farragut,  1867-68.. 

Commissioned  as  commodore,  July,  1870; 
special  duty,  New  London,  1871  ;  senior  officer 
Board  of  Examiners,  1872-73. 

Commissioned  as  rear-admiral,  April  5,  1874 ; 
commanding  South  Atlantic  Station,  1874-76  ; 
North  Atlantic  Station,  1876  ;  European  Station, 
1878-80.  Retired  March  24,  1880. 

Lerrick  (Eng.}.     The  sand-piper. 

Lesseps,  Ferdinand  de.  A  French  engineer, 
rich  in  original  conception  and  skillful  in  execu 
tion.  Through  his  untiring  efforts  the  channel 
connecting  the  Mediterranean  with  the  Red  Sea, 
and  now  known  as  the  Suez  Canal,  was  opened, 
to  the  infinite  advantage  of  the  trade  between 
Europe  and  India.  He  has  recently  conceived  a 
plan  for  establishing  a  communication  between 
the  Atlantic  and  Pacific,  across  the  Isthmus  of 
Panama. 

Lesser  Circle.  A  circle  whose  plane  does 
not  pass  through  the  centre  of  the  sphere. 


LET  DRAW 


433 


LIBERTY 


Let  Draw.  The  order  given  in  tacking  a 
fore-and-aft  vessel,  at  which  the  sheets  of  the 
jibs  are  allowed  to  slip  to  the  lee  side,  after  the 
vessel's  head  has  fallen  off  sufficiently  from  the 
wind. 

Let  Drive.     To  throw. 

Let  Fall.  The  order  to  let  a  sail  drop  from 
the  yard  after  loosing. 

Let  Fly.  To  let  a  rope  go  quickly  without 
first  slacking  away. 

Let  Go  and  Haul.  An  order  in  tacking,  when 
the  fore-bowline  and  lee  head-braces  are  let  go 
and  the  head-yards  are  hauled  around. 

Let  Go  Under  Foot.  Said  of  an  anchor  when 
it  is  let  go,  but,  the  vessel  being  stationary,  with 
out  veering  cable. 

Let  In.  To  secure  one  timber  to  another,  as  a 
carline  to  a  beam,  by  a  mortise  and  tenon. 

Let  Out  a  Reef.  To  increase  the  size  of  a  sail 
by  untying  one  line  of  reef-points. 

Let-pass  (Eng.}.  A  pass  or  paper  furnished 
to  a  vessel  to  prevent  detention  by  a  ship  of  war. 

Let  Run,  or  Let  Go  by  the  Run.  To  let  go 
quickly. 

Letter-board.     See  NAME-BOARD. 

Letter-book.  A  book  for  the  preservation  of 
copies  of  letters. 

Letter-man  (Eng.).  See  KING'S  LETTER- 
MAN. 

Letter  of  Marque.  A  commission  or  license 
issued  by  a  government  to  a  private  armed  ves 
sel  authorizing  reprisals  on  an  enemy.  The  first 
commissions  of  this  kind  were  issued  about  the 
middle  of  the  13th  century,  during  the  reign 
of  Edward  I.  of  England,  and  vessels  carrying 
such  commissions,  called  also  "letters  of  marque," 
have  taken  a  prominent  part  in  succeeding  wars 
between  maritime  nations  as  late  as  the  early 
part  of  the  present  century. 

Letter  of  Reprisal.     See  LETTER  OF  MARQUE. 

Lettuce-laver  (Eng.}.  The  Ulva  lactuca,  an 
edible  kind  of  sea- weed. 

Leuciscus.  A  genus  of  fishes  including  the 
dac-e,  chub,  minnow,  and  the  like. 

Levant  (Fr.).  The  east,  or  place  of  sun 
rise.  The  term  is  applied  to  those  countries 
which  are  washed  by  the  eastern  part  of  the 
Mediterranean  Sea.  Also  a  cant-term*  used  in 
England,  meaning  to  run  away  without  paying 
one's  debts. 

LEVANTER.  A  strong  easterly  gale  frequently 
encountered  in  the  Mediterranean. 

Levantis.     The  crew  of  a  Turkish  galley. 

Levee  (Fr.  lever,  to  raise).  An  artificial  em 
bankment  on  the  banks  of  a  river. 

Level-error.  The  error  of  the  transit  instru 
ment  when  the  axis  deviates  from  a  horizontal 
plane. 

Leveling.  The  art  of  ascertaining  the  differ 
ence  in  the  heights  of  objects  or  places  011  the 
earth's  surface. 

Level  Out.  To  continue  a  horizontal  line 
from  a  given  point. 

Level  of  the  Sea.  The  zero  plane  from  which 
heights  and  depths  are  reckoned.  As  the  actual 
sea-level  is  constantly  varying  with  the  tides,  it 
is  necessary  to  define  more  particularly  the  stand 
ard  for  comparison.  The  mean  level  of  the  sea 
is  the  middle  plane  between  the  levels  of  high 
and  low  water.  Though  the  range  of  the  tide 
may  vary  considerably,  this  mean  level  fluctuates 
within  very  narrow  limits. 
28 


Level-lines.  The  horizontal  lines  which  de 
termine  the  shape  of  the  body  of  a  vessel. 

Level,  Spirit-.  An  instrument  for  ascertain 
ing  the  horizontality  of  a  line  or  plane.  It  con 
sists  of  a  hollow  glass  tube  of  uniform  bore  closed 
at  both  ends,  and  nearly  filled  with  a  fluid  of 
great  mobility,  such  as  spirit  of  wine  or  sul 
phuric  ether,  an  air-bubble  remaining  inclosed. 
The  tube  is  not  quite  straight,  but  has  a  slight 
uniform  curvature,  the  convex  side  being  placed 
upwards.  The  air-bubble  will  always  occupy 
the  highest  position,  and  this  will  be  the  middle 
point  of  the  tube  when  the  instrument  stands  in 
a  perfectly  horizontal  position  as  regards  its 
length.  To  ascertain  the  horizontality  of  a  given 
line,  the  level  is  first  placed  upon  it,  and  the 
position  of  the  bubble  noted ;  it  is  then  reversed 
end  for  end,  and  the  bubble  must  remain  in  the 
same  position  as  before.  For  a  plane  the  test 
must  be  repeated  in  a  direction  perpendicular  to 
the  first  pair  of  observations.  Astronomical 
levels  are  furnished  with  a  divided  scale  by 
which  the  position  of  the  ends  of  the  bubble  can 
be  accurately  noted. 

Lever-engine.  A  modification  of  the  side- 
beam  (or  lever)  engine,  in  which  the  beams  are 
levers  of  the  second  order,  the  fulcrum  being  at 
one  extremity  of  the  lever  and  the  piston-rod 
connection  at  the  other,  the  connecting-rod  to 
the  crank-pin  being  joined  to  the  beam  at  some 
point  between  the  two. 

Levet  (Fr.  lever,  to  raise).  A  blast  or  call 
with  the  trumpet,  corresponding,  probably,  with 
the  reveille  of  the  present  day. 

Levin  (Anglo-Saxon).  A  word  for  lightning, 
now  obsolete. 

Levis.  An  ancient  name  for  a  small  open, 
boat. 

Levy,  Uriah  P.,  Commodore  U.S.N.  Born 
in  Pennsvlvania ;  died  in  New  York  City, 
March  22,  1862.  He  entered  the  navy,  March 
29,  1812;  was  an  officer  of  the  brig  "Argus," 
which  escaped  the  blockade,  took  out  Mr.  Craw 
ford,  minister  to  France,  and  destroyed  in  the 
British  Channel  21  sail,  one  of  which  had  a  cargo 
worth  $625,000.  On  the  capture  of  the  "Ar 
gus"  he  was  made  prisoner,  and  held  two  years. 
Lieutenant,  March  5,  1817;  commander,  Febru 
ary  9,  1837;  captain,  March  29,  1844.  His  last 
cruise  was  in  1858,  as  flag-officer  of  the  Mediter 
ranean  Squadron.  Commodore  Levy  was  the. 
mover  of  the  effort  to  abolish  flogging  in  the 
navy.  He  published  a  "  Manual  of  Kules  and 
Regulations  for  Ships  of  "War."  An  ardent  ad 
mirer  of  Jefferson,  he  became  the  owner  of  Mon- 
ticello,  the  valuable  estate  once  owned  by  that 
statesman,  which,  with  all  its  stock,  dwellings, 
pictures,  etc.,  was  confiscated  by  the  Confeder 
ates  in  consequence  of  his  devotion  to  the  "old 
flag." 

Levy.     To  conscript. 

Lewer  (Eng.).  A  corruption  of  lever;  a  hand 
spike. 

Lewis-hole.  Formerly,  a  hole  in  the  surface 
of  a  mortar  for  the  admission  of  the  lewis,  an 
iron  clamp  which  served  as  a  handle. 

Lewth  (Eng.).  From  Anglo-Saxon  lywd.  A 
place  of  protection  from  the  wind. 

Libera  Piscaria.  A  term  in  law,  meaning 
free  fishery. 

Liberty.  Permission  given  to  a  part  of  a 
ship's  crew  to  go  on  shore  for  a  stated  number 


LIBRA 


434 


LIFE-BOATS 


of  hours.  To  break  one's  liberty,  to  remain  ab 
sent  beyond  the  time  authorized. 

LIBERTY-DAY.  A  day  upon  which  the  crew 
are  to  have  liberty. 

LIBERTY  LIQUOR  (Eng.}.  Liquor  that  was 
formerly  allowed  to  be  sold  to  a  sailor  on  board 
ship  for  the  purpose  of  entertaining  a  visitor. 

LIBERTY-MAN.  One  of  the  crew  who  has 
been  granted  liberty. 

LIBERTY-TICKET,  A  paper  which  is  some 
times  given  to  a  liberty-man,  upon  which  is 
specified  the  extent  and  date  of  his  liberty. 

Libra,  Constellation  of  (Lot.  "  The  Balance"). 
The  seventh  constellation  of  the  zodiac,  coming 
between  Yirgo  and  Scorpio.  It  contains  two 
principal  stars,  dz  Librse,  the  North  Balance,  and 
ft  Librae,  the  South  Balance,  the  former  bisecting 
the  line  joining  Spica  and  Antares,  the  latter 
with  Spica  and  Arcturus  forming  a  triangle. 

LIBRA,  FIRST  POINT  OF.  The  autumnal  equi 
noctial  point,  one  of  the  points  where  the  ecliptic 
crosses  the  equinoctial,  is  so  called  because  it  is 
the  commencement  of  the  sign  Libra. 

LIBRA,  SIGN  OF.  The  seventh  sign  of  the  eclip 
tic,  including  from  180°  to  210°"  of  longitude. 
Owing  to  the  precession  of  the  equinoxes,  the 
constellation  Virgo,  and  not  Libra,  is  at  present 
in  the  sign.  The  sun  is  in  Libra  from  Septem 
ber  22  to  October  23.  Symbol  =«,. 

Libration.  In  general,  the  moon  always  pre 
sents  the  same  face  to  the  earth,  but  she  passes 
in  her  complex  movements  through  certain 
changes  of  position  which  resemble  oscillations 
or  vibrations,  and  in  consequence  of  these  vibra 
tions  small  portions  of  the  opposite  face  of  the 
moon  are  seen.  These  changes  are  called  libra- 
•tions.  There  are  three,  libration  in  longitude, 
libration  in  latitude,  and  diurnal  libration. 

Liburna.  An  ancient  galley  used  by  the 
Liburni,  or  Adriatic  pirates.  It  was  propelled 
both  by  sails  and  oars. 

License.  The  certificate  given  by  a  board 
of  trade  to  a  master  or  mate  of  a  merchant  ves 
sel,  showing  him  to  be  qualified  for  the  position. 

Lick.  A  slang  term  for  flog  or  thresh.  Also, 
to  excel  another.  Work  imperfectly  done  is 
said  to  have  received  u  a  lick  and  a  promise," 
and  an  experienced  seaman  may  be  said  to  have 
received  "  a  lick  of  the  tar-brush." 

Licorn.  A  short  howitzer,  used  during  the 
last  century. 

Lie  a  Hull.     To  lie  with  no  sail  set. 

Lie  Along.  To  careen  with  a  beam  wind. 
To  lie  along  the  shore  is  to  coast,  keeping  the 
land  in  sight. 

Lie  Athwart.  To  lie  across,  as  a  vessel  when 
lying  to  the  wind  across,  or  at  right  angles  to 
the  tide. 

Lie  By.  To  arrange  the  sails  in  such  a  man 
ner  that  the  effect  of  the  wind  upon  one  part  will 
counteract  its  effect  upon  the  rest,  and  check  the 
vessel's  headway. 

Lie  In.     See  LAY. 

Lie  Off.     To  remain  at  a  distance. 

Lie  Out.     See  LAY. 

Lie  Over.     To  heel  or  careen  with  the  wind. 

Lie  To.  To  head  a  ship  as  near  the  wind  as 
possible  during  a  gale,  in  order  that  she  may  be 
in  the  position  of  greatest  safety.  The  helm  is 
kept  a-lee  and  sail  set,  which  will  steady  the  ves 
sel  and  keep  the  head  to  the  wind.  The  main 
topsail,  close-reefed,  main  trysail,  and  fore  storm- 


stay-sail  are  usually  required  for  a  full-rigged 
ship,  but  some  ships  lie  to  more  easily  with  a 
different  arrangement  of  sails. 

Lieutenant.  An  officer  of  the  navy  holding 
equal  rank  with  a  captain  in  the  army.  Their 
duties  on  shipboard  are  those  of  watch-officers 
and  navigators,  or  executive-officers  of  the  smaller 
classes  of  vessels,  and  they  take  rank  according 
to  the  dates  of  their  commissions.  See  NAVI 
GATOR,  WATCH-OFFICER. 

Lieutenant-Commander.  The  grade  in  the 
navy  next  below  that  of  commander,  and  hold 
ing  equal  rank  with  a  major  in  the  army.  An 
officer  of  that  grade  is  usually  ordered  as  the  ex 
ecutive-officer  of  the  first-,  second-,  and  third- 
rates,  or  in  command  of  a  fourth-rate  vessel.  See 
EXECUTIVE-OFFICER. 

Lieutenant-at-arms  (Eng.}.  Formerly,  the 
junior  lieutenant  of  a  ship,  who  was  detailed  for 
drilling  the  crew  with  small-arms. 

Life-belt.  A  belt  of  rubber,  or  one  contain 
ing  cork,  to  serve  as  a  life-preserver. 

Life-boats  and  Boat-detaching  Apparatus. 
A  life-boat  is  one  especially  built  for  use  in 
storms,  heavy  seas,  and  broken  water,  where  an 
ordinary  boat  could  not  venture  without  immi 
nent  risk  of  destruction.  See  LIFE-BOATS  AND 
LIFE-RAFTS. 

Life-boats  in  use  on  shipboard  are  usually  boats 
calculated  by  their  build  to  be  particularly  sea 
worthy.  On  men-of-war  they  are  usually  light 
cutters  or  the  New  Bedford  whale-boat,  than 
which,  in  proper  hands,  there  is  no  better  sea- 
boat. 

Being  sharp  at  both  endjs  and  with  great  sheer 
of  gunwale,  they  are  well  calculated  for  surf- 
boats,  but  must  invariabty  be  steered  by  an  oar, 
and  provided  with  a  "drogue"  when  on  such 
service. 

The  so-called  metallic  life-boat  used  so  gener 
ally  on  passenger  steamers  is  built  by  stamping 
out  the  sides  of  the  boat  from  sheet-metal  by  hy 
draulic  pressure,  a  corrugation  resembling  the 
seams  of  a  lap-strake-built  boat  being  given  for 
stiffness.  These  sides  are  then  fastened  to  a 
wooden  keel,  stem,  and  stern-post.  An  air-cham 
ber  is  placed  in  each  end,  as  without  them,  owing 
to  the  weight  of  the  metal  of  which  they  are  built, 
they  would  at  once  sink  if  filled  with  water. 

Some  English-built  ships'  life-boats  have  extra 
buoyancy  given  them  by  cylindrical  air-tanks 
under  the  thwarts,  like  those  just  abolished  from 
the  American  surf-boats. 

In  England,  steam-cutters  for  ships'  u?e  have 
been  made  unsinkable  by  giving  extra  buoyancy 
with  air-chambers  in  the  bow  and  stern  and  along 
the  sides. 

When  heavy  ships'  boats  are  to  be  sent  into  a 
surf  or  heavy  sea,  additional  buoyancy  may  be 
given  them  temporarily  by  lashing  small  casks 
or  water-breakers  under  the  thwarts.  They 
should  be  placed  along  the  sides  as  much  as  pos 
sible  to  prevent  the  water  from  settling  there  if 
the  boat  is  thrown  on  her  beam-ends. 

Richardson's  tubular  life-boat  has  been  used  to 
some  extent  in  England  as  a  surf-boat.  It  is 
made  of  two  parallel  tubes  with  the  ends  turned 
up  and  in,  and  carrying  between  them  a  frame 
work  to  support  the  thwarts,  masts,  etc. 

It  is  more  a  form  of  "  balsa"  or  "  catamaran" 
than  a  boat. 

Detaching  apparatuses  are  contrivances  fitted 


LIFE-BOATS 


435 


LIFE-BOATS 


to  ships'  boats,  and  life-boats  in  particular,  to 
readily  free  them  from  their  "falls"  or  tackles 
at  the  will  of  the  person  in  charge,  or  automat 
ically  when  water-borne. 

The  inventions  to  accomplish  this  end  are 
numberless,  and  in  the  patent  records  of  the 
United  States  and  Great  Britain  there  are  many 
hundreds.  A  commission  was  appointed  by  the 
English  government  about  1870  to  look  into  this 
subject  and  select  an  apparatus  for  use  in  that 
country,  but  it  was  poorly  advertised,  and  no 
definite  action  was  ever  taken. 

The  advantages  gained  by  the  use  of  a  boat 
apparatus  are  the  following :  In  the  case  of  a 
man  overboard  or  other  emergency,  the  boat, 
with  her  crew  in  her,  may  be  lowered  nearly  to 
the  water  and  then  dropped  at  the  will  of  the 
operator  without  waiting  to  deaden  the  ship's 
headway,  as  would  be  necessary  under  ordinary 
circumstances.  In  heavy  weather,  with  the  ves 
sel  rolling  and  pitching,  a  favorable  opportunity 
may  be  seized  and  the  boat  instantly  freed  and 
pushed  clear.  In  case  of  fire  or  shipwreck,  when 
it  is  necessary  to  abandon  the  ship,  the  boats  may 
be  lowered  with  all  on  board,  except  those  sta 
tioned  to  lower,  to  a  safe  distance;  those  remain 
ing  on  board  can  then  come  down  the  falls  while 
they  are  yet  taut  and  the  boat  clear  of  the  water, 
and  consequently  in  no  danger  of  being  capsized 
or  swept  away,  and  then  at  the  proper  moment 
she  can  be  detached. 

The  oldest  detaching  arrangement  in  existence 
has  been  used  for  many  years  by  the  American 
whalers  in  the  constant  and  dangerous  boat-low 
ering  they  do.  It  is  simply  a  rope-runner  at 
each  end  of  the  boat  by  which  she  is  lowered 
into  the  water,  and  they  are  allowed  to  unreeve 
as  the  boat  is  swept  away.  This,  though  very 
simple,  has  the  disadvantage  of  requiring  a  sec 
ond  set  of  falls  to  hoist  by.  The  runners  must 
also  be  tended  by  two  skilled  men  on  the  vessel, 
who  must  act  in  unison  to  place  the  boat  in  the 
water  at  the  proper  moment.  A  kink  in  the 
rope  in  unreeving  is  also  apt  to  capsize  the  boat 
unless  quickly  cut. 

The  first  regular  apparatus  intended  to  obviate 
some  of  these  defects  came  into  use  in  the  U.  S. 
navy  about  1859,  and  was  the  invention  of  Hun 
ter  Davidson,  then  a  lieutenant  in  the  navy. 
His  apparatus  also  lowered  and  detached  by  one 
set  of  falls  and  hoisted  by  another,  but  it  was 
detached  in  the  boat  itself  at  the  will  of  the  per 
son  in  charge.  There  was  no  chance  of  a  foul 
after  it  was  once  started,  and  one  man  lowered 
both  ends  of  the  boat  at  once. 

The  objections  to  this  and  most  of  the  many 
others  that  have  followed  it  in  this  and  all  other 
maritime  countries  have  been,  that  they  were 
complex,  easy  to  get  out  of  order,  hard  for  the 
ordinary  sailor  to  understand  and  manage,  and 
in  many  cases  cumbersome,  taking  up  the  best 
part  of  the  boat. 

A  good  boat  apparatus  should  be  very  sim 
ple,  easily  understood  and  managed  by  the 
dullest  coxswain,  not  liable  to  accidentally  de 
tach  the  boat,  or  detach  her  when  lifted  by  a  sea, 
either  at  the  davit-heads  or  while  lowering,  as  in 
the  latter  case  especially  only  one  end  might  be 
freed  and  the  boat  surely  swamped.  It  should 
not  encumber  the  boat  in  any  way,  and  espe 
cially  should  it  not  be  in  the  way  of  the  crew. 
It  should  provide  a  simple,  easy  method  of  hook 


ing  on  when  the  boat  returns  ;  for  this  is  one  of 
the  most  difficult  parts  of  the  operation  of  hand 
ling  a  ship's  boat  in  heavy  weather,  and  is  a  point 
which  the  inventors  of  boat  apparatuses  have  al 
most  universally  neglected,  thinking  it  quite  suf 
ficient  to  get  their  boats  clear  of  the  ship,  and  not 
realizing  that  it  is  quite  as  important  at  most 
times  to  get  her  back  again  readily. 

An  apparatus  is  found  especially  convenient 
in  a  stern  boat,  as  it  is  sometimes  very  difficult 
to  unhook  the  ordinary  falls  in  a  tide-way,  as  the 
boat  is  swept  astern  as  soon  as  she  touches  the 
water.  Boat-detachers  have,  like  all  other  inno 
vations,  had  opponents  among  professional  men, 
but  the  necessity  for  a  good  contrivance  of  this 
kind  is  now  generally  acknowledged  by  all  who 
understand  the  subject  and  are  not  influenced 
by  mistaken  economy  to  object  to  the  outlay 
necessary  to  so  provide  their  boats. 

The  writer  has  knowledge  of  several  lives 
saved  which  would  have  been  lost  but  for  tho 
time  gained  and  facilities  given  by  a  "  detacher," 
and  no  one  can  deny  that  the  long  death  lists 
from  steamboat  disasters,  now  filling  the  papers 
in  this  month  of  June,  1880,  might  have  been 
smaller  if  these  vessels'  boats  had  been  properly 
provided  in  this  and  other  respects.  Ships'  life 
boats  should  always  be  ready  to  lower  at  a  mo 
ment's  notice,  but  it  too  often  happens  that  what 
might  be  gained  by  an  apparatus  is  more  than 
lost  by  reversed  davits,  foul  falls,  lashings,  boat- 
covers,  etc.,  and  such  will  continue  to  be  the 
case,  in  passenger  vessels  at  least,  until  public 
sentiment  forces  a  law  covering  these  points,  and 
then  sees  it  carried  out. —  W.  M.  Wood,  Lieuten 
ant  U.S.N. 

Life-boats  and  Life-rafts.  For  the  best  types 
of  life-boats  it  is  necessary  to  look  to  those  na 
tions  whose  citizens  have  given  the  most  atten 
tion  to  saving  lives  from  wrecked  vessels.  In 
1784,  Lionel  Lukin  designed  an  "  unimmergible 
boat,"  and  four  years  later  Henry  Greathead,  a 
boat-builder,  also  of  Great  Britain,  built  a  boat ; 
the  rudimentary  points  of  these  boats  have  been 
developed,  and  will  be  briefly  described  as  they 
exist. 

To  the  "  Royal  National  Institution  for  the 
Preservation  of  Life  from  Shipwreck,"  founded 
in  Great  Britain  in  1825,  is  due  in  a  great  de 
gree  establishments  for  the  same  object  by  other 
peoples  as  national  institutions,  usually  adopting 
the  life-boats,  or  the  principles  of  their  construc 
tion,  to  some  extent. 

The  life-boats  of  Great  Britain  are  of  two 
types,  one  self-righting  and  self-bailing,  the 
other  very  difficult  to  upset  but  not  self-right 
ing  ;  both  are  insubmergible.  The  largest  of 
the  first  named  are  40  feet  long,  10 \  feet  beam, 
and  5  feet  deep  amidships.  They  have  metal 
keels  of  from  600  to  1500  pounds  weight,  and 
have  the  same  weight  in  cork  as  of  ballast,  con 
fined  beneath  a  water-tight  deck  at  the  load-line. 
The  boat  is  propelled  by  12  oars,  and  her  buoy 
ancy,  when  swamped  or  capsized,  is  due  to  air- 
cases  at  the  ends  and  along  the  inside  of  the  boat, 
aided,  even  when  stove,  by  the  cork-ballast,  and 
when  not  stove,  the  floor  part  of  the  boat  acting 
as  an  air-chamber,  being  covered  by  a  water 
tight  deck  before  mentioned.  The  sheer  of  the 
boat  is  considerable;  the  elevated  end  air-cham 
bers,  aided  by  the  weight  of  keel  and  ballast, 
cause  her  to  right  if  upset.  Should  a  sea  fall  on 


LIFE-BOATS 


436 


LIFE-BUOY 


board  it  would  fill  up  the  space  above  the  water 
tight  deck  at  the  load-line,  and  would  at  once 
discharge  itself  through  valves.  The  weight  of 
the  boat  causes  a  draft  of  22  inches,  and  makes 
launching  and  landing  difficult,  but,  on  the 
other  hand,  gives  great  steadiness  in  a  heavy 
sea.  Sails  are  used  at  will.  The  usual  weight 
is  4000  pounds;  these  boats  are  of  the  "  diagonal 
build,"  usually  of  mahogany,  but  sometimes  of 
fir-wood.  The  means  of  transportation  along  a 
beach  is  a  wagon  of  2000  pounds  weight,  drawn 
by  horses. 

The  other  type  of  life-boat  is  from  36  to  40 
feet  in  length,  and  from  10 £  to  12  feet  beam  ; 
sails  are  employed,  and  the  boat  is  heavily  water- 
ballasted,  on  the  general  principle  of  being 
"water-logged,"  and,  when  filled,  making  the 
water  incapable  of  shifting ;  this  also  as  the 
first-named  type  has  an  iron  keel  of  about  the 
same  weight.  Of  the  270  life-boats  of  the  British 
Institution,  21  have  not  the  principles  of  con 
struction  which  make  them  self-righting. 

'The  "  surf-boat"  usually  employed  on  the  east 
ern  coast  of  the  United  States  in  the  Life-Saving 
Service,  is,  as  the  life-boat,  insubmergible,  but 
not  self-righting  and  bailing,  and  though  in 
ferior  in  strength,  has  the  advantage  in  lightness 
for  passing  through  surf.  It  is  surrounded  by  a 
cork  fender,  is  fitted  with  life-lines  for  persons 
in  the  water,  and  is  easily  managed  under  the 
lee  of  a  wreck  from  its  lightness.  The  boat  is 
propelled  by  oars  and  requires  a  crew  of  7  men. 
Several  of  our  harbors  on  the  Northern  lakes 
are  furnished  with  English  life-boats,  there  be 
ing  facilities  for  lowering  or  launching  them. 
In  general,  from  the  shoal  character  of  the  water 
on  the  Atlantic  coast  of  the  United  States,  the 
surf-boat  has  been  found  well  adapted  and  more 
useful  than  the  English  life-boat  would  be.  A 
modification  of  the  last  named,  self-righting  and 
self-bailing,  but  of  much  less  weight  and  draft, 
is  now  introduced  at  some  points  on  the  Atlantic 
coast  where  bold  water  and  other  facilities  exist 
for  launching. 

For  some  years  merchant  steamers  have  been 
furnished  with  galvanized  sheet-iron  cylinders 
having  conical  ends,  yoked  in  pairs  at  some  space 
apart  by  a  frame- work,  having  slats  between 
them  arranged  in  such  manner  that,  if  capsized, 
the  oars  attached  can  be  used.  The  cylinders 
composing  the  raft  are  in  several  parts  or  water 
tight  sections,  held  together  by  a  connecting 
rod. 

Vessels  of  war  of  the  United  States  are  fur 
nished  with  what  is  known  as  the  "  Ammen 
balsa,"  or  raft.  It  is  composed  of  two  casks  of 
wood  with  oval  cross-sections,  having  a  slight 
taper  from  the  centre  towards  the  ends.  Five 
feet  from  the  ends  the  staves  of  the  floor  and  sides 
are  so  beveled  as  to  make  very  small  heads  to  the 
casks,  and  forming  almost  a  straight  back.  The 
casks  are  yoked  together  at  a  space  apart  equal  to 
the  superior  diameter  of  a  cask,  and  slats  are 
screwed  from  beneath  between  them  so  as  to 
make  a  platform.  The  largest  size  issued  to  the 
navy  has  a  length  of  23  feet,  and  as  yoked,  5  feet 
broad ;  weight,  with  oars,  mast,  and  sail,  945 
pounds,  with  a  possible  displacement  or  buoy 
ancy  of  5225  pounds.  It  pulls  fairly,  and  when 
fitted  with  a  centre-board  will  beat  to  windward 
in  a  heavy  breeze  and  sea.  The  casks  have  scut 
tles  fitted  with  thumb-screws,  which  permit  them 


to  be  stowed  with  water,  provisions,  or  other  arti 
cles,  and  then  made  water-tight. 

The  "  india-rubber  balsa"  has  been  in  use  since 
1837.  It  is  composed  of  two  or  more  air-tight 
bags  with  apparatus  for  inflating  them,  and  a 
frame-work  of  wood  to  keep  them  in  position. 
It  is  comparatively  light  and  portable. 

"  Balsas,"  or  life-rafts,  have  been  supposed  de 
fective  as  life-boats  for  use  from  the  shore  on 
account  of  the  great  difficulty,  if  not  impossi 
bility,  of  getting  them  off  a  beach  through  a 
heavy  surf  in  the  face  of  a  gale.  This  difficulty 
could  be  obviated  by  planting  disks  of  iron,  with 
chains  attached  at  such  points  as  might  be  thought 
advisable. 

Comparing  the  different  life-rafts :  the  first 
named  are  heavy  in  comparison  to  their  sustain 
ing  capacity,  and  have  small  power  of  locomo 
tion  by  sail  or  oars ;  the  second  have  a  great 
capacity  to  sustain  a  load  as  compared  with  their 
weight,  and  can  be  made  by  any  cooper  or  boat- 
builder,  without  royalty.  If  they  should  be  cap 
sized  the  sustaining  power  is  not  diminished, 
and  they  can  be  righted  in  the  water  by  a  num 
ber  of  persons  acting  together,  or  by  few  persons, 
if  one  of  the  casks  is  allowed  to  fill  partially  with 
water.  They  pull  and  sail  fairly,  and  afford  the 
facility  of  placing  water  and  provisions  within 
them.  If  made  to  sustain  the  dead-weight  of 
60  men,  they  need  not  weigh  more  than  1000 
pounds.  If  injured,  as  the  pressure  is  from  with 
out,  a  patch  of  lead,  canvas,  or  wood  will  serve, 
or  even  a  rag  punched  into  the  hole.  Their  ap 
plicability  for  passenger  steamers  and  ships,  from 
comparative  small  weight  and  cost,  would  seem 
obvious. 

India-rubber  "balsas"  are  liable  to  injury  from 
heat  and  moisture,  and  become  useless  if  torn  or 
punctured,  as  they  are  very  liable  to  be  ;'the  press 
ure  being  from  within,  the  escape  of  air  would 
destroy  the  buoyancy.  They  would  be  useless 
on  a  rocky  shore,  and  are  necessarily  expensive. 

The  following  may  be  deduced  from  the  above  : 
no  life-boat  is  known  which,  under  all  circum 
stances  of  beach,  facilities  or  difficulties  of  launch 
ing,  etc.,  is  unequivocally  the  best.  For  the  use 
of  vessels  life-rafts  may  have  the  following  ad 
vantages  over  boats  :  a  greater  sustaining  power 
at  less  cost,  and  with  less  weight  proportionate  to 
their  sustaining  power  ;  relative  ease  of  getting 
them  overboard  in  a  sea-way  without  injury,  and 
if  the  pressure  is  from  without,  very  easily  re 
paired  when  injured.  Add  to  this  the  impossi 
bility  of  swamping,  and  the  ease  with  which  the 
life-raft  could  be  "righted  if  capsized  in  launch 
ing,  which  would,  under  the  same  circumstance, 
render  the  boats  ordinarily  carried  by  ships  en 
tirely  useless. — Daniel  Ammen,  Rear-Admiral 
U.S^N. 

Life-buoy.  A  structure  intended  to  save  the 
life  of  a  person  who  may  have  fallen  into  the 
water.  That  in  general  use  in  the  navy  consists 
of  two  metallic  cylinders  connected  by  a  central 
spindle,  to  the  upper  end  of  which  is  fixed  a 
port-fire.  The  frame-work  at  the  lower  end  of 
the  spindle  serves  as  a  resting-place  for  the  feet. 
One  life-buoy  is  attached  to  each  quarter,  and  is 
let  fall  into  the  water  by  means  of  a  knob,  which 
being  pulled,  detaches  the  buoy  from  the  ship. 
If  required  for  use  at  night,  another  knob  is  first 
pulled,  which  ignites  the  port-fire  by  means  of  a 
hammer  and  percussion-cap.  The  burning  of 


LIFE-KITE 


437 


LIFE-SAVING  SERVICE 


the  port-fire  indicates  the  position  of  the  buoy. 
A  small  red  flag  is  attached  to  the  spindle  by 
day  to  assist  in  keeping  the  buoy  in  sight.  Cir 
cular  buoys  are  also  used,  which  maybe  cut  clear 
of  a  vessel's  stern,  or  thrown  to  a  person  in  the 
water. 

Life-kite.  A  kite  contrived  for  the  purpose 
of  sending  a  line  from  a  wreck  to  the  shore,  as  a 
means  of  escape  from  the  vessel. 

Life-line.  A  rope  stretched  about  the  deck 
during  a  gale,  by  which  the  men  can  save  them 
selves  from  being  washed  overboard  by  heavy 
seas.  A  life-line  is  also  extended  from  the  lift 
to  the  mast  above  each  yard-arm,  and  serves  as 
a  support  to  the  men  in  manning  yards. 

Life-preservers.  Devices  for  preserving  the 
buoyancy  of  the  human  body,  and  for  reaching 
the  shore  in  cases  of  shipwreck  or  other  casu 
alty  afloat.  ,  The  favorite  material  of  their  con 
struction  is  cork.  It  has  been  calculated  that 
one  pound  of  cork  is  amply  sufficient  to  support 
a  man  of  ^ordinary  size  and  make.  The  cork  life- 
preservers  have  generally  the  form  of  a  jacket  or 
a  belt,  and  a  great  variety  of  them  have  been 
patented.  A  life-buoy  held  in  high  esteem 
among  sailors  is  composed  of  slices  of  cork, 
neatly  and  compactly  arranged  so  as  to  form  a 
buoyant  zone  of  about  30  or  32  inches  in  diam 
eter,  6  in  width,  and  4  in  thickness.  It  contains 
about  12  pounds  of  cork,  and  is  generally  covered 
with  painted  canvas  to  add  to  its  strength  and 
protect  it  from  the  injurious  action  of  water.  A 
buoy  so  constructed  can  sustain  six  persons,  and  it 
is  generally  furnished  with  a  life-line  (a  cord  run 
ning  round  the  outside  of  the  buoy  and  fastened 
to  it  at  four  points)  to  afford  a  more  convenient 
hold.  A  few  years  ago,  on  the  invention  of  india- 
rubber  cloth,  inflated  belts  of  this  material  were 
made,  and  found  to  be  superior  in  buoyancy  to 
the  cork  belt,  besides,  when  emptied  of  air,  being 
very  portable.  They  are,  however,  much  more 
liable  to  damage  by  being  punctured  or  torn,  or 
to  decay  by  being  put  away  while  damp.  Some 
of  these  defects  are  remedied  by  having  the  inte 
rior  of  the  belt  divided  into  several  compartments, 
so  that  when  one  is  damaged  the  remainder  may 
suffice.  Their  susceptibility  to  damage,  how 
ever,  by  want  of  care  and  the  effects  of  climate 
militates  strongly  against  their  general  use. 
Mattresses  stuffed  with  cork  have  been  exten 
sively  used,  and  are  highly  effective  as  life-pre 
servers.  Faced  with  one-inch  thickness  of  horse 
hair,  they  are  very  comfortable  for  ordinary 
purposes,  and  are  preferred  by  many  to  those 
made  wholly  of  hair.  The  buoyancy  of  the 
cork  mattress  may  be  increased  by  means  of  a 
water-proof  sheet,  which,  placed  within  a  ham 
mock,  enfolds  the  mattress  and  bedding.  Mr. 
R.  B.  Forbes,  of  Boston,  who  has  devoted  much 
time  and  attention  to  the  subject  of  life-saving 
appliances,  has  shown  by  experiment  that  a 
common  hammock  and  a  hair  mattress  put  into 
a  water-tight  bag  securely  tied  at  its  mouth 
would  float  indefinitely  with  two  32-pound  shot 
attached  to  it.  The  chairs,  benches,  stools,  seats, 
cushions,  and  manv  other  articles  of  equipment 
about  ships  may  be  made  valuable  as  life-pre 
servers  by  being  rendered  air-tight  or  fitted  with 
air-tight  attachments.  See  LIFE-BOATS  AND 
RAFTS. 

Life-saving  Service  of  the  United  States. 
This  admirable  and  beneficent  institution  was 


organized  by  act  of  Congress,  approved  June  18, 
1878.  Its  purpose  is  sufficiently  indicated  by  its 
title,  and  it  is  unique  as  being  the  only  exclu 
sively  governmental  establishment  of  the  kind 
in  the  world.  Previous  to  its  organization  the 
principal  efforts  in  the  direction  of  succoring 
shipwrecked  voyagers  along  our  coasts  had 
grown  out  of  the  operation  of  the  Massachusetts 
Humane  Society,  which,  as  early  as  1789,  had 
caused  huts  to  'be  erected  at  some  of  the  most 
desolate  points  on  the  coast  of  Massachusetts  for 
the  shelter  of  shipwrecked  persons  fortunate 
enough  to  reach  the  shore.  The  first  life-boat 
station  was  established  by  this  society  at  Cohasset 
in  1807,  and  subsequently  others  were  added. 
The  society  received  from  time  to  time  pecuniary 
aid  from  both  the  general  and  State  governments, 
by  which  it  was  enabled  to  extend  and  improve 
its  operations.  Although  relieved  of  a  portion 
of  its  self-imposed  task  of  benevolence  by  the 
organization  of  the  governmental  establishment, 
it  still  exists,  and  efficiently  supplements  the 
operations  of  the  latter  in  alleviating  the  dis 
tress  of  shipwrecked  mariners  on  the  Massa 
chusetts  coast.  Similar  societies  have  at  times 
existed  in  other  parts  of  the  country,  but  they 
have  now,  for  the  most  part,  either  discontinued 
their  organization,  or  diverted  their  operations 
into  other  channels.  The  first  step  toward  a 
distinctively  national  life-saving  service  was  the 
appropriation  by  Congress  in  1848  of  $10,000  for 
providing  surf-boats  and  other  appliances  for  res 
cuing  life  and  property  from  shipwreck  on  the 
coast  of  New  Jersey.  Eight  buildings  were 
erected  at  different  points  on  that  coast,  and 
were  fitted  with  the  necessary  appointments. 
This  was  followed  by  an  appropriation  of  $20,000 
in  1849,  with  which  8  buildings  were  built 
and  furnished  on  the  coast  of  Long  Island,  and 
6  added  to  those  previously  erected  in  New 
Jersey.  In  1850  Congress  made  another  ap 
propriation  of  $20,000,  half  of  which  was  ex 
pended  in  establishing  additional  stations  on 
Long  Island,  and  one  at  Watch  Hill  in  Rhode 
Island,  and  the  other  half  in  placing  life-boats 
and  boat-houses  at  different  points  on  the 
coasts  of  North  and  South  Carolina,  Georgia, 
Florida,  and  Texas.  Appropriations  amounting 
to  $42,500  were  made  to  the  Life-saving  Service 
in  1853-54,  with  which  14  new  stations  were 
added  to  those  on  the  New  Jersey  coast,  and  11 
to  those  on  the  coast  of  Long  Island.  Twenty- 
three  life-boats  were  distributed  along  the  shores 
of  Lake  Michigan,  and  others  were  placed  at  dif 
ferent  points  on  the  Atlantic  and  Lake  coasts. 
Exclusive  of  the  boats  at  the  55  stations  on  the 
New  York  and  New  Jersey  coasts,  there  were  in 
1854  82  life-boats  at  different  localities  elsewhere. 
The  same  year  Congress  passed  an  act,  under  the 
provisions  of  which  a  superintendent  at  a  com 
pensation  of  $1500  per  annum  was  appointed  for 
each  of  the  two  coasts  ;  a  keeper  was  assigned  to 
each  station  at  a  salary  of  $250 ;  the  stations  and 
their  equipments  were  made  serviceable,  and 
bonded  custodians  were  secured  for  the  life-boats. 
The  service,  however,  still  lacked  drilled  and 
disciplined  crews,  regulations,  and  a  central  ener 
getic  administration  of  its  affairs.  An  effort 
made  in  1869  to  procure  from  Congress  an  ap 
propriation  to  provide  for  crews  of  surfmen,  re 
sulted  in  securing  these  crews  for  each  alternate 
station,  and  in  1871  the  Secretary  of  the  Treas- 


LIFE-SAVING-SERVICE 


438 


LIFE-SAVING  SERVICE 


ury,  to  whose  department  the  Life-saving  Service 
— owing  to  its  relation  to  commerce — belongs,  was 
authorized  to  employ  crews  of  surf  men  at  such 
stations  and  for  such  periods  as  he  might  deem 
necessary.  From  that  year  the  present  organiza 
tion  of  the  service  may  be  said  to  date.  An  ap 
propriation  of  $200,000  was  made  by  Congress 
for  its  support,  and  an  efficient  chief  was  found 
in  the  person  of  Mr.  Simmer  I.  Kimball,  who,  in 
February  of  the  same  year,  had  taken  charge  of 
the  bureau  of  the  Revenue  Marine  Service,  to 
•which  the  administration  of  the  Life-saving  Ser 
vice  at  that  time  belonged.  Setting  vigorously 
to  work,  Mr.  Kimball,  by  means  of  thorough  in 
spection,  acquainted  himself  accurately  with  the 
existing  state  of  the  service  and  the  steps  neces 
sary  to  remedy  its  defects,  and  so  satisfactory 
were  the  results  of  his  efforts  that  the  record  of 
the  season's  operations  (1871-72)  on  the  coasts  of 
New  Jersey  and  Long  Island,  where  the  system 
had  been  most  fully  developed,  show  that  every 
person  imperiled  by  shipwreck  was  saved.  The 
success  of  this  season  stimulated  renewed  effort 
and  encouraged  further  development.  New  sta 
tions  were  established  ;  a  code  of  regulations  was 
prepared,  and  improved  apparatus  was  selected 
for  the  stations,  including  the  New  Jersey  cedar 
surf-boat,  an  eprouvette  mortar,  the  india-rubber 
life-saving  dress  invented  by  Mr.  C.  S.  Merri- 
man,  and  Coston  night-signals.  "Without  at 
tempting  to  follow  year  by  year  the  successive 
stages  of  development,  it  must  suffice  to  say  that, 
under  the  fostering  care  of  Congress  and  efficient 
administration  by  its  chief,  the  Life-saving  Ser 
vice  continued  to  improve  and  expand,  until  it 
had  so  demonstrated  its  usefulness  that,  on  the 
18th  of  June,  1878,  Congress  passed  an  act  de 
taching  it  from  the  Revenue  Marine  and  erect 
ing  it  into  a  separate  and  definite  establishment. 
As  now  organized  the  establishment  embraces 
12  districts,  comprising  195  stations,  which  are 
divided  into  3  classes,  known  respectively  as 
life-saving  stations,  life-boat  stations,  and  houses 
of  refuge.  The  following  table  shows  the  loca 
tion  of  the  districts,  and  the  number  and  class  of 
the  stations  belonging  to  each  district : 


Districts. 

Stations. 

No. 

Coasts. 

No. 

Class.. 

1 

Maine    and    New    Hamp 
shire  

7 

Life-saving 

? 

15 

3 

Rhode   Island,  Block,  and 
Long  Islands  

38 

u 

4 

New  Jersey    .  .. 

40 

14 

5 
6 

Delaware,   Maryland,   and 
Virginia  to  Cape  Charles. 
Virginia  and  North  Caro 
lina,  from   Cape  Henry 
to  Cape  Fear  

11 

25 

M 

« 

7 

Florida  

5 

8 

Gulf  of  Mexico  

6 

5  life-saving. 

9 
10 
11 

Lakes  Erie  and  Ontario  
Lakes  Huron  and  Superior. 
Lake  Michigan  

9 
13 

18 

1  life-boat  station. 
3  life-saving. 
6  life-boat  stations. 
10  life-saving. 
3  life-boat  stations. 
5  life-saving. 

T> 

Pacific 

g 

13  life-boat  stations, 
ife-boat  stations 

The  life-saving  stations  have  houses  two  stories 


in  height,  and  from  18  to  20  feet  wide,  by  40  to 
45  feet  long.  They  are  neat  and  tasteful  in  ap 
pearance,  and  contain  on  the  ground-floor  2 
rooms,  one,  the  boat-room,  about  10  by  16  by  30 
feet,  which  opens  to  the  weather  by  a  broad 
double-leaved  door.  In  this  are  stored  the  boats, 
life-car,  wreck-gun,  and  most  of  the  apparatus. 
The  other  room,  measuring  about  8  by  12  by  16 
feet,  is  the  common  living-room  of  the  crew.  In 
the  second  story  are  3  rooms,  one  for  storage, 
one  the  keeper's  sleeping-room,  and  one  that  of 
the  men,  these  two  sleeping-rooms  being  fur 
nished  with  some  extra  cots  for  use  in  emergency. 
At  stations  having  signal-service  communication 
there  is  an  additional  room  in  the  upper  story  for 
the  signal-officer. 

The  houses  at  life-boat  stations  are  usually  24 
feet  from  base  to  peak,  42  feet  long  by  22  feet 
wide,  outside  measurements,  and  contain  a  loft 
above,  and  a  room  below  12  feet  high,  20  feet 
wide,  and  40  feet  long,  for  the  accommodation  of 
the  life-boat  and  its  gear.  They  stand  on  piles 
at  the  water's  edge  or  on  the  inner  side  of  the 
piers,  and  are  furnished  with  an  inclined  plat 
form  or  trap  in  the  floor,  along  which  the  life 
boat  is  let  down  and  launched  by  means  of  a 
windlass. 

The  houses  of  refuge,  which  exist  only  on  the 
Florida  coast,  are  two-story  structures,  having 
broad  gabled  roofs,  a  veranda  8  feet  wide  on 
three  sides,  and  large  chimneys  in  the  rear,  built 
outside  the  wall.  They  are  of  pine,  elevated  about 
6  feet  from  the  ground,  and  the  roofs  are 
shingled  with  cypress.  The  windows  are  fitted 
with  wire-gauze  mosquito  netting  in  place  of 
glass.  The  houses  are  about  37  feet  long  by  15 
wide,  not  including  the  veranda  space.  The  lower 
story  has  3  apartments,  the  upper  is  not  divided 
into  apartments.  Each  house  has  capacity  for 
succoring  25  persons,  and  has  a  10  days'  supply 
of  food  for  that  number.  A  boat-house  is  pro 
vided  for  each  station,  furnished  with  a  galvan 
ized  iron  boat  with  sculls. 

The  personnel  of  the  Life-saving  Service  con 
sists  of  a  general  superintendent  and  an  assistant 
general  superintendent,  their  headquarters  being 
in  the  Treasury  at  Washington  ;  an  inspector  of 
life-saving  stations,  who  is  an  officer  of  the  Reve 
nue  Marine ;  2  superintendents  of  construction 
of  life-saving  stations,  who  are  also  officers  of  the 
Revenue  Marine,  and  who  supervise  the  erection 
and  repairs  of  buildings,  and  the  purchase  of 
equipments  for  new  stations.  Their  office  is  in 
New  York.  An  officer  of  the  Revenue  Marine  is 
assigned  to  each  district  as  assistant  inspector,  his 
duty  being  to  see  that  the  stations  and  their 
equipments  are  in  proper  condition,  and  the 
crews  proficient  in  the  use  of  the  life-saving 
apparatus.  The  districts  are  severally  in  charge 
of  a  superintendent,  who  is  appointed  after  exam 
ination,  and  is  required  to  be  an  inhabitant  of  the 
region,  familiar  with  the  coast,  and  with  the  action 
of  surf  and  the  use  of  surf-boats  and  other  life- 
saving  apparatus.  He  is  responsible  for  the  con 
dition  and  conduct  of  his  district,  makes  requisi 
tion  for  all  repairs,  outfits,  and  supplies  therein 
necessary,  pays  the  crews,  keeps  the  accounts, 
and  conducts  the  correspondence.  For  the  Rhode 
Island  portion  of  the  third  district  there  is  also 
an  assistant  superintendent,  who  resides  at  Block 
Island.  The  superintendent  nominates  the  keep 
ers  of  his  district,  who  are  subject  to  an  exami- 


LIFT 


439       LIGHT-HOUSE  ESTABLISHMENT 


nation  by  a  board  consisting  of  the  local  inspec 
tor,  a  surgeon  of  the  Marine  Hospital  Service, 
and  an  expert  surfman.  Each  station  is  in  charge 
of  a  keeper.  He  selects  his  own  crew,  subject, 
however,  to  the  revision  of  the  Examining  Board. 
He  is  by  law  an  inspector  of  customs,  and  has 
authority  to  take  charge  of  stranded  property, 
and  to  prevent  smuggling.  He  keeps  invento 
ries  of  all  property  pertaining  to  his  station,  and 
a  journal  of  events,  weekly  transcripts  of  which 
are  sent  to  the  general  superintendent.  He  is  re 
sponsible  for  the  good  order  of  the  station  and  its 
appointments,  commands  the  crew,  and  conducts 
all  operations.  At  complete  life-saving  stations 
the  keepers  are  required  to  reside  constantly  with 
their  crews  during  the  active  season.  At  life 
boat  stations,  with  only  volunteer  crews,  the 
keepers  must  live  in  the  neighborhood,  keep 
sharp  look-out  for  vessels  in  distress  during  thick 
weather,  and  rally  their  men  upon  occasions  of 
need.  At  houses  of  refuge  the  keepers  live  with 
their  families  the  whole  year,  and  after  storms 
the  beach  is  thoroughly  searched  to  the  greatest 
extent  practicable  in  both  directions  for  persons 
cast  ashore,  who,  when  found,  are  succored  and 
tenderly  cared  for.  The  crews  of  life-saving  sta 
tions  consist  of  6  men,  who  are  required  to  be 
hardy  and  skilled  surfmen.  They  constantly 
patrol  the  beaches  at  night  with  lanterns  and 
night-signals,  and  also  watch  by  day,  especially 
in  thick  weather.  This  system  of  patrolling  is  a 
distinctive  feature  of  the  United  States  Life-sav 
ing  Service,  and  its  proved  value  in  speedily 
discovering  stranded  vessels  causes  it  to  be  main 
tained  with  great  vigilance,  the  manner  of  its 
performance  to  be  strictly  watched,  and  any 
evasion  of  duty  in  connection  with  it  to  be 
promptly  punished.  The  volunteer  crews  at 
the  life-boat  stations  are  groups  of  8  persons 
besides  the  keeper.  They  are  regularly  enrolled, 
and  are  required  to  be  vigilant  to  observe  the  sig 
nal  for  their  assembly  in  thick  or  stormy  weather. 
See  LIFE-BOATS  AND  RAFTS,  LIGHT-HOUSE  ES 
TABLISHMENT,  WRECK  ARTILLERY,  DROWN. 

Lift.  To  shake  slightly,  as  a  sail  when  the 
wind  blows  against  it  at  too  small  an  angle.  To 
raise,  as  a  vessel,  when  lifted  out  of  the  water  by 
a  floating-dock.  Fog  is  said  to  lift  when  it  rises 
from  the  surface  of  the  water.  A  promotion  is 
sometimes  called  a  lift.  "Give  me  a  lift11  is  a 
request  for  assistance  in  work.  A  lift  is  a  rope 
which  extends  from  the  mast-head  to  each  end 
of  a  yard  to  support  the  yard-arms.  A  yard  is 
"  on  the  lifts11  when  its  weight  is  supported  by 
the  lifts.  A  topping-lift  supports  the  outer  end 
of  a  lower  studding-sail  boom  and  a  spanker- 
boom. 

LIFTING-JACK.  A  portable  machine  for  lifting 
heavy  objects. 

LIFTING-PUMP.  One  by  which  the  liquid  is 
lifted  by  the  piston,  instead  of  being  forced  to 
the  place  of  discharge. 

LIFTING-ROD.  The  rod  which  receives  motion 
from  the  rock-shaft  of  the  valve-gear,  and  im 
parts  motion  to  the  poppet,  or  other  lifting- 
valve. 

LIFTING-TOE.  The  revolving  arm.  on  the 
rock-shaft  of  the  valve-gear,  which  takes  against 
the  toe  on  the  lifting-rod  and  thus  transmits 
motion. 

Lig  (Eng.).  A  small  fish-hook  with  lead  cast 
on  its  upper  end  to  serve  as  a  sinker. 


Ligan.  A  term  in  maritime  law  signifying 
goods  that  are  sunk  in  the  sea,  but  whose  po°ition 
is  marked  by  buoys. 

Ligger  (Eng.).  A  contrivance  for  taking  pike 
at  night. 

Light.  Small ;  inconsiderable.  Not  dark. 
The  term  for  all  lamps  or  lanterns  used  on  ship 
board  ;  as,  running  lights,  signal-lights,  mast 
head  lights,  etc.  (See  LANTERN.)  Open  lights 
on  the  berth-deck  require  to  be  extinguished  on 
a  ship  of  war  at  8  P.M.,  in  the  steerage  at  9  P.M., 
and  in  the  ward-room  at  10  P.M.,  unless  permis 
sion  is  given  for  an  "  extension  of  light"  by  the 
commanding  officer.  To  lift  or  carry  anything 
along  the  deck;  as,  "to  light  along  a  rope.'' 
To  light  over  to  windward  is  to  haul  the  reef- 
band  to  windward  when  reefing  a  sail.  A  ship 
is  light  when  she  has  no  cargo,  or  is  not  deeply 
immersed  ;  and  she  is  said  to  be  flying  light  when 
she  is  crank  for  want  of  ballast  or  cargo. 

LIGHT  AIR.  Wind  of  least  force.  It  is  in 
dicated  by  the  figure  1  in  the  scale,  where  0  repre 
sents  a  calm  and  12  a  hurricane. 

LIGHT-BALLS.  Balls  sometimes  used  in  mili 
tary  operations  for  lighting  up  the  enemy's  works 
at  night.  They  are  composed  of  inflammable  sub 
stances,  such  as  sulphur,  saltpetre,  and  resin,  with 
oil,  and  burn  with  great  brilliancy  in  mid-air 
when  fired  from  a  mortar. 

LIGHT-BOX.  The  place,  adjoining  a  maga 
zine  or  shell-room,  for  the  magazine-light.  The 
light  is  transmitted  to  the  magazine  through  a 
thick  glass  plate. 

LIGHT  BREEZE.  A  steady  wind,  whose  force 
in  indicated  in  the  scale  by  2. 

LIGHTEN.  To  relieve  a  vessel  in  .stress  of 
weather  by  throwing  overboard  cargo  or  any 
heavj7  weights. 

LIGHTER.  A  large  flat-bottomed  barge  or  boat 
used  in  transporting  cargo  between  a  vessel  and 
the  shore.  It  is  built  with  great  strength,  and 
may  be  open  or  covered  with  a  deck,  according 
to  the  kind  of  merchandise  which  it  is  intended 
to  carry. 

LIGHTERAGE.  The  price  paid  for  the  use  of 
lighters,  or  the  cost  of  transporting  a  vessel's 
cargo  in  loading  or  unloading  by  lighters. 

LIGHTERMAN.  A  man  who  'is  employed  on  a 
lighter. 

LIGHT-HANDED.  Short-handed.  A  crew 
smaller  than  the  complement  allowed. 

LIGHT-HORSEMAN  (Eng.).  An  old  name  for 
the  gig. 

LIGHT  ICE.     Thin  ice. 

LIGHT-PORT.  Any  port  used  to  admit  light 
into  the  hold  of  a  vessel. 

LIGHT  SAILS.  Topgallant  sails,  royals,  flying- 
jib,  and  studding-sails. 

LIGHT-SHIP.  A  small  vessel  constructed  for 
the  purpose,  and  furnished  with  one  or  two  large 
lanterns  of  great  illuminating  power.  They  are 
anchored  upon  shoals  or  in  the  vicinity  of  dangers 
to  which  vessels  are  exposed,  either  on  the  coast 
or  in  harbors. 

LIGHT  WATER-DRAFT.  The  draft  when  the 
hull  is  entirely  empty. 

LIGHT  WATER-LINE.  The  line  of  immersion 
of  a  vessel  when  unloaded. 

Light-house  Establishment  (The),  of  the 
United  States  is  not  a  creation :  it  is  a  growth. 
The  first  light-house  was  built  on  Little  Brew- 
ster  Island,^Boston  harbor,  Mass.,  in  1715-16,  by 


LIGHT-HOUSE  ESTABLISHMENT       440       LIGHT-HOUSE  ESTABLISHMENT 


order  and  at  the  expense  of  the  General  Court  of 
the  Province  of  Massachusetts  Bay,  at  an  outlay 
of  £2385  17s.  8^.,  and  it  was  supported  by  "  an 
impost  of  Id.  per  ton  inward  and  Id.  per  ton  out 
ward"  on  all  passing  vessels  except  coasters,  paid 
to  the  collector  of  imposts  at  Boston.  Other 
lights  were  erected  on  various  parts  of  the  coast 
as  the  necessities  of  commerce  required,  so  that 
in  1789  there  were  25  light-houses :  2  in  Maine, 
1  in  New  Hampshire,  10  in  Massachusetts,  1  in 
Khode  Island,  2  in  Connecticut,  1  on  Long 
Island,  N.  Y.,  1  on  Sandy  Hook,  N.  J.,  3  in 
Virginia,  1  in  North  Carolina,  1  in  South  Car 
olina,  and  1  in  Georgia. 

The  United  States,  by  act  of  7th  August,  1789, 
assumed,  with  the  consent  of  the  States  owning 
them,  the  control,  proprietorship,  and  mainte 
nance  of  these  lights,  and  placed  them  under 
the  management  of  the  Secretary  of  the  Treas 
ury,  who  devolved  their  superintendence  upon 
his  subordinate,  the  Commissioner  of  Revenue, 
until  July,  1820,  when  his  office  was  abolished, 
and  the  duty  was  assigned  to  the  Fifth  Auditor 
of  the  Treasury,  who,  in  1852,  turned  it  over  to 
the  Light-House  Board,  by  which  it  is  still  exer 
cised. 

In  1789  there  were  25  light-houses;  in  1820 
there  were  55;  in  1838  there  were  210  light 
houses,  28  light-ships,  and  numerous  buoys  and 
beacons  ;  in  1852  there  were  325  light-houses,  42 
light-vessels,  more  beacons  and  more  buoys  ;  and 
now  the  number  of  lights  has  more  than  doubled, 
various  other  aids  to  navigation  have  been  de 
vised,  and  the  establishment  has  increased  many 
fold  in  usefulness. 

Collec-tors  of  customs  have  had  certain  limited 
and  local  care  of  lights  and  light-keepers  from 
the  first.  Since  the  charge  of  the  lights  was  as 
sumed  by  the  general  government  the  method 
of  caring  for  the  personnel  of  the  establishment 
has  been  subjected  to  frequent  modification  ;  and 
now  those  collectors,  who  are  also  superintendents 
of  lights,  have  nothing  to  do  with  light-houses, 
and  no  further  connection  with  the  keepers  than 
to  nominate  them  for  appointment,  and  in  most 
instances  to  pay  them  their  wages.  In  the  be 
ginning  collectors  contracted  for  the  erection  of 
light-house  buildings,  and  the  purchase  of  all 
the  material  used  in  building,  operating,  and 
maintaining  the  lights.  When  the  Fifth  Au 
ditor  became  general  superintendent  he  took 
supervision  of  these  contracts,  and  in  some  in 
stances  made  them  himself,  and  he  attempted 
the  formation  of  a  system  which  had  in  it  germs 
of  success.  But  the  needs  of  commerce  in 
creased  more  rapidly  than  this  crude  plan  could 
meet  them.  Hasty  legislation  overran  itself, 
and  Congress  became  aware  of  the  necessity  for 
revising  its  own  action.  Hence,  in  May,  1838, 
it  created  a  board  of  naval  officers  to  examine 
and  report  as  to  the  lights  which  were  actually 
needed,  and  also  as  to  how  those  needs  were  met 
by  existing  lights  and  by  those  to  be  erected. 
On  the  report  of  that  commission  Congress  took 
such  action  that  the  erection  of  31  lights,  for 
which  appropriation,  plans,  and,  in  some  in 
stances,  contracts  had  been  made,  was  stopped ; 
the  coasts  were  divided  into  7  districts,  a  young 
and  active  naval  officer  was  assigned  to  each, 
and  appropriation  was  made  for  the  purchase 
and  practical  test,  in  light-houses,  of  two  sets 
.of  French  lenticular  apparatus.  These  officers, 


who  were  required  to  report  among  other  things 
as  to  the  plan,  site,  and  need  for  each  proposed 
light-house,  did -their  duty  so  thoroughly  that 
Congress  for  the  first  time  had  a  full  and  clear 
knowledge  of  the  real  needs  of  commerce,  and 
was  enabled  to  provide  for  and  meet  its  immediate 
necessities. 

But  the  wants  of  shipping  again  outgrew  these 
new  plans,  and  complaints  were  so  numerous  and 
specific  that,  in  March,  1851,  another,  and  now  a 
mixed,  commission  was  raised,  and  required  by 
law  "  to  inquire  into  the  condition  of  the  light 
house  establishment,  and  to  make  a  general  de 
tailed  report  and  programme  to  guide  legislation 
in  extending  and  improving  our  present  system  of 
construction,  illumination,  inspection,  and  super 
intendence."  This  commission,  which  was  corn- 
posed  of  three  naval  officers,  two  army  officers,  and 
the  superintendent  of  the  coast  survey,  made  a 
thorough  examination  of  existing  aids  to  naviga 
tion,  compared  them  with  those  of  France  and 
other  maritime  countries,  which  were  visited  for 
the  purpose,  and  then  prepared  a  plan  which 
was  intended  to  combine  the  best  features  of  the 
various  foreign  systems,  to  adapt  them  to  the 
ascertained  wants  of  this  country,  and  to  provide 
for  its  wants  in  the  future.  This  plan,  which 
was  submitted  with  a  full  report,  was  adopted  in 
the  main  by  Congress,  and  the  act  of  August  31, 
1852,  created  the  Light-House  Board,  placed  the 
Light-House  Establishment  under  its  direction, 
attaching  it  to  the  office  of  the  Secretary  of  the 
Treasury,  making  him  its  president,  and  placing 
it  under  his  superintendence.  Tin's  board  was 
directed  by  the  organic  act  "  to  discharge  all  the 
administrative  duties  relating  to  the  construc 
tion,  illumination,  inspection,  and  superintend 
ence  of  light-houses,  light-vessels,  beacons,  buoys, 
sea-marks,  and  their  appendages,  and  embracing 
the  security  of  foundations  of  works  already  exist 
ing,  procuring  illuminating  and  other  apparatus, 
supplies  and  materials  of  all  kinds  for  building 
and  rebuilding  when  necessary,  and  keeping  in 
good  repair  the  light-houses,  light-vessels,  bea 
cons,  and  buoys  of~the  United  States." 

The  new  board  was  composed  of  9  members : 
3  officers  of  the  navy,  two  of  high  rank,  3  officers 
of  the  corps  of  engineers  of  the  army,  and  3 
civilians,  one  of  whom  was  to  be  the  Secretary 
of  the  Treasury,  and  the  remaining  two  to  be 
of  high  scientific  attainments.  The  members  of 
the  commission  were  aopointed  on  the  board, 
which  was  completed  by  adding  to  it  Prof. 
Joseph  Henry,  the  secretary  of  the  Smithsonian 
Institution,  and  Capt.  E.  L.  F.  Hardcastle,  of 
the  corps  of  engineers,  when  it  was  organized 
by  making  Commodore  Shubrick  its  chairman, 
Lieut.  Jenkins  its  naval  secretary,  and  Capt. 
Hardcastle  its  engineer  secretary. 

The  board  then  commenced  making  the  rec 
ommended  reforms.  The  coasts  of  the  Atlantic, 
the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  the  Pacific,  and  the  great 
lakes  were  divided  into  12  districts,  to  which  the 
two  districts  constituting  the  great  Western  rivers 
were  added  in  1874  ;  and  an  inspector  and  en 
gineer,  who  was  in  each  case  an  officer  of  the 
army  or  navy,  was  assigned  to  each  district. 
The  inspectors,  under  the  special  direction  of  the 
naval  secretary, — who  also  had  charge,  in  the 
absence  of  the  chairman,  of  the  office  of  the 
board, — were  charged  with  the  maintenance  of 
light-houses  and  lights,  and  with  the  discipline 


LIGHT-HOUSE  ESTABLISHMENT       441 


LIMBEKS 


of  the  light-keepers ;  and  the  engineers,  under 
the  direction  of  the  engineer  secretary,  were 
charged  with  building  the  light-houses,  with 
keeping  them  in  repair,  and  with  the  purchase, 
the  setting  up,  and  the  repair  of  the  illuminating 
apparatus.  Both  inspectors  and  engineers  were 
required  to  make  regular  and  special  reports  to 
the  board,  acting  always  under  its  direction  ;  and 
the  board  was  required  to  make  a  full  annual 
report  to  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  who  in 
turn  reported  to  Congress. 

The  board  divided  itself  into  committees  on 
engineering,  lighting,  floating  aids  to  naviga 
tion,  location  of  light-houses,  experiments,  and 
finance,  and  placed  an  expert  in  that  branch  at 
the  head  of  each.  Its  committee  meetings  were 
frequent,  and  the  board  itself  met  at  least 
monthly,  though  required  by  law  to  meet  but 
quarterly,  while  the  executive  committee,  con 
sisting  of  the  chairman  and  the  two  secretaries, 
were  in  constant  session,  and  carried  on  the  bus 
iness  of  the  establishment.  The  individual  mem 
bers  of  the  board  had  much  work  to  do  along  all 
the  coasts  of  the  country,  and  thus  became  famil 
iarized  with  the  minutest  details  of  the  service, 
which  was  soon  placed  on  the  best  possible  foot 
ing.  Then  the  board  set  about  making  all  desir 
able  improvements  as  fast  as  existing  laws  and 
funds  in  its  control  would  permit. 

It  substituted  for  the  old  parabolic  reflectors 
the  lenticular  illuminating  apparatus  of  Fresnel, 
making  at  once  a  great  saving  in  expense  for  oil, 
and  a  "great  increase  in  the  light  produced.  It 
substituted  light-houses  for  light-ships  where 
possible,  making  large  saving  in  expense  for 
maintenance  in  each  instance,  again  with  a  cor 
responding  increase  in  light.  After  a  long  course 
of  experiments,  in  which  it  was  joined  by  some 
of  the  first  scientists  of  the  country,  the  board 
found  it  possible  to  substitute  as  an^illuminant, 
lard  oil  for  sperm,  and  invented  and  manufac 
tured  lamps  in  which  to  burn  it,  with  a  further 
saving  in  cost  and  another  increase  in  the  power 
of  the  light.  After  a  series  of  experiments  into 
the  nature  and  action  of  sound  in  wind,  rain, 
fog,  and  snow,  running  through  many  years, 
with  published  results,  stimulating  private  en 
terprise  and  ingenuity,  it  tested  and  finally 
adopted  a  number  of  fog-signals,  operated  by 
steam,  hot  air,  or  by  the  action  of  the  waves, 
and  appropriately  placed  them  as  rapidly  as  funds 
were  provided  by  Congress,  and  brought  that 
part  of  the  service  into  such  perfection  that 
mariners  were  satisfied  to  be  guided  by  sound 
when  sight  was  impossible,  and  that  other  mari 
time  nations  sent  commissions  here  to  study  our 
methods.  It  inaugurated  a  simple  and  inexpen 
sive  system  of  lighting  the  great  Western  rivers, 
which  is  so  successful  that  steamers,  which  for 
merly  tied  up  on  dark  nights,  now  run  as  in  day 
light,  thus  revolutionizing  the  river  commerce 
of  the  country.  It  has  recently,  after  another 
exhaustive  series  of  experiments,  as  a  measure 
of  economy,  substituted  mineral  oil  for  lard  oil 
as  an  illuminant  in  its  lights  of  the  lower  orders, 
certainly  with  no  loss  of  light  thereby.  It  has 
so  far  pushed  its  experiments  into  the  use  of  the 
electric  light  as  to  become  sensible  of  its  possi 
bilities  for  light-house  illumination,  and  to  ask 
Congress — thus  far  unsuccessfully,  however — for 
funds  with  which  to  practically  test  it  in  a  light 
house. 


The  board  has  elevated  the  character  of  its 
personnel,  and  has,  after  long  effort,  succeeded  in 
withdrawing  the  promotion  and  transfer  of  light- 
keepers,  over  a  thousand  in  number,  from  poli 
tics  and  making  them  depend  on  merit.  It  has 
provided  for  light-keepers,  in  addition  to  a  well- 
arranged  volume  of  printed  instructions,  some 
250  small  libraries,  each  containing  about  50  vol 
umes  of  general  literature,  which  pass  from  light- 
station  to  light-station  as  they  are  read  ;  and  it 
is  within  its  plans  to  place  the  service  on  a  still 
higher  footing.  The  members  of  the  board  serve 
without  any^pay  additional  to  that  which  they 
receive  by  right  of  position  in  the  army,  navy, 
or  civil  service.  They  now  are,  and  as  a  rule 
they  have  been,  persons  of  scientific  attainments, 
and  because  they  were  noted  as  such  were  de 
tailed  for  light-house  service. 

On  July  1,1880,  the  Light-House  Establishment 
had  in  position  47  first-order  lights,  they  being 
the  largest,  26  of  the  2d  order,  55  of  the  3d  order, 
10  of  the  3£  order,  204  of  the  4th  order,  288  of 
the  5th  and  6th  order;  24  lanterns  and  lenses, 
819  stake-lights  on  the  Western  rivers,  31  light 
ships,  57  fog-signals,  operated  by  steam  or  hot 
air,  25  automatic  whistling-buoys,  numerous  day- 
beacons  or  monuments,  and  3115  other  buoys. 

The  establishment  is  entirely  supported  by  the 
general  government,  without  making  any  charge 
in  the  way  of  light-dues  against  vessels  of  any 
country.  Its  cost  may  be  predicated  upon  ap 
propriations  made  for  the  support  of  the  estab 
lishment  during  the  fiscal  year  ending  June  30, 
1881,  which  were  as  follows : 

For  salaries  of  keepers  of  light-houses,  at  an 
average  of  $600  each,  $565,000;  for  expenses  of 
light-vessels,  $240,000;  for  expenses  of  buoyage, 
$325,000;  for  expenses  of  fog-signals,  $50,000; 
for  inspecting  lights,  $4000  ;  for  supplies  of  light 
houses,  $375,000;  for  repairs  of  light-houses, 
$285,000 ;  for  erection  and  repair  of  pier  head 
lights,  $25,000;  for  lighting  and  buoyage  of  the 
Mississippi,  Missouri,  and  Ohio  Kivers,  $140,000 ; 
for  survey  of  sites  and  preparation  of  plans  of 
light-houses,  $10,000.  Total  for  maintenance  of 
the  service  one  year,  $2,019,000.  For  the  erec 
tion  of  new  light-houses  and  the  building  of  new 
light-vessels,  $476,700.  Grand  total, ^  $2,495,- 
700. — A.  B.  Johnson,  Chief  Clerk  Light-House 
Board. 

Lightning-conductor.  A  small  rope  of  cop 
per  wire  which  extends  from  the  truck  of  each 
mast  to  the  metallic  sheathing  on  the  vessel's 
bottom.  The  upper  end  of  the  wire  rope  ter 
minates  in  a  steel  point,  tipped  with  platinum, 
which  is  fastened  to  the  upper  side  of  the  truck. 

Lignamina  (Eng.).  Timber  for  building  pur 
poses. 

Lignite.  Fossil  wood  carbonized  to  a  certain 
degree,  but  retaining  its  woody  texture.  See 
COAL. 

Lignum-vitae.  A  tree  (Guaincum  cfficinale] 
found  in  the  West  Indies  and  Central  America. 
On  account  of  the  extreme  hardness  of  its  wood 
it  is  valuable  for  the  sheaves  of  blocks. 

Limb.  A  portion  of  the  disk  of  the  sun  or 
moon.  The  graduated  arc  of  a  mathematical 
instrument. 

Limbers  or  Limber-holes.  The  holes  cut 
through  the  floor-timbers  for  the  passage  of  water 
on  each  side  of  the  keelson. 

LIMBER-BOARD.   A  short  plank  fitted  into  the 


LIMBO 


442 


LINE 


floor  of  a  vessel,  which  can  be  removed  when  ne 
cessary  to  clear  the  limber-holes. 

LIMBER-CHAIN.  A  small  chain  rove  through 
the  limber-holes  or  limbers,  by  moving  which  the 
holes  can  be  cleared  of  dirt,  and  passage  given  for 
the  water  in  the  bottom  to  run  into  the  pump-well. 

LIMBER-PLATE.     See  LIMBER-BOARD. 

LIMBER-STRKAK.  The  plank  in  the  floor  of  a 
vessel  nearest  the  keelson. 

Limbo.     A  place  of  confinement. 

Lime-juice.  Issued  in  the  English  naval  ser 
vice  as  a  part  of  the  ration,  on  account  of  its 
antiscorbutic  qualities. 

Lime-pot.  A  pot  for  holding  lime,  which  was 
used  in  the  early  time  of  European  naval  engage 
ments  for  its  blinding  effects  upon  the  enemy. 

Limerick,  the  leading  port  of  Ireland,  is  situ 
ated  on  an  extensive  plain  at  the  interior  ex 
tremity  of  the  estuarv  of  the  Shannon,  in  lat. 
52°  39'  36"  N.,  Ion.  8°  39'  W.  The  harbor  is 
about  1600  yards  in  length  by  150  in  breadth, 
with  from  2  to  9  feet  at  low  water  and  19  feet 
at  the  spring  tides.  The  commerce  of  the  port 
is  considerable.  The  manufacture  of  lace  and 
fish-hooks  has  supplanted  that  of  gloves  and 
linen,  for  which  this  city  was  at  one  time  cele 
brated.  There  are  also  distilleries,  breweries, 
ship-building  yards,  flour-mills,  and  foundries. 
Pop.  40,000. 

Limiting  Parallels.  The  most  northern  and 
southern  parallels  of  latitude  within  which  oc- 
cultations  of  the  stars  or  planets  with  the  moon 
can  take  place. 

Limmer  (Eng.).  The  man-rope  at  the  side 
of  a  ladder. 

Limnoria.  A  genus  of  Crustacea  of  the  order 
Isopoda,  containing  only  one  known  species.  It 
does  great  damage  by  eating  into  docks,  piles, 
and  other  wood- work  immersed  in  the  sea.  The 
kyanizing  of  wood  and  other  expedients  have 
been  resorted  to  to  prevent  its  ravages. 

Limpet.  A  shell-fish  of  the  genus  Patella, 
found  adhering  to  rocks. 

Linch-pin.  An  iron  pin  by  which  the  truck 
of  a  gun-carriage  is  secured  upon  the  axle. 

Line.  A  common  term  for  the  equator.  The 
word  is  applied  to  many  ropes  of  different  sizes 
which  are  used  for  various  purposes  on  ship 
board  ;  as,  bow-lines,  bunt-lines,  clew-lines,  leech- 
lines,  spill  ing-lines,  etc.  (See  SAILS.)  Also, 
marline,  houseline,  roundline,  etc.  (See  SMALL 
STUFF.)  A  small  hawser  used  in  towing  is 
called  a  towline.  A  small  rope  used  for  hauling 
the  end  of  a  hawser  on  board  is  called  a  hauling- 
line.  A  tripping-line  is  used  for  clearing  the 
lower  lift  and  brace  from  the  yard-arm  intend 
ing  down  a  topgallant  or  royal  yard.  To  line,  to 
mark  out  work  in  ship-building;  to  put  such 
lines  upon  the  work  as  will  show  its  finished 
shape,  to  which  the  workmen  are  to  cut.  To 
place  anything  in  its  true  position.  Also,  to  pro 
tect  anything  with  boards,  sheet-iron,  lead,  etc. 

LINES  OF  A  VESSEL.  The  boundaries  or  curves 
generated  by  planes  cutting  the  solid  in  different 
directions,  the  boundary  or  curve  being  defined 
by  the  contact  of  said  plane  with  the  surface  of 
the  solid. 

They  are,  1st.  The  "  water-lines,"  which  are 
generated  by  cutting  the  solid  with  horizontal 
planes. 

2d.  "  Cross-sections,"  or  frame-lines,  generated 
by  cutting  the  solid  by  vertical  transverse  planes. 


8d.  u  Vertical  sections,"  which  are  generated 
by  cutting  the  solid  with  vertical  longitudinal 
planes. 

4l:h.  "Diagonals,"  which  are  generated  by  cut 
ting  the  solid  with  a  plane  whose  contact  with 
the  "vertical  longitudinals"  is  horizontal,  but 
whose  surface  transversely  is  inclined,  in  order 
that  the  plane  may  approach  a  perpendicular  to 
the  surface  of  the  solid  at  its  point  of  contact. 

Beam-line,  a  line  showing  the  height  of  the 
beams  at  the  sides  of  the  ship.  Bear  ding-line, 
the  trace  of  the  inner  surface  of  the  skin  on  the 
stem,  keel,  and  stern-post.  Boundary-line,  the 
trace  of  the  outer  surface  of  the  skin  on  stem, 
keel,  and  stern-post.  Bow-  and  buttock-lines, 
the  lines  formed  by  the  intersection  of  a  vertical 
plane  parallel  with  the  plane  of  the  keel,  and  the 
bow  and  quarter  of  the  ship.  Centre-line,  any 
line  formed  by  the  middle,  vertical,  longitudi 
nal  section.  Cutting-down  line,  a  line  on  the 
sheer-plan,  corresponding  to  the  upper  surface 
of  the  floor-timbers  at  the  centre-line.  Diagonal 
lines,  lines  formed  by  the  passing  of  planes  ob 
lique  to  the  plane  of  the  keel,  but  intersecting 
that  plane  in  lines  parallel  to  the  keel.  Level 
lines,  lines  formed  by  planes  perpendicular  to 
the  plane  of  the  keel.  Main-breadth  line,  the 
line  which  shows  the  greatest  breadth  of  the 
ship.  Ribband-line,  the  same  as  a  diagonal  line. 
Sheer-line,  a  line  showing  the  upward  curvature 
at  the  extremities  of  the  ship.  Stepping -lines, 
the  lines  upon  which  are  stepped  the  heels  of  the 
cant-timbers, — the  forward  and  after  ends  of  the 
bearding-line.  Load  water-line,  the  line  of  flo 
tation  when  the  ship  has  her  full  cargo  on  board. 
Light  water-line,  the  line  of  flotation  when  all 
the  cargo  is  discharged. 

LINE  OF  BATTLE.  The  line  formed  by  the 
ships  of  a  fleet  at  regular  intervals  ahead  and 
astern,  and  nearly  close-hauled  upon  either  tack. 
This  mode  of  forming  line  of  battle  applies  rather 
to  the  former  days  of  sailing  fleets,  where  one  of 
the  objects  of  manoeuvring  was  to  obtain  the 
weather-gauge  of  an  enemy,  than  to  the  present 
age  of  ironclad  vessels  and  steam. 

LINE-OF-BATTLE  SHIP.  A  ship  carrying  not 
less  than  74  guns  upon  three  decks,  and  of  suffi 
cient  size  to  be  placed  in  line  of  battle. 

LINE  OF  BEARING.  The  position  of  the  ves 
sels  of  a  fleet  in  line  heading  in  any  direction 
from  which,  by  hauling  upon  the  wind,  a  line 
of  battle  is  formed.  A  fleet  is  on  the  starboard 
line  of  bearing  when,  by  coming  to  the  wind, 
the  ships  will  be  in  line  of  battle  on  the  star 
board  tack.  Otherwise  they  are  on  the  port  line 
of  bearing. 

LINE  OF  COLLIMATION.  The  line  which 
passes  through  the  centre  of  the  telescope  of  an 
astronomical  instrument  at  the  intersection  of 
the  cross-wires  at  its  focus. 

LINE  OF  FIRE.  The  prolongation  of  the  axis 
of  the  bore  of  a  gun  when  fired. 

LINE  OF  FLOTATION.  The  horizontal  line 
formed  by  the  surface  of  the  water  on  the  outer 
surface  of  a  vessel  at  different  drafts. 

LINE  OF  LINE.  One  of  the  lines  upon  Gun- 
ter's  rule,  by  the  use  of  which  a  given  line  can 
be  divided  into  equal  parts,  third  and  fourth 
proportionals  found,  or  a  line  increased  in  any 
proportion  desired. 

LINE  OF  METAL.  That  line  drawn  from  the 
upper  point  in  the  base-ring  to  the  upper  point 


LINE-OFFICERS 


443 


LITHOFRACTEUE 


of  the  muzzle  which  lies  in  the  perpendicular 
plane  of  the  axis  of  the  bore. 

LINE  OF  METAL  ELEVATION.  The  eleva 
tion  of  a  gun  when  the  line  of  metal  is  hori 
zontal  ;  caused  by  the  dispart  of  the  gun. 

LINE  OF  NODES.  The  line  which  passes 
through  the  nodes  of  an  orbit. 

LINE  OF  SIGHT.  The  right  line  which  passes 
through  the  points  of  sight  of  a  fire-arm. 

LINE  OF  VESSELS.  Vessels  owned  by  the 
same  company  or  person,  and  plying  regularly 
between  certain  ports. 

LINER.  A  ship  of  the  line.  One  of  a  line  of 
vessels. 

LINING-CLOTHS.  Canvas  sewed  in  certain 
places  upon  the  after  side  of  a  sail  to  protect  it 
from  chafe. 

Line-officers.  The  combatants  as  distin 
guished  from  the  non-combatants.  See  STAFF- 
OFFICERS. 

Below  is  a  list  of  the  line-officers  of  the  navy, 
showing  the  corresponding  rank  of  officers  of  the 
army : 

Admiral  with  General. 

Vice-Admiral  with  Lieutenant-General. 

Rear-Admiral  with  Major-General. 

Commodore  with  Brigadier-General. 

Captain  with  Colonel. 

Commander  with  Lieutenant-Colonel. 

Lieutenant-Commander  with  Major. 

Lieutenant  with  Captain. 

Master  with  First  Lieutenant. 

Ensign  with  Second  Lieutenant. 

Midshipman. 

Cadet-Midshipman. 

Mate,  Boatswain,  and  Gunner,  not  in  the  line 
of  promotion.  For  the  duties  of  line-officers,  see 
under  proper  heads. 

See  COMMANDER-IN-CHIEF,  CHIEF-OF-STAFF, 
COMMANDING  OFFICER,  EXECUTIVE-OFFICER, 
NAVIGATOR,  WATCH-OFFICER,  OFFICER  OF  THE 
DECK. 

Ling.  A  marine  fish  (Lota  molva),  something 
like  the  cod,  but  more  slender,  and  having  only 
two  dorsal  fins.  It  is  largely  used  as  food  in 
Scotland  and  Ireland. 

Linget.     Small  bullets  or  slugs  cast  in  molds. 

Lingo.     A  slang  term  for  language. 

Link.  A  single  division  of  a  chain.  A  rod 
or  piece  to  transmit  power  from  one  part  of  a 
machine  to  another.  Also,  a  Scottish  term  for 
a  curve  of  a  river. 

LINK-MOTION.  A  system  of  mechanism  com 
posed  of  the  eccentric-rods,  link,  link-block, 
valve-stem,  etc.,  common  in  locomotives  and 
marine  engines,  for  reversing  and  stopping  the 
engine,  and  can  be  used  within  narrow  limits  as 
a  variable  cut-off. 

The  principal  kinds  are  the  "  Stephenson 
shifting  link-motion,"  the  "  Gooch  stationary 
link-motion,"  the  "Allan  link-motion,"  and  the 
"  Walschaert  link-motion." 

LINK-WORMING.  Formerly,  when  rope-cables 
were  in  use,  the  part  of  the  cable  near  the  anchor 
which  would  be  liable  to  injury  from  a  rocky 
bottom  was  protected  by  worming  them  with 
chains  ;  hence  called  link-worming. 

Linkister  (Eng.}.     An  interpreter. 

Linstock.  A  short  staff  for  holding  a  match- 
rope  by  which  guns  were  formerly  fired.  Its 
lower  end  was  shod  with  an  iron  point,  which 
could  be  stuck  into  the  deck  when  required. 


Lintre.     An  ancient  canoe. 

Lip.  An  obsolete  term  for  notch.  To  notch 
the  edge  of  a  sword.  Lips  of  a  scarf,  the  thin 
ends  of  the  timbers  which  are  scarfed. 

Lipper  (Eng.}.     See  LEAPER. 

Lira.     An  Italian  coin  of  the  value  of  $0.19. 

Lisbon,  the  capital  of  the  kingdom  of  Por 
tugal,  is  situated  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Tagus, 
near  its  mouth  in  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  in  lat. 
38°  42'  4"  N.,  Ion.  9°  8'  2"  W.  The  scientific 
institutions  comprise  the  Royal  Academy  of  Sci 
ences,  College  of  the  Nobles,  Royal  Marine  Acad 
emy,  School  of  Navigation  and  Ship-building, 
Royal  Academy  of  Artillery  and  Engineers, 
and  Royal  Military  College.  The  harbor  is  one 
of  the  finest  in  the  world;  and  the  quays,  which 
extend  between  2  and  3  miles  along  the  bank 
of  the  river,  are  elegant  and  commodious.  The 
commerce  is  extensive.  The  exports  consist  of 
wine,  oil,  fruit,  and  salt,  and  the  imports,  hemp, 
flax,  corn,  iron,  steel,  hardware,  etc.  Pop. 
254,000. 

Lisbonine.  The  denomination  of  the  moidore. 
A  Portuguese  coin  of  the  value  of  $0.00. 

L'Isle  Adam,  Philippe  de.  Forty-third  grand 
master  of  St.  John  of  Jerusalem,  was  born  at 
Beauvais,  1464;  died  at  Malta,  1534.  He  is  re 
nowned  as  the  commander  at  Rhodes  when  that 
city  was  besieged,  in  1522,  by  the  Sultan  Soly- 
man  the  Great,  with  200,000  Turks.  The  siege 
of  the  city  is  one  of  the  most  memorable  in  his 
tory.  It  reads  like  romance,  and  is  too  full  of 
incident  for  even  a  sketch  to  be  given  in  this  place. 

The  grand  master,  with  between  600  and  700 
knights,  and  about  5000  men-at-arms,  conducted 
the  defense  successfully  for  six  months,  the  most 
heroic  courage  and  devotion  being  shown  by  all, 
while  the  tremendous  fire  and  obstinate  perseve 
rance  of  the  Turks  in  their  desperate  assaults  was 
quite  as  remarkable. 

At  last,  after  most  terrific  slaughter  on  both 
sides,  and  the  death  of  most  of  the  knights  upon 
the  battlements,  an  honorable  capitulation  was 
obtained,  and  the  order  retired  from  Rhodes,  to 
wander  about  for  the  next  eight  years  without  a 
permanent  seat. 

In  1530  they  obtained  from  Charles  V.  the  ces 
sion  of  Malta  and  Gozo :  and  from  that  time 
the  chevaliers  of  the  order  took  the  name  of 
Knights  of  Malta.  They  had  not  long  taken 
possession  when  L'Isle  Adam  died,  his  death 
being  hastened,  it  is  said,  by  grief  at  the  dissen 
sions  which  arose  in  the  order. 

His  tomb,  in  the  crypt  of  St.  John,  is  one  of 
the  most  interesting  in  that  very  curious  church. 
— E.  Shippen. 

Lissom.     Nimble;  active. 

List.  Said  of  a  vessel  that  leans  to  one  side 
or  the  other ;  as,  "  The  ship  is  listed  to  star 
board,"  or,  "  She  has  2°  list  to  port." 

Lister  (Eng.}.     A  spear  for  taking  salmon. 

Listing.  A  narrow  strip  cut  from  the  edge  of 
a  plank. 

Lithofracteur.  An  explosive  mixture  manu 
factured  in  Cologne,  and  used  to  considerable 
extent  in  Europe  for  mining  purposes.  Its  com 
position  is  as  follows  : 

Nitro-glycerine,  52  per  cent. 
Kieselguhr,  30       " 

Coal,  12       » 

Soda  saltpetre,       4       « 
Sulphur,  2       " 


LITTER 


444 


LOB 


Litter.  A  temporary  bed  upon  which  a  wounded 
person  is  carried. 

Littoral  (Fr.  littoral,  sea-coast).  The  sea- 
coast.  The  space  between  high-  and  low- water 
marks.  Pertaining  to,  or  growing  on,  tb°  shore. 

LITTORALA.     A  coaster  of  ancient  times. 

Live.  To  withstand  a  tempest  without  foun 
dering  ;  as,  "  The  boat  cannot  live  in  such  a  sea." 

Lively.  Said  of  a  vessel  that  is  quick  in  her 
motions. 

Live-oak.  A  species  of  timber  used  in  ship 
building,  valued  for  its  density  and  durability. 

Liverpool,  in  Lancaster  County,  England,  on 
the  east  bank  of  the  Mersey  estuary,  4  miles  from 
the  Irish  Sea,  in  lat.  53°  24'  3"  N.,  Ion.  3°  4' 
17X/  W.,  is  one  of  the  largest  seaports  in  the 
world.  Along  the  shore  a  line  of  docks  and 
basins  extends  over  5  miles  in  length,  having  an 
aggregate  water  area  of  300  acres  and  a  quay 
space  of  20  miles,  reclaimed  from  the  river. 
Some  of  the  docks  are  connected  with  the  Leeds 
and  Liverpool  Canal,  and  most  of  the  others  have 
half-tide  locks  and  wet-basins.  The  London  and 
Northwestern,  Lancashire  and  Yorkshire,  Great 
Northern,  Manchester,  Sheffield  and  Lincoln 
shire  and  Midland  Railways  have  extensive  sta 
tions  close  to  the  docks,  and  the  Great  Western 
Railway  has  access  to  Birkenhead,  on  the  oppo 
site  side  of  the  river,  with  which  there  is  constant 
communication  by  steam-ferries.  The  town  has 
extensive  and  varied  manufactures,  and  ship 
building  is  carried  on  to  a  great  extent,  but  it 
owes  its  chief  importance  to  its  being  a  great  seat 
of  foreign  export  and  import  trade.  The  Mer 
sey,  at  high- water,  may  be  entered  by  the  largest 
ships.  Regular  lines  of  the  finest  steam-packets 
in  the  world  ply  between  Liverpool  and  Glasgow, 
Dublin,  Cork,  Bristol,  and  the  principal  ports 
of  France,  the  Mediterranean,  America,  India, 
Australia,  China,  and  Africa.  Pop.  520,000. 

Live-shell.     A  loaded  shell. 

Live-steam.  Steam  direct  from  the  boiler  at 
full  pressure;  in  contradistinction  to  dead-steam, 
exhaust-steam. 

Livid  Sky.  The  dark  leaden  color  of  the  clouds 
which  precede  a  storm. 

Livingston,  John  W.,  Rear-Admiral  U.S.N. 
Born  in  New  York.  Appointed  from  New  York, 
March  4,  1823.  Midshipman  in  sloop-of-war 
"Ontario"  and  frigate  "Delaware"  in  the  Med 
iterranean,  and  in  frigate  "Constitution,"  at 
close  of  "  piratical  war"  in  the  West  Indies. 

Commissioned  as  lieutenant,  June  21 , 1832,  and 
served  as  a  watch-officer  in  brig  "  Dolphin"  and 
sloop  "  Fairchild"  in  the  Pacific,  and  in  frigate 
"  Columbia'-'  on  a  voyage  around  the  world, 
visiting  Sumatra,  and  destroying  the  piratical 
establishments  on  that  island,  and  as  executive- 
officer  (a  portion  of  the  time  in  command)  in  the 
frigate  "Congress"  on  the  coast  of  California 
and  Mexico  during  the  entire  Mexican  war;  was 
present  at  the  capture  of  Guaymas  and  San  Bias, 
and  in  the  various  operations  in  California. 

Commissioned  as  commander,  May  24,  1855 ; 
commanding  sloop-of-war  "St.  Louis"  on  coast 
of  Africa,  1856-58 ;  commanding  steamer  "  Pen 
guin,"  Blockading  Squadron,  1801-64;  while  off 
Wilmington,  N.  C.,  chased  and  destroyed  a 
blockade-runner;  commanding  steamer  "  Bien- 
ville,"  Blockading  Squadron,  1861 ;  commanding 
frigate  "  Cumberland,"  James  River  Blockade, 
in  early  part  of  1862. 


Commissioned  as  commodore,  July  16,  1862. 
After  the  evacuation  of  Norfolk  by  the  rebels, 
Commodore  Livingston  was  ordered  there  in 
command  of  navy-yard,  with  directions  to  re 
store  the  dry-dock,  so  it  might  be  available  for 
the  repair  of  our  Southern  cruisers.  In  1864, 
he  was  detached  from  the  Norfolk  Yard,  and  in 
1865  ordered  to  the  command  of  the  Naval 
Station  at  Mound  City,  111.,  and  the  remaining 
vessels  of  the  Mississippi  Squadron.  In  1866  he 
was  detached  from  this  duty  and  ordered  to 
special  service. 

Commissioned  as  rear-admiral,  May  26,  1868. 
Retired  May  22,  1866. 

Lizard.  A  piece  of  rope  with  a  thimble 
spliced  into  one  or  both  ends,  used  in  different 
parts  of  a  vessel  as  a  leader  for  ropes.  The  bunt- 
line-lizard  hooks  to  the  topsail-tye  near  the  yard 
and  serves  as  a  leader  for  the  topsail  buntlines, 
which  are  rove  through  the  thimbles  at  the  ends. 
A  lizard  is  used  on  a  light  yard  for  stopping  the 
yard-rope  out  on  the  quarter  of  the  yard  previ 
ous  to  sending  it  down  from  aloft. 

Lloyd's  (Eng.}.  A  society  of  underwriters 
established  in  London  since  1601,  by  whom  the 
classes  and  rates  of  vessels  are  established  and 
registered,  and  the  principal  business  of  British 
marine  insurance  carried  on. 

LLOYD'S  AGENT  (Eng.}.  A  person  employed 
in  any  port  for  attending  to  the  interests  of  the 
board  of  underwriters  called  Lloyd's,  to  send  com 
mercial  information,  assist  vessels,  etc. 

LLOYD'S  LIST  (Eng.}.  A  journal  devoted  to 
commercial  interests,  published  daily. 

LLOYD'S  REGISTER  (Eng.}.  The  annual  pub 
lication  of  the  list  and  register  of  British  and 
foreign  shipping. 

LLOYD'S  SURVEYOR  (Eng.}.  One  who  surveys 
or  examines  the  condition  of  vessels  for  the  un 
derwriters. 

Loach.  A  small  fish  allied  to  the  minnow,  of 
the  genus  Cubitis  (C.  barbaiula},  inhabiting  small, 
clear  streams,  and  esteemed  dainty  food  (written 
also  loche}. 

Load.  To  insert  the  charge  and  projectile  in 
a  fire-arm.  To  take  cargo  on  board. 

LOADED  SHELL.  A  shell  filled  with  powder 
and  fused. 

LOADING,  DENSITY  OF.  The  proportion  be 
tween  the  cubical  contents  of  the  powder-cham 
ber  and  the  space  occupied  by  the  powder. 

LOADING-TRAY.  A  metallic  shelf  by  which  the 
shell  of  a  breech-loading  cannon  is  placed  in  the 
bore. 

LOAD  WATER-LINE.  The  line  of  immersion 
when  a  vessel  is  loaded. 

LOAD  WATER-SECTION.  The  horizontal  sec 
tion  of  a  vessel  at  the  load  water-line. 

Loadsman.     An  obsolete  term  for  a  pilot. 

Loadstar,  or  Lodestar.  The  pole-star.  Any 
guiding  star. 

Loadstone,  or  Lodestone.   A  natural  magnet. 

Loam.  A  mixture  of  sand  and  clay  used  in 
molding. 

Loath  to  Depart.  The  name  or  commence 
ment  of  a  popular  song  which  is  frequently  men 
tioned  in  the  annals  of  the  English  navy  during 
the  17th  century.  The  air  was  played  upon  the 
trumpets  at  the  departure  from  a  vessel  of  a  dis 
tinguished  visitor,  and  also  previous  to  sailing, 
as  a  signal  for  the  ship  to  be  cleared  of  visitors. 

Lob.     Stupid  ;  slow.     Hence,  looby  or  lubber 


LOBBY 


445 


LOG 


Lobby  (Eng.}.  The  name  sometimes  given  to 
the  passage-way  in  the  forward  part  of  the  cabin. 

Lob-cock.  A  contemptuous  term  for  a  slug 
gish,  lazy  person. 

Lobipedidse.  A  family  of  birds  of  the  order 
Grallse,  having  toes  separately  margined  with 
a  scalloped  membrane.  They  frequent  salt  as 
well  as  fresh  water,  and  are  sometimes  seen  far 
at  sea  on  patches  of  sea- weed. 

Loblolly.  A  former  name  for  gruel  or  por 
ridge. 

LOBLOLLY-BOY.  The  sick-bay  attendant.  Now 
called  bay-man  or  nurse. 

Lobscouse,  or  Lops-course.  A  stew  com 
posed  of  vegetables,  meat,  and  hard  bread. 

Lobster-boat.  A  boat  used  by  lobstermen, 
fitted  with  a  tank,  in  which  the  lobsters  are  kept 
alive. 

Lobster-toad.     A  kind  of  crab. 

Lob-tail.  The  sperm  whale  is  said  to  be  lob- 
tailing  when  it  beats  the  water  with  its  tail. 

Lob- worm,  or  Lug- worm.  The  Arenicola 
piscatorum.  It  is  highly  esteemed  for  bait  on 
the  coasts  of  Europe. 

Local  Attraction.  The  force  exerted  upon 
the  needle  of  the  compass  by  the  iron  in  the 
vicinity. 

Local  Deviation.  The  deviation  or  error  in  a 
ship's  compass  caused  by  the  iron  in  the  vessel's 
construction,  her  guns,  etc. 

Local  Time.     See  TrME. 

Loch.  A  Scotch  or  Irish  lake  or  arm  of  the 
sea. 

Lock.  That  part  of  a  small-arm  or  great  gun 
by  which  fire  is  communicated  to  the  charge. 
An  inclosure  in  a  canal  for  the  purpose  of  rais 
ing  or  lowering  vessels  from  one  level  to  another. 
To  entangle  the  lower  yards  of  a  short  ship  while 
tacking. 

LOCKAGE.  Charges  for  passing  a  vessel  through 
a  lock. 

LOCK-FAST.  An  attachment  to  the  lock  of  a 
breech-loading  fire-arm. 

LOCKING-IN.  The  position  of  the  clews  and 
bodies  of  the  alternate  hammocks  when  hanging 
on  the  hooks. 

LOCK-LUG.  The  mass  or  raised  portion  on  the 
surface  of  a  gun  to  which  the  lock  is  attached. 

LOCK-NUT.  A  supplementary  nut,  screwed 
down  on  a  primary  one  to  prevent  the  latter  from 
turning,  or  slacking  up. 

Lock,  STOCK,  AND  BARREL.  The  whole  of 
anything. 

LOCK-UP  SAFETY-VALVE.  A  safety-valve 
which,  with  its  weight,  is  so  inclosed  in  a  box  and 
locked  up  that  it  cannot  be  tampered  with.  A 
rod  extending  up  through  the  box  enables  the 
engineer  to  blow  oif,  and  it  can  be  inspected  at 
any  time  by  the  proper  person  having  the  key.  . 

Locker.  A  small  closet  where  articles  may 
be  locked  up,  or  a  compartment  in  a  vessel  used 
for  the  stowage  of  certain  articles ;  as,  &  shot-locker, 
where  solid  shot  are  kept;  the  ch  am- locker,  where 
the  chain-cables  are  stowed.  Davy  Jones's  locker 
is  the  bottom  of  the  sea. 

Locket.  The  metallic  case  at  the  end  of  a 
sword  scabbard. 

Loc-man,  or  Loco-man  (Eng.}.  A  former 
name  for  a  pilot. 

Locomotive-power,  or  Motive-power.  The 
power  by  which  a  change  of  place  is  produced, 
as  the  sails  acted  upon  by  the  wind,  or  steam. 


Lodemanship,  or  Lode-manege.  An  an 
cient  name  for  seamanship  and  pilotage.  Also 
written  lode-merege. 

Lode -ship  (Eng.}.  An  old  name  for  a  pilot- 
boat.  See  LODEMANSHIP. 

Lodesman.  The  Anglo-Saxon  name  for 
pilot. 

Lodestar.     See  LOADSTAR. 

Lodestone.     See  LOADSTONE. 

Lodging-knee.     See  KNEE. 

Lodia.     A  trading-boat  of  the  "White  Sea. 

Lofty  Ship.  An  expression  formerly  applied 
to  a  square-rigged  vessel. 

Log.  The  apparatus  used  for  obtaining  the 
approximate  rate  of  speed  of  a  vessel  through 
the  water.  It  is  first  mentioned  in  the  early 
part  of  the  16th  century  by  Pigaietta,  the  com 
panion  of  the  celebrated  navigator  Magalhaens, 
who  speaks  of  the  log  (la  catena  a  popa]  as  a 
well-known  means  of  measuring  the  course 
passed  over.  Purchas  makes  mention  of  it  in 
1607;  but  the  length  of  a  meridian  not  being 
then  determined,  its  divisions  were  necessarily 
inaccurate.  They  were  corrected  in  1635  by 
Norwood. 

The  apparatus  consists  of  the  log-chip,  log- 
line,  reel,  and  28  and  14  seconds  time-glasses. 

The  log-chip  is  a  flat  piece  of  thin  board  in 
the  form  of  a  quadrant  of  a  circle,  of  about  6 
inches  radius,  loaded  on  the  circular  edge  with 
lead,  sufficient  to  make  it  float  vertically.  At 
the  corners  small  holes  are  bored,  and  through 
the  two  near  the  extremities  of  the  loaded  arc 
are  run  the  ends  of  a  piece  of  small  line  about  4 
feet  long;  these  ends  have  a  knot  made  in  them 
so  as  to  prevent  their  being  drawn  through  when 
a  strain  is  brought  against  the  chip  by  the  water. 
To  the  middle  of  this  line  is  fastened  a  wooden 
plug,  called  a  toggle. 

The  log-line  is  a  small  stout  line,  about  150 
fathoms  long,  the,end  of  which  is  taken  through 
the  remaining  hole  in  the  chip  and  knotted;  at 
the  same  distance  along  the  line,  as  the  length 
of  small  cord  from  the  face  of  the  chip  to  the 
toggle,  is  fastened  a  piece  of  wood  with  a  hole 
or  socket  into  which  the  toggle  fits.  The  whole 
is  so  arranged  that  when  the  toggle  is  in  the 
socket  the  chip  will  hang  in  a  three-legged  span, 
and  its  surface  be  perpendicular  to  the  log-line 
when  straightened  out,  trailing  in  the  water 
astern  of  a  vessel.  The  toggle  fits  closely  enough 
into  the  socket  to  require  a'sharp,  quick  pull  on 
the  line  to  free  it,  when  the  chip  will  trail  point 
toward  the  ship,  and  can  be  easily  hauled  on 
board.  The  other  end  of  the  log-line  is  made 
fast  to  a  reel  about  2  feet  long,  which  should 
turn  with  as  little  friction  as  possible,  and  is  then 
wound  up  on  it.  The  log-line  is  divided  into 
distances,  called  knots,  and"  these  are  subdivided 
into  fifths,  so  that  each  subdivision  will  repre 
sent  two-tenths  of  a  knot.  These  divisions  are 
all  marked.  The  length  of  a  knot  is  made  the 
same  part  of  a  sea  mife  (6086.4  feet)  that  28  sec 
onds  is  of  an  hour,  which  gives  for  its  length 
47.4  feet. 

To  mark  the  log-line. — It  should  be  first  well 
soaked  in  water  and  stretched  lightly,  so  as  to 
take  the  kinks  out,  then  measure  off  about  20 
fathoms  from  the  chip,  and  place  a  piece  of  white 
rag  ;  this  part  is  called  the  stray-line,  and  should 
be  long  enough  to  let  the  chip  float  well  clear  of 
the  eddies,  etc.,  astern  of  the  vessel  before  the 


LOG 


446 


LOG 


marking  of  the  knots  commences  ;  measure  from 
the  white  rag  the  length  of  the  first  knot,  and 
mark  it  by  twisting  into  the  line  at  that  point  a 
small  piece  of  cord  with  one  knot  made  in  the 
end.  Measure  off  the  length  of  the  next  knot 
from  this  mark  and  mark  it,  with  a  piece  of  cord 
with  two  knots  in  the  end,  mark  the  next  with 
three  knots,  and  so  on  until  all  the  line  is  marked. 
Then  subdivide  each  knot  into  five  equal  parts, 
marking  them  with  small  pieces  of  fish-line,  with 
no  knots. 

It  is  well  on  board  ship  to  mark  off  on  the 
deck  the  proper  lengths  of  a  knot  and  the  sub 
divisions,  and  drive  in  copper  tacks  at  these 
places.  It  will  aid  in  marking  a  log-line,  and 
will  also  be  of  use  for  future  reference,  as  log- 
lines  should  be  often  examined  and  remarked. 
The  stretch  and  shrinkage  of  the  line  varies  very 
much  under  all  circumstances. 

The  28  and  14  seconds  time-glasses  consist 
each  of  two  glass  bulbs,  joined  by  a  small  neck, 
placed  in  a  metal  or  wooden  frame  for  protec 
tion.  One  of  the  bulbs  has  an  opening  in  the 
end  through  which  is  placed  a  quantity  of  clean, 
dry  sand,  the  opening  closed  and  covered,  so  as 
to  keep  out  moisture,  before  the  glasses  are  placed 
in  their  frames. 

The  quantity  of  sand  in  each  glass  should  be 
such  that  it  will  take  exactly  28  seconds  of  time 
in  one  and  14  seconds  in  the  other  to  run  through 
the  neck  into  the  lower  bulb  when  the  glass  is 
held  in  a  vertical  position.  These  time-glasses 
need  constant  attention,  and  care  should  be 
taken  to  keep  them  dry,  as  moisture  causes  the 
sand  to  run  more  slowly,  which  would  give  in 
correct  results.  They  may  be  tested  by  means 
of  a  chronometer  or  watch,  or  a  pendulum  beat 
ing  seconds,  and  be  corrected  if  they  are  in  error 
by  adding  or  taking  out  a  proper  quantity  of 
sand,  or  their  error  may  be  allowed  for  when 
known. 

Logging  the  ship,  or  heaving  the  log,  is  the  find 
ing  the  speed  of  the  vessel  by  means  of  the  ap 
paratus  just  described,  and  is  performed  thus: 
one  or  two  men  hold  the  reel,  on  the  lee-side  of 
a  sailing  vessel's  stern  or  in  a  convenient  place 
near  the  stern  of  a  steamer,  so  that  the  line  will 
have  a  clear  run,  another  the  time-glass,  and  the 
quartermaster,  or  a  junior  officer  of  the  watch, 
adjusts  the  chip  by  putting  the  toggle  into  its 
socket  on  the  log-line,  so  that  it  will  not  pull 
out  too  easily,  then  takes  the  chip  and  a  small 
coil  of  line  in  his  hand,  and  sees  all  clear.  When 
he  is  ready  he  calls  out  to  the  glass-holder, 
"  Clear  glass!'11  to  which  the  glass-holder,  when 
the  sand  is  all  in  one  bulb,  and  he  is  ready,  re 
plies,  "  All  clear!"  The  quartermaster  then 
calls  out,  "  Look  out!"  and  throws  the  chip  over 
the  lee-quarter,  so  that  it  will  float  out  clear,  and 
take  the  line  out  straight  in  the  wake  of  the  ves 
sel,  and  assists  the  line  off  the  reel  easily  by  small 
pulls,  so  as  to  overcome  friction ;  as  the  white 
rag  marking  the  stray-line  passes  the  taffrail  he 
cries  out,  "Turn!"  which  the  glass-holder  repeats, 
at  the  same  time  turning  the  glass  so  that  the 
bulb  with  the  sand  in  is  uppermost,  and  the  sand 
runs  into  the  lower  bulb,  watching  it  closely. 
The  instant  the  glass-holder  sees  the  sand  all 
out  of  the  upper  bulb  he  calls,  "  Out!"  when  the 
quartermaster  grasps  the  line,  checking  it,  and 
noting  the  last  mark  run  out,  or  on  the  line  at 
the  taffrail ;  if  there  is>  no  mark  at  the  taffrail  the 


nearest  is  noted,  and  the  speed  estimated  from  it. 
It  is  of  no  possible  use  though  to  try  to  estimate 
closer  than  one-tenth  of  a  knot.  A  sharp  pull 
on  the  log-line  will  easily  free  the  chip,  when 
the  line  is  hauled  on  board  and  reeled  up  for  the 
next  heave.  If,  in  the  above  case,  the  28-second 
time-glass  was  used  and,  upon  hauling  in  the 
line,  three  fish-line  marks  and  then  the  8-knot 
mark  came  in,  the  vessel's  speed  would  be  8|, 
or  8.6  knots.  If  using  the  14-second  time-glass, 
the  speed  shown  by  the  line  must  be  doubled 
to  get  the  actual  speed,  and  in  the  above  case 
would  be  17.2  knots.  On  board  ship  it  is  not 
customary  to  ask  "  How  fast  is  she  going?" 
but,  "  How  much  is  she  logging?"  The  answer 
in  this  case  would  be,  "She  is  logging  8.6, 
or  17.2  knots."  The  14-second  time-glass  is 
used  when  the  speed  of  the  vessel  is  above  (5 
knots,  for  the  reason  that  the  reel  cannot  be  well 
handled  with  above  about  10  knots  line  on  it ;  it 
would  be  too  heavy  and  bulky  and  take  too  long 
to  heave,  and  also  the  line  would  be  liable  to 
break  from  its  own  weight  in  the  water  if  more 
was  used.  It  is  customary,  on  board  men-of-war 
under  way,  to  heave  the  log  at  the  end  of  every 
hour  and  note  the  vessel's  speed,  so  as  to  calcu 
late  her  run  by  the  rules  of  navigation. 

This  method  of  determining  a  vessel's  speed  is 
at  best  but  an  approximation,  requiring  great 
care  and  skill  to  obtain  any  reliable  result.  A 
following  sea  will  send  the  chip  home  and  not 
give  enough  speed.  A  head  sea  will  give  too 
much.  One  person  will  give  out  the  line  to  the 
chip  too  fast,  another  will  not  give  it  enough. 
In  a  sailing-vessel  the  wind  may  be  squally,  or 
increasing  and  decreasing,  so  that  the  speed  will 
not  by  any  means  be  the  same  through  the  hour. 
In  such  cases  the  log  may  be  hove  more  fre- 
quentty,  and  an  average  taken  of  the  results  as 
vthe  speed  for  the  hour. 

A  number  of  apparatus  have  been  invented  of 
late  years  for  the  same  purpose,  called  patent 
logs,  and  taking  their  names  from  the  inventors, 
one  class  of  which  are  Massey's,  Trobridge's, 
Keynolds's,  "Walkes's,  etc.  All  of  these  are  so 
nearly  alike  in  principle  and  construction,  that 
a  description  in  general  will  suffice  for  all. 
They  consist  of  an  elongated  metal  box  con 
taining  a  system  of  cog-wheels  connected  with 
the  hands  of  three  dials  showing  on  the  outside. 
To  the  rear  of  the  box  is  attached  a  hollow  cylin 
der,  on  which  is  a  small  four-bladed  propeller, 
whose  spindle  or  shaft  passes  through  this  cylin 
der  and  connects  with  the  cog-wheel  work.  The 
pitch  of  this  propeller  is  known,  and  consequently 
the  number  of  revolutions  it  will  make  in  a 
mile,  and  the  cog-wheel  work  simply  registers 
these  revolutions  in  distances  passed  over  on 
the  dials,  one  of  which  has  the  circumference 
representing  1  mile  divided  into  tenths,  the 
next  the  circumference  representing  10  miles 
divided  into  tenths,  each  division  representing 
1  mile,  and  the  last  the  circumference  represent 
ing  300  miles  divided  into  thirtieths,  each  divis 
ion  representing  10  miles,  so  that  they  will  give 
readings  from  one-tenth  of  a  mile  up  to  300  miles. 

These  logs  are  towed  astern  of  the  vessel  at  the 
end  of  a  line  from  35  to  60  fathoms  long,  so  as  to 
keep  them  clear  of  eddies  and  not  allow  them  to 
be  pulled  out  of  the  water  by  the  vessel's  pitch 
ing  in  a  seaway,  and  have  a  swivel  in  the  for 
ward  end  to  fasten  the  line  to,  so  that  it  will  not 


LOG 


44? 


LOGARITHM 


twist  up.  From  their  shape  they  are  sometimes 
called  by  sailors  harpoon-logs. 

When  these  logs  are  used  the  hands  of  all  the 
dials  are  set  at  0,  the  log  then  made  fast  to  the  tow 
ing-line  and  thrown  overboard  astern,  and  it  is  evi 
dent  that  the  propeller  will  move  faster  or  slower, 
corresponding  to  the  speed  of  the  vessel.  This 
motion  is  communicated  to  the  cog-wheels,  and 
by  them  to  the  hands  of  the  dials,  by  which 
means  the  distance  run  through  the  water  in 
any  given  time  is  pointed  out  on  the  dials.  The 
log  is  hauled  in  and  the  reading  noted  whenever 
the  course  is  changed,  and  is  also  hauled  in,  read, 
and  reset  every  24  hours,  generally  at  noon,  to 
which  time  all  the  calculations  of  navigation  are 
reduced  on  board  vessels  of  the  navy. 

Under  three  knots  the  indications  of  these  logs 
are  not  very  accurate.  They  are  liable  to  be 
stopped  by  sea-weed  or  anything  floating  astern, 
must  be  hauled  in  when  the  vessel  stops  or  goes 
astern,  and  are  liable  to  foul  a  steamer's  propeller. 

When  the  vessel  is  going  slowly  in  shoal  water 
and  on  rocky  bottom  they  should  be  hauled  in, 
as  they  are  liable  to  catch  on  the  bottom  and  be 
torn  off.  Sharks  often  bite  them  off.  It  must 
be  recollected  also  that  they  do  not  give  the  dis 
tance  the  vessel  has  made  good  over  the  ground, 
unless  she  is  running  in  no  current.  If  she  runs 
against  the  current,  they  will  indicate  the  dis 
tance  the  vessel  has  made  over  the  ground  plus 
the  distance  the  current  makes  over  the  ground 
in  the  same  time,  and  in  case  of  cross  currents 
and  stern  currents,  their  indications  would  be  a 
resultant  of  the  speed  of  the  vessel  and  the  cur 
rent. 

Taff rail  patent  log. — In  this  log  the  principle 
is  precisely  the  same  as  in  the  preceding  ones, 
only  the  registering  cog-wheel  work,  with  its 
dials,  is  screwed  upon  a  convenient  place  on  the 
taffrail,  and  the  propeller  towed  overboard  from 
it  by  means  of  a  long  line,  through  which  it 
communicates  its  motion  to  the  register.  The 
only  way  in  which  it  is  superior  to  those  men 
tioned  before  is  in  its  convenience  to  be  read, 
doing  away  with  the  hauling  in  of  the  line  each 
time,  and  only  the  propeller  part  is  liable  to  be 
lost.  The  towing-line  is  liable  to  become  full  of 
kinks  from  the  twisting  motion.  The  register 
of  this  log  has  in  cases  been  connected  electric 
ally  to  a  self-registering  apparatus  in  the  cabin 
of  the  vessel,  so  that  the  distance  run  during  the 
voyage  could  at  any  time  be  read  off.  A  small 
bell  was  attached  to  the  register,  which  would 
ring  automatically  at  every  mile  passed.  This 
is  said  to  work  well,  but  its  expense  has  as  yet 
prevented  its  general  adoption. 

The  Clark- Russell,  or  spring-log,  consists  of  a 
spring  something  like  a  grocer's  spring-scale,  for 
weight,  screwed  upon  the  taffrail,  to  which  a 
line  and  chip  are  attached.  The  pressures  ex 
erted  upon  a  certain  surface  when  it  is  towed 
through  the  water  at  different  rates  of  speed 
are  determined  by  experiment,  and  these  differ 
ent  pressures  in  pounds  form  the  scale  to  which 
the  log  is  graduated.  The  chip  is  like  the  ordi 
nary  log-chip,  and  is  towed  from  a  line  attached 
to  a  hook  at  the  end  of  the  spring  by  a  loop,  and 
whenever  it  is  wished  to  ascertain  the  speed  of 
the  vessel  the  line  is  looped  to  the  hook  and  the 
chip  thrown  overboard ;  the  speed  is  then  read 
off  from  the  scale  of  the  spring.  The  chip  may 
be  kept  towing  all  the  time,  so  that  the  speed  of 


the  vessel  can  be  known  at  any  instant ;  but  this 
is  not  advisable,  as  it  would  in  a  short  time 
weaken  the  spring,  causing  it  to  give  incorrect 
results.  Also,  from  constant  use,  the  spring  of 
this  log  loses  its  elasticity,  yet  it  is  considered 
very  reliable.  It,  of  course,  does  not  give  the 
distance  run,  but  only  the  speed  at  the  time  it  is 
used. 

Current-log.—?- The  log  is  often  used  to  deter 
mine  the  direction  and  velocity  of  currents,  and  is 
then  called  a  current-log.  It  is  hove  from  a  boat 
or  ship  at  anchor,  in  the  same  manner  as  de 
scribed  for  heaving  it  to  determine  a  vessel's 
speed.  The  result  given  will  be  the  number  of 
knots  and  tenths  the  current  runs  per  hour,  and 
by  taking  the  bearing  of  the  chip  by  a  compass 
the  direction  of  the  current  is  ascertained.  In 
strong  currents  patent  logs  may  be  used. 

Ground-log. — When  surveying  in  shoal  water 
and  in  currents,  the  actual  run  of  the  vessel 
over  the  ground  is  often  wanted  ;  to  find  this 
the  log-line  is  made  fast  to  a  lead  or  small  grap 
nel,  which  will  hold  it  fast  to  the  ground,  and 
the  speed  is  measured  in  a  similar  way  to  that 
before  described,  with  the  aid  of  the  28-  or  14- 
second  time-glass. — J.  E.  Noel,  Lieutenant- Com 
mander  U.S.N. 

.  LOG  or  LOG-BOOK.  The  book  which  contains 
the  official  records  of  all  transactions  on  board  of 
a  vessel,  of  voyages  from  port  to  port,  and  of  me 
teorological  observations  made.  The  log-book  of 
a  ship  of  war  contains  in  its  columns  the  courses 
steered,  distance  sailed,  and  the  leeway  made  for 
each  hour  at  sea ;  the  direction  and  force  of  the 
wind,  state  of  weather,  height  of  barometer,  tem 
perature  of  air  and  surface  water,  and  a  descrip 
tion  of  the  clouds,  whether  in  port  or  at  sea,  are 
also  noted ;  the  position  of  the  ship  at  noon,  by 
observation  and  dead-reckoning,  the  distance  run 
and  course  made  good,  and  the  current  by  which 
the  ship  has  been  influenced  are  entered  in  their 
appropriate  places.  Under  the  head  of  "re 
marks"  are  entered  an  account  of  all  official 
transactions,  evolutions,  drills,  courts-martial, 
boards  of  inspection,  signals  with  other  vessels, 
punishments  and  offenses,  ratings  and  disratings, 
names  of  all  persons  discharged,  transferred,  or 
received  on  board,  accidents,  such  as  grounding 
or  collisions,  and  an  account  of  all  operations 
against  the  enemy,  with  the  injuries  sustained. 
All  information  of  value  to  navigators,  errors 
of  charts,  or  peculiar  appearances  of  the  water 
are  recorded.  The  log-book  is  signed  by  each 
watch-officer,  who  is  responsible  for  the  record 
kept  during  his  own  watch.  It  is  examined 
daily  by  the  navigator,  who  certifies  as  to  its 
correctness,  and  is  presented  by  him  each  day 
to  the  commanding  officer  for  his  approval.  A 
copy  of  the  log-book  is  sent  everj7  six  months  to 
the  Bureau  of  Navigation  at  Washington. 

LOGGED.     Recorded  in  the  log-book. 

LOG-GLASS.  A  time-glass  measuring  an  inter 
val  of  14  or  28  seconds, "used  in  connection  with 
the  log-line  in  ascertaining  the  speed  of  a  vessel. 
See  LOG. 

LOG-LINE.     See  LOG. 

LOG-SLATE.  A  double  slate,  tin  inner  sides  of 
which  are  marked  in  a  similar  manner  to  the  two 
pages  of  the  log-book,  upon  which  each  day's 
events  are  noted.  The  record  upon  the  log- 
slate  is  copied  daily  into  the  log-book. 

Logarithm.     The  exponent  of  the  power  to 


LOG-CANOE 


448 


LONGITUDE 


which  a  given  number,  called  a  base,  must  be 
raised  to  produce  a  certain  number.  The  loga 
rithm  of  N  is  the  value  of  #,  which  satisfies  the 
equation  of  «x  =  N,  where  a  is  the  base.  Since 
any  positive  number  except  unity  may  be  taken 
as  a  base,  there  may  be  an  infinite  number  of  sys 
tems  ;  but  there  are  only  two  in  use,  viz.,  the  Na- 
perian,  so  named  from  Napier,  a  Scottish  baron, 
who  invented  logarithms,  and  constructed  the 
system  in  which  the  base  is  2.71828,  and  the  com 
mon  system  constructed  by  Henry  Briggs,  the 
base  of  which  is  10.  Every  logarithm  consists  of 
an  integer,  or  of  an  integer  and  a  decimal  num 
ber,  the  former  being  called  the  characteristic 
and  the  latter  the  mantissa;  and  of  two  factors, 
one  depending  on  the  base,  and  constant,  and 
called  the  modulus,  and  the  other  upon  the  num 
ber,  changing  as  the  number  changes.  The  Na- 
perian  logarithms  are  sometimes  called  natural 
logarithms,  from  the  modulus  of  the  system  be 
ing  unity;  and  sometimes  hyperbolic  logarithms, 
from  their  relation  to  certain  areas  included  be 
tween  the  equilateral  hyberbola  and  its  assymp- 
totes. 

LOGARITHM,  LOGISTIC.  The  logarithm  of 
3600  (number  of  seconds  in  an  hour),  diminished 
by  the  logarithm  of  the  number  of  seconds  in 
any  period  less  than  an  hour,  is  called  the  logistic 
logarithm  for  that  period.  It  is  useful  for  inter 
polating  for  the  moon's  right  ascension  and  de 
clination. 

LOGARITHMIC  CURVE.  A  curve  in  which  the 
subtangent  is  the  same  at  every  point. 

LOGARITHMIC  SPIRAL.  A  curve  of  which  the 
tangent  always  makes  the  same  angle  with  the 
radius  rector. 

Log-canoe.     A  canoe  made  from  a  single  log. 

Loggerhead.  A  small  upright  piece  of  timber 
in  the  stern  of  a  whale-boat,  over  which  a  turn 
of  the  line  is  taken  when  it  is  running  out  too 
fast.  An  iron  instrument  used  for  heating  tar. 
A  species  of  turtle. 

Logwood.  The  heart-wood  of  the  Hcematoxy- 
lon  Campeachianum,  a  tree  found  in  the  tropical 
parts  of  the  American  continent.  It  is  used  as 
a  dye. 

Loich.  An  old  English  statute  term,  in  which 
were  included  the  cod-fish,  ling,  and  lobbe. 

Lomp.     A  kind  of  roundish  fish. 

Londage  (Eng.}.  An  obsolete  term  for  land 
ing  from  a  boat. 

London.  The  seat  of  government  of  the  Brit 
ish  empire  and  capital  of  England,  is  principally 
situated  on  the  north  bank  of  the  Thames,  in  lat. 
(St.  Paul's)  50°  30'  49"  N.,  Ion.  0°  5'  48"  W. 
The  area  of  the  city  is  nearly  118  square  miles ; 
population  3,900,000,  and  it  is  the  largest  and 
richest  city  in  the  world.  The  docks  of  London 
have  a  river  frontage  of  4  miles,  and  an  area  of 
566  acres.  The  two  West  India  Docks  cover  295 
acres,  one  East  India  Dock  32  acres,  South  Dock 
33,  and  St.  Katharine's  Docks  24  acres.  The 
Thames  is  tidal  up  to  "Woolwich  for  ships  of 
any  burden.  The  tide  ascends  about  15  miles 
above  London  Bridge.  The  port  extends  to 
Gravesend,  30  miles  down  the  river,  and  from 
Limehouse  to  London  Bridge  there  is  a  con 
tinuous  line  of  mercantile  shipping.  All  kinds 
of  manufactures  are  pursued  here,  the  principal 
being  those  of  silk,  beer,  spirits,  type-founding, 
chemicals,  engineering,  and  ship-building. 

Londonderry,  Ireland,  is  situated  on  the  Foyle, 


5  miles  above  Lough  Foyle.  The  manufactories 
are  mills  for  spinning  flax,  flour-mills,  roperies, 
foundries,  and  ship-building  yards.  The  prin 
cipal  exports  are  linen  and  linen  yarn,  eggs,  but 
ter,  wheat,  oats,  and  oatmeal,  amounting  annu 
ally  to  over  $5,000,000.  Regular  communication 
by  steamers  is  maintained  with  Liverpool,  Glas 
gow,  Greenock,  and  other  ports.  Ocean  steamers 
call  at  Moville,  on  Lough  Foyle,  18  miles  below 
the  town.  Pop.  26,000. 

London  Wagon  (Eng.}.  The  name  formerly 
given  to  the  vessel  by  which  impressed  men  were 
taken  from  London  to  the  receiving-ship  at  the 
Nore. 

Longa.     A  Roman  row-boat  of  large  capacity. 

Long  Ball.  An  old  term  for  an  engagement 
between  vessels  at  long  range. 

Long  Board.  A  long  distance  sailed  upon 
one  tack. 

Long-boat.  The  largest  boat  which  was  for 
merly  carried  by  merchant  vessels.  It  was  fur 
nished  with  masts,  sails,  and  oars,  and  was  prin 
cipally  used  in  transporting  stores,  etc.  In 
preparing  for  sea  it  was  hoisted  in  and  stowed 
on  deck.  It  corresponds  to  the  launch  of  a  ship 
of  war. 

Long  D-valve.  An  old  English  slide-valve, 
the  cross-section  of  which  resembled  the  letter  D, 
having  length  sufficient  to  operate  both  steam- 
ports. 

Longer  (Eng.}.  Each  row  of  casks  placed  in 
the  hold  athwartships. 

Long  Gasket.  A  sea-gasket  or  rope  used  at 
sea  for  securing  a  sail  to  its  yard. 

Longie  (Eng.}.  The  Uria  troile,  a  sea-bird 
found  on  the  northern  coasts  of  America  and 
Europe. 

Longitude.  The  longitude  of  any  point  on 
the  earth's  surface  may  be  defined  as  the  angle 
at  the  pole  contained  between  two  meridians, 
one  of  which  passes  through  the  place  in  ques 
tion,  and  the  other  through  some  conventional 
point  regarded  as  the  origin  from  which  the 
longitudes  are  reckoned.  From  the  first  or 
prime  meridian  longitudes  are  reckoned  east  and 
west  from  0°  to  180°  in  arc,  and  from  Oh  to  12h 
in  time. 

The  parallels  of  latitude  beine  marked  out  by 
the  paths  followed  by  the  stars  in  their  apparent 
daily  motion,  the  latitude  of  a  point  may  always 
be  determined  by  direct  observation  of  the  heav 
enly  bodies,  but  in  the  case  of  longitude  the  ele 
ment  of  time  as  measured  by  the  daily  revolu 
tion  of  the  eaMh  on  its  axis  comes  in,  and  the 
question  resolves  itself  into  the  comparison  of 
the  local  time  with  the  time  at  the  prime  me 
ridian. 

Before  the  invention  of  the  electric  telegraph 
the  transportation  of  chronometers  regulated  to 
the  time  of  the  prime  meridian,  and  the  motion 
of  the  moon,  afforded  the  principal  methods  of 
measuring  longitudes.  By  the  first  method  most 
of  the  prominent  points  on  the  earth's  surface 
have  had  their  longitudes  determined,  but  al 
though  great  accuracy  has  been  attained  in  the 
manufacture,  chronometers  are  still  subject  to 
irregularities  from  changes  of  temperature  and 
from  induced  magnetism  of  the  steel  parts, 
amounting  to  a  considerable  degree  of  error  in 
long  voyages. 

The  measurement  of  longitude  by  means  of 
the  moon's  motion,  although  theoretically  accu- 


LONGITUDE 


449 


LONG  TOGS 


rate,  is  not  so  in  practice  for  many  reasons, 
among  the  principal  of  which  is  that  the  moon's 
apparent  motion  among  the  stars  being  only 
about  one-thirtieth  as  rapid  as  that  of  the  earth 
on  its  axis,  any  error  of  observation  is  multiplied 
in  the  resulting  longitude  by  a  factor  nearly 
equal  to  thirty.  As  the  inaccuracy  of  chrono- 
metric  measurements  increases  with  the  distance 
between  the  points  whose  difference  of  longitude 
is  to  be  established,  geographers  have  urged  the 
exact  and  permanent  establishment  of  as  many 
secondary  meridians  as  practicable,  situated  at 
convenient  distances  around  the  earth,  from 
which  measurements  could  be  quickly  and  accu 
rately  made  to  subsidiary  points  by  chronometers. 
The  very  general  connection  of  all  important 
points  by  either  land  telegraph-lines  or  by  sub 
marine  telegraph-cables  at  the  present  day, 
affords  admirable  facilities  for  the  most  simple 
and  accurate  method  of  determining  longitudes, 
which  is,  in  short,  the  comparison  of  the  local 
times  of  two  places  by  means  of  electrical  signals. 

The  principle  of  this  method,  which  in  its 
present  perfected  state  is  due  to  American  as 
tronomers,  is  extremely  simple.  At  each  of  the 
two  places  whose  difference  of  time,  and  conse 
quently  of  longitude,  is  to  be  determined  a 
transit  instrument,  clock,  and  chronograph  is 
established, — the  chronograph  being  for^he  pur 
pose  of  marking  the  exact  time  of  any  occur 
rence,  such  as  the  passage  of  a  star  over  the  wires 
of  a  telescope  or  the  arrival  of  a  time-signal. 
All  preliminary  arrangements  being  made,  the 
error  of  each  clock  on  the  time  of  its  place  is 
determined  by  meridian  transits  of  stars,  and 
the  clocks  are  compared  the  same  evening  by 
signals  sent  each  way  over  the  wire  or  telegraph- 
cable,  thus,  by  comparison  of  the  local  times, 
determining  the  difference  of  longitude  between 
the  two  places.  The  time  occupied  by  a  signal  in 
traversing  the  wire  or  cable  is  quite  appreciable, 
but  is  eliminated  by  sending  an  equal  number 
of  signals  each  way.  The  U.  S.  Hydrographic 
Office  is  now  engaged  in  determining  in  this  way 
as  many  secondary  meridians  as  practicable  all 
over  the  world.  Although  most  maritime  na 
tions  refer  their  longitudes  to  the  meridian  of 
Greenwich,  tne  French  still  use  that  of  Paris, 
which  is  2°  20'  14.5"  east  of  Greenwich,  and 
the  Spaniards  that  of  Cadiz,  which  is  6°  12'  20" 
west  of  Greenwich.  Although  on  some  maps 
American  geographers  still  show  the  meridian 
of  Washington,  it  is  practically  used  only  as  a 
secondary  meridian,  the  Naval  Observatory  be 
ing  77°  3'  5.8"  west  of  Greenwich,  and  all  the 
longitudes  of  the  United  States  being  measured 
from  it,  or  from  the  observatory  at  Cambridge, 
Mass.,  in  longitude  71°  7'  42.7".— F.  M.  Green, 
Lieutenant- Commander  U.S.N. 

LONGITUDE  BY  ACCOUNT.  The  longitude  de 
duced  from  the  course  and  distance  made  from 
the  last  position  determined  by  observation. 

LONGITUDE  BY  CHRONOMETER.  The  longi 
tude  deduced  by  applying  the  hour-angle  of  a 
heavenly  body,  corrected  for  equation  of  time 
(or  the  mean  time  at  the  place  of  observation)  to 
the  mean  time  at  a  first  meridian,  which  is  shown 
by  the  chronometer.  See  LONGITUDE. 

LONGITUDE  BY  A  LUNAR  OBSERVATION.     A 

method  of  obtaining  the  longitude  of  a  place  at 

sea  by  measuring  the  angular  distance  of  the 

moon  from  the  sun,  a  planet,  or  fixed  star.    This 

29 


method  has  gradually  fallen  into  disuse  since  the 
great  improvements  that  have  been  made  in, 
chronometers,  as  the  liability  to  error  is  greater 
in  a  lunar  observation  than  in  other  methods. 

LONGITUDE  IN  ARC,  and  LONGITUDE  IN  TIME. 
The  earth  rotates  uniformly  on  her  axis  once  in 
24  hours,  and  thus  every  spot  on  her  surface  de 
scribes  a  complete  circle,  or  360°,  in  that  space 
of  time.  Hence  the  longitude  of  any  place  is 
proportional  to  the  time  the  earth  takes  to  re 
volve  through  the  angle  between  the  first  me 
ridian  and  the  meridian  of  the  place,  and  thus 
the  longitude  of  a  place  may  be  expressed  either 
in  arc  or  in  time.  In  reckoning  by  arc  each  de 
gree  is  divided  into  60  minutes,  and  each  minute 
into  60  seconds.  In  reckoning  by  time,  each 
hour  is  also  divided  into  60  minutes,  and  each 
minute  into  60  seconds.  But  a  distinct  notation 
for  each  of  these  has  been  adopted,  degrees,  min 
utes,  and  seconds  being  represented  by  °  /  ",  and 
hours,  minutes,  and  seconds  byhms;  and  care 
should  be  observed  not  to  use  the  same  marks  for 
both,  great  confusion  arising  from  so  doing. 
Longitude  in  arc  and  longitude  in  time  are  easily 
convertible,  for  since  360°  is  equivalent  to  24h, 
15°  is  equivalent  to  lh,  1°  to  4ra,  and  1'  to  4s. 

LONGITUDE  (CELESTIAL),  CIRCLES  OF.  Great 
circles  of  the  celestial  sphere  passing  through  the 
poles  of  the  ecliptic,  and  so  called"  because  they 
severally  mark  out  all  points  which  have  the 
same  longitude. 

LONGITUDE  (TERRESTRIAL),  CIRCLES  OF. 
Great  circles  of  the  terrestrial  sphere  passing 
through  the  poles  of  the  equator,  and  so  called 
because  they  severally  mark  out  all  places  which 
have  the  same  longitude.  They  are  also  and 
generally  called  meridians,  because  for  every 
place  on  the  same  circle  it  is  noon  simultaneously. 

LONGITUDE  OF  A  HEAVENLY  BODY.  The  arc 
of  the  ecliptic  intercepted  between  the  first  point 
of  Aries  and  the  secondary  circle  to  the  ecliptic, 
which  passes  through  the  place  of  the  body.  Or, 
which  is  the  same  thing,  the  angle  at  the  pole  of 
the  ecliptic  between  the  circle  of  longitude  pass 
ing  through  the  first  point  of  Aries  and  that 
passing  the  place  of  the  body.  Longitude  is 
reckoned  from  the  first  point  of  Aries  eastwardly 
from  0  to  360°. 

LONGITUDE,  HELIOCENTRIC  AND  GEOCENTRIC. 
See  LATITUDE. 

Long-jawed.  Said  of  a  rope  that  has  been 
used  and  strained  until  its  lay  has  been  length 
ened. 

Long-legged.  Applied  to  a  vessel  of  compara 
tively  great  length.  Also  to  a  vessel  of  great 
draft  of  water. 

Long  Oyster  (Eng.}.     The  cray-fish. 

Long-service.  Formerly  said  of  a  cable,  served 
to  protect  it  from  chafe. 

'Longshore-man.  A  dock-laborer  or  steve 
dore's  man.  Sometimes  used  by  sailors  as  a  term 
of  contempt. 

Long-shot.  A  shot  at  long  range.  The  term 
is  also  used  to  express  the  error  of  another's  state 
ment. 

Long  Stroke.  An  order  to  a  boat's  crew  to 
row  with  a  greater  length  of  stroke,  and  more 
outlay  of  strength. 

Long-tackle.  The  name  sometimes  given  to 
a  top-burton,  or  the  tackle  by  which  a  topsail 
is  hoisted  to  the  yard  previous  to  bending. 

Long  Togs.     Clothes  worn  by  civilians. 


LONG  TOM 


450 


LOWKY 


Long  Tom.  A  gun  formerly  used  as  a  bow- 
chaser,  which  was  of  great  length  and  range  com 
pared  with  the  guns  then  in  general  use. 

Long  Voyage.  One  during  which  the  ocean 
is  crossed,  as  distinguished  from  a  coasting  voy 
age.  Also  called  a  deep-water  voyage. 

Long-winded  Whistler.  A  long-range  gun 
used  as  a  chaser. 

Loof,  or  Luff  of  the  Bow.  That  part  of  the 
bow  of  a  vessel  where  the  planks  begin  to  curve 
towards  the  stem. 

Look-out.  To  watch.  A  person  stationed  to 
watch  for  land  or  vessels.  A  look-out  is  always 
stationed  aloft,  usually  on  the  fore-topsail  yard, 
from  sunrise  to  sunset,  and  others,  also,  if  the 
vessel  is  in  the  vicinity  of  dangers  where  extreme 
vigilance  is  required.  From  sunset  to  sunrise 
the  look-out  men  are  stationed,  one  on  each  bow 
and  one  at  each  gangway,  and  both  by  day  and 
by  night  a  man  is  stationed  over  the  life-buoy  at 
the  stern. 

Look  Out  for  Squalls.  Precautionary  advice 
not  confined  to  the  weather. 

Look  Up.  A  vessel  looks  up  towards  her 
course  as  the  changing  of  the  wind  allows  her  to 
sail  nearer  to  that  direction. 

Loom.  To  appear  enlarged,  as  a  vessel  or 
land  seen  indistinctly  through  fog.  That  part 
of  an  oar  which,  in  rowing,  is  inside  of  the  row 
locks.  A  loom-gale  is  a  moderate  gale.  The 
loom  of  the  land  is  the  darker  appearance  above 
the  horizon  (sometimes  seen  and  often  imagined), 
which  indicates  the  proximity  of  land  before  it 
can  be  seen. 

Loon.  The  bird  Colymbus  glacialis,  or  the 
"  Great  Northern  Diver." 

Loop.  The  bight  of  a  small  rope.  The  nar 
row  part  on  the  under  side  of  a  howitzer  by 
which  it  is  secured  to  its  carriage.  A  loop-bolt 
is  the  bolt  which  passes  through  the  loop  of  the 
howitzer  and  the  lugs  on  the  carriage  to  secure 
the  piece  in  position.  The  trail-wheel  loop  is  the 
aperture  in  the  trail  of  a  field-carriage  into  which 
the  wheel  enters,  and  the  loop-pin  holds  the 
wheel  in  place. 

Loose.     To  unfurl  a  sail ;  to  let  go  a  rope. 

LOOSER.  A  man  whose  duty  it  is  to  loose  a 
sail. 

LOOSE  FOR  SEA.     To  get  under  way. 

Loose  Fall.  A  whaleman's  expression  for 
the  loss  of  a  good  opportunity  to  strike  a  whale. 

Loose  Ice.     Broken  ice. 

Loot.     To  plunder,  and  the  proceeds  thereof. 

Loovared  Batten.  One  of  the  sloping  pieces 
of  which  blinds  or  open  partitions  are  formed, 
by  which  air  is  admitted  and  rain  excluded. 

Lop-sided.  Having  one  side  larger  than 
another.  See  LAP-SIDED. 

Lorcha.  A  Chinese  coasting-vessel,  the  hull 
being  similar  to  vessels  of  European  construc 
tion,  while  the  rig  is  Chinese. 

Lord  Warden  of  the  Cinque  Ports  (Eng.}. 
The  officer  by  whom  the  five  ports  of  Hastings, 
Romney,  Hythe,  Dover,  and  Sandwick,  and  the 
additional  ports  of  Winchelsea  and  Rye,  are 
governed. 

Lorient.  A  fortified  seaport  at  the  mouth  of 
the  Scorf,  in  the  Bay  of  Biscay,  department  of 
Morbihan,  France.  The  harbor  is  capacious, 
safe,  and  commodious,  and  lined  by  handsome 
quays.  At  some  distance  below  the  harbor  its 
entrance  is  commanded  by  a  fort  on  the  Isle  St. 


Michael,  mounting  500  guns.  The  dock-yard 
and  arsenal  are  among  the  most  complete  in 
France.  The  principal  building  is  the  Prefect 
ure  Maritime,  situated  at  the  entrance  of  the 
dock-yard.  The  city  has  also  forges,  foundries, 
and  manufactures  of  steam-engines.  Pop.  31,500- 

Lorn  (Scotch).     The  crested  cormorant. 

Lorrell  (Eng.}.  A  old  term  for  a  slow,  lazy 
fellow. 

Lose  Ground.     To  fall  to  leeward. 

Lose  the  Number  of  One's  Mess.  A  com 
mon  expression  for  dying. 

Lose  Way.  To  stop ;  said  of  a  vessel  when 
she  loses  her  headway  through  the  water. 

Loss.  A  term  in  insurance  denoting  the  dam 
age  to  the  insured  subject  by  the  perils  insured 
against,  in  accordance  with  the  terms  of  the 
contract.  No  loss  can  be  within  the  meaning 
of  the  contract  or  policy  except  it  be  the  direct 
result  of  one  of  the  perils  mentioned. 

Lost.     Said  of  a  sunken  or  wrecked  vessel. 

Lost  Day.  The  day  that  is  lost  in  crossing  the 
180th  degree  of  longitude  from  east  to  west.  See 
DAY,  CIRCUMNAVIGATOR'S. 

Lost-motion.  The  motion  due  to -loose  Jour 
nals  and  bad-fitting  gear. 

Lost  or  not  Lost  (Eng.}.  A  legal  clause  in 
serted  in  marine  insurance  policies" 

Lot.     A  contraction  of  "allotment." 

Lotman.     An  old  name  for  a  pirate. 

Lound  (Eng.}.      Formerly  signifying  calm. 

'Low  and  Aloft.  An  expression  used  when 
all  sail  is  set. 

Lowe  (Scotch}.  A  flame.  The  name  applied 
to  the  torch  used  by  fishermen  at  night. 

Lower.  A  term  characteristic  of  the  principal 
division  of  a  mast  and  the  yard,  rigging,  etc., 
belonging  to  it.  To  ease  away  a  tackle  or  any 
rope  to  which  a  weight  is  attached.  To  become 
cloudy. 

LOWER-DECKER.  One  of  the  guns  on  a  lower 
deck  of  a  frigate  or  ship  of  the  line. 

LOWER  HANDSOMELY.    To  lower  away  slowly. 

LOWER-HOLD.  The  space  under  the  lower 
deck  in  a  merchant  vessel  having  two  decks. 

LOWER-HOLD  BEAM.  A  beam  of  the  lower 
deck. 

LOWER-HOPE  (Eng.}.  One  of  the  reaches  in 
the  river  Thames. 

LOWER  LIFT.  A  lift  belonging  to  the  fore, 
main,  or  cross-jack  yard. 

LOWER-MAST.     See  MAST. 

LOWER  TRANSIT.  The  passage  of  a  heavenly 
body  across  that  part  of  a  meridian  which  is  be 
low  the  horizon,  or  180°  from  the  upper  transit. 

Low  Latitude.     A  latitude  near  the  equator. 

Low-pressure  Engine.  The  terms  low  and 
high  pressure  were  formerly  synonymous  with 
condensing  and  non-condensing,  but  at  present  a 
low-pressure  engine  is  usually  considered  to  be 
one  the  working  pressure  of  which  does  not  ex 
ceed  45  or  50  pounds  per  square  inch. 

Low  Sail.     A  course  or  close-reefed  topsail. 

Low-water.     Low-tide. 

Low-water  Alarm.  A  device  arranged  to  blow 
a  whistle  when  the  water  in  a  steam-boiler  falls 
below  a  certain  level. 

Low-water  Indicator.  An  attachment  on  a 
steam-boiler  to  indicate  the  water-level-within.- 

Lowry,  Reigart  B.,  Commodore  U.S.N. 
Born  in  South  America,  July  14,  1826.  Ap 
pointed  from  Pennsylvania,  January  21,  1840  ; 


LOXODROMIC 


451 


LUNAR 


attached  to  sloop  "  Boston,"  East  India  Squad 
ron,  1840-43  ;  steamer  "  Princeton,"  special  ser 
vice,  1844-45  ;  Naval  School,  1846. 

Promoted  to  passed  midshipman,  July  11, 
1846 ;  Home  Squadron  during  Mexican  war ; 
present  at  Tampico,  Tuspan,  Vera  Cruz,  Ta 
basco,  Seven  Palms,  and  Alvarado ;  wounded 
slightly  at  Tuspan ;  razee  "  Independence," 
Mediterranean  Squadron,  1850-52;  sloop  "Plym 
outh,"  East  India  Squadron,  1852-54. 

Promoted  to  master,  1855. 

Commissioned  as  lieutenant,  September  14, 
1855;  steam-frigate  "Powhatan,"  East  India 
Squadron,  1855-56 ;  receiving-ship,  New  York, 
1857-58;  sloop  "  Preble,"  Brazil  Squadron, 
1858-59 ;  special  duty,  1860-61  ;  steam-sloop 
"  Pawnee,"  Atlantic  coast,  1861  ;  was  present  in 
"Pawnee"  in  first  firing  on  Fort  Sumter;  en- 

fagement  at  Acquia  Creek,  Potomac  River, 
861;  commanded  steamer  "  Freeborn"  in  en 
gagement  at  Matthias  Point  and  other  affairs  on 
Potomac  River;  commanded  steamer  "Under 
writer,"  in  Albemarle  Sound,  1861 ;  was  execu 
tive-officer  of  steam-sloop  "  Brooklyn"  in  the 
battles  with  the  forts  below  New  Orleans,  and  at 
the  capture  of  the  city  ;  first  attack  on  Vicksburg, 
June  80,  1862;  commanded  steamer  "Scioto," 
Western  Gulf  Blockading  Squadron,  1862-63; 
engagement  at  Donaldsonville,  La.,  between 
"  Scioto"  and  rebel  force  of  900  men  and  7  pieces 
of  artillery,  October  5,  1862;  engagement  with 
batteries  at  Galveston,  January,  1863. 

Commissioned  as  lieutenant-commander,  July 
16,  1862;  special  duty,  Washington,  1863-64; 
commanding  apprentice-ship  "  Sabine,"  1864-68. 

Commissioned  as  commander,  July  25,  1866; 
commanding  flag-ship  North  Atlantic  Fleet, 
1869-70. 

Commissioned  as  captain,  November  2,  1871 ; 
commanding  steam-sloop  "Canandaigua,"  North 
Atlantic  Station,  1872-74;  Naval  Station,  New 
London,  Conn.,  1875-77;  waiting  orders,  1878- 
80.  Commissioned  as  commodore,  April  1,  1880. 

Loxodromic.  Pertaining  to  a  vessel's  course 
when  it  makes  an  oblique  angle  with  the  me 
ridian.  A  loxodromic  curve  is  a  line  drawn  on 
the  surface  of  the  sphere  which  cuts  all  of  the 
meridians  at  the  same  angle  ;  a  rhumb-line. 

Lozenge.  An  equilateral  figure  having  two 
acute  and  two  obtuse  angles. 

Lubber.  A  clumsy,  awkward  person,  lacking 
seamanlike  qualities. 

LUBBERTLAND.  An  imaginary  condition  or 
place  referred  to  by  seamen  as  the  state  of  future 
existence  of  lubbers. 

LUBBER'S  HOLE.  The  space  between  a  top  and 
the  mast-head  which  affords  a  passage  into  the 
top  for  greenhorns,  or  persons  who  are  unable 
to  climb  outside  of  the  top-rim. 

LUBBER'S  POINT.  The  black  vertical  line  on 
the  inside  of  the  compass-bowl  which  represents 
the  vessel's  head  in  steering. 

Lubricant.  The  oil  or  other  substance  ap 
plied  to  the  bearings  of  a  machine  to  diminish 
friction. 

Lubricator.  An  oil-cup  or  other  contrivance 
for  supplying  lubricants  to  the  working  parts  of 
machinery. 

Lucida.  The  brightest  star  of  a  constella 
tion. 

Lucifer.  Son  of  Jupiter  and  Aurora,  made 
the  morning  star.  See  VENUS. 


Lucky  Minie's  Line  (Eng.}.  The  name  given 
to  the  stem  of  the  sea-plant  Churda  filum. 

Luff.  To  bring  a  vessel's  head  nearer  the 
wind.  A  name  given  to  the  forward  leech  of  a 
fore-and-aft  sail.  That  part  of  a  vessel's  bow 
where  the  planks  begin  to  bend  towards  the 
stem.  Also  a  familiar  term  for  lieutenant.  To 
keep  the  luff  is  to  steer  a  vessel  close  to  the  wind. 
Luff  and  lie  is  an  old  expression,  meaning  to 
luff  and  remain  close  to  the  wind.  Luff  and  touch 
her  is  to  luff  until  the  sails  shake  or  touch 
slightly.  Luff  into  a  berth  is  to  luff  into  a  posi 
tion  for  anchoring,  bringing  the  wind  ahead.  To 
luff  round  is  to  luff  into  the  wind  as  in  tacking, 
or  for  the  purpose  of  deadening  the  vessel's 
headway.  To  luff  hard  is  to  luff  so  as  to  shake 
the  sails.  A  luff  tackle  is  any  tackle  with  a 
double  and  single  block,  which  may  be  used  as 
required.  Rigging  luffs,  however,  which  are 
used  for  setting  up  lower  rigging  and  stays,  may 
consist  of  two  double  blocks  or  two  single 
blocks.  A  luff  upon  luff  is  the  purchase  con 
sisting  of  one  luff-tackle  applied  to  the  fall  of 
another. 

Luff  of  the  Bow.  The  roundest  part  of  the 
bow. 

Lug.  A  short  flange  or  projection  used  to 
fasten  one  object  to  another.  See  LOCK-LUG. 

Lug-boat.     A  boat  carrying  lug-sails. 

Lugger.  The  name  applied  to  vessels  with 
two  or  three  masts  upon  which  lug-sails  are  car 
ried.  They  are  peculiar  to  the  French  and  Eng 
lish  coasts.  During  the  early  part  of  the  present 
century  they  were  frequently  used  as  privateers 
and  smugglers,  and  some  vessels  of  this  class 
were  as  large  as  300  tons. 

Lug-sail.  A  quadrilateral  sail  used  in  lug 
gers,  and  frequently  in  sail-boats.  It  is  bent  to 
a  yard,  which  is  hoisted  upon  the  mast  by  the 
j  halliards,  which  are  attached  to  it  at  a  quarter 
of  the  distance  from  the  forward  end.  The  tack 
of  the  sail  is  secured  near  the  heel  of  the  mast, 
and  in  hoisting  the  yard  a  strain  is  brought  upon 
the  luff  of  the  sail,  by  which  the  yard  is  kept  in 
an  oblique  position.  It  is  inconvenient  in  use 
on  account  of  the  necessity  of  shifting  the  yard 
to  leeward  of  the  mast  in  tacking. 

Lull.  An  interval  of  less  force  of  wind  during 
a  gale. 

Lull-bag.  A  wide  hose  made  of  canvas 
which  is  used  on  whale-ships  for  leading  the 
blubber  into  casks. 

Lumber.  Timber  sawed  and  split,  ready  for 
use.  Articles  heaped  together  in  disorder. 

Lump.  The  name  of  a  heavy  lighter  used  in 
English  dock-yards  for  transporting  anchors, 
cables,  etc.  In  the  lum.p  is  the  whole  together. 
Lump  sum,,  a  full  payment  in  cash. 

Lump-fish.  A  sea-fish  of  the  genus  Cyclop- 
terus  (C.  lumpus}.  Its  head  and  body  are  deep, 
thick,  arid  short ;  the  pectoral  fins  unite  under 
the  throat,  and  with  the  ventral  fins  form  a 
single  disk.  It  is  soft,  without  scales,  but  cov 
ered  with  firm,  horny  spines.  Called  also  lump- 
sucker. 

Lumper.  A  dock-laborer.  A  person  em 
ployed  in  loading  or  unloading  vessels. 

Lunar  (Lat.  luna,  the  moon).  Pertaining  to 
the  moon.  A  short  term  for  lunar  observation. 

LUNAR  DAY.  The  interval  between  two 
transits  of  the  moon  over  a  meridian. 

LUNAR  DISTANCE.     The  moon  having  a  verj- 


LUNAR 


452 


MACHINE-GUNS 


rapid  proper  motion,  her  distance  from  other 
bodies  which  lie  in  her  path  varies  very  percep 
tibly  in  short  intervals.  Hence  these  distances 
have  been  made  the  foundation  of  one  of  the 
most  important  methods  of  determining  the  lon 
gitude  at  sea.  In  the  Nautical  Almanac  are 
registered  for  certain  dates  the  angular  distance 
of" the  moon's  centre  from  certain  bodies  as  they 
would  appear  to  an  observer  at  the  centre  of  the 
earth.  When  a  lunar  distance  has  been  observed 
at  any  station  on  the  surface  of  the  earth,  and 
reduced  to  the  centre  by  clearing  it  of  the  effects 
of  parallax  and  refraction,  the  Greenwich  mean 
time  corresponding  to  this  true  distance  can  be 
found  from  the  tables  by  the  method  of  interpo 
lation. 

LUNAR  INEQUALITY.  A  variation  in  the 
moon's  motion  depending  upon  its  distance  from 
the  sun. 

LUNAR  OBSERVATION.  A  measurement  of 
the  angular  distance  of  the  moon  from  another 
heavenly  body,  with  the  altitudes  of  each,  and 
the  chronometer  time  of  observation  for  compu 
ting  the  longitude. 

LUNATION.  The  lunar  month,  or,  as  astrono 
mers  call  it,  the  moon's  synodical  period.  It  is 
determined  by  the  recurrence  of  the  moon's 
phases,  and  is  reckoned  from  new  moon  to  new 
moon, — i.e.,  from  leaving  her  conjunction  with 
the  sun  to  her  return  to  conjunction.  In  conse 
quence  of  the  sun's  proper  motion  in  the  heavens 


in  the  same  direction  with  that  of  the  moon,  the 
latter  body,  after  leaving  the  sun,  will  have  more 
than  a  complete  circle  to  perform  in  order  to 
come  up  to  the  sun  again.  Hence  a  lunation 
exceeds  the  moon's  sidereal  period;  its  mean 
length  is  calculated  to  be  29d  12h  44m  2.87s. 

LUNISOLAR  PRECESSION.  That  part  of  the 
precessions  of  the  equinoxes  which  is  caused  by 
the  combined  action  of  the  sun  and  moon. 

LUNISOLAR  YEAR.  The  space  of  time  at  the 
end  of  which  the  eclipses  occur  in  the  same  order. 
It  is  found  by  multiplying  the  cycle  of  the  sun 
by  that  of  the  moon. 

LUNITIDAL  INTERVAL.  The  interval  be 
tween  the  moon's  transit  and  the  high-water 
next  following.  It  varies  from  day  to  day 
during  the  fortnight  between  new  and  full  and 
full  and  new  moon.  The  lunitidal  interval  must 
not  be  confused  with  the  retard  or  age  of  the 
tide. 

Lunge.  A  thrust  with  a  sword  or  boarding- 
pike. 

Lupus.    See  CONSTELLATION. 

Lynx.     See  CONSTELLATION. 

Lyra  (Lat.  "  The  Lyre").  A  constellation  to 
the  south  of  Draco  and  Cygnus.  It  contains  one 
bright  star  a  Lyroe,  also  called  Vega,  which  may 
be  known  by  its  being  situated  at  about  the  same 
distance  from  the  pole-star  on  one  side  as  Capella 
is  on  the  other,  and  by  its  propinquity  to  the  con 
spicuous  pair  of  the  Dragon. 


M. 


M.  Of  the  letters  used  in  the  log-book  to  in 
dicate  the  state  of  the  weather,  m  denotes  mist. 

Maash.     A  large  trading-vessel  of  the  Nile. 

Macao.  A  seaport  town  in  China  belonging 
to  the  Portuguese,  on  the  island  of  Macao,  at  the 
southwest  entrance  of  the  Canton  River,  in  lat. 
22°  IV  N.,  Ion.  118°  32'  E.  The  town  is  situ 
ated  on  a  semicircular  harbor,  which  is  defended 
by  forts  north  and  west  of  the  town.  Large  ships 
anchor  in  the  roadstead  east  of  the  island,  as  the 
harbor  will  only  admit  vessels  of  light  draft. 
The  Portuguese  obtained  their  footing  in  1560, 
under  pretext  of  erecting  sheds  for  drying  goods 
alleged  to  have  been  damaged  in  a  storm.  These 
sheds  gradually  gave  way  to  substantial  edifices, 
and  finally  to  forts.  The  Chinese,  however,  held, 
until  1863,  a  lien  upon  the  place,  requiring  of 
the  Portuguese  a  rental  of  500  taels,  and  retain 
ing  jurisdiction  over  their  own  people.  After 
the  rise  of  Hong  Kong  the  commerce  of  Macao 
almost  entirely^disappeared ;  but  its  trade  has 
been  somewhat  revived  by  making  it  a  free  port. 
Pop.  72,000. 

Machias,  Washington  County,  Me.,  is  on 
the  Machias  River,  about  10  miles  from  the  At 
lantic  Ocean,  and  70  miles  E.  by  S.  of  Bangor. 
It  is  mainly  supported  by  the  coast  trade,  lum 
ber  business,  and  ship-building.  It  is  also  a  port 
of  entry.  Pop.  2500. 

Machine.     An  instrument  of  a  lower  grade 


than  an  engine,  its  motor  being  distinct  from  tne 
operating  part ;  it  is  of  a  higher  grade  than  a  tool. 
The  word  machine  in  its  widest  sense  may  be 
applied  to  every  material  substance  and  system, 
but  it  is  generally  restricted  to  works  of  human 
art. 

MACHINERY.  Machines  collectively ;  the  works 
of  a  machine,  engine,  or  instrument  so  arranged 
and  constructed  as  to  apply  and  regulate  force ; 
as,  the  machinery  of  a  watch. 

Machine-guns.  A  machine-gun  is  a  cannon 
in  which  the  essential  operations  pertaining  to 
continuous  fire  are  automatically  performed  by 
machinery. 

These  operations  are  :  1.  The  supply  of  the 
cartridges  and  their  insertion  into  the  chamber 
and  retention  there  during  the  discharge.  2. 
The  storing  up  of  the  blow  required  for  their 
detonation  and  the  delivery  of  that  blow.  3. 
The  extraction  of  the  fired  cartridge-cases  from 
the  chamber  and  their  ejection  from  the  gun.  4. 
The  direction  of  the  gun  in  continuous  firing. 

The  continuous  operation  of  the  parts  required 
by  the  above  definition  should  exclude  from  this 
class  of  guns  those  requiring  or  permitting  sim 
ultaneous  loading  and  discharge,  and  hence  those 
in  which  the  fire  is  consecutive  but  intermittent, 
like  revolvers.  The  former  class,  often  con 
founded  with  machine-guns,  are  properly  mi- 
trailleurs,  or  volley-guns,  deriving  their  name 


MACHINE-GUNS 


453 


MACHINE-GUNS 


from  the  weapon  of  this  character  which  first 
attained  decided  celebrity  in  France  in  1870, 
and  which  in  turn  inherited  its  name  from  the 
cognate  term  long  used  to  designate  the  simul 
taneous  discharge  from  a  single  gun  of  a  large 
number  of  small  projectiles  contained  in  a  single 
envelope.  Canister,  grape,  shrapnel,  and  even 
bird-shot  are  generically  mitraille. 

Among  the  mitrailleurs  are  included  various 
parallel  or  slightly  diverging  systems  of  barrels 
arranged  either  side  by  side  in  a  row,  or,  for 
economy  of  space  and  mutual  support,  grouped 
together  in  a  bundle. 

The  former  arrangement  finds  its  prototype  in 
the  labor-saving  device  of  the  proof-master, 
crudely  imitated  in  Flanders  in  1347,  where 
4  breech-loading  tubes  of  small  calibre  were 
mounted  on  a  two-wheeled  carriage,  and  by 
Fieschi,  in  1835,  in  the  infernal  machine  designed 
for  the  assassination  of  Louis  Philippe.  This 
was  improved  on  by  the  American  Requa,  in 
1861,  who  used  breech-loading  cartridges,  thus 
permitting  the  barrels  to  be  simultaneously  loaded 
by  mechanical  means.  A  similar  device  was  em 
ployed  in  the  Franco-Prussian  war,  and  is  now 
known  in  Europe  as  the  Abbatini. 

This  variety  finds  its  last  stage  in  the  Norden- 
feldt  (Swedish)  gun,  which,  while  capable  of  sim 
ultaneous  loading,  admits  of  either  simultaneous 
or  consecutive  fire.  Its  intervals  are  so  short, 
however,  that  the  intermittent  character  of  its 
fire  is  hardly  perceptible,  and  the  gun  may  prop 
erly  be  classed  either  as  a  mitrailleur  or  a  ma 
chine-gun. 

The  arrangement  of  the  barrels  in  a  bundle  is 
so  evident  an  advantage  that  it  was  naturally 
adopted  at  an  early  date.  The  barrels  being 
stationary,  are  loaded  by  means  of  charging- 
blocks  or  plates  pierced  to  correspond  with  the 
barrels,  and  serving  to  guide  the  cartridges  simul 
taneously  into  their  proper  chambers  from  the 
rear.  The  motion  of  pressing  the  cartridges  into 
place  also  serves  in  various  evident  ways  to 
compress  certain  springs  in  the  rear,  which,  on 
being  released,  either  simultaneously  or  in  suc 
cession  fire  the  charge ;  or  the  cocking  may  be 
done  independently. 

Such  are  the  French  mitrailleur,  the  Taylor 
gun  of  about  the  same  date,  and  others. 

One  evident  objection  to  the  forms  of  mi 
trailleur  so  far  described  is  the  recoil.  When 
it  is  considered  that  some  forms  fire  from  25  to 
37  shots  at  once,  it  will  be  readily  seen  how  the 
aim  of  the  gun  may  be  deranged  and  a  constant 
correction  required,  which,  aside  from  the  heat 
of  action,  may  be  impossible  from  the  smoke  of 
the  previous  discharge. 

Hence  the  development  of  the  revolver  prin 
ciple,  by  which  a  cluster  of  barrels  loaded  at 
leisure  could  be  fired  in  rapid  succession.  Once 
discharged,  however,  the  time  required  to  reload 
gives  the  fire  an  intermittent  character,  which 
takes  it  out  of  the  class  of  machine-guns. 

The  origin  of  the  revolver  can  be  found  as  far 
back  as  the  fifteenth  century,  when  at  an  early 
stage  of  its  career,  the  idea  was  improved  on  by 
diminishing  the  aggregate  weight  of  the  barrels 
by  making  them  as  short  as  possible,  and  bring 
ing  them  successively  opposite  to  a  single  tube 
of  suitable  length  for  aiming  and  for  complet 
ing  the  combustion  of  the  charge. 

The  axis  of  revolution  is  generally  parallel  to 


tHat  of  the  barrel,  but  cases  are  not  rare  where 
it  is  at  right  angles,  and  either  vertical  or  hori 
zontal. 

An  example  of  the  former  kind  is  found  in 
one  of  the  earliest  English  patents  for  fire 
arms,  No.  418,  A.D.  1718,  granted  to  one  Puckle. 

His  "  Portable  Gun,  or  Machine  called  a  De 
fense,"  contains,  though  crudely,  some  of  the 
most  recent  improvements  in  the  accessories  of 
machine-guns,  and  is  a  close  approximation  to  a 
weapon  known  as  the  "  Union  Repeating  or 
Coffee-mill  Gun,"  used  in  the  war  of  the  Rebel 
lion.  The  latter,  though,  was  properly  a  machine- 
gun. 

Puckle's  principal  limitation  seems  to  have 
been  the  "  state  of  the  arts"  at  the  time  of  his 
invention  ;  that  fatal  tether  which  has  checked  so 
many  a  self-reliant  Icarus,  and  brought  him  back 
to  earth  to  await  the  slow  co-operation  of  the  evo 
lution  he  had  forestalled. 

Nowhere  can  the  effects  of  such  a  bar  be  more 
plainly  seen  than  in  the  tardy  development  of  the 
ammunition  intended  for  these  guns ;  the  most 
simple,  evident,  and  essential  feature  of  which, 
the  gas-check,  was  so  long  unknown. 

The  invention  and  perfection  of  the  self- 
primed,  sheet-metal  cartridge  has  been  the  main 
factor  in  the  success  of  machine-guns, — not  only 
for  those  qualities  which  have  rendered  possible 
the  well-known  development  of  portable  fire 
arms,  but  for  the  special  necessity  to  maphine- 
guns  of  the  rigidity  of  construction  and  invari 
ability  of  dimension  which  characterize  the  best 
ammunition  of  the  present  day. 

The  automatic  nature  of  the  mechanism  in  the 
gun,  by  which  the  continuous  motion  of  the 
hand  is  transmuted  into  the  complicated  move 
ments  of  the  parts,  by  which  so  many  conflicting 
operations  are  rapidly  performed  in  so  restricted 
a  space,  while  possessing  manifest  advantages, 
deprives  the  operator  of  the  benefits  of  a  dis 
criminating  choice  of  the  material  with  which 
his  machine  is  supplied.  Especially  is  this  evi 
dent  when  one  considers  the  exact  time  required 
to  be  kept  in  the  relative  motions  of  the  parts, 
and  the  shock  and  strain  to  which  all  parts  of 
this  machine  are  subject  at  the  discharge. 

Hence  the  necessity  for  great  regularity,  both 
in  the  food  and  in  the  feed. 

In  the  first  place  the  cartridges  must  not  only 
conform  closely  to  each  other"  when  made,  but 
must  be  so  stiff  and  strong  that  their  original 
dimensions  will  not  be  injured  by  transportation, 
by  weather,  or  by  time;  and  that  when  fired  the 
least  possible  resistance  will  oppose  the  extrac 
tion  of  the  empty  cartridge-shell  in  all  its  parts, 
nothing  being  left  behind  to  clog  the  machinery. 

In  the  second  place  the  form  of  the  cartridges 
must  be  such  and  the  special  apparatus  employed 
must  be  so  arranged  that  the  ammunition  will 
be  delivered  to  the  machine  so  uniformly  that 
its  motion  will  continue  unchecked,  each  cart- 
tridge  falling  into  its  appointed  place  exactly 
at  its  appointed  time,  thus  enabling  the  gun 
to  perform  the  functions  of  a  true  machine  by 
delivering  its  product  as  long  as  its  motion  and 
its  supply  are  maintained. 

An  individual  soldier  finding  a  cartridge  too 
large  or  too  small  for  his  gun,  or  bursting  in  it, 
can  readily  discover  the  defect  and  may  remedy 
it ;  but  in  a  machine-gun,  the  works  of  which  are 
concealed,  and  which,  especially  under  excite- 


MACHINE-GUNS 


454 


MACHINE-GUNS 


ment,  may  be  driven  at  their  utmost  speed,  a 
slight  defect  may  cause  a  jam  which  may  be 
aggravated  by  misguided  efforts  for  relief. 

Hence  the  general  deduction  that  the  machine- 
gun  depends  principally  on  the  perfection  of  its 
feed,  and  the  feed  upon  that  of  the  cartridge,  or 
briefly,  no  cartridge,  no  feed  ;  no  feed,  no  gun. 

The  following  are  the  principal  machine-guns 
now  extant : 

I.  Two  or  more  stationary  barrels  parallel  to 

each  other  in  a  horizontal  plane. 
Gardner. — Two  barrels. 
Nordenfeldt. — Five  barrels. 
Taylor  of  1878.*— Five  barrels. 

II.  Rotary  cluster  of  parallel  barrels. 

a.  Gatling. — Continuously   rotating,  and 

firing  each  barrel  in  each  revolution 
while  moving. 

b.  Hotchkiss. — Periodically  rotating,  and 

firing  each  barrel  in  each  revolution 
while  at  rest. 

c.  Lowell. — Rotating  at  pleasure  by  hand 

for  cooling  and  cleaning  ;  firing  con 
secutive  shots  through  a  single  barrel 
at  rest. 

The  following  description  is  founded  on  the 
comparison  of  the  different  methods  by  which  they 
perform  the  essential  operations  pertaining  to  a 
continuous  fire. 

Operation. — With  one  exception  they  are 
driven  by  the  continuous  motion  of  a  crank, 
placed  either  on  the  side  of  the  gun  or  directly 
in  rear.  The  exception  is  the  Nordenfeldt,  in 
which  a  reciprocating  motion  is  given  to  a  hori 
zontal  hand-lever  projecting  to  the  right  side. 

The  mechanical  advantage  of  the  former  course 
is  obvious,  in  that  it  avoids  the  resistance  due  to 
the  inertia  of  the  motor  at  each  end  of  the  stroke. 

Feeding. — These  guns  are  all  fed  from  above 
by  an  arrangement  of  the  cartridges  side  by  side 
vertically  ;  in  one  row  for  the  rotary  guns,  and 
in  as  many  rows  as  there  are  barrels  for  the  other 
class. 

The  support  for  these  cartridges  is  called  a 
hopper,  feed-case,  feed-tube,  or  trough,  accord 
ing  to  circumstances.  It  may  contain  a  weight 
supplied  with  a  projecting  thumb-piece,  by  which 
to  accelerate  the  passage  of  the  cartridges  into 
the  gun.  In  the  Gatling  the  cross-section  of 
the  feed-case  is  continuous,  save  for  a  slit  left 
for  the  movement  of  the  thumb-piece  up  and 
down. 

In'  the  Nordenfeldt  there  is  a  compact  group 
of  such  cases,  but  the  weight,  etc.,  are  omitted. 
In  the  Gardner,  Taylor,  and  Lowell  guns  the 
troughs  are  shallow  and  open  in  front,  so  as 
only  to  embrace  the  head  of  the  cartridges. 
They  can  be  readily  filled  by  sliding  into  them 
with  a  scraping  motion  the  heads  of  the  car 
tridges  as  contained  in  the  original  packages. 
In  these  guns  the  troughs  are  vertical,  opening 
to  the  front.  In  the  Hotchkiss  the  cartridges 
roll  into  place  successively  down  an  inclined 
trough  open  on  top. 

All  of  these  devices  are  sought  to  be  arranged 
with  reference  to  the  rapidity  of  fire  of  the  gun 
to  which  they  are  attached,  so  that  the  reserve 
contained  in  the  hopper  will  not  be  exhausted 
before  the  next  lot  of  cartridges  can  be  supplied. 

Loading. — The  cartridges  having  been  deliv- 

*  This  ia  not  the  Taylor  volley-gun  of  1870,  previously  re 
ferred  to. 


ered  from  the  hopper,  are  pushed  into  the  barrel 
by  a  reciprocating  piston  in  all  the  guns. 

In  the  Gatling  each  barrel  has  its  own  piston 
revolving  with  it  under  the  influence  of  the 
crank,  but  constrained  to  move  obliquely  to  the 
axis  in  an  elliptical  orbit,  by  means  of  a  corre 
sponding  stationary  rib  within  the  casing  of  the 
gun,  but  outside  of  the  -fluted  cylinder  which 
serves  to  guide  the  cartridges  and  pistons  in 
their  reciprocating  path. 

The  action  is  thus  progressive  with  each  car 
tridge,  but  simultaneous  for  them  all,  giving  an 
independent  deliberation  to  each  unit,  but  rapidity 
to  the  whole. 

In  the  Hotchkiss,  Lowell,  Gardner,  and  Tay 
lor  guns  the  reciprocation  of  the  piston  is  effected 
by  various  vertical  cams  actuated  by  the  driving- 
crank.  In  the  first  two  there  is  but  one  piston  ; 
in  the  last  two  there  is  one  piston  to  each  barrel, 
but  its  action  is  alternate. 

In  the  Nordenfeldt  gun  each  barrel  has  its 
piston,  and  they  are  moved  together  by  the 
hand-lever. 

Guiding. — The  method  of  preventing  the  ac 
cumulation  of  cartridges  in  front  of  the  piston, 
and  of  directing  them  into  place,  requires  atten 
tion. 

In  the  Lowell  gun  this  is  done  by  one  or  more 
deeply  fluted  "carrier  rolls,"  revolving  on  an 
axis  parallel  to  that  of  the  gun,  beneath  the 
hopper  and  to  one  side  of  it.  They  take  the 
nearest  cartridge  from  the  hopper  in  their  flutes, 
guide  it  into  its  chamber,  and  receive  its  remains 
after  the  discharge. 

The  Gardner  and  Taylor  guns  require  hori 
zontally  vibrating  valves  for  this  purpose,  alter 
nately  cutting  off  and  opening  the  mouth  of  the 
hopper. 

In  the  Hotchkiss  this  is  effected  by  a  little  trap 
door,  closing  the  mouth  of  the  trough  until  the 
piston  has  receded  from  its  insertion  of  the  pre 
ceding  cartridge  into  place,  and  has  left  the  way 
clear  for  its  successor  to  roll  down  into  its  front. 

In  the  Gatling  and  Nordenfeldt  guns  this  is 
accomplished  by  the  proportion  and  arrangement 
of  the  contiguous  parts. 

Firing. — In  almost  every  case  the  firing-pins 
are  animated  by  spiral  springs  surrounding'them, 
which  are  compressed  against  some  projection 
during  the  forward  motion  of  the  piston  in  load 
ing.  The  firing-pins  being  inclosed  by  the  piston, 
are,  so  to  speak,  left  behind  until  the  moment 
has  come  for  the  blow. 

In  the  Hotchkiss  and  Lowell  guns  the  spring 
is  compressed  by  a  special  cam  on  the  driving- 
shaft.  In  both  of  these  guns  the  firing  takes 
place  with  the  barrel  at  rest  and  in  line  with  the 
axis,  so  as  to  avoid  the  deflection  due  to  the  re 
coil.  With  the  Lowell  gun,  firing  by  simple 
pressure  from  the  piston  has  been  tried.  In  the 
Hotchkiss,  the  moment  of  rest  during  the  firing 
is  necessarily  made  use  of  for  the  loading  and 
extraction. 

Locking. — To  support  the  cartridge  against  the 
discharge  various  similar  devices  are  adopted, 
depending  principally  upon  some  flattening  of 
the  stationary  or  revolving  cam  by  which  the 
mechanism  is  actuated.  This  is  extended  some 
what  to  allow  for  a  continued  support  after  the 
moment  intended  for  the  explosion,  in  the  chance 
of  a  cartridge  missing  fire.  In  the  Hotchkiss, 
owing  to  the  revolution  of  the  cartridge  away 


MACHINE-GUNS 


455 


MACOMB 


from  its  loading-point,  the  recoil  is  borne  directly 
upon  the  solid  cast-iron  breech-block. 

Extraction. — The  reciprocating  motion  of  the 
piston  readily  suggests  the  spring-hooked  ex 
tractor  so  commonly  used  in  all  bolt-guns. 

In  some  cases  it  may  work  positively  by  con 
tact  with  some  projection  serving  to  close  its 
point  in,  but  generally  it  depends  upon  its  own 
elasticity  for  a  hold.  The  hook  is  sometimes 
double. 

Ejection. — The  ejection'  is  generally  accom 
plished  by  the  force  of  gravity  alone,  the  cart 
ridge  falling  on  being  swept  off  the  hook  of  the 
extractor  by  a  "plow,"  as  in  the  Gatling,  and 
dropping  through  a  proper  aperture  to  the 
ground. 

The  Gardner,  Hotchkiss,  and  Taylor  gun  sup 
plement  this  action  by  giving  to  the  extracted 
cartridge-case  a  blow  from  an  ejector  to  release 
it  from  the  hooks.  In  the  Lowell  gun  the  ex 
tracted  cartridge  is  drawn  between  the  flutes  of 
the  carrier-rolls  which  guided  it  on  its  entrance 
to  the  chamber,  and  by  their  revolution  is  cast  to 
the  ground. 

Direction  of  Fire. — The  continuous  fire  of 
machine-guns,  combining  as  they  do  in  one 
weapon  the  force  of  many,  requires  an  adequate 
distribution  of  their  effect.  Many  ingenious 
devices  have  been  invented  to  accomplish  this 
result,  but  generally  they  are  too  complicated 
for  this  paper. 

The  horizontal  dispersion  seems  likely  to  be 
generally  effected  by  the  simplest  means,  by  slowly 
sweeping  the  gun  in  a  horizontal  plane  during 
the  act  of  firing,  care  being  taken  not  to  waste 
too  many  shots  by  unnecessary  dwelling  on  the 
spot  where  the  motion  is  reversed. 

For  this  purpose  the  gun  is  generally  mounted 
on  a  universal  joint,  moving  independently  of 
the  carriage,  and  with  its  motion  limited  by 
suitable  means. 

For  the  vertical  dispersion  required  in  firing 
against  torpedo-boats,  and  against  objects  requir 
ing  a  rapid  change  of  elevation,  two  especially 
ingenious  devices  have  been  adopted. 

The  Gatling  has  a  lever  projecting  to  the  rear, 
and  terminating  either  in  a  handle  or  in  a  cres 
cent-shaped  fork,  supported  at  the  gunner's  waist 
by  a  strap  passing  over  his  shoulders.  This  han 
dle  is  so  arranged  that  at  whatever  elevation  it 
may  place  the  gun,  simply  relaxing  the  grasp  of 
the  hand  sets  it  there,  by  releasing  a  binding 
wedge  impelled  forward  by  a  spring. 

The  Hotchkiss  has  another  arrangement  better 
suited  to  the  more  deliberate  nature  of  its  fire. 
A  crutch-like  stock  projects  to  the  rear,  to  be 
drawn  against  the  gunner's  shoulder  by  the 
left  hand,  which  grasps  a  convenient  handle. 
Having  thus  complete  control  of  the  direction  of 
the  gun,  his  right  hand  can  fire  it  at  pleasure  by  an 
independent  trigger,  one  assistant  giving  a  con 
tinuous  motion  to  the  crank  while  another  feeds. 

Being  thus  able  to  follow  by  the  splash  of  his 
bullets  an  attacking  torpedo-boat,  the  gunner 
has  an  advantage  at  least  equal  to  that  of  the 
Nordenfeldt  mitrailleur,  which  is  intended  to 
deliver  a  searching  volley  as  soon  as  the  aim 
and  elevation  are  found. 

Ammunition. — The  ammunition  employed  by 
these  guns  need  only  be  limited  in  size,  in  any 
case,  by  the  peculiar  conditions  of  the  gun. 
As  a  rule,  on  account  of  the  unbounded  supply 


of  ammunition  they  require,  they  are  intended 
to  fire  the  ordinary  infantry  cartridge.  But  as 
this  gives  them  no  advantage  in  range  over  an 
opposing  force  of  infantry,  they  are  prone  to  in 
crease  their  calibre  and  their  range. 

Rapidity. — The  most  rapid  is  the  Gatling, 
which  has  been  fired  at  the  rate  of  1000  shots 
per  minute.  The  least  rapid  the  Hotchkiss 
revolving  cannon,  which  is  timed  for  about  60 
or  80  shots  per  minute.  The  rest  vary,  being  at 
about  the  following  rates  :  Gardner,  350  ;  Lowell, 
350 ;  Nordenfeldt,  200-600.  The  Hotchkiss  can 
non  makes  up  for  its  deliberation  by  firing  a 
sensitive  percussion-shell,  which  yields  a  large 
number  of  fragments  on  impact.  Solid  shot  can 
also  be  used  in  it. 

Great  rapidity  of  fire  cannot  be  long  sustained, 
owing  to  the  heating  of  the  barrels  which  re 
sults.  An  ordinary  breech-loading  musket  may 
easily  be  fired  fast  enough  to  blue  the  barrel  and 
char  the  stock,  so  much  more  the  machine-gun, 
which  may  fire  50  times  as  fast. 

Adoption. — No  one  nation  can  be  said  to  have 
exclusively  adopted  any  one  machine-gun. 

England  uses  the  Gatling  on  shore,  and  is  said 
to  prefer  the  Nordenfeldt  afloat,  in  which  respect 
she  follows  Norway  and  Sweden. 

France,  Brazil,  and  many  other  nations  use 
the  Hotchkiss  cannon  largely.  The  Gatling  is 
under  trial  in  Russia. 

In  the  United  States  all  of  these  guns  but  the 
Nordenfeldt  are,  or  have  recently  been,  under 
trial. 

Conclusion. — Machine-guns  are,  generally 
speaking,  auxiliary  weapons  for  defense.  In 
spite  of  their  ingenuity  and  apparent  advan 
tages,  they  have  not  yet  played  a  very  impor 
tant  part  in  actual  warfare. 

References:  Knight's  Mechanical  Dictionary, 
Encyclopaedia  Britannica,  Appleton's  Cyclopaedia 
of  Applied  Mechanics,  Cooke's  Naval  Ordnance 
and  Gunnery,  Reports  of  the  Chief  of  Ordnance 
U.S.A.,  1878-79-80,  Ordnance  Notes  U.S.A., 
Report  Group  XVI.  U.  S.  Centennial  Commis 
sion. — Henry  Metcalfe,  Captain  U.S.A. 

Mackerel.  A  genus  of  fishes  of  the  family 
Scomberidce.  It  has  a  spindle-shaped  body,  the 
tail  tapering  greatly  and  being  slightly  ridged 
on  each  side.  It  is  a  beautiful  fish  of  brilliant 
green  and  blue,  the  males  having  nearly  straight 
dark  transverse  bands,  the  females  having  the 
bands  elegantly  undulated.  It  is  generally  14 
to  16  inches  in  length,  and  about  2  pounds  in 
weight.  It  is  readily  caught  with  the  hook  and 
line,  but  the  greatest  quantities  are  taken  in  nets. 
They  were  formerly  supposed  to  be  migratory, 
but  it  is  now  believed  that  they  merely  leave  the 
deep  water  and  approach  the  coast  for  the  pur 
pose  of  spawning.  The  Spanish  mackerel  attains 
a  weight  of  4  or  5  pounds,  and  is  more  obscurely 
banded.  The  mackerel-midge,  a  very  small  fish, 
is  a  species  of  rockling,  of  the  family  Gadidas. 
The  scad  is  sometimes  called  the  horse-mackerel. 

MACKEREL-BOAT.  A  stout  clinch-worked  ves 
sel,  with  a  large  foresail,  sprit-sail,  and  jigger. 

MACKEREL-BREEZE.  A  smart  breeze, — favor 
able  for  fishing  for  mackerel  with  hook  and 
line. 

MACKEREL-SKY.     See  CLOUD. 

MACKEREL-STURE.  A  name  for  the  tunny, 
Scomber  thynnus. 

Macomb,  William  H.,  Commodore  U.S.A. 


MACKODACTYL 


456 


MAGAZINE 


Born  in  Detroit,  Mich.,  June  16,  1818.  Mid 
shipman,  April  10,  1834 ;  lieutenant,  February 
27,  1847;  commander,  July  16,  1862;  captain, 
July  15,  1866;  commodore,  July,  1870.  In 
sloop  "  Portsmouth,"  East  India  Squadron,  1856- 
58  ;  engaged  and  captured  the  Barrier  Forts,  Can 
ton,  China,  November  16-22,  1856;  commanded 
"  Metacomet,"  Paraguay  Expedition,  1859; 
steamer  "  Genesee,"  1862-63  ;  attempted  the  pas 
sage  of  Confederate  .batteries  at  Port  Hudson, 
March  14,  1863,  and  was  in  frequent  actions  with 
Confederate  batteries  in  April  to  June,  1863  ; 
commanded  "  Shamrock,"  North  Atlantic  Block 
ading  Squadron,  1864-65;  commanded  naval 
force  in  capture  of  Plymouth,  N.  C.,  October  30, 
1864,  and  in  action  with  Confederates  on  the 
Eoanoke  River,  near  Poplar  Point,  N.  C.,  and 
for  his  gallantry  and  energy  in  this  service  was 
advanced  in  grade ;  commanded  steam-sloop 
"Plymouth,"  European  Squadron,  1869;  light 
house  inspector,  1871.  Died,  1872. 

Macrodactyl  (Gr.  makros,  long ;  dactylos,  a 
finger).  A  tribe  of  wading  birds  comprehending 
those  in  which  the  toes  are  remarkable  for  their 
extreme  length,  by  means  of  which  they  walk 
upon  the  floating  leaves  of  aquatic  plants. 

Macrometer  ^Gr.  makros,  long ;  metron,  a 
measure).  An  instrument  for  measuring  the 
distance  of  inaccessible  objects  by  means  of  two 
reflectors. 

Macropod  (Gr.  makros,  long;  pous,  foot). 
One  of  a  tribe  of  short-tailed  decapodous  crus 
taceans  remarkable  for  the  enormous  length  of 
their  feet ;  the  sea-spider,  or  spider-crab. 

Macrourans  (Gr.  makros,  long ;  oura,  the 
tail).  A  section  of  decapod  crustaceans,  includ 
ing  all  those  which  have  the  tail,  or  post  abdo 
men  as  long  as,  or  longer  than,  the  body. 

Mactra.  A  genus  of  lamellibranchiate  mol- 
lusks,  having  a  somewhat  triangular  shell.  It 
is  sometimes  called  trough-shell.  The  species  are 
numerous  and  widely  distributed.  They  burrow 
in  the  sand  and  mud  of  sea-shores  and  of  the 
bottom  of  the  sea.  Their  large,  compressed  foot 
enables  them  also  to  move  with  activity  after  the 
manner  of  cockles.  The  shells  of  some  of  the 
species  are  not  lacking  in  beauty,  while  those  of 
other  species  are  coarse.  Certain  small  species 
that  abound  on  the  coasts  of  Great  Britain  are 
gathered  and  fed  to  pigs.  The  fossil  species  are 
few. 

Maculae.  Dark  temporary  spots  which  are 
very  frequently  observed  upon  the  sun's  disk ; 
they  are  of  various  forms,  surrounded  by  a 
lighter  shade  or  penumbra. 

Mad.  The  state  of  a  compass-needle,  the  po 
larity  of  which  has  been  impaired. 

Maddy.     A  large  species  of  mussel. 

Made.  Built  up  ;  composed  of  several  pieces. 
A  made-block  is  one  in  which  the  shell  is  com 
posed  of  several  pieces  in  contradistinction  to  a 
mor Used-block,  in  which  the  shell  is  a  single 
piece  of  wood.  A  made-mast  is  composed  of  sev 
eral  pieces  hooped  together,  in  contradistinction 
to  a  single-spar  mast. 

Madoc.  A  Welsh  navigator  whom  his  coun 
trymen  credit  with  having  discovered  America 
300  years  before  Columbus  sighted  the  island  of 
San  Salvador.  He  was  the  son  of  Owen  Gwyn- 
nedd,  a  Welsh  prince,  and  the  tradition  is  that, 
being  compelled  by  civil  commotion  to  leave  his 
native  land  in  1170,  he  sailed  westward  with  a 


small  fleet,  and  after  a  voyage  of  several  weeks 
reached  a  strange  country  differing  from  Europe 
both  in  its  inhabitants  and  its  productions.  After 
a  considerable  stay  he  returned  to  Wales  and 
gave  glowing  accounts  of  the  new  land  he  had 
discovered.  He  got  together  another  fleet  and 
set  sail  again,  but  was  never  afterwards  heard 
of.  Southey  has  made  the  story  of  Madoc  the 
subject  of  one  of  his  "  epics." 

Madras,  a  maritime  city  of  British  India,  in 
lat.  13°  4'  6"  N.,  Ion.  80°  14/  E.,  is  situated  on 
an  open  sandy  shore,  without  a  harbor  or  land 
ing-place,  and  vessels  are  obliged  to  anchor  in 
the  roads  in  from  7  to  9  fathoms  of  water,  exposed 
to  the  swell  from  the  Bay  of  Bengal,  which 
breaks  upon  the  beach  with  great  violence.  The 
natives  use  catamarans  as  surf-boats,  in  which 
they  venture  out  to  ships  in  the  heaviest  weather. 
From  October  to  January  storms  and  typhoons 
prevail,  and  from  the  15th  of  October  till  the 
15th  of  December  the  anchorage  is  very  unsafe. 
The  first  British  settlement  on  this  coast  was  at 
Armagon,  60  miles  north  of  Madras,  but  the 
seat  of  the  present  fort  being  granted  by  a  na 
tive  prince  in  1639,  the  nucleus  of  the  city  was 
formed.  It  soon  became  a  flourishing  place.  In 
1744  it  was  taken  by  the  French,  but  was  re 
stored  to  the  English  in  1749.  The  roads  and 
city  are  protected  by  Fort  St.  George,  which  is 
admirably  situated  for  their  defense.  The  im 
ports  consist  of  cotton  goods,  grain,  spirits,  metals, 
sugar,  etc.,  and  the  exports  of  cotton,  indigo,  salt 
petre,  pepper,  etc.  Madras  stucco,  or  cnunam, 
is  much  used  in  the  decoration  of  buildings, 
and  also  for  paying  the  seams  of  ships.  Pop. 
398,000. 

Madrier.     The  sheathing  of  a  galley. 

Maestral.    See  MISTRAL. 

Magalhaens.     See  MAGELLAN. 

Magazine.  A  chamber  in  a  gun  containing  a 
number  of  cartridges  which  are  fed  automatically 
to  the  piece.  An'apartment  devoted  exclusively 
to  the  storage  of  powder.  Large  vessels  have  two, 
one  forward  and  the  other  aft.  Magazines  should 
be  rectangular  in  form,  and  should  be  built  strong 
to  resist  the  working  of  the  ship  in  heavy  weather, 
and  the  pressure  of  water  when  flooded.  As  a 
protection  against  the  fire  of  an  enemy,  the  mag 
azine  should  be  as  far  as  possible  below  the  water- 
line.  It  should  not  touch  the  bottom  nor  the 
sides  of  the  ship,  but  should  be  battened  off  to 
permit  the  bilge-water  to  run  under  it.  The 
magazine  and  passage  must  be  thoroughly 
calked,  and  lined  with  pine  boards  tongued 
and  grooved,  and  over  all,  sheets  of  lead  sol 
dered  together.  There  should  also  be  an  external 
lining  of  sheet-iron  as  a  protection  against  fire 
and  the  intrusion  of  rats.  All  the  metallic  fix 
tures  should  be  of  copper,  and  magazine-dresses 
must  always  be  worn  by  all  persons  entering  the 
magazine.  As  a  security  against  lightning,  a 
magazine  must  be  placed  so  as  not  to  include  a 
pump-well,  mast,  or  anything  connecting  with 
the  spar-deck.  The  alleys  of  a  magazine  run 
fore-and-aft,  and  there  should  be  a  communica 
tion  between  the  two  ;  each  alley  has  a  separate 
light-box.  A  sponge  dipped  in  salt  water,  dried, 
and  weighed,  is  used  to  detect  dampness  ;  if  the 
sponge  becomes  heavier,  the  magazine  is  damp. 
Grating-hatches  are  fitted,  to  afford  a  supply  of 
air  to  the  men,  and  a  ventilating  apparatus  is, 
also,  generally  furnished  for  this  purpose.  When- 


MAGAZINE-GUN 


457 


MAGAZINE-GUN 


ever  the  magazine  is  opened,  every  precaution  is 
taken  to  guard  against  fire,  the  galley-fires  and 
open  lights  being  extinguished,  and  the  maga 
zine-scuttles  screened  off.  The  men  are  required 
to  wear  magazine-dresses,  and  no  metallic  article 
is  introduced  into  the  magazine.  Coopering  is 
prohibited  in  the  magazine  ;  when  powder  is 
received  in  barrels,  the  hoops  are  started  on  the 
berth-deck.  See  POWDER. 

MAGAZINE-COCKS:  Each  magazine  is  fitted 
with  a  cock  for  flooding,  and  one  at  the  bottom 
for  emptying  the  magazine  after  having  been 
flooded.  There  is  also  a  waste-pipe  at  the  top 
for  carrying  off  the  superfluous  water  when 
flooded.  Both  cocks  should  be  so  fitted  that 
they  may  be  turned  from  the  deck  above.  The 
flood-cock  should  also  have  a  lever  in  the  passage 
accessible  to  the  gunner  in  action. 

MAGAZINE-DRESS.  A  worsted  frock  to  reach 
to  the  knees ;  no  metal  buttons  are  worn.  The 
shoes  are  made  wholly  of  cotton  canvas  or  buck 
skin  ;  india-rubber  and  woolen  slippers  are  pro 
hibited. 

MAGAZINE-PASSAGE.  A  small  apartment  cut 
off  from  the  main  body  of  the  magazine,  and 
communicating  with  it  by  means  of  small  doors, 
which  are  only  opened  to  permit  ingress  or  egress. 
The  cartridges  are  passed  out  through  a  small 
scuttle  in  the  door,  and  thence  to  the  deck  above. 

MAGAZINE-SCREEN.  A  screen  made  of  thick 
fearnaught  or  double  baize,  so  hung  as  to  pro 
tect  the  scuttle  of  the  magazine-passage  from 
sparks  or  flame. 

Magazine-gun.  A  portable  fire-arm,  contain 
ing  a  limited  supply  of  cartridges,  which  are  au 
tomatically  fed  into  its  chamber.  (Adapted  from 
Knight.) 

The  magazine-gun  differs  from  the  machine- 
gun  chiefly  by  the  added  difficulty  of  the  condi 
tions  regarding  its  portability  and  the  convenience 
of  handling  it. 

If  the  limited  space  afforded  to  the  working 
parts  of  a  field-piece,  and  the  mobility  required 
for  its  support,  have  been  found  important  ob 
stacles  to  the  development  of  machine-guns,  how 
much  more  heavily  handicapped  is  the  magazine- 
musket,  which  neither  in  weight  nor  in  dimen 
sion  can  greatly  exceed  the  single-barreled  muz 
zle-loader  of  former  times,  but  which  must  be 
capable  of  easy  and  certain  working,  by  a  single 
individual,  in  every  operation  pertaining  to  the 
machine-gun,  in  whatever  position  and  at  what 
ever  speed  it  may  be  fired.  Its  only  point  d'appui 
also,  in  case  of  a  mechanical  mishap,  being  the 
yielding  support  of  the  left  hand  to  oppose  the 
unaided  efforts  of  the  right. 

If  the  machine-gun  had  to  suffer  for  the  want 
of  a  good  cartridge,  so  much  the  more  therefore 
was  the  evolution  of  the  magazine-gun  delayed. 

Before  discussing  the  magazine-guns  of  thepres- 
ent  day,  which  are  all  of  recent  origin,  it  may  be 
well  to  examine  some  of  the  expedients  resorted 
to  in  former  times  to  obtain  a  consecutive  fire. 

Naturally  the  multiple-barrel,  mounted  on  a 
single  stock,  was  one  of  the  earliest  forms. 

A  curious  example  is  found  in  a  weapon 
ascribed  to  the  Black  Prince,  son  of  Edward  III. 
of  England,  date  1370.  It  consists  of  a  sort  of 
cylindrical  iron  mace  on  the  end  of  a  stout  staff. 
It  is  belted  by  two  cheerful  rings  of  spikes,  and 
is  pierced  so  as  to  form  four  barrels,  the  means 
of  discharging  which  have  not  been  preserved. 


It  rejoiced  in  the  name  of  u  Holy-Water  Sprink 
ler,"  or  "  Blood-Spiller,"  depending,  it  is  sup 
posed,  on  the  end  from  which  it  was  seen. 

Without  reverting  to  other  familiar  forms  of 
this  type,  such  as  the  double-barrel,  either  side 
by  side  or  superposed,  and  the  revolver,  the  de 
velopment  of  which  has  often  been  described, 
some  account  may  be  given  of  the  efforts  made  to 
lighten  the  load  imposed  by  this  clumsy  accumu 
lation  of  independent  barrels. 

Single-barreled  muzzle-loading  guns  have  long 
been  made  to  act  as  repeaters,  the  charges  being 
superposed,  and  fire  being  communicated  to  them 
by  a  movable  lock  sliding  along  the  outside  of 
the  barrel,  or  by  a  stationary  lock,  with  different 
ducts  for  each  charge. 

The  discharge  has  also  been  arranged  to  be 
consecutive  by  means  of  small  openings  through 
the  bullets  or  alongside  of  them.  Such  was  a 
"great  brass  hand-gun"  described  by  Porta  in 
his  "  Natural  Magick,"  1658. 

This  gun  has  recently  been  re-invented,  and  the 
two  former  types  were  exhibited  in  Philadelphia 
in  1876. 

In  all  these  cases  the.  intention  was  to  fire  the 
top  charge  first,  but  of  course  the  inflammation 
was  often  instantaneous,  leading  to  a  simultane 
ous  discharge,  with  all  of  its  disastrous  results. 

An  exception  to  the  genera)  inutility  of  multi- 
barreled  muzzle-loading  fire-arms  may  be  made 
in  the  case  of  the  revolver,  in  the  later  forms  of 
which  the  cylinder  was,  mechanically  speaking, 
as  regards  completeness,  rigidity  of  construction, 
certainty  of  feed  and  of  fire,  and  the  protection 
of  its  contents,  one  divisible  cartridge. 

At  no  time,  however,  was  it  safe  from  the 
chance  of  the  simultaneous  explosion  of  several  of 
its  charges,  until,  by  the  invention  of  the  pres 
ent  cartridge,  its  safety  could  be  assured  without 
loss  of  its  efficiency. 

The  Spencer  was  the  first  magazine-gun  to  at 
tain  decided  celebrity,  and  in  its  prompt,  com 
plete,  and  satisfactory  utilization  of  the  state  of 
the  concurrent  arts  it  still  deserves  our  grateful 
distinction  and  regard. 

It  failed  principally  from  the  objection  justly 
found  to  the  superposed  column  of  cartridges  in 
the  butt-stock.  Although  rim-primed,  they  were 
occasionally  known  to  explode  when  jolted,  as  by 
the  cavalry,  to  whose  service  the  arm  was  other 
wise  so  evidently  adapted. 

Apart  from  this  objection  which  has  been 
overcome  in  recent  ammunition,  the  arm  would 
have  failed  to  meet  our  present  need  for  a  longer 
cartridge  than  could  well  be  fed  over  its  curved 
breech-block,  and  for  a  heavier  charge  of  powder 
than  could  be  safely  loaded  in  the  thin  rim- 
primed  shell,  which  was  then  considered  essential 
to  its  use,  and  which  was  indeed  almost  the  only 
shell  in  service. 

The  want  of  a  proper  cartridge  caused  the 
failure  of  this  gun  ;  but  it  was  from  actual  expe 
rience  in  warfare  with  this  weapon,  even  in  its 
imperfect  state,  that  the  strongest  arguments  are 
derived  by  those  who  oppose  the  prevailing  opin 
ion  that  the  use  of  repeating  arms  will  result  in 
a  dangerous  waste  of  ammunition  in  battle. 

The  statement  has  been  made  by  a  distinguished 
officer,  that  of  two  brigades  of  equal  strength, 
equally  engaged  on  the  same  side  in  the  bloody 
battles  around  Richmond  near  the  close  of  the 
war  of  the  Rebellion,  the  brigade  armed  with  the 


MAGAZINE-GUN 


458 


MAGAZINE-GUN 


'  Spencer  was  found,  after  several  days'  fighting, 
to  have  expended  less  ammunition  than  that 
which  had  the  muzzle-loader. 

Experience  soon  taught  the  soldier  the  value 
of  the  "  pocket-pieces"  he  carried  in  the  butt  of 
his  gun,  anol  he  reserved  them  until  the  need  for 
their  expenditure  was  dire. 

The  Henry  magazine-rifle,  originally  known 
as  the  Volcanic  repeating-rifle,  and  now  as  the 
Winchester,  was  the  only  other  prominent  maga 
zine  arm  during  the  war  of  the  Rebellion.  It  is 
used  now  in  part  by  Turkey,  while  a  close 
approximation  to  the  Winchester — the  Yetterli 
— is  adopted  by  Switzerland  and  Italy. 

An  instructive  example  of  the  misguided  efforts 
of  inventors,  who  seek  only  by  combination  to 
improve,  may  be  found  in  the  Kirk  and  Kumsey 
modifications  of  the  foregoing  weapons.  In  one 
case  there  are  7  magazine  tubes,  and  in  the  other 
2  in  the  same  gun.  (Report  Chief  of  Ordnance, 
1873.) 

General  Requirements. — It  follows  from  the 
automatic  loading  of  magazine-guns  that  what 
is  essentially  a  longitudinal  sliding  motion  must 
be  given  to  the  part  by  which  the  breech  is 
opened  and  closed  ;  so  that  the  cartridge  once 
placed  in  line  with  the  chamber  shall  be  pushed 
directly  into  it. 

Some  cases  occur  in  which  the  breech-block  is 
hinged  beneath  the  barrel  as  in  the  Spencer,  but 
it  is  on  so  distant  a  centre  that  its  motion  is 
practically  direct. 

Hence  the  prevailing  adoption  of  the  sliding 
bolt  as  shown  by  Table  I.  hereafter,  both  on  ac 
count  of  its  simplicity  in  loading  and  for  the 
readiness  with  which  it  lends  itself  to  the  subse 
quent  operations  with  cartridges  of  any  reason 
able  length. 

For  example,  by  a  natural  and  continuous  mo 
tion  it  is  easily  opened  and  closed,  and  locked  or 
supported  against  the  force  of  the  discharge  by 
turning  one  or  more  projections  on  it  into  corre 
sponding  notches  in  the  frame  in  which  it  slides. 
Its  motion  also  serves  naturally  either  in  opening 
or  closing  to  compress  a  spiral  spring  surround 
ing  an  axial  firing-pin,  by  which  the  cartridge 
may  be  fired ;  or  else  to  cock  an  ordinary  out 
side  hammer  in  rear  for  the  same  purpose. 

In  the  first  of  the  former  cases  the  spring  is 
ordinarily  compressed  from  the  rear,  between  the 
bolt  and  a  shoulder  on  the  firing-pin,  which  rests 
against  the  sear.  When  the  sear  is  pulled  down 
out  of  the  way  by  the  trigger  the  blow  will  fall. 
Should  the  cartridge  miss  fire,  as  the  cocking  is 
dependent  on  the  entire  movement  of  the  bolt, 
the  bolt  must  be  again  withdrawn,  which  opens 
the  gun  unnecessarily.  The  extent  of  the  com 
pression  which  this  method  of  cocking  admits 
of  permits  the  use  of  a  long  and  elastic  spring, 
which  has  certain  mechanical  advantages  to  off 
set  the  above  defect. 

In  the  second  form  the  spring  is  compressed 
from  the  front,  generally  by  the  preliminary 
motion  of  loading  in  turning  up  the  handle  to 
open  the  piece.  The  independent  operation  of 
this  form  and  of  the  class  of  outside  locks  relieves 
them  from  the  disadvantages  of  the  former  com 
bination. 

The  bolt-gun  also  offers  the  most  ready  form 
of  extractor,  the  spring  hook,  which  also  lends 
itself  so  naturally  to  the  ejection. 

For  almost  any  slight  shock  or  resistance  op 


posite  to  the  extractor,  across  the  face  of  the  bolt, 
serves  to  flip  the  cartridge  from  its  hold  and  send 
it  spinning  from  the  gun. 

The  direct  action  of  the  bolt,  while  offering 
these  advantages,  has  certain  defects  which  it  has 
taken  years  of  effort  to  overcome. 

The  most  evident  objection  to  the  motion  is 
the  danger  of  an  accidental  explosion  in  closing, 
from  the  effect  of  the  blow  which  some  unusually 
sensitive  cartridge  may  receive ;  particularly  if 
its  entrance  into  the  chamber  should  be  checked, 
or  the  point  of  the  firing-pin  should  protrude. 

This  is  met  by  three  devices :  1.  In  all  good 
bolt-guns  the  firing-pin  is  positively  retracted 
within  the  block  by  the  very  motion  of  opening, 
and  is  kept  back  until  the  time  comes  for  the 
piece  to  be  fired.  This  is  variously  accomplished 
by  contiguous  spiral  surfaces  or  cams,  changing 
the  rotary  motion  of  the  bolt  in  opening  the  gun 
into  a  longitudinal  motion  of  the  firing-pin. 
2.  In  the  act  of  closing,  the  face  of  the  bolt  strikes 
some  spiral  surface,  along  which  it  gradually  ad 
vances  as  it  is  turned  down  into  place,  so  as  to 
relieve  the  cartridge  itself  of  any  shock,  by  screw 
ing  it,  as  it  were,  into  its  place. 

8.  The  face  of  the  bolt  carrying  the  extractor 
is  made  loose  upon  its  axis,  so  that  in  turning 
down  it  shall  not  grind  the  head  of  the  cartridge 
either  about  the  fulminate  nor  under  the  flange 
where  the  extractor  bears. 

This  convenient  transmutation  of  the  rapid, 
direct,  reciprocating  motion  of  the  bolt  into  a  slow 
rotary  motion  is  also  made  available  for  the  first 
operation  of  extracting,  as  follows:  The  princi 
pal  resistance  offered  by  a  cartridge  to  extraction 
lies  in  the  start ;  if  the  backward  pull  is  given 
too  suddenly  the  extractor  may  break,  or  its 
hook  may  ride  over  the  rim  of  the  cartridge  or 
cut  through  it ;  but  if  it  is  started  slowly  its  sub 
sequent  withdrawal  is  an  easy  matter,  owing  to 
its  conical  form  and  that  of  the  chamber  in  which 
it  lies. 

This  has  given  rise  to  various  plans  by  which 
the  first  rotary  motion  of  opening  is  converted 
into  a  slow  longitudinal  motion,  serving  not 
only  to  start  the  cartridge,  but  also  to  half  or  full 
cock  the  piece,  and  retract  the  firing-pin  as  be 
fore  described. 

Sure  extraction  and  ejection  are  even  more  im 
portant  in  magazine-guns  than  in  the  ordinary 
breech-loader,  for  if  the  spent  shell  be  left  in'  the 
chamber,  or  be  not  ejected  in  time,  the  succeed 
ing  cartridge  may  be  driven  against  it  with  such 
force  as  to  block  and  injure  the  gun. 

So  far  have  been  considered  the  functions 
which  the  magazine-gun  shares  with  the  ordi 
nary  breech-loader,  but  in  which,  from  the  neces 
sity  of  the  case,  much  greater  perfection  of 
operation  is  required.  There  remains  to  consider 
the  fundamental  difference,  which  is  the  supply 
of  the  cartridges  from  the  magazine  to  the  part 
by  which  they  are  passed  into  the  chamber,  or  the 
feed. 

However  this  may  be  accomplished,  it  should 
have  the  following  conditions  and  be  free  from 
the  following  defects,  viz. : 

1.  It  should  be  prompt,  direct,  automatic,  sure, 
and  continuous  within  the  limits  of  the  supply. 

A  failure  in  either  of  the  last  respects,  if  un 
observed,  exposes  the  firer  to  the  confusion  and 
other  evil  consequences  of  a  misfire,  on  which  his 
life  may  depend. 


MAGAZINE-GUN 


459 


MAGAZINE-GUN 


The  cartridge  should  be  guided  into  the  cham 
ber  so  that  it  may  enter  freely  when  driven  for 
ward  by  the  breech-block. 

The  cartridge  should  be  guarded  against  loss 
while  in  transit. 

2.  The  feed  should  be  regulated  so  that  not 
more  than  one  cartridge  should  escape  from  the 
magazine   at  once,  otherwise  the  gun   may  be 
blocked,  or  cartridges  may  be  lost. 

This  result  is  effected  by  various  forms  of  au 
tomatic  magazine  stops.  Being  in  a  concealed 
position  the}  should  be  strong,  simple,  and  posi 
tive  in  their  action.  They  should  not  depend 
upon  invariability  in  the  length  of  the  cartridges 
employed,  which  will  vary  both  in  manufacture 
and  from  the  jolting  they  receive  in  the  maga 
zine. 

3.  It  should  have  a  simple  cut-off,  by  which 
the  piece  can  be  used  as  a  single-loader,  holding 
the  magazine  in  reserve. 

To  prevent  confusion  this  condition  of  the  gun 
should  be  plainly  indicated  outside,  and  for  safety 
so  should  the  fact  of  its  being  cocked. 

4.  It  should  be  capable  of  easy  replenishing 
without  unnecessary  exposure  of  the  working 
parts. 

5.  It  should  be  adapted  to  the  standard  infantry 
ball-cartridge  without  loss  of  its  accuracy  and 
range,  and  with  sufficient  latitude  to  permit  of 
the  easy  adaptation  of  the  system  to  other  special 
ammunition, — carbine,  long-range,  blank,  etc. 

6.  It  should  be  free  from  the  risk  of  accident 
due  to  the  inadvertent  inversion  of  a  cartridge 
in  filling  the  magazine. 

7.  Taken  together  with  the  cartridge  used,  it 
should  be  free  from  the  danger  of  an  accidental 
explosion  of  the  contents  of  the  magazine  or  car 
rier,  due  to  the   escape  of  gas  from  defective 
cartridges. 

8.  The  firing-pin  or  hammer  should  never  fall 
before  the  block  is  securely  and  independently 
locked.     Otherwise,  even  if  no  accident  result, 
the  effect  will  be  the  same  as  of  a  misfire. 

Generally  speaking,  the  construction  of  the 
piece  should  involve  no  difficulty  in  its  poise,  in 
working  it,  or  in  handling  it  as  in  drill  or  on  the 
march.  Its  strength  as  a  whole  should  be  suf 
ficient  to  resist  ordinary  accidents  of  transporta 
tion  and  service.  The  parts,  besides  being  strong 
enough  for  their  respective  functions,  should  not 
depend  upon  too  close  fitting,  or  have  too  many 
"  working  points."  A  certain  freedom  of  motion 
should  be  sought,  not  only  on  account  of  the  re 
sulting  economy  of  manufacture  and  the  avoid 
ance  of  repairs,  but  to  overcome  the  injurious 
effects  of  rust,  dust,  and  dirt.  The  parts  should 
be  readily  accessible  without  special  tools,  but 
should  not  be  liable  to  be  accidentally  detached. 
Their  motions  should  be  positive,  depending  on 
their  relative  forms  rather  than  on  the  use  of 
springs  or  the  force  of  gravity  ;  and  pins,  rather 
than  screws,  should  be  preferred  in  their  connec 
tions. 

Finally,  combination  of  the  parts  should  be 
avoided  rather  than  sought;  each  part  should 
have  as  far  as  possible  a  distinct  duty  which  it 
may  be  depended  on  to  fulfill. 

As  will  be  seen  by  Table  II.,  the  position  of 
the  magazine  has  much  to  do  with  the  perform 
ance  of  the  gun. 

As  a  rule,  the  cartridges  are  carried  in  a  tube, 
experiments  having  shown  that  the  perfected 


central  fire  cartridge  may  be  less  dangerous 
when  so  carried  than  the  old  rim-fire  cartridge  so 
long  considered  essential  to  a  magazine  arm.  An 
escape  from  the  apparent  danger  of  the  central- 
fire  cartridge  has  been  sought  in  various  ways  : 

1.  Making    the    point    of  the   bullet    flat  or 
sunken. 

2.  Sinking  the  primer  beneath  the  head  of  the 
cartridge,  separately  or  in  combination  with  1. 

3.  Making  the  primer  small  in  diameter,  and 
not  sensitive,  depending  for  the  certainty  of  its 
ignition  upon  a  powerful  lock,  or  a  sharp  firing- 
pin. 

A  single  tube  is  generally  used,  though  several 
tubes  are  sometimes  assembled  as  a  fluted  cylin 
der,  rotating,  1st,  automatically,  or,  2d,  inter 
mittently,  at  pleasure. 

When  a  single  tube  is  used  it  may  be  either 
above  the  barrel  or  beneath  it,  or  in  the  butt- 
stock.  The  last  is  the  better  position,  on  account 
of  the  poise  of  the  arm  being  less  affected  by  the 
consumption  of  the  cartridges  in  the  magazine. 
It  has,  however,  less  capacity  than  the  other 
form,  the  length  of  which  is  onJy  limited  by  that 
of  the  barrel. 

The  clustered  tube  is  generally  found  in  the 
butt,  replacing  the  "small"  of  the  wooden 
stock,  and  its  prolongation  to  the  butt-plate. 

To  further  protect  the  superposed  cartridges, 
they  are  often  kept  apart  by  a  long  notched  slide, 
or  a  fixed  spiral  surrounding  a  rotary  fluted 
cluster.  (Evans.) 

To  avoid  all  possible  danger  from  this  source, 
in  one  gun,  Lee's,  the  cartridges  are  fed  upwards 
side  by  side,  through  a  mortise  in  the  bottom  of 
the  groove  in  which  the  bolt  works,  and  in  front 
of  the  bolt  when  it  is  drawn  back.  This  mortise 
interferes  somewhat  with  the  use  of  the  gun  as  a 
single-loader. 

The  cartridges  are  generally  expelled  from  the 
magazine  by  a  spring,  sometimes  by  the  force  of 
gravity,  and  sometimes,  as  in  the  Evans  gun, 
positively  by  the  operation  of  the  parts. 

They  are  sometimes,  as  with  the  Lee  and 
Hotchkiss,  delivered  directly  in  front  of  the 
breech-block  or  bolt,  but  more  frequently  have 
to  be  transferred  to  a  different  level  by  a  carrier  ; 
as  in  the  Spencer,  Winchester,  Ward-Burton,  etc. 

In  the  report  of  the  Board  of  Officers  of  which 
Gen.  Alfred  H.  Terry  was  president,  appointed 
in  pursuance  of  the  act  of  Congress,  approved 
June  6,  1872,  for  the  purpose  of  selecting  a 
breech  system  for  the  muskets  and  carbines  of 
the  military  service,  may  be  found  the  following 
opinion  on  the  value  of  magazine-arms  : 

"  Resolved,  That  in  the  opinion  of  the  board  the  adoption  of 
magazine-guns  for  the  military  service  by  all  nations  is  only  a 

rstion  of  time ;  that  whenever  an  arm  shall  be  devised  which 
11  be  as  effective  as  a  single  breech-loader,  as  the  best  of  the 
existing  single  breech-loading  arms,  and  at  the  same  time 
shall  possess  a  safe  and  easily  manipulated  magazine,  every 
consideration  of  public  policy  will  require  its  adoption." — May 
5, 1873. 

No  magazine-gun  was  adopted  thereafter  by 
the  United  States  until  upon  the  report  of  a 
Board  of  Ordnance  Officers  convened  in  con 
formity  with  the  act  of  Congress,  approved  No 
vember  21,  1877,  to  select  a  magazine-gun  for 
the  military  service.  The  Hotchkiss  gun  was 
recommended  September  23,  1878. 

To  the  very  full  and  interesting  report  of  that 
board  by  Capt.  John  E.  Greer,  of  the  U.  S.  Ord 
nance  Department,  and  to  the  report  of  the  former 


MAGAZINE-GUN 


460 


MAGAZINE-GUN 


board  by  the  writer,  found  in  the  reports  of  the 
Chief  of  Ordnance  to  the  Secretary  of  War, — 
1873  and  1878,— the  reader  is  referred  for  the 
details  of  almost  all  prominent  magazine-guns 
now  extant.  See  also  Lieut.  T.  B.  M.  Mason's 


(U.S.N.)  translation  of  Keport  of  French  Naval 
Board,  New  York,  1879. 

The  following  tables  are  taken  from  Capt. 
Greer's  report,  as  giving  in  the  most  condensed 
form  the  information  generally  desired : 


MAGAZINE-GUN 


461 


MAGAZINE-GUN 


TABLE  III.— ABRIDGMENT. 

Showing  the  performance  of  the  four  principal  magazine-guns  before  the  board  under  the  following 

rules  marked  *. 


\ 

Name  of 
Gun. 

0  I  No.  of  Cartridges  carried. 

Weights. 

Rapidity  of  Fire. 

With  Accuracy  — 
Shots  in  2  minutes. 

At  Will  in  1  Minute. 

Time  of 
Firing  20 
Shots  with 
Aim. 

Time  of  Firing  6  Shots— 
in  Seconds. 

As  a  Maga 
zine-gun. 

As  a  Single- 
loader. 

As  a  Maga 
zine-gun. 

As  a  Single- 
loader. 

Not  loaded. 
Ibs.  oz. 

«  |  Fully  loaded. 
*  1  lbs.oz. 

1 
6 

5 

Misfires. 

Left  in  Magazine. 

. 

4 
S 

1 

:  Left  in  Chamber. 

. 

Left  in  Magazine. 

, 

Left  in  Chamber. 

I 

3 

From  the  Shoulder. 

At 

Will. 

Hotchkiss.        2 

« 

Hotchkiss.  Mag- 
«)  azine. 

A  •      *          1? 

fcC  fl            *^]Q  ft*               «PH 

*  a      ".2        oj 

00  'S             CD                          • 

•3         •<           P 

Hotchkiss  

9.0 

29 

20 

... 

5 

44 

26 

22 

1 

28 

... 

97 

43 

8         16         18 

Winchester.. 

11 

10.6)4 

11.6 

35 

22 

8 

30 

24 

... 

28 

2 

23 

1 

118 

48 

Remington... 
Sharps  

9 

9.9 

10.6 

34 

27 

20 

2 

2 

44 

17 

1 

10 

8 

24 

1 

149 

47 

11 

10.0 

10.15  I 

24 

... 

6 

41 

33 

1 

... 

21 

4 

26 

... 

154 

38 

Tests  to  which  the  above  guns  were  subjected. 

REGULAR  TESTS. 

Safety  test:  To  be  fired  10  rounds  by  the  exhibitor  or  with  a 
laniard. 

The  piece  to  be  first  fired  10  rounds  by  the  exhibitor,  as  a 
test  of  safety ;  the  same  firing  to  be  also  a  test  of  rapidity  by 
one  familiar  with  the  arm.  The  time  to  be  noted  in  the 
record. 

The  firing  to  be  then  continued  according  to  the  rules  an 
nexed,  by  an  employe  of  the  armory,  or  soldier  detailed  by  the 
War  Department. 

The  service-cartridge  to  be  used  in  all  cases. 

I. — RAPIDITY  WITH  ACCURACY.* 

The  number  of  shots  which,  fired  in  two  minutes  from  the 
gun,— both  as  a  magazine-gun  and  as  a  single-shooter,— strike 
a  target  6  feet  by  2  feet  at  a  distance  of  100  feet.  Any  car 
tridges  missing  fire  in  this  or  other  tests  to  be  tried  with  a  prick- 
punch,  or  opened  to  ascertain  the  cause  of  failure.  The  test 
to  be  begun  with  the  chamber  or  magazine  filled ;  other  car 
tridges  to  be  disposed  at  will  on  a  table. 

II.— RAPIDITY  AT  WILL.* 

The  number  of  shots  which  can  be  fired  in  one  minute,  irre 
spective  of  aim,  under  the  same  circumstances  as  in  Test  I. 

III. — ENDURANCE. 

Each  gun  to  be  fired  500  continuous  rounds  without  clean 
ing,  using  the  magazine.  The  state  of  the  breech  mechanism 
to  be  examined  at  the  end  of  every  50  rounds. 

IV.— DEFECTIVE   CARTRIDGES. 

Each  gun  to  be  fired  once  with  each  of  the  following  defec 
tive  cartridges:  1.  Crossed-filed  on  head  to  nearly  the  thick 
ness  of  the  metal.  2.  Cut  at  intervals  around  the  rim.  3. 
With  a  longitudinal  cut  the  whole  length  of  the  cartridge, 
from  the  rim  up.  A  fresh  piece  of  white  paper,  marked  with 
the  number  of  the  gun,  being  laid  over  the  breech  to  observe 
the  escape  of  gas,  if  any  occur. 

V.— DUST. 

The  piece  to  be  exposed  in  the  box  prepared  for  that  purpose 
to  a  blast  of  fine  sand-dust  for  two  minutes;  to  be  removed, 
fired  20  rounds,  replaced  for  two  minutes,  removed  and  fired 
20  rounds  more. 


VI.— RUST. 

The  breech  mechanism  and  receiver  to  be  cleansed  of  grease, 
and  the  chamber  of  the  barrel  greased  and  plugged,  the  butt 
of  the  gun  to  be  inserted  to  the  height  of  the  chamber  in  a 
solution  of  sal-ammoniac  for  ten  minutes,  exposed  for  two  days 
to  the  open  air  standing  in  a  rack,  and  then  fired  20  rounds. 

VII.— EXCESSIVE  CHARGES. 

To  be  fired  once  with  85  grains  of  powder  and  one  ball  of  405 
grains  of  lead ;  once  with  90  grains  and  one  ball,  and  once 
with  90  grains  and  two  balls.  The  piece  to  be  closely  ex 
amined  after  each  discharge. 

SUPPLEMENTARY  TESTS. 

1st.  To  be  fired  with  two  defective  cartridges,  Nos.  1  and  2, 
and  then  to  be  dusted  five  minutes,  the  mechanism  being  in 
the  mouth  of  the  blow-pipe,  and  closed,  the  hammer  being  at 
half-cock  ;  then  to  be  fired  6  shots,  the  last  two  defective  Nos. 
1  and  2 ;  then,  without  cleaning,  to  be  dusted  with  the  breech 
opened,  and  fired  4  shots.  The  piece  to  be  freed  from  dust 
only  by  pounding  or  wiping  with  the  bare  hand. 

2d.  To  be  rusted  for  four  days  after  immersion  as  before,  and 
then  fired  5  rounds  with  the  service-cartridge ;  then,  without 
cleaning,  to  be  fired  5  rounds  with  120  grains  powder  and  a 
ball  weighing  1200  grains  ;  the  gun  to  stand  twenty-four  hours 
after  firing  without  cleaning,  and  then  to  be  thoroughly  ex 
amined. 

Provided,  "  That  all  arms  selected  for  supplementary  tests 
be  rusted  simultaneously,  i.e.,  that  they  be  immersed  at  the 
same  time,  for  ten  minutes,  in  the  same  sal-ammoniac  solution, 
and  afterward  exposed. side  by  side  to  its  corroding  action  for 
four  days,  when  they  will  each  be  fired  5  rounds  with  ser 
vice-cartridges  ;  then,  without  cleaning,  fired  5  rounds  with 
20  grains  of  powder  and  a  ball  weighing  1200  grains ;  after 
this,  each  gun  to  stand  twenty-four  hours  without  cleaning, 
and  then  to  be  thoroughly  examined." 

*  3d.  Facility  of  manipulation  by  members  of  the  board. 

"  That  to  determine  the  comparative  rapidity  of  fire  and 
facility  of  manipulation,  as  contemplated  by  the  third  sup 
plementary  test,  each  gun  be  fired  20  shots  by  three  enlisted 
men  of  the  armory  detachment,  loading  from  the  cartridge- 
box  and  firing  with  aim  at  a  target  6'  by  24'  100  yards  distant. 
The  average  of  the  three  trials  to  be  the  recorded  time  of  firing 
20  rounds.  The  magazine  to  be  loaded  from  the  cartridge-box 
before  the  start,  the  remainder  of  the  cartridges  to  be  fired 
away  first,  using  the  gun  as  a  single-shooter,  and  the  maga 
zine  to  be  emptied  last." 

Aside  from  the  magazine-guns  proper,  which 
depend  on  an  automatic  feed,  many  devices  called 


MAGELLAN 


462 


MAILED  CHEEKS 


detachable  magazines  have  been  invented,  some 
of  them  attached  to  the  person  of  the  firer,  as 
well  as  to  the  guri.  (See  report  above,  1873  ;  also 
Lieut.  Greene's  Keport  on  Kusso-Turkish  War, 
1878.) 

These  devices  occupy  an  intermediate  place 
between  the  single  breech-loader  and  the  per 
fected  magazine-gun,  but  owing  to  the  rapid 
development  of  the  latter  arm  have  not  been 
received  with  favor. 

As  with  machine-guns,  but  owing  to  the  suc 
cess  of  the  Spencer,  in  a  less  degree,  magazine- 
guns  have  yet  to  win  their  spurs  by  actual  con 
flict  in  battle  with  single  breech-loaders  of  good 
quality  in  the  hands  of  equally  good  troops. 

Speculation  as  to  their  future  Is  useless,  except 
as  far  as  it  shows  the  general  drift  of  public  opin 
ion  in  their  direction.  It  is  safe  to  say  that  they 
will  not  be  generally  adopted  until  the  develop 
ment  of  many  other  questions  affecting  the  sup 
ply  of  their  ammunition  has  been  greatly  ad 
vanced. — Henry  Metcalfe,  Captain  U.  S.  Army. 

Magellan,  or  Magalhaens,  Fernando  de.  A 
famous  Portuguese  navigator,  born  about  1470 ; 
died  April  27,  1521.  He  served  under  Albu 
querque  in  the  East  Indies,  and  especially  dis 
tinguished  himself  at  the  taking  of  Malacca,  in 
1511.  He  afterwards  entered  the  Spanish  ser 
vice,  and  was  intrusted  by  Charles  v .  with  the 
command  of  a  fleet  destined  to  explore  a  passage 
to  the  Molucca  Islands  by  sailing  westward.  The 
voyage  was  begun  September  20,  1519.  About 
the  end  of  October,  1520,  he  entered  the  strait 
since  called  after  him,  and  November  27,  dis 
covered  and  named  the  Pacific  Ocean.  Continu 
ing  his  course,  he  arrived  at  the  Ladrone  Islands 
about  March  6,  1521,  and  subsequently  at  the 
Philippines,  on  one  of  which  he  lost  his  life  in  a 
skirmish  with  the  natives,  or,  as  some  accounts 
state,  by  the  mutiny  of  his  crew.  One  of  his 
ships,  with  18  men,  escaped,  and  reached  Seville, 
September  8,  1552,  under  Sebastian  del  Cano, 
who  first  circumnavigated  the  globe.  An  Ital 
ian  named  Pigafetta,  who  accompanied  Magel 
lan,  kept  a  journal  of  this  last  voyage,  which  was 
published. 

MAGELLANIC  CLOUDS.  Nebulous  patches  near 
the  south  pole  of  the  heavens.  Early  voyagers 
called  them  the  "  Cape  Clouds,"  afterward  they 
were  named  for  Magellan.  They  contain  a  great 
number  of  single  stars  from  the  fifth  to  the  elev 
enth  magnitude  ;  many  star-clusters,  irregular, 
oval,  and  globular  ;  and  nebulae.  The  large  cloud 
occupies  a  space  of  40  square  degrees  ;  the  small 
one  is  only  one-fourth  as  large. 

MAGELLAN  JACKET.  A  name  given  to  a 
watch-coat  with  a  hood,  worn  in  high  latitudes, 
— first  used  by  Cook's  people. 

Magged.  Worn,  fretted,  and  stretched  ;  as,  a 
magged  brace. 

Magnet.  A  substance  which  has  the  property 
of  attracting  iron  and  some  of  its  ores,  and  which, 
when  suspended  freely,  adjusts  itself  in  the  plane 
of  the  meridian.  A  natural  magnet  is  known  by 
various  names  in  different  parts  of  the  world. 
Pliny  called  it  ferrum  vivum ;  the  Chinese  call 
it  tchu-chy,  the  directing  stone  ;  in  Swedish  it  is 
segel-sten,  the  seeing  stone ;  in  Icelandic,  leider- 
stein,  the  leading  stone ;  and  in  English,  load 
stone  or  lodestone  (Sax.  Iceden,  to  lead). 

An  artificial  magnet  is  one  to  which  polarity  has 
been  communicated  by  artificial  means.  When  a 


bar  remains  long  in  the  magnetic  meridian  its 
particles  acquire  the  magnetic  polarity.  On  board 
ship  the  iron-work  often  becomes  magnetized 
and  affects  the  local  deviation  of  the  compass. 
Spare  compass-cards  should  be  stowed  with  the 
north  pole  of  one  to  the  south  pole  of  the  other. 
According  to  their  forms  artificial  magnets  are 
called  bar-magnets,  horse-shoe  magnets,  compound 
magnets,  etc. 

MAGNETIC  Axis.  The  direction  of  the  mag 
netic  polarization  of  a  needle. 

MAGNETIC  EQUATOR.  A  line  encircling  the 
earth,  on  every  point  of  which  the  dipping- 
needle  remains  horizontal, — the  line  of  no  dip. 
It  crosses  the  terrestrial  equator  in  several  places, 
never  receding  from  it  more  than  12°  ;  the  posi 
tions  of  the  two  nearly  coincide  in  the  part  of  the 
Pacific  where  there  are  no  islands,  and  diverge 
most  when  crossing  large  bodies  of  land,  as  Africa 
and  South  America. 

MAGNETIC  MERIDIAN.  The  direction  which 
a  magnet  assumes  when  suspended  freely,  and 
not  subject  to  local  attraction  or  disturbing  in 
fluences. 

MAGNETIC  NEEDLE.  A  slender  bar  or  plate 
of  magnetized  steel. 

MAGNETIC  POLES.  Two  spots,  or  rather  short 
lines,  on  the  earth's  surface  where  the  dipping- 
needle  assumes  a  position  perpendicular  to  the 
horizon.  See  COMPASS,  THE  MARINER'S. 

Magnitude  of  Stars.  Astronomers  have  dis 
tinguished  the  fixed  stars  according  to  apparent 
brightness.  The  brightest  stars,  of  which  there 
.are  about  20,  are  of  the  first  magnitude  ;  stars  of 
second  magnitude  number  about  50 ;  of  third 
magnitude,  200,  and  so  on,  the  numbers  increas 
ing  rapidly  in  the  lower  classes.  The  seventh 
magnitude  includes  the  smallest  stars  visible  to 
.the  naked  eye.  The  stars  of  less  than  the  seventh 
magnitude  are  known  as  telescopic  stars.  The 
divisions  between  the  magnitudes  are  not  clearly 
defined,  being  arbitrary  and  conventional. 

Magnus-hitch.  A  round  turn  around  a  spar, 
the  turn  being  jammed  by  a  half-hitch  around 
the  spar  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  standing 
part. 

Magootee.  A  musical  instrument  used  by 
the  snake-charmers  of  the  East  Indies.  In  it  is 
a  mirror,  on  which  the  snakes  fix  their  eyes  in 
dancing. 

Mahone,  Mahonna,  or  Maon.  A  Turkish 
flat-bottomed  vessel  of  burden,  mentioned  among 
the  ships  of  Soliman  Pasha  in  the  siege  of  Diu. 

Maid.     A  name  of  the  skate. 

Maiden.  A  fortress  which  has  never  been 
taken. 

Maigre.  A  fish  of  the  family  Scicenidce,  com 
mon  in  the  Mediterranean.  It  is  from  3  to  6 
feet  long,  and  so  strong  that  a  stroke  of  its  tail 
will  throw  a  man  down.  It  is  one  of  those  fishes 
which  emit  a  purring  or  buzzing  sound,  and  has 
been  heard  from  a  depth  of  120  feet.  It  is  the 
umbrina  of  the  Romans.  The  stones  of  its  ears 
were  formerly  set  in  gold  and  worn  around  the 
neck,  imaginary  virtues  being  ascribed  to  them, 
particularly  in  the  cure  of  colic  ;  but  it  was  requi 
site  that  they  should  be  obtained  as  a  gift,  and 
not  by  purchase. 

Mail-shell.     A  name  for  the  chiton. 

Mailed  Cheeks.  A  family  of  acanthopterous 
fishes  characterized  by  an  extension  of  certain 
sub-orbital  bones  to  the  gill-covers  to  form  a  bony 


MAIN 


463 


MALTA 


armor  for  the  cheeks.  To  this  family  belong  the 
gurnards,  bull-heads,  and  sticklebacks. 

Main.  A  continent  or  mainland.  The  great 
sea  as  distinguished  from  an  arm.  The  chief 
part  of  anything.  The  distinguishing  charac 
teristic  of  all  those  articles  belonging  to,  or  con 
nected  with,  the  principal  mast  in  a  vessel. 

MAIN-BOOM.  The  boom  that  extends  the  foot 
of  a  boom-mainsail. 

MAIN-BRACE  The  brace  attached  to  the 
main-yard.  (See  BRACE.)  Splicing  the  main- 
brace,  a  figurative  expression  for  drinking  spirits. 

MAIN-CENTRE.  In  side-lever  engines  it  is  the 
shaft  on  which  the  levers  vibrate;  in  general  it 
is  the  centre  of  the  heaviest  revolving  part. 

MAIN  CHECK-VALVE.  An  automatic  valve 
connecting  the  feed-pipe  to  the  boiler,  to  prevent 
the  water  running  out  of  the  boiler  in  case  the 
feed-pipe  bursts,  etc. 

MAIN-COURSE.     A  square  mainsail. 

MAIN-DECK.  A  gun-deck  next  below  the 
spar-deck. 

MAIN-HATCH.  The  hatch  just  forward  of  the 
mainmast. 

MAIN-HOLD.  The  division  of  the  hold  in  the 
vicinity  of  the  main-hatch. 

MAIN-LINK.  One  of  the  pieces  in  the  parallel 
motion  of  a  beam-engine,  connecting  the  piston- 
rod  to  the  beam  ;  the  piece  connecting  the  back 
ing  and  go-ahead  eccentric-rods  of  a  steam- 
engine  for  reversing  motion. 

MAINMAST.  The  principal  mast, — the  second 
from  the  bow.  For  the  rigging  of  the  mainmast, 
see  under  proper  heads. 

MAIN  MAST-MAN.  A  man  stationed  to  attend 
to  the  gear  of  the  mainmast.  See  MAST-MAN. 

MAIN-PIECE.    The  principal  piece  of  the  head. 

MAIN-ROYAL.     See  EOYAL. 

MAINSAIL.  The  sail  bent  to  the  main-yard. 
The  principal  sail  of  a  fore-and-after.  For  the 
rigging  of  the  mainsail,  see  under  proper  heads. 

MAINSAIL  HAUL  !  The  order  to  swing  the 
after  yards  in  tacking. 

MAIN-STAY-SAIL.  A  sail  set  on  the  mainstay ; 
it  is  used  only  in  bad  weather,  and  is  generally 
called  the  main  storm-stay-sail. 

MAIN  STAY-TACKLE.    'See  TRIATIC  STAY. 

MAIN  STORM-STAY-SAIL.  See  MAIN-STAY 
SAIL. 

MAIN-TOP.     See  TOP. 

MAIN  TOP-BOWLINE.  As  long  as  the  main  top- 
bowline,  a  sailor's  simile  for  anything  of  absurd 
length. 

MAIN-TOPGALLANT.    See  TOPGALLANT. 

MAIN-TOPMAST.     SEE  TOPMAST. 

MAIN-TOPSAIL.    See  TOPSAIL. 

MAIN-TOPSAIL  HAUL!  The  order  to  swing 
the  after  yards,  in  tacking,  when  the  mainsail  is 
not  set. 

MAIN-TRYSAIL.     See  TRYSAIL. 

MAIN -WALES.  An  assemblage  of  planks 
placed  upon  the  widest  part  of  the  body. 

MAIN-YARD.  The  lower  yard  across  the  main 
mast.  For  the  rigging  of  the  main-yard,  see 
under  proper  heads. 

MAIN-YARDMAN.  A  man  stationed  to  loose, 
furl,  reef,  etc.,  the  mainsail  and  rig  the  pur 
chases  for  swaying  up  or  striking  the  main- 
yard, — generally  a  quartermaster,  quarter-gun 
ner,  or  afterguardsman.  The  term  is  also  applied 
to  a  man  on  the  sick-list. 

Make.     To  make  bad  weather,  to  roll  and  pitch 


violently  in  a  moderate  sea, — generally  caused  by 
injudicious  stowage  or  negligent  steering.  To 
make  fast,  to  belay  a  rope.  To  make  free  with 
the  land,  to  approach  closely  the  shore.  Make 
it  sol  the  order  of  the  commanding  officer  to 
strike  the  bell  when  8  A.M.,  12  M.,  or  8  P.M.  is 
reported.  To  make  sail,  to  clap  on  additional 
canvas.  To  make  the  land,  to  sight  it  from  a 
distance  coming  from  seaward.  To  make  water, 
to  leak.  A  ship  makes  foul  water  when  the 
water  is  so  shallow  that  her  keel  stirs  up  the 
mud.  To  make  off",  to  cut  into  pieces  the  blub 
ber  of  a  whale. 

Malafiges.  A  sailor's  name  for  the  goylir,  a 
small  sea-bird  supposed  to  precede  a  storm. 

Malaga  is  situated  on  a  bay  of  the  Mediterra 
nean,  in  the  southern  part  of  Spain,  in  lat.  36° 
43'  5"  N.,  Ion.  4°  26'  E.  The  principal  manu 
factures  are  linen,  woolen,  and  cotton  fabrics, 
sail-cloth,  rope,  paper,  hats,  leather,  and  soap. 
The  haroor  is  capable  of  holding  a  large  number 
of  ships,  and  can  be  entered  during  any  wind. 
The  exports  consist  of  wines,  olive'oil,  figs,  al 
monds,  raisins,  grapes,  lead,  iron,  etc.  Pop. 
95,000. 

Malapterurus.  A  genus  of  small  malacopter- 
ygious  fishes,  possessing  a  high  degree  of  elec 
trical  power  (Malapterurus  electricus).  M.  elec- 
tricus  is  found  in  the  Nile. 

Malduck.  One  of  the  names  given  to  the 
fulmar,  Procellaria  glacialis. 

Male-thread.  The  thread  of  a  bolt,— that  of 
the  nut,  or  internal  thread,  being  called  a  female- 
thread. 

Malingerer.  One  who  counterfeits  illness  for 
the  purpose  of  avoiding  duty. 

Mallemak,  or  Mollymauk.  A  sea-bird ;  the 
Procellaria  glacialis,  called  also  fulmar. 

Mallemaroking.  The  visiting  and  carousing 
of  seamen  in  the  Greenland  ships. 

Mallet.  A  hammer-shaped  wooden  imple 
ment.  A  cal king-mallet  is  used  to  drive  oakum 
into  the  seams  ;  its  head  is  long,  cylindrical,  and 
hooped  with  iron.  A  serving-mallet  is  used  as  a 
lever  in  putting  on  service,  wrapping  it  more 
tightly  than  could  be  done  by  hand 

Mallotus.  A  genus  of  small  fishes  found 
along  the  coast  of  Greenland  ;  the  capelan. 

Malstrom.  The  most  famous  whirlpool  in  the 
world,  off  the  Norwegian  coast,  between  two  of 
the  Loffoden  Isles.  The  current  runs  6  hours  in  one 
direction  and  then  6  hours  in  the  opposite  way, 
producing  violent  whirls.  The  depth  of  water  is 
about  20  fathoms,  while  immediately  to  the  west 
it  is  over  100  fathoms.  The  whirlpool  is  most 
violent  at  the  turn  of  the  tide,  and  if  at  this  time 
the  wind  blows  against  the  current  the  sea  be 
comes  extremely  dangerous.  The  stories  of  ships, 
whales,  etc.,  being  swallowed  up  in  the  vortex 
are  mere  fables,  but  there  is  no  doubt  that  a  ship 
would  be  in  danger  of  being  dashed  upon  the 
rocks,  and  whales  have  been  found  stranded  on 
the  coast  of  Flagstadt  from  the  same  cause. 

Malta.  An  island  in  the  Mediterranean  whose 
central  position  makes  it  important  as  a  commer 
cial  depot  and  of  great  value  as  a  naval  station. 
It  belongs  to  Great  Britain,  and  is  situated  62 
miles  S.S.W.  of  Sicily,  and  197  miles  N.  of 
Africa.  Lat.  35°  53'  48"  N. ;  Ion.  14°  31'  15" 
E.  On  all  sides  except  the  south  its  coast-line  is 
deeply  indented.  Its  largest  bays  are  those  of 
Mursa  and  Sirocco  on  the  S.W.,  and  Melleha 


MALTHA 


464 


MANLY 


and  St.  Paul's  on  the  N.E. ;  but  the  most  impor 
tant  in  every  respect  is  the  double  bay  formed  by 
the  opposite  sides  of  the  remarkable  peninsula 
on  which  the  capital,  Valetta,  stands.  Malta  is 
strongly  fortified,  and  is  provided  with  excellent 
docks.  Pop.  150,000. 

Maltha.     Mineral  pitch. 

Man.  To  furnish  with  a  complement  of  men ; 
as,  to  man  a  boat,  to  man  a  rope,  etc.  One  of 
the  ship's  complement,  be  he  seaman,  boy,  or 
marine. 

MAN-BOUND.  Detained  in  port  in  consequence 
of  being  short-handed. 

MAN-BROKER.     A  boarding-house  master. 

MAN-HANDLE.  To  move  by  the  force  of  men 
without  the  assistance  of  levers  or  purchases  of 
any  kind. 

MAN-HOLE.  A  hole  in  a  boiler,  tank,  etc., 
designed  for  the  entrance  of  a  man,  for  examina 
tion,  cleaning,  repairs,  etc. ;  it  is  closed  by  a  piece 
called  a  man-hole  plate. 

MAN-OF-WAR.     A  national  vessel. 

MAN-OF-WAR  BIRD.     See  FRIGATE-BIRD. 

MAN-OF-WAR  FASHION.  A  neat,  orderly,  sea- 
manlike  manner. 

MAN-OF-WAR'S  MAN.  One  of  the  crew  of  a 
man-of-war,  as  distinguished  from  a  sailor  in 
the  merchant  marine. 

MAN  OVERBOARD!  The  alarm  when  a  person 
has  fallen  overboard.  See  EMERGENCIES  AT 
SEA. 

MAN-ROPE.  A  rope  at  each  side  of  a  ladder 
as  an  assistance  in  getting  up  and  down. 

MAN-ROPE  KNOT.  A  knot  in  the  upper  end 
of  a  man-rope ;  it  is  double  walled  and  double 
crowned. 

MAN-TRAP.  An  open  hatch,  an  insecure  lad 
der,  or  anything  left  unguarded  and  therefore 
likely  to  cause  an  accident  to  a  man. 

Manametor.  An  instrument  for  measuring 
the  elastic  force  of  gases.  A  pressure-gauge. 

Manarvel.     To  pilfer  small  stores. 

Manatee,  Manati,  or  Sea-cow  (Manatus  Amer- 
icanus).  A  herbivorous  aquatic  animal  of  the 
order  Sirenia,  found  in  the  West  Indies  and 
South  American  rivers.  Another  species  (Ma 
natus  Senegalensis)  inhabits  the  west  coast  of 
Africa. 

Manatidse.  A  family  of  Cetacea,  including 
all  the  herbivorous  section  of  the1  order.  They 
differ  from  the  ordinary  Cetacea  in  having  swim 
ming-paws  rather  than  pectoral  fins.  It  is  sup 
posed  that  many  of  the  stories  of  mermaids 
originated  in  some  of  the  females  being  seen  with 
their  head  and  breasts  raised  out  of  water. 

Manche,  or  Mangalore.  A  flat-bottomed 
boat  of  burden,  about  25  to  35  feet  long,  6  or  7 
feet  broad,  and  4  or  5  feet  deep,  for  landing  the 
cargoes  of  the  patamira,  which  are  discharged 
and  loaded  at  the  mouth  of  the  river.  These 
boats  are  sewed  together  like  the  Masulah  boats 
of  the  Madras.  The  Manche  of  Calicut^  is  very 
similar  to  the  foregoing,  with  the  exception  of  a 
raking  stem  for  the  purpose  of  taking  the 
beach. 

Manchineel.  Hippomane  mancinella,  a  tree 
which  grows  to  a  vast  size  on  the  coasts  of  the 
Caribbee  Isles,  and  neighboring  continent.  The 
fruit  and  sap  are  highly  poisonous,  but  sleeping 
beneath  the  branches  does  not  cause  death,  as  was 
erroneously  supposed.  See  UPAS. 

Manganese.     A  metal  resembling  cast  iron. 


Equivalent,  27.6;  symbol,  Mn ;  specific  gravity, 
8. 

Manger.  A  small  space  athwart  the  deck  of 
a  ship  of  war  immediately  abaft  the  hawse-holes, 
and  separated  on  the  after  part  from  the  rest  of 
the  deck  by  the  manger-board,  a  strong  coaming 
rather  higher  than  the  hawse-holes,  serving  to 
prevent  the  ingress  of  the  sea  when  the  cables 
are  bent. 

Mangrove.     The  mango-fish. 

Manifest.  A  list  of  the  vessel's  cargo,  con 
taining  the  marks  and  number  of  each  separate 
package,  the  names  of  the  shippers  and  consign 
ees,  a  specification  of  the  quantity  of  goods  con 
tained  in  each  package,  as  rum,  sugar,  etc.,  and 
also  an  account  of  the  freight  corresponding  with 
the  bills  of  lading. 

Manila,  the  capital  of  all  the  Philippine  Isl 
ands,  situated  on  the  island  of  Luzon,  at  the 
mouth  of  the  river  Pasig,  in  lat.  14°  36'  N., 
Ion.  121°  E.  Vessels  of  some  hundred  tons  may 
come  up  as  far  as  the  bridge.  The  city  is  very 
strongly  fortified.  A  royal  marine  school,  com 
mercial  school,  barracks,  arsenal,  and  custom 
house  are  among  the  principal  buildings.  It  is 
admirably  situated  for  trade,  and  is  the  centre  to 
which  all  the  productions  of  the  Philippine  Isl 
ands  flow,  and  its  exports  consist  of  sugar,  to 
bacco,  indigo,  and  manilla  hemp,  gold-dust,  cof 
fee,  etc.,  but  it  is  also  widely  known  for  its  cigars 
and  cheroots.  Pop.  about  100,000. 

Manilla,  or  Manila.  A  fibrous  material  ob 
tained  from  the  Musa  textilis,  a  plant  allied  to 
the  banana ;  used  for  hawsers  and  running-gear. 
It  is  light  and  flexible,  and  does  not  require 
tarring. 

Manly,  John,  Captain  U.S.N.  In  command 
of  the  schooner  "  Lee,"  Capt.  Manly,  acting,  it 
is  believed,  under  the  authority  of  Gen.  Wash 
ington,  in  November,  1775,  captured  the  trans 
port  "Nancy,"  loaded  with  munitions  of  war 
and  bound  to  Boston  for  the  use  of  the  British 
army ;  thus  transferring  the  ownership  and  use  of 
the  cargo  from  the  British  to  the  American  army. 
The  event  was  announced  in  a  letter  from  Gen. 
Washington  to  Congress  of  30th  November  as 
one  of  great  importance,  furnishing  our  army 
with  many  essential  articles  of  which"  it  had  been 
in  great  want.  While  in  this  command  Capt. 
Manly  made  other  valuable  captures.  His  zeal 
and  enterprise  attracted  the  attention  of  Con 
gress,  and  that  body,  on  the  17th  April,  1776,  ap 
pointed  him  a  captain  in  the  navy,  and  gave  him 
the  command  of  the  frigate  then  building  in 
Massachusetts  Bay,  afterwards  called  the  "  Han 
cock,"  of  32  guns.  In  this  frigate,  after  a  severe 
action  of  more  than  an  hour,  Capt.  Manly  cap 
tured  the  "Fox,"  of  28  guns,  nnd  ordered  her 
into  port,  but  she  was  recaptured  by  the  "  Flora" 
of  32  guns.  In  July,  1777,  Capt.  Manly,  after 
a  chase  of  more  than  thirty  hours,  was  captured 
by  the  frigate  "Rainbow,"  Sir  George  Collier, 
of  40  guns,  and  the  brig  "Victor."  Capt. 
Manly  displayed  great  seamanship  in  his  attempt 
to  escape  from  this  greatly  superior  force,  but 
fortune  proved  unpropitious  in  this  instance,  and 
the  "Hancock"  was  surrendered.  The  "Bos 
ton,"  Capt.  Hector  McNiel,  was  in  company 
with  the  "Hancock"  when  the  "Rainbow"  was 
first  discovered,  but  she  afforded  no  assistance. 
Capt.  McNiel  was  dismissed  from  the  service  for 
his  conduct  in  separating  from  the  "  Hancock." 


MANNHEIM 


4S5 


MARINE  CORPS 


The  conduct  of  Capt.  Manly  was  investigated, 
but  the  result  left  him  without  reproach.  Hav 
ing  been  exchanged,  he  took  command  of  the 
privateer  "Cumberland,"  and  while  cruising 
in  her  was  captured  by  the  frigate  "  Pomona" 
and  carried  into  Barbadoes.  Being  there  denied 
the  privilege  of  parole,  he  made  his  escape,  and 
we  next  find  him  in  command  of  the  privateer 
"Jason,"  in  which  vessel  he  was,  in  July,  1779, 
attacked  by  two  British  privateers,  one  of  18, 
the  other  of  16  guns.  Reserving  his  fire,  Capt. 
Manly  ran  between  them,  and  poured  his  star 
board  broadside  into  one  and  his  larboard  broad 
side  into  the  other,  and  both  struck  their  colors 
to  him.  In  September,  1782,  Capt.  Manly  was 
appointed  to  the  "Hague"  (formerly  the 
"  Deane'7).  Cruising  in  the  West  Indies  he 
made  a  wonderful  escape  from  an  overwhelming 
force,  the  particulars  of  which  are  not,  however, 
sufficiently  known  to  be  stated  with  any  degree  of 
confidence.  An  account  of  his  having  grounded 
on  a  sand-bank  near  Guadaloupe,  and  while  in 
that  situation  having  sustained  the  broadsides 
of  four  ships  of  the  line  within  point-blank  shot 
for  three  da^ys,  has  been  published,  but  is  prob 
ably  mythical.  The  affair,  however,  gained  Capt. 
Manly  much  eclat,  and  on  his  safe  return  to 
Boston  he  was  received  with  distinguished  atten 
tion  by  the  citizens.  He  died  in  Boston  in  1793. 

Mannheim,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Rhine, 
between  it  and  the  Neckar,  in  the  grand  duchy 
of  Baden,  is  admirably  situated  for  commerce 
owing  to  its  position  on  two  important  navigable 
rivers  and  its  excellent  artificial  port.  The 
trade  has  been  very  much  extended,  and  it  is 
now  the  first  commercial  town  of  the  duchy. 
The  principal  articles  of  trade  are  tobacco,  corn, 
petroleum,  fruits,  wine,  hops,  ironmongery,  cat 
tle,  etc.  Pop.  47,000. 

Mantillis.  A  kind  of  shield  anciently  fixed 
upon  the  tops  of  ships  as  a  cover  for  archers. 

Mantissa.     The  decimal  part  of  a  logarithm. 

Map.  A  representation  upon  a  plane  of,  or  a 
portion  of,  the  surface  of  the  terrestrial  or  celes 
tial  sphere.  When  the  water  is  the  principal 
subject  of  consideration,  the  delineation  is  known 
as  a  chart  (which  see). 

Marabut.  A  sail  which  galleys  hoisted  in 
bad  weather. 

Maranhao  is  a  city  of  Brazil,  situated  on  the 
island  of  Maranhao,  in  lat.  23  31'  S.,  Ion.  44°  18' 
W.  On  the  north  and  south  it  is  encircled  by 
the  small  streams  Sao  Francisco  and  Maranhao, 
at  the  mouths  of  which  is  a  basin  accessible  at 
high-water  to  vessels  drawing  20  feet.  The 
trade  is  of  great  importance,  the  provinces  of 
Para,  Piauhy,  Ceara,  Rio  Grande  do  Morte,  and 
Gayaz  having  here  the  entrep6t  for  their  prod 
uce.  The  principal  exports  are  rice,  cotton, 
rum,  drugs,  isinglass,  and  hides.  Pop.  32,000. 

Marblehead,  a  port  of  entry  in  Essex  County, 
Mass.,  on  Massachusetts  Bay,  is  situated  on  a 
small,  uneven,  and  very  rocky  peninsula.  Its 
harbor  is  narrow,  deep,  and  safe,  and  will  admit 
the  largest  vessels.  Its  prosperity  is  partly  de 
rived  from  commerce  and  the  fisheries,  and 
many  vessels  are  owned  by  its  citizens.  Pop. 
8000. 

Marches.     Borders  or  confines  of  a  country. 

Marena.  A  kind  of  fish  somewhat  like  a 
pilchard. 

Mare's  Tails.  A  peculiar  modification  of  the 
30 


cirrus,  indicating  wind.  They  consist  of  wisps, 
fibres,  and  streaks. 

Margot.  A  fish  of  the  perch  kind,  found  in 
the  waters  of  Carolina. 

Marinarus.  An  old  term  for  a  sea-faring 
man. 

Marinate.  To  salt  fish  and  afterwards  pre 
serve  it  in  oil  or  vinegar. 

Marine.  Pertaining  to  the  sea.  A  sea-soldier. 
Dead  marine,  an  empty  bottle. 

MARINE  BAROMETER.  A  barometer  adapted 
for  use  at  sea,  the  tube  being  contracted  to  avoid 
sudden  oscillations  in  consequence  of  the  rolling 
of  a  vessel. 

MARINE  GLUE.     See  GLUE,  MARINE. 

MARINE  GOVERNOR.  A  governor  for  marine 
engines,  intended  to  counteract  the  effect  of  the 
ship's  motion  on  the  engine,  and  prevent  racing. 
See  GOVERNOR. 

MARINE  OFFICER.  An  officer  of  the  marine 
corps  (which  see). 

Marine  Corps.  Soldiers  enlisted  for  service 
either  on  shore  or  on  board  of  ships  of  war  are 
known  by  the  distinctive  name  of  Marines.  In 
nearly  all  maritime  countries,  claiming  to  be  war 
powers,  they  constitute  a  separate  military  body, 
trained  to  fight  either  as  infantrymen  or  artil 
lerists,  and  especially  for  participation  in  naval 
engagements.  They  are  organized,  clothed,  and 
equipped  very  much  as  soldiers  of  the  land  forces, 
and  their  preliminary  instruction  is  usually  the 
same.  For  these  reasons  they  become  qualified 
for  duty  with  either  the  army  or  navy,  and  there 
fore  are  of  double  value  to  the  nation  which  em 
ploys  them.  Their  headquarters,  barracks,  and 
depots  are  on  shore,  and  from  them  details  are 
made  when  required  for  service  on  shipboard. 
These  detachments  vary  in  size  with  the  ship, 
from  a  dozen  men  under  a  sergeant  to  a  hundred 
under  one  or  more  commissioned  officers,  and  are 
all  called  "  marine  guards." 

The  marine  guard  of  a  man-of-war  has  been 
aptly  described  by  one  writer  as  "  its  backbone," 
and  by  another  as  "the  bulwark  between  the 
cabin  and  the  forecastle."  To  fully  appreciate 
the  force  of  the  latter  comparison  one  needs  to 
bear  in  mind  that  all  nations  contribute  quotas 
to  the  vast  throng  which  follows  the  sea,  and  that 
in  the  larger  vessels  are  often  found  motley  crews 
containing  elements  exceedingly  heterogeneous 
and  reckless,  sometimes  desperate,  and  always 
with  capacities  for  mischief  highly  cultivated. 
The  muster-roll  of  the  U.  S.  steamer  "  Shenan- 
doah,"  a  ship  of  medium  size,  serving  in  the 
European  Squadron,  1873,  at  one  time  exhibited 
21  nationalities,  some  scarcely  half-civilized.  In 
the  frigates  and  large  ironclads  the  proportion 
of  officers  to  crew  is  as  1  to  12,  and  sometimes  as 
1  to  18,  and  the  result  of  a  mutinous  conflict  with 
such  odds,  and  without  any  interposition  or  as 
sistance,  could  hardly  fail  to  be  most  lamentable. 
Unfortunately,  such  things  have  happened  in 
the  past,  but  "the  bulwark,"  although  severely 
tested,  has  seldom  been  found  wanting.  The 
support  afforded  by  "a  steady  column  of  bayo 
nets,"  remarked  Rear-Admiral  Chas.  Stewart, 
"has  made  mutinies  scarce."  His  successor,  as 
the  senior  officer  of  the  American  navy,  Admi 
ral  Farragut,  "  always  deemed  the  marine  guard 
one  of  the  great  essentials  of  a  man-of-war;" 
and  the  distinguished  and  accomplished  Admiral 
Wilkes  wrote :  "  The  marines  constitute  the  great 


MAEINE   CORPS 


466 


MAEINE   CORPS 


(I  had  almost  said  the  only)  difference  between 
a  man-of-war  and  a  privateer."  Commodore 
Perry,  also  of  world-wide  fame,  said  :  "  Marines 
on  board  of  ships  of  war  are  not  only  necessary 
to  the  proper  preservation  of  discipline,  but  are 
useful  in  the  ordinary  duties  of  the  vessel ;"  and 
the  gallant  and  impetuous  Porter  (present  admi 
ral  of  the  navy)  declared:  "If  the  marines  are 
abolished,  half  the  efficiency  of  the  navy  will  be 
destroyed.  They  are  as  necessary  to  the  well- 
being  of  a  ship  as  the  officers."  Long  before 
them  the  immortal  Nelson  was  wont  to  remark 
that  when  he  became  first  lord  of  the  admiralty 
"every  fleet  should  have  a  perfect  battalion  of 
marines,"  and  the  Earl  of  St.  Vincent,  another 
famous  English  admiral,  urged  upon  his  coun 
trymen  that  "  without  a  large  body  of  marines 
we  shall  be  long,  very  long,  before  an  efficient 
fleet  can  be  sent  to  sea." 

The  origin  of  the  marine  service  is  of  very 
great  antiquity.  Capt.  Luce,  of  the  TJ.  S.  Navy, 
in  a  most  interesting  chapter  written  for  "  The 
History  of  the  TJ.  S.  Marine  Corps,"  prepared  by 
Capt.  R.  S.  Collum,  U.S.M.C.,  and  M.  Almy 
Aldrich,  Esq.  (Boston,  1875),  recites  that  the 
employment  of  marines  as  a  part  of  the  regular 
complement  of  vessels  of  war  was  common  to  the 
Phoenicians  and  to  all  of  the  maritime  states  of 
Greece  at  least  five  centuries  before  the  Christian 
era.  Prior  to  that  time  the  warriors  were  the 
oarsmen ;  but  as  naval  science  progressed  and 
the  size  of  vessels  increased,  there  gradually 
sprang  up  two  distinct  classes,  which  together 
made  up  the  personnel  of  the  navies  about  500 
B.C.  These  were  the  rowers,  or  seamen  proper, 
who  had  the  management  of  the  vessel,  oars,  and 
sails,  and  the  marines  or  fighting  men.  Marines 
are  specially  mentioned  in  the'  accounts  of  the 
battle  of  Lade,  in  the  time  of  Darius,  king  of 
Persia,  about  497  B.C.  In  this  battle  between  the 
Greeks  and  Persians,  over  100  Greek  ships  had 
each  "forty  armed  citizens  on  board,  and  those 
picked  men."  The  Persians  also  carried  soldiers 
in  their  vessels.  To  the  Greek  soldiers  was  given 
the  name  epibatce,  a  term  which  all  authorities 
agree  in  rendering  into  English  by  the  word 
marines. 

The  largest  number  of  these  men  found  on 
board  of  the  regular  war-ships  at  this  period  was 
40.  Plutarch  says  that  at  Salamis  each  Greek 
trireme  carried  18.  Thucydides  makes  frequent 
mention  of  them  in  his  writings,  and  Boeckh  re 
marks  that  even  in  those  ancient  times  these  epi- 
batce.  were  a  corps  entirely  distinct  from  the  land 
soldiers  and  belonged  to  the  vessels.  They  had, 
moreover,  their  own  officers,  called  trlerarchoi. 
During  the  naval  supremacy  of  Rome,  the  larger 
vessels  carried  300  rowers  and  120  marines  (clas- 
siarii  milites),  and  in  fighting,  the  latter  "used 
arrows  and  darts  at  a  distance,  spears  and  swords 
in  close  combat,  and  as  vessels  increased  in  size 
they  added  the  balistce  and  turres  (turrets),  and 
fought  from  them  as  from  castles  on  land." 

In  the  early  history  of  the  English  navv  we 
read  of  men-at-arms  still  serving  afloat,  their 
armor  and  weapons  differing  but  little  from  those 
of  the  ancients.  The  Scandinavians  called  them 
bat-karler,  or  sea-soldiers,  that  is,  carls  or  sturdy 
fellows  who  fought  in  boats.  Later,  they  were 
called  supra-salientes,  a  word  still  preserved  in 
the  Spanish  sobiesaliente,  a  military  term  which 
literally  means  "surpassing,  excellent."  It  is 


recorded  that  Genoese  cross-bowmen,  the  best 
marines  of  the  period,  were  in  the  13th  century 
employed  and  very  highly  esteemed  in  the  Eng 
lish  ships,  and  that  in  August,  1387,  Sir  Henry 
Percy  ("  Gunpowder  Percy")  was  appointed 
captain  of  all  the  men-at-arms  and  archers  of  the 
fleet.  He  was,  in  fact,  commandant  of  marines. 

The  introduction  and  gradual  increase  of  naval 
ordnance  caused  the  occupation  of  men-at-arms 
afloat  to  become  auxiliary  instead  of  principal, 
and  the  employment  of  marines  in  their  present 
form  seems  to  date  from  1653,  when  Admiral 
Blake  embarked  a  number  of  soldiers  to  act  as 
small-armsmen  in  the  battle  with  Von  Tromp, 
off  Portland.  The  famous  corps  of  marines  of 
Great  Britain  was  originally  instituted  in  1664. 
Beaude  states  that  in  1684  mention  is  made  of 
the  Duke  of  York's  "  maritime  regiment  of  foot," 
and  that  during  the  reign  of  William  III.  several 
regiments  of  foot  were  placed  on  the  marine  es 
tablishment,  but  subsequently  disbanded.  In 
the  beginning  of  the  reign  of  Queen  Anne  "six 
regiments  of  maritime  soldiers''  were  raised,  and 
these  also  were  disbanded  in  1749.  The  neces 
sity  for  this  kind  of  troops  was  so  pressing,  how 
ever,  that  six  years  later  130  companies,  num 
bering  above  5000  men,  were  raised  upon  the 
recommendation  of  the  great  English  admiral, 
Lord  Anson,  and  it  is  recorded  that,  in  1760,  this 
force  had  grown  to  18,000.  We  are  also  in 
formed  that  in  1740  three  regiments  of  marines 
were  raised  in  America,  and  assembled  at  New 
York.  All  of  the  officers,  except  the  captains  of 
companies,  who  were  colonists,  nominated  by  the 
provinces,  were  appointed  by  the  crown,  and 
Col.  Spotiswood,  of  Virginia,  was  made  colonel 
commandant  of  the  whole.  This  is  a  grade  supe 
rior  to  colonel,  and  seems  to  be  peculiar  to  the 
marine  service. 

Nicolas,  in  his  history  of  the  royal  marine 
forces,  pays  handsome  tribute  to  their  valor  and 
gallantry  in  many  a  hard-fought  action,  and 
Capt.  Luce  adds  that  on  no  occasion  did  they 
prove  themselves  of  more  value  to  their  country^ 
and  to  the  navy  to  which  they  belonged,  or  re 
flect  more  honor  on  their  corps,  "than  during 
the  momentous  period  covering  the  great  muti 
nies  at  Spithead,  the  Nore,  and  Bantry  Bay." 

This  inestimable  quality  of  the  marine — fidel 
ity — no  doubt  arises  from  that  want  of  sympathy 
with  the  sailor  which  his  military  training,  habits, 
and  esprit  de  corps  create.  In  concluding  his 
chapter,  Capt.  Luce  says  that  the  "  United  States 
marine  corps  has  well  sustained  the  high  repu 
tation  for  steadfast  courage  and  loyalty  which 
has  been  handed  down  to  it  from  the  days  of 
Themistocles,"  and,  might  have  added,  wears 
with  pardonable  pride  and  jealous  care  the  title 
of'Everfaithful." 

We  come  now  to  the  genesis  of  this  particular 
corps,  which  antedates  the  organization  of  the  reg 
ular  navy  and  the  Declaration  of  Independence. 
November  10,  1775,  the  Continental  Congress,  to 
promote  the  "  publick  defense,"  cautiously 

"  Resolved,  That  two  battalions  of  marines  be  raised,  con 
sisting  of  one  colonel,  two  lieutenant-colonels,  two  majors,  and 
other  officers,  as  usual  in  other  regiments ;  that  they  consist 
of  an  equal  number  of  privates  with  other  battalions  :  that 
particular  care  be  taken  that  no  persons  be  appointed  to  offices, 
or  enlisted  into  said  battalions,  but  such  as  are  good  seamen, 
or  so  acquainted  with  maritime  affairs  as  to  be  able  to  serve 
to  advantage  by  sea  when  required;  that  they  be  enlisted  and 
commissioned  to  serve  for  and  during  the  present  war  between 
Great  Britain  and  the  colonies,  unless  dismissed  by  order  of 


MARINE   CORPS 


467 


MARINE   CORPS 


Congress;  that  they  be  distinguished  by  the  names  of  the  First 
and  Second  Battalions  of  American  Marines." 

This  was  the  first  step  taken  toward  the  crea 
tion  of  the  naval  establishment  which  has  won 
such  imperishable  fame  for  the  United  States, 
and  upon  it  is  based  the  claim  of  the  marine 
corps  to  be  "  the  oldest  in  the  service."  Aldrich 
says  that  "  before  a  single  vessel  of  the  navy  went 
to  sea  the  corps  was  organized,"  and,  further, 
that  a  detachment  of  it  gained  on  the  island  of 
New  Providence,  one  of  the  Bahamas,  early  in 
1777,  "  the  first  fight  in  the  history  of  the  regu 
lar  navy."  In  this  noteworthy  engagement  the 
attacking  party,  consisting  of  300  marines  and 
landsmen  under  Major  Nichols,  captured  the 
forts  and  other  defenses  of  the  enemy  after  a 
struggle  of  a  few  hours,  and  secured  a  quantity 
of  stores  and  British  cannon.  The  marines  be 
longed  to  the  fleet  of  Commodore  Hopkins,  who 
was  operating  against  Lord  Dunmore. 

During  the  following  years  of  the  Revolution 
they  were  found  at  work  proving  their  patriot 
ism  and  devotion  to  the  cause  which  gave  them 
being ;  and,  in  fact,  throughout  their  entire  ex 
istence  they  have  been,  as  will  be  seen,  in  the 
front  rank  of  the  Republic's  defenders,  zealous 
participants,  per  mare  et  terrain,  in  nearly  every 
expedition  and  action  of  moment  in  which  the 
navy  has  been  engaged ;  and  in  many  trying  cam 
paigns  with  their  brethren  of  the  army  have  won 
distinction  for  themselves  and  honor  for  their 
country.  The  globe  (which  is  one  of  the  em 
blems  of  the  corps  device)  has  been  their  stage, 
and  every  zone  has  heard  their  watch-cry, 
"All's  well!" 

The  patient  labors  of  Capt.  Collum  have  put 
many  of  their  deeds  of  record,  so  that  one  can 
now  follow  them  with  little  effort.  Conspicuous 
among  these  is  their  part  under  John  Paul  Jones, 
in  the  action  between  the  "Ranger"  and  the 
"  Drake,"  in  which  Lieut.  "Wallingford,  of  the 
marines,  lost  his  life  at  the  head  of  his  men  ; 
again,  in  the  great  battle  between  the  "  Bon 
Homme  Richard"  and  the  "  Serapis,"  in  which 
they  numbered  120  rank  and  file,  led  by  Lieut.- 
Colonel  Stack  and  two  lieutenants ;  in  the 
fight  between  the  frigate  "  Philadelphia"  and 
the  Tripolitans,  where,  "  after  most  gallant 
exertions,"  Lieut.  Osborne  and  his  guard  were 
made  prisoners ;  in  the  attack  on  the  Tripoli- 
tan  gunboatSj  August  3,  1803,  in  the  course  of 
which  Lieut.  Trippe,  engaged  in  a  hand-to-hand 
fight  with  a  Turk,  was  saved  by  a  sergeant,  who 
"passed  a  bayonet  through  the  body  of  the 
Turk"  ;  in  the  remarkable  march  of  Gen. 
Eaton  from  Alexandria  to  Derne,  nearly  600 
miles  through  Northern  Africa,  where  a  small 
detachment  of  marines  under  the  brave  Lieut. 
O'Bannon,  mounted  on  camels  and  asses  in  the 
caravan,  leavened  the  lump  of  Arabs  and  Greeks 
in  the  service  of  the  United  States,  and  in  the 
attack  on  Derne  stormed  the  principal  work, 
took  possession  of  the  battery,  planted  the  Amer 
ican  fL&gfoT  the  first  time  on  a  fortress  in  the  Old 
World,  and  turned  its  guns  upon  the  enemy. 
Thereafter  "  Tripoli"  was  engrossed  on  the 
banners  of  the  marine  corps. 

During  the  war  of  1812  they  were  exceedingly 
active  at  sea  and  on  shore.  In  the  glorious  vic 
tory  of  the  "Constitution"  over  the  "  Guerriere," 
the  first  officer  killed  was  Lieut.  Bush,  who  com 
manded  the  marine  guard,  and  with  his  junior, 


Lieut.  Contee,  was  assisting  in  repelling  boarders 
"  at  a  critical  moment  of  the  engagement"  ;  in 
the  victory  of  the  "  United  States"  over  the 
"  Macedonian,"  Lieuts.  Anderson  and  Edwards 
fought  the  marines  "with  the  utmost  steadiness"; 
in  the  brilliant  operations  of  the  "  Essex"  in  the 
Pacific  Ocean,  Lieut.  Gamble  gained  great  repu 
tation  for  "  skill  and  efficiency,"  commanding  in 
turn  his  guard,  a  prize-ship,  and  a  fort  at  Nuka 
Hiva,  in  the  Marquesas  Islands ;  in  the  bloody 
battle  between  the  "  Shannon"  and  the  "  Chesa 
peake,"  Lieut.  Broom  and  11  of  his  men  were 
killed  and  20  wounded  ;  in  the  ever  memorable 
battle  of  Lake  Erie,  Lieut.  Brooks,  of  the  "  Law 
rence,"  was  killed,  and  18  marines  of  the  fleet 
placed  hors  de  combat;  in  the  battle  of  Lake 
Champlain  the  marines  suffered  severely  ;  when 
the  frigate  "  Constitution"  captured  the  corvettes 
"Cyane"  and  "  Levant,"  Capt.  Henderson  was 
"  specially  mentioned"  ;  in  the  struggle  between 
the  "President"  and  the  "Endymion,"  Lieut. 
Twiggs  "particularly  distinguished  himself"; 
and  in  the  fight  on  Lake  Ponchartrain,  the 
senior  marine  officer  was  killed,  making  four- 
elevenths  of  the  officers  of  the  corps  who  were 
slain  in  that  war. 

On  shore,  they  were  with  the  army  under 
Scott  (then  colonel)  in  Canada;  with  Gen. 
Winder  at  Bladensburg,  where,  after  the  militia 
ingloriously  fled,  they,  with  Commodore  Bar 
ney's  sailors,  "kept  the  whole  British  force  at 
bay  until  there  was  scarcely  a  man  on  our  side 
who  was  not  killed  or  wounded,"  Capt.  Sevier 
wounded  and  Capt.  Miller  (afterwards  lieuten 
ant-colonel)  wounded  and  a  prisoner;  with  Gen. 
Jackson  at  New  Orleans,  where  Maj.  Carmick 
was  wounded;  at  North  Point,  Baltimore,  where 
the  British  were  driven  off;  and  in  sundry  affairs 
on  the  coast  of  Maine  and  shores  of  Chesapeake 
and  Delaware  Bays.  Near  Norfolk,  "  Lieut. 
Breckenridge,  with  150  marines,  assisted  in  pre 
venting  the  enemy's  boats  from  ascending  James 
River." 

In  the  interval  between  1815  and  the  Florida 
war  (1836-37)  they  were  called  upon,  among 
other  things,  to  quell  a  serious  revolt  in  the 
Massachusetts  State  prison,  which  was  done ;  to 
act  against  Spanish  pirates  in  the  "West  Indies 
and  Malays  in  Sumatra;  and  to  guard  public 
and  private  property  at  the  time  of  the  great  fire 
in  New  York  (1835),  for  which  they  received  a 
vote  of  thanks  from  that  city.  "When  Indian 
hostilities  broke  out  in  Georgia  in  1836,  the  dis 
posable  force  of  the  army  being  found  inadequate, 
Col.  Comdt.  Henderson  promptly  volunteered  his 
services  and  those  of  the  corps  serving  on  shore. 
They  were  accepted,  and  their  places  at  the  navy- 
yards  temporarily  filled  by  watchmen  from  civil 
life.  Two  battalions  proceeded  to  Charleston  from 
rendezvous  at  New  York  and  Fortress  Monroe, 
and  thence  went  to  Fort  Mitchell,  Ala.,  where 
they  were  consolidated  into  a  regiment  and  sent 
to  Tampa  Bay  via  Apalachicola.  In  the  ever 
glades  they  shared  the  arduous  campaigns  of 
Gen.  Jesup  against  the  treacherous  Creeks  and 
Seminoles,  "  bearing  an  honorable  and  important 
part  at  Hatch  ee-Lustee"  (January  22,  1837),  and 
in  other  actions.  Besides  these,  two  companies 
(130  men)  served  in  the  Mosquito  Fleet  on  the 
west  coast,  co-operating.  Their  combined  losses 
were  48  men,  killed  or  died. 

From  1846-48  the  corps  was  engaged  in  the 


MARINE  CORPS 


468 


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war  with  Mexico,  where  it  figured  in  every 
quarter,  and  made  a  most  excellent  record.  Sev 
eral  detachments  were  on  the  Pacific  side  with 
Commodores  Sloat,  Shubrick,  and  Stockton ; 
others  in  the  squadron  on  the  east  coast  under 
Commodores  Connor  and  Perry,  and  at  times 
with  the  army  under  Gens.  Scott,  Taylor,  and 
"Worth.  They  were  present  at  the  capture  of 
Monterey,  San  Francisco,  and  Mazatlan  ;  fought 
at  Los  Angeles,  San  Diego,  San  Gabriel,  San 
Jose,  and  Guaymas,  and  with  such  credit  that 
Commodore  Shubrick  recommended  the  govern 
ment  to  double  the  guards  of  all  vessels  coming 
to  the  station,  reducing,  if  necessary  for  the  pur 
pose,  the  complements  of  ordinary  seamen  and 
landsmen. ,  On  the  east  coast  they  were  engaged 
in  the  capture  of  Matamoras,  Tampico,  Frontera, 
Tabasco,  and  Vera  Cruz.  The  first  battalion, 
which  came  from  Fort  Hamilton,  New  York 
harbor,  joined  the  main  army  at  Puebla  in  June, 
1847,  and  being  assigned  to  Gen.  Quitman's  di 
vision,  in  which  Lieut.-Col.  Watson,  of  the 
marines,  commanded  the  second  brigade,  par 
ticipated  in  all  of  the  brilliant  operations  which 
marked  the  march  to  the  city  of  Mexico,  where 
it  was  with  the  first  portion  to  enter  the  Grand 
Plaza,  and  was  specially  detailed  to  clear  the 
ancient  palace  of  intruders  and  protect  it  from 
spoliation,  a  fact  which  completes  the  explana 
tion  of  the  inscription  since  found  on  the  corps 
banners:  "From  Tripoli  to  the  Halls  of  the 
Montezumas." 

The  crowning  honor,  however,  was  at  Cha- 
pultepec,  September  13,  where  the  party  assigned 
to  the  storming  of  the  castle — 120  men,  "  selected 
from  all  corps" — was  led  by  Maj.  Levi  Twiggs, 
and  the  pioneers,  equipped  with  ladders,  pick 
axes,  and  crows,  by  Capt.  John  G.  Reynolds, 
both  of  the  marine  corps.  Gen.  Quitman,  in  his 
official  report,  dated  National  Palace,  Mexico, 
September  29,  says:  "The  storming-parties 
led  by  the  gallant  officers,  who  had  volun 
teered  for  this  desperate  service,  rushed  forward 
like  a  resistless  tide.  For  a  short  time  the  con 
test  was  hand-to-hand ;  swords  and  bayonets 
were  crossed  and  rifles  clubbed.  Resistance, 
however,  was  vain  against  the  desperate  valor 
of  our  brave  troops."  The  gallant  and  lamented 
Twiggs  fell  on  the  first  advance  at  the  head  of 
his  command,  and  Lieut.-Col.  Watson  died  in 
Vera  Cruz  two  months  later.  In  March,  1848, 
a  second  battalion  of  four  companies  of  90 
men  each,  commanded  by  Maj.  John  Harris, 
sailed  from  New  York  to  co-operate  with  the 
squadron  on  the  Isthmus  of  Tehuantepec  ;  but 
on  their  arrival  at  Vera  Cruz  the  war  was  vir 
tually  over,  and  they  were  ordered  to  garrison 
Alvarado. 

A  few  years  later  (1852-53)  some  of  these  Mex 
ican  heroes  were  marching  to  the  same  music 
through  the  streets  of  Yeddo,  the  capital  of 
Japan,  as  a  part  of  the  celebrated  expedition  of 
Commodore  Perry.  Brevet  Maj.  Zeilin  was  the 
second  person  to  land,  and  "the  presence  of 
these  trained  American  soldiers  contributed  in 
no  small  degree  to  the  speedy  success  achieved." 
In  1856  we  find  a  detachment  from  the  "  Deca- 
tur"  fighting  Indians  at  Seattle,  Washington 
Territory,  and  another  from  the  "  San  Jacinto," 
"Portsmouth,"  and  "Levant,"  attacking  the 
Chinese  and  demolishing  the  Barrier  Forts  of 
Canton. 


During  the  Know-Nothing  political  excite 
ment  of  1857  they  were  ordered  out  by  the  Pres 
ident,  upon  request  of  the  mayor  of  Washington, 
to  suppress  an  armed  mob  of  "  Plug-Uglies" 
from  Baltimore  who  had  overawed  the  police. 
These  miscreants  hooted  and  defied  the  marines, 
and  showered  stones  and  pistol-shots,  but  a  well- 
directed  volley  caused  them  to  disperse  and  seek 
shelter. 

In  1858,  40  marines  and  sailors  from  the  "  Van- 
dalia"  had  a  fierce  conflict  in  the  Fiji  Islands 
with  a  body  of  300  naked  warriors  who  had  killed 
two  American  merchants.  The  natives  were 
punished,  and  the  Secretary  of  the  Navy  pro 
nounced  the  conduct  of  the  officers  and  men  as 
"in  the  highest  degree  commendable."  The 
same  year  a  detachment  from  the  Brazil  Squad 
ron  was  landed  in  Montevideo,  upon  application 
of  the  governor,  to  protect  the  lives  and  prop 
erty  of  the  foreign  residents  from  domestic  vio 
lence.  Brevet  Maj.  Reynolds  commanded,  and 
they  remained  until  the  revolutionists  capitu 
lated.  In  the  Paraguay  Expedition  there  were 
8  marine  officers  and  the  usual  complements  of 
men.  At  home,  in  August,  when  the  enraged 
citizens  of  Staten  Island  burned  part  of  the  quar 
antine  buildings  through  fear  of  yellow  fever,  65 
marines  were  sent  from  Brooklyn  to  protect  those 
remaining  "at  all  hazards,"  and  did,  although 
the  rioters,  fully  armed,  made  further  attempts 
at  arson. 

October  17,  1859,  the  United  States  were  con 
vulsed  by  news  of  the  John  Brown  insurrection 
at  Harper's  Ferry.  The  President  ordered  Col. 
Comdt.  Harris  to  send  forward  the  available  force 
at  headquarters  by  special  train,  and  100  men, 
with  a  battery  of  Dahlgren  howitzers,  were  at 
the  railroad  depot  in  one  hour.  They  were  met 
by  the  Secretaries  of  War  and  the  Navy,  who 
gave  Lieut.  Greene,  commanding,  his  instruc 
tions.  Upon  arrival  they  found  the  militia  held 
in  check  by  the  insurgents,  who  had  been  driven 
into  an  engine-house.  Under  the  orders  of  Col. 
Robert  E.  Lee,  then  in  the  U.  S.  army,  the  ma 
rines  assailed  the  barricaded  engine-house,  using 
a  long  ladder  as  a  battering-ram,  and,  after  kill 
ing  two  of  the  band  and  mortally  wounding  an 
other,  captured  the  "remarkable  old  man"  and 
the  remainder  of  his  followers.  Scouting-par- 
ties  sent  into  the  country  captured  1500  pikes. 
One  marine  was  mortally  and  another  slightly 
wounded. 

In  March  following,  50  marines  and  sailors 
from  the  "  Marion"  were  instrumental  in  saving 
from  destruction  the  property  of  the  American 
residents  of  Kisembo,  on  the  west  coast  of  Africa, 
and  on  the  27th  of  September  another  party  was 
landed  from  the  sloop  "  St.  Mary's,"  at  Panama, 
to  protect  the  Isthmus  railroad.  On  the  28th  the 
governor  delivered  up  the  city  to  the  joint  occu 
pation  of  the  men  of  the  "  St.  Mary's"  and  of  the 
British  ship  "Clio."  Since  then  Panama  and  the 
railroad  have  been  repeatedly  guarded  by  our 
marines  and  sailors. 

The  Great  Rebellion  (1861-65)  made  the  next 
special  demand  upon  the  services  of  the  marine 
corps,  and  they  were  rendered  "  nobly  and  well" 
afloat  (Alden),  and  "admirably  in  camp  and 
field"  (Dahlgren).  In  the  beginning,  when  the 
defections  from  the  army  and  navy  occurred,  the 
marine  corps,  being  largely  composed  of  South 
ern  men,  lost  its  full  share  of  officers.  There 


MARINE   CORPS 


469 


MARINE  CORPS 


were  in  all  6  resignations  and  14  dismissals 
(those  who  tendered  their  resignations  after 
May  1,  1861,  being  summarily  dismissed).  The 
last  to  leave  was  First  Lieut.  A.  W.  Stark,  Jan 
uary  9, 1862.  These  vacancies  were  rapidly  filled 
by  loyal  men,  and  July  25,  Congress  authorized 
a  large  increase  to  be  made  by  the  appointment 
of  candidates  between  20  and  25  years  of  age, 
which  caused  50  of  the  60  lieutenants  to  be 
young  and  inexperienced. 

The  first  duty  to  which  it  was  called  was  on 
January  7,  when  250  artillery  and  marines 
left  New  York  during  the  night  on  the  steamer 
"  Star  of  the  West"  to  reinforce  the  beleaguered 
garrison  of  Fort  Sumter. 

During  the  same  month  Lieut.  Hebb  (now 
lieutenant-colonel)  was  sent  with  a  detachment 
to  garrison  Fort  Washington  on  the  Potomac, 
near  the  capital,  and  on  the  22d  the  force  at  the 
Brooklyn  barracks  was  put  under  arms  to  repel 
a  rumored  assault  by  rebel  sympathizers  on  the 
navy-yard.  April  12,  Lieut.  Cash  (since  major), 
with  the  guard  of  the  frigate  "Sabine,"  rein 
forced  Fort  Pickens,  Fla.,  and  on  the  20th, 
the  garrison  at  Norfolk,  and  the  guards  of  the 
"Pennsylvania,"  "Cumberland,"  and  "Paw 
nee,"  acting  under  orders,  destroyed  the  navy- 
yard  and  ships  at  that  place,  spiking  the  heavy 
guns  and  breaking  up  thousands  of  small-arms. 
"  At  midnight,  when  the  moon  sank,  the  bar 
racks  near  the  centre  of  the  yard  were  set  on 
fire,  that  by  the  illumination  the  work  might 
be  continued." 

In  the  first  battle  of  Bull  Run,  or  Manassas,  a 
battalion  of  350  officers  and  men,  mostly  recruits, 
commanded  by  Major  Reynolds,  served  in  Por 
ter's  brigade  as  the  support  of  Griffin's  battery. 
Lieut.  Hitchcock  and  8  men  were  killed,  2  offi 
cers  and  17  men  wounded,  and  16  missing.  At 
the  capture  of  Hatteras  Inlet,  in  August,  the 
marines  of  the  "Minnesota,"  "  Wabash,"  and 
"  Cumberland,"  under  Capt.  Shuttleworth  (after 
wards  colonel),  landed  with  the  troops  of  Gen. 
Butler  in  surf-boats  and  entered  Fort  Clarke. 
"When  the  Confederate  privateer  "  Judah"  was 
destroyed  at  Pensacola  by  a  boat  expedition  at 
night,  in  September,  the  first  to  board  was  a 
private  of  marines,  who,  by  a  mistake,  having 
lost  his  distinguishing  mark,  was  subsequently 
killed  by  one  of  his  own  party.  In  the  Dupont 
Expedition  and  battle  of  Port  Royal  they  took  a 
prominent  part,  and  after  the  victory  occupied 
the  captured  forts  until  relieved  by  the  army. 
A  separate  battalion,  Major  Reynolds  (after 
wards  lieutenant-colonel),  accompanied  the  ar 
mada  in  a  transport  called  the  "  Governor, ' '  which 
was  wrecked  at  sea,  but  the  troops  were  luckily 
rescued  by  the  "  Sabine,"  with  a  loss  of  7  men. 
In  nearly  all  of  the  expeditions  and  actions  which 
followed,  along  the  coasts  and  up  the  rivers  of 
South  Carolina,  Georgia,  and  Florida,  the  marines 
shared  as  sharpshooters,  skirmishers,  or  artiller 
ists,  leading  advances,  covering  retreats,  build 
ing  batteries,  repelling  torpedo-boats,  or  garri 
soning  captured  towns.  The  mayor,  city  council, 
and  citizens  of  St.  Augustine  paid  "  the  urbanity 
of  the  officers  and  good  conduct  and  discipline 
of  the  troops"  exalted  compliment,  and  begged 
that  they  might  remain. 

In  the  celebrated  "  Trent  affair"  8  marines 
from  the  "  San  Ja-cinto"  bore  a  very  dramatic 
part,  subduing  the  defiant  and  insulting  attitude 


of  the  passengers  and  crew  while  the  Confederate 
commissioners  were  being  removed  from  the  ship. 
The  first  shot  from  the  ironclad  "  Merrimac" 
killed  9  marines  on  the  "Cumberland,"  and  in 
the  hopeless  resistance  made  by  the  "  Congress" 
their  faithful  blood  crimsoned  the  decks.  In  this 
most  famous  of  modern  naval  battles  the  marines 
of  the  "  Minnesota,"  "  Roanoke,"  and  "  St.  Law 
rence"  were  also  engaged,  and  "justly  won  the 
praise  of  the  officers  under  whom  they  acted 
and  of  the  whole  of  the  loyal  nation"  (Aldrich). 
At  Roanoke  Island,  off  Wilmington,  in  the  op 
erations  in  the  sounds  of  North  Carolina,  and  in 
the  James  and  Potomac  Rivers,  they  also  as 
sisted,  and  were  on  the  blockade  of  all  the  prin 
cipal  ports,  suffering  a  heavy  loss  when  the  fleet 
off  Charleston  was  raided  by  2  rebel  ironclads 
from  within  in  186§.  One  hundred  and  fifty 
men,  Capt.  Kintzing  (now  colonel),  guarded 
the  naval  stations  at  Cairo  and  Mound  City, 
111. ;  30  were  on  the  flag-ship  "  Black  Hawk" 
in  the  Red  River  Expedition,  and  a  thousand 
more  could  have  been  advantageously  em 
ployed  in  the  Mississippi  Squadron,  but  they 
could  not  be  spared.  Ten  thousand  marines 
were  really  needed  for  this  war,  but  the  oppor 
tunity,  like  many  others,  was  allowed  to  pass 
unimproved.  The  Marine  Brigade,  a  kind  of 
substitute,  which  operated  in  steam-rams  'and 
transports  on  the  Western  rivers,  was  a  volunteer 
organization,  and  had  no  connection  with  the 
marine  corps. 

On  the  lower  Mississippi,  and  in  the  terrible 
tumult  at  the  passage  of  the  forts,  "they  more 
than  maintained  their  reputation"  (Admiral 
Boggs).  The  honor  of  perfecting  the  conquest 
of  New  Orleans,  of  hoisting  the  stars  and  stripes, 
and  holding  that  excited  and  turbulent  city  until 
the  arrival  of  the  army  under  Gen.  Butler  (May 
1),  fell  to  a  battalion  of  250  marines  of  Farra- 

fut's  fleet,  under  Capt.  J.  L.  Broome.  June 
8,  in  passing  the  batteries  at  Vicksburg,  the 
guard  of  the  "  Hartford"  fought  the  broadside- 
guns,  and  the  following  March,  at  Port  Hudson, 
the  guards  of  the  "Hartford,"  "Richmond," 
"  Mississippi,"  and  "  Monongahela"  were  badly 
cut  up.  Capt.  Ramsay,  in  command  of  the 
marine  division  of  the  "  Richmond,"  had  nearly 
a  whole  gun's  crew  swept  away  by  a  single  shot. 

December  7,  1862,  2  companies,  Major  Gar 
land,  going  to  California  via  Panama,  on  the 
mail-steamer  "  Ariel,"  were  captured  by  Semmes 
off  the  coast  of  Cuba.  A  rebel  lieutenant  ad 
dressed  the  command  and  offered  every  induce 
ment  to  get  20  volunteers  for  the  marine  guard 
of  the  "Alabama,"  but  not  a  man  proved  rec 
reant  to  his  trust.  They  were  paroled,  and 
proceeded  on  their  journey.  During  July,  1863, 
the  "  Draft  Riots"  provided  duty  for  a  battalion 
at  home,  which  won  "marked  approbation"  in 
New  York,  quelling  the  disturbances  and  guard 
ing  the  public  property.  In  August,  a  second 
battalion,  Major  Zeilin,  was  sent  from  New  York 
to  the  South  Atlantic  Squadron  to  co-operate  in 
the  attack  on  Charleston,  and  to  relieve  the 
marines  of  the  ships  who  had  helped  to  erect 
the  naval  battery.  It  was  encamped  on  Mor 
ris  Island,  and,  September  8,  furnished  6  officers 
and  100  men,  all  volunteers,  under  Capt.  McCaw- 
ley,  to  engage  in  the  combined  night  attack  on 
Fort  Sumter,  in  which  Lieut.  Bradford  was 
mortally  wounded,  Lieut.  Meade  captured,  and 


I 


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470 


MARINE   CORPS 


30  men  killed,  wounded,  or  missing.  Ten  officers 
and  104  men  of  all  corps  were  taken  prisoners. 

When  the  career  of  the  "Alabama"  was  so 
abruptly  ended  by  the  "  Kearsarge,"  off  the 
coast  of  France,  it  was  fitting  that  the  marines 
should  begin  the  fight  on  our  part,  which  they 
did  from  a  rifle-gun  on  the  forecastle,  "firing 
rapidly  and  effectively  throughout,  and  nobly 
sustained  the  high  repute  of  their  service" 
(Thornton).  The  same  year,  on  board  of  the 
"  Wyoming,"  they  were  fighting  the  Japanese 
in  their  forts  at  Simonosaki,  where  private 
Furlong  was  killed  and  another  wounded.  At 
Mobile,  u  one  of  the  fiercest  naval  combats  on 
record"  (Farragut),  "the  marines  performed  most 
efficient  service''  (Drayton).  And  the  medals  of 
honor  received  by  them  for  this  action  and  the 
previous  battles  on  the  Mississippi  made  a  long 
list.  About  this  time,  Capt.  Hey  wood,  the  senior 
marine  officer  (aged  25),  could  muster  nearly  800 
marines  in  the  fleet  of  Admiral  Farragut. 

A  notable  illustration  of  their  usefulness  in 
emergency  occurred  in  this  year.  The  steam- 
frigate  "  W abash,"  returning  North  in  October 
to  get  a  new  crew,  went  ashore  on  the  outer  edge 
of  Frying-Pan  Shoals.  She  was  short-handed, 
and  manned  principally  by  negroes,  landsmen, 
and  boys.  Finding  it  impossible  to  get  a  kedge- 
anchor  out  otherwise,  Capt.  De  Camp  called  on 
the  marines,  under  Lieut.  Fagan,  who  responded 
with  alacrity,  filed  into  the  boat,  took  the  oars, 
placed  the  anchor,  and  when  the  tide  rose  the  noble 
ship  floated  and  was  hauled  off  safe.  In  after- 
years,  Capt.  De  Camp  (since  rear-admiral)  told 
the  writer  that  "  the  '  Wabash'  owed  her  life  to 
Fagan's  marines."  Thirteen  years  previously, 
in  the  East  Indies,  Lieut.  Broome  ran  a  bower- 
anchor  from  the  sloop  "Marion,"  which  was 
ashore  in  the  breakers  of  Formosa.  She  got  off, 
and  he  was  thanked  on  the  quarter-deck  by  Com 
mander  William  Glendy. 

In  November,  1864,  two  batteries  of  naval 
howitzers  and  nine  companies  of  marines  and 
sailors,  under  Commander  Preble,  ascended 
Broad  River,  S.  C.,  to  co-operate  with  Gen.  Fos 
ter  in  establishing  connection  with  Gen.  Sher 
man,  who  was  coming  to  the  sea.  On  the  30th 
they  were  repulsed  at  Boyd's  Neck  ;  but  on  the 
6th  of  December  made  a  successful  attack  at 
Tulifinny  Cross-roads.  Killed  and  wounded,  21. 
First  Lieut.  George  G.  Stoddard  commanded  the 
marines,  who  numbered  about  300.  When 
Charleston  was  abandoned,  Lieut.  Stoddard  oc 
cupied  Georgetown,  S.  C.,  with  six  companies 
of  marines,  and  Lieut.  Breese,  with  one  com 
pany,  held  the  battery  of  15  guns.  Seven  com 
panies,  with  only  two  first  lieutenants  to  officer 
them,  recalls  the  fact  that  a  Federal  brigade  at 
Pensacola,  with  a  general,  colonels,  majors,  etc., 
contained  fewer  men  than  Capt.  Hey  wood  had 
in  the  marine  battalion  of  the  fleet. 

Among  the  last  and  most  momentous  events 
of  this  war  were  the  two  attacks  on  Fort  Fisher. 
About  60  vessels  constituted  the  fleet,  and  many 
of  them,  being  heavy  steamers,  carried  large 
guards.  Lieut.  Pile,  of  the  "Juniata,"  was 
killed  in  the  first  attack,  and  over  50  enlisted 
men  were  either  killed  or  wounded  in  the  sec 
ond,  where  1400  marines  and  sailors  constituted 
an  assaulting  column.  While  the  conduct  of 
the  marines,  as  a  body,  in  this  terrific  struggle 
has  been  the  subject  of  more  discussion  than  in 


any  other  enterprise  that  they  were  ever  engaged 
in,  there  can  be  no  doubt  of  the  individual  gal 
lantry  of  officers  and  men,  many  of  whom  were 
specially  commended  and  rewarded  for  conspicu 
ous  service.  The  unfortunate  failure  to  organize 
the  different  marine  detachments  thrown  to 
gether  on  the  beach  leaves  a  blot  and  teaches  a 
lesson  which,  like  the  story  of  the  "  Chesapeake" 
and  the  "  Leopard,"  should  never  be  forgotten, 
and  which  it  would  not  be  honest  to  ignore  in 
view  of  the  deluge  of  praise  and  thanks  of  Con 
gress  which  they  received  elsewhere  in  this  great 
war. 

The  government  having  determined  to  bring 
the  industrious  Raphael  Semmes  to  trial  for  his 
depredations  on  the  high  seas,  Lieut.  French  was 
sent  with  two  sergeants  in  December,  1865,  to 
arrest  and  deliver  him  in  Washington.  After 
visiting  Memphis,  Yicksburg,  and  N  <?w  Orleans, 
he  was  found  in  Mobile  and  brought  to  the  capi 
tal,  where  he  remained  a  close  prisoner  at  the 
marine  barracks  until  April,  when  he  was  re 
leased  without  trial  and  restored  to  his  parole. 

When  Portland,  Me.,  was  devastated  by  fire, 
July  4,  1866,  as  is  usual  in  times  of  public  dis 
tress  or  excitement,  the  evil-disposed  from  other 
cities  gathered  for  plunder.  The  authorities 
telegraphed  to  Portsmouth  Navy-Yard  for  ma 
rines,  and  in  a  few  hours  Lieut.-Col.  Jones  ar 
rived  with  two  companies.  Lines  of  sentinels 
were  posted  in  the  burned  district,  many  per 
sons  arrested,  and  quiet  restored."  From  1867  to 
1871  the  illicit  distillation  of  whisky,  upon  which 
there  was  a  high  tax,  gave  great  trouble  to  the 
revenue  officials,  and  they  frequently  met  with 
such  fierce  resistance  that  it  became  necessary  to 
call  on  the  marine  garrisons  of  Philadelphia  and 
Brooklyn  for  assistance.  This  was  given,  but 
proved  to  be  a  most  delicate  and  dangerous  duty, 
more  unwelcome  than  actual  war.  Violent  mobs 
armed  with  revolvers,  stones,  and  bricks  had  to 
be  encountered  and  overcome,  and  murderous 
missiles  from  housetops  were  frequent  incidents. 
Lieut.-Col.  Broome  had  the  largest  share  of  this 
disagreeable  work  to  do,  and  received  the  ap 
proval  of  the  government  for  himself  and  com 
mand. 

An  unsuccessful  attempt,  in  1867,  to  punish 
some  savages  on  the  island  of  Formosa,  who 
had  murdered  the  crew  of  the  American  ship 
"Rover,"  was  shared  in  by  43  marines  from  the 
"Hartford"  and  "Wyoming,"  under  Capt. 
Forney.  Better  success  attended  a  boat  expedi 
tion  from  the  "Mohican,"  in  June,  1870,  which 
captured  and  burned  in  a  Mexican  river,  near 
Mazatlan,  the  piratical  steamer<  "Forward." 
First  Sergeant  Moore  and  a  corporal  received 
"special  notice."  In  1871  a  very  serious  fight 
occurred  in  Corea,  in  which  4  officers  and  105 
marines  from  the  "Colorado,"  "Alaska,"  and 
"Benicia,"  under  Capt.  Tilton,  fleet  marine 
officer,  formed  portion  of  a  landing-party  of  680 
men.  They  advanced  through  a  strange  and 
rough  country,  the  marines  leading,  and  stormed 
a  citadel  upon  a  hill  150  feet  hiigh  ;  overcame  a 
garrison  of  several  thousand  'men,  killing  243; 
captured  50  flags  and  481  pieces  of  ordnance,  be 
sides  many  match-locks  and,  gingalls.  Com 
mander  Kimberly,  U.S.N.,  gave  the  marines 
full  honor  as  the  advance-gcuard,  and  Lieut.- 
Commander  Casey  reported  that  "their  conduct 
excited  the  admiration  of  all." 


MARINE   CORPS 


471 


MARINE   CORPS 


July  13,  1869,  Lieut.  Breese  was  ordered  from 
the  marine  barracks,  Brooklyn,  to  report  to  Gen. 
Barlow,  U.  S.  Marshal,  to  aid  in  preventing  a 
violation  of  the  neutrality  laws.  He  proceeded 
in  the  revenue-cutter  "  Mahoning"  to  Gardiner's 
Island,  at  the  east  end  of  Long  Island,  where,  on 
the  16th,  with  a  company  of  50  marines,  he  sur 
rounded  a  camp  of  Cuban  filibusters  and  cap 
tured  125  of  them.  The  prisoners  were  sent  on 
board  of  the  "Mahoning"  and  carried  to  New 
York,  where  the  expedition  arrived  next  day. 

The  great  fires  in  Boston.  November  9,  1872, 
and  May  30,  1873,  called  them  out  again,  and 
enabled  them  to  render  very  valuable  service  to 
the  city  and  United  States  authorities.  Capt: 
Collum,  who  commanded  on  each  occasion,  ob 
tained  for  himself  and  men  "most  compliment 
ary  recognition."  A  month  later,  at  Callao, 
Peru,  Capt.  Pope  received  the  thanks  of  the 
Italian  government  for  services  rendered  on  the 
occasion  of  a  fire  on  a  vessel  belonging  to  that 
nation. 

The  war-cloud  which  arose  after  the  "  Virgin- 
ius"  massacre  caused  a  great  fleet  to  gather  at  Key 
West,  in  1874,  to  menace  Cuba,  and  the  oppor 
tunity  was  improved  by  landing  650  marines, 
who  were  found  in  excellent  condition  for  active 
service.  In  1877,  the  terrible  and  unprecedented 
labor  riots,  which  paralyzed  business  in  nine 
States,  and  led  to  wholesale  arson  and  murder, 
culminating  in  Pittsburgh,  called  all  of  the  avail 
able  regular  forces  into  the  field.  Marines  were 
taken  from  ships  and  barracks  ;  a  battalion  was 
sent  to  Baltimore,  another  to  Philadelphia  and 
Reading,  and  companies  to  garrison  the  U.  S. 
arsenals  at  Watervliet,  Frankford,  and  Wash 
ington,  D.  C.,  all  coming  under  the  command 
of  Maj.-Gen.  W.  S.  Hancock  (see  "United 
Service"  magazine,  Philadelphia,  1879).  They 
encamped  in  depots,  patrolled  streets,  dispersed 
angry  mobs,  arrested  the  destruction  of  prop 
erty,  escorted  railroad '  trains  into  the  interior 
(riding  on  the  locomotives),  and  guarded  public 
and  private  interests  with  such  zeal,  that  Gen. 
Hancock,  in  returning  them  to  their  stations, 
wrote:  "Citizens  and  soldiers  are  united  in  ad 
miration  of  the  soldierly  bearing,  excellent  dis 
cipline,  and  devotion  to  duty  displayed  by  them," 
and  inclosed  a  report  of  an  official  inspection 
made  at  Reading  by  the  venerable  Col.  Cuyler, 
of  his  staff,  who  said :  "  I  do  not  recollect  ever 
having  seen  a  more  soldierly  or  a  more  orderly 
set  of  men."  The  Secretary  of  the  Navy  re 
viewed  them  in  Washington  before  they  were 
dismissed,  and  in  orders  recognized  the  readiness 
with  which  they  responded  to  the  summons  of 
the  Department,  and  their  proficiency  in  dis 
cipline,  and  pronounced  them  "a  most  impor 
tant  arm  of  the 'national  defense,  confidently  to 
be  relied  upon  whenever  the  public  exigency 
shall  call  them  into  active  service." 

Their  latest  conspicuous  special  service  was  in 
France,  where  a  picked  company,  sent  out  in  the 
honored  old  frigate  "  Constitution,"  was  sta 
tioned  during  the  Universal  Exposition  of  1878, 
under  Lieuts.  Russell  and  Zeilin.  They  had 
charge  of  the  American  department,  and  the 
Hon.  R.  C.  McCormick,  Commissioner-General 
for  the  United  States,  reported  to  the  Navy  De 
partment  that  "  their  excellent  conduct,  both  on 
and  off  duty,  were  spoken  of  in  the  most  com 
plimentary  terms  by  the  French  authorities,  by 


the  citizens  of  Paris,  and  the  visitors  to  the  Ex 
position,"  and  at  the  ceremonies  attending  the 
distribution  of  prizes  in  October,  their  military 
bearing  elicited  "  a  grand  outburst  of  enthusi 
asm,  and  they  throughout  reflected  honor  upon 
our  flag  by  their  admirable  performance  of  an 
important  duty  in  a  foreign  land." 

This  incomplete  outline  of  the  principal  public 
services  of  the  marine  corps  for  105  years  ex 
hibits  an  infinite  variety,  and  gives  some  idea  of 
the  great  utility  and  mobility  of  "  web-footed 
soldiers."  These  qualities  have  helped  to  secure 
for  them  the  highest  commendations  of  the  most 
famous  naval  commanders  of  every  age,  and 
when,  in  1866,  a  proposition  was  made  to  abolish 
the  marine  corps  as  such  and  transfer  it  to  the 
army,  Congress  was  overwhelmed  with  the  re 
corded  views  of  such  old  heroes  as  Hull,  Deca- 
tur,  Bainbridge,  Biddle,  Parker,  Perry,  Morris, 
Stockton,  Shubrick,  and  Tattnall,  and  of  later 
days,  Farragut,  Porter,  Rowan,  Stringham, 
Paulding,  Dupont,  Sands,  Rodgers,  Foote,  Davis, 
Worden,  and  Dahlgren, — a  mighty  list,  which 
might  be  much  further  extended.  As  a  result, 
the  House  Committee  on  Naval  Affairs,  charged 
with  the  resolution,  not  only  reported  adversely, 
but  went  so  far  as  to  say  :  "  From  the  beginning 
this  corps  seems  to  have  satisfactorily  fulfilled 
the  purposes  of  its  organization,  and  no  good  rea 
son  appears  either  for  abolishing  it  or  transferring 
it  to  the  army ;  on  the  contrary,  the  committee 
recommend  that  its  organization  as  a  separate 
corps  be  preserved  and  strengthened,  and  that 
its  commandant  shall  have  the  rank  of  brigadier- 
general."*  March  2,  1867,  that  grade  was  estab 
lished,  and  continued  until  1874,  when  selfish 
motives  secured  its  abolition. 

The  marines,  as  an  institution,  certainly  can 
make  no  serious  complaint  of  lack  of  appreciation. 
Congress  has  nineteen  times,  by  joint  resolution, 
tendered  its  thanks  to  them,  or  expressed  its  high 
sense  of  their  valor  and  good  conduct,  and  the 
greatest  generals  have  added  their  tributes  to 
those  of  the  naval  commanders.  Napoleon  Bona 
parte,  when  reviewing  the  marines  of  the  "  Beller- 
ophon,"  exclaimed:  "What  might  not  be  done 
with  a  hundred  thousand  such  men  !"  Winfield 
Scott,  in  Mexico,  said  of  our  own,  that  he  "  put 
them  where  the  heaviest  work  was  to  be  ac 
complished,  and  had  never  found  his  confidence 
misplaced ;"  and  Gen.  Grant,  on  the  quarter-deck 
of  the  "  Vandalia,"  while  crossing  the  Mediter 
ranean,  remarked  that  they  were  "as  fine  sol 
diers  as  he  ever  had  seen." 

Legislation  affecting  the  marine  corps  has  been 
abundant,  and  generally  liberal.  So  long  ago  as 
January  8,  1780,  Congress  provided  that  "the 
marines  of  the  navy  of  the  United  States  whilst 
doing  garrison  duty  be  allowed  the  same  subsist 
ence  moneys  as  the  line  of  the  army."  At  the 
close  of  the  Revolutionary  war,  the  poverty  of 
the  Confederation  caused  the  battalions  to  be  dis 
banded,  and  in  1787  there  is  record  of  a  "commis 
sioner  of  marine  accounts"  settling  up  the  busi 
ness  of  "the  late  navy  of  the  United  States." 
In  1794,  the  cupidity  of  Algerine  corsairs  com 
pelled  "the  late  navy"  to  be  revived  for  the 
protection  of  commerce,  and  the  President  was 


*  He  was  then  a  colonel  commandant,  with  a  colonel,  98 
other  officers,  and  about  3600  rank  and  file  under  his  orders, 
—the  equivalent  of  two  strong  brigades. 


MARINE   COKPS 


472 


MARINE   CORPS 


authorized  to  provide  for  ships  of  44  guns  "  one 
lieutenant,  one  sergeant,  two  corporals,  one  drum, 
one  fife  and  fifty  marines,"  and  for  those  of  36 
guns  the  same  less  10.  In  1797,  when  the  frig 
ates  "United  States,"  44,  "Constitution,"  44, 
and  "  Constellation,"  38,  were  ordered  to  be 
"manned  and  employed,"  the  guards  were  in 
creased,  viz.  :  "two  lieutenants,  three  sergeants, 
three  corporals,  one  drum,  one  fife,  and  fifty 
marines"  each  to  those  of  44  guns,  and  "one 
lieutenant,  two  sergeants,  two  corporals,  one 
drum,  one  fife,  and  forty  marines"  to  those  of 
36.  This  was  to  last  "  a  year  and  thence  to  the 
end  of  the  then  next  session  of  Congress  and  no 
longer;"  but  by  that  time  the  act  of  July  11, 
1798,  was  passed  providing,  "in  addition  to  the 
present  military  establishment,  a  corps  of  ma 
rines,  which  shall  consist  of  [see  table  of  strength 
below],  including  t"he  men  who  have  already  been 
enlisted  or  authorized  to  be  raised  for  the  naval 
armament." 

The  said  corps  was  to  be  formed  into  as  many 
companies  as  the  President  might  direct,  to  be  in 
lieu  of  the  respective  quotas  which  had  been 
already  established  for  the  frigates  and  other 
armed  vessels  and  galleys  in  the  service.  The 
pay  and  subsistence  of  officers  were  fixed,  the 
highest  rate  being  $50  per  month  and  four  ra 


tions  per  day,  and  that  of  the  enlisted  men  "  con 
formably  to  the  act  entitled  an  act  providing  a 
naval  armament."  The  President  was  author 
ized  to  continue  the  enlistment  of  men  to  serve 
for  three  years  ;  to  appoint  officers  when  vacan 
cies  occurred  ;  to  detach  and  appoint  such  of  the 
officers  as  he  might  judge  necessary  to  act  on 
board  of  the  armed  vessels  ;  to  assign  this  corps, 
or  any  part  of  it,  to  duty  in  the  forts  and  garri 
sons  of  the  United  States  on  the  sea-coast,  or  to 
any  other  duty  on  shore,  and  when  so  serving 
the  commandant  was  given  power  to  appoint 
an  adjutant,  paymaster,  and  quartermaster,  and 
non-commissioned  staff-officers  from  the  line, 
who  were  to  have  extra  pay  and  allowances. 
All  the  members  of  the  corps  were  to  take  the 
same  oaths  and  be  governed  by  the  same  rules 
and  articles  of  war  as  may  be  prescribed  for  the 
military  establishment  (see  OATHS),  and  by  the 
rules  and  regulations  for  the  navy  according  to 
the  nature  of  the  service  in  which  employed ; 
and  in  case  of  wounds  or  disabilities,  were  to  re 
ceive  the  same  allowances  according  to  rank  as 
are  granted  to  the  military  establishment.  The 
same  act  also  exempted  seamen  and  marines 
during  their  term  of  service  from  all  personal 
arrest  for  debt  or  contract.  The  greater  part  of 
the  above  still  remains  in  force.* 


Table  of  Strength  from  November  10,  1775,  to  October  1,  1880. 


Brig.-Genl. 

J 

Colonel. 

Lieut-Colonels. 

S 

Staff-Majors. 

Staff-Captains. 

Captains. 

First  Lieuts. 

Second  Lieuts. 

Non.-Com.  Staff. 

Sergeants. 

Corporals. 

•o 

i 

Drummers. 

i 

Privates. 

1 
I 

Resolution,  Nov.  10,  1775  

1 

2 

2 

8 

8 

8 

Act  July  11  1798 

1 

4 

16 

12 

48 

48 

16 

16 

720 

881 

Added  March  2  1799f 

2 

6 

9 

9 

170 

204 

"      April  22  1800 

Iff 

... 

"      March  3,  1809  

i 

2 

2 

185 

594 

784 

"      April  16  1814 

i 

14 

12 

20 

61 

... 

21 

21 

696 

846 

PEA    March  3  1817J 

1 

3 

9 

24 

16 

73 

.». 

21 

21 

750 

Act  June  30,  1834  

1 

4 

3 

13 

20 

20 

4 

80 

80 

30 

30 

1000 

1287 

Added,  act  March  2,  1847§  

4 

4 

4 

25 

25 

25 

1000 

1112 

Total  

] 

4 

3 

17 

24 

24 

4 

105 

105 

55 

55 

2000 

2399 

Act  July  25,  1861  

l 

2 

4 

3 

2 

20 

30 

30 

4 

200 

220 

on 

60 

60 

2500 

3167 

Authorized  July  1,  1867||  
Oct.l,  1880tf  

1** 

i 

1 
1 

2 
2 

4 

4 

3 

3 

2 

2 

20 
20 

30 
30 

30 
15 

4 
4 

240 
190 

260 
180 

lo 

30 

60 
48 

60 
48 

3000 
1500 

3747 
2078 

From  time  to  time  the  corps  has  been  increased 
and  reduced  as  war  or  peace  or  politics  suggested 
(see  table),  and  has  now  by  law  the  strength  of 
July  25,  1861,  although  annual  appropriation 

*  Among  the  earlier  acts  passed  by  Congress  relating  to  the 
marine  corps  are:  an  act  for  the  establishing  and  organ 
izing  of  a  marine  corps,  June  11,  1798;  an  act  authorizing  an 
augmentation,  March  2,  1799 ;  to  fix  rank  anrt  pay  of  com 
mandant  (substituting  lieutenant-colonel  for  major),  April  22, 
1800;  an  act  authorizing  an  augmentation,  March  3,  1809  ;  an 
act  for  same  purpose,  April  16,  1814;  to  fix  the  peace  estab 
lishment,  March  3,  1817  ;  resolution  relating  to  compensation 
of  officers,  May  29,  1830 ;  an  act  concerning  certain  officers, 
July  14, 1832 ;  resolutions  respecting  the  pay,  May  25,  1832 ;  an 
act  to  improve  the  condition  of  the  enlisted  men  of  the  army 


has  been  made  for  one  thousand  privates  less 
since  1874.  The  President  has  power  to  substi 
tute  marines  for  landsmen  (act  March  3,  1849) ; 
to  provide  regulations  for  their  discipline;  to 


and  marine  corps  and  prevent  desertion,  March  2, 1833  :  an  act 
for  the  better  organization,  June  30,  1834  ;  and  an  act  making 
certain  allowances  to  captains  and  subalterns,  June  30,  1834. 

t  This  act  added  8  surgeons. 

I  Peace  Establishment  Act. 

\  For  the  war  with  Mexico. 

||  By  President,  under  act  of  March  3, 1849. 

fl  By  appropriation  act. 

**  Substituted  for  colonel  commandant  March  2,  1867,  and 
reversed  June  6,  1874. 

ff  Lieutenant-colonel  commandant  substituted  for  major. 


MARINE   CORPS 


473 


MARINE   CORPS 


make  alterations  in  the  component  parts  of  the 
ration ;  to  retire  officers  who  may  be  disabled, 
or  have  attained  the  age  of  62  years  ;  to  advance 
officers  not  exceeding  30  numbers  in  rank  for 
"  eminent  and  conspicuous  conduct  in  battle  or 
extraordinary  heroism"  ;  to  advance  officers  one 

frade  who  have  received  the  thanks  of  Congress 
y  name;  to  confer  brevet  commissions  as  in  like 
cases  in  the  army  (act  1814) ;  to  fill  vacancies  in 
the  line  first  by  promotion  and  then  by  appoint 
ment  ;  in  the  latter  case  to  be  between  20  and  25 
years  (if  from  civil  life),  and  subject  to  mental 
and  physical  examination  (act  July  25,  1861). 

Officers  are  on  the  same  footing  as  to  rank  and 
privileges  as  similar  grades  in  the  army ;  take 
precedence  of  like  rank  in  the  volunteers  and 
militia ;  may  be  associated  with  officers  of  the 
army  on  courts-martial,  the  senior  to  preside; 
are  promoted  by  seniority  up  to  colonel ;  cannot 
exercise  command  over  the  navy-yards  or  vessels 
of  the  United  States  (act  June  30,  1834) ;  and 
no  officer  can  absent  himself  without  leave  un 
til  notified  of  the  acceptance  of  his  resignation. 
The  staff'  is  separate  from  the  line,  and  appointed 
by  the  President  by  selection  from  the  officers  of 
the  corps,  as  is  the  commandant.  The  judge- 
advocate-general  of  the  navy  may  be  appointed 
from  the  officers  of  the  marine  corps.  (See 
JUDGE-ADVOCATE-GENERAL.)  Both  officers  and 
men,  when  serving  with  the  land  forces,  are  en 
titled  to  transportation,  subsistence,  camp  equip 
age,  etc.,  on  requisition ;  are  entitled  to  the 
benefits  of  the  homestead  laws  and  of  the  gov 
ernment  hospital  for  the  insane  ;  to  pensions  xfor 
wounds,  injury,  or  disease;  to  artificial  limbs  or 
commutation  therefor  in  certain  cases  ;  to  credit 
for  previous  service  in  the  volunteer  army  or 
navy ;  to  share  in  prize-money  and  the  salvage 
of  recapture ;  to  indemnity  for  loss  of  effects 
where  vessel  is  sunk  or  destroyed  (since  April 
19,  1861)  ;  and  to  pay  and  allowances  of  like 
grades  in  the  infantry  of  the  army,  which  is 
paid  monthly  by  the  paymaster  of  the  corps 
while  serving  ashore,  less  20  cents  deducted  for 
naval  hospital  fund.  Officers  receive  mileage  at 
8  cents  per  mile,  and  the  men  75  cents  per  diem 
when  traveling  without  rations. 

Officers  enter  at  the  foot  of  the  list  of  second 
lieutenants, — appointed,  usually  from  civil  life, 
through  political  or  personal  influence, — are  in 
structed  at  the  headquarters  of  the  corps  in 
Washington,  and  thence  distributed  to  posts; 
later  they  may  attend  the  artillery  and  torpedo 
schools.  Being  combatants,  they  are,  in  refer 
ence  to  "line  and  staff,"  classed  as  line-officers, 
except  the  five  who  constitute  the  marine  staff 
(adjutant,  paymaster,  quartermaster,  arid  two 
assistant  quartermasters) ;  on  shore,  are  subject  to 
detail  for  all  military  duties,  and  on  board  ship 
either  command  the  guard  or  serve  as  juniors 
with  the  commander ;  the  senior  is  assigned  the 
fourth  room  from  forward  on  the  port  side,  and 
the  junior  takes  quarters  according  to  his  rank ; 
when  two  or  more  are  attached  to  same  ship,  one 
is  required  to  be  on  board  at  all  times  for  duty. 
By  regulation  the  senior  is  required  to  report 
daily,  in  writing,  to  the  commanding  officer  of 
the  vessel  the  state  of  the  guard  ;  to  keep  the 
muster-rolls,  and  have  charge  and  make  returns 
of  the  clothing,  arms,  and  other  property  belong 
ing  to  the  marines  ;  to  exercise  them  in  the  pre 
scribed  drills  at  such  times  and  places  as  the 


commanding  officer  of  the  vessel  may  appoint ; 
to  be  attentive  to  their  comfort  and  cleanliness, 
as  well  as  their  soldier-like  appearance  and  effi 
ciency  ;  to  inspect  the  extra  clothing  once  a 
month,  and  report  its  condition  ;  to  report  his 
guard  or  division  when  mustered  at  quarters  ;  to 
see  that  they  are  properly  stationed  and  in 
structed  as  sentinels,  and  to  frequently  visit  them 
at  night.  All  general  orders  to  sentinels  must 
pass  through  him,  and  any  misbehavior  on  guard 
or  on  duty  as  sentinels  must  be  reported  to  him 
by  the  officer-of-the-deck.  When  serving  on  shore 
w"ith  sailors  in  mixed  detachments,  the  marines 
are  posted  on  the  right  without  regard  to  the 
rank  of  the  officers  commanding  companies.  The 
senior  marine  officer  of  a  squadron  is  known  as 
the  fleet  marine  officer.  He  organizes  and  in 
spects  all  the  marines  in  the  squadron,  com 
mands  the  guard  of  the  flag-ship,  and  is  usually 
the  judge-advocate  of  the  station.  (See  JUDGK- 
ADVOCATE.)  A  bill  has  been  reported  favorably 
in  Congress  to  give  this  officer  while  so  serving 
the  rank  and  pay  of  major.  Field-officers  are 
not  sent  to  sea.  All  company  officers  are  on  the 
sea-roster,  which  is  kept  by  the  commandant, 
and  they  are  expected  to  go  in  regular  turn. 
Three  years  constitutes  a  cruise  and  entitles  to 
shore  duty. 

Non-commissioned  officers  correspond  in  grade 
to  those  of  the  army  ;  are  selected  from  the  pri 
vates  for  character,  bearing,  and  proficiency  in 
drill ;  are  examined  in  reading,  writing,  spell 
ing,  arithmetic,  tactics,  and  duties,  and  when 
recommended  by  a  board  of  at  least  two  officers 
receive  parchment  warrants  from  the  command 
ant,  and  can  only  be  reduced  by  his  authority  or 
the  sentence  of  a  court-martial ;  vacancies  oc 
curring  at  sea  may  be  filled  by  the  commanding 
officer  of  the  vessel  upon  the  recommendation  of 
the  marine  officer,  provided  the  candidate  be  re 
ported  qualified  by  a  board  of  three  officers  ;  if 
reduced  the  warrant  is  returned,  but  if  honorably 
discharged  it  may  be  retained ;  upon  re-enlist 
ing  within  thirty  days  their  rank  is  continuous ; 
they  recite  tactics  from  time  to  time,  and  being 
borne  on  a  general  corps  roster  have  many  op 
portunities  for  promotion.  Pay  for  50  first 
sergeants  is  at  present  appropriated,  some  of 
whom  are  in  charge  of  small  guards.  Their 
chevrons,  or  distinguishing  marks  of  rank,  are 
the  same  as  in  the  army,  but  are  worn  inverted ; 
the  colors  are  orange  on  a  scarlet  ground. 

Enlistments  are  for  a  period  of  five  years  ;  are 
not  to  be  made  on  foreign  stations,  nor  are  men 
to  be  discharged  except  from  a  barracks  ;  enlisted 
men  receive  same  pay  and  bounty  for  re-enlist 
ing  as  those  of  like  grades  in  infantry ;  persons 
enlisted  in  the  military  service  may,  on  applica 
tion,  be  transferred  by  the  President  to  the  ma 
rine  corps ;  the  band  receives  $4  per  month  ex 
tra  pay,  each  man,  for  playing  on  the  Capitol 
grounds  or  the  President's  grounds  ;  and  all 
marines  are  entitled  to  one  navy  ration  daily. 
Formerly  the  ration  was  prescribed  for  each  day 
in  the  week,  by  law,  with  the  liberal  addition  of 
"  a  half-pint  of  distilled  spirits  or  one  quart  of 
beer  daily."  In  old  times  marines  were  allowed 
to  the  revenue  cutters,  and  in  the  regulations  for 
the  navy,  enacted  in  1798,  are  referred  to  as 
"  marine  soldiers."  Enlistments  were  then  made 
for  one  year,  subject  to  extension  or  discharge  by 
the  President.  In  the  primary  legislation  great 


MARINE   CORPS 


474 


MARINE   CORPS 


stress  was  laid  upon  the  importance  of  both 
officers  and  men  being  "  good  seamen,"  or  ac 
quainted  with  maritime  affairs.  Now,  while  it 
is  desirable  that  they  should  know  something  of 
the  sea,  it  is  not  required  and  not  advisable  that 
they  should  be  "  good  seamen."  That  would  go 
far  to  neutralize  their  chief  value  as  an  ele 
ment  non-assimilating  in  the  ship's  complement. 
Credit  is  given  to  both  officers  and  men  for  pre 
vious  service  in  the  volunteer  army  or  navy, 
and  as  re-enlistment  in  either  the  army  or  marine 
corps  within  thirty  days  of  honorable  discharge 
entitles  to  increased  pay  for  continuous  service, 
men  are  frequently  found  in  each  who  have 
served  one  or  more  enlistments  in  the  other. 

Recruits  must  be  at  least  5  feet  6  inches  high, 
between  18  and  35  years  of  age,  able  to  read  and 
write,  of  steady  habits,  unmarried,  well  made, 
sound  as  to  senses  and  limbs,  and  of  good  health. 
They  enter  voluntarily,-  undergo  strict  medical 
examination  by  a  naval  surgeon,  and  are  at 
tached  to  barracks  for  instruction  before  being 
sent  to  sea.  The  drill  on  shore  embraces  the 
schools  of  the  soldier,  company,  and  battalion, 
skirmishing,  target-practice,  the  bayonet  exer 
cise,  and  all  military  duties  and  ceremonies. 
Afloat,  this  continues  so  far  as  may  be  practi 
cable,  and  to  it  are  added  the  great  gun  or  artil 
lery  drill,  and  by  some  officers  instruction  in 
swimming,  rowing,  the  signal  code,  and  the 
broadsword.  Upton's  Tactics  and  the  Ordnance 
Manual  are  employed,  the  former  since  1867. 
Reports  of  drills  and  instructions  are  required  to 
be  made  monthly ;  the  commandant  inspects 
each  post  (except  Mare  Island)  annually,  the  ad 
jutant  does  the  same  quarterly,  and  a  captain, 
who  is  a  member  of  the  permanent  Inspection 
Board,  sees  the  guards  of  all  ships  sailing  upon 
or  returning  from  a  three  years'  cruise.  Boys 
over  14  are  enlisted  as  apprentices  to  learn  music, 
— the  drum  and  trumpet, — and  bandmen  are  en 
listed  and  classed  after  examination  at  head 
quarters,  Washington,  where  the  band  is  per 
manently  stationed.  The  regulations  for  the 
recruiting  service  of  the  army  apply  to  the  ma 
rine  corps  so  far  as  practicable. 

The  arm  in  use  at  present  is  the  Springfield 
(U.  S.)  rifle,  calibre  .45,  and  the  knapsack, 
haversack,  canteen,  and  rifle-sling  are  of  the 
infantry  pattern.  Belts  are  of  English  buff 
leather  worn  white,  and  boxes  black.  Cloth 
ing,  rations,  quarters,  fuel,  medicines,  and  medi 
cal  attendance  are  furnished  by  the  government. 
The  former,  now  made  by  the  quartermaster's 
department  in  Philadelphia,  is  of  excellent 
quality,  a-nd  a  careful  soldier  can  save  out  of 
his  allowance  of  clothing  from  $75  to  $100  in 
five  years,  which  is  paid  to  him  in  cash  on  dis 
charge.  The  ration  is  sufficient  and  substantial. 
The  uniform  (revised  in  1876)  is  varied  and  elab 
orate.  The  full  dress  rather  gaudy,  but  the  rest 
neat  and  in  good  taste  ;  caps  and  coats  dark  blue  ; 
trousers  and  overcoats  sky-blue  ;  trimmings 
for  officers  are  scarlet  and  gold,  for  men  scarlet 
and  orange;  musicians  wear  scarlet  coats  with 
white  piping  for  full  dress  ;  fur  hats  and  Arctic 
shoes  are  issued  for  winter,  and  white  helmets 
and  linen  trousers  for  summer  and  the  tropics. 
The  cap  device,  formerly  a  bugle,  has  been  since 
1869  a  metal  hemisphere  on  an  anchor  and  sur 
mounted  by  an  eagle.  Blouses  braided  with  black 
inohair  were  adopted  for  officers  in  1870. 


The  discipline  is  based  upon  the  laws  and  regu 
lations  for  the  government  of  the  navy,  which 
apply  to  them  at  all  times,  except  when  serving 
with  the  army  (act  June  30,  1834).  (See  COURTS- 
MARTIAL.  )  The  military  spirit  is  sedulously  cul- 
tivated,  and  severe  punishments  seldom  infl'icted. 
Whenever  a  man  is  transferred,  his  character 
must  accompany  him,  the  words  used  being 
"excellent,"  "good,"  or  "bad,"  and  no  others. 
This  is  entered  upon  his  descriptive  list,  and  on 
his  final  discharge.  "  Bad"  on  a  discharge  pre 
cludes  re-enlistment.  Intemperate  and  unrelia 
ble  men  are  specially  discharged  upon  recommen 
dation  of  their  commanding  officers,  accompanied 
by  their  records,  as  "unfit  for  the  service." 
Drunkenness  and  desertion  are  decreasing  each 
year.  The  sale  of  malt  or  spirituous  liquors  in 
barracks  is  forbidden,  and  enlisted  men  are  not 
allowed  to  act  as  sutlers  or  sutler's  agents,  nor  to 
trade  with  each  other. 

A  marine  detachment  serving  within  a  navy- 
yard  is  subject  to  the  orders  of  the  commandant 
of  the  yard,  but  no  part  is  to  be  relieved  or 
withdrawn  except  by  order  of  the  commandant 
of  the  marine  corps,  approved  by  the  Secretary 
of  the  Navy.  Officers  joining  such  a  detach 
ment  report  first  to  the  commandant  of  the 
yard,  then  to  the  officer  commanding  detach 
ment.  The  latter  is  charged  with  the  police, 
internal  government,  and  instruction  of  the 
marines;  causes  guards  and  sentinels  to  be 
posted  wherever  required  by  the  commandant 
of  the  yard,  and  makes  a  daily  report  to  him 
of  the  number  and  disposition  of  the  force  under 
his  command.  He  issues  every  morning,  in  writ 
ing  and  under  seal,  the  countersign  for  the  en 
suing  night ;  grants  the  customary  liberty  to  the 
enlisted  men  ;  requires  the  daily  rations  and  meals 
to  be  inspected  and  made  to  comply  with  the 
contract ;  reports  misconduct  on  the  part  of 
the  guards  or  sentinels  to  the  commandant  of 
the  yard ;  enlists  recruits,  and  forwards  staff 
returns  of  men  transferred ;  sees  that  the  exer 
cises  and  formations  at  parades,  reviews,  inspec 
tions,  funerals,  etc.,  and  the  camp  and  garrison 
duties,  and  the  salutes,  are  the  same  as  the  army  ; 
requires  a  daily  drill  of  one  hour,  and  that  officers 
and  men  in  garrison  wear  the  prescribed  uniform. 

Details  of  enlisted  men  for  sea-service  are  made 
from  rosters  kept  at  each  post,  so  that  they  may 
go  in  turn,  unless  they  volunteer.  Three  years 
is  the  tour,  at  the  expiration  of  which  time  they 
are  relieved.  Unless  a  ship  is  unpopular,  there 
is  generally  a  surplus  of  volunteers.  Indifferent 
or  unworthy  men  are  not  permitted  to  go.  Guards 
for  ships  are  made  up  at  the  nearest  barracks, 
and  march  on  board  when  the  ship  goes  into 
commission  fully  organized,  accompanied  by 
their  officers  and  ready  for  duty.  They  salute 
the  flag  when  it  is  hoisted,  salute  it  when  it  is 
hauled  down  at  the  end  of  the  cruise,  and  are 
the  last  to  leave  the  ship.  They  are  entered  sep 
arately  on  the  books  ;  are  upon*  the  same  footing 
as  seamen  with  regard  to  provisions ;  are  furnished 
with  certain  articles  of  clothing  and  small  stores 
by  the  paymaster  when  their  commanding  officer 
certifies  that  they  require  them  ;  when  not  on 
guard  or  on  duty  as  sentinels,  are  subject  to  the 
orders  of  the  sea-officers  in  the  same  manner  as 
the  crew  ;  are  not  to  be  diverted  from  their  ap 
propriate  duties,  nor  called  upon  to  coal  ship  or 
work  as  mechanics,  except  in  cases  of  emergency  ; 


MAKINE   CORPS 


475 


MARINE   CORPS 


are  not  to  perform  duty  abov^  the  rail,  unless  to 
act  as  sharpshooters  in  the  tops  ;  may  be  assigned 
as  parts  of  gun's  crews  in  divisions  other  than 
their  own ;  when  sentinels,  must  receive  orders 
through  the  sergeant  or  corporal  of  guard. 

Their  particular  duties  on  board  ship  are,  as 
sentinels  to  watch  over  the  magazines,  store 
rooms,  gangways,  galleys,  boats  alongside,  ap 
proaching,  or  passing,  and  all  lights' and  fires 
required  for  the  use  of  the  ship,  and  to  give 
the  alarm  in  case  of  fire ;  to  preserve  order,  and 
allow  no  swearing,  gambling,  or  immoral  prac 
tices  ;  to  prevent  injury  or  theft  of  public  or  pri 
vate  property,  or  interruption  of  the  cooking 
duties ;  to  allow  no  smoking  or  washing  except 
at  the  prescribed  hours ;  to  allow  no  enlisted 
man  or  boat  to  leave  the  ship  without  the  au 
thority  of  the  omcer-of-the-deck ;  to  guard  the 
ordinary  prisoners  and  the  prisoners  of  war,  who 
sometimes  outnumber  the  crew  ;  and  at  all  times 
to  sustain  discipline  by  their  organization,  distinc 
tive  character,  and  peculiar  training.  In  port 
they  constitute  the  deck  guard,  to  render  honors 
or  assistance,  and  at  sea  they  are  (at  least  a  large 
portion  of  them)  always  near  their  arms,  to  pre 
vent  surprise  from  without  and  check  insubordi 
nation  from  within.  In  action,  they  man  and 
fight  a  division  of  the  spar-deck  battery,  fill 
vacancies  at  other  guns,  scour  the  enemy's 
decks  from  the  tops,  the  poop,  or  forecastle  with 
their  rifles,  cover  the  boarding-parties  with  their 
fire,  and  repel  boarders  with  fixed  bayonets. 


Should  the  enemy  gain  a  foothold,  they  rally 
at  the  mainmast,  so  as  to  command  the  deck. 
In  case  of  fire  they  guard  the  boat's  falls  and 
officers'  quarters,  prevent  panic  or  pillage,  com 
pel  compliance  with  the  orders  of  the  officers, 
and  allow  no  one  to  throw  overboard  any  prop 
erty  or  fittings,  or  abandon  the  ship,  until  duly 
authorized. 

In  the  landing-parties  and  boat  expeditions 
they  go  thoroughly  equipped,  and  are  distrib 
uted  among  the  several  boats.  In  mixed  opera 
tions  on  shore,  such  as  the  surprise  of  a  camp  or 
post,  or  the  escalade  of  a  fort,  picked  men  are 
sent  with  the  pioneers,  and  the  rest  form  the 
supporting  column,  and  in  case  of  failure,  cover 
the  retreat  and  embarkation  of  the  sailors.  The 
venerable  Senior  Flag-Officer  Stewart  said  of  sail 
ors  :  "  They  are  a  class  whose  onset  and  first 
eiforts  are  tremendous  and  formidable,  but  if 
resisted  and  discomfited  they  break  into  groups, 
become  a  mere  mob,  and  without  a  body  of  reg 
ular  troops  to  sustain  them  must  fall  a  sacrifice." 
A  frequent  duty  abroad  is  to  guard  the  American 
legations  and  consulates,  and  the  interests  of 
American  citizens  in  times  of  revolution  or 
public  disorder,  and  to  protect  surveying  and 
astronomical  parties. 

The  present  allowance  of  marines  to  ships 
varies  with  their  class  or  rate.  The  old  rule  was 
a  marine  to  each  gun ;  but  guns  were  then 
smaller  and  much  more  numerous.  This  table  is 
generally  used : 


Vessel. 

Rate. 

B 

3 

o 

Displacement. 

Captain. 

Lieutenant. 

d 

Corporals. 

.0 

Privates. 

1 

< 

1st 

30 

4700 

1 

1 

3 

4 

2 

40 

51 

2d 

14 

3980 

1 

2 

2 

2 

24 

31 

22 

3250 

1 

2 

2 

2 

30 

37 

Alaska             "                 .          

H 

12 

2400 

1 

2 

2 

2 

20 

27 

Yaudalia          "                                           

K 

9 

2200 

1 

2 

2 

2 

20 

27 

3d 

8 

1900 

1 

2 

2 

2 

20 

27 

Alliance          "                

6 

1375 

1 

2 

2 

2 

20 

27 

4th 

3 

900 

1 

2 

10 

13 

Flag-ships  are  allowed  5  privates  additional. 


The  following  is  a  list  of  the  commandants 
from  the  beginning,  with  their  rank  and  date  of 
commission  or  appointment  : 

Samuel  Nichols,  major,  June  25,  1776. 

William  W.  Burrows,  lieutenant-colonel,  May  1,  1800. 

Franklin  Wharton,  lieutenant-colonel,  March  7,  1804. 

Anthony  Gale,  lieutenant-colonel,  March  3,  1819. 

Archibald  Henderson,  lieutenant-colonel,  October  17,  1820; 
colonel,  July  1,  1834;  brevet  brigadier-general,  January  27, 
1837. 

John  Harris,  colonel,  January  7,  1859. 

Jacob  Zeilin.  colonel,  June  10, 1864;  brigadier-general,  March 
2,  18G7. 

Chas.  G.  McCawley,  colonel,  November  1, 1876. 

Gen.  Henderson  died  January  6,  1859,  having 
served  his  country  53  years,  of  which  39  were  in 
command  of  the  corps.  Col.  Harris  died  May 
12,  1864,  having  served  50  years,  and  5  in  com 
mand.  G-en.  Zeilin  was  on  the  active  list  45 
vears,  12  years  in  command,  and  is  living  at  this 
date  (October  1,  1880)  in  Washington.—  Henry 
C.  Cochrane,  Captain  U.S.M.C. 

Marine  Corps  of  the  Confederate  States. 
Before  the  attack  on  Fort  Sumter,  the  Confeder 


ate  States  began  the  organization  of  a  marine 
corps,  the  first  appointment  bearing  date  March 
25,  1861.  Mr.  Mallory,  the  Secretary  of  the 
Navy,  cordially  welcomed  all  seceders  from  the 
United  States  service,  and  generally  gave  them 
precedence  over  other  appointees.  The  organiza 
tion  was  that  of  an  infantry  regiment  of  10 
companies,  numbering  1000  men,  with  a  colonel 
commandant  and  three  staff-officers  with  the 
rank  of  major.  Its  headquarters  were  in  Rich 
mond,  and  Major  Lloyd  J.  Beall,who  had  been 
a  paymaster  in  the  U.  S.  army,  and  was  an  old 
friend  and  classmate  at  West  Point  of  Mr.  Jef 
ferson  Davis,  the  President  of  the  Confederate 
States,  was  appointed  commandant. 

The  principal  command — four  companies,  un 
der  Capt.  John  D.  Simms: — was  stationed  during 
the  war,  when  not  engaged  in  expeditions,  at 
Drury's  Bluff,  on  James  River,  as  a  permanent 
garrison.  "When  it  was  believed  in  Richmond 
that  the  Federal  ironclads  intended  to  force  an 
entrance  into  Charleston  harbor,  Capt.  Simms 


MARINE   CORPS 


476 


MARINE   CORPS 


was  sent  with  200  men  to  that  point,  where  they 
were  provided  with  liquid  fire  in  bottles  and  then 
distributed  among  the  different  blockade-runners 
in  port,  with  orders  to  board  the  ironclads  upon 
their  approach  and  pour  the  combustible  into 
any  apertures  which  might  be  accessible.  The 
marines  remained  at  Charleston  about  a  month, 
and  then  returned  to  Drury's  Bluff,  which  they 
held  until  Richmond  was  abandoned,  and  later 
were  captured  as  a  part  of  E well's  corps,  after  a 
three  hours'  fight  at  Sailor's  Creek,  and  sent  to 
the  prison  camp  at  Johnson's  Island. 

Other  companies  served  at  the  naval  depots  in 
Richmond,  Savannah,  and  Mobile,  at  Pensacola 
and  Norfolk  until  those  places  were  captured,  and 
at  Fort  Fisher.  Capt.  R.  T.  Thorn  commanded 
the  marines  of  the  "  Merrimac"  in  the  great 
fight  with  the  fleet  at  Hampton  Roads,  and  Lieut. 
B.  K.  Howell,  a  brother-in-law  of  the  Confed 
erate  President,  was  on  the  privateer  "Alabama" 
until  she  was  destroyed.  The  marines  of  Tatt- 
nall's  fleet,  at  the  battle  of  Port  Royal,  were 
commanded  by  Capt.  Geo.  Holmes  and  Lieut. 
Raney,  and  the  guard  of  the  naval  depot  at 
Mobile  by  Capt.  Meiere.  Other  officers  were  as 
signed  to  vessels  in  the  river  and  harbor  flotillas, 
and  some  were  on  duty  with  the  armies.  Capt. 
Tattnall  was  for  a  time  colonel  of  an  Alabama 
regiment,  and  Capt.  Hays  a  lieutenant-colonel 
on  the  staff  of  Gen.  Bragg.  Lieut.  Sayre  was 
also  with  the  army.  Capts.  Jacob  Read  and  Geo. 
P.  Turner  were  dismissed.  Major  Allison  had 
been  a  purser  in  the  U.  S.  navy. — Henry  C. 
Cochrane,  Captain  V.S  M.C. 

Marine  Corps,  Foreign.  Until  the  year  1664 
the  British  navy  was  manned  by  means  of  the  sys 
tem  of  impress,  or  by  enlisting  landsmen  ;  but  the 
commerce  of  England  at  that  period  was  so  lim 
ited  that  these  measures  were  found  inadequate  to 
procure  sufficient  seamen  for  the  public  service, 
and  this  difficulty  suggested  the  formation  of 
marines.  The  men  were  raised  with  the  object  of 
forming  a  nursery  to  man  the  fleet,  and  being 
quartered  in  or  near  the  principal  seaports,  their 
great  utility  in  the  equipment  of  squadrons  soon 
made  it  desirable  to  augment  their  strength.  The 
first  order  in  council  which  has  reference  to  this 
subject  is  dated  the  16th  of  October,  1664,  author 
izing  1200  soldiers  to  be  raised  and  formed  into 
one  regiment.  From  1776  to  1784  the  average 
strength  of  the  royal  marines  amounted  to  18,790 
officers  and  men.  In  1844  the  total  strength 
amounted  to  10,469.  The  aggregate  strength 
at  the  present  time  is  15,000  non-commissioned 
officers,  musicians,  and  privates,  and  the  follow 
ing  officers : 

ARTILLERY—  General  Officers.— I  general,  1 
lieutenant-general,  and  2  major-generals. 

LIGHT  INFANTRY — General  Officers. — 2  gen 
erals,  2  lieutenant-generals,  and  5  major-generals. 

General  Staff. — 1  deputy  adjutant-general, 
with  rank  of  major-general,  1  quartermaster. 

ARTILLERY — 16  Companies. — 1  colonel  com 
mandant,  1  colonel,  3  lieutenant-colonels,  40 
captains,  47  lieutenants. 

Staff. — 1  staff-captain,  3  instructors  of  gunnery, 
1  instructor  of  musketry,  1  adjutant,  1  military 
instructor,  4  quartermasters,  1  barrack-master, 
1  paymaster,  1  staff-surgeon,  2  surgeons. 

LIGHT  INFANTRY — 48  Companies. — 3  colonels 
commandant,  5  colonels,  12  lieutenant-colonels, 
111  captains,  146  lieutenants. 


Staff. — 3  instructors  of  gunnery,  4  instructors 
of  musketry,  7  adjutants",  7  quartermasters,  4 
paymasters,  4  barrack-masters,  1  deputy  inspec 
tor-general  of  hospitals,  1  staff-surgeon,  6  sur 
geons. 

The  military  education  of  the  officers  of  the 
Royal  Marine  Artillery  is  thorough.  The  cadets 
are  obliged  to  undergo  a  course  of  study  for  two 
years,  during  which  they  are  expected  to  acquire 
a  competent  knowledge  of  arithmetic,  algebra, 
geometry,  plane  trigonometry,  the  use  of  the 
sextant,  fortifications,  a  practical  course  in  naval 
gunnery,  English  history,  and  French.  If,  on 
obtaining  his  commission,  the  young  officer  is 
selected  to  qualify  for  the  artillery,  he  must  be 
prepared  at  tn*e  end  of  the  year  to  pass  an  ex 
amination  in  analytical  trigonometry,  differential 
and  integral  calculus,  conic  sections,  static.-;  and 
dynamics,  hydrostatics  and  steam.  The  men  are 
volunteers  from  the  light  infantry  divisions. 
The  course  of  training  is  very  comprehensive ; 
it  includes  the  usual  infantry  drills  and  musketry 
instructions,  field  guns  and  rockets,  field-battery 
movements,  the  service  of  heavy  ordnance ;  a 
laboratory,  including  use  and  preparation  of 
tubes,  rockets,  and  fuses,  making  up  cartridges, 
the  manufacture  of  port-fires,  signal-lights,  and 
rockets,  and  all  matters  connected  with  the 
theory  of  projectiles  as  may  have  a  practical 
application. 

The  marines  of  Germany  were  selected,  when 
organized,  from  the  elite  of  the  army,  and  that 
corps  ranks  next  to  the  English  marines  in  dis 
cipline  and  efficiency.  Spain  and  Italy  have, 
also,  a  large  and  well-disciplined  force  of  ma 
rines.  The  organization  of  the  French  marines 
is  considered  the  most  important  and  efficient  of 
the  military  forces.  The  duties  of  this  corps  are 
entirely  confined,  however,  to  the  protection  of 
dock-yards  and  arsenals,  and  to  the  occupation 
of  forts  on  the  sea-coast.  Turkey,  although  oc 
cupying  an  unimportant  position  among  the 
great  naval  powers,  has  organized  a  corps  of 
marines  which  compares  favorably  with  those  of 
other  countries. 

It  is  a  fact  not  generally  known  that  a  corps 
of  marines  existed  in  the  Roman  army,  but  it  is, 
nevertheless,  a  fact ;  and  also  that  a  marine  co 
hort  was  stationed  in  England.  In  Bruce's 
u  History  of  the  Roman  "Wall,"  which  divided 
England  from  Scotland,  the  author  states  that, 
u  In  ascertaining  the  number  and  the  names 
of  the  stations,  a  most  valuable  document  has 
come  down  to  our  times  from  the  period  of 
the  Roman  occupation.  The  Notitia  Imperil 
was,  probably,  written  about  the  end  of  the 
reign  of  Theodosius  the  Younger,  and  was  cer 
tainly  composed  before  the  Romans  abandoned 
this  island.  It  is  a  sort  of  list  of  the  several 
military  and  civil  officers  and  magistrates,  both 
in  the  Eastern  and  Western  Empires,  and  the 
places  where  they  were  stationed.  It  may,  in 
fact,  be  regarded  as  the  Army  List  of  the  Roman 
Empire."  The  portion  of  the  section  containing 
the  information  we  quote  is  headed,  Item,  per 
Lineam  Valli, — "Along  the  line  of  wall," — and 
after  detailing  17  cohorts  or  wings  of  cohorts, 
with  their  stations,  arrives  at  "  The  Tribune  of 
the  First  Marine  Cohort,  styled  ^Elia,  at  Tunno- 
celum."  Thus  there  was  a  first,  and  therefore  a 
second,  and  possibly  many  other  marine  cohorts, 
in  the  Roman  army. 


MARINE  HOSPITAL  SERVICE         477         MARINE   HOSPITAL  SERVICE 


Marine  Hospital  Service  of  the  United 
States.  This  service  dates  its  establishment  from 
July  16,  1798,  at  which  time  an  act  for  the  relief 
of  disabled  and  sick  seamen  was  passed  by  Con 
gress,  after  the  subject  had  been  before  that  body 
for  several  years.  Hospital  money  had  been  col 
lected  in  the  colonies  for  nearly  sixty  years  pre 
vious  to  the  establishment  of  the  service,  so  that 
Congress  was  undoubtedly  familiar  with  the  sys 
tem.  The  first  hospital  exclusively  for  seamen 
was  the  magnificent  naval  hospital  at  Greenwich, 
England,  commenced  by  Charles  II.,  and  or 
dered  by  Queen  Mary  to  be  completed  "  as  a  re 
treat  for  seamen  disabled  in  the  service  of  their 
country."  The  Royal  Hospital  for  Seamen  at 
Greenwich  was  built  by  order  of  King  William 
soon  after  Queen  Mary's  death.  By  an  act  of 
Parliament  passed  in  the  second  year  of  George 
the  Third's  reign,  the  seamen  of  the  American 
colonies  were  obliged  to  contribute  to  the  support 
of  this  hospital,  and  sixpence  per  month  was  the 
tax  deducted  from  the  wages  of  all  seamen,  Eng 
lish  subjects,  sailing  to  and  from  American  ports. 
The  Archives  of  Pennsylvania  (vol.  i.  p.  251) 
show  that  four  receivers,  Richard  Fitzwilliam 
and  John  Moore,  Philadelphia,  Alexander  Keith, 
Newcastle,  and  Henry  Brooke,  Lewes,  were  ap 
pointed  in  1729  for  the  province  of  Philadelphia. 
This  example  of  the  utility  of  marine  hospitals 
had  a  marked  effect  upon  the  colonies,  and  as 
early  as  1780  the  Commonwealth  of  Virginia 
taxed  all  seamen  and  marines  in  the  State  the 
sum  of  ninepence  per  month  as  hospital  money, 
and  the  naval  officers  were  authorized  to  collect 
it,  being  allowed  five  per  cent,  commission  on  all 
moneys  collected.  In  October,  1782,  the  tax  was 
increased  from  ninepence  to  one  shilling  per 
month.  December  20,  1787,  Virginia  passed  a 
law  establishing  a  marine  hospital,  and  author 
ized  the  governor  to  appoint  a  commission  to  se 
lect  a  site  in  the  town  of  Washington,  Norfolk 
County,  Va.  In  1789  North  Carolina  enacted  a 
law  creating  a  hospital  fund,  and  in  1790  the 
commissioners  of  the  poor  at  the  various  ports 
of  entry  were  appointed  the  collectors  for  this 
fund.  The  tax  (per  capita)  was  graded  as  fol 
lows  :  captains  5s.,  mates  2s.  6c£.,  and  each 
member  of  the  crew  Is.  &d.  A  bill  was  pre 
sented  to  Congress  on  August  28,  1789,  providing 
for  the  adoption  of  harbor  regulations  and  the 
establishment  of  hospitals.  The  records  of  the 
Boston  Marine  Society  show  that  they  are  en 
titled  to  the  credit  of  presenting  the  first  memo 
rial  to  Congress  on  this  subject,  their  petition 
praying  for  the  establishment  in  the  United 
States  of  three  marine  hospitals  having  been 
presented  in  the  House  January  27,  1791,  but  it 
was  not  until  1794  that  any  action  was  taken  in 
regard  to  this  or  other  petitions  which  had  been 
presented  to  Congress,  and  the  bill  passed  then 
was  one  providing  for  the  aid  of  our  seamen  in 
foreign  countries,  and  two  resident  agents,  one 
for  Great  Britain  and  one  for  the  West  Indies, 
were  appointed.  In  February,  1797,  the  com 
mittee  appointed  to  inquire  into  the  operation  of 
the  act  for  the  protection  and  relief  of  American 
seamen,  recommended  the  passage  of  resolutions 
fixing  a  tax  on  the  wages  of  every  seaman  sail 
ing  from  any  United  States  port,  and  to  the  es 
tablishment  of  hospitals  for  the  relief  of  disabled 
and  sick  seamen,  but  it  did  not  become  a  law 
until  the  following  July.  The  tax  fixed  by  this 


law  was  20  cents  per  month  from  the  pay  of 
all  seamen.  On  March  2,  1799,  an  additional 
act  passed  Congress  authorizing  all  moneys  col 
lected  within  any  one  State  to  be  expended  in 
such  State  ;  this,  however,  did  not  apply  to  the 
States  of  New  Hampshire,  Rhode  Island,  Con 
necticut,  and  Massachusetts,  as  they  mutually 
supported  the  Charlestown,  Mass.,  hospital.  This 
act  also  taxed  the  officers,  seamen,  and  marines 
of  the  navy,  and  entitled  them  to  the  benefits  of 
the  hospital  fund. 

The  report  of  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury 
on  the  condition  of  the  service,  dated  February, 
1802,  shows  that  hospitals  had  been  established 
at  Boston,  Newport,  Norfolk,  and  Charleston, 
solely  supported  by  funds  raised  under  the  au 
thority  of  the  United  States  ;  that  the  Baltimore 
hospital  was  under  the  control  of  the  Board  of 
Health,  although  supported  by  the  United  States  ; 
that  the  sick  seamen  of  New  York  and  Philadel 
phia  were  received  in  the  city  hospital,  a  fixed 
rate  per  week  being  paid  for  their  care  and 
treatment  out  of  the  marine  hospital  fund ; 
and  that  at  Portland,  New  London,  Wilming 
ton,  N.  C.,  Newbern,  Edenton,  and  Alexandria, 
they  were  afforded  temporary  relief  in  private 
boarding-houses  ;  that  the  total  amount  received 
from  seamen,  in  public  and  private  service,  was 
$147,875.58,  |6185.33  of  which  had  been  applied 
to  the  purchase  of  the  Gosport  hospital ;  $74,636.51 
was  the  total  cost  for  the  relief  and  treatment  of 
sick  seamen,  and  $6707.87  was  returned  to  agents 
who  had  expended  more  than  they  had  collected, 
$73,761.61  remaining  unexpended.  In  May, 
1802,  an  act  was  passed,  amending  the  act  of 
1797,  by  which  the  sum  of  $15,000  was  appro 
priated  for  the  erection  of  the  Boston  hospital ; 
the  moneys  collected  on  account  of  the  hospital 
tax  were  constituted  a  general  fund ;  and  the 
directors  of  the  marine  hospitals  were  to  be  held 
accountable  for  the  moneys  received,  and  also  be 
allowed  one  per  cent,  commission  on  all  moneys 
disbursed. 

In  1803  the  marine  hospital  at  Charlestown, 
Mass.,  was  built;  the  same  year  one  was  per 
manently  established  at  New  Orleans,  and  in 
1804  the  necessary  equipments  were  furnished  to 
this  hospital.  The  Secretary's  report  of  1806 
shows  that  contract  physicians  were  employed  at 
Newport,  New  London,  and  Baltimore,  the  only 
marine  hospitals  in  operation  at  this  time  being 
at  Boston  and  Norfolk  ;  and  that  sick  and  disabled 
seamen  were  treated  in  the  almshouses  at  Ports 
mouth,  N.  H.,  Portland,  Me.,  Newport,  R.  I., 
and  Alexandria,  Va.,  and  that  at  New  York, 
Philadelphia,  and  New  Orleans  the  local  hospitals 
furnished  the  necessary  relief.  The  amount  of 
$55,649.29  was  reported  by  the  Secretary  of  the 
Treasury,  February,  1811,  as  having  been  paid 
in,  on  account  of  the  hospital  fund.  February  26, 
1811,  the  law  creating  the  naval  hospital  estab 
lishment  and  separating  the  naval  fund,  was 
passed.  The  following  table  shows  the  number 
of  American  seamen  who  received  treatment  and 
relief  in  the  marine  hospitals  from  1796  to  1812: 

1805 10,722 

1806 9,900 

1807 7,937 

1808 1,121 

1809 9,170 


1796.. 
1797.. 
1798.. 
1799.. 
1800.. 
1801.. 
1802  . 
1803.. 
1804.. 


...   4,849 
9,021 

...   7,031 

...   6,514 

3,390 

...   6,917 

891 

,.  10.724 


1810. 
1811. 
1812. 


3,668 
4/28 
3,252 


MARINE   HOSPITAL  SERVICE 


478 


MARINE   HOSPITAL  SERVICE 


In  February,  1818,  the  hospital  at  Boston  was 
partially  destroyed  by  fire,  and  the  new  Boston 
marine  hospital  was  not  finally  located  until 
•1827,  at  Chelsea;  in  1836  this  and  the  hospi 
tals  at  Norfolk  and  Charleston,  S.  C.,  were  the 
only  marine  hospitals,  and  the  last  was  not  man 
aged  by  the  government,  but  under  contract  with 
the  city  authorities.  On  March  3,  1837,  an  act 
was  passed  appropriating  $70,000  for  the  erection 
of  the  New  Orleans  marine  hospital,  $15,000  for 
three  sites  on  the  Mississippi  and  one  on  Lake 
Erie,  and  $10,000  for  the  erection  of  the  Mobile 
hospital,  and  the  sum  of  $150,000  was  appro 
priated  for  the  relief  of  seamen,  and  at  the 
same  time  the  tax  of  20  cents  per  month  on  the 
wages  of  each  seaman  was  suspended  for  one 
year;  it  was,  however,  a  long  time  after  the 
passage  of  this  act  to  the  date  of  the  establish 
ment  of  the  marine  hospitals  along  the  Mississippi 
River  and  the  Lakes,  as  the  circumlocutory  man 
ner  followed  by  the  government  caused  innumer 
able  delays  ;  for  example,  the  act  authorizing  the 
establishment  of  a  hospital  at  Ocracoke,  N.  C., 
was  approved  August,  1842  ;  the  site  was  selected 
January,  1843  ;  purchase  sanctioned  by  the  Secre 
tary  of  the  Treasury,  April,  1844  ;  title  examined 
and  made  good  by  Attorney-General,  May,  1844  ; 
the  Department  advised  of  the  transfer  by  the 
State  to  the  United  States,  January,  1845;  pro 
posals  for  building  received  in  March,  1845; 
papers  referred  to  the  collector  of  customs  at 
Ocracoke,  May,  1845,  and  it  was  reported  to  the 
House  that  the  building  would  cost  $5497,  and 
be  finished  in  September,  1845,  three  years  being 
required  to  select  the  site,  purchase  the  ground, 
and  erect  a  building  which  could  have  been  com 
pleted  with  all  its  details  in  six  months.  The  act 
passed  March  1, 1843,  extended  the  provisions  and 
penalties  of  the  service  to  the  owners,  masters,  and 
seamen  of  registered  vessels  employed  in  the  coast 
trade.  The  report  of  Drs.  Edwards  and  Loring, 
who  were  appointed  a  board  to  inspect  the  hos 
pitals  then  in  operation  and  in  process  of  con 
struction,  states  that  the  condition,  arrangement 
internally,  and  expense  of  the  hospitals  in  oper 
ation  vary  with  their  number  and  location,  and 
recommends  that  the  hospital  grounds  and  build 
ing  at  Chelsea  be  sold,  a  part  of  the  naval  tract 
purchased,  and  a  new  building  be  built  thereon  ; 
that  the  hospital  at  Ocracoke  be  discontinued, 
and  one  at  Wilmington  be  established,  as  the 
necessity  for  a  hospital  at  this  place  was  very 
urgent.  The  report  also  mentioned  very  favor 
ably  the  hospital  at  Louisville,  nearly  completed, 
also  the  one  at  Pittsburgh ;  it  favored  a  tonnage 
duty  on  all  vessels,  including  fishing-vessels,  and 
also  recommended  hospitals-  at  Detroit,  Buffalo, 
Cincinnati,  and  one  or  more  ports  in  Maine  ;  and 
also  proposed  to  place  jthe  hospitals  under  the 
control  of  a  "  chief  surgeon,"  who  shall  have  his 
bureau  attached  to  the  Treasury  Department. 
No  action  having  been  taken  by  Congress  to 
secure  proper  uniformity  in  the  marine  hospi 
tals,  it  is  not  surprising  that  the  Secretary  be 
came  disgusted,  and  reported,  as  he  did ,  June 
30, 1852,  adversely  to  the  erection  of  more  marine 
hospitals.  Secretary  Cobb  desired  the  abolition 
of  the  entire  system,  his  report  of  June  30,  1858, 
showing  astonishing  discrepancies  between  the 
necessities  of  the  case  and  the  amount  appro 
priated :  "At  Natchez,  Miss.,  the  hospital  cost 
$53,250,  and  no  return  of  patients  admitted 


during  the  year  had  been  received ;  at  Portland, 
Me.,  the  building  constructed  had  cost  $100,000, 
and  only  Gl  patients  had  been  relieved  during 
the  year,  at  an  average  cost  of  $3  per  week  ;  at 
Pensacola,  17  patients,  at  an  average  cost  of 
$3.50  per  week,  had  been  medically  treated." 

In  1861  there  were  United  States  marine  hos 
pitals  at  Mobile,  Ala. ;  Louisville,  Ivy. ;  Key 
West,  Fla.  ;  Galena,  111. ;  Evansville,  Ind.  ; 
Detroit,  Mich.  ;  Cleveland,  O.  ;  Chicago,  111. ; 
Charleston,  S.  C. ;  Cincinnati,  O. ;  Burlington, 
Vt.  ;  Chelsea,  Mass. ;  Natchez,  Miss.  ;  Napoleon, 
Ark.;  Norfolk,  Va. ;  Burlington,  Iowa;  Wil 
mington,  N.  C.  ;  San  Francisco,  Cal. ;  St.  Marks, 
Fla.  ;  St.  Louis,  Mo. ;  Portland,  Me. ;  Pitts 
burgh,  Pa. ;  Paducah,  Ky.,  and  Ocracoke,  N.  C. 
In  March,  1862,  Congress  appropriated  $200,000 
for  the  marine  hospital  fund,  and  authorized  the 
Secretary  of  the  Treasury  to  sell  the  hospital  at 
Burlington,  Iowa,  to  use  it  for  sick  and  wounded 
soldiers,  or  to  close  it,  whichever  he  should  deem 
the  best  for  the  interests  of  the  government. 
During  the  war,  owing  to  the  sale  or  transfer  of 
many  American  vessels  abroad,  the  receipts  from 
the  marine  hospital  tax  were  lessened  to  a  con 
siderable  extent ;  and  to  obviate  this  difficulty 
Congress  enacted  (April  29,  1864)  that  all  hos 
pital  money  that  had  become  due  should  be  col 
lected  by  the  agent  or  consul  at  the  time  of  the 
transfer  or  sale  of  the  vessel,  and  if  not  paid  by 
the  owner  or  master  of  the  vessel,  the  transfer  or 
sale  was  declared  void.  The  hospitals  at  Charles 
ton,  S.  C.,  Cincinnati,  Ohio,  and  Burlington, 
Vt.,  were  sold  in  1866,  and  in  1867  the  hospitals 
at  Evansville,  Ind.,  and  Burlington,  Iowa,  and 
the  hospital  grounds  at  Paducah,  Ky.  (the  build 
ing  having  been  destroyed  during  the  war),  were 
sold,  and  the  marine  hospital  at  St.  Marks,  Fla., 
was  transferred  to  the  War  Department.  In 

1868,  the  hospital  at  San  Francisco  was  partially 
destroyed  by  an  earthquake,  and  the  one  at  Na 
poleon,  Ark.,  was  swept  away  by  the  river.     In 

1869,  Dr.  W.  D.  Stewart  was  appointed  inspector 
of  marine   hospitals  for   the  Treasury  Depart 
ment;  he  was  succeeded  by  Dr.  Billings,  of  the 
army.     January,  1870,  a  bill  reorganizing  the 
service  was  submitted  to  the  House  by  Secretary 
Boutwell.     It  provided  for  a  s\rstematic  national 
service,  and  the  regulations  adopted  in  accord 
ance  with  it   provided  for  the  examination  of 
medical  officers.     Section  1  of  the  act  of  June  29, 

1870,  increased  the  hospital  dues  to  40  cents  per 
month,  and  section  6  authorized  the  Secretary 
of  the  Treasury  to  appoint  a  surgeon  to  act  as 
supervising  surgeon  of  the  Marine  Hospital  Ser 
vice,  which  title  was  changed  by  the  act  of  March 
3,  1875,  to  supervising  surgeon-general,  and  the 
office  was  made  a  Presidential  appointment.    Dr. 
John  M.  Wood  worth,  of  Illinois,  a  distinguished 
surgeon  during  the  war,  was  appointed  supervis 
ing  surgeon,  March  23,  1871,  and  he  was  also  the 
first  supervising  surgeon-general.    In  June,  1872, 
the  contract  system  was  abolished  by  act  of  Con 
gress. 

Since  the  reorganization  of  the  service  the 
annual  reports  show  that  all  useless  hospitals 
have  been  abandoned,  the  hospitals  at  San  Fran 
cisco  and  Chicago  have  been  completed,  a  system 
of  dispensary  relief  inaugurated,  and  all  medi 
cines  are  purchased  in  bulk  by  the  medical  pur 
veyor,  who  distributes  them  to  the  various  hos 
pitals.  During  the  year  ending  June  30,  1873, 


MARINE  HOSPITAL  SERVICE         479 


MARINE   INSURANCE 


13,529  sick  and  disabled  seamen  were  furnished 
medical  and  surgical  relief;  12,697  seamen  were 
maintained  in  the  hospitals,  and  832  others,  not 
requiring  hospital  treatment,  were  relieved  by 
furnishing  them  with  medicines  and  appliances 
without  admission.  The  following  is  the  result 
obtained  in  the  treatment  of  the  12,697  hospital 
patients : 

Discharged  cured o 8,927 

"          improved 1,975 

"  not  improved 161 

Deserted  while  under  treatment 108 

Died 646 

Remaining  under  treatment,  June  30,  1873 880 


Total. 


..12,697 


The  average  daily  number  of  hospital  patients 
throughout  the  year  was  1151.  The  total  cost  of 
the  service  for  the  year,  including  everything, 
administration  of  the  service,  maintenance,  care, 
and  treatment  of  patients,  and  the  medicines  fur 
nished  them,  expenses  attending  the  burial  of 
those  who  died,  and  the  entire  outfit  of  the  new 
marine  hospital  at  Chicago,  was  $422,502.98 ; 
the  average  cost  of  maintaining  and  treating 
each  patient  being  $1.002  per  day.  The  amount 
collected  from  seamen  during  the  year  was 
$335,845.95,  an  increase  of  $12,145  over  the 
amount  collected  in  1872,  and  an  increase  of 
$47,700.53  over  the  amount  collected  in  1871. 

Of  the  31  hospitals  built  by  the  government 
since  the  organization  of  the  service,  there  re 
mained  in  use  in  1873  ten,  situated  as  follows: 
Chelsea,  Mass.  ;  Chicago,  111.  ;  Cleveland,  Ohio ; 
Detroit,  Mich.  ;  Louisville,  Ky. ;  Mobile,  Ala.  ; 
Pittsburgh,  Pa.  ;  Portland,  Me. ;  St.  Louis,  Mo., 
and  Key  West,  Fla.  Of  the  remaining  21,  four 
teen  had  been  sold,  one  transferred  to  the  War 
Department,  one  abandoned,  one  burned,  one  de 
stroyed  by  a  flood,  and  one  by  a  hurricane ;  one 
was  injured  by  an  earthquake  and  abandoned, 
and  one  remained  unfinished,  its  completion 
being  impracticable.  There  were  also  81  ports 
where  hospital  relief  was  furnished  to  sick  and 
disabled  seamen  in  private  or  municipal  hospitals 
at  rates  authorized  by  the  Treasury  Department. 

During  the  year  ending  June  30,  1875,  the 
seventy-seventh  year  of  the  operations  of  the 
service,  and  the  fourth  year  of  its  reorganiza 
tion  on  its  present  basis,  its  relief  operations  em 
braced  94  sea  and  inland  ports  of  the  United 
States,  at  which  were  relieved  15,009  sick  and 
disabled  seamen  ;  12,939  of  these  were  treated  in 
hospitals,  and  2070  were  relieved  at  the  offices 
of  the  surgeons.  The  amount  of  hospital  tax 
collected  in  132  customs  districts  during  the 
year  amounted  to  $338,893.78,  and  the  net  ex 
penditures  out  of  the  appropriation  were  $404,- 
390.60.  The  legislation  of  the  Forty-second  Con 
gress,  in  relation  to  the  Marine  Hospital  Service, 
provided  (1  and  2)  for  the  collections  of  dues  and 
the  seamen's  time-book;  (3)  definition  of  the 
term  seaman  ;  (4)  lease  of  hospital  buildings 
and  grounds;  (5)  provision  for  insane  seamen; 
(6)  rate  of  charge  for  care  of  foreign  seamen  and 
of  seamen  belonging  to  the  engineer  corps  of  the 
army,  the  navy,  the  coast  survey,  and  light-house 
service,  and  it  is  a  noticeable  fact  that  each  of 
the  above  services  has  taken  advantage  of  this 
provision,  which  is  intended  for  their  conve 
nience  and  accommodation.  From  the  estab 
lishment  of  the  service  in  1798  until  1873  ap 
pointments  of  medical  officers  were  made  without 


any  preliminary  examination.  Since  1873  no  ap 
pointments  have  been  made  except  of  such  per 
sons  as  have  passed  a  good  practical  examination 
of  professional  qualifications.  The  new  pavilion 
hospital  at  Mountain  Lake,  near  San  Francisco, 
which  was  commenced  in  June,  1874,  was  occu 
pied  in  June,  1875,  though  not  entirely  finished. 
The  aggregate  cost  of  the  hospital  was  $73,884.06. 
For  the  years  1876-77  the  results  attained  were 
particularly  gratifying,  as  within  the  fiscal  year 
ended  June  30,  1877,  the  collections  of  the  hos 
pital-dues  amounted  to  $372,465.70,  while  the 
expenditures  amounted  to  $368,395.28,  show 
ing  a  surplus  of  receipts  over  expenditures  of 
$4070.42.  During  this  yea.r  15,175 seamen  (10,975 
in  hospitals  and  4200  office  patients)  were  relieved 
by  the  service, — the  average  cost,  $24.22  for 
each  patient,  being  the  lowest  ever  reached. 
March  14,  1879,  Dr.  Woodworth,  the  first 
supervising  surgeon-general,  having  died,  the 
present  incumbent,  Dr.  John  B.  Hamilton,  at 
that  time  a  surgeon,  was  promoted  to  fill  the 
vacancy.  The  officers  of  this  service  are  of  five 
grades,  viz.,  supervising  surgeon-general,  med 
ical  purveyor,  surgeons,  passed  assistant  sur 
geons,  and  assistant  surgeons.  These  are  des 
ignated  medical  officers.  At  ports  where  the 
service  is  not  large  enough  to  warrant  the  as 
signment  of  a  regular  officer  a  resident  physician 
is  appointed  as  acting  assistant  surgeon.  During 
the  fiscal  year  ended  June  30,  1879,  20,922  sea~- 
men  (11, 499hospital  and  9423  dispensary  patients) 
were  furnished  relief  by  the  service.  The  receipts 
were  $361,409.58,  and  the  expenditures  $375,- 
164,01,  and  the  per  capita  cost  was  reduced  from 
$24.22  in  1877,  and  $20.04  in  1878,  to  $17.93  for 
1879.  The  steadily  increasing  number  of  patients 
treated  by  this  service  is  abundant  proof  of  its 
able  management  and  the  high  esteem  with 
which  it  is  regarded  by  all  of  our  sea-faring 
population,  and  it  is  also  gratifying  to  add  that 
it  is  meeting  with  the  attention  at  the  hands  of 
Congress  and  commercial  interests  throughout 
the  country  that  its  object,  character,  and  grow 
ing  importance  demand.  The  annual  report  for 
the  fiscal  year  ending  June  30,  1880,  shows  that 
while  the  11,356  patients  treated  in  1869  cost 
$406,089,  the  24, 860,  sick  seamen  relieved  this 
year  cost  only  $402,185,  and  the  per  capita  cost 
has  been  still  further  reduced  from  $17.93  in 
1879  to  $16.18  in  1880.  These  gratifying  re 
sults  are  attributed  chiefly  to  the  fact  that  the 
appointment  of  the  medical  officers  of  the  service, 
upon  whose  professional  skill,  fitness,  and  faith 
fulness  its  character  and  conduct  of  course  largely 
depend,  have  been  removed  from  the  influence 
of  politics.  The  service  is  also  now  giving 
special  attention  to  the  physical  examination 
of  seamen.  The  medical  officers  of  the  service 
now  examine  without  fee  the  crews  of  all  vessels 
whose  owners  request  it,  and  the  adoption  of  this 
method  of  examination  by  all  vessel-owners  and 
masters  will  naturally  result  in  the  crews  of 
American  vessels  attaining  a  high  rate  of  physi 
cal  ability. 

Marine  Insurance  is  a  contract  whereby  one 
party,  for  a  consideration  or  premium,  which  is 
usually  paid  in  money,  either  in  one  sum  or  at 
different  times  during  the  continuance  of  the 
risk,  undertakes  to  indemnify  the  other  against 
certain  perils  or  sea  risks,  to  which  his  ship, 
freight,  or  cargo,  or  some  of  them,  may  be  ex- 


MARINE   RAMS 


480 


MARINE  RAMS 


posed  during  a  certain  voyage  or  for  a  fixed 
period  of  time. 

The  party  who  takes  the  risk  upon  himself,  or 
who  undertakes  to  indemnify,  is  called  the  as 
surer,  insurer,  or  underwriter  (the  latter  term 
growing  out  of  the  practice  of  his  subscribing 
his  name  at  the  bottom  of  the  contract) ;  the  party 
protected  by  the  contract,  the  assured  or  insured  ; 
and  the  money  paid  as  the  price  of  the  indem 
nity,  the  premium.  The  contract  itself,  or, 
rather,  the  written  instrument  evidencing  it,  is 
called  a  policy  of  insurance.  In  England,  con 
tinental  Europe,  and  in  most  of  the  States  of  the 
United  States,  statutory  enactments  render  it 
imperative  that  the  contract  should  be  reduced  to 
writing ;  but  in  the  absence  of  such  statutes  the 
contract  is  not  invalid  by  reason  of  its  having 
been  made  by  word  of  mouth. 

Printed  forms  of  policies  are  now  almost  uni 
versally  used.  There  are  six  essential  parts  to 
every  policy, — 

1.  The  parties. 

2.  The  premium. 

3.  The  subject  insured. 

4.  Amount  insured. 

5.  The  risks. 

6.  The  voyage  or  terms  of  the  risk. 

When  the  insurance  is  on  a  voyage  from  one 
port  to  another,  without  reference  to  time,  the 
policy  is  called  a  voyage  policy ;  but  when  it  is 
from  one  fixed  period  to  another,  or  for  so  many 
months,  it  is  called  a  time  policy. 

When  the  value  of  the  property  insured — as 
between  the  assured  and  the  underwriter — is  ex 
pressed  on  the  face  of  the  policy,  the  policy  is 
called  a  valued  policy.  When  it  is  not  so  ex 
pressed,  but  is  left  to  be  estimated  in  case  of  loss, 
the  policy  is  called  an  open  policy. 

The  contract  requires  the  most  perfect  good 
faith.  If  the  insured  makes  false  representations 
to  the  underwriter  in  order  to  procure  his  insur 
ance  on  better  terms,  it  will  avoid  the  contract, 
though  the  loss  arose  from  a  cause  unconnected 
with  the  misrepresentation  or  concealment. 

For  further  information  recourse  to  the  follow 
ing  authorities  is  suggested  :  Marshall  on  In 
surance,  Duer  on  Insurance,  Pardessus  on  In 
surance,  Flanders  on  Insurance,  Addison  on 
Contracts,  Kent's  Commentaries. — Theodore  M. 
Etting. 

Marine  Rams.  From  the  earliest  history  of 
man  afloat  the  marine  ram  was  a  weapon  of  war, 
until  improvements  in  the  use  of  sails  and  the 
increased  size  of  vessels  made  mere  muscular 
exertion  impotent,  however  many  men  might  be 
employed  in  rowing.  It  must  not  be  supposed 
that  sails  were  not  in  use  in  those  long  periods 
of  time  during  which  the  waters  of  the  Mediter 
ranean  bore  those  exponents  of  naval  power  of 
many  succeeding  nations  and  peoples.  Sails 
transported  them  over  long  distances,  but  the 
effective  use  of  a  vessel  in  ramming  can  exist 
only  when  her  course  can  be  changed  at  will, 
quite  independent  of  the  direction  of  the  wind. 
Yet  seamen  in  the  olden  time  watched  their  op 
portunity,  when  vessels  were  engaged  under  sail, 
to  "run  down"  an  adversary.  Blows  thus  de 
livered  were  sometimes  effective,  but  if  not,  when 
once  in  contact,  it  became  a  hand-to-hand  affair, 
known  in  modern  times  as  "carrying  a  vessel 
by  boarding."  The  invention  of  gunpowder, 
until  steam  became  a  motor,  made  the  act  of 


ramming  almost  obsolete,  inasmuch  as  the  at 
tempt  would  expose  the  vessel  to  a  "  raking  fire" 
of  the  enemy.  As  soon  as  the  use  of  stearn  was 
established  a  power  existed  quite  obedient  to  the 
action  of  the  helm  ;  the  course  was  no  longer 
dependent  upon  the  direction  of  the  wind.  In 
force,  too,  and  continued  exertion,  the  propelling 
power  as  compared  with  oars  was  gigantic. 

Able  naval  men  were  not  slow  to  recognize 
again  the  marine  ram  as  a  powerful  weapon,  as 
will  be  seen  by  examining  a  model  at  the  Naval 
Academy  at  Annapolis,  made  by  Capt.  Samuel 
Barren,  U.S.N.,  in  1827.  Years  passed,  however, 
before  steam  became  the  usual  motor  of  vessels  of 
war  ;  until  that  period  arrived  no  vessel  designed 
for  ramming  was  built,  and  even  then  ramming 
was  regarded  simply  as  an  addiiional  force  to  a 
gun-power,  nor  has  it  passed  yet  in  public  accep 
tation  beyond  that  relation.  With  those  accus 
tomed  to  the  use  of  ordnance,  having  a  heavy  gun 
available  means  almost  the  certainty  of  using  it 
when  an  enemy  is  near.  The  loud  noise,  the 
unmistakable  exhibition  of  force,  and  the  clouds 
of  smoke  when  the  gun  is  discharged,  all  tend  to 
give  prominence  and  support  to  such  action.  It 
may  be  inferred  that  so  long  as  a  marine  ram  is 
armed  with  a  gun,  so  long  will  its  superior  power 
be  subordinated  to  a  secondary  place  as  a  means 
of  attack. 

Heretofore  the  ram  has  been  combined  with  a 
gun  or  torpedo,  and  sometimes  with  both  ;  ves 
sels  have  been  called  rams  because  of  different 
constructions  of  the  bow,  in  some  cases  entailing 
liability  to  its  own  destruction,  as  in  striking  a 
vessel  having  fair  headway,  moving  at  right 
angles  to  her  course.  The  "Amazon"  and  the 
"  Stonewall,"  built  in  1864,  are  of  this  description. 
The  first  named,  by  accident,  ran  into  a  small 
vessel  and  sank  immediately.  The  projection,  or 
"snout,"  of  those  vessels  extended  some  twenty 
feet  forward  from  the  upper  part  of  the  stem, 
forming  an  easy  curve  from  it  to  the  line  of  the 
keel. 

The  French  constructed  the  first  ram  of  this 
description,  called  the  "  Taureau,"  in  1863.  Her 
dimensions  were  the  same  as  the  five  other  ves 
sels  of  their  navy  called  rams ;  her  armament, 
however,  was  different ;  she  had  one  18-ton  gun 
in  lieu  of  the  two  12-ton  guns  carried  by  the 
other  vessels,  which  will  be  mentioned  hereafter. 
The  "Taureau"  is  no  longer  designated  as  a 
ram,  but  is  put  down  for  coast  defense.  The 
danger  to  a  ram  so  constructed  is  so  well  recog 
nized  now  that  even  what  is  known  as  a  "  spur" 
projects  little  beyond  the  upper  part  of  the  stem. 
A  false  bow,  attached  and  detached  at  will,  is 
now  fitted  by  the  English,  which  striking  a 
vessel  becomes  detached.  Only  two  vessels  now 
completed,  in  the  English  navy,  are  designated 
as  rams, — the  "  Rupert,"  250  feet  long,  having  a 
displacement  of  5358  tons,  with  an  armament  of 
two  18-ton  guns,  and  the  "  Hotspur,"  235  feet 
long,  with  a  displacement  of  4012  tons,  and  an 
armament  of  one  gun  of  25  tons  weight. 

The  Italians  followed  the  construction  of  the 
"Taureau,"  completing  the  ram  "  Affondatore," 
which  was  regarded  as  a  very  formidable  vessel, 
just  before  the  battle  of  Lissa,  in  1866.  Her 
armament  was  two  9-inch  Armstrong  guns.  It 
is  stated  that  her  steering-gear  and  speed  were 
defective  ;  her  history  during  that  battle  was  dis 
astrous,  and  since  has  been  unsatisfactory.  Her 


MARINE   RAMS 


481 


MARINE   RA/MS 


length  is  290  feet,  draft  20  feet,  and  displace 
ment  4070  tons. 

The  "  Belier"  was  the  first  of  a  class  of  five 
vessels  in  the  French  navy  not  unlike  the  "  Tau- 
reau,"  except  in  a  reduced  prolongation  of  bow. 
Their  length  is  216  feet,  draft  17  feet,  and  dis 
placement  3313  tons,  armament  as  stated  be 
fore,  two  12-ton  guns. 

The  "  Polyphemus,"  now  nearly  completed  for 
the  English  navy,  has  a  spur  of  considerable 
length,  and  a  tube  fitted  in  it  to  discharge  a  tor 
pedo  ;  her  length  is  240  feet,  draft  20  feet,  and 
displacement  2640  tons.  A  peculiarity  of  the 
model  is  that  the  keel  of  the  fore  body  of  the 
vessel  is  not  straight,  but  rises  12£  feet  to  the 
"spur,"  which  is  7  feet  below  the  water-line 
and  7  feet  in  advance  of  the  upper  part  of  the 
stem.  The  frame  and  armor-plating  are  of  steel ; 
the  crown  of  the  armored  part  is  6  feet  above  the 
water-line.  There  is  a  false  bow  built  over  the 
armored  shell,  which  would  of  course  be  destroyed 
in  ramming  a  vessel.  The  "spur"  is  of  such 
length  and  form  as  to  make  it  liable  to  be  car 
ried  away  in  ramming  on  the  beam  of  a  vessel 
having  good  headway.  If  not  sunk  from  injury 
sustained,  the  ram  will  owe  her  preservation 
to  well-constructed  water-tight  bulk-heads,  and 
could  be  of  no  further  use  until  repaired.  She 
is  built  on  a  transverse  frame  with  intercostals 
called  girders,  which  must  be  regarded  as  a  very 
imperfect  development  of  the  girder  or  longitu 
dinal  system  of  construction.  ^The  design  is  that 
the  hull  should  present  as  little  perpendicular 
surface  as  possible  to  the  destructive  effect  of 
projectiles  discharged  from  heavy  guns,  but  the 
purpose  does  not  seem  to  be  satisfactorily  carried 
out.  A  supposed  speed  of  17  miles  is  reckoned 
upon.  Twin-screws  are  employed  for  propulsion. 

A  marine  ram  designed  by  a  navy  officer  of 
the  United  States  was  presented  for' the  exami 
nation  and  suggestions  of  a  chief  constructor  of 
the  navy,  whose  recommendations  were  adopted 
and  the  plans  and  specifications  presented  to  the 
Navy  Department.  The  length  of  the  proposed 
ram  is  200  feet,  beam — including  sponsons  of  3 
feet  width— 36  feet,  draft  14  feet,  and  displace 
ment  1600  tons,  the  propulsion  to  be  effected 
either  by  twin-screws  or  the  Mallory  propeller. 
The  amidship  cross-section  of  the  vessel  is  com 
posed  of  semi-ellipses  of  7  and  9  feet  semi-conju 
gates,  the  latter  being  the  lower  section ;  the 
plating  over  the  sponsoning  forms  sharp  edges, 
which  are  2  feet  below  the  deep  load-line,  the 
steel  plating  being  at  that  line  6  inches  thick, 
and  diminishing  towards  the  crown  of  the  arched 
deck  to  1^  inches  over  an  oak  deck,  and  on  the 
lower  section  reduced  in  thickness  and  riveted 
to  the  hull  just  below  the  sponsoning.  The  lon 
gitudinal  lines  are  nearly  straight  for  100  feet, 
then  curves  of  a  parabola  towards  the  ends  form 
ing  a  jointure  on  the  plane  of  the  two  ellipses. 
A  pilot-house  of  heavy  steel  blocks  is  designed 
to  inclose  the  smoke-stack  and  the  steering  ap 
paratus  ;  horizontal  and  angular  slits  between 
some  of  the  blocks  give  a  fair  sight  to  direct  the 
movements  of  the  vessel.  She  is  designed  to  be 
constructed  on  20  girders  and  a  transverse  frame 
to  give  them  a  lateral  support.  In  the  bow,  the 
girders  are  bolted  in  pairs  on  opposite  sides  of 
flanges  cast  on  a  steel  head,  which  has  a  core 
into  which  a  steel  punch  is  placed,  and  which 
projects  2  feet  beyond  the  head.  A  water- 
31 


tight  skin  incloses  the  frame ;  two  longitudinal 
bulk-heads  are  placed  far  enough  from  the  sides 
to  permit  a  man  to  pass,  and  transverse  bulk 
heads  are  placed  at  distances  apart  equal  to  the 
distance  between  the  floor  and  the  girders  above. 
No  armament  is  proposed  except  Gatling-guns 
and  small-arms  to  repel  boarders. 

The  form  of  the  vessel  and  her  construction 
give  her  fore  body  great  lateral  strength.  It  is 
supposed  no  danger  would  occur  in  striking  a  ves 
sel  having  a  high  rate  of  speed,  the  sponsoning 
and  steel  knife  edge  of  the  plating  being  intended 
to  crush  in  abaft  and  rip  out  forward  of  the  point 
of  impact  on  an  enemy. 

The  lines  of  the  ram  present  above  the  water- 
line  strong  re-entering  curves,  so  that  the  course 
of  a  shot  striking  at  the  water-line  would,  if  not 
fired  from  a  distance  or  from  a  considerable  ele 
vation,  vary  only  23  degrees  from  a  line  tangent 
to  the  plating,  and  diminishing  towards  the 
crown,  at  which  its  course  would  be  practically 
tangent.  The  estimated  cost  of  this  vessel  is 
about  one-seventh  of  such  armor-plated  vessels 
as  she  would  be  expected  to  attack  and  destroy. 

In  considering  elements  of  strength  resulting 
from  position  it  is  worth  while  to  consider  the 
anatomy  of  the  sword-fish,  a  marine  ram  fash 
ioned  by  nature.  We  observe  that  the  flat  part 
of  the  sword  is  placed  at  right  angles  to  an  im 
aginary  plane  passing  through  the  spine,  and 
that  if  it  pierced  the  side  of  an  enemy  which  was 
moving  rapidly,  the  edges  of  the  "  sword"  would 
present  the  most  favorable  conditions  for  ripping 
itself  out,  and  at  the  same  time  the  greatest  lat 
eral  strength  of  the  "sword"  would  be  utilized. 
The  old  rams  before  mentioned  are  unlike  the 
sword-fish  in  the  placement  of  the  "snout"  to 
the  line  of  keel ;  the  American  ram,  as  designed, 
has  the  lateral  strength  of  bow  analogous  to  the 
anatomy  of  the  sword-fish  referred  to,  or  na 
ture's  marine  ram. 

Naval  men  and  others  who  are  not  favorably 
disposed  towards  the  building  of  marine  rams 
are  pleased  to  assign  them  some  office  in  a  fleet 
engagement  between  armor-plated  ships.  Those 
who  regard  rams  as  capable  of  destroying  fleets 
of  armor-plated,  gun-bearing  ships  propose  to 
meet  the  latter  in  fleets,  vessel  for  vessel,  or  more 
probably  employing  two  or  three  rams  on  each 
vessel  of  the  fleet  and  destroying  them  in  detail. 
Really,  the  question  is  whether  a  given  amount 
of  money  spent  in  building  marine  rams  of  the 
best  design  would  not  prove  more  economical 
than  building  armor-plated,  gun-bearing  ships. 

No  marine  ram  has  yet  been  constructed  which 
embodies  the  idea  of  looking  to  her  striking  force 
as  the  single  element  to  be  employed  ;  until  that 
is  done  the  question  naturally  is  problematical. 
It  can  only  be  solved  through  a  practical  devel 
opment  of  the  best  physical  conditions  to  obtain  : 

1st.  Great  speed  and  facility  of  manoeuvre. 

2d.  Great  strength  of  construction,  so  that  the 
blows  delivered  would  be  diffused  throughout  the 
mass  of  the  ram,  and  if  the  bows  of  the  ram  enter 
the  hull  of  an  enemy  even  20  feet  or  more,  that, 
however  great  the  velocity  may  be  of  the  vessel 
struck,  the  lateral  strength  of  the  ram  may  be 
sufficient  to  insure  immunity  from  serious  in 
jury,  not  to  say  destruction. 

3d.  A  pilot-house  that  is  capable  of  resisting 
any  projectile  known,  and  provided  with  suit 
able  arrangements  to  secure  a  proper  vision. 


MARINE  STEAM-BOILER 


482 


MARINE  STEAM-ENGINE 


4th.  An  impenetrable  armor-plated  hull  of 
varying  thickness,  depending  upon  the  angle  it 
presents  as  a  target  for  the  fire  of  an  enemy. — 
Daniel  Ammen,  Rear- Admiral  U.S.N. 

Marine  Steam-boiler.  A  form  of  steam-boiler 
adapted  to  use  or^-shipboard.  It  is  composed  of 
an  exterior  shell  or  casing,  either  of  a  perfect 
cylindrical  form,  or  with  rectangular  sides  stayed 
together  by  tie-bars,  or  of  a  combination  of  both, 
as  in  the  locomotive  boiler,  within  which  are 
contained  the  furnaces,  flues  or  tubes,  connec 
tions,  and,  generally,  the  ash-pits  ;  the  whole 
surface  exposed  to  fire  being  surrounded  by  water, 
except  the  furnace-front,  and  even  this  is  some 
times  partially  closed  by  a  water-space,  leaving 
only  the  area  required  for  the  furnace-door  open 
ing  and  the  front  of  the  ash-pits.  In  modern 
practice  the  water-front  has  been  abandoned,  and 
it  is  customary  to  cover  the  furnace-front  by  a 
perforated  plate  of  iron,  shielded  from  the  in 
tensity  of  the  flame  by  an  inner  plate  also  per 
forated,  for  the  purpose  of  admitting  the  air  re 
quired  for  the  complete  combustion  of  the  im 
perfectly  combined  gases  after  they  have  left  the 
bed  of  coals ;  the  furnace-doors  are  also  per 
forated.  The  quantity  of  air  thus  admitted 
should  be  about  three-tenths  of  that  required  for 
the  perfect  combustion  of  the  fuel.  "  Water 
bottoms"  of  the  ash-pits  of  flat- bottomed  boilers, 
which  are  useful  only  as  a  protection  from  fire, 
are  a  source  of  great  trouble  and  expense,  and 
their  use  has  been  abandoned  in  iron  ships.  The 
flues  or  tubes  may  be  variously  arranged,  the 
usual  method  being  to  place  them  above  the  fur 
naces,  thereby  returning  the  gases  from  the  back 
connection  or  combustion-chamber  to  the  front 
of  the  boiler,  where  they  are  discharged  through 
the  uptake  into  a  common  chimney  ;  but  they  are 
sometimes  placed  so  as  to  return  at  the  sides  of  the 
furnaces,  or,  as  in  the  locomotive  boiler,  extended 
beyond  the  furnace,  in  which  case  the  flame  passes 
directly  to  the  chimney  without  change  of  direc 
tion.  "  Man-holes,"  of  such  size  as  to  readily 
admit  the  body  of  a  man  for  the  purpose  of  clean 
ing  and  repairing,  are  provided  in  convenient 
positions  ;  and  "  hand-holes,"  for  removing  scale 
and  sediment,  are  placed  at  and  near  the  bottom. 
These  holes  are  covered  by  elliptical  or  triangular 
plates  fitted  from  the  inside,  so  that  the  steam- 
pressure  has  a  tendency  to  tighten  them. 

The  principal  attachments  to  marine  boilers 
are  safety-valves,  which  automatically  release 
the  steam  when  the  pressure  exceeds  a  stated 
amount ;  steam-gauges  for  indicating  the  steam- 
pressure  ;  stop-valves,  which  admit  steam  to  the 
engine  steam-pipe  ;  feed  check-valves  for  supply 
ing  the  boiler  with  water  ;  water-gauges  for  as 
certaining  the  height  of  the  water  ;  salinometer- 
pots  for  determining  the  density  of  the  water ; 
re  verse- valves  for  relieving  the  boiler  from  out 
ward  pressure  when  the  steam-pressure  falls 
below  that  of  the  atmosphere ;  blow-valves  or 
cocks,  connected  with  pipes  passing  through  the 
bottom  or  sides  of  the  vessel,  for  discharging  the 
brine  or  super-salted  water,  or  clearing  the  boiler 
of  water  altogether. 

The  number  of  boilers  in  a  steamship  varies 
from  two  to  ten,  depending  upon  the  power  re 
quired  and  the  design  of  the  boiler. 

The  cylindrical  boiler  is  in  universal  use  when 
compound  engines  are  used,  or  when  high  press 
ure  is  required.  The  ends  and  back  connections 


are  the  only  parts  requiring  stays,  the  furnaces 
being  cylindrical,  and  the  whole  structure  is 
easily  accessible  for  operations  pertaining  to  clean 
ing,  preservation,  and  repairs  inside  and  out ; 
and,  although  it  occupies  on  the  floor  of  the  hold 
of  the  vessel  more  room  than  the  rectangular- 
faced  boiler,  it  will  probably  be  the  model  type 
for  many  years  to  come.  Boilers  with  vertical 
water-tubes  are  obsolete. 

In  the  most  successful  marine  boilers  of  the 
present  day,  the  water  surface  exposed  to  the  fire 
is  not  less  than  1^  square  feet  for  one  pound  of 
coal  consumed  per  hour ;  the  diameter  of  the 
tubes  not  less  than  3J  inches,  and  their  aggregate 
cross-sectional  area  not  less  than  -|-  of  the  area 
of  the  grates.  Such  proportions  w'ill  admit  of  a 
combustion  of  20  pounds  of  semi-bituminous  coal 
on  each  square  foot  of  grate  per  hour,  and  will 
give  an  evaporation  of  about  9  pounds  of  water 
for  each  pound  of  coal.  In  the  steamship  "  Gal- 
lia,"  of  the  Cunard  line,  about  9|  horse-power 
was  developed  for  each  square  foot  of  grate. — 
Albert  Aston,  Chief  Engineer  U.S.N, 

Marine  Steam-engine.  A  form  of  condensing 
steam-engine  adapted  to  use  on  shipboard.  The 
principal  objects  to  be  attained  in  the  modifica 
tion  of  the  land  engine  to  suit  the  changes  of 
condition  are,  compactness,  because  the  ma 
chinery  necessarily  occupies  a  portion  of  the  most 
valuable  space  in  the  vessel  ;  minimum  weight 
consistent  with  proper  strength ;  ready  accessi 
bility  to  all  parts,  and  such  structural  arrange 
ment  that  all  the  stress  due  to  the  power  exerted, 
except  the  resultant  thrust  tending  to  move  the 
vessel  through  the  water,  shall  be  supported 
within  the  machine  itself  without  depending 
upon  the  vessel's  hull  as  a  foundation.  Two  or 
more  cylinders,  with  their  pistons  connected 
with  cranks  placed  at  such  angles  as  to  enable 
the  machinery  to  be  started  from  any  position, 
are  generally  adopted,  though  there  are  cases 
where  single  engines  are  in  use.  The  two  dis 
tinct  classes  of  marine  engines  are  the  "screw- 
propeller  engine"  and  the  "paddle-wheel  en 
gine,"  the  former  having  superseded  the  latter 
for  all  purposes  except  river  or  other  light-draft 
navigation. 

The  types  of  engines  best  adapted  to  paddle- 
wheels  are  the  "  oscillating  engine,"  the  "direct- 
acting  inclined"  engine,  and,  for  river  service,  the 
"  American  beam-engine."  Side-lever  engines  are 
obsolete.  For  screw-propellers,  "direct-acting," 
or  "back-acting"  engines,  working  either^hori- 
zontally,  inclined,  or"  vertically,  are  in  general 
use.  The  term  "direct-acting"  implies  that  the 
connecting-rod  is  extended  from  the  cylinder  to 
the  crank,  and  "  back-acting"  that  it  returns  to 
wards  the  cylinder,  immediately  at  the  end  of 
which  the  crank  revolves.  Oscillating  engines 
are  not  adapted  to  screw  propulsion,  for  the  con 
stantly  varying  moment  of  inertia  of  the  prin 
cipal  moving  parts,  caused  by  the  rapid  transi 
tion  of  the  piston  and  its  attachments  from  one 
end  of  the  stroke  to  the  other,  tends  to  create  an 
abnormal  stress  that  no  mechanism  can  sustain ; 
and  the  valve-gear  is  necessarily  inconveniently 
complicated.  Trunk-engines,  and  engines  geared 
to  the  screw-shaft  by  cog-wheels,  are  no  longer 
designed  by  modern  engineers,  the  principal  ob 
jections  to  the  former  "being  the  inaccessibility 
of  important  parts  and  the  loss  in  economic  effect 
due  to  the  radiating  and  friction-producing  sur- 


MARINER 


483 


MARITIME   LAW 


face  of  the  trunk,  and  to  the  latter  their  excess 
ive  weight  and  lack  of  compactness. 

In  unarmored  vessels  of  war  it  is  essential  that 
the  machinery  should  be  placed  below  the  draft 
water-line  of  the  vessel,  to  avoid  danger  from  the 
shot  of  an  enemy,  therefore  the  cylinders  are 
placed  in  a  horizontal  position,  or  with  their 
axes  slightly  inclined  thereto ;  but  in  vessels  of 
the  comYnercial  marine,  and  armored  vessels  of 
war,  modern  experience  has  demonstrated  that 
the  "inverted  cylinder"  type,  in  which  the  cyl 
inders  are  situated  over  the  cranks,  with  their 
axes  vertical,  is  the  most  successful  arrange 
ment.  In  this  form,  the  friction  and  consequent 
wear  due  to  the  weight  of  the  reciprocating  parts 
is  avoided,  and  the  alignment  of  the  machine 
readily  preserved.  These  remarks  are  appli 
cable  whether  the  engines  be  single  or  double, 
plain  or  compound. 

Surface-condensers  are  now  considered  indis 
pensable  to  marine  service.  Although  much 
heavier  and  more  costly  than  jet-condensers,  the 
economy  due  to  restricting  the  use  of  salt  water 
in  boilers  fully  justifies  their  adoption.  See 
CONDENSER. 

Compound  engines  are  growing  into  universal 
favor.  They  permit  the  expansion  of  steam  to 
its  utmost  beneficial  limit  without  the  use  of 
complicated  machinery,  and  high-pressure  steam 
can  be  used  without  subjecting  the  machinery  to 
undue  strains  therefrom.  Their  great  economy 
in  the  use  of  fuel  is  but  little  doubted.  See 
COMPOUND  ENGINE. 

Vessels  of  war  are  frequently  propelled  by  two 
screws,  or  a  twin-screws,"  in  which  cases  two  in 
dependent  sets  of  engines  are  provided.'  The 
principal  object  of  this  arrangement,  which  is 
accomplished  by  driving  one  screw  ahead  and 
the  other  back,  is  to  secure  facility  in  turning  a 
vessel, — a  quality  of  extreme  importance  in  rams 
or  vessels  designed  to  fight  "end-on."  Twin- 
screws  are  also  advantageous  on  light-draft 
vessels  when  a  single  screw  of  suitable  diameter 
cannot  be  properly  submerged.  The  weight,  and 
space  occupied  by  machinery,  is,  however,  some 
what  increased. 

There  is  a  great  variety  of  types  of  steam-en 
gine  adapted  to  marine  service,  but  the  above 
mentioned  include  most  of  those  in  general  use. 
—Albert  Aston,  Chief  Engineer  U.S.N. 

Mariner.  A  sea-faring  man  of  whatever  rank. 
In  early  days  the  term  mariner  was  confined  to 
experienced  seamen. 

MARINER'S  COMPASS.  See  COMPASS,  THE 
MARINER'S. 

Maritime.  Bordering  on,  or  situated  near,  the 
ocean.  Pertaining  to  those  who,  or  that  which, 
border  on  the  ocean.  Relating  to  navigation 
and  naval  affairs.  In  some  senses  synonymous 
with  marine. 

MARITIME  COUNTRY.  A  country  bordering 
upon  the  sea. 

MARITIME  INTEREST.     See  BOTTOMRY. 

MARITIME  POWER.  A  state  which  possesses 
seaports  and  a  navy  to  protect  them. 

Maritime  Law  is  that  system  of  jurisprudence 
which  prevails  in  courts  having  jurisdiction  of 
maritime  causes. 

It  differs  materially  from  both  the  civil  and 
the  common  law  in  origin,  history,  and  prin 
ciples,  unlike  either  it  is  not  the  outgrowth  of 
the  wants  of  any  one  nation,  nor  is  it  mainly  the 


product  of  any  one  mind,  nor  is  it  the  embodi 
ment  of  the  learning  of  any  one  age  or  of  any 
one  people,  but  it  is,  on  the  contrary,  the  result 
of  the  necessities  of  all,  of  a  necessity  experienced 
by  each  at  a  certain  stage  in  its  national  develop 
ment,  and  which,  by  reason  of  the  universality 
and  inherent  justice  of  its  principles,  has  so 
commended  itself  as  to  lead  to  its  universal 
adoption. 

It  is  founded  on  the  practices  of  merchants, 
the  principles  of  the  civil  law,  approved  compi 
lations  of  maritime  rights  and  usages,  the  writ 
ings  of  eminent  authorities,  and  the  adjudications 
of  the  admiralty  courts  of  different  countries.  It 
is  to  the  wants  of  commerce  that  maritime  law 
owes  its  origin. 

Rhodes  was  its  birthplace,  the  Mediterranean 
its  nursery,  900  years  B.C.  The  inhabitants  of 
this  little  island,  then  the  centre  of  a  flourishing 
commerce,  gave  to  the  world  its  first  maritime 
code.  The  Rhodian  code  was  subsequently 
adopted  by  the  Romans,  and  was  incorporated 
in  the  Pandects,  and  thus  became  the,  basis  of 
maritime  law  as  known  to  the  ancients. 

With  the  disruption  of  the  Roman  empire 
commerce,  almost  entirely  disappeared ;  and  for 
some  years  the  history  of  maritime  law  is  buried 
in  oblivion.  With  the  revival  of  commerce 
came  the  re- establishment  of  consular  courts, 
and  the  necessity  for  a  system  of  jurisprudence 
by  which  to  govern  their  decrees.  The  subsequent 
occurrence  of  the  Crusades  and  the  discovery  of 
the  compass  gave  to  commerce  an  impetus  far 
surpassing  any  which  it  had  hitherto  possessed. 
And  this  it  was  that  gave  rise  to  the  maritime 
law  of  the  Middle  Ages. 

Various  maritime  codes  were  promulgated  in 
different  parts  of  Europe,  the  Consolato  del 
Mare,  the  laws  of  Oleron,  the  laws  of  Wisbuy, 
and  the  maritime  ordinances  of  the  Hanseatic 
League  being  those  most  worthy  of  note.  The 
precise  date  of  publication  as  well  as  the  author 
ship  of  these  various  codes  is  doubtful.  The 
question,  however,  is  mainly  of  antiquarian  in 
terest.  The  laws  of  Oleron  found  their  way  to 
England  in  the  time  of  Richard  I.,  and  formed 
the  basis  on  which  were  decided  the  earliest  cases 
in  the  High  Court  of  Admiralty,  and  even  during 
the  present  century,  in  the  American  courts,  de 
cisions  have  been  based  on  the  same  authority. 

The  most  noticeable  of  the  maritime  ordi 
nances  of  modern  times  have  been  promulgated 
in  France.  The  Ordinance  de  Marine,  promul 
gated  during  the  reign  of  Louis  XIV.,  forms 
one  of  the  most  lasting  monuments  erected  to 
the  memory  of  that  monarch. 

Codes  have  continued  to  form  the  basis  of  the 
maritime  law  of  continental  Europe.  Such, 
however,  has  not  been  the  case  with  regard  to 
either  England  or  the  United  States;  though 
there  are  points  of  divergence  between  the 
American  and  English  maritime  law,  yet  they 
are  both  based,  not  upon  a  code,  but  upon  the 
custom  of  merchants,  upon  generally  received 
authorities  on  maritime  law,  statutory  enact 
ments,  and  upon  precedents  established  by  judi 
cial  decisions. 

Maritime  law  is  a  branch  both  of  international 
and  of  commercial  law.  It  is  included  in  the 
former  because  it  defines  the  rights,  duties,  and 
obligations  of  nations  with  respect  to  each  other 
on  the  sea ;  it  forms  a  part  of  the  latter  because 


MARK 


484 


MAES 


of  the  protection  which  it  gives  to  individuals 
engaged  in  commerce,  both  as  to  their  person 
and  their  property,  whether  the  wrong  be  one 
sounding  in  tort  or  in  contract ;  it  defines  the 
reciprocal  rights  and  obligations  of  owners  and 
masters,  of  masters  and  mariners,  gives  an  ade 
quate  remedy  to  those  engaged  in  supplying  the 
necessities  of  ships,  governs  questions  of  salvage, 
general  average,  marine  insurance,  charter- 
parties,  contracts  of  affreightment,  etc. 

For  further  information  refer  to  Kent's  Com 
mentaries,  Flanders 's  Maritime  Law,  Parsons 's 
Admiralty  and  Shipping,  Abbott  on  Shipping, 
Etting  on  Admiralty  Jurisdiction  in  United 
States.— Theodore  M.  Etting, 

Mark.  An}T  object  serving  for  the  guidance  of 
a  ship ;  as,  sea-marks,  land-marks,  etc.  Square- 
marks,  sharp-up  marks,  bits  of  twine  on  braces, 
lifts,  etc.,  to  serve  as  a  guide  in  bracing,  top 
ping  up,  etc.  In  marking  the  lead-line  the  sec 
ond,  third,  fifth,  seventh,  tenth,  thirteenth,  fif 
teenth,  seventeenth,  and  twentieth  fathoms  are 
designated  by  bits  of  leather  and  differently- 
colored  bunting.  These  divisions  are  called 
marks;  the  intermediate  fathoms  are  estimated 
by  the  leadsman,  and  are  called  deeps,  and  in 
sounding  the  leadsman  gives  the  result  by  sing 
ing  out  by  the  mark,  5,  7,  10,  etc.,  or  by  the  deep, 
6,  8,  11,  etc.  The  two  expressions  serve  to  dis 
tinguish  the  soundings  even  when  the  numeral 
part  of  it  is  not  distinctly  heard.  The  two  ex 
pressions  may  be  rendered  more  dissimilar  by 
using  be  when  the  sounding  given  is  a  deep,  and 
by  when  it  is  a  mark;  as,  "  by  the  mark,"  "  be 
the  deep."  See  LEAD. 

MARKS  AND  DEEPS.  When  a  youngster  goes 
on  board  ship  he  is  first  taught  the  lead  of  the 
ropes,  boxing  the  compass,  and  the  marks  and 
deeps  of  the  lead-line.  "To  learn  the  ropes" 
and  "to  learn  the  marks  and  deeps"  have  be 
come  expressions  signifying  to  become  familiar 
with  the  fundamental  principles  of  any  subject, 
or  with  the  inside  working  of  any  scheme  or 
project. 

Markab.     The  bright  star  a  PeaasL 

Marl.  To  wind  marline,  spun-yarn,  etc., 
around  a  rope,  each  turn  being  secured  by  a  pe 
culiar  hitch  ;  commonly  done  to  secure  the  par 
celling  preparatory  to  serving. 

MARLINE.  Fine  seizing-stuff,  consisting  of 
two  yarns  laid  up  left-handed  ;  it  is  also  used  for 
serving. 

MARLING-HITCH.  A  jamming  half-hitch,  in 
which  the  hauling  part  comes  out  underneath 
the  standing  part ;  used  in  marling  down  parcel 
ling  and  in  lashing  up  hammocks. 

MARLING-SPIKE,  or  MARLINE-SPIKE.  A 
pointed  iron  implement  used  to  separate  the 
strands  in  splicing,  and  as  a  lever  in  marling, 
putting  on  seizings,  etc. 

MARLING-SPIKE  HITCH.  A  peculiar  hitch 
through  which  the  marling-spike  is  put  in  heav 
ing  taut  a  seizing. 

Maroon.  A  name  given  in  Jamaica  and  Dutch 
Guiana  to  a  runaway  slave.  The  term  was  first 
applied  to  slaves  deserted  by  their  masters,  the 
Spaniards,  when  the  British  conquered  Jamaica 
(1655). 

MAROONING.  A  custom  among  former  pirates 
of  putting  an  offender  on  shore  on  some  desolate 
cape  or  island,  with  a  gun,  a  few  shot,  a  flask  of 
powder,  and  a  bottle  of  water. 


Marque,  Letter  of.    See  LETTER  OF  MARQUE. 

Marquette,  Jacques,  one  of  the  first  explorers 
of  the  Mississippi.  Born  at  Laon,  France,  in  1637 ; 
died  May  18, 1675.  Becoming  a  Jesuit  at  the  age 
of  17,  he  sailed  for  Canada  as  a  missionary  in  1666. 
After  passing  about  eighteen  months  at  Three 
Eivers,  in  April,  1668,  he  founded  at  Lake  Supe 
rior  the  mission  of  Sault  Ste.  Marie.  In  1699, 
after  a  short  stay  at  Lapointe,  he  followed  the 
Hurons  to  Mackinaw,  where,  in  1671,  he  built  a 
chapel  at  the  mission  of  St.  Ignatius,  or  Michili- 
macinac.  In  May,  1673,  he  accompanied  Jol- 
liet's  expedition  to  explore  the  Mississippi,  and 
after  traveling  in  canoes  over  2500  miles,  re 
turned  in  September.  They  proceeded  to  Green 
Bay,  through  Fox  River  to  the  Wisconsin,  and 
thence  by  Portage  to  the  Mississippi,  which  they 
descended  to  the  Arkansas.  Returning  they  as 
cended  the  Illinois,  proceeded  thence  across  to 
Lake  Michigan  and  Green  Bay,  and  to  the  mission 
without  serious  accident.  During  this  expedi 
tion  he  prepared  a  map  of  the  route.  Having 
promised  the  Kaskaskia  Indians  to  return  and 
preach  to  them,  after  being  detained  a  year  by 
sickness,  he  set  out  in  October,  1674,  with  two 
white  men  and  a  number  of  savages,  for  the  vil 
lage  of  Kaskaskia.  After  wintering  at  the  Port 
age  in  the  Chicago,  he  reached  Kaskaskia, 
April  8,  1675,  and  at  once  began  a  mission  by 
erecting  an  altar  and  celebrating  the  festival  of 
Easter  ;  but  conscious  that  his  end  was  approach 
ing,  he  soon  attempted  to  return  to  Mackinaw, 
but  died  near  the  mouth  of  a  river  on  the  east 
shore  of  Lake  Michigan,  which  still  bears  his 
name.  He  was  of  a  cheerful,  joyous  disposition, 
playful  even  in  his  manner,  and  universally  be 
loved.  His  narrative  was  published  at  Paris  in 
1681,  in  Thevenot's  "  Recueil  de  Voyages."  This 
account,  as  well  as  a  journal  of  the  missionary's 
last  expedition,  is  in  Shea's  "  Discovery  and  Ex 
ploration  of  the  Mississippi  Valley,"  New  York, 
1852. 

Marrot.     A  name  for  the  guillemot. 

Marry.  To  place  two  ropes  alongside  of  each 
other  that  both  may  be  grasped  and  hauled  on  at 
the  same  time.  To  join  two  ropes  end  to  end  so 
both  will  pass  through  a  block,  as  in  reeving  a 
new  brace  by  the  old  one. 

Marryat,  Captain  Frederick,  R.N.,an  English 
novelist.  Born  in  London,  July  10,  1792;  died 
August  2,  1848.  His  mother  was  the  daughter 
of  Frederick  Geyer,  of  Boston.  Entering  the 
navy  at  an  early  age,  he  distinguished  himself 
in  several  engagements,  particularly  in  1814,  by 
cutting  out  four  vessels  in  Boston  Bay,  and  in 
an  action  with  gunboats  on  Lake  Pontchartrain. 
He  also  benefited  the  naval  profession  by  the  in 
vention  of  his  well-known  code  of  signals.  He 
commenced  his  literary  career  in  1829,  producing 
a  great  number  of  sea-tales,  among  the  best  of 
whichare"  Peter  Simple,"  "  Midshipman  Easy," 
"Percival  Keene,"  etc.  In  1837  he  visited  the 
United  States,  and  on  his  return  published  his 
"Diary  in  America,"  which  reflected  somewhat 
severely  on  our  national  characteristics.  This 
was  followed  by  three  additional  volumes,  and 
by  his  "Travels  of  M.  Violet,"  supposed  to  be 
founded  on  the  adventures  of  Chateaubriand  in 
the  woods  of  the  New  World. 

Mars.  The  superior  planet  coming  next  in 
position  to  the  earth.  Mean  distance  from  the 
sun,  145  millions  of  miles  ;  diameter,  4500 miles; 


MAKSALA 


485 


MARTINGALE 


apparent  diameter,  4"  to  24".  Mars  is  dis 
tinguished  by  its  red,  fiery  appearance.  Symbol 
-£  ,  representing  a  shield  and  a  spear. 

Marsala,  on  the  west  coast  of  Sicily,  is  a 
strongly  fortified  seaport  town  inclosed  by  bas- 
tioned  walls.  Its  ancient  port  was  filled  up  in 
1580  by  Don  John  of  Austria,  and  it  now  has  an 
artificial  port.  Its  importance  is  due  to  its  wine 
trade,  the  district  yielding  annually  about  30,000 
pipes  of  wine,  two-thirds  of  which  are  exported. 
It  also  exports  corn,  cattle,  oil,  salt,  and  soda. 
Pop.  34,000. 

Marseilles,  the  most  important  seaport  of 
France,  is  situated  at  the  head  of  a  finely  shel 
tered  bay,  on  the  Gulf  of  Lyons,  in  lat.  43°  17' 
48"  N.,  Ion.  5°  22'  15"  E.  It  possesses  a 
naval  observatory,  maritime  syndicate,  a  first- 
class  school  of  hydrography,  a  special  school  of 
commerce  and  industry,  and  many  other  institu 
tions  of  importance.  The  harbor  is  one  of  the 
finest  in  France,  perfectly  secure  in  all  weathers, 
with  good  anchorage  for  1200  vessels  in  from  18 
to  24  feet  of  water.  It  is  strongly  defended  by  two 
forts,  the  Tower  of  St.  John  and  Fort  St.  Nich 
olas.  Its  foreign  commerce  exceeds  that  of  every 
other  port  in  France,  and  extends  to  all  parts  of 
the  world.  Pop.  318,000. 

Marsiliana.  A  square-sterned  Venetian  ship 
of  burden. 

Marston,  John,  Commodore  U.S.N.  Born 
February  26,  1796.  Entered  the  navy  as  mid 
shipman,  April  15,  1813  ;  served  on  board  the 
frigate  "  President,"  Commodore  John  Rodgers  ; 
"  Washington,"  74,  Commodore  Isaac  Chauncey; 
frigate  "Java,"  Commodore  O.  H.  Perry;  brig 
"  Prometheus,"  Capt.  Alexanders.  Wadsworth  ; 
brig  "  Prometheus,"  Capt.  William  Bolton 
Finch  ;  frigate  "  Constellation,"  Commodore 
Charles  Morris  ;  frigate  "  Constitution,"  Com 
modore  Jacob  Jones  ;  frigate  "  Congress,"  Com 
modore  James  Biddle;  frigate  "  Brandywine," 
Commodore  Charles  Morris,  when  she  took 
La  Fayette  to  France,  and  afterwards  in  the 
Mediterranean;  frigate  "Brandywine,"  Com 
modore  Jacob  Jones,  in  the  Pacific  Ocean ; 
schooner  "Dolphin,"  Capt.  John  H.  Aulick  ; 
sloop  "  Vandalia,"  Commodore  John  D.  Hen 
ley ;  frigate  "  United  States,"  Commodore  Law 
rence  Kearney;  frigate  "Potomac,"  Capt. 
George  W.  Storer  ;  sloop  "  Yorktown"  ;  sloop 
"  Cumberland,"  at  the  bombardment  of  Hat- 
teras  ;  steam-frigate  "  Roanoke," — commanded 
at  Hampton  Roads  in  that  ship  when  the  "  Mer- 
rimac"  came  down  from  Norfolk,  Va.  ;  in  addi 
tion  to  this,  a  variety  of  service  performed  at 
the  Portsmouth  and  Philadelphia  Navy- Yards. 

Promoted  from  a  midshipman,  July  13,  1825, 
to  a  lieutenant. 

Promoted  from  a  lieutenant  to  a  commander, 
September  8,  1841. 

Promoted  from  a  commander  to  a  captain, 
September  14,  1855. 

Promoted  from  a  captain  to  a  commodore,  July 
16,  1862. 

Retired  December  21,  1861. 

Martello  Towers.  So  named  from  a  tower  in 
the  bay  of  Mortella,  in  Corsica,  which,  in  1794, 
maintained  a  very  determined  resistance  against 
the  English.  A  martello  tower  is  built  circular, 
with  walls  of  vast  thickness,  pierced  by  loop 
holes,  and  the  bomb-proof  roof  is  armed  with 
one  heavy  traversing  gun.  They  are  30  to  40 


feet  high,  surrounded  by  a  dry  fosse,  and  the 
entrance  is  by  a  ladder  at  a  door  several  feet 
from  the  ground.  The  following  is  also  given  as 
the  origin  of  the  name:  "When  piracy  was 
common  in  the  Mediterranean,  and  pirates  made 
plundering  descents  upon  the  coasts,  the  Italians 
built  towers  near  the  sea,  in  order  to  keep  watch, 
and  give  warning  if  a  piratical  craft  was  seen 
to  approach  the  land.  The  warning  was  given 
by  striking  a  bell  with  a  hammer ;  hence  these 
towers  were  called  Torri  da  Martello." 

Martial  Law.  Anciently,  in  England,  this 
term  meant  the  law  military.  It  was  not  a  fixed 
and  permanent  code,  but  a  body  of  regulations 
which  the  king,  preparatory  to  actual  war,  com 
posed,  with  the  advice  of  the  constable  and  mar 
shal,  who  were  high  ministerial  officers  of  the 
king,  and  which  was  administered  by  the  Court 
of  Chivalry,  of  which  the  constable  and  marshal 
were  the  constituent  members.  With  the  deca 
dence  of  the  Court  of  Chivalry  martial  law  lost 
whatever  character  for  regularity  of  administra 
tion  it  had  possessed,  and  was  dispensed  by 
councils  of  war,  commissions,  and  courts-mar 
tial,  so  called.  Being  defined  by  no  written 
statute,  its  exercise  was  capricious  and  tyran 
nical,  and  it  became  an  instrument  of  oppression 
in  the  hands  of  arbitrary  sovereigns,  who  ex 
tended  its  operation  to  non-rnilitary  as  well  as 
military  persons,  and  to  times  of  peace  as  well  as 
of  war.  In  the  reign  of  Charles  I.  its  abuse 
had  become  so  great  that  the  king  was  compelled 
by  the  Commons  to  give  his  assent  to  the  bill 
which  they  had  prepared,  called  the  Petition  of 
Right,  one  clause  of  which  provided  that  the 
commissioners  for  proceeding  by  martial  law 
should  be  dissolved  and  annulled,  and  that  no 
such  commission  should  be  issued  for  the  future. 
Under  the  Commonwealth  martial  law  became 
somewhat  more  S3^stemized  than  it  had  previously 
been,  but  it  was  not  till  the  passage  of  the 
Mutiny  Act,  April  3,  1689,  that  there  existed  in 
England  a  regularly  enacted  statute  for  the  gov 
ernment  of  the  military  state.  (See  MUTINY 
ACT.)  From  the  passage  of  this  act  dates  what 
is  now  properly  understood  as  military  law 
(which  see).  It  is  to  be  regretted  that  more  care 
has  not  been  taken  by  writers  on  law  to  distin 
guish  between  martial  law  and  military  law,  as 
much  of  the  opprobrium  which  is  justly  visited 
upon  the  former,  on  account  of  its  capricious  and 
arbitrary  character,  has  come,  by  reason  of  such 
want  of  discrimination,  to  attach  to  the  latter. 

Sir  Matthew  Hale,  in  his  history  of  the  Com 
mon  Law,  observes  of  martial  law,  that  "  in 
truth  and  reality  it  is  no  law,  but  something  in 
dulged  rather  than  allowed  as  law"  ;  and  the 
Duke  of  Wellington  has  defined  it  as  "the  will 
of  the  general  who  commands  the  army."  A 
more  expanded  definition  is  given  by  an  English 
authority  as  follows : 

"  Martial  law  is  the  suspension  of  all  law  but 
the  will  of  the  military  commanders  intrusted 
with  its  execution,  to  be  exercised  according  to 
their  judgment,  the  exigencies  of  the  moment, 
and  the  usages  of  the  service,  with  no  fixed  or 
settled  rules  or  laws,  no  definite  practice,  and 
not  bound  even  by  the  rules  of  the  military  law." 

Martinet.  A  rigid  disciplinarian,  but  one 
who,  in  matters  of  inferior  moment,  harasses  all 
under  him.  An  old  word  for  leech-line. 

Martingale.     Ropes  or  chains  from  the  ends 


MAKTIN'S  SHELLS 


* 

486 


MASTING 


*of  jib-  and  flying  jib-boom,  to  assist  in  counter 
acting  the  strain  of  the  head-stays. 

MARTINGALE  BACK-ROPES.  Kopes  or  chains 
from  the  dolphin-striker  and  setting  up  at  the 
bows. 

Martin's  Shells.  An  incendiary  shell  lined 
with  loam  and  hair  and  filled  with  molten  iron. 

Mascaret.  A  peculiar  movement  of  the  sea 
near  Bordeaux  in  summer  at  low-water. 

Masoolah  Boat.     See  MASULAH  BOAT. 

Master.  A  line-officer  of  the  grade  next  below 
that  of  lieutenant ;  he  ranks  with  a  first  lieuten 
ant  in  the  army.  He  may  be  ordered  to  duty  as 
navigator  or  watch  officer,  and  messes  in  the 
ward-room.  See  NAVIGATOR,  WATCH-OFFICER. 

Master.  The  officer  commanding  a  merchant 
man.  His  duties  comprise  the  maintenance  of 
discipline,  the  handling  and  navigation  of  the 
ship,  the  direction  of  the  internal  arrangements 
and  economy  of  the  ship,  and  the  proper  stowage 
of  the  cargo.  To  him  great  powers  are  confided 
and  upon  him  great  responsibilities  rest.  His 
legal  rights,  duties,  and  remedies  in  regard  to 
owners,  shippers,  passengers,  and  crew  are  regu 
lated  by  special  statutes,  by  agreement  with  the 
owners,  and  by  the  customs  of  the  sea. 

In  different  ships  different  methods  obtain  of 
manning  and  provisioning  the  vessel.  In  some 
cases  the  master  makes  out  an  inventory  of  the 
stores  required  and  they  are  accordingly  supplied 
by  the  owner's  order;  in  others  the  owners  put 
the  provisions  on  board  with  directions,  more  or 
less  liberal,  as  to  the  manner  in  which  the  master 
is  to  dispense  them.  Usually  the  shipping  of  the 
crew  is  left  to  the  shipping-masters,  who  are  re 
sponsible  for  their  appearance  on  board  at  the 
time  of  sailing;  in  other  cases,  the  master,  or  per 
haps  the  owner,  selects  his  men  himself. 

Before  sailing,  the  duties  of  the  master  (unless 
also  supercargo)  are  mostly  confined  to  looking 
after  the  outfit  of  the  vessel  and  seeing  that  she 
is  in  sea-going  trim.  Everything  being  in  readi 
ness,  the  custom-house  and  other  regulations 
complied  with,  the  vessel  is  put  under  charge  of 
the  pilot  to  be  taken  clear  of  the  land.  While 
the  pilot  is  on  board  the  master  has  little  else  to 
do  than  to  see  the  orders  of  the  pilot  carried  out; 
when  the  pilot  is  discharged,  the  entire  control 
and  responsibility  is  thrown  upon  the  master ;  he 
does  not  keep  a  watch,  but  is  to  be  called  when 
ever  circumstances  require  it.  The  entire  con 
trol  of  the  navigation  lies  with  him,  though  he 
may  call  upon  his  officers  for  assistance  if  neces 
sary.  He  has  a  power  and  influence,  both  direct 
and  indirect,  which  may  be  the  means  of  much 
good  or  much  evil. 

Master,  or  Sailing-master.  Formerly,  the 
officer  who  did  the  duties  now  required  of  the 
navigator.  See  NAVIGATOR. 

MASTER'S  DIVISION.  The  division  of  the  men 
stationed  at  the  wheel,  in  the  chains,  tops,  etc., 
and  who  are  under  the  immediate  direction  of 
the  navigator.  The  navigator's  division. 

Master-at-arms.  The  chief  petty  officer  of  a 
man-of-war.  With  his  subordinates  he  attends  to 
the  police  duties  of  the  ship,  prevents  the  smug 
gling  of  liquor,  quells  all  disturbances,  arrests 
all  disorderly  persons,  keeps  a  vigilant  watch  over 
the  conduct  of  the  men,  exercises  supervision  over 
all  lights  and  fires,  and  has  special  charge  of  all 
men  in  confinement.  In  early  days  he  instructed 
the  crew  in  the  use  of  small-arms. 


Master-attendant  (Eng.}.  An  officer  in  the 
royal  dock-yards  appointed  to  assist  in  the  fitting 
or  dismantling,  removing  or  securing  vessels  of 
war,  etc.,  to  inspect  the  moorings  in  the  harbor, 
to  visit  all  the  ships  in  ordinary,  and  to  attend  at 
the  general  musters  in  the  dock-yard,  taking  care 
that  all  the  individuals  registered  in  the  navy- 
book  are  present  at  their  duty. 

Master  Mariner.  The  shipmaster  or  captain 
of  a  merchant  vessel. 

Master  of  Misrule.  An  officer  of  an  hour  or 
two  when  the  hands  were  piped  "  to  mischief." 
The  lord  or  abbot  of  misrule  on  shore  has  im- 
memorially  been  a  person  selected  to  superintend 
the  diversions  of  Christmas.  In  these  "larks," 
however,  malicious  mischief  was  unknown. 

Master's  Mate.  In  early  days  an  officer  who 
assisted  the  master  in  his  duties  in  the  hold,  on 
the  decks,  etc. , — generally  a  midshipman  or  passed 
midshipman.  See  MATE. 

Masting.  The  determination  of  the  position 
in  which  the  masts  of  a  vessel  should  be  placed, 
and  the  mechanical  process  by  which  they  are 
placed  in  position. 

The  first  part  of  the  definition  is  one  of  the 
problems  of  naval  construction,  full  explanations 
of  which  can  be  found  in  works  upon  that  sub 
ject. 

The  position  in  which  the  masts  should  be 
placed  varies  with  the  number  with  which  a  ves 
sel  is  to  be  furnished,  the  rig,  and,  in  some  de 
gree,  upon  the  model.  The  object  to  be  attained 
is  to  place  the  masts  so  that  the  centre  of  effort 
of  the  sails  will  be  at  a  certain  point  depending 
upon  the  centre  of  lateral  resistance  of  the  vessel. 
The  latter  point  varies  with  the  trim  of  the  ves 
sel  ;  but  in  a  vessel  that  is  perfectly  balanced  un 
der  sail  with  the  wind  on  the  beam,  the  centre 
of  effort  of  sail  is  directly  over  the  centre  of 
lateral  resistance. 

By  reason,  however,  of  the  pressure  of  the  water 
in  the  lee  bow  when  the  vessel  is  in  motion,  the 
shape  of  the  bow,  the  length  of  the  middle  body, 
heeling  of  the  vessel,  strength  of  wind,  etc.,  the 
vessel  has  the  tendency  to  fly  into  the  wind, — 
called  ardency, — which  must  be  corrected  by 
moving  the  centre  of  effort  of  the  sails  a  sufficient 
distance  forward  of  the  centre  of  lateral  resist 
ance.  The  result,  in  a  small  degree,  may  be  ob 
tained  by  raking  the  masts  forward  or  aft ;  but, 
as  a  general  rule,  the  centre  of  the  effort  of  the 
sails  should  be  placed  one-twentieth  of  the  length 
of  the  water-line  forward  of  the  centre  of  lateral 
resistance. 

In  the  masting  of  steam-vessels  this  rule  can 
not  always  be  followed,  on  account  of  the  neces 
sary  position  of  engines  and  boilers,  and  in 
steam-vessels  where  the  sail-power  is  merely  aux 
iliary,  the  placing  of  the  masts  by  this  rule  is  of 
less  importance,  as  the  sails  are  merely  designed 
to  steady  the  vessel  in  a  rough  sea  without  add 
ing  materially  to  the  speed,  or  to  keep  her  to  the 
wind  when  hove  to. 

The  mechanical  operation  of  placing  the  lower- 
masts  is  the  work  of  the  seaman,  and  is  performed 
by  means  of  sheers  or  a  derrick,  under  which  the 
vessel  is  hauled,  or  by  sheers  rigged  on  the  deck. 
In  the  former  case  either  mast  may  be  stepped 
first,  the  vessel's  position  being  changed  as  re 
quired  in  order  that  the  main  purchase  may 
plumb  the  mast-hole. 

When  a  vessel  is  to  be  masted  without  the  aid 


MASTING 


487 


MASTS 


of  permanent  sheers,  they  must  be  constructed  on 
board  the  vessel.  The  deck  must  first  be  sup 
ported  by  shores  placed  under  that  part  where 
the  sheers  are  to  stand. 

Heavy  spars,  such  as  lower  yards  or  topmasts, 
should  be  selected,  and  these  may  be  strengthened 
by  lashing  lighter  spars  to  them.  The  spars  are 
placed  in  position  one  on  each  side  of  the  deck, 
with  their  heels  a  little  forward  of  the  partners 
and  a  few  feet  from  the  vessel's  side.  The  heads 
of  the  spars  are  crossed  amidships,  forming  the 
sheer-head,  and  are  lashed  in  such  a  manner  that 
by  spreading  the  legs  of  the  sheers  the  lashing  is 
tightened.  The  upper  block  of  the  main  pur 
chase  is  secured  to  the  sheer-head  by  a  lashing, 
which  passes  over  the  sheer-head  lashing  and 
allows  the  block  to  hang  under  the  cross,  while 
the  upper  block  of  the  small  purchase  is  lashed 
to  the  after  fork  of  the  sheers.  Blocks  are  also 
lashed  to  the  forks  through  which  girtlines  are 
rove,  and  guys  are  placed  at  the  sheer-head  and 
near  the  middle  of  the  legs  to  support  them,  and 
retain  them  in  position.  .  Under  the  heels  heavy 
shoes  of  plank  should  be  placed,  and  the  heels 
must  be  securely  lashed  to  prevent  them  from 
slipping  forward  while  the  sheers  are  being  raised. 
The  sheers  are  raised  by  means  of  the  main  pur 
chase  and  capstan,  and  if  necessary  a  single  spar 
may  be  used  as  a  derrick  to  assist  in  starting  the 
sheer-head. 

If  all  of  the  lower-masts  and  the  bowsprit  are 
to  be  taken  in,  the  mast  nearest  to  the  stern 
should  be  stepped  first,  as  in  transporting  the 
sheers  from  the  narrower  to  the  wider  part  of 
the  deck  the  sheer-legs  will  be  spread  and  the 
sheer-head  lashing  tightened.  Also,  when  the 
sheers  are  raked  over  the  bow,  as  is  required  in 
getting  in  the  bowsprit,  they  can  be  better  sup 
ported  if  the  foremast  has  been  previously 
stepped. 

The  mast  having  been  placed  alongside  with 
the  head  aft,  the  lower  block  of  the  main  pur 
chase  is  toggled  to  the  garland,  or  large  selvage 
strap,  which  is  lashed  to  the  mast  at  a  sufficient 
distance  from  the  heel  to  cause  it  to  hang  heel- 
heavy.  The  garland  for  the  small  purchase 
should  be  lashed  as  far  above  the  larger  as  there 
is  distance  between  the  upper  blocks  of  the  two 
purchases.  The  mast  is  then  raised  by  means  of 
the  capstan,  eased  inboard  by  guys  as  it  comes 
above  the  rail,  and  lowered  into  its  place,  using 
the  two  purchases  for  sluing  and  pointing  the 
mast  as  desired. 

In  stepping  the  other  masts  the  same  process 
is  repeated,  the  sheers  having  first  been  trans 
ported  to  a  new  position. 

For  a  more  minute  account  of  masting  and 
sending  aloft  topmasts,  topgallant-masts,  etc., 
works  on  seamanship  should  be  consulted. ^ 

Boat's  masts  are  placed  in  accordance  with  the 
principles  already  stated,  but  great  precision  is 
not  as  necessary,  as  the  balance  of  sail  can  be 
easily  obtained  within  certain  limits  by  trim 
ming  the  boat  with  the  weights  on  board,  and 
thus  changing  the  centre  of  lateral  resistance  as 
required.  Care  should,  however,  always  be 
taken  to  retain  the  ardency  of  the  boat,  as  with 
the  wind  abeam  or  close-hauled  its  pressure  on 
the  sails  can  be  quickly  lessened  by  a  movement 
of  the  helm. 

The  number  of  the  masts  and  the  rig  depends 
upon  the  service  that  is  required,  but  in  general 


those  for  ship's  boats  should  combine  strength 
with  lightness,  in  order  that  they  may  carry  the 
sail  with  safety  and  be  easily  handled  by  the 
crew  ;  they  should  be  sufficiently  short  to  allow 
of  being  stowed  snugly  in  the  boat  when  not  in 
use,  and  there  should  be  a  sufficient  number  to 
give  to  the  boat  the  requisite  amount  of  sail. — 
E.  T.  Strong,  Lieutenant  U.S.N. 

Masts.  The  upright  spars  which  are  placed 
in  a  vessel  to  support  the  yards,  gaffs,  and  booms 
upon  which  the  sails  are  spread. 

Masts  are  named  from  the  position  in  which 
they  are  placed.  In  a  vessel  with  two  masts  that 
nearest  the  bow  is  called  the  foremast,  and  the 
other  the  mainmast.  When  there  are  three  masts 
they  are  named  the  fore-,  main-,  and  mizzen- 
masts,  and  with  four  masts  that  nearest  the  stern 
is  called  the  spanker-mast.  In  vessels  of  small 
size  and  simple  rig  each  mast  may  be  made  from 
a  single  spar,  but  vessels  of  larger  size  and  of  a 
more  complicated  rig  require  the  masts  to  be 
made  in  sections  on  account  of  the  great  difficulty 
in  obtaining  spars  of  sufficient  length,  the  incon 
venience  in  handling  them,  and  the  necessity  of 
being  able  to  send  down  the  upper  parts  of  the 
mast  and  leave  the  lower  in  position.  These  sec 
tions  in  a  square-rigged  mast  are  named  the 
lower-mast,  topmast,  topgallant-mast,  and  royai 
mast.  With  masts  fore-and-aft  rigged  there  are 
but  two  sections,  the  upper  one  being  called  the 
topmast. 

The  lower-masts  are  stepped  upon  the  keelson, 
and  extend  to  a  certain  height  above  the  upper 
deck,  depending  upon  its  position  in  the  vessel, 
the  rig  of  the  vessel,  and  whether  moved  by 
steam  or  sails.  Square-rigged  sailing-vessels 
have  comparatively  shorter  lower-masts  than 
those  of  fore-and-aft  rig,  as  the  latter  require 
them  of  greater  length  in  order  to  accommodate 
the  lower  sails.  The  principal  parts  of  the  lower- 
mast  are  the  heel,  which  rests  upon  the  keelson  ; 
the  partners,  which  are  at  the  height  of  the  deck 
where  the  mast  is  wedged  ;  the  hounds,  or  shoul 
ders,  where  the  head  commences  and  upon  which 
the  trestle-trees  rest ;  the  head,  which  is  that  part 
above  the  hounds  ;  and  the  bibbs,  which  are  fitted 
pieces  of  timber  bolted  to  the  sides  of  the  mast 
with  their  upper  edges  level  with  the  hounds  and 
giving  additional  support  to  the  trestle-trees. 
The  bibbs  also  strengthen  the  mast  in  that  part 
which  is  most  liable  to  strain  and  injury. 

Lower-masts  for  small  square-rigged  vessels, 
and  for  all  those  of  fore-and-aft  rig,  are  made 
from  a  single  spar,  and  are  called  single-tree 
masts.  For  large  vessels  the  lower-onasts  are 
composed  of  several  pieces  united  by  dowels  and 
hooped,  and  are  called  made-masts.  These  are 
stronger  and  more  durable  than  single-tree  masts 
and  less  liable  to  be  defective. 

The  topmast  is  stepped  forward  of  the  lower- 
mast  head,  and  its  weight  is  sustained  by  the  fid, 
which,  passing  through  the  fid-hole  in  the  heel, 
rests  upon  the  trestle-trees.  The  topmast  also 
passes  through  the  round  hole  of  the  cap  which 
is  placed  on  the  lower-mast  head,  and  that  part 
of  the  two  masts  between  the  trestle-trees  and 
the  cap  is  called  the  doublings  of  the  mast. 

Platforms  of  semicircular  shape,  called  tops, 
are  placed  over  the  lower-mast  heads  previous  to 
stepping  the  topmasts  and  placing  the  caps,  and 
rest  upon  the  trestle-trees.  The  maintop  is 
equal  in  breadth  to  half  the  breadth  of  beam, 


MASULAH 


488 


MATE 


.  while  the  fore-  and  mizzen-tops  are  proportion 
ally  smaller.  Being  secured  on  the  underneath 
side  to  the  mast  below  the  bibbs,  the  topmast 
shrouds  are  set  up  to  the  rim  on  each  side  and 
give  lateral  support  to  the  mast. 

The  topmast  head  is  similar  in  construction  to 
the  lower-mast  head.  The  hounds  support  the 
trestle-trees  upon  which  the  fid  of  the  topgal 
lant-mast  rests,  and  the  head  of  the  topmast  is 
surmounted  by  the  cap  through  the  round  hole 
of  which  the  topgallant-mast  passes.  Each  mast 
is  secured  in  position  by  shrouds,  stays,  and  back 
stays  independently  of  each  other,  so  that  the 
upper-mast  can  be  sent  down  without  disturbing 
the  security  of  those  below  it. 

To  ascertain  the  dimensions  of  the  several 
masts  of  a  vessel,  both  as  compared  with  the  size 
of  the  vessel  and  with  each  other,  works  on  ship 
building  should  be  consulted. 

Timber  for  masting  should  be  not  only  strong 
and  durable,  but  also  light  and  elastic.  These 
qualities  are  found  in  the  cone-bearing  trees,  as 
the  pine,  spruce,  fir,  etc. 

The  timber  is  principally  obtained  from  the 
forests  of  Maine,  Oregon,  Canada,  and  the  north 
ern  countries  of  Europe.  Great  care  is  required 
in  its  selection.  The  trees  should  be  of  sufficient 
age  and  well  charged  with  resin,  which  gives 
strength  to  the  wood  and  preserves  it  from  in 
sects  and  premature  decay.  After  the  timber  is 
felled  care  is  required  in  its  preservation,  and 
to  this  end  the  rough  spars  are  buried  in  mud,  or 
submerged  or  floated  in  wet-basins,  where  they 
are  protected  from  changes  of  temperature. 

Masts  of  iron  have  been  constructed  to  some 
extent,  but  its  use  is  confined  principally  to  ves 
sels  of  that  material,  as  steamers,  where  extreme 
length  of  mast  is  not  required.  Iron  lacks  the 
elasticity  and  flexibility  which  is  found  in  wood, 
and  for  that  reason  is  not  likely  to  come  into 
general  use.  There  are,  however,  some  consid 
erations  in  its  favor,  such  as  strength  and  dura 
bility,  cheapness  in  localities  where'iron  abounds, 
purposes  of  ventilation,  and  the  facility  with 
which  masts  of  required  dimensions  may  be  con 
structed. 

A  jury-mast  is  a  temporary  mast  constructed 
from  such  masts  or  spars  as  may  be  at  hand  to 
replace  one  that  has  been  injured  or  lost  by  stress 
of  weather  or  during  an  engagement. — E.  T. 
Strong,  Lieutenant  U.S.N. 

MAST-COAT.  A  canvas  covering  setting  close 
over  the  wedges  and  partners  of  a  mast  to  keep 
water  out. 

MAST-HEAD.  The  part  of  a  mast  above  the 
hounds.  To  mast-head,  to  hoist  up,  or  send  up, 
to  the  mast-head ;  a  well-known  punishment  for 
midshipmen. 

MAST-HOLE.  An  aperture  in  a  thwart  of  a 
boat  or  deck  of  a  ship  to  receive  a  mast  when  it 
is  stepped. 

MAST-HOOPS.     Iron  hoops  on  a  made-mast. 

MAST-ROPE.  A  heavy  rope  used  in  swaying 
up  or  striking  a  mast. 

Masulah,  or  Masoolah  Boats.  Madras  boats, 
of  which  the  planks  are  sewed  together  with  coir- 
yarn,  crossing  the  stitches  over  a  wadding  of 
coir  or  straw,  which  presses  on  the  joints  and 
prevents  much  leakage.  The  vessel  is  thus  ren 
dered  pliable,  and  yields  to  the  shock  on  taking 
the  ground  in  the  surf,  which  at  times  runs  from 
10  to  16  feet  high.  They  are  rowed  by  12  men 


in  double  banks,  with  oars  formed  by  an  oval 
piece  of  board  lashed  to  the  end  of  a  rough  piece 
of  wood.  They  are  guided  by  one  man  with  a 
long  steering-oar,  who  stamps  and  yells  with  ex 
citement  as  he  urges  the  men  to  pull  when  a  roll 
ing  surf  is  coming  up  astern.  These  boats  are 
from  30  to  35  feet  in  length,  10  to  11  feet  in 
breadth,  and  7  to  8  feet  in  depth. 

Mat.  To  prevent  chafing  a  thick  mat  is  woven 
from  strands  of  old  rope,  spun  yarn,  or  foxes, 
containing  a  number  of  rope-yarns  in  proportion 
to  the  size  of  the  mat  to  be  made.  The  largest 
and  strongest  kinds  are  called  paunch-mats.  The 
thrum-mat  is  similar  to  the  cocoa-nut  fibre  door 
mats.  "Where  it  is  possible  rounding  is  used  in 
stead  of  mats,  it  being  neater  and  holding  less 
water. 

Matanzas,  on  the  northwest  coast  of  the  island 
of  Cuba,  in  lat.  23°  3'  N.,  Ion.  81°  40'  W.,  is  a  for 
tified  seaport  town,  and  in  commercial  importance 
ranks  next  to  Havana.  The  imports  consist 
chiefly  of  articles  of  food,  machinery,  and  mate 
rials  for  sugar  and  coifee  plantations.  Among 
the  exports  are  sugar,  coffee,  molasses,  tobacco, 
honey,  wax,  and  fruits.  The  bay  is  spacious, 
easy  of  access,  and  completely  sheltered  from 
winds  except  those  from  the  northeast,  which 
bring  in  a  heavy  swell.  Pop.  36,000. 

Match.  A  slow-match  is  a  loosely-twisted 
cord  dipped  in  a  solution  of  lime-water  and  salt 
petre  ;  it  burns  4  to  6  inches  per  hour.  A  quick- 
match  is  cotton-wick  saturated  with  a  compo 
sition  of  mealed  powder,  gum,  and  spirits ;  it 
burns  about  three  inches  per  second. 

MATCH-STAFF.  A  pointed  staff  with  a  slit  in 
the  upper  end  ;  used  to  hold  the  slow-match. 

MATCH-TUB.  A  conical  tub  about  18  inches 
in  height,  with  a  sunken  head  perforated  with 
holes,  in  which  the  slow-match  was  hung. 

Mate.  A  line-officer  in  the  navy  not  in  the 
line  of  promotion.  He  holds  his  position  by  ap 
pointment,  messes  in  the  steerage,  and  may  be 
ordered  to  do  duty  in  the  boats,  as  mate  of  a 
deck,  or  such  other  duty  as  the  commanding 
officer  prescribes.  The  term  is  also  applied  to 
the  assistant  of  the  boatswain,  gunner,  armorer, 
etc. ;  and  it  also  means  an  equal  or  partner ;  as, 
messmate,  shipmate,  etc. 

Mate,  Chief.  The  officer  next  in  rank  to  the 
master  of  a  merchantman.  He  is  the  active 
superintending  officer  carrying  out  the  ideas  and 
orders  of  the  master.  While  in  port  the  chief 
mate  has  more  control  of  the  vessel  than  when 
at  sea,  the  master  being  generally  engaged  in 
transactions  with  the  merchants  and  owners  on 
shore.  The  chief  mate  has  the  charge  of  receiv 
ing,  stowing,  breaking  out,  and  discharging  of 
cargo,  and  is  in  command  of  the  ship  during  the 
absence  of  the  master.  At  sea  the  chief  mate 
has  command  of  the  port  watch;  when  all  hands 
are  called  the  master  takes  charge,  and  the  mate 
is  stationed  on  the  forecastle.  He  is  also  in 
trusted  with  keeping  the  log.  He  is  consid 
ered  a  confidential  person  to  whom  the  owners, 
shippers,  and  insurers  look  for  special  duties  and 
qualifications ;  the  master,  therefore,  cannot  re 
move  him  from  office  except  under  peculiar  cir 
cumstances,  and  then  must  be  able  to  prove  a 
justifiable  cause.  The  law  makes  the  chief  mate 
the  successor  to  the  master  in  case  he  should  die 
or  be  unable  to  perform  the  duties  of  his  office, 
and  this/  without  any  action  on  the  part  of  the 


MATE 


489 


McCAWLEY 


crew.  It  is,  therefore,  important  that  he  should 
have  a  sufficient  knowledge  of  navigation  to  take 
the  ship  to  her  destination. 

Mate,  Second.  The  second  mate  commands 
the  starboard  watch  at  sea,  but  when  all  hands 
are  called  on  deck  he  leads  the  crew  in  their 
work,  taking  the  weather  earing  in  reefing  and 
furling  the  bunts  of  the  topsail  and  courses.  He 
ought  to  have  a  good  knowledge  of  marline-spike 
seamanship,  as  he  is  expected  to  attend  to  the 
most  difficult  of  jobs  in  that  line.  In  port  the 
boat-duty  falls  to  his  lot,  and  in  receiving  and 
discharging  cargo  his  station  is  in  the  hold. 

Mate,  Third.  Merchant  vessels  bound  on 
long  voyages  sometimes  carry  a  third  mate,  but 
this^is  so  unusual  that  his  duties  have  not  become 
settled  by  custom.  He  belongs  to  the  port  watch  ; 
he  takes  the  bunt  and  the  weather  earing  forward 
as  the  second  mate  does  aft,  and  in  port  does  a 
part  of  duty  which  would  be  otherwise  allotted 
to  the  second  mate. 

Mates  of  Decks,  Hold,  and  Hull.  Junior 
officers  who  are  responsible  for  the  condition  of 
decks,  hold,  or  hull,  and  superintend  all  work 
done  within  their  limits. 

Mathemeg.  A  fish  of  the  cod  kind,  inhabiting 
Hudson's  Bay. 

Maties.  Dock-yard  artificers,  shipwrights, 
carpenters,  etc. 

Mato.  A  shell  formerly  of  some  commercial 
value  on  the  west  coast  of  Africa. 

Matthew  Walker.  A  knot,  so  termed  from 
the  originator.  It  is  formed  by  a  half-hitch  on 
each  strand  in  the  direction  of  the  lay,  so  that 
the  rope  can  be  continued  after  the  knot  is 
formed,  which  shows  as  a  transverse  collar  of 
three  strands.  It  is  the  knot  used  on  the  end  jof 
the  laniards  of  rigging  where  dead-eyes  are  em 
ployed. 

Maud.  A  salmon  net  fixed  in  a  square  form 
by  four  stakes. 

Maund.  An  Indian  weight,  which  varies  in 
amount,  depending  on  the  part  of  the  country. 
Also,  a  basket  used  by  fishermen  ;  a  measure  of 
small  fish. 

Maunjee.  The  native  boatmen  of  the  river 
Hooghly. 

Maury,  Matthew  Fontaine,  LL.D.,  naval  offi 
cer  and  hydrographer.  Born  in  Spottsylvania 
County,  Va.,  January  14,  1806.  While  he  was 
young  his  parents  removed  to  Tennessee.  Mid 
shipman,  February  1,  1825,  and  while  circum 
navigating  the  globe  in  the  "  Vincennes"  began 
his  treatise  on  "Navigation."  Lieutenant,  June 
10,  1836.  In  1839  he  met  with  an  accident 
which  resulted  in  permanent  lameness  and  unfit 
ted  him  for  active  service  afloat.  While  confined 
from  this  cause  he  amused  himself  by  writing  a 
series  of  articles  on  various  abuses  in  the  navy, 
published  in  the  Southern  Literary  Messenger, 
entitled  "  Scraps  from  the  Lucky  Bag,  by  Harry 
Bluff."  He  was  then  placed  in  charge  of  the 
Hydrographical  Office,  and  on  its  union  with  the 
Naval  Observatory,  in  1844,  he  became  superin 
tendent.  He  investigated  the  physical  geography 
of  the  sea,  and  gathered  many  observations  of 
the  ocean  winds  and  currents  from  the  records 
of  naval  and  merchant  vessels.  In  1844,  Lieut. 
Maury 's  paper  respecting  the  Gulf  Stream,  ocean 
currents,  and  great  circle  sailing  was  read  before 
the  National  Institute,  and  printed  in  the  South 
ern  Literary  Messenger.  The  principal  results 


of  his  researches  are  embodied  in  the  wind  and 
current  charts  and  the  sailing  directions  published 
by  the  Observatory  for  general  distribution 
among  mariners,  and  in  the  "  Physical  Geogra 
phy  of  the  Sea"  (New  York,  1855).  In  1855  he 
was  made  commander,  and  in  1861  threw  up  his 
appointments  and  joined  in  the  Kebellion.  Re 
signed  the  presidency  of  the  University  of  Ala 
bama  in  1871.  Member  of  the  principal  scientific 
associations  of  America  and  Europe,  from  whom, 
as  well  as  from  foreign  governments,  he  has  re 
ceived  distinguished  honors.  He  has  beside  the 
above  published  "Letters  on  the  Amazon,  and 
the  Atlantic  Slopes  of  South  America,"  "Rela 
tion  between  Navigation  and  the  Circulation 
of  the  Atmosphere,"  "Astronomical  Observa 
tions,"  1853,  and  also  several  addresses  before 
literary  and  scientific  bodies. 

Mavis  Skate.     The  sharp-nosed  ray. 

Maw,  or  Sea-maw.  The  common  gull,  Larus 
canus. 

Mayaguez  is  the  third  town  of  importance  of 
the  island  of  Porto  Rico.  It  has  a  very  good 
harbor,  and  the  exports  and  imports  have  each 
exceeded  $3,000,000  in  a  year.  Sugar,  molasses, 
coffee,  hides,  fruit,  and  turtle-shell  are  leading 
exports.  Pop.  12,000. 

Maze.     In  the  herring  trade,  500  fishes. 

Mazolet.  An  Indian  bark-boat,  calked  with 
moss. 

McCawley,  Charles  G.,  Colonel  U.S.M.C. 
Born  in  Pennsylvania.  Appointed  from  Louis 
iana. 

Commissioned  as  second  lieutenant,  March  3, 
1847 ;  in  June,  ordered  to  join  battalion  of  ma 
rines  for  service  with  army  in  Mexico ;  partici 
pated  in  the  storming  of  the  castle  of  Chapul- 
tepec  and  taking  of  the  city  of  Mexico  ;  brevetted 
first  lieutenant  for  gallant  and  meritorious  con 
duct  in  these  actions,  September  13,  1847;  in 
August,  1848,  was  ordered  for  duty  at  marine 
barracks,  Philadelphia  ;  December,  1848,  marine 
barracks,  Boston;  July,  1849,  "  Cumberland," 
Mediterranean  Squadron ;  March,  1850,  at  Na 
ples,  to  razee  "  Independence" ;  August,  1852, 
marine  barracks,  Philadelphia ;  June,  1853, 
"Princeton,"  Home  Squadron. 

Promoted  first  lieutenant,  January  2,  1855; 
July,  1855,  marine  barracks,  New  York  ;  De 
cember,  1855,  marine  barracks,  Boston ;  July, 
1857,  "  Mississippi"  ;  detached,  and  ordered  to 
Philadelphia;  December,  1857,  "Jamestown," 
at  Philadelphia,  for  Home  Squadron ;  March, 
1860,  marine  barracks,  Philadelphia  ;  December, 
1860,  "  Macedonian,"  Home  Squadron,  Atlantic 
coast,  West  Indies,  and  Spanish  Main  ;  January, 
1862,  marine  barracks,  Boston  ;  detached  imme 
diately,  and  ordered  to  join  battalion  of  marines 
at  Bay  Point,  S.  C. ;  April,  1862,  returned  with 
battalion  to  Washington. 

Received  commission  as  captain,  July  26, 1861 ; 
ordered  in  command  at  headquarters ;  May,  1862, 
ordered  with  detachment  of  200  men  to  reoccupy 
the  Norfolk  Navy-Yard  ;  hoisted  the  flag  again 
on  the  part  of  the  navy ;  October,  1862,  ordered 
to  headquarters,  Washington,  D.  C.  ;  in  com 
mand  until  July,  1863;  ordered  to  join  battalion 
of  marines,  for  service  in  South  Atlantic  Squad 
ron  ;  served  with  same  on  Morris  Island  during 
bombardment  and  destruction  of  Fort  Sumter, 
and  capture  of  Forts  Wagner  and  Gregg  ;  com 
manded  a  detachment  of  100  men  and  officers  in 


McCLINTOCK 


490 


McKEEVER 


•the  boat  attack  on  Fort  Sumter,  September  8, 
1863  ;  received  a  brevet  as  major  for  gallant  and 
meritorious  conduct  in  this  action  ;  served  on 
Folly  Island ;  and  in  December,  1863,  battalion 
returned  to  Philadelphia;  marine  barracks, 
Philadelphia. 

Promoted  major,  June  10,  1864 ;  ordered  to 
marine  rendezvous,  Philadelphia;  March,  1865, 
ordered  to  command  marine  barracks,  Boston. 

Promoted  to  lieutenant-colonel,  December  5, 
1867 ;  August,  1871,  ordered  to  command  ma 
rine  barracks,  Washington,  D.  C.  ;  June,  1872, 
appointed  superintendent  of  recruiting,  in  addi 
tion  to  other  duty  ordered  to  New  York  to  attend 
to  organizing  the  recruiting  service  ;  returned  to 
Washington,  November,  1872. 

Promoted  colonel  commandant  of  the  U.  S. 
marine  corps,  November  1,  1876. 

McClintock,  Sir  Francis  Leopold.  Born  at 
Dundalk,  Ireland,  in  1819.  Entered  the  British 
navy  in  1831,  at  12  years  of  age;  accompanied 
Sir  John  Ross's  Arctic  Expedition  in  1848,  and 
Capt.  Austin's  expedition  in  1850  in  search  of 
Sir  John  Franklin  as  a  lieutenant.  Promoted 
to  commander  in  1851,  and  accompanied  the  ex 
pedition  of  Sir  Edward  Belcher,  which  rescued 
Capt.  McClure,  who  had  been  imprisoned  for 
three  years  by  the  ice  near  Melville  Island  ;  in 
1857  he  was  sent  by  Lady  Franklin  in  com 
mand  of  the  "  Fox"  in  search  of  Sir  John  Frank 
lin,  and  had  the  satisfaction  of  proving  that  Sir 
John  had  made  a  discovery  of  the  northwest  pas 
sage  communicating  with  the  Pacific,  and  also 
ascertained  the  positive  fate  of  Sir  John  and  his 
expedition  ;  for  this  he  was  knighted  in  1860.  In 
October,  1871,  he  was  promoted  to  rear-admiral, 
and  in  1872  was  made  superintendent  of  the 
Portsmouth  dock-yard.  Promoted  to  vice-ad 
miral,  August  5,  1877. 

McDonough,  Thomas,  Commodore  U.S.N., 
was  born  in  New  Castle,  Del.,  December,  1783. 
He  was  appointed  a  midshipman  in  1800.  He 
sailed  in  the  "  Philadelphia,"  Capt.  Bainbridge, 
arriving  off  Tripoli  August  24,  1803.  When 
that  ship  was  captured,  he  was  absent  in  a  prize, 
and  did  not  suffer  captivity.  He  was  then  sent 
to  the  "  Enterprise"  with  Decatur,  and  was  en 
gaged  in  the  destruction  of  the  "Philadelphia" 
in  the  ketch  "  Intrepid."  He  was  engaged  in  the 
attacks  of  August  3  and  September  28,  particu 
larly  distinguishing  himself  in  the  former.  In 
1806  he  was  a  lieutenant  in  the  "  Siren"  under 
Stewart,  and  was  very  intrepid  in  protecting 
American  seamen  from  imprisonment. 

In  January,  1806,  he  was  promoted  to  lieuten 
ant.  He  was  sent  to  command  the  forces  on  Lake 
Champlain  in  the  summer  of  1812.  In  1813  two 
ships  of  his  small  squadron  were  captured,  but  it 
was  increased  the  following  year,  and  on  the  llth 
of  September,  while  at  anchor  near  Plattsburg,  he 
was  attacked  by  an  English  squadron  of  4  ships 
and  13  galleys,  but  by  consummate  ability  and 
seamanship,  particularly  in  anchoring  his  ships, 
he  defeated  the  enemy  with  his  squadron  of  4 
ships  and  11  galleys,  after  a  long  and  bloody 
battle.  He  was  wounded  slightly.  Received  a 
medal,  100  acres  of  land  from  the  State  of  Ver 
mont,  and  was  promoted  to  captain,  September 
11,  he  having  been  already  promoted  to  master 
commandant,  July  20,  1813.  From  1816  to  1818, 
he  was  attached  to  the  navy-yard,  Portsmouth, 
N.  H.  From  1819  to  1821,  he  was  in  command 


of  the  frigate  "  Guerriere"  in  the  Mediterranean. 
He  was  then  in  command  of  the  "  Ohio,"  74,  in 
ordinary  at  New  York  Navy-Yard,  and  in  1825 
he  went  again  to  the  Mediterranean,  flying  his 
flag  on  the  frigate  "  Constitution."  He  died  of 
consumption,  while  on  his  way  home  in  her, 
November  10,  1825,  aged  42.— F.  S.  Bassett, 
Lieutenant  U.S.N. 

McDougal,  David  D.,  Rear-Admiral  U.S.N. 
Born  in  Ohio.  Appointed  from  Ohio,  April  1, 
1828;  sloop  "Natchez,"  West  India  Squadron, 
1829-31 ;  frigate  "  Brandy  wine,"  Mediterranean 
Squadron,  1832-35. 

Promoted  to  passed  midshipman,  June  14, 
1834;  navy-yard,  New  York,  1835-36;  sloop 
"Natchez,"  West  India  Squadron,  1837-39; 
brig  "  Consort,"  coast  survey,  1840-43. 

Commissioned  as  lieutenant,  February  25, 
1841;  navy-yard,  New  York,  1843-44;  steamer 
"  Michigan,"  on  the  lakes,  1845-46  ;  sloop  "  St. 
Mary's,"  1846;  attached  to  steamer  "Missis 
sippi,"  at  the  capture  of  Vera  Cruz  ;  brig  "  Bain- 
bridge,"  1848-50,  coast  of  Africa ;  steamer 
"  Michigan,"  on  the  lakes,  1852-54  ;  command 
ing  store-ship  "Warren,"  1855-57. 

Commissioned  as  commander,  January  24, 
1857;  navy-yard,  Mare  Island,  Gal.,  1859-60; 
commanding  steam-sloop  "  Wyoming,"  Asiatic 
Squadron,  1861-64;  while  in  command  of  the 
"  Wyoming,"  engaged  6  batteries  and  3  vessels 
of  war,  at  Simonsaki,  Japan,  July  16,  1863, 
sinking  a  brig  and  exploding  the  boilers  of  a 
steamer,  with  a  loss  of  11  killed  and  wounded  on 
the  "Wyoming." 

Commissioned  as  captain,  March  2,  1864 ; 
commanding  navy-yard,  Mare  Island,  Gal., 
1865-66;  commanding  steam-sloop  "  Powhatan," 
South  Pacific  Squadron,  1868-69. 

Commissioned  as  commodore,  1869  ;  command 
ing  South  Squadron,  Pacific  Fleet,  1870-72 ;  re 
tired, 'December  27,  1871. 

Commissioned  as  rear-admiral,  September  27, 
1873. 

McKean,  William,  Commodore  U.S.N.  Born 
in  Pennsylvania,  in  1801 ;  died  near  Binghamton, 
N.  Y.,  April  22,  1865.  Son  of  Judge  McKean. 
Midshipman,  November  30,  1814;  lieutenant, 
January  13,  1825.  Commander,  September  8, 
1841 ;  captain,  September  14,  1855;  commodore, 
July  16,  1862  ;  governor  of  Naval  Asylum,  1858- 
61 ;  retired,  July  16, 1862.  Commanded  a  schooner 
in  Porter's  West  India  Squadron,  1823-24,  and 
active  in  suppressing  piracy  there.  In  1860  on 
special  service  of  conveying  the  Japanese  Em 
bassy  home,  and  on  his  return  was  for  a  short 
time  in  command  of  the  West  Gulf  Blockading 
Squadron. 

McKeever,  Isaac,  Commodore  U.S.N.  Born 
in  Pennsylvania,  April,  1793;  died  in  Norfolk, 
Va.,  April  1,  1856.  Midshipman,  December  1, 
1809;  lieutenant,  December  9,  1814,  and  com 
manded  a  gunboat  in  the  flotilla  of  Lieut.  Jones, 
which  was  captured  by  the  British  on  Lake 
Borgne,  La.,  December,  1814.  In  the  engage 
ment,  which  was  very  warm,  he  was  severely 
wounded.  In  the  galliot  "Sea-Gull,"  in  1825, 
aided  by  some  boats  of  the  British  frigate  "  Dart 
mouth,"  he,  after  a  sharp  fight,  captured  two 
pirate  schooners.  May  27,  1830,  he  was  made  a 
commander,  and  a  captain  in  December,  1838. 
He  commanded  the  squadron  on  the  coast  of 
Brazil  in  1851-54. 


MEALED  POWDER 


491 


MEDICAL  OFFICERS 


Mealed  Powder.     See  POWDER. 

Mean.     A  term  implying  medium  ;  average. 

MEAN  NOON.     See  NOON. 

MEAN  SUN.  A  fictitious  sun  which  is  con 
ceived  to  move  uniformly  in  the  equinoctial 
with  the  mean  velocity  that  the  true  sun  has  in 
the  ecliptic. 

MEAN  TIME.     See  TIME. 

Meek.  A  notched  staff  in  a  whale-boat  on 
which  the  harpoon  rests. 

Medical  Corps  of  U.  S.  Navy.  The  active 
list  of  the  medical  corps  of  the  navy  consists  of 
15  medical  directors,  ranking  with  captains ;  15 
medical  inspectors,  ranking  with  commanders ; 
50  surgeons,  ranking  with  lieutenant-command 
ers  or  lieutenants ;  and  100  passed  assistant  and 
assistant  surgeons,  ranking  with  lieutenants, 
masters,  or  ensigns,  according  to  length  of  ser 
vice. 

Assistant  surgeons  enter  the  service  after  ex 
amination  by  a  board  of  medical  officers,  and  at 
the  completion  of  two  years'  sea-service  are  sub 
ject  to  another  thorough  examination,  which  is 
competitive,  and  which  determines  their  perma 
nent  place  upon  the  register. 

The  surgeon-general  is  selected  by  the  Secre 
tary  of  the  Navy,  and  appointed  by  the  Presi 
dent  from  among  the  senior  medical  officers,  and 
is  commissioned  for  four  years,  by  and  with  the 
advice  and  consent  of  the  Senate.  The  surgeonr 
general  is  chief  of  the  Bureau  of  Medicine  and 
Surgery  in  the  Navy  Department,  and  has  charge 
of  all  matters  pertaining  to  the  medical  outfit 
of  vessels,  to  naval  hospitals,  and  to  the  naval 
laboratory ;  the  detailing  of  medical  officers  for 
service  ;  and  all  papers  and  records  pertaining  to 
the  medical  department,  as  well  as  the  expendi 
ture  of  all  moneys  for  the  purchase  of  supplies 
and  for  the  maintenance  of  hospitals.  See  MED 
ICAL  OFFICERS,  DUTIES  OF. — E.  Shippen. 

Medical  Officers  of  U.  S.  Navy,  Duties  of. 
Surgeons  of  the  fleet,  who  are  usually  medical  in 
spectors  or  senior  surgeons,  are  to  exercise  super 
vision  over  all  medical  officers  serving  under 
them,  and  from  time  to  time  to  inspect  their 
journals,  abstracts,  instruments,  dispensaries,  and 
store-rooms.  The  fleet-surgeon  is  also  to  assure 
himself  of  the  correctness  of  all  medical  reports 
and  returns,  and  indorse  as  approved  all  certifi 
cates  of  death  or  disability,  and  reports  of  sur 
vey,  before  forwarding  them  to  the  Bureau  of 
Medicine  and  Surgery. 

He  also  examines  and  approves  all  requisitions 
for  medical  and  hospital  stores  for  the  fleet  or 
squadron,  and  inspects  their  quality.  On  for 
eign  stations  he  purchases  these  supplies,  or 
selects  them  from  the  naval  store-house,  making 
requisitions  therefor,  as  far  as  possible,  at  regular 
periods. 

He  makes  and  transmits  to  the  Bureau  of  Med 
icine  and  Surgery  records  of  the  character  and 
treatment  of  diseases  occurring  in  the  fleet  or 
squadron.  He  is  also  to  suggest  measures  for 
the  preservation  of  health  in  the  fleet. 

On  the  probability  of  an  engagement  he  is  to 
assure  himself  that  the  medical  department  of 
every  ship  is  prepared  for  the  treatment  of 
wounded ;  and  after  battle  will  make  to  the 
commander-in-chief,  and  to  the  bureau,  a  sum 
mary  report  of  casualties.  He  is  also  to  forward 
to  the  bureau  an  aggregate  report  for  each  quar 
ter,  comprising  all  diseases  in  the  squadron,  with 


a  summary  of  bills  incurred,  and  an  epitome  of 
the  remarks  of  medical  officers  in  cases  likely  to 
give  ri.se  to  claims  for  pension. 

General  Duties  of  Naval  Medical  Queers.— The 
senior  medical  officer  of  every  naval  station  and 
of  every  vessel  in  commission  shall  keep,  or 
cause  to  be  kept  by  a  medical  officer  subordinate 
to  him,  the  following  official  records,  viz. : 

A  list  of  patients,  with  complete  description  of 
person,  details  of  and  final  disposition  of  each 
case.  This  is  to  be  embodied  in  a  quarterly 
report. 

A  medical  journal,  with  complete  description 
of  person,  and  history  of  cases,  properly  indexed. 

A  yearly  abstract  of  patients, — a  concise,  alpha 
betical  record  of  every  case  of  injury  or  disease 
occurring  in  the  navy,  with  full  personal  descrip 
tion,  and  whether  occurring  in  the  line  of  duty 
or  not. 

A  daity  report  of  sick, — made  every  morning 
to  the  commanding  officer,  in  a  sealed  envelope. 

A  daily  binnacle  list,  of  all  persons  excused 
from  duty. 

Whenever  a  patient  is  transferred  from  the 
charge  of  one  medical  officer  to  that  of  another, 
he  must  be  accompanied  by  his  effects,  with  a 
list  thereof  upon  a  hospital  ticket,  which  ticket 
gives  a  description  of  the  person,  and  all  facts  in 
the  case,  as  well  as  the  origin  of  the  disability, — 
whether  in  line  of  duty  or  not. 

A  report  of  sick  is  made  quarterly  to  the  sur 
geon  of  the  fleet,  or  to  the  Bureau  of  Medicine 
and  Surgery,  and  with  it  are  forwarded  triplicate 
receipts  for  articles  obtained  from  public  stores 
during  the  quarter,  and  a  triplicate  of  all  bills 
paid;  a  daily  record  of  atmospheric  observa 
tions,  and,  on  April  1  and  October  1,  requisitions 
for  supplies  for  the  next  six  months.  Medical 
officers  of  cruising  vessels  are  required  to  note 
on  this  quarterly  report  of  sick  the  ports  visited, 
and  the  number  of  days  at  sea  and  in  port  during 
the  quarter. 

Certificates  of  disability,  and  certificates  of 
death,  and  all  other  papers  interesting  to  parties 
claiming  pensions,  are  to  be  forwarded  without 
delay,  through  the  proper  channel,  to  the  sur 
geon  of  the  fleet  or  to  the  bureau  direct. 

The  senior  medical  officer  is  to  prepare  his  own 
receipts  and  returns  ;  and  if  relieved,  is  to  leave 
to  his  successor  all  necessary  official  papers, 
taking  a  receipt  for  them  in  duplicate. 

At  shore-stations,  hospitals,  and  receiving- 
ships  the  senior  medical  officer  is  required  to 
make,  on  July  1  of  each  year,  an  inventory  of 
all  property  in  his  charge,  which  inventory  is  to 
be  transmitted  to  the  Bureau  of  Medicine  and 
Surgery. 

The  senior  medical  officer  of  every  vessel  and 
station  is  required,  on  each  1st  of  January,  to 
make  a  sanitary  report  to  the  bureau,  embracing 
hygiene,  climatology,  and  medical  topography  of 
all  places  visited,  with  all  attainable  informa 
tion  respecting  statistics  of  disease  and  its  causes, 
medical  schools,  hospitals,  charitable  institutions, 
etc. 

By  law,  all  spirits  on  board  ship  are  to  be  un 
der  the  charge  of  the  senior  medical  officer,  and 
issued  only  on  his  prescription. 

Assistant  surgeons,  candidates  for  promotion, 
must  present  to  the  Board  of  Examiners  testi 
monials  of  proper  habits  from  the  medical  offi 
cers  with  whom  they  have  been  associated  on 


MEDICAL  OFFICERS 


492 


MEDICAL  OFFICERS 


duty,  and  a  medical  journal  in  the  candidate's 
own  handwriting.  Also  observations  upon  the 
hygiene  of  vessels  and  stations  to  which  they 
may  have  been  attached,  and  upon  medical  topog 
raphy,  hospitals,  and  other  matters  of  profes 
sional  interest. 

Passed  assistant  and  assistant  surgeons,  when 
in  separate  charge,  will  be  governed  by  the  same 
instructions  as  surgeons. 

Director  of  the  Laboratory  will  receive  timely 
notice  of  the  probable  force  to  be  kept  afloat,  and 
for  this  and  other  current  wants  will  keep  in 
hand,  by  manufacture  or  otherwise,  an  adequate 
stock  of  the  articles  enumerated  in  the  supply 
table.  Accurate  invoices,  inventories,  and  re 
ceipts  are  required  in  receiving  supplies  from  the 
laboratory,  or  in  returning  them,  after  a  vessel 
has  been  put  out  of  commission ;  at  which  time 
a  final  return  of  property  is  also  to  be  made  to 
the  bureau.  When  medical  stores  are  publicly 
sold,  an  invoice  and  account  of  sale  are  to  be  sent 
to  the  bureau,  and  the  money  resulting  from 
such  sale  to  be  deposited,  without  delay,  with  the 
nearest  government  depositary,  proper  receipts 
being  taken. 

Recruiting.— An  important  duty  of  medical 
officers  is  connected  with  recruiting,  and  they 
are  held  strictly  accountable  to  the  bureau  for 
improper  enlistments. 

Medical  officers  are  required  to  make  certificates 
of  physical  examinations  of  enlisted  men,  and 
to  keep  a  record  of  physical  condition  of  all 
minors,  including  cadets  and  apprentices, — ex 
aminations  of  whom  are  to  be  made  at  intervals 
of  twelve  months.  The  record  of  the  cadets  is 
to  be  retained  at  the  Naval  Academy.  In  case 
of  apprentices  arid  enlisted  minors  it  will  consti 
tute  their  descriptive  list,  and  accompany  them 
throughout  their  career  in  the  service. 

An  accurate  list  of  persons  examined  for  en 
listment  or  appointment  is  to  be  kept  wherever 
such  enlistments  are  made,  in  every  case  to  be 
signed  by  the  medical  officer  making  the  ex 
amination. 

A  descriptive  list  of  all  men  transferred  or  dis 
charged  is  to  be  signed  by  the  executive-officer 
and  the  senior  medical  officer. 

When  defects  are  waived  by  the  Navy  De 
partment,  in  cases  of  enlisted  men,  the  medical 
officer  is  fully  to  describe  the  same,  and  report 
the  case  to  the  Bureau  of  Medicine  and  Surgery, 
as  a  bar  to  claims  for  pension. 

Medical  officers  are  to  vaccinate  all  recruits, 
and  to  make  regular  reports  of  the  results. 

In  sea-going  ships,  as  soon  as  possible  after  re 
porting  for  duty,  the  senior  medical  officer  is  to 
inspect  the  dispensary  and  store-rooms,  examine 
the  outfit,  prepare  medicines  and  instruments  for 
use,  and  report  his  department  ready  for  inspec 
tion.  Having  secured  everything  for  sea,  he 
opens  his  medical  journal  upon  the  day  when  the 
officers  and  crew  are  received  on  board.  He  ex 
amines  the  crew,  by  divisions,  and  reports  those 
whom  he  considers  disqualified  for  service,  and 
calls  for  a  medical  survey  if  necessary.  He 
causes  all  who  may  require  it  to  be  vaccinated, 
and  instructs  such  persons  as  the  commanding 
officer  shall  designate  in  the  use  of  the  tourniquet. 
He  will  always  be  prepared  for  battle,  and,  after 
an  engagement,  will  report  casualties  to  the  com 
manding  officer  and  to  the  surgeon  of  the  fleet, 
with  complete  details  of  each  case. 


On  board  ship,  all  wines,  spirituous  liquors, 
mineral  acids,  and  inflammable  fluids  in  the 
medical  department  must  be  locked  up  by  them 
selves,  to  be  disposed  of,  in  case  of  fire,  as  the 
exigency  demands. 

Naval  Hospitals. — The  medical  officer  in  charge 
of  a  naval  hospital  is  to  enforce  strict  obedience 
to  the  laws  and  regulations  of  the  Navy  Depart 
ment,  in  accordance  with  the  established  usages 
and  discipline  of  the  service.  The  hospital,  its 
grounds  and  appurtenances,  and  all  persons  and 
property  attached  to  it,  are  to  be  under  his  con 
trol.  He  is  responsible  for  the  proper  treatment 
of  the  sick  and  wounded,  and  for  the  good  order, 
cleanliness,  discipline,  and  economy  of  the  entire 
establishment,  and  is  to  preserve  everything  in 
good  condition.  No  punishment  is  to  be  inflicted 
without  his  orders.  The  medical  officer  second 
in  rank  is  to  reside  in  the  hospital,  and  to  have 
general  charge  in  medical  duty,  but  is  to  consult 
the  officer  in  charge  in  all  important  matters. 
He  is  to  assign  duty  to  the  junior  medical  offi 
cers,  and  to  report  to  the  officer  in  charge  any 
neglect  of  duty  or  breach  of  discipline. 

He  is  to  see  that  the  hospital  records  are  care 
fully  and  neatly  kept,  and  signed  by  the  proper 
officers  with  name  and  rank.  He,  or  an  assist 
ant,  by  his  order,  is  to  make  a  careful  inspection, 
daily,  of  the  wards,  dining-rooms,  kitchens, 
Laundry,  and  cellars,  and  report  their  condition 
to  the  medical  officer  in  charge.  He  is  also  to 
inspect  all  provisions,  medicines,  groceries,  and 
bed  and  table  furniture  that  may  be  received, 
and  report  any  deficiency  to  the  officer  in  charge. 

Junior  medical  officers  serving  in  hospitals,  in 
addition  to  their  duties  in  the  wards,  shall  be 
detailed,  in  turn,  as  officer  of  the  day,  and  are 
not  to  leave  the  building  during  their  tour  of 
duty.  The  officer  of  the  day  is  to  inspect  the 
food  at  meal-times,  and  to  attend  to  the  admis 
sion  and  discharge  of  patients,  and  to  see  that 
proper  papers  are  sent  and  received. 

The  medical  officer  in  charge  of  a  hospital 
ward  is  responsible  for  order,  neatness,  and  good 
conduct  therein,  as  well  as  for  everything  regard 
ing  the  welfare  of  the  sick  and  wounded. 

The  medical  officer  in  charge  of  a  hospital  is 
to  make  no  changes  in  the  hospital  buildings  or 
grounds  without  permission  of  the  Bureau  of 
Medicine  and  Surgery.  He  is  carefully  to  scru 
tinize  the  monthly  pay-roll  of  persons  employed 
under  the  bureau  before  signing  it. 

The  products  of  the  ground  attached  to  a  naval 
hospital  are  to  be  expended  for  the  benefit  of  the 
hospital,  at  the  discretion  of  the  surgeon  in 
charge. 

The  official  papers  pertaining  to  the  conduct 
of  naval  hospitals  are  principally  as  follows,  viz. : 
hospital  tickets,  alphabetical  register,  quarterly 
list,  abstract  of  patients,  journal  of  subsistence, 
case  papers,  ration  notices,  certificate  book,  cer 
tificates  of  ordinary  disability  and  certificates  of 
death,  reports  of  surveys,  declarations  for  pen 
sion,  vouchers  for  expenditure,  hospital  ration 
return,  receipt  and  expenditure  book,  requisi 
tions,  weekly  report  of  sick,  weekly  report  of 
beds,  and  monthly  pay-roll. 

Surveys,  upon  persons  and  upon  medical  prop 
erty. — Personal  surveys,  next  to  the  preserva 
tion  of  life  and  limb,  are  the  most  important 
duties  of  medical  officers.  The  Commissioner  of 
Pensions  founds  his  decisions  upon  them.  In 


MEDICINE-CHEST 


493 


MERCHANTMAN 


case  of  surveys,  and  all  matters  connected  with 
the  evidence  in  pension  claims,  medical  officers 
are  forbidden  to  give  information  to  agents  or 
others.  All  such  persons  must  be  referred  to 
the  Commissioner  of  Pensions. — E.  Shippen. 

Medicine-chest.  A  chest  containing  a  sup 
ply  of  medicines  for  the  use  of  the  crew  of  a  mer 
chantman.  Every  vessel  of  150  tons  or  more, 
navigated  by  10  or  more  persons  in  all,  and 
bound  on  a  voyage  beyond  the  United  States^ 
and  every  vessel  of  75  tons  or  more,  navigated 
by  6  or  more  persons  in  all,  is  required  to  have 
a  chest  of  medicines,  put  up  by  an  apothecary 
of  known  reputation,  and  accompanied  by  direc 
tions  for  administering  the  medicines.  The  chest 
must  be  examined  at  least  once  a  year,  and  sup 
plied  with  fresh  medicines.  In  case  of  dispute 
the  owner  must  prove  the  sufficiency  of  the 
medicine-chest ;  it  does  not  lie  with  the  seaman 
to  prove  its  insufficiency.  If  a  seaman  requires 
further  medicines  and  medical  advice  than  the 
chest  and  directions  can  give,  it  would  seem  that 
the  ship  ought  to  bear  the  expense.  If  the  medi 
cine-chest  can  furnish  all  the  needs,  the  ship  is 
exempted. 

Medico.  A  familiar  appellation  for  the  ship's 
surgeon. 

Mediterranean  Pass  (Eng.}.  A  document 
formerly  granted  by  the  lords  of  the  Admiralty 
to  registered  vessels,  which  was  valuable  when 
the  Barbary  powers  were  unchecked. 

Meermaid.  A  name  given  by  the  English 
fishermen  to  the  Lophius  piscatorius,  or  frog- 
fish,  without  reference  to  the  mermaid. 

Meer-swine.  The  porpoise  (from  the  Ger 
man  meerschwein). 

Meet  Her  !  The  order  to  adjust  the  helm  so 
as  to  check  any  further  lateral  movement  of  the 
ship's  head. 

Melanurus.  A  small  fish  of  the  Mediterra 
nean  ;  a  species  of  Spams,  or  gilt-head. 

Melbourne  is  situated  on  the  Yarra  Yarra,  8 
miles  from  its  mouth,  in  Southeastern  Australia, 
colony  of  Victoria,  of  which  it  is  the  capital. 
Lat.  37°  43'  53"  S.  ;  Ion.  144°  47'  42"  E.  The 
river  has  a  bar  at  its  mouth,  and  a  second  half 
way  to  the  town,  which  compels  the  largest 
shipping  to  anchor  at  Hobson's  Bay,  near  the 
mouth  of  the  harbor,  to  which  there  is  now  a 
railway  direct  from  Melbourne,  with  two  piers 
projecting  into  deep  water.  The  commerce  of 
Melbourne  is  very  extensive,  and  represents  about 
nine-tenths  of  the  entire  trade  of  the  colony. 
Melbourne  is  the  first  and  last  port  of  call  for 
the  mail-ships  to  Galle.  Pop.  62,000  ;  including 
adjacent  boroughs,  247,000. 

Memel.  A  seaport  town  of  Prussia,  at  the 
north  end  of  the  Curische-Haff,  where  the  Dange 
falls  into  the  Baltic.  Lat.  55°  43'  42"  N. ;  Ion.  21° 
6'  12"  E.  It  is  the  seat  of  an  admiralty  court, 
and  contains  an  exchange,  marine  hospital,  school 
of  navigation,  and  other  fine  buildings.  It  is  the 
entrepot  of  the  foreign  trade  of  Western  Russia. 
It  has  extensive  manufactures,  but  the  great 
source  of  its  prosperity  is  its  trade,  which  con 
sists  chiefly  of  timber,  corn,  flax,  hemp,  etc.  The 
harbor  is  large  and  safe,  and  has  a  depth  of  water 
of  from  14  to  17  feet.  Ship-building  is  carried  on 
to  a  considerable  extent.  Pop.  20,000. 

Memphis,  Shelby  County,  Tenn.,  is  the  prin* 
cipal  city  in  the  State,  and  is  the  most  important 
and  populous  town  on  the  Mississippi  River  be 


tween  St.  Louis  and  New  Orleans.  It  is  beauti 
fully  situated  on  a  bluff,  elevated  about  60  feet 
above  high-water  mark,  the  base  of  which  is 
washed  by  the  river  for  a  distance  of  three  miles, 
while  a  bed  of  sandstone  projects  into  the  stream 
and  forms  a  convenient  landing.  It  occupies  the 
only  eligible  site  for  a  commercial  depot  from  the 
mouth  of  the  Ohio  to  Vicksburg.  As  a  market 
for  cotton  it  is  surpassed  by  only  two  or  three 
cities  in  the  United  States  ;  the  quantity  re 
ceived  in  a  year  is  about  400,000  bales,  valued  at 
$33,000,000.  Pop.  62,500. 

Mend.  To  mend  sail,  or  mend  the  furl,  to 
skin  the  sails  up  afresh  when  they  have  been 
badly  furled. 

Menendez  de  Aviles,  Pedros,  a  distinguished 
Spanish  officer  of  an  ancient  Asturian  family. 
Born  in  1519;  died  about  September  15,  1574. 
Wild  in  his  youth,  hegained  distinction  in  cruises 
against  the  corsairs  and  the  French  ;  acquired 
wealth  in  the  New  World  ;  was  captain-general 
of  the  fleet  sent  with  troops  to  Flanders,  con 
tributing,  it  is  said,  to  the  victory  of  St.  Quentin. 
Afterwards  went  to  the  West  Indies  as  general 
of  the  fleet  and  army  ;  amassed  vast  riches,  and. 
in  1561,  on  his  return  to  Spain,  was  arrested  by 
the  Council  of  the  Indies,  imprisoned,  and  heavily 
fined  for  his  conduct  there.  At  the  head  of  an 
expedition  for  the  conquest  and  colonization  of 
Florida,  he  sailed  from  Cadiz,  June  29,  1565. 
September  7  he  discovered  the  bay  and  river, 
which  he  named  St.  Augustine,  and  landing, 
took  formal  possession  on  the  8th,  and  laid  the 
foundation  of  St.  Augustine,  the  oldest  town  in 
the  United  States.  September  21,  at  daybreak, 
he  surprised  and  put  to  the  sword  the  French 
Huguenot  garrison  at  Fort  Caroline,  —  a  piece 
of  cruelty  afterwards  avenged  by  De  Gourgues 
upon  the  Spanish  garrison  there.  He  returned 
to  Florida  two  years  later,  rebuilt  San  Mateo, 
and  in  1574,  after  his  return  to  Spain,  was  given 
the  command  of  the  Armada  of  300  sail  at  San- 
tander,  destined  against  England,  when  he  died 
suddenly,  at  the  age  of  55. 

Menkalinan.     The  star  j3  Aurigce. 

Menkar.     The  bright  star  a  Ceti. 

Menopome.  One  of  the  largest  batrachians 
found  in  some  of  our  rivers,  and  known  by  many 


names    such 


as    hell-bender, 
etc. 


tweeg,   mud-devil, 


ground-puppy, 

Mensa.    See  CONSTELLATION. 

Merak.     The  star  ft  Ursce  Maj  oris. 

Mercantile  Marine.  A  collective  designation 
of  the  persons  and  vessels  engaged  in  transport 
ing  the  commodities  exchanged  in  commerce. 

Mercator's  Chart.  A  chart  constructed  on 
what  is  called  Mercator's  projection.  All  the 
meridians  are  parallel  right  lines,  and  the  degrees 
of  longitude  are  all  equal  ;  the  parallels  of  lati 
tude  are  at  right  angles  to  the  meridians,  and  the 
degrees  of  latitude  increase  in  length  from  the 
equator  to  the  pole  in  the  same  proportion  as 
the  degrees  of  longitude  decrease  on  the  globe. 
It  may  be  constructed  with  the  aid  of  a  table 
of  meridional  parts.  The  property  which  makes 
the  Mercator's  chart  so  useful  for  purposes  of 
navigation  is,  that  on  it  the  track  of  a  ship  ap 
pears  as  a  straight  line.  See  CHART. 

Merchantman.  A  vessel  employed  in  con 
veying  freight  or  passengers,  as  distinguished 
from  a  national  vessel,  and  from  vessels  in  the 
revenue  service,  coast  survey,  etc. 


MERCHANT  SERVICE 


494 


MESSINA 


Merchant  Service.     The  mercantile  marine. 

Mercurial  Gauge.  A  pressure-gauge  which 
depends  for  its  action  upon  the  effect  of  the  fluid 
on  a  column  of  mercury ;  the  pressure  may  act 
directly  on  the  column  or  be  transmitted  by  an 
intervening  fluid,  one  or  more  pistons,  or  an  elas 
tic  diaphragm  of  metal  or  other  suitable  ma 
terial. 

Mercury.  The  nearest  planet  to  the  sun. 
Mean  distance,  37  millions  of  miles  ;  diameter, 
3000  miles  ;  apparent  diameter,  6"  to  12".  Sym 
bol  5,  representing  a  wand.  See  VULCAN. 

Merganser.  A  genus  of  birds  of  the  family 
Anatidce.  They  inhabit  the  coasts  of  northern 
regions,  but  migrate  southwards  in  winter. 

Meridian.  A  great  circle  passing  through  the 
poles  of  a  sphere.  A  terrestrial  meridian  is  an 
ellipse  formed  by  the  intersection  of  the  earth's 
surface  by  a  great  circle  passing  through  the 
poles.  A  celestial  meridian  is  a  great  circle  of 
the  celestial  sphere  passing  through  the  poles  ;  it 
intersects  the  horizon  in  its  north  and  south 
points.  Prime  meridian,  the  origin  whence 
longitude  is  reckoned.  A  meridian-line  is  the 
line  formed  by  the  intersection  of  the  meridian 
and  the  plane  of  the  sensible  horizon ;  a  north- 
and-south  line.  Meridian  altitude,  the  altitude 
of  a  heavenly  body  when  it  bears  due  north  or 
due  south.  Meridian  zenith  distance,  the  com 
plement  of  the  meridian  altitude.  Meridional 
difference  of  latitude,  the  quantity  bearing  the 
same  proportion  to  the  difference  of  latitude  that 
the  difference  of  longitude  bears  to  the  departure. 
Meridional  parts.  At  the  equator  a  degree  of 
longitude  is  equal  to  a  degree  of  latitude,  but, 
as  we  approach  the  poles,  while  (supposing  the 
earth  to  be  a  perfect  sphere)  the  degrees  of  lati 
tude  remain  the  same,  the  degrees  of  longitude 
become  less  and  less.  In  the  chart  on  Mercator's 
projection  the  degrees  of  longitude  are  made 
everywhere  of  the  same  length,  and  therefore,  to 
preserve  the  proportion  that  exists  at  different 
parts  of  the  earth's  surface  between  the  degrees 
of  latitude  and  the  degrees  of  longitude,  the  for 
mer  must  be  increased  from  their  natural  lengths 
more  and  more  as  we  recede  from  the  equator. 
The  lengths  of  small  portions  of  the  meridian 
thus  increased,  expressed  in  minutes  of  the  equa 
tor,  are  called  meridional  parts.  Meridional 
projection,  a  projection  of  a  sphere  in  which  the 
plane  of  projection  coincides  with  or  is  parallel  to 
the  meridian. 

Merkin.  An  old  name  for  a  sponge  for  clean 
ing  cannon. 

Merling.  A  small  fish ;  Merlangus  vulgaris 
(Gadus  merlangus  of  Linnaeus) ;  the  whiting. 

Mermaid  (German  meer,  sea,  and  magd, 
maid ).  A  fabulous  creature,  the  fore  part  woman, 
the  hinder  part  fish.  The  species  of  actually 
existing  animals  that,  viewed  at  a  distance  in  the 
sea,  may  have  originated  the  idea  of  mermen  and 
mermaids  are  the  cetaceous  dugong  and  manatees 
These  have  their  fore  fins  rudely  fashioned  like 
arms  and  hands,  and  terminate  behind  in  a  fish- 
like  tail.  The  nipples  are  pectoral,  and  they  are 
often  seen  ascending  to  the  surface  to  breathe, 
clasping  their  sucking  young  to  the  breast. 
The  mermaid  is  a  not  unfrequent  heraldic  bear 
ing.  In  the  heraldry  of  France  she  is  called  a 
siren,  and  in  Germany  she  is  occasionally  fitted 
with  two  fishy  tails. 

MERMAID'S  GLOVE.     The  name  of  a  peculiar 


sponge  (Spongia  palmata]  abundant  at  Bermuda. 
It  derives  its  name  from  a  somewhat  finger-like 
arrangement  of  its  branches. 

MERMAID'S  PURSE.  The  oblong,  horny  cases 
with  long  filiform  appendages  developed  from 
each  of  the  four  corners,  found  on  the  sea-shore, 
being  the  outer  coverings  of  the  eggs  of  several 
species  of  rays  and  sharks.  Also,  the  hollow 
root  of  the  seaweed  Fucus  polyschides. 

Merman.     See  MERMAID. 

Merry  Dancers.  The  glancings  and  corusca 
tions  of  the  aurora  borealis  or  northern  lights. 

Merry  Men  of  May.  Dangerous  currents 
formed  by  the  ebb-tides. 

Mesh.  The  opening  between  the  lines  in  a 
net. 

Mess.  A  company  of  officers  or  men  of  a  ship 
who  take  their  meals  together.  The  command 
ing  officer  messes  alone ;  if  there  be  more  than 
one  cabin-officer  on  board,  they  may  form  one 
mess  if  they  desire.  The  wardroom  mess  is  com 
posed  of  the  staff-officers  above  the  grade  of  en 
sign,  and  of  line-officers  from  lieutenant-com 
mander  to  master,  inclusive.  If  an  ensign  has 
charge  of  a  watch  and  a  division  he  messes  in 
the  wardroom.  If  a  staff-officer  having  the 
relative  rank  of  ensign  is  the  head  of  a  depart 
ment  he  messes  in  the  wardroom.  The  steerage 
mess  is  composed  of  ensigns,  midshipmen,  and 
clerks.  The  warrant-officers'  mess  is  composed 
of  the  boatswain,  gunner,  carpenter,  and  sail- 
maker.  Passengers  mess  with  the  officers  of 
corresponding  rank.  The  caterer  of  a  mess  has 
charge  of  its  general  conduct  and  order,  but  the 
executive-officer  has  the  power  to  interfere  to 
prevent  disorder. 

The  master-at-arms,  orderly  sergeant,  all  yeo 
men,  apothecary,  machinists,  coppersmiths,  and 
boiler-makers  mess  together  on  the  berth-deck. 
Petty  officers  may  be  messed  by  themselves. 
The  crew  is  divided  into  messes  of  convenient 
size,  and  a  certain  part  of  the  deck  assigned 
them ;  they  are  allowed  to  commute  as  many  ra 
tions  as  may  be  authorized  by  the  commanding 
officer,  and  the  money  is  expended  for  fresh  pro 
visions  or  may  be  divided  up  among  them. 

MESS-CLOTH.  A  tarpaulin  spread  on  the  deck, 
answering  the  purpose  of  a  table-cloth. 

MESS-GEAR.  Pots,  pans,  spoons,  knives,  forks, 
etc. 

MESSMATES.     Members  of  the  same  mess. 

MESS-TRAPS.     Mess-gear  (which  see). 

Messenger.  An  endless  rope  or  chain  going 
around  the  capstan  and  a  roller  at  the  manger. 
The  messenger  is  securely  bound  to  the  cable  by 
nippers,  and  as  the  capstan  is  hove  around  the 
cable  is  hauled  in.  As  the  nippers  approach  the 
capstan  they  are  taken  off  and  others  put  on 
near  the  hawse-hole.  Messengers  are  out  of 
date,  and  are  not  to  be  met  with  on  board  men- 
of-war,  except  in  a  few  old  sailing-vessels.  The 
cable  is  now  brought  direct  to  the  capstan.  See 
CAPSTAN,  NIPPERS.  Also,  a  boy  to  carry  mes 
sages  from  the  quarter-deck. 

Messina,  Sicily,  is  situated  on  the  Strait  of 
Messina,  in  lat.  38°  11'  10"  N.,  Ion.  15°  34'  45" 
E.  ;  is  strongly  fortified,  being  walled  and  de 
fended  by  a  citadel  and  forts.  The  harbor,  one 
of  the  best  in  the  Mediterranean,  is  of  great 
depth  and  perfectly  secure  in  all  weather.  Its 
manufactures  of  silk  goods  and  satins  have  long 
been  famous,  and  its  commerce  is  very  extensive. 


META-CENTRE 


495 


MIDDLE  TIMBER 


The  exports  consist  chiefly  of  silks,  fruits,  wine, 
spirits,  sumac,  etc.  It  has  valuable  tunny  and 
other  fisheries.  Population,  including  suburbs, 
112,000. 

Meta-centre.  The  meta-centre  of  a  floating 
body  is  the  point  where  the  vertical  passing 
through  the  centre  of  buoyancy  in  the  position 
of  equilibrium  meets  the  vertical  drawn  through 
the  new  centre  of  buoyancy,  when  the  body  has 
been  slightly  displaced  from  this  position.  It  is 
a  point  in  a'ship  above  which  the  centre  of  grav 
ity  of  weight  must  never  be  placed,  because  if  it 
were  the  vessel  would  at  once  capsize. 

Metal.  The  ordnance  of  a  ship.  Heavy  metal, 
guns  of  great  calibre. 

Metallic  Packing.  Piston-packing  of  one  or 
more  metallic  rings,  usually  iron  or  brass  ;  also,  a 
patent  piston-packing  composed  of  braided  wire. 

Metalline.  A  soft  metallic  compound  for 
lining  journal-boxes. 

Meteor.     See  AEROLITES. 

Meteorology.  The  science  which  treats  of  the 
air  and  its  phenomena. 

Metonic  Cycle.  A  cycle  of  19  years,  which 
contains  235  lunations,  and  results  in  a  corre 
spondence  of  the  solar  and  lunar  years.  The 
discovery  of  this  astronomical  period  may  be 
assigned  to  Meton  in  432  B.C.  See  CYCLE. 

Metre  (Fr.,  from  Gr.  metron,  a  measure).  The 
French  standard  measure  of  length,  being  the 
ten-millionth  part  of  the  quadrant  of  the  merid 
ian.  The  other  measures  of  length  are  referred 
to  this,  the  whole  system  being  decimal  ;  Latin 
prefixes  are  used  to  indicate  division,  Greek  pre 
fixes,  multiplication.  Thus,  a  decimetre  (decem, 
ten)  is  the  tenth  of  a  metre ;  a  centimetre  (cen 
tum,  a  hundred),  the  hundredth  part  of  a  metre  ; 
a  millimetre  (mille,  a  thousand),  the  thousandth 
part  of  a  metre.  Again,  a  decametre  (&/ca,  deka, 
ten )  is  ten  metres  ;  a  hectometre  (f/carov,  kekaton, 
a  hundred)  is  one  hundred  metres  ;  a  kilometre 
(X'.hioi,  chilioi,  a  thousand),  one  thousand  metres  ; 
a  myriametre  (fivpiuc,  murias,  ten  thousand),  ten 
thousand  metres.  A  metre  is  equal  to  39.37079 
English  inches;  and  from  this  all  the  other 
French  measures  may  be  obtained  by  shifting 
the  decimal  point. 

Micrometer  (Gr.  mikros,  little,  and  metron, 
a  measure)^  An  instrument  used  with  the  tele 
scope  or  microscope  for  measuring  minute  dis 
tances,  or  the  diameters  of  objects  which  subtend 
very  small  angles.  Contrivances  of  various  kinds, 
and  depending  on  different  principles,  have  been 
employed  for  this  purpose.  The  micrometer  is 
of  the  utmost  importance  in  astronomy,  and  to 
it  that  science  is  as  much  indebted  as  to  the  tele 
scope  itself.  Its  most  simple  form,  as  applied  to 
astronomical  purposes,  is  that  of  a  short  tube, 
across  the  opening  of  which  are  stretched  two 
parallel  threads,  which  can  be  made  to  approach 
or  recede  from  each  other  by  means  of  screws. 
These  two  threads  are  crossed  by  a  third  perpen 
dicularly,  and  the  whole  apparatus  is  placed  in 
the  focus  of  a  lens.  The  distance  of  two  stars  is 
found  by  adjusting  the  two  parallel  threads,  one 
to  pass  through  the  centre  of  each  star,  taking 
care  that  the  threads  are  placed  perpendicular  to 
the  line  joining  the  stars,  and  finding  how  many 
turns  and  parts  of  a  turn  of  the  screw  are  re 
quired  to  bring  the  wires  to  coincide.  The  an 
gle  of  position  of  two  stars  is  also  obtained  by 
turning  round  the  instrument  till  the  third  wire, 


which  is  normally  horizontal,  bisects  both  stars, 
and  reading  off  on  the  circumference  the  arc 
passed  over.  Another  form  of  micrometer  is  the 
circular,  the  principle  of  which  may  be  described 
as  follows  :  if  the  field  of  a  telescope  be  perfectly 
circular,  and  if  its  diameter  be  determined  from 
observation,  the  paths  of  two  celestial  bodies 
across  the  field  may  be  considered  as  two  parallel 
chords,  which  are  given  in  terms  of  a  circle  of 
known  diameter.  The  differences  of  the  times  at 
which  two  stars  arrive  at  the  middle  of  their  paths 
will  be  their  ascensional  difference  ;  and  the  dis 
tance  between  the  chords,  which  is  readily  com 
puted  from  their  lengths,  gives  the  difference  of 
the  declinations  of  the  two  bodies.  The  most  ap 
proved  construction  of  the  annular  micrometer 
is  that  of  Fraunhofer,  which  consists  of  a  steel 
ring  surrounded  by  a  flat  rim  of  glass  and 
mounted  in  a  brass  tube,  so  that  it  may  be  accu 
rately  adjusted  in  the  focus  of  the  eye-piece  of 
the  telescope.  When  so  applied  the  steel  ring 
is  alone  visible  and  appears  as  if  suspended  in 
the  atmosphere,  whence  the  instrument  is  called 
the  suspended  annular  micrometer.  The  advan 
tage  of  this  construction  consists  in  the  accuracy 
with  which  the  moment  of  ingress  or  egress  is 
determined  from  the  body  being  seen  in  the  field 
of  view  before  it  comes  up  to  the  edge  of  the  steel 
ring.  The  annular  micrometer  is  conveniently 
used  for  comparing  the  place  of  a  small  star  or  a 
comet  with  that  of  a  known  star  in  nearly  the 
same  parallel  of  declination.  The  Abbe  Rochon, 
in  the  beginning  of  the  present  century,  con- 
ceived  the  ingenious  idea  of  applying  the  princi 
ple  of  double  refraction  to  micrometrical  measure 
ment.  He  constructed  an  instrument  composed 
of  two  prisms  of  rock-crystal  or  Iceland  spar. 
These  prisms  were  fixed  together  with  their  axes 
of  crystallization  at  right  angles  to  each  other,  to 
increase  the  deviation  of  the  two  images ;  and 
the  micrometer  thus  constructed  was  placed 
within  the  focus  of  the  object-glass  of  a  telescope, 
thus  giving  two  images  to  be  observed  by  the 
eye-piece.  The  distances  between  these  images 
depend  on  the  relative  positions  of  the  eye,  the 
micrometer,  and  the  object ;  and  consequently, 
after  the  instrument  has  been  graduated,  all  that 
is  required  to  determine  the  apparent  diameter 
of  a  heavenly  body  is  to  move  the  crystal  back 
wards  or  forwards  till  the  two  images  appear  to 
touch,  and  the  graduation  corresponding  to  the 
place  of  the  crystal  gives  the  required  result. 
This  form  of  micrometer  has  been  improved  by 
Arago,  Dollond,  and  others.  Besides  the  instru 
ments  here  mentioned  many  other  micrometers 
exist. 

Microscopium.     See  CONSTELLATION. 

Mid.     Abbreviation  for  midshipman. 

Mid-channel.     The  middle  part  of  a  channel. 

Middle  Latitude.  With  reference  to  two  places 
situated  in  the  same  hemisphere,  the  middle  lat 
itude  is  the  latitude  of  the  parallel  passing  mid 
way  between  them  ;  its  value  is  therefore  half 
the  sum  of  the  latitudes  of  the  two  places. 

MIDDLE-LATITUDE  SAILING.  An  approxi 
mate  method  of  solving  certain  cases  of  spher 
ical  sailing,  founded  on  the  consideration  that 
the  arc  of  the  parallel  of  middle  latitude  of  two 
places  intercepted  between  their  meridians  is 
nearly  equal  to  the  departure. 

Middle  Timber.  That  timber  in  the  stern 
which  is  placed  amidships. 


MIDDLE  WATCH 


496 


MILITAKY  LAW 


Middle  Watch.  The  period  from  midnight  to 
4  A.M.  The  men  on  watch  during  that  time. 

MIDDLE-WATCHER.  A  light  meal  taken  by 
the  officer  of  the  middle  watch. 

Middleton,  Edward,  Rear-Admiral  U.S.N. 
Born  in  South  Carolina.  Appointed  from  South 
Carolina,  July  1,  1828;  frigate  "Java,"  Medi 
terranean  Squadron,  October,  1828,  to  May, 
1831 ;  sloop  "  Vandalia,"  West  India  Squadron, 
1831-33  ;  receiving-ship,  Brooklyn,  1833-34. 

Promoted  to  passed  midshipman,  June  14, 
1834;  frigate  "Constitution,"  Mediterranean 
Squadron,  1835-38;  sloop  "Marion,"  Brazil 
Squadron,  1839-42. 

Commissioned  as  lieutenant,  March  2,  1841 ; 
store-ship  "  Lexington,"  1843-44  ;  sloop  "  Plym 
outh,"  Mediterranean  Squadron,  1844-45  ;  frig 
ate  "Cumberland,"  Home  Squadron,  1846; 
steamer  "Princeton,"  1847-49;  store-ship 
"Erie,"  1849;  navy-yard,  Philadelphia,  1849- 
51  ;  razee  "  Independence,"  Mediterranean 
Squadron,  1852;  receiving-ship,  New  York, 
1853  ;  executive-officer  of  sloop  "  Decatur," 
Pacific  Squadron,  1854-56  ;  operating  against 
a  combination  of  hostile  Indians  of  the  various 
tribes  of  Washington  and  Oregon  Territories 
during  the  war  of  the  winter  of  1854-55  ;  attacks 
upon  Seattle,  Washington  Territory,  January 
26,  1856. 

Commissioned  as  commander,  April  16, 1856  ; 
commanding  sloop  "Decatur,"  1856-57;  com 
manding  steam-sloops  "  St.  Mary's"  and  "  Sara- 
nac"  at  diiferent  times,  Pacific  Squadron,  1861-65. 

Commissioned  as  captain,  April  24,  1863  ; 
special  duty,  New, York,  1866  ;  navy-yard,  Mare 
Island,  Cal.,  1867-68;  commanding  steam-sloop 
"Pensacola,"  Pacific  Squadron,  August  27, 
1868,  to  January  7,  1869. 

Commissioned  as  commodore,  November  26, 
1868  ;  commanding  steam-sloop  "  Lacka wanna," 
Pacific  Fleet,  February  6,  1869;  commandant 
navy-yard,  Pensacola,  Fla.,  June  1,  1870,  to 
March  8,  1873. 

Commissioned  as  rear-admiral,  August  15, 
1876.  Retired,  December  11,  1872. 

Middy.     An  abbreviation  for  midshipman. 

Mid-feather.  A  water-bridge  in  the  rear  of 
the  furnace  of  a  steam-boiler,  in  a  mid-position 
in  the  flue-space  to  enable  the  flame  to  pass  above 
and  below  it ;  object,  to  increase  circulation. 

Midshipman.  This  term  originated  from  the 
place  assigned  to  the  "  young  gentlemen,"  as  they 
used  to  be  called,  amidships,  or  abreast  of  the 
mainmast. 

In  the  larger  class  of  vessels  which,  in  the  old 
build,  had  immensely  high  forecastles,  quarter 
decks,  and  round-houses,  there  were  no  means 
of  going  from  the  quarter-deck  to  the  forecastle 
without  descending  into  the  waist ;  hence  mes 
sengers  were  necessary  in  order  to  prevent  the 
captain,  or  the  officer  of  the  watch,  from  having 
thus,  in  a  measure,  to  desert  his  station,  and 
these  messengers  took  the  orders  from  the  officer 
at  the  break  of  the  quarter-deck,  and  carried 
them  to  the  forecastle,  and  likewise  brought  the 
various  reports  from  the  officers  stationed  for 
ward  to  those  in  command  abaft,  and  thence 
from  their  station  were  called  midshipmen.  It 
was  from  this  class  and  that  of  quartermaster  in 
the  British  navy  that  the  master's  mates  were 
generally  taken,  as  the  contact  into  which  they 
were  naturally  thrown  with  their  superior  offi 


cers  led  to  this  distinction  when  their  conduct 
was  meritorious ;  the  promotions  from  the  class 
of  midshipman  were  much  more  numerous  than 
those  from  the  class  of  quartermaster,  the  for 
mer  being  necessarily  selected  from  active,  smart 
young  men,  while  the  latter  were  taken  from 
the  thoroughbred  old  tars.  This  patronage  in 
vested  in  the  captains  of  ships  of  war  gradually 
led  to  the  sons  of  persons  of  respectability  being 
appointed  to  these  stations,  whence  with  a  slight 
degree  of  interest  they  were  advanced  to  superior 
rank.  Later,  a  set  of  youngsters  was  introduced 
into  the  British  service  by  what  is  called  a 
"king's  letter."  These  were  called  "king's 
letter  boys,"  and  were  but  little  relished  by 
the  rougher  class  of  their  associates  for  having, 
as  they  termed  it,  "  Come  in  at  the  cabin  win 
dows  instead  of  at  the  hawse-holes." 

The  midshipmen  at  first  messed  with  the  ship's 
company,  having  one  or  more  tables  given  them 
on  the  lower  deck,  according  to  their  number. 
They  afterwards,  in  some  vessels,  had  the  heart 
of  one  of  the  cable  tiers — quite  a  roomy  place 
when  hemp-cables  were  in  vogue — given  them 
as  a  mess-place,  the  quartermasters  and  boat 
swains'  mates  having  the  other.  Those  midship 
men  or  master's  mates  in  whom  the  captain  or 
officers  took  an  interest  were  occasionally  in 
vited  to  their  table,  and  in  process  of  time 
the  custom  became  general.  See  ACADEMIES, 
NAVAL. 

MIDSHIPMAN,  PASSED,  is  a  midshipman  who 
had  passed  an  examination  entitling  him  to  pro 
motion  to  a  lieutenant  whenever  there  occurred 
a  vacancy  in  that  grade.  Since  the  title  of  en 
sign  has  been  adopted,  graduates  of  the  U.  S. 
Naval  Academy  waiting  promotion  to  the  grade 
of  ensign  are  styled  midshipmen,  while  under 
graduates  are  called  cadet-midshipmen. 

In  October,  1819,  a  board  of  senior  captains, 
of  whom  Commodore  Wm.  Bainbridge  was  the 
president,  was  ordered  by  the  Secretary  of  the 
Navy  to  convene  at  New  York  to  examine  mid 
shipmen  for  promotion.  This  was  the  first  ex 
amination  instituted  in  our  navy.  It  has  con 
tinued  ever  since,  and  was  the  origin  of  the  title 
"passed  midshipman." 

MIDSHIPMAN'S  NUTS.  Broken  pieces  of  bis 
cuit  as  dessert. 

MIDSHIPMAN'S  ROLL.  A  slovenly  method  of 
rolling  up  a  hammock  transversely,  and  lashing 
it  endways  by  one  clew. 

Midships.  The  middle  part  of  the  vessel, 
either  with  regard  to  her  length  or  breadth. 

MIDSHIP  BEND,  or  MIDSHIP  FRAME.  The 
frame  of  the  ship  which  is  the  most  capacious. 

Mile  (Lat.  mille  passus,  a  thousand  paces). 
The  common  mile  is  the  statute  mile  so  called, 
from  being  incidentally  defined  in  a  statute  of 
Queen  Elizabeth.  The  geographical,  nautical, 
or  sea-mile  is  the  mean  length  of  a  minute  of 
latitude,  and  hence  is  sometimes  called  a  minute. 
The  length  of  the  statute  mile  is  5280  feet ;  that 
of  the  nautical  mile,  6082.66  feet ;  therefore  one 
nauticalmile  =  1.1515  statute  miles,  andone stat 
ute  mile  =  .8684  nautical  mile.  The  kilometre  is 
sometimes  called  a  metrical  mile,  and  its  length 
is  equal  to  1093  yards. 

Military  Law  may  be  defined  as  a  rule  of  con 
duct  for  military  persons  prescribed  by  the  legis 
lative  power  in  a  state,  commanding  what  is  to 
be  done,  and  prohibiting  the  contrary. 


MILKY-WAY 


497 


MIZZEN 


In  the  United  States,  military  law  is  principally 
expressed  in  Articles  of  War  enacted  by  Congress 
pursuant  to  authority  vested  in  it  by  the  Constitu 
tion  (Art  I.  Sec.  8)  "  to  make  rules  for  the  govern 
ment  and  regulation  of  the  land  and  naval  forces." 
To  this  principal  code  is,  however,  to  be  added  a 
body  of  regulations  formulated  by  the  Executive 
and  ratified  by  Congress.  These  two,  the  Arti 
cles  of  War  and  the  Army  Kegulations,  taken 
together,  constitute  the  written  military  law  of 
the  United  States.  What  is  known  as  the  "  cus 
tom  of  war"  forms  the  unwritten  part  of  the  law 
military,  and  its  aid  is  sought  to  explain  doubt 
ful  questions  arising  in  the  course  of  procedure  in 
militar}T  tribunals.  The  custom  appealed  to  must 
be  that  of  our  own  service,  must  be  certain  and 
well  defined,  and  must  not  contravene  any  por 
tion  of  the  written  military  code. 

Naval  law  has  the  same  source  and  authority 
as  military  law,  is  constructed  on  the  same  prin 
ciples,  and  is  similarly  administered,  the  points 
of  divergence  being  mainly  such  as  necessarily 
result  from  the  differing  spheres  of  action  of  the 
land  and  naval  forces.  See  COURTS-MARTIAL, 
JUDGE-ADVOCATE,  JUDGE- ADVOCATE-GENERAL, 
MARTIAL  LAW,  MUTINY  ACT,  OATHS. 

Milky-way.     See  GALAXY. 

Miller.  To  drown  the  miller,  to  put  an  extra 
quantity  of  water  into  grog.  A  fish  of  the  genus 
Myliobatis. 

Miller's  Thumb.  A  fresh- water  fish,  the 
Coitus  cataphractus . 

Milt.  The  soft  roe,  or  spermatic  part,  of  the 
male  fish. 

Milwaukee,  the  most  populous  town  of  Wis 
consin,  is  situated  on  the  west  shore  of  Lake 
Michigan,  at  the  mouth  of  Milwaukee  River,  in 
lat.  43°  3'  45"  N. ,  Ion.  87°  57'  W.  The  Menom- 
onee  River  joins  the  Milwaukee  about  half  a 
mile  from  its  mouth,  and  the  largest  boats  of  the 
lakes  can  ascend  the  Milwaukee  2  miles  from 
its  mouth,  as  also  the  Menomonee  for  some  dis 
tance  from  its  confluence  with  the  Milwaukee. 
The  city  has  now  one  of  the  best  harbors  upon 
the  whole  chain  of  lakes.  This  city  is  the  outlet 
and  shipping  port  of  a  rich  and  rapidly  improv 
ing  country,  and  is  said  to  be  the  greatest  pri 
mary  wheat-market  in  the  world.  Steamers  run 
across  the  lake  during  the  whole  year.  Six  rail 
roads  centre  here,  the  Chicago,  Milwaukee  and 
St.  Paul,  Chicago  and  Northwestern,  Detroit  and 
Milwaukee,  Milwaukee,  Lake  Shore  and  West 
ern,  Western  Union,  and  Wisconsin  Central. 
Pop.  130,000. 

Mine,  Submarine.  A  defensive  torpedo.  See 
TORPEDO. 

Minion.  An  old  4-pounder  gun  about  7  feet 
long.  Its  point-blank  range  was  120  paces,  with 
a  random  one  of  1500.  Bourne,  in  1578,  men 
tions  the  minion  as  requiring  shot  3  inches  in 
diameter. 

Minister.  In  affairs  of  state  the  designation 
of  two  classes  of  functionaries.  The  first  of  these 
embraces  those  officials  who  preside  over  the  ad 
ministrative  departments  of  public  business,  and 
who  in  most  countries  form  what  is  generally 
known  as  the  "cabinet"  of  the  executive  head 
of  the  government.  In  the  United  States  these 
officers  are  officially  known  as  "secretaries." 

The  other  class  of  public  servants  known  as 
ministers  are  diplomatic  agents  accredited  to  the 
sovereigns  or  chief  executives  of  foreign  states. 
32 


In  the  diplomatic  service  of  the  United  States 
two  grades  of  ministers  exist,  the  higher  being 
designated  ministers  plenipotentiary,  and  the 
lower  ministers  resident. 

Minnow.  A  small  fresh-water  fish, — the  Leu- 
ciscus  phoxinus. 

Minor  Planets.     See  PLANETS,  MINOR. 

Minute.  The  sixtieth  part  of  an  hour.  The 
sixtieth  part  of  a  degree.  A  nautical  mile  is 
sometimes  called  a  minute,  as  being  the  mean 
length  of  a  minute  of  latitude. 

MINUTE-GUNS.  Guns  fired  at  an  interval  of  a 
minute,  as  a  mark  of  respect,  on  the  death  of  a 
high  official. 

Mira.     A  remarkable  variable  star,  o  Ceti. 

Mirach.  A  name  given  each  of  the  stars  ft 
Andromedce  and  e  Bootis. 

Mirage.  An  optical  illusion  very  common  at 
sea,  especially  in  high  latitudes,  and  sometimes 
also  witnessed  on  land,  particularly  in  Lower 
Egypt,  Persia,  Tartary,  the  western  plains  of 
the  United  States,  and  on  the  margin  of  rivers 
or  lakes,  or  on  the  sea-shore.  It  arises  from 
unequal  refraction  in  the  lower  strata  of  the  at 
mosphere,  and  causes  remote  objects  to  be  seen 
double,  as  if  reflected  in  a  mirror,  or  to  appear  as 
if  suspended  in  the  air.  When  the  effect  is  con 
fined  to  apparent  elevation,  the  English  sailors 
call  it  looming ;  when  inverted  images  are  formed, 
the  Italians  give  it  the  name  of  Fata  Morgana. 
Ships  in  the  whale-fisheries  are  often  descried 
and  sometimes  recognized  by  means  of  the  mi 
rage  at  considerable  distances.  Capt.  Scoresby, 
while  cruising  off  the  coast  of  Greenland  in  1822, 
recognized  his  father's  ship  at  the  distance  of 
more  than  30  miles,  and  consequently  when  be 
low  the  horizon,  by  its  inverted  image  in  the  air, 
though  he  did  not  previously  know  that  it  was 
cruising  in  that  part  of  the  fishery.  A  very  re 
markable  case  of  mirage  occurred  at  Hastings, 
England,  on  the  26th  of  July,  1796,  when  the 
French  coast,  50  miles  distant  and  extending 
from  Calais  to  near  Dieppe,  was  distinctly  visible 
for  the  space  of  three  hours. 

Mirfak. .    The  star  a  Persei. 

Mirkles.  The  radical  leaves  of  the  Fucus 
esculentus. 

Mirzam.     The  star  J3  Canis  Majoris. 

Misrepresentation.  Misrepresentation  to  the 
underwriters  of  any  fact  or  circumstance  mate 
rial  to  the  risk  of  insuring,  whether  fraudulent 
or  not,  and  whether  by  the  insured  or  his  agent, 
renders  the  contract  null  and  void. 

Miss  Stays.  To  fail  to  get  around  in  tacking 
ship,  whether  from  the  bad  working  qualities  of 
the  vessel,  the  lightness  of  the  wind,  or  the  care 
lessness  or  inexperience  of  the  officer  in  charge 
of  the  deck. 

Mist.  Visible  vapor  suspended  in  the  air  near 
the  surface  of  the  earth  ;  a  light  fog. 

Mistico.  Equivalent  to  hermaphrodite,  being 
a  small  Mediterranean  vessel,  between  a  xebec 
and  a  felucca. 

Mistral.  A  cold  northwest  wind  experienced 
on  the  Mediterranean  shores  of  France. 

Mitre.  The  joining  of  two  pieces  together  so 
that  when  connected  the  joint  shall  make  an  angle 
with  the  side  of  each  piece  that  shall  be  common 
to  both. 

Mizar.  A  name  given  to  each  of  the  stars 
P  Andromedce,  e  Bootis,  and  f  Ursce  Majoris. 

Mizzen.      A  term    which   distinguishes    the 


MOBILE 


498 


MOLLY-MAWK 


mast  next  abaft  the  mainmast,  and  the  yards, 
sails,  and  rigging  belonging  thereto.  The  name 
is  sometimes  given  to  the  spanker.  The  lower 
yard  across  the  mizzen-mast  is  called  the  woss- 
,jar,k  yard. 

MIZZEN  MAST-MAN.  A  man  stationed  to  at 
tend  to  the  gear  of  the  mizzen-mast.  See  MAST- 
MAN. 

MIZZEN-ROYAL.     See  KOYAL. 

MIZZEN  STAY-SAIL.  A  sail  which  hoists  on 
the  mizzen-stay. 

MIZZEN-TOP.     See  TOP. 

MlZZEN-TOPGALLANT.       See  TOPGALLANT. 

MIZZEN-TOPMAST.     See  TOPMAST. 

MIZZEN-TOPSAIL.     See  TOPSAIL. 

Mobile,  Ala.  (port  of  entry),  is  situated  on  the 
west  bank  of  the  Mobile  River,  at  its  entrance 
into  the  bay  of  the  same  name,  in  lat  30°  41'  48" 
N.,  Ion.  87°  59'  W.  It  is  the  most  important 
city  in  the  State,  and  ranks  third  as  a  cotton-mar 
ket  in  the  United  States.  It  has  an  advantage 
ous  position  for  trade,  being  the  natural  outlet 
of  the  greatest  cotton  region  in  the  United  States. 
The  harbor  has  been  improved  by  the  govern 
ment,  and  it  will  now  admit  vessels  drawing  13 
feet  of  water  to  the  wharves.  The  total  value 
of  foreign  exports  in  the  year  1877  was  $12,812,- 
066,  and  that  of  foreign  imports  $648,404.  Pop. 
42,000. 

Mocha.  The  most  strongly  fortified  seaport, 
and  once  the  capital,  of  the  province  of  Yemen, 
in  Arabia.  It  is  situated  on  the  Red  Sea,  at  the 
head  of  a  little  bav,  near  the  Strait  of  Bab-el- 
Mandeb,  130  miles "W.N.W.  of  Aden. 

Model.  A  model  of  a  ship  is  the  exact  shape 
of  the  ship  intended  to  be  built,  and  is  made  to 
a  scale.  It  is  sometimes  made  solid  or  in  one 
piece,  but  generally  in  horizontal  pieces,  for  the 
convenience  of  taking  off  the  lines  from  all  the 
parts. 

Moderate  Breeze.  A  breeze  blowing  from  8 
to  12  miles  per  hour ;  it  is  denoted  by  4  on  the 
Beaufort  scale. 

Moidore.  A  former  gold  coin  of  Portugal, 
equal  to  4800  reis  ;  called  also  Lisbonine. 

Moist  Daughters.  Spenser's  terni  for  the 
Hvades,  a  group  of  seven  stars  in  the  head  of  the 
Bull.  See  HYADES. 

Moke.     The  mesh  of  a  fishing-net. 

Mold.  The  matrix  in  which  an  object  is  cast. 
A  pattern  by  which  an  object  is  shaped.  In 
founding,  molds  are  made  in  green  sand,  dry 
sand,  or  loam. 

MOLDED.  The  size  of  a  timber  the  way  the 
mold  is  applied.  The  opposite  of  sided. 

MOLDED  BREADTH.  The  greatest  breadth  of 
a  ship  to  the  outside  of  the  frame-timbers. 

MOLDER'S  CLAMP.  A  frame  which  holds  to 
gether  the  parts  of  a  flask. 

MOLD-FACING.  A  fine  powder  sprinkled  over 
the  pattern  before  it  is  covered  with  loam. 

MOLDING.  The  marking  out  of  the  ship's 
timbers  by  the  use  of  the  molds  made  in  the 
mold-loft,  by  placing  the  molds  and  bevels  upon 
each  separate  piece,  and  lining  it  into  the  shape 
of  the  mold. 

MOLDING-BOARD.  The  board  on  which  the 
pattern  lies  when  ramming  the  loam. 

MOLDING-EDGE.  The  edge  which  is  traced 
by  the  molds  from  which  the.  bevels  are  applied 
in  order  to  obtain  the  required  shape  of  the  tim 
ber. 


MOLDING-LOAM.  A  mixture  of  sand  and  clay 
used  in  molding. 

Mole.  A  massive  work  of  solid  masonry  ex 
tending  into  the  sea  to  defend  a  port  from  the 
violence  of  the  waves ;  also,  sometimes,  the  har 
bor  itself. 

Mole-bat.  A  clumsy  fish  of  the  genus  Ortha- 
goriscus;  the  short  sun-fish. 

Mollusks  (Lat.  mollis,  soft).  The  name  ap 
plied  by  Cuvier  to  the  great  primary  division  of 
the  animal  kingdom,  which  includes  all  those 
species  having  a  gangliated  nervous  system,  with 
the  ganglions  or  medullary  masses  dispersed 
more  or  less  irregularly  in  different  parts  of  the 
body,  which  is  soft  and  inarticulate.  The  pul 
monary  or  branchial  circulation  is  separate  and 
distinct,  but  is  aided  by  the  direct  propulsion 
of  a  heart  in  one  class  only.  There  is  always  a 
heart  for  the  systematic  circulation,  and  it  mostly 
consists  of  one  ventricle  and  one  auricle.  Some 
of  the  mollusks  breathe  air,  but  the  greater  part 
respire  through  the  medium  of  salt  or  fresh 
water.  The  blood  of  the  mollusks  is  white  or 
bluish.  In  one  class  only  is  there  a  rudiment  of 
an  internal  skeleton  giving  attachment  to  a  part 
of  the  muscular  system  ;  in  the  rest  it  is  absent, 
and  the  muscles  are  attached  to  various  points  of 
the  skin.  Their  contractions  produce  inflections 
and  extensions  of  their  different  parts,  and,  alter 
nating  with  relaxations,  enable  the  species  to 
creep,  climb,  swim,  burrow,  and  seize  upon  vari 
ous  objects,  according  as  the  form  of  these  parts 
may  permit ;  but  as  the  locomotive  organs  are 
not  supported  by  articulated  and  solid  levers,  the 
mollusks  cannot  leap  or  advance  rapidly  on  dry 
land.  Many  of  the  aquatic  species  are  encum 
bered  with  a  heavy  shell.  Nearly  all  the  mol 
lusks  have  an  extensive  fold  of  the  skin  reflected 
over  their  body,  which  it  covers  like  a  mantle ; 
it  is  sometimes  produced  into  a  breathing  pipe, 
or  extended  and  divided  in  the  form  of  fins. 
When  the  mantle  is  simply  membranous  or 
fleshy,  or  when  a  horny  or  testaceous  .rudiment 
of  a  shell  is  developed,  but  remains  concealed  in 
the  substance  of  the  mantle,  the  mollusk  is  said 
to  be  naked.  When  the  shell  is  so  much  enlarged 
that  the  contracted  animal  finds  shelter  beneath 
or  within  it,  the  species  is  said  to  be  testaceous. 
In  many  of  the  mollusks  the  shell  is  composed 
of  a  single  piece,  which  is  usually  a  spiral  tube, 
closed  at  one  end  and  gradually  increasing  in 
size  towards  the  open  extremity,  from  which  the 
animal  is  able  to  protrude  itself.  Shells  of  this 
description  are  called  univalves.  In  others  the 
shell  is  composed  of  two  pieces  or  valves,  at 
tached  to  each  other  at  one  point  by  a  hinge, 
which  is  furnished  with  an  elastic  ligament  that 
serves  to  open  the  valves  when  it  is  not  opposed 
by  the  action  of  the  abductor  muscles,  whose 
office  it  is  to  keep  the  shell  closed.  Shells  of  this 
kind  are  termed  bivalves.  These  differences  in 
the  character  of  the  shells  correspond  with  dif 
ferences  in  the  conformation  of  the  animals  in 
habiting  them.  The  bivalve  mollusks  exhibit 
no  traces  of  a  head,  and  hence  are  termed 
Acephalous  mollusks  ;  while  the  univalves  have 
a  distinct  head,  provided  with  organs  of  the  spe 
cial  senses,  and  hence,  by  way  of  distinction, 
some  writers  have  termed  them  Cephalophora 
(head-bearing). 

Molly-mawk.  A  small  kind  of  albatross  which 
follows  in  the  wake  of  a  ship  rounding  the  Cape. 


MONEKES 


499 


MONK 


Moneres.     Galleys  with  but  one  rank  of  oars. 

Money. 

UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA. 

10  mills  =  1  cent. 

10  cents  =  1  dime. 

10  dimes  =  1  dollar. 

10  dollars  =  1  eagle. 
ARGENTINE  CONFEDERATION. 

100   centesimos  =  1   dollar  or  patacon  = 
$1.00. 

17  patacons  =1  doubloon. 
AUSTRIA. 

100  kreutzers  =  1  florin  =  $0.47. 
BELGIUM.     See  FRANCE. 
BRAZIL. 

Mil  reis  =  $0.50.     See  PORTUGAL. 
BRITISH  INDIA. 

12  pies  =  I  anna. 

16  annas  =  1  rupee  =  $0.48. 

15  rupees  —  1  mohur. 

Lac  of  rupees  =  100,000=  £10,000. 

Crore  of  rupees  =  10,000,000  =  £1,000,000. 

BURMAH. 

4  great  rweh  (rees)  =  1  bais  =  $0.03. 
4  bais  =  1  math. 
4  maths  =  1  tical  or  kyat. 
CANADA. 

Accounts  are  kept  in  dollars  and  cents,  and 
also   in   pounds,   shillings,    and   pence.      See 
UNITED  STATES,  GREAT  BRITAIN. 
CAPE  OF  GOOD  HOPE.     See  GREAT  BRITAIN. 
CHILI. 

100  centavos  =  1  dollar  =  $0.90. 
CHINA. 

10  cash  =  1  candareen  (fun). 

10  candareens  =  1  mace  (tsien). 

10  mace  =  1  tael  (le'ang). 

Among    foreigners   1000  cash    (about)  =  1 

dollar  =  $1  00. 

The  only  native  coin  in  use  in  China  is  the 
tsien,  called  cash  by  the  English,  and  sapeque  by 
the  French,  who  derive  it  from  the  Portuguese 
sapeca.  It  bears  on  one  side  the  name  of  the 
province  in  which  it  is  cast,  in  Manchu  letters, 
and  also  the  Chinese  word  "  money"  ;  and  on  the 
other  side  the  name  of  the  reigning  emperor,  and 
above  and  below  the  words  "current  money," 
in  Chinese  characters. 

Spanish,  Mexican,  South  American,  and  United 
States  trade  dollars,  though  not  acknowledged 
by  the  government,  are  employed  as  a  commercial 
medium  throughout  the  maritime  provinces  and 
at  the  interior  treaty  ports.  Lumps  of  stamped 
silver,  called  sycee,  pass  current  at  a  fixed  stand 
ard  of  purity. 

The  nominal  moneys  of  account  are  the  leang, 
tsien,  fan,  and  li,  called  by  foreigners  tael,  mace, 
candareen,  and  cash,  the  proportion  of  which, 
one  to  the  other,  is  decimal  ;  but,  from  various 
causes,  there  is  great  diversity  in  the  number  of 
cash  given  in  exchange  for  the  tael.  The  terms 
tael,  mace,  candareen,  and  cash  are  merely  de 
nominations  of  weight. 

The  circulating  medium,  in  transaction  with 
foreigners  at  the  open  ports,  is  chiefly  in  whole 
or  broken  dollars,  "clean"  or  u  chopped"  ;  and 
the  value  of  the  dollar  in  relation  to  the  tael  is 
variable,  the  latter  being  approximately  one- 
third  more. 

i)ENMAKK. 

96  skillings  =  1  daler  or  rixdaler  =  $0.53. 
EGYPT.     See  TURKEY. 


FRANCE. 

100  centimes  =  1  franc  =  $0.193. 

20  francs  =  1  napoleon  or  louis. 
GERMANY. 

10  pfennings  =  1  groschen. 

10  groschen  =  1  mark  =  $0.235. 
GIBRALTAR. 

16  quartos  =  1  real. 

12  reals  =  1  dollar  =  $1.00. 

100  cents  =  1  dollar. 

10  decimas  de  real  vellon  =  1  real  de  vellon. 

20  reals  de  vellon  =  1  dollar  =  $1.00. 

100  reals  de  vellon  =  1  doblon. 
GREAT  BRITAIN. 

12  pence  =  1  shilling. 

20  shillings  =  1  pound  =  $4.8665. 
GREECE. 

100  lepta  =  1  dracham  =  $0.193. 
HOLLAND. 

100  cents  =  1  guilder  or  florin  =  $0.40. 
ITALY. 

100  centimes  =  1  lira  =  $0.193. 
JAPAN. 

10  rin  =  1  sen. 

100  sen  =  1  yen  =  $1.00. 
MEXICO. 

100  cents  =  1  dollar  =  $1.00. 
NORWAY. 

24  skillingen  =  1  mark  or  ort. 

5  marks  =  1  species-daler  =  $1.07. 
PORTUGAL. 

400  reis  =  1  cruzado. 

480  reis  =  1  cruzado  novo  or  pinto. 

1000  reis  =  $1.08. 

4500  reis  =  £1. 
RUSSIA. 

100  copecks  =  1  silver  rouble  =  $0.75. 

10  roubles  =  1  imperial. 

The  paper  rouble  =  $0.60  (about). 
SIAM. 

200  to  450  cowries  or  bier  =  1  p'hainung. 

4  p'hainungs  =  1  fuang. 

2  fuangs  =  1  salung  or  miam. 

4  salungs  =  1  tical. 

4  ticals  =  1  tamlung  =  $2.40. 
SPAIN. 

100  centimes  =  1  peseta  =  $0.19. 
SWEDEN. 

100  ore  =  1  riksdaler  =  $0.27. 
TURKEY. 

40  paras  =  1  piastre. 

100  piastres  =  1  medjidie  or  lira  turca  = 

$4.32. 

MONEY-BOUND.     A  phrase  expressive  of  such 
passengers  as  are  detained  on  board  till  a  remit 
tance  arrives  for  paying  the  passage  made. 
Monger.     A  fishing-vessel  of  small  size. 
Monitor.     A  vessef  of  war  designed  by  Erics- 
gon.     See  IRONCLADS. 

Monk,  George,  Duke  of  Albemarle.  Born 
in  Devonshire,  England,  December  6,  1608. 
After  spending  the  earlier  years  of  his  life  in  the 
service  of  Holland,  he  entered  the  English  army 
at  the  age  of  30,  attaining  the  rank  of  lieuten 
ant-colonel  in  the  war  against  the  Scots  in  1639. 
During  the  Irish  rebellion  (1642)  he  was  colonel 
of  Lord  Leicester's  troops  sent  to  crush  it.  When 
the  civil  war  began  he  was  supposed  to  favor 
Parliament,  and  was  imprisoned,  but  soon  after 


released.  In  1644  he  was  defeated  and  captured 
by  Fairfax.  After  two  years'  imprisonment  in 
the  Tower,  he  was  liberated  on  his  swearing  to 


MONK-BAG 


500 


MONSOON 


the  Covenant.  He  was  then  given  the  command 
in  the  north  of  Ireland.  Cromwell  having  a 
high  opinion  of  his  military  ability,  made  him 
his  lieutenant-general  and  chief  of  artillery  ;  and 
for  extraordinary  services  rendered  at  the  battle 
of  Dunbar  he  was  promoted  to  commander-in- 
chief  of  the  army  in  Scotland.  It  required  in 
those  days  but  a  small  amount  of  professional 
training  to  convert  a  general  into  an  admiral,  so 
in  1653  we  find  Monk  in  command  of  a  division 
of  the  fleet  of  Admiral  Blake,  consisting  of  100 
ships,  with  which  he  defeated  Admiral  Van 
Tromp  off  Nieuwpoort.  He  also  fought  with 
him  again  off  Katwijk,  in  which  battle  Van 
Tromp  was  killed.  In  1654  he  was  made  gover 
nor  of  Scotland,  his  principal  residence  being 
at  Dalkeith,  where  he  lived  until  the  death  of 
Cromwell,  when  seeing  everything  in  confusion, 
and  regarding  his  own  position  as  perilous,  he 
crossed  into  England  with  6000  men  in  January, 
1660,  and  uniting  his  troops  with  those  which 
Fairfax  had  collected  for  Charles  II.,  he  entered 
London  unopposed,  although  as  yet  he  had  kept 
his  views  profoundly  secret.  On  the  21st  of 
February  he,  called  together  the  remaining 
members  of  the  Parliament,  and  Charles  II. 
being  presently  recalled,  Monk  was  made  Duke 
of  Albemarle,  and  intrusted  with  the  highest 
offices  in  the  state.  In  1666  we  again  find  him 
at  sea,  as  second  in  command  of  the  fleet  sent 
against  the  Dutch.  He  was  defeated  by  De 
Kuyter  in  a  sea-fight  off  Dunkirk,  but  soon  after 
gained  a  bloody  victory  over  him  off  North 
Foreland.  He  died  January  3,  1670. 

Monk-bag.  A  small  bag  strung  around  the 
neck,  in  which  sailors  keep  their  money.  See 
BAG. 

Monkey.  A  heavy  weight  which  acts  by  the 
force  of  gravity,  as  in  driving  piles,  etc. 

Monkey-boat.  A  half-decked  boat  above- 
bridge  on  the  Thames.  A  small  boat  used  about 
docks. 

Monkey-block.  A  small  swivel-block  used  as 
a  leader  for  running  rigging. 

Monkey-jacket.  A  short,  close-fitting  coat 
worn  in  cold  weather. 

Monkey-pump.  Straws  or  quills  for  sucking 
the  liquid  from  a  cask,  through  a  gimlet-hole 
made  for  the  purpose,— a  practice  as  old  as  the 
time  of  Xenophon,  who  describes  tbis  mode  of 
drinking  from  the  prize  jars  of  Armenia. 

Monkey-spars.  Small  masts  and  yards  for  a 
vessel  devoted  to  the  instruction  and  exercise  of 
boys. 

Monkey-tail.  A  lever  for  training  a  carron- 
ade. 

Monkey-wrench.  A  wrench  with  an  adjust 
able  jaw,  usually  worked  by  a  screw. 

Monk-fish.     The  Squatina  angelus. 

Monk-seam.  The  seam  made  after  seving 
the  edges  of  sails  together,  one  over  the  other,  by 
stitching  through  the  centre  of  the  seam.  Also, 
the  fash  left  at  the  junction  of  the  molds  when 
a  ball  is  cast. 

Monmouth  Cap  (Eng.}.  A  flat  worsted  cap 
formerly  worn  by  soldiers  and  sailors. 

Monoceros.     See  CONSTELLATION. 

Monoxylon  (Gr.}.  Boats  in  the  Ionian  Isles 
propelled  with  one  oar. 

Monsoon  (Malayan,  musim)  is  derived  from 
the  Arabic  word  mausim,  a  set  time  or  season  of 
the  year,  arid  is  applied  to  those  winds  prevailing 


in  the  Indian  Ocean  which  blow  from  the  south 
west  from  April  to  October,  and  from  the  oppo 
site  direction,  or  northeast,  from  October  to  April. 
The  existence  of  these  winds  was  made  known 
to  the  Greeks  during  the  Indian  expeditions  of 
Alexander,  and  by  this  knowledge  Hippalus  was 
emboldened  to  sail  across  the  open  sea  to  Muzeris, 
the  emporium  of  Malabar.  The  monsoons  de 
pend,  in  common  with  all  winds,  whether  regular 
or  irregular,  on  the  inequality  of  heat  at  different 
places  and  the  earth's  rotation  on  its  axis  ;  but 
more  particularly  they  are  occasioned  by  the 
same  circumstances  which  produce  the  trade- 
winds  and  the  land-  and  sea-breezes,  being,  in 
fact,  the  combined  effect  of  these  two  sets  of 
causes. 

If  the  equatorial  regions  of  the  earth  were  en 
tirely  covered  with  water,  the  trade-winds  (see 
TRADE-WINDS)  would  blow  constantly  from  the 
northeast  in  the  north,  and  from  the  southeast 
in  the  south  torrid  zone,  with  a  belt  of  varia 
ble  winds  and  calms  interposed ;  the  whole  sys 
tem,  following  the  sun's  course,  moving  north 
ward  from  December  to  June,  and  southward 
from  June  to  December.  But,  especially  in  the 
eastern  hemisphere,  large  tracts  of  land  stretch 
into  the  tropics,  and  give  rise  to  the  extensive 
atmospheric  disturbances  for  which  those  parts 
of  the  earth  are  so  remarkable.  During  the 
summer  half  of  the  year,  the  north  of  Africa 
and  the  south  of  Asia  are  heated  to  a  higher  de 
gree  than  the  Indian  Ocean,  while  Australia  and 
South  Africa  are  much  colder.  As  the  heated 
air  of  Southern  Asia  expands  and  rises,  and  the 
colder  air  from  the  south  flows  in  to  supply  its 
place,  a  general  movement  of  the  atmosphere  of 
the  Indian  Ocean  sets  in  towards  the  north,  thus 
giving  a  southerly  direction  to  the  wind  ;  but  as 
the  air  comes  from  those  parts  of  the  globe  which 
revolve  quicker  to  those  which  revolve  more 
slowly,  an  easterly  direction  will  be  communi 
cated  to  the  wind  ;  and  the  combination  of  these 
two  directions  results  in  the  southwest  monsoon, 
which  prevails  there  in  summer.  Since,  during 
winter,  South  Asia  is  colder  than  the  Indian 
Ocean,  which,  again  in  its  turn,  is  colder  than 
South  Africa,  a  general  motion  of  the  atmosphere 
sets  in  from  the  south  and  west.  As  this  is  in 
the  same  direction  as  the  ordinary  trade-wind, 
the  effect  in  winter  is  not  to  change  the  direction, 
but  only  to  increase  the  velocity  of  the  trade- 
wind.  Thus,  while  south  of  the  equator,  owing 
to  the  absence  of  sufficiently  large  tracts  of  land, 
the  southeast  trade-winds  prevail  throughout  the 
year ;  on  the  north  of  the  equator  we  find  the 
southwest  monsoon  in  summer  and  the  northeast 
in  winter,  it  being  only  in  summer  and  north  of 
the  equator  that  great  changes  are  effected  in  the 
direction  of  the  trade-wind. 

Similar,  though  less  strongly  marked  monsoons 
prevail  off  the  coasts  of  Upper  Guinea  in  Africa 
and  Mexico  in  America.  The  east  and  west  di 
rection  of  the  shores  of  these  countries,  or  the 
large  heated  surfaces  to  the  north  of  the  seas 
which  wash  their  coasts,  produce,  precisely  as  in 
the  case  of  South  Asia,  a  southwest  monsoon  in 
summer.  As  might  have  been  expected,  the 
monsoon  off  the  coast  of  Mozambique  is  easterly, 
and  that  off  the  coast  of  West  Australia  north 
westerly.  The  trade-winds  also  suffer  consider 
able  change  in  their  direction  on  the  coasts  of 
Brazil,  Peru,  Lower  Guinea,  etc.  These,  though 


MONTE   PAGNOTE 


501 


MOON 


sometimes  considered  monsoons-,  are  not  truly 
such,  for  they  do  not  change  their  directions  pe 
riodically,  so  as  to  be  opposite  to  each  other,  like 
true  monsoons,  but  only  veer  through  a  few 
points  of  the  compass. 

In  April,  the  northeast  monsoon  changes  into 
the  southwest,  and  in  October  the  southwest  into 
the  northeast.  These  times  depending  on  the 
course  of  the  sun,  and  consequently  varying  with 
the  latitude,  are  called  the  "  breaking  up"  of  the 
monsoons,  and  are  gene/ally  accompanied  by 
variable  winds,  by  intervals  of  calm,  and  by  fu 
rious  tempests  and  hurricanes. 

Monsoons,  when  compared  with  the  trade- 
winds,  will  be  found  to  play  a  most  beneficial 
and  important  part  in  the  economy  of  the  globe. 
Their  greater  velocity,  and  the  periodical  changes 
which'take  place  in  their  direction,  secure  in 
creased  facility  of  commercial  intercourse  be 
tween  different  countries.  But  the  full  benefits 
following  in  their  train  are  not  seen  unless  they 
be  considered  in  their  relation  to  the  rain-fall 
of  Southern  Asia.  Indeed,  the  fertility  of  the 
greater  part  of  this  fine  region  is  entirely  due  to 
the  monsoons,  for  if  the  northeast  trade- wind  had 
prevailed  there  throughout  the  year,  Central  and 
Western  India,  and  many  other  places,  would 
only  have  been  scorched  and  barren  saharas. 
The  rain-fall  of  India  depends  entirely  on  the 
monsoons.  The  coast  of  Malabar  has  its  rainy 
season  during  the  southwest  monsoon,  which 
brings  thither  the  vapors  of  the  ocean.  On  the 
Coromandel  coast,  on  the  other  hand,  it  is  the 
northeast  monsoon  which  brings  the  rain  from 
the  Bay  of  Bengal.  The  two  coasts  of  Hindos- 
tan  have  therefore  their  seasons  reversed,  the 
dry  season  of  one  corresponding  with  the  wet 
season  of  the  other. 

Monte  Pagnote.  In  former  days  an  eminence 
out  of  cannon-shot  of  operations,  where  spec 
tators  were  not  exposed  to  danger. 

Montevideo,  a  seaport  city  and  capital  of 
the  republic  of  Uruguav,  is  situated  on  a  penin 
sula  in  the  estuary  of  the  La  Plata,  in  lat.  34° 
53'  S.,  Ion.  56°  15'  W.  Its  port,  open  to  the 
southwest,  is  the  best  on  the  Plata.  The  prin 
cipal  exports  are  hides,  beef,  hair,  feathers,  Chil 
ian  copper,  and  Paraguayan  tea.  Pop.  92,000. 

Montgomery,  John  B.,  Rear-Admiral  U.S.N. 
Born  in  New  Jersey.  Midshipman,  June  4, 
1812  ;  lieutenant,  April  1, 1818  ;  commander,  De 
cember  9,  1839;  captain,  January  6,  1853;  com 
modore,  July  16, 1862;  rear-admiral  (retired  list), 
July  25,  1866  ;  served  on  Lake  Ontario,  in  attack 
on  Kingston,  Canada,  November  10,  1812;  cap 
ture  of  York,  April  27,  and  of  Fort  George  and 
Newark,  May  27,  1813;  in  the  "Niagara"  in 
Perry's  victory  on  Lake  Erie,  September  10,  1813 
(receiving  a  sword  and  the  thanks  of  Congress) ; 
in  Decatur's  squadron  in  the  Mediterranean  in 
1815,  and  participated  in  the  capture  of  Alge- 
rine  frigate  and  brig,  and  blockade  of  Algiers ; 
commanded  sloop  "  Portsmouth,"  Pacific  Squad 
ron,  1845-48.  During  the  cruise  of  the  "  Ports 
mouth"  in  the  Pacific,  he  took  possession  of  Cali 
fornia,  and  blockaded  Mazatlan  some  months. 
In  October,  1847,  he,  with  Capt.  Lavalette,  in 
the  "Congress,"  captured  Guayamas,  on  the 
Gulf  of  California;  commanded  Pacific  Squad 
ron,  1860-61. 

Month.  Originally,  the  period  of  the  moon's 
revolution  round  the 'earth.  If  this  is  reckoned 


from  the  position  of  the  moon  among  the  stars  to 
her  return  to  the  same  position,  the  period  is 
called  a  sidereal  month,  and  consists  of  27d  7h 
43m  !!£•;  but  if  from  new  moon  to  new  moon, 
it  is  longer,  being  29*  12h  44m  3s ;  this  is  called  a 
synodic  month.  There  are  several  other  periods 
used  by  astronomers  to  which  this  name  is  ap 
plied,  as  the  tropical  or  periodic  month  (27d  7h 
43m  4.7s),  reckoned  from  the  moon's  passing  the 
equinox  till  her  return  to  the  same  point ;  the 
nodal  month  (27d  5h  5m  29s),  from  ascending  node 
to  ascending  node ;  the  anomalistic  month  (27d 
13h  18m  37s),  from  perigee  to  perigee;  and  the 
solar  month,  which  is  the  twelfth  part  of  a  solar 
year,  consisting  of  30d  10h  29m  4s.  Distinct  from 
these  is  the  civil  or  calendar  month,  fixed  by  law 
for  ordinary  purposes,  and  consisting  of  a  fixed 
number  of  days, — from  28  to  31. 

MONTHLY  ALLOWANCE.  A  sum  paid  monthly 
to  seamen,  marines,  and  boys  serving  on  board. 

Montreal,  the  commercial  metropolis  of  the 
Dominion  of  Canada,  is  situated  on  the  island  of 
Montreal,  in  the  St.  Lawrence  River,  in  lat.  45° 
31'  N.,  Ion.  73°  34'  W.  It  is  at  the  head  of 
ocean  navigation,  and  at  the  commencement  of 
lake  and  river  navigation.  The  harbor,  which 
is  formed  towards  the  St.  Lawrence,  is  secure, 
and  improvements  are  being  made  every  year  to 
accommodate  the  large  increase  of  shipping. 
Among  the  manufactories  are  foundries  of  iron, 
distilleries,  breweries,  sugar-refineries,  manufac 
tories  of  hardware,  carriages,  locomotives,  steam- 
engines,  etc.  Pop.  about  115,000. 

Montrose.  A  seaport  town  of  Scotland,  in 
lat.  56°  42'  30"  N.,  Ion.  2°  28'  W.  The  harbor 
is  one  of  the  best  on  the  east  coast  of  Scotland. 
It  is  formed  by  the  entrance  of  the  South  Esk 
into  the  North  Sea,  and  has  good  docks  and 
quays.  The  quays  and  wet-dock  are  about  \\ 
miles  from  the  entrance  of  the  river.  The  chief 
imports  are  flax,  hemp,  coals,  etc.,  the  exports 
manufactured  goods,  grain,  and  cattle.  Pop. 
15,000. 

Moon.  The  earth's  satellite.  Diameter  about 
2214  miles;  mean  apparent  diameter  32';  dis 
tance  from  the  earth  240,000  miles.  The  light  of 
the  full  moon  is  equal  to  about  1-800,000  that  of 
the  sun  ;  the  heat  is  about  equal  to  that  of  a  can 
dle  15  feet  distant.  The  moon  always  shows  the 
earth  the  same  face,  with  little  variation  ;  hence 
it  is  known  that  she  turns  on  her  axis  just  once 
during  each  revolution  about  the  earth.  But  on 
account  of  oscillations  and  vibrations,  called 
librations,  small  portions  of  the  opposite  face  are 
occasionally  seen,  so  that  an  observer  on  the 
earth  is  enabled  in  the  course  of  time  to  see  four- 
sevenths  of  the  surface.  The  absence  of  twilight, 
the  absence  of  refraction  when  the  light  of  a  star 
passes  near  the  moon,  and  researches  with  the 
polariscope  indicate  that  the  moon  has  no  at 
mosphere.  "Without  air,  water  can  exist  in  the 
form  of  vapor  only  ;  but  there  is  no  evidence  even 
of  vapor  of  water.  Without  air  and  water  no 
form  of  vegetable  or  animal  life  can  exist.  Even 
if  these  conditions  were  satisfied,  the  slow  rota 
tion  of  the  moon,  alternately  shutting  oif  the 
sun's  rays,  and  exposing  plants  and  animals  to: 
their  fierceness  for  two  weeks  at  a  time,  would 
require  organizations  materially  different  from 
those  found  on  the  earth.  See  WEATHER,  TIDE. 

MOON-BLINK.  A  temporary  evening  blind 
ness  occasioned  by  sleeping  in  the  moonshine  in 


MOOR 


502 


MOORING 


tropical   climates ;    it  is   technically  designated 
nyctalopia. 

MOON-CULMINATING  STAR.  A  star  which 
comes  to  the  meridian  about  the  same  time  with 
the  moon.  The  difference  of  the  right  ascensions 
of  the  moon  and  star  are  observed  at  two  places  ; 
the  change  in  the  difference  is  the  moon's  proper 
motion  ;  as  the  moon's  proper  motion  is  known, 
the  difference  of  longitude  can  be  thus  deter 
mined. 

MOON-FISH.  A  fish  whose  tail-fin  is  shaped 
like  a  half- moon. 

MOON-RAKERS.  Sails  above  the  sky-sails. 
Thev  are  usually  called  moon-sails. 

MOON-SHE  BRED.  A  ship  the  upper  works  of 
which  rise  very  high,  forward  and  aft. 

MOON-STRUCK.  An  influence  imputed  to  the 
moon  in  the  tropics,  by  which  fish,  particularly 
of  the  Scomber  class,  though  recently  taken,  be 
come  intenerated,  and  even  spoiled  ;  while  some 
attribute  poisonous  qualities  to  them  in  this 
state.  Human  beings  are  also  said  to  be  injured 
by  sleeping  in  the  moon's  rays. 

"Moor.  To  secure  a  ship  with  cables  attached 
to  two  anchors,  to  a  wharf,  or  to  permanent  moor 
ings.  To  moor  head  and  stern,  to  moor  ship 
with  one  cable  leading  from  the  hawse-hole  and 
others  leading  aft  from  the  stern ;  from  this 
position  the  ship  cannot  swing.  To  moor  with 
an  open  hawse,  to  lay  out  the  anchors  in  a  line 
at  right  angles  to  the  prevailing  wind.  To  moor 
across,  to  lay  out  the  anchors  on  each  side  of  a 
stream.  To  moor  along,  to  anchor  in  a  river 
with  a  hawser  on  shore  to  steady  the  ship.  To 
make  &  flying-moor ,  see  MOORING. 

MOORING-BRIDLE.  The  fasts  attached  to  per 
manent  moorings,  and  taken  through  the  hawse- 
holes  when  mooring. 

MOORING-POST.  A  heavy  vertical  timber  in 
the  ground  or  on  a  wharf,  to  which  vessels  are 
made  fast  by  means  of  chains  or  hawsers. 

MOORINGS.  Heavy  chains  permanently  an 
chored  in  a  harbor;  to  them  are  attached  buoys 
with  chains  of  sufficient  length  and  strength 
to  heave  the  fast  up  the  hawse-hole. 

MOORING-SWIVEL.  A  device  used  to  connect 
two  chain-cables  in  such  a  manner  that  the 
swinging  of  the  ship  will  not  bring  turns  in  the 
hawse, — the  object  being  to  avoid  the  trouble  of 
tending  ship  and  clearing  hawse.  Frequently, 
one  of  the  chains  is  unshackled  in  order  to  facili 
tate  veering.  With  the  mooring  swivel  on,  if  a 
gale  comes  on  in  a  line  with  the  anchors,  the 
vessel  is  in  the  same  condition  as  if  at  single 
anchor,  except  that  in  case  another  anchor  is  to 
be  let  go,  it  must  be  the  sheet.  If  the  gale  comes 
on  at  right  angles  to  the  line  of  the  anchors,  the 
anchors  and  cables  are  in  the  worst  possible  situ 
ation,  it  being  impossible  to  alter  the  angle  be 
tween  the  cables  from  the  swivel  to  the  anchors. 
See  MOORING. 

Mooring  (Dutch  marren,  to  tie;  to  fasten). 
Securing  a  vessel  in  a  particular  position  by 
means  of  cables  attached  to  the  shore,  or  to  her 
own  anchors  at  the  bottom  of  the  anchorage. 
To  moor  ship,  or  simply  "to  moor,"  is  gener 
ally  understood  to  mean  the  letting  go  of  a 
second  anchor  in  such  a  relative  position  to 
the  first  that  the  vessel  may  ride  between  the 
two.  It  may  be  readily  understood  that  a  vessel 
riding  to  a  single  anchor  and  a  good  scope  of 
cable  would  take  up  too  much  room  in  any 


ordinary  harbor.  Tending,  moreover,  to  each 
change  of  tide,  the  cable  would  soon  become 
wound  about  the  upper  fluke  of  the  anchor, 
rendering  it  liable  to  trip  in  the  first  puff  of 
wind  that  struck  the  ship.  If,  then,  the  ship  is 
to  remain  some  time  in  port,  it  is  customary  to 
moor.  This  is  effected  as  follows :  after  letting 
go  the  first  anchor  (see  ANCHORING)  cable  is 
veered  to  double  the  ordinary  scope,  paying  out 
the  chain  gradually  as  the  vessel  drops  astern, 
so  that  it  may  lie  on  the  bottom  in  a  straight 
line  from  the  anchor.  Anchored  in  6  fathoms 
water,  veer  to,  say  90  fathoms  chain,  and  let  go 
the  second  anchor.  The  first  cable  is  then  brought 
to  the  capstan  and  hove  in  45  fathoms,  veering 
meanwhile  on  the  second,  so  that  when  the  op 
eration  is  completed  the  ship  may  be  midway 
between  the  two  anchors  and  have  45  fathoms 
on  each  chain.  She  will  now  swing  in  a  very 
small  circle  and  keep  both  anchors  clear. 

In  the  foregoing  it  is  supposed  that  the  tide 
enables  the  ship  to  drop  into  the  proper  position 
for  letting  go  the  second  anchor.  Should  this  not 
be  the  case,  a  steamer  would  effect  the  object  by 
resorting  to  her  engines,  a  sailing-vessel  to  her 
sails  ;  or  a  kedge  and  hawser  may  be  run  out  in 
order  to  haul  the  ship  over  to  the  desired  place  ; 
or  the  anchor  may  be  carried  out  by  the  ship's 
launch,  as  must  be  done  when  it  is  to  be  planted 
in  shoal  water.  After  mooring  put  on  the  moor- 
ing-swivel  (which  see). 

A  flying-moor  is  made  on  first  anchoring  by  com 
bining  the  two  manoauvres  in  one.  Standing  in 
for  the  anchorage,  let  go  the  first  anchor  with 
good  headway  on,  running  out  double  the  moor 
ing  scope  and  then  letting  go  the  other  anchor, 
after  which  proceed  as  before.  This  method  is 
rarely  desirable,  particularly  with  sailing-ves 
sels. 

In  a  tide-way  a  ship  is  moored  with  her  anchors 
up  and  down  the  stream.  In  roads  where  there  is 
little  or  no  tide,  they  are  generally  placed  at  right 
angles  to  the  quarter  whence  the  strongest  winds 
are  expected.  To  be  moored  under  the  Tatter  con 
ditions,  however,  is  not  always  desirable.  For  let  a 
ship  be  riding  to  her  anchors  placed  on  an  east  and 
west  line  and  a  gale  to  come  on  from  the  north 
ward,  then  is  the  ship  riding  to  a  span,  and  does  not 
derive  the  full  benefit  of  her  two  anchors.  Should 
the  wind 'haul  to  the  eastward,  the  lee-anchor, 
being  astern,  or  to  the  westward,  is  of  no  use  at 
all.  Should  the  mooring-swivel  part,  the  ship 
is  entirely  adrift  with  the  loss  of  both  bowers. 
Should  it  become  necessary  to  let  go  a  third 
anchor,  the  swivel  still  holding  on,  and  the 
wind  haul  to  another  quarter,  there  would  be 
danger  of  the  three  cables  becoming  hopelessly 
fouled.  These,  among  other  reasons,  induce 
many  good  seamen  to  lie  at  single  anchor  where 
admissible,  and  veer  to  a  long  scope  on  the  ap 
proach  of  bad  weather.  If  obliged  to  let  go  the 
second  anchor,  a  good  scope  is  veered  on  each 
chain,  the  ship  in  that  case  getting  the  full  ben 
efit  of  both.  This  is  not  u  mooring,"  however. 
There  is  a  prejudice,  too,  against  the  mooring- 
swivel,  many  seamen  preferring  to  take  the  oc 
casional  trouble  of  tending  ship  (see  TENDING 
SHIP)  and  clearing  hawse  (which  see)  when 
necessary.  A  vessel  may  be  moored  "  head 
and  stern"  by  dropping  one,  or  both,  bowers 
under  foot,  and  then  veering  astern  the  proper 
distance,  letting  go  both  sheets,  bringing  the 


MOOT 


503 


MOTELLA 


cables  in  through  the  stern  chocks  or  ports. 
This  done,  heave  in  to  the  proper  scope  on 
the  bowers.  Or  she  may  veer  away  on  her  bow 
cables  till  her  stern  is  within  the  proper  distance 
of  the  shore,  mole,  or  pier,  and  then  secure  to 
the  latter  by  fasts  (hawsers  or  cables,  either  of 
hemp  or  chain)  run  out  astern. 

To  moor  to  a  buoy,  or  fixed  or  stationary  moor 
ings.  The  latter  are  large  buoys  well  anchored 
in  convenient  positions,  to  which  ships  may  se 
cure  instead  of  anchoring.  To  one  of  these  a 
ship  may  moor  by  shackling  her  chain  to  the 
ring  fitted  for  the  purpose.  A  vessel  may  also 
moor  alongside  of  a  wharf  or  dock. 

To  unmoor  is  simply  to  pick  up  one  of  the  two 
anchors  (generally  the  lee  one)  used  in  mooring 
in  the  stream.  To  pick  up  either  anchor,  it  is 
necessary  to  veer  away  on  one  cable  as  the  other 
is  hove  in.  After  weighing  one  anchor,  heave 
in  to  the  proper  scope  on  the  other  cable.  The 
term  unmooring  is  applied  almost  exclusively  to 
this  case,  never  to  that  of  a  ship  moored  to  a 
dock.—  8.  B.  Luce,  Captain  U.8.N. 

Moot.     A  gauge  for  sizing  tree-nails. 

Mop.     A  young  whiting. 

Moppat.  An  early  name  for  the  sponge  of  a 
cannon. 

Mopusses.  A  cant-term  for  money  in  gen 
eral. 

Mormyrus.  A  Linnsean  genus  of  malacop- 
terygious  fishes,  resembling  the  pike,  found  only 
in  the  rivers  of  Africa. 

Morning  Gun.  The  gun  fired  from  the  flag 
ship  to  announce  daybreak. 

Morning  Star.     See  VENUS. 

Morrhua.  A  genus  of  fishes,  including  the 
common  cod. 

Morris,  Charles,  Commodore  U.S.N.  Born 
at  Woodstock,  Conn.,  July  26,  1784.  Entering 
the  navy  in  1799,  he  made  his  first  cruise  as  a 
midshipman  in  the  "  Congress"  ;  his  next  cruise 
was  in  the  "Constitution"  (1803-5),  under  the 
famous  Commodore  Preble,  in  the  war  against 
Tripoli ;  he  was  in  the  attack  on  the  "  Philadel 
phia"  in  the  harbor  of  Tripoli,  under  Decatur, 
and  was  the  first  of  the  boarders  on  the  deck  of 
the  captured  vessel,  and  also  participated  in  all 
the  attacks  on  Tripoli  in  the  following  summer. 
The  next  four  years  were  passed  in  a  short  cruise 
in  the  "Hornet"  in  European  waters,  and  on 
duty  enforcing  the  embargo  of  Jefferson  at  Port 
land,  Me.  From  1810  to  1812  he  cruised  in  the 
"  Constitution."  Soon  after  his  return  to  the 
United  States,  and  while  still  executive-officer  of 
the  "Constitution,"  with  Hull  as  captain,  the 
war  of  1812  broke  out,  and  he  was  on  that  ves 
sel  when  she  made  her  famous  escape  from  a  Brit 
ish  squadron,  and  in  the  fight  between  the  "  Con 
stitution"  and  "' Guerriere"  he  was  wounded 
through  the  body.  Upon  his  recovery  he  was 
promoted  to  a  captaincy  and  given  command  of 
the  "  Adams,"  which  vessel  he  commanded  until 
she  was  destroyed  at  Hampden  to  avoid  capture 
by  the  British.  After  the  establishment  of  peace 
with  England,  Morris  commanded  the  "  Con 
gress,"  in  the  war  against  Algiers.  Upon  his 
return,  and  while  still  in  command  of  the  "  Con- 

§ress,"  he  was  sent  on  a  mission  to  Hayti  and 
an  Domingo,   where  he  conducted  important 
negotiations  for  the  State  Department.     In  1819- 
20  he  was  sent  with  a  squadron  to  Buenos  Ayres 
on  a  mission  of  political  importance.     On  his 


return  he  was  appointed  a  navy  commissioner, 
which  high  position  he  held  for  many  years.  In 
1825  he  commanded  the  "  Brandy  wine,"  the  ves 
sel  which  carried  Lafayette  back  to  France. 
After  leaving  France  he  made  a  tour  of  inspec 
tion  of  the  naval  stations  of  France  and  England, 
returning  to  his  position  of  navy  commissioner 
in  1827.  This  position  he  held  until  1841,  ex 
cept  during  two  years  when  he  was  in  command 
of  the  Boston  Navy- Yard.  For  some  years  after 
this  he  was  on  duty  in  Washington  as  chief  of 
the  Bureau  of  Ordnance,  and  died  at  the  age  of 
72,  in  1856,  while  on  that  duty. 

Morris.  A  fish  of  the  genus  Leptocephalus, 
resembling  the  eel,  but  having  a  very  slender 
body  compressed  so  far  as  to  be  thin  and  flat,  like 
tape. 

Morris-pike.  A  formidable  Moorish  weapon, 
the  precursor  of  the  boarding-pike. 

Morse.     See  WALRUS. 

Morsing  Powder.  An  old  term  for  priming- 
powder. 

Mort.     A  salmon  in  his  third  year. 

Mortar.  A  short  piece  of  ordnance  with  large 
bore,  used  for  throwing  shells  at  high  angles  in 
order  to  reach  objects  by  their  vertical  fire. 
They  are  used  in  the  navy  only  under  excep 
tional  circumstances,  the  one  pattern  used  being 
the  13-inch  of  17,000  pounds,  made  of  cast  iron. 

MORTAR-VESSEL.  A  vessel  fitted  for  carrying 
and  working  a  mortar.  To  enable  the  mortar  to 
be  properly  manoeuvred  and  to  resist  the  recoil, 
the  vessel  should  have  considerable  breadth  in 
proportion  to  her  length.  The  mortar  is  slung 
amidships  in  a  massive  bed.  The  ancient  form, 
of  mortar-vessel  was  the  bomb-ketch,  convenient 
because  of  the  length  of  deck  without  a  mast. 

Mortised  Block.  A  block  of  which  the  shell 
is  made  of  a  single  piece  mortised  out  to  receive 
the  sheave. 

Moruach.  A  peculiar  seal,  which  has  been 
frequently  mistaken  for  a  mermaid. 

Moscow  is  situated  on  the  Moskva  River,  is 
the  capital  of  the  government  of  Moscow,  and 
one  of  the  most  important  cities  of  Russia.  Lat. 
55°  45'  21"  N. ;  Ion.  37°  84'  E.  Manufactures 
of  various  kinds  are  carried  on  to  a  great  extent 
within  the  city,  the  principal  of  which  are  for 
textile  fabrics,  chiefly  woolen,  cotton,  and  silk. 
The  other  principal  articles  are  hats,  hardware, 
leather,  chemical  products,  beer  and  brandy. 
From  its  central  position  Moscow  is  the  great 
entrepot  for  the  internal  commerce  of  the  empire. 
Great  facilities  for  this  commerce  are  given  by 
water  communication,  which  extends  on  one  side 
to  the  Baltic,  on  another  to  the  Caspian,  and  on 
a  third  to  the  Black  Sea,  and  by  the  important 
railways  which  centre  here.  Pop.  602,000. 

Moses.  A  flat-bottomed  boat  used  in  the 
West  Indies  for  bringing  off  hogsheads  of  sugar ; 
it  is  termed  single  or  double  according  to  its 
size. 

Moses'  Law.  The  term  among  pirates  for 
inflicting  39  lashes  on  the  bare  back, — forty  save 
one. 

Moses-seam.    See  MONK-SEAM. 

Mosquito  Fleet.  An  assemblage  of  small 
craft. 

Moss-bunker.  A  name  for  the  hard-head 
(Alosa  menhaden). 

Motella.  A  genus  of  fishes,  including  the 
whistle-fish. 


MOTHER  GARY'S  CHICKEN 


504 


MITLLANY 


Mother  Gary's  Chicken.  The  stormy  petrel, 
Procellaria  pelagica. 

Mother  Cary's  Goose.  The  name  given  by 
Captain  Cook's  people  to  an  oceanic  brown  bird, 
Procellaria  gigantea,  which  Pernety  calls  que- 
branta-huesos  (bone-breaker). 

Mother-of-pearl.  The  iridescent  nacreous  in 
ner  layer  of  several  species  of  shells,  especially 
the  "  pearl-oyster"  (Meleagrina  margnritifera). 

Motion.  The  relation  between  two  points  in 
space  when  a  straight  line  joining  them  is  changed 
in  length,  or  in  direction,  or  in  both  ;  its  unit 
of  measure  is  one  foot  or  one  degree  of  arc. 

MOTION,  PROPER.  The  motion  of  a  heavenly 
body  due  to  its  own  movement  as  distinguished 
from  its  apparent  change  resulting  from  a  change 
in  the  position  of  the  spectator.  The  term  is 
technically  used  for  such  motion  of  a  body  as  is 
independent  of  the  earth's  diurnal  motion.  Thus, 
the  proper  motion  of  the  sun  is  his  motion  in  the 
ecliptic  as  distinguished  from  his  apparent  mo 
tion  in  a  diurnal  circle  ;  .the  former  is  the  result 
of  the  earth's  motion  in  her  orbit,  as  the  latter  is 
of  her  diurnal  revolution. 

Motor.  A  mechanical  contrivance  to  utilize 
force ;  a  prime  mover,  such  as  a  steam-engine,  a 
water-wheel,  or  an  electro-magnetic  machine. 

Mount.  To  place  a  gun  on  its  carriage.  To 
carry;  as,  a  ship  mounts  44  guns. 

Mountebank.  The  Gammarus  arcticus,  or 
arctic  shrimp. 

Mourning.  In  the  navy  mourning  is  denoted 
by  half-masting  the  ensign,  narrow-pennant, 
broad-pennant,  or  the  flag  of  an  admiral,  and  by 
the  firing  of  minute-guns.  (See  FUNERAL  HON 
ORS.)  In  the  merchant  service  the  colors  are 
half-masted  and  the  yards  topped  up.  In  early 
days,  on  special  occasions  the  sides  were  painted 
blue. 

Mouse.  A  bunch  raised  on  a  piece  of  rigging 
by  means  of  spun-yarn,  parcelling,  etc.,  to  pre 
vent  a  running-eye  from  slipping.  To  mouse  a 
hook,  to  take  several  turns  of  small  stuff  around 
the  point  and  back  of  a  hook  to  prevent  its  un 
hooking. 

MOUSING.  The  small  stuff  used  to  keep  a  hook 
from  unhooking. 

Mouth.  The  opening  of  a  port  or  outlet  of  a 
river. 

Moving-sands.  Synonymous  with  quick 
sands. 

Mud-digger.  A  light-draft  vessel  fitted  with 
appliances  for  dredging  out  a  harbor  or  channel. 
A  dredging-machine. 

Mud-dredger.     See  MUD-DIGGER. 

Mud-fish.  The  Lepidosiren,  a  very  remark 
able  fish  of  the  Gambia  and  other  African  waters. 

Mud-hole.  A  covered  opening  in  the  bottom 
of  a  boiler,  for  removing  dirt  and  sedime.it. 

Mud-hook.     A  familiar  term  for  an  anchor. 

'Mudian,  'Mugian,  or  Bermudian.  A  boat 
special  to  the  Bermuda  Islands,  usually  decked, 
with  the  exception  of  a  hatch  ;  from  2  to  20  tons 
burden  ;  it  is  short,  of  good  beam,  and  great  draft 
of  water  abaft,  the  stem  and  keel  forming  a 
curved  line.  It  carries  an  immense  quantity  of 
ballast.  Besides  a  long  main-  and -short  jib-boom, 
it  has  a  long,  tapering,  raking  rtfast,  stepped  just 
over  the  forefoot,  generally /unsupported  by 
shrouds  or  stays;  on  it  a  jib-beaded  mainsail  is 
hoisted  to  a  height  of  twice,  and  sometimes  three 
times,  the  length  of  the  keel.)  This  sail  is  trian 


gular,  stretched  at  its  foot  by  a  long  boom.  The 
only  other  sail  is  a  small  foresail  or  jib.  They 
claim  to  be  the  fastest  craft  in  the  world  for  work 
ing  to  windward  in  smooth  water,  it  being  re 
corded  of  one  that  she  made  five  miles  dead  to 
windward  in  the  hour  during  a  race  ;  and  though 
they  may  be  laid  over  until  they  fill  with  water, 
they  will  not  capsize. 

Mud-lands.  The  extensive  marshes  left  dry 
by  the  retiring  tide  in  estuaries  and  river  mouths. 

Mud-larks.  People  who  grovel  about  bays 
and  harbors  at  low  water  for  anything  they  can 
find. 

Mud-lighter.  A  flat-bottomed  boat  which 
receives  the  mud  or  other  matter  from  a  dredg 
ing-machine. 

Mud-plug.  A  tapered  plug,  in  the  lowest  part 
of  the  bottom  of  a  boiler,  which  can  be  conve 
niently  removed  to  allow  the  escape  of  mud  and 
sediment. 

Mud-valve.  A  valve  placed  in  a  pipe  con 
nected  to  the  bottom  of  the  boiler,  or  in  the  bot 
tom  itself,  for  the  removal  of  mud  and  sediment, 
— much  used  in  Western  river  steamboats. 

Muffle.  To  deaden  the  sound  of;  as,  to  muffle 
a  drum.  "When  necessary  to  deaden  the  sound  of 
the  oars,  as  on  a  night  expedition,  thrum-mats  or 
pieces  of  canvas  are  wrapped  around  the  looms 
of  the  oars  in  the  wake  of  the  rowlocks  or  thole 
pins.  Whaleboats  have  their  oars  muffled  to 
avoid  frightening  the  whales. 

Mufti.  Citizen's  clothes.  Officers  are  required 
to  wear  their  uniform  when  on  board  ship,  or 
when  on  duty  at  a  navy-yard.  When  on  shore 
they  may  wear  citizen's  clothes  or  their  uni 
forms  ;  but  no  portion  of  the  uniform  must  be 
worn  with  citizen's  dress. 

Muggy.  Half  intoxicated;  a  sheet  in  the 
wind.  Also  used  to  express  damp,  oppressive 
weather. 

Mullany,  J.  R.  Madison,  Rear-Admiral 
U.S.N.  Born  in  New  York,  October  26,  1818. 
Appointed  from  New  Jersey,  January  7,  1832; 
attached  to  frigate  "  Constellation,"  Mediter 
ranean  Squadron,  from  February,  1832,  to  De 
cember,  1834  ;  receiving-ship,  and  Naval  School, 
navy-yard,  New  York,  from  June,  1835,  to  April, 
1836  ;  frigate  "  United  States,"  Mediterranean 
Squadron,  from  May,  1836,  to  December,  1837 ; 
schooner  "Shark,"  Mediterranean  Squadron, 
from  December,  1837,  to  March,  1838;  Naval 
School,  navy-yard,  Norfolk,  from  March,  1833, 
to  June,  1838. 

Promoted  to  passed  midshipman,  June,  1838 ; 
naval  rendezvous,  New  York,  from  November, 
1838,  to  August,  1839;  brigantine  "Dolphin," 
coast  of  Africa,  from  August,  1839,  to  Septem 
ber,  1840;  receiving-ship  "and  rendezvous,  New 
York,  from  October,  1840,  to  December,  1841  ; 
steam-frigate  "  Missouri,"  Home  Squadron,  from 
December,  1841,  to  July,  1842;  receiving-ship 
at  New  York,  from  July,  1842,  to  April,  1843. 

Commissioned  as  lieutenant,  February  29, 
1844  ;  brig  "  Somers,"  West  Indies,  from  April, 
1843,  to  April,  1844;  brig  "  Washington,"  coast 
survey,  deep-sea  soundings,  and  observations  for 
temperature  in  Gulf  Stream,  from  July,  1844,  to 
May,  1847  ;  brig  "  Washington,"  Home  Squad 
ron,  from  May,  1847,  to  August,  1847  ;  active 
service  on  the  Mexican  coast  during  the  Mexican 
war ;  took  part  in  the  attack  on  and  capture  of 
the  dty  of  Tabasco,  June,  1847;  brig  "Wash- 


MULLANY 


505 


MULLET 


ington,"  coast  survey,  from  September,  1847, 
to  May,  1848,  engaged  in  deep-sea  soundings, 
and  observations  for  temperature  in  Gulf  Stream; 
sloop-of-war  "  St.  Louis,"  Brazil  Squadron,  from 
June,  1848,  to  April,  1849;  frigate  "Brandy- 
wine,"  Brazil  Squadron,  from  May,  1849,  to  De 
cember,  1850;  receiving-ship  at  New  York, 
from  April,  1851,  to  September,  1851;  gunboat 
"John  Hancock,"  special  service  on  coast  of 
United  States,  and  in  West  Indies  to  search  for 
filibustering  vessels,  from  September  to  October, 
1851  ;  receiving-ship  at  New  York,  from  Oc 
tober,  1851,  to  September,  1852;  frigate  "Co 
lumbia,"  West  India  Squadron,  from  September, 
1852,  to  April,  1855;  inspector  of  ordnance, 
navy-yard,  New  York,  from  May,  1855,  to  May, 
1858;  brig  "Arctic,"  special  service,  West  In 
dies,  from  May  to  August,  1858;  frigate  "  Niag 
ara,"  as  executive-officer,  special  service,  coast 
of  Africa,  from  September  to  December,  1858  ; 
frigate  "  Constellation,"  as  executive-officer, 
fitting  her  for  sea,  April  and  May,  1859  ;  frigate 
"Sabine,"  as  executive-officer,  West  India 
Squadron,  May,  1859,  to  December,  1860  ;  frig 
ate  "  Sabine,"  off  Pensacola,  commencement  of 
war,  from  January  to  March,  1861,  assisting  in 
the  protection  of  Fort  Pickens  ;  commanded 
gunboat  "  Wyandotte,"  April  and  May,  1861, 
occupying  a  position  inside  of  the  harbor  of  Pen 
sacola,  in  rear  of  Fort  Pickens,  to  aid  in  protect 
ing  it  from  a  threatened  attack  from  the  enemy  ; 
assisted  in  towing  in  the  boats  and  landing  forces, 
composed  of  sailors  and  marines,  April  12,  1861, 
reinforcing  Fort  Pickens  ;  commanded  store-ship 
"  Supply,"  Home  Squadron,  May  and  June, 
1861,  off  Pensacola,  and  during  passage  to  New 
York;  inspector  of  ordnance,  Fort  Pitt  Foun 
dry,  Pittsburgh,  and  other  places,  from  July, 
1861,  to  March,  1862. 

Commissioned  as  commander,  October  18,  1861; 
commanded  steamer  "  Bienville,"  North  Atlan 
tic  and  West  Gulf  Squadrons,  from  April,  1862, 
to  May,  1865, — except  as  hereafter  noted, — fre 
quently  engaged  with,  and  coming  under  the 
tire  of  the  forts  off  Charleston  and  other  points 
on  the  Southern  coast. 

Arriving  in  command  of  the  "  Bienville"  off 
Mobile  shortly  before  the  battle  of  August  5, 
1864,  volunteered  his  services  for  the  engage 
ment  then  being  planned.  The  "  Bienville"  not 
being  considered  by  Admiral  Farragut  a  fit  ves 
sel  to  engage  the  forts,  he  was  assigned  by  Ad 
miral  Farragut  to  the  command  of  the  "  Oneida," 
which,  on  the  passing  of  Fort  Morgan,  occupied 
the  side  exposed  to  the  fire  of  the  fort,  the  "  Ga 
lena"  being  lashed  to  the  opposite  or  port  side, 
and  being  under  his  control  by  virtue  of  his 
seniority.  The  "  Oneida"  occupied  the  rear  of 
the  line  of  battle,  and  was  exposed  to  a  very  de 
structive  fire  from  Fort  Morgan.  The  first  shell 
by  which  she  was  struck  entered  the  ship  just 
under  the  mizzen  rigging,  killing  the  cabin 
steward,  cutting  the  wheel-ropes,  and  setting  the 
cabin  on  fire.  The  steering-gear  being  promptly 
repaired,  the  vessel  was  again  struck,  the  shot 
exploding  the  starboard  boiler  and  scalding  16 
men.  The  "  Oneida"  was  partly  disabled  by 
this  shot,  but  steam  on  the  port  boiler  was  still 
available,  and  sufficed  to  move  the  ship. 

As  rearmost  vessel,  the  ship  was  exposed  to  a 
very  heavy  fire  for  some  time  after  she  was  able 
to  return  it,  owing  to  the  fact  that  she  had  passed 


too  far  beyond  the  fort  to  be  enabled  to  train  her 
guns  sufficiently  aft  to  bring  them  to  bear  on  it. 

When  nearly  free  from  the  fire  of  Fort  Mor 
gan,  the  "  Oneida"  was  assailed  by  the  ram 
"  Tennessee,"  with  whom  she  exchanged  shots  in 
passing.  The  latter,  coming  up  under  her  stern, 
was  enabled  to  rake  her,  one  shot  visiting  serious 
loss  upon  the  ship,  and  inflicting  several  severe 
wounds  upon  Commander  Mullany,  one  of  which 
necessitated  the  amputation  of  his  left  arm. 

Up  to  this  time  he  had  exercised  active  com 
mand  of  the  two  vessels,  standing  upon  the 
poop  and  "conning"  the  ship,  and  encouraging 
the  crew  by  voice  and  example.  After  this  in 
jury  the  vessel  was  not  again  struck,  and  the 
engagement,  as  far  as  the  "  Oneida"  and  "  Ga 
lena"  were  concerned,  terminated. 

While  commanding  the  "Bienville,"  off 
Charleston,  1862,  captured  steamers  "Stettin" 
and  "  Patras,"  under  English  flag,  loaded  with 
munitions  of  war,  vessels  and  cargoes  valued  in 
the  aggregate  at  half  a  million  dollars.  Also 
captured  9  schooners  from  Nassau,  all  under 
English  colors. 

Commanded  division  of  West  Gulf  Squadron, 
extending  from  Sabine  Pass  to  Rio  Grande,  from 
April  to  September,  1863. 

While  in  the  "  Bienville,"  off  Galveston,  Texas, 
sent  in  boat  expedition,  and  captured  and 
brought  off  two  schooners  with  576  bales  of 
cotton. 

Inspector  in  charge  of  ordnance  at  navy-yard, 
New  York,  from  May,  1865,  to  May,  1868. 

Commissioned  as  captain,  July  25,  1866 ;  spe 
cial  duty  as  one  of  Board  of  Visitors  to  Naval 
Academy,  May  and  June,  1868  ;  special  duty  on 
board  to  select  sites  for  powder-magazines,  Ports 
mouth,  N.  H.,  Boston,  and  New  York,  June 
and  July,  1868 ;  court-martial  duty  at  New 
York,  August,  1868;  commanded  sloop  "Rich 
mond,"  European  Squadron,  December,  1868,  to 
November,  1871. 

Commissioned  as  commodore,  August  15, 1870 ; 
commanded  Mediterranean  Squadron,  European 
Fleet,  from  October,  1870,  to  November,  1871 ; 
occasional  court  duty  from  November,  1871,  till 
September,  1872  ;  commanded  navy-yard,  Phila 
delphia,  from  October,  1872,  to  June,  1874;  in 
addition  to  which,  commanded  Naval  Station, 
League  Island,  from  April,  1873,  to  June,  1874. 

Commissioned  as  rear-admiral,  June  5,  1874; 
commanded  North  Atlantic  Station  from  June, 
1874,  to  February,  1876 ;  during  this  period  was 
engaged  with  portion  of  squadron  at  New  Or 
leans  from  September,  1874,  to  March,  1875,  act 
ing  in  co-operation  with  Gen.  Emory,  and  after 
wards  with  Gen.  Sheridan ;  in  September  and 
October,  1875,  was  at  Aspinwall  with  his  flag 
ship  and  one  other  vessel  of  squadron,  to  protect 
American  interests  on  the  Isthmus,  then  menaced 
by  the  rebellion  in  the  state  of  Panama.  Was 
authorized  by  Navy  Department  at  this  time  to 
command  for  the  purpose  the  vessels  of  the 
South  Pacific  Squadron,  then  in  the  harbor  of 
Panama,  consisting  of  the  flag-ship  "  Richmond" 
and  the  "  Omaha"  ;  Naval  Asylum  and  station, 
Philadelphia,  as  governor,  from  March  1,  1876, 
to  October  26,  1879,  when  he  was  retired. 

Mulct.  A  Portuguese  craft  with  three  lateen- 
sails. 

Mullet.  A  well-known  fish,  of  which  there 
are  several  species.  The  gray  mullet,  Mugil 


MULLS 


506 


MUKEAY 


capita,  and  the  red  mullet,  Mullus  surmuletus, 
are  the  most  common. 

Mulls.  The  nickname  of  the  English  in  Ma 
dras,  from  mulligatawney  having  been  a  stand 
ard  dish  among  them. 

Mulrein.  A  name  in  the  Firth  of  Forth  for 
the  frog-fish,  Lophius  piscatorius. 

Multiple  Star.  When  several  stars  appear 
in  close  proximity  to  each  other  they  are  spoken 
of,  collectively,  as  a  multiple  star. 

Multi-tubular  Boiler.  A  boiler  in  which  the 
water  passes  through  a  large  number  of  tubes  of 
small  diameter.  Object,  rapid  circulation  and 
increased  generation  of  steam. 

Mumbo  Jumbo.  A  strange  minister  of  so- 
called  justice  on  the  Gold  Coast,  who  is  usually 
dressed  up  for  the  purpose  of  frightening  women 
and  children.  He  is  the  arbiter  of  domestic 
strife. 

Mummy-chog.     A  small  fish  of  the  carp  kind. 

Munduc.  A  sailor  employed  in  the  pearl- 
fishery,  to  haul  up  the  diver  and  oysters. 

Mundungus  (from  the  Spanish  mondongo,  re 
fuse,  offal).  Bad,  rank,  and  dirty  tobacco. 

Munition.  Military  or  naval  stores  of  every 
description.  Munition  ships  are  vessels  which 
carry  military  and  naval  stores,  and  attend  or 
follow  a  fleet  to  supply  ships  of  war. 

Munjak.  A  kind  of  pitch  used  in  the  Bay  of 
Honduras  for  vessels'  bottoms. 

Munnions.  Pieces  placed  up  and  down  to  di 
vide  the  panels  in  framed  bulk-heads. 

Muraena.  An  eel-like  fish,  very  highly  es 
teemed  by  the  ancient  Komans. 

Mural  Circle.  A  circle  of  metal,  which,  as  it 
turns  on  a  pivot,  keeps  the  telescope  always  in 
the  meridian  ;  the  circle  is  accurately  graduated 
on  its  rim.  When  the  telescope  is  horizontal,  a 
stationary  index  points  to  zero  on  the  circle ;  as 
the  telescope  is  moved  .a  portion  of  the  circle 
passes  by  the  index,  which  thus  shows  the  amount 
of  elevation. 

Murderer.  The  name  formerly  used  for  large 
blunderbusses,  as  well  as  for  those  small  pieces 
of  ordnance  which  were  loaded  by  shifting  metal 
chambers  placed  in  the  breech. 

Murex  (Lat.  murex,  a  shell-fish).  A  name 
applied  by  Linnaeus  to  a  genus  of  gasteropodous 
mollusks  having  a  univalve  spiral  shell,  with  an 
oval  aperture  ending  in  an  entire,  straight,  or 
slightly  ascending  canal.  The  mollusks  thus 
characterized  form  a  family  (Muricidce,  or  rock- 
shells),  belonging  to  the  order  Pectinibranchiata 
of  Cuvier.  The  Muricidce  all  prey  on  other  mol 
lusks,  boring  through  the  shells  with  their  hard- 
toothed  proboscis.  Species  are  found  in  all  parts 
of  the  world,  the  largest  in  tropical  regions. 
Some,  from  the  length  of  the  beak,  are  called 
"woodcock  shell."  Some  have  the  shell  beset 
with  long  and  regularly  arranged  spines.  The 
whorls  of  the  shell  are  marked  with  ridges  or 
varices.  The  celebrated  dye  of  the  ancients, 
called  Tyrian  purple,  was  derived  from  species 
of  the  Muricidce.  Another  species — Muricidce 
tribulus — is  the  "Venus  Comb"  of  the  Indian 
Seas,  a  very  delicate  and  beautiful  shell,  with 
numerous  long,  thin  spines.  Fossil  Muricidce 
are  numerous,  but  are  seldom  found  in  any  for 
mation  older  than  the  eocene  tertiary. 

Murlock.     The  young  pickled  dog-fish. 

Murray,  Alexander,  Rear-Admiral  U.S.N. 
Born  in  Pennsylvania.  Appointed  midshipman 


August  22,  1835 ;  served  three  years  in  West 
Indies ;  1839  and  1840,  Seminole  war.  Passed 
midshipman  in  1841,  and  returned  to  Seminole 
war ;  joined  the  Pacific  Squadron  in  1843 ;  was 
made  acting  lieutenant,  and  served  in  the 
"  Shark,"  "  United  States,"  and  "  Levant,"  and 
returned  home  in  1845.  In  1846  joined  the  Gulf 
Squadron,  and  was  at  the  battles  of  Alvarado, 
Tabasco,  Vera  Cruz,  Tuspan,  and  Tampico  ;  was 
slightly  wounded  at  Alvarado. 

Commissioned  lieutenant  in  August,  1847 ; 
served  on  coast  survey  until  1849,  when  he 
joined  the  razee  "Independence,"  Mediterra 
nean  Squadron ;  returned  to  United  States  in 
1851.  In  January,  1852,  appointed  to  command 
the  steamer  "  Fulton,"  and  sailed,  with  Vice- 
President  King  on  board,  for  the  West  Indies; 
after  visiting  two  or  three  ports,  Mr.  King's 
health  demanded  his  return,  and  the  "  Fulton" 
landed  him  at  Mobile,  where  he  died  in  a  few 
days;  the  "Fulton"  returned  to  Norfolk  in 
May  ;  served  on  board  the  "  Pennsylvania"  (re 
ceiving-ship)  until  1853.  Appointed  to  com 
mand  the  surveying  steamer  "  Bibb"  ;  joined  the 
frigate  "Cumberland"  in  1860  as  executive-offi 
cer,  and  after  arriving  at  Vera  Cruz  was  ap 
pointed  to  command  the  "  Pocahontas"  ;  was 
detached  in  Norfolk,  and  returned  to  the  "  Cum 
berland"  without  orders ;  was  present  at  the 
burning  of  the  navy-yard.  Appointed  to  com 
mand  the  steamer  "  Louisiana,"  August  3,  1861 ; 
had  a  conflict,  and  repulsed  the  rebel  steamer 
"  Yorktown"  off  Newport  News,  September  20; 
October  5  had  another  fight,  in  Cocklin's  Creek, 
Eastern  Shore,  resulting  in  the  destruction  of  a 
vessel  being  equipped  as  a  privateer  ;  participated 
in  the  battles  of  Koanoke  Island,  February  9,  of 
Elizabeth,  February  10,  of  Newbern,  N.  C., 
February  14;  was  appointed  senior  officer  in 
York  and  Pamunkey  Rivers  ;  co-operation  with 
the  army  in  its  movement  on  Richmond. 

May  17,  1862,  pushed  up  the  river  in  advance 
of  the  army,  and,  aided  by  some  volunteers  from 
the  army  in  small  transports,  forced  the  enemy 
to  destroy  his  transports,  17  vessels  in  all,  2  of 
them  steamers.  Battle  was  not  offered,  though 
he  sighted  the  enemy  at  many  points. 

Commissioned  commander'on  July  16,  1862; 
ordered  to  navy-yard,  Portsmouth,  N.  H. ;  Nov 
ember,  1862,  was  ordered  by  telegram  to  return 
to  sounds  of  North  Carolina  as  senior  officer; 
attacked  Kingston,  N.  C.,  to  create  a  diversion 
in  favor  of  the  army,  which  was  moving  on  Golds- 
boro'  ;  February  14,  with  the  gunboats  repulsed 
the  attempt  of  the  enemy  to  recover  Newbern  ; 
April,  1863,  ordered  to  resume  duties  at  Ports 
mouth  Navy- Yard  ;  September,  1865,  appointed 
to  command  "  Rhode  Island"  ;  and  October  24, 
sailed  for  Havana  with  tender  "Hornet"  and 
crew  for  "  Stonewall,"  which  Commander  Murray 
had  been  directed  to  receive  from  authorities 
in  Havana ;  November  24,  1865,  returned  to 
Washington,  bringing  "  Stonewall" ;  May  6, 

1866,  sailed  from  New  York  with  "Augusta" 
(side-wheel),  "  Miantonomah"    (double-turret), 
and  "  Ashuelot"  (double-ender),  for  Russia. 

Promoted  to  captain,  July  25,  1866  ;  in  July, 

1867,  the  expedition  returned  to  United  States, 
having,  in  company  with  the  monitor,  visited 
the  Mediterranean  and  West  Indies,  after  leav 
ing  the  Baltic ;  navy-yard,  Philadelphia,  1868- 
69 ;  light-house  inspector,  1870-72. 


MUSCA 


507 


MUZZLE 


Promoted  to  commodore,  April,  1871 ;  member 
of  Light-House  Board  until  June,  1866. 

Promoted  to  rear-admiral,  April  26,  1876,  and 
ordered  to  command  Pacific  Fleet;  May  1,  1878, 
retired  at  his  own  request  after  forty  years' 
"  faithful  service,"  under  act  March  3,  1873, 
the  admiral's  service  in  the  Pacific  being  highly 
commended  by  the  Navy  and  State  Departments 
in  official  documents. 

Musca.     See  CONSTELLATION. 

Muscat  is  a  seaport  of  great  commercial  im 
portance  on  the  Indian  Ocean,  near  the  eastern 
angle  of  Arabia,  in  lat.  23°  34'  N.,  Ion.  58°  50' 
E.  The  cove  of  Muscat,  as  the  harbor  is  called, 
is  an  inlet  of  the  sea  about  three-quarters  of  a 
mile  long  by  one-half  of  a  mile  wide,  opening 
to  the  northwest,  and  completely  sheltered  from 
the  prevailing  monsoons.  The  excellence  of  its 
port  and  its  convenient  position  near  the  en 
trance  of  the  Persian  Gulf  make  it  important 
as  a  station  for  shipping.  The  docks  for  build 
ing  and  repairing  shipping  are  situated  at  Mut- 
tra,  at  the  foot  of  the  bay,  about  3  miles  from 
Muscat.  The  imports  of  Muscat  consist  chiefly 
of  almonds,  aloes,  sulphur,  nitre,  coffee,  etc., 
from  Persia  and  Africa,  most  of  which  are  re-ex 
ported.  Large  quantities  of  dates,  wheat,  horses, 
and  fish  are  among  the  exports.  Population  of 
Muscat,  Muttra,  and  intervening  villages  is 
about  50,000. 

Musgum,  or  Misgurn.  A  kind  of  fish  resem 
bling  the  eel  in  size  and  form. 

Mushroom-anchor.  An  anchor  with  a  head 
like  a  mushroom,  and  having  no  stock ;  it  is 
used  for  permanent  moorings.  See  ANCHOR. 

Musketoon.  A  short  kind  of  blunderbuss 
with  a  large  bore,  to  carry  several  musket-  or  pis 
tol-bullets.  It  was  much  used  on  boat-service. 
They  were  mounted  on  several  crutches,  and 
termed  top-pieces  or  quarter-pieces  in  barges  and 
pinnaces,  where  timbers  were  especially  fitted  for 
them. 

Muster.  "When  all  hands  are  called  to  muster, 
the  men  assemble  on  the  port  or  lee  side  of  "the 
quarter-deck,  and  the  officers  on  the  opposite 
side.  If,  after  the  special  purpose  for  which  the 
crew  has  been  assembled  has  been  accomplished, 
it  be  desired  to  call  the  roll,  the  petty  officers 
form  a  line  in  the  opposite  gangway,  where  they 
are  mustered  by  the  paymaster's  clerk.  Having 
finished  with  the  muster  of  the  petty  officers,  the 
remainder  of  the  crew  is  mustered,  beginning 
with  the  seamen.  As  each  man's  name  is  called, 
he  takes  off  his  cap,  crosses  the  deck,  and  walks 
forward.  At  muster,  the  officer  of  the  deck  ac 
counts  for  those  on  duty,  the  master-at-arms  for 
those  in  confinement,  and  the  apothecary  for  the 
sick.  Every  person  unaccounted  for  is  so  en 
tered  in  the  log-book.  To  muster  the  watch,  to 
call  the  names  of  the  watch,  in  order  to  make 
sure  that  all  are  on  deck ;  this  duty  is  done  by 
the  junior  officer  of  the  watch  just  after  8  bells, 
and  as  often  thereafter  as  the  officer  of  the  deck 
directs.  To  pass  muster,  to  pass  inspection ;  to 
answer  the  purpose  intended. 

Mute.  A  prisoner  arraigned  before  a  court- 
martial,  when  called  upon  to~plead,  may,  through 
obstinacy,  remain  silent.  This  is  technically 
termed  standing  mute.  In  such  a  case  the  court 
proceeds  with  the  trial  as  though  a  plea  of  not 
guilty  had  been  made.  The  same  course  is  pur 
sued  in  cases  where  the  prisoner,  instead  of 


pleading  properly,  answers  foreign  to  the  pur 
pose  with  the  deliberate  design  to  obstruct  the 
proceedings. 

A  prisoner  may  stand  mute  by  the  visitation 
of  God,  in  which  case,  if  it  be  only  an  inability 
to  articulate,  the  court  proceeds  as  above. 

By  the  common  law  of  England,  obstinately 
standing  mute,  upon  arraignment  for  certain 
species  of  offenses,  was  deemed  equivalent  to 
conviction,  upon  which  judgment  followed. 

Mutiny.  An  insurrection  against  constituted 
authority,  particularly  military  or  naval  au 
thority.  An  open  and  violent  resistance  to  the 
authority  of  officers.  It  may  be  the  act  of  an  in 
dividual  or  the  concerted  action  of  several.  The 
Articles  for  the  government  of  the  navy  provide 
that  any  person  in  the  navy  who  makes,  or  at 
tempts  to  make,  or  unites  with,  any  mutiny  or 
mutinous  assembly,  or  who  being  witness  to  or 
present  at  any  mutiny  does  not  do  his  utmost  to 
suppress  it ;  or  who,  knowing  of  any  intended 
mutiny  or  mutinous  assembly,  does  not  imme 
diately  communicate  his  knowledge  to  his  supe 
rior  or  commanding  officer,  shall  suffer  death  or 
such  other  punishment  as  a  court-martial  may 
adjudge. 

MUTINY  ACT.  An  English  statute  for  the  gov 
ernment  of  military  persons,  and  vesting  in  the 
crown  power  to  frame  articles  of  war. 

The  occasion  that  gave  rise  to  the  Mutiny  Act 
was  a  rebellion  on  the  part  of  some  English  and 
Scotch  troops  in  the  first  year  of  William  and 
Mary's  reign,  upon  their  being  ordered  to  Hol 
land  to  replace  some  of  the  Dutch  troops  which 
King  William  had  brought  over  with  him,  and 
intended  to  keep  in  England.  The  Scotch  were 
disgusted  because  Lord  Dumbarton  had  been 
supplanted  in  the  command  of  one  of  their  regi 
ments  by  Marshal  Schomberg,  and  the  disaffec 
tion  of  the  English  was  occasioned  by  emissaries 
of  James,  who  intimated  to  them  that  they  were 
being  ordered  out  of  the  country  because  of  their 
fidelity  to  theii*  late  sovereign.  King  William 
immediately  communicated  this  event  to  both 
houses  of  Parliament,  who  readily  agreed  to- 
give  their  sanction  to  punish  the  insurgents ; 
and  on  the  3d  of  April,  1689,  passed  an  act  for 
punishing  mutiny  and  desertion,  and  establish 
ing  a  code  for  the  general  government  of  the 
army,  which  was  to  continue  in  force  till  Novem 
ber  following,  and  no  longer.  It  was,  however, 
renewed  again  the  next  January,  and  has,  with 
the  interruption  of  about  three  years  only,  in 
the  peaceable  part  of  King  William's  reign,  viz., 
from  the  10th  of  April,  1698,  to  the  20th~of  Feb 
ruary,  1701,  been  annually  renewed  since,  with 
occasional  alterations  and  amendments. 

The  Mutiny  Act  was  the  first  regularly  enacted 
statute  ever  passed  in  England  for  the  regulation 
of  the  military  state,  and  may  therefore  with 
propriety  be  considered  as  the  original  of  military 
in  contradistinction  to  martial  law.  (See  MAR 
TIAL  LAW.)  It  formed  the  model  of  our  own 
Articles  of  War,  though,  unlike  it,  our  Articles 
are  not  limited  to  one  year's  duration,  necessi 
tating,  as  in  the  case  of  the  Mutiny  Act,  their 
annual  re-enactment. 

Mutton-snapper.  A  large  fish  of  the  Meso- 
prion  genus,  frequenting  tropical  seas,  and  prized 
in  the  Jamaica  markets. 

Muzzle.  The  forward  extremity  of  a  piece  of 
ordnance. 


MUZZY 


508 


NATURALIZATION 


MUZZLE-BAG.  A  painted  canvas-bag  placed 
over  the  muzzle  of  broadside-guns  at  sea  to  keep 
the  water  out. 

MUZZLE-LASHING.  The  rope  which  confines 
the  muzzle  of  a  gun  when  housed. 

Muzzy.     Half-drunk. 

Myopara.     An  ancient  corsair's  vessel. 


Myrmidon  (from  mur-medon,  a  sea-captain). 
The  Myrmidons  were  a  people  of  Thessaly,  said 
to  have  first  constructed  ships. 

Mystico.  A  Greek  piratical  boat.  See  Mis- 
TICO. 

Myth.  Obelisk,  tower,  land,  or  anything  for 
directing  the  course  by  sight. 


N. 


N.  Abbreviation  for  not  in  the  U.  S.  General 
Service  Signal  Code. 

Naca,  or  Nacelle.  A  French  row-boat  used 
as  early  as  the  twelfth  century. 

Nacta.     A  small  transport  of  early  times. 

Nadir.  The  inferior  pole  of  the  celestial  hori 
zon.  It  is  the  point  of  the  heavens  vertically 
under  a  spectator's  feet, — the  vertex  of  the  in 
visible  hemisphere.  The  nadir  is  diametrically 
opposite  to  the  zenith. 

Nagasaki,  on  the  southwest  side  of  the  island 
Kioo-Sioo,  Japan,  in.lat.  32°  44'  8"  N.,  Ion. 
1^9°  51'  33"  E.,  is  one  of  the  import  seaports 
of  the  empire.  The  harbor  is  about  1  miles  long 
by  1  mile  wide,  with  good  anchorage,  securely 
sheltered,  in  from  5  to  7  fathoms  of  water.  It 
has  a  large  European  and  Chinese  trade,  and  is 
also  the  supply  station  for  U.  S.  men-of-war,  as 
the  naval  store-house  for  the  Asiatic  Station  is 
located  here.  Pop.  about  70,000. 

Naides.  A  natural  order  of  endogenous  plants 
found  in  the  ocean,  and  also  in  lakes  and  streams. 

Nail.     To  nail  a  gun,  to  spike  it. 

Nake.  The  old  word  to  unsheath  swords,  or 
make  them  naked. 

Naked.  State  of  a  ship's  bottom  without 
sheathing. 

Nakhadah,  or  Nacodah.  An  Arab  sea-cap 
tain. 

Name-board.  The  arch-board,  or  part  where 
on  the  ship's  name  and  port  are  painted. 

Nancy  Dawson.  A  popular  air  by  which 
seamen  were  summoned  to  grog. 

Nankin.  A  species  of  cloth  used  for  making 
working-clothes,  and  for  facings  for  cuffs  and 
collars. 

Nantes,  on  the  river  Loire,  at  the  confluence 
of  the  Erdre  and  Sevre-Nantaise,  is  the  capital 
of  the  department  of  Loire-Inferieure,  and  one 
of  the  principal  cities  of  France.  Merchant  ves 
sels  are  built  here,  and  the  town  has  numerous 
manufactories  of  cottons,  muslins,  cordage,  etc. ; 
also  an  extensive  maritime  commerce,  although 
the  harbor  receives  only  small  vessels,  large  ves 
sels  being  compelled  to  unload  at  Paimboeuf.  It 
possesses  among  its  many  institutions  a  tribunal 
of  commerce,  a  hydrographical  school,  and  a 
magazine  of  munitions  for  the  marine.  Pop. 
123,000. 

Naphtha.  A  very  inflammable,  fiercely-burn 
ing  fluid,  which  oozes  from  the  ground  or  rock 
in  many  different  localities,  and  may  be  obtained 
by  the  distillation  of  coal,  wood,  and  other  sub 
stances. 


Naples,  the  most  populous  city  of  Italy,  is 
situated  on  the  Bay  of  Naples,  at  the  foot  of 
Mount  Vesuvius,  in  lat.  40°  51'  8"  N.,  Ion.  14° 
15'  5X/  E.  The  city  is  surrounded  by  walls,  and 
defended  by  three  castles,  St.  Elmo,  Nuovo,  and 
Del  Ovo.  Immediately  adjoining  is  a  large 
arsenal  and  cannon-foundry.  The  city  contains 
a  royal  marine  hospital,  ship-building  yards,  and 
a  military  school.  The  most  important  manufac 
tories  are  those  of  macaroni,  vermicelli,  silk  stuffs, 
fire-arms,  chemical  products,  etc.  Although  the 
Bay  of  Naples  is  very  extensive,  the  harbor 
proper  is  of  small  dimensions,  and  the  water  near 
the  town  is  only  deep  enough  to  float  shallow 
vessels.  It  is  a  regular  stopping-place  for  the 
Mediterranean  steamers.  Pop.  450,000. 

Narke.  A  ray  of  very  wonderful  electric 
powers. 

Narrowing  of  the  Floor-sweep.  For  this 
peculiar  curve,  see  RISING  HALF-BREADTH 

Narrows.  The  most  confined  part  of  a  chan 
nel  between  two  lands ;  any  contracted  part  of 
a  navigable  river. 

Narwhal.  The  Monodon  monoceros,  an  ani- 
mal^of  the  cetacean  order,  found  in  the  Arctic 
seas,  and  distinguished  by  the  single  long 
pointed  tusk  projecting  straight  forward  from 
its  upper  jaw,  whence  it  is  also  termed  sea- 
unicorn. 

Nath.     The  name  of  the  bright  star  (3  Tauri. 

Naturalization.  The  process  by  which  an  alien 
is  made  a  citizen.  By  Art.  I.,  Sec.  8,  of  the  Con 
stitution  of  the  Unite'd  States,  Congress  is  vested 
with  power  "  to  establish  an  uniform  rule  of  natu 
ralization,"  and  although  formerly  it  was  held 
by  some  that  the  State  governments  possessed  a 
concurrent  authority  with  the  United  States 
upon  the  subject  of  naturalization,  it  has  now 
long  been  settled  that  the  power  vested  by  the 
Constitution  in  Congress  respecting  naturaliza 
tion  is  exclusive.  The  power  to  admit  to  citizen 
ship  aliens  desiring  naturalization  has  been  com 
mitted  by  Congress  to  the  various  courts  of  record, 
both  Federal  and  State  having  common  law 
jurisdiction.  The  naturalized  citizen  of  the 
United  States  enjoys  all  the  privileges  and  im 
munities  of  the  native-born,  save  only  eligibility 
to  the  office  of  President. 

The  process  of  naturalization  in  the  United 
States  consists  in  the  declaration,  on  oath  or 
affirmation  by  the  alien,  before  a  court  of  com 
petent  jurisdiction,  or  the  clerk  of  such  court,  of 
his  intention,  bona  fide,  to  become  a  citizen  of 
the  United  States,  and  his  renunciation  of  all 


NATURALIZATION 


509 


NAUTILUS 


allegiance  to  any  foreign  prince  or  power,  and 
particularly  of  his  allegiance  to  the  sovereign  or 
state  of  which  he  is  at  the  time  a  subject ;  which 
declaration  and  renunciation  must  be  made  at 
least  two  years  before  his  admission  to  citizen 
ship.  At  the  time  of  his  application  for  admis 
sion  he  must  further  declare,  in  the  same  manner 
and  form,  that  he  will  support  the  Constitution 
of  the  United  States,  and  make  a  further  abso 
lute  and  entire  renunciation  of  all  allegiance  and 
fidelity  to  every  foreign  prince,  potentate,  state, 
or  sovereignty  whereof  he  was  before  a  citizen  or 
subject ;  and  of  these  proceedings  the  clerk  of 
the  court  makes  record.  The  court,  before  ad 
mitting  the  alien,  must  be  satisfied  by  evidence, 
other  than  that  of  the  applicant  himself,  that  he 
has  resided  in  the  United  States  five  years  at 
least,  and  in  the  State  or  Territory  wherein  the 
court  is  held,  at  least  one  year ;  and  it  must  fur 
ther  appear  that  during  that  time  he  has  behaved 
as  a  man  of  good  moral  character,  attached  to  the 
principles  of  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States, 
and  well  disposed  to  the  good  order  and  happiness 
of  the  same.  If  the  alien  shall  have  borne  any  he 
reditary  title,  or  been  of  any  of  the  orders  of  nobil 
ity,  in  the  kingdom  or  state  from  which  he  came, 
he  must  make  renunciation  of  the  same.  The  pre 
vious  declaration  of  intention  is  dispensed  with 
in  the  case  of  an  alien  who,  being  a  minor,  shall 
have  resided  in  the  United  States  three  years  next 
preceding  his  coming  of  age,  and  who  shall  have 
continued  to  reside  therein  to  the  time  of  his  ap 
plying  for  admission  to  citizenship,  but,  includ 
ing  the  three  years  of  his  minority,  he  must  have 
had  a  continuous  residence  of  five  years,  and  at 
the  time  of  his  admission  he  must  declare  on  oath 
or  afiirmation  that  for  the  three  years  next  pre 
ceding  it  has  been  his  bona  fide  intention  to  be 
come  a  citizen  of  the  United  States.  If  an  alien 
who  has  declared  his  intention  dies  before  he  is 
actually  naturalized,  his  widow  and  children  are 
considered  citizens,  and  shall  be  entitled  to  all 
rights  and  privileges  as  such  upon  taking  the 
oaths  prescribed  by  law.  The  children  of  j5fer- 
sons  duly  naturalized,  who  were  minors  at  the 
time  of  their  parents'  admission  to  citizenship, 
are,  if  dwelling  in  the  United  States,  considered 
as  citizens  ;  and  the  children  of  persons  who  now 
are,  or  have  been,  citizens  of  the  United  States, 
are  citizens  ;  but  the  rights  of  citizenship  cannot 
descend  to  persons  whose  fathers  have  never  re 
sided  in  the  United  States.  The  naturalization 
of  a  father  ipso  facto  makes  his  son  then  residing 
in  the  United  States,  and  under  21  years  of  age, 
a  citizen.  No  alien  who  shall  be  a  native,  citi 
zen,  denizen,  or  subject  of  any  country,  state, 
or  sovereign  with  whom  the  United  States  shall 
be  at  war  at  the  time  of  his  application  can  be 
then  admitted  to  be  a  citizen  of  the  United 
States.  A  seaman,  being  a  foreigner,  having  de 
clared  his  intention  of  becoming  a  citizen  of  the 
United  States  in  any  competent  court,  and  hav 
ing  served  three  years  on  board  a  merchant  ves 
sel  of  the  United  States  subsequent  to  the  date  of 
such  declaration,  may  be  admitted  to  citizenship 
on  making  application  to  any  competent  court, 
and  producing  his  certificate  of  discharge  and 
good  conduct,  together  with  the  certificate  of 
his  declaration  of  intention.  This  provision  does 
not  extend  to  seamen  in  the  naval  service.  Ad 
mission  to  citizenship  does  not  necessarily  carry 
with  it  the  right  to  vote.  The  elective  franchise 


is  regulated  by  the  several  States,  each  for  itself, 
the  only  restriction  imposed  by  the  Federal  Con 
stitution  being  that  contained  in  Art.  XV.,  Sec. 
1,  that  "  the  right  of  citizens  of  the  United  States 
to  vote  shall  not  be  denied  or  abridged  by  the 
United  States,  or  by  any  State,  on  account  of 
race,  color,  or  previous  condition  of  servitude." 

Natural  Projections.  Perspective  delineations 
of  a  surface  on  a  given  plane.  They  are  formed 
by  drawing  from  the  eye  straight  lines,  indicat 
ing  the  visual  rays,  through  every  point  of  the 
surface  to  meet  the  plane.  The  original  and  the 
representation  produce  the  same  effect  on  the 
organ  of  vision.  Examples, — the  orthographic, 
stereographic,  and  central  projections  of  the 
sphere. 

Naumachia.  The  appellation  given  by  the 
Romans  to  a  spectacular  diversion  consisting  in 
a  naval  engagement  which  usually  took  place  in 
theatres  (called  also  naumachiae)  made  espe 
cially  for  the  purpose.  These  exhibitions  were 
originally  instituted  for  the  purposes  of  naval 
discipline,  but  in  process  of  time  only  malefac 
tors  or  captives  whose  lives  had  been  forfeited 
participated  in  them.  They  appear  to  have  been 
conducted  on  a  scale  of  such  magnificence  as 
almost  to  exceed  belief.  Within  the  places  set 
apart  for  them  whole  fleets  went  through  their 
evolutions  without  inconvenience  or  confusion, 
and  all  the  appliances  of  human  ingenuity  were 
put  in  play  to  give  an  air  of  reality  to  the  repre 
sentation.  Suetonius  narrates  that  in  an  exhibi 
tion  of  this  sort  given  by  Nero,  sea-monsters 
were  seen  swimming  about  in  the  artificial  lake; 
and  in  the  sea-fight  on  the  lake  Fucinus,  given 
by  Claudius,  there  are  said  to  have  been  no  fewer 
than  19,000  combatants.  Julius  Caesar  appears 
first  to  have  given  a  naumachia  on  an  extensive 
scale;  his  example  was  followed  by  many  of  his 
successors  on  the  imperial  throne ;  and  at  last 
they  were  frequently  exhibited  at  the  expense 
of  private  individuals  as  a  means  of  increasing 
their  popularity. 

Nauropometer.  An  instrument  for  measur 
ing  the  amount  of  a  ship's  heel  or  inclination  at 
sea. 

Nauscopy.  The  tact  of  discovering  ships  or 
land  at  considerable  distances. 

Nautical  (Lat.  nauta,  Gr.  nautes,  a  seaman ; 
Lat.  navis,  Gr.  naus,  a  ship).  Belonging  to  ships  ; 
pertaining  to  a  seaman's  business.  The  term  is 
applied  in  a  general,  comprehensive  sense;  thus, 
nautical  science  includes  the  two  branches  of  nav 
igation  and  seamanship. 

NAUTICAL  ALMANAC.  See  ALMANAC,  NAU 
TICAL. 

NAUTICAL  ASTRONOMY.  That  part  of  astron 
omy  made  use  of  in  navigation. 

NAUTICAL  DAY.     See  DAY,  NAUTICAL. 

NAUTICAL  MILE.     See  MILE,  NAUTICAL. 

NAUTICAL  SCHOOL-SHIPS.  See  SCHOOL-SHIPS, 
NAUTICAL. 

NAUTICAL  STARS.  The  bright  stars  used  by 
navigators  in  observations  for  the  determination 
of  latitude  and  longitude. 

NAUTICAL  TABLES.  Tables  especially  com 
puted  for  the  solution  of  problems  in  navigation. 

Nauticum  Fcenus.     Marine  usury  ;  bottomry. 

Nautilus.  The  pearly  nautilus,  N.  pompilius, 
is  a  marine  animal,  belonging  to  the  same  class 
(Cephalopoda)  as  the  cuttle-fish,  but  protected  by 
a  beautiful,  chambered,  discoid  shell.  The  paper- 


NAVAL 


510 


NAVAL  BKIGADE 


nautilus  (Argonauta  argo]  belongs  to  a  different 
family  of  the  same  class,  and  has  a  simple,  deli 
cate,  boat-like  shell. 

Naval.  Pertaining  to  ships.  Of,  or  belong 
ing  to,  the  navy. 

Naval  Apprentice.  See  NAVAL  TRAINING 
SYSTEM. 

Naval  Architecture.     See  SHIP  BUILDING. 

Naval  Brigade.  In  a  preceding  article  on 
"  landing-parties,"  the  equipment  and  organiza 
tion  of  men  from  single  ships,  for  operations  on 
shore,  has  been  treated.  It  has  been  customary 
in  the  service  to  give  the  name  of  "naval  brigade" 
to  even  a  single  ship's  company,  although  by 
rights  it  refers  to  a  larger  organization.  We 
shall  treat  it  in  its  true  meaning,  although  what 
applies  to  it  will  be  found  applicable  on  a  reduced 
scale  to  smaller  parties. 

The  ships  of  a  squadron  being  assembled  for 
offensive  operations,  and  each  ship  having  a  bat 
talion  organization,  the  organization  of  the  bri 
gade  becomes  a  very  simple  matter.  In  modern 
armies  the  tactical  unit  is  the  company,  having 
a  war  strength  sometimes  as  high  as  250  men. 
As  the  naval  company  is  necessarily  small,  on 
account  of  the  limited  number  of  officers  and  the 
comparative  want  of  experience  of  the  men,  the 
battalion  of  four  such  companies  would  seem  to 
furnish  a  good  basis.  The  larger  ships  would 
each  furnish  a  full  battalion,  any  companies 
remaining  over  being  joined  with  those  of  the 
smaller  ships  to  complete  their  quota, — the  ma 
rines  forming  a  battalion  under  their  own  officers. 
Arrangements  should  also  be  made  to  form  a 
brigade  supply-corps  and  brigade  hospital.  The 
artillery  should  be  formed  into  batteries  of  two 
or  three  platoons  each,  care  being  taken  to  have 
the  guns  in  each  battery  of  the  same  class.  An 
artillery  supply-train  must  also  be  organized. 

The  naval  brigade  is  commanded  by  a  commo 
dore  or  captain,  assisted  by  a  staff  consisting  of 
an  adjutant-general,  an  ordnance-officer,  a  signal- 
officer,  a  paymaster,  a  surgeon,  and  several  aids. 
Attached  to  the  headquarters  are  a  squad  of  or 
derlies  and  signalmen,  one  of  whom  carries  the 
headquarters  flag,  which  should  always  mark 
the  point  where  the  commander-in-chief  is  to  be 
found,  but  should  not  be  so  conspicuous  as  to 
draw  the  enemy's  £re. 

The  battalions  should  each  have  two  field-offi 
cers,  an  adjutant,  and  a  paymaster  ;  the  batteries 
one  field-officer,  an  adjutant,  paymaster,  and 
gunner. 

Landing. — All  the  details  of  organization  hav 
ing  been  completed,  such  as  the  assignment  of 
companies  .and  guns,  the  appointment  of  com 
manders  of  battalions  and  batteries,  the  assign 
ment  of  battalions  and  batteries  to  positions  in 
line,  the  amount  of  ammunition  and  stores  to  be 
carried  by  the  men,  the  amount  for  the  brigade 
supply  and  for  the  base  of  operations,  the  detail 
of  ships  to  cover  the  landing,  or  in  the  absence 
of  such  ships,  the  fitting  out  and  arming  of  such 
small  vessels  as  may  be  available.  In  the  ab 
sence  of  either,  when  the  landing  is  to  be  in  force, 
beyond  the  range  of  the  ship's  guns,  gun-rafts 
should  be  built,  on  which  some  of  the  lighter 
ship's  guns  or  heavier  howitzers  should  be 
mounted  behind  hammock  breastworks.  At  any 
rate,  some  of  the  large  boats  should  be  fitted  to 
carry  the  heavy  howitzers  and  to  act  as  gunboats. 
The  boats  should  all  be  distinctly  numbered  on 


each  bow  and  on  the  stern.  Each  boat  should 
be  provided  with  a  good  anchor  and  long  cable. 
The  force  is  divided  into  fighting  line,  sup 
porting  line,  and  reserve  line.  Writers  on  this 
subject  generally  advocate  the  use  of  the  marines 
for  the  skirmish  or  fighting  line,  the  reason  being 
that  the  marines  are  supposed  to  be  better  drilled 
in  skirmishing.  This  may  be  the  fact,  but  it 
should  not  be  so,  as  blue-jackets  can  be  just 
as  well  instructed  when  there  is  a  desire  to  do  so. 
The  marines  are  undoubtedly  the  best-disciplined 
infantry,  and  should,  therefore,  form  the  reserve. 
If  it  is  decided  to  assign  the  marines  to  the  fight 
ing  line,  they  should  be  put  in  boats  by  them 
selves,  pulled  by  men  from  the  reserve  battal 
ions,  unless  the  marines  have  been  instructed  in 
rowing,  as  they  certainly  should  be.  All  the 
large  boats  should  have  four,  and  the  smaller  ones 
two,  boat-keepers,  armed  as  riflemen.  The  steam- 
launches  and  permanent  covering-boats  should 
have  regular  crews.  An  officer,  with  assistants, 
should  be  assigned  to  the  command  of  the  boats 
and  boat-keepers. 

The  men  to  form  the  expedition  having  been 
thoroughly  inspected  on  board  their  ships,  signal 
should  be  made  for  them  to  embark  in  their  boats. 
The  lines  should  then  be  formed  in  order  that  all 
may  learn  their  stations.  When  all  is  ready  to 
start,  the  boats  should  be  taken  in  tow  by  the 
steam-launches  or  small  vessels.  The  tows  should 
proceed  in  the  order  most  convenient  for  reform 
ing  the  lines.  The  artillery-boats  should  be  on 
the  flanks,  and  in  rear  of  the  centre  of  the  line. 
A  convenient  method  of  towing  artillery-boats 
near  the  enemy  is  to  lash  one  on  each  side  of  the 
towing  boat. 

The  circumstances  under  which  a  landing  has 
to  be  made  are  so  variable  that  no  general  rule 
can  be  laid  down.  We  will  discuss  the  two 
which  seem  the  best  to  cover  the  subject:  1st, 
landing  on  the  water  front  of.  a  town ;  and,  2d, 
landing  on  a  beach, — the  enemy  opposing  the 
landing  in  both  cases. 

On  approaching  the  town  the  covering-vessels 
will  take  up  position  so  that  they  can  shell  the 
landing,  and  at  the  same  time  cover  the  land- 
approaches  to  prevent  the  arrival  of  reinforce 
ments.  The  artillery-boats  will  then  advance 
and  take  up  positions  to  clear  the  landing  and 
command  the  principal  streets  and  buildings 
likely  to  shelter  the  enemy's  riflemen.  The 
sea-force  having  been  well  shelled,  the  first  line 
of  infantry  will  pull  in  to  the  best  landing-places  ; 
once  ashore,  the  first  line  of  buildings  will  be  oc 
cupied  and  manned  on  the  land  side.  The  sec 
ond  line  will  now  pull  in  and  land ;  forming 
under  cover  of  the  buildings,  they  will  prepare 
to  move  up  as  many  of  the  streets  normal  to  the 
shore  as  possible.  The  light  guns  and  machine- 
guns  will  now  be  landed.  Some  will  be  placed  in 
position  on  the  first  line  of  buildings,  others  will 
join  the  different  street  columns.  The  reserve 
will  now  be  landed  and  massed  so  as  to  move 
by  the  principal  thoroughfares.  The  advance 
will  then  be  sounded.  The  first  line  will  move 
through  the  buildings  to  the  front,  dislodging 
all  of  the  enemy's  men.  The  second  line  will 
move  in  support  of  the  first  through  the  streets, 
extending  wherever  it  is  found  possible,  and 
clearing  all  the  streets  parallel  to  the  shore. 
Care  must  be  taken  to  keep  up  a  good  line  of 
communication.  The  reserves  will  support  the 


NAVAL   BKIGADE 


511 


NAVAL  CHAPLAIN 


second  line,  and  will  be  prepared  to  reinforce 
any  point  of  the  fighting  line  which  may  be 
hard  pressed.  In  moving  up  streets  it  will  be 
found  best  to  have  the  men  remain  close  to  the 
houses,  taking  advantage  of  the  shelter  oifered 
by  door-steps,  doorways,  etc.  The  men  on  the 
right  side  of  the  street  must  dislodge  any  of  the 
enemy  who  may  appear  in  the  windows  or  on 
the  roofs  on  the  left  side,  and  vice  versa.  In  case 
the  enemy  exposes  masses  of  men,  the  machine- 
guns  must  be  brought  up.  If  barricades  are 
met,  counter-barricades  must  be  erected  as  soon 
as  possible  and  the  howitzers  brought  up. 

On  approaching  a  beach,  the  covering-vessels 
must  take  position  so  as  to  enfilade  any  work 
which  the  enemy  has  erected,  and  to  command 
the  approaches.  The  artillery-boats  must  clear 
the  beach  and  sand-hills  of  bushes  backing  them. 
The  first  line  must  then  land,  contending  as 
skirmishers  and  taking  possession  of  the  first 
line  of  sand-hills.  The  second  line  and  light 
guns  must  then  land  and  occupy  the  positions 
taken  by  the  first  line,  the  first  line  advancing 
to  new  positions  if  possible.  The  reserve  will 
then  land  and  the  enemy  will  be  attacked  in 
force.  The  first  line  will  be  in  extended  skir 
mish  order,  the  second  in  line  in  single  rank, 
the  reserve  in  column  of  fours  or  double  column 
of  fours.  The  artillery  will  take  up  and  main 
tain  the  most  commanding  positions  which  can 
be  found,  and,  having  gotten  a  good  position, 
will  retain  it  until  the  range  becomes  too  great. 
Great  care  will  be  taken  to  have  all  persons  who 
are  not  actually  engaged  kept  as  much  under 
cover  as  possible ;  this  not  only  protects  the 
men,  but  deceives  the  enemy.  The  reserve 
should  be  kept  constantly  intrenching  itself, 
and  the  advance  should  do  the  same  whenever  it 
is  possible  and  does  not  retard  the  movement. 

In  both  cases,  as  soon  as  the  main  body  has 
moved  to  the  front,  the  boats  should  be  placed 
so  as  to  render  an' embarkation  as  speedy  as  pos 
sible.  Off  a  beach  it  will  be  found  best  to  an 
chor  and  have  a  hauling-line  to  the  shore  from 
the  stern,  the  cable  being  long  enough  to  run 
into  the  beach.  The  boat-guard  will  then  throw 
up  rifle-pits  along  the  first  line  of  sandhills  or 
barricade  the  firsfline  of  houses  and  street  open 
ings  as  the  case  may  be. 

In  case  of  a  retreat,  the  first  troops  at  the  land 
ing  will  relieve  the  boat-guards,  who  will  pro 
ceed  to  the  boats. 

If  the  objective-point  of  the  landing  is  inland 
and  necessitates  a  regular  campaign,  the  great 
est  care  must  be  taken  to  observe  all  the  precau 
tions  and  provide  all  the  essentials  which  would 
be  observed  and  provided  by  regular  land-troops. 

Every  means  should  be  taken  to  collect  wheeled 
transportation,  and  draft  animals,  not  only  for 
the  wagons,  but  for  the  guns.  If  possible,  the 
field-officers  and  a  number  of  marines,  or  other 
men  who  can  ride,  should  be  mounted  as  order 
lies  and  videttes. 

The  column  should  never  move  without  a 
regular  advance-  and  rear-guard  and  flankers. 
Scouting-parties  should  be  sent  out  in  all  direc 
tions.  The  artillery  should  be  massed  in  the 
centre  with  the  baggage,  a  few  of  the  lighter 
guns  being  detailed  to  the  out-guards. 

If  it  is  found  necessary  to  bivouac,  the  ground 
should  be  selected  in  regard  to  its  defensibility, 
its  healthiness,  and  its  nearness  to  water.  Strong 


lines  of  sentinels  and  outposts  should  be  estate 
lished  to  guard  against  surprise. 

When  the  main  body  is  in  a  valley  or  gorge, 
the  heights  should  always  be  occupied. 

For  those  who  wish  to  prepare  themselves  more 
thoroughly  for  naval  brigade  duties  we  would 
recommend  a  perusal  of  portions  of  the  "  Ord 
nance  Instructions,"  1880;  Cook's  "Gunnery," 
2d  edition;  Bedford's  "Sailors'  Pocket-Book," 
3d  edition;  Worsley's  "  Soldiers'  Pocket-Book," 
etc. — Theo.  B.  M.  Mason,  Lieutenant  U.S.N. 

Naval  Chaplain.  The  origin  of  the  title  chap 
lain  is  said  to  be  this.  St.  Martin  divided  his 
cloak  with  a  naked  beggar  whom  he  found  per 
ishing  with  cold  at  the  gate  of  Amiens.  The 
cloak,  miraculously  preserved,  was  carried  by 
the  French  monarchs  as  a  sacred  banner.  The 
oratory  in  which  this  cloak  or  cape  (French, 
chape)  was  preserved  acquired  the  name"cAa- 
pelle,"  and  the  person  intrusted  with  its  care 
was  termed  "  chapelain,"  and  thus,  according 
to  Collin  de  Planey,  came  our  words  "  chapel" 
and  "chaplain."  The  office  of  chaplain  is  one 
of  the  most  ancient  in  the  British  navy,  being 
almost  coeval  with  its  establishment.  In  a  re 
port  of  the  commission  appointed  to  inquire  into 
the  state  of  the  navy  in  1618,  it  is  shown  among 
other  abuses  that  "in  the  narrow  seas  there 
is  an  allowance  demanded  for  a  preacher  and 
his  man,  though  no  such  devotion  be  used  on 
board."  July^26,  1620,  George,  Duke  of  Buck 
ingham,  wrote  to  the  University  of  Cambridge  in 
behalf  of  the  appointment  of  Daniel  Ambrose  to 
one  of  the  king's  ships,  and  about  the  same  date 
there  was  a  grant  of  groats  from  the  seamen's 
wages  to  chaplains.  In  1678,  Henry  Teonge  was 
chaplain  of  the  "  Bristol,"  48,  who,  though  fond 
of  "  piggs,"  "  ghoose,"  and  that  "  strange  liquor, 
punch,"  which  he  first  tasted  on  board,  was 
evidently  an  honest,  pious,  and  orthodox  Parson 
Adams  of  the  sea.  His  Diary,  when  chaplain  on 
board  the  "Assistance,"  "Bristol,"  and  "  Koyal 
Oak,"  1675  to  1679,  first  published  in  1825,  is  a 
most  amusing  book,  as  well  as  portrait  of  a  chap 
lain  in  the  royal  navy  200  years  ago.  He  says 
in  the  beginning:  "May  20,  1675.— This  day  I 
began  my  voyage  from  my  house"  "  with  smalb 
accoutrements,  saveing  what  I  carried  under  me 
in  an  old  sack."  "  My  steed  like  that  of  Hu- 
dibras."  (23d)  "My  stock  of  moneys  was  also 
proportionable  to  the  rest,  being  little  more  than 
what  brought  me  to  London  in  an  old  coate,  and 
britches  of  the  same,  an  old  payre  of  hose  and 
shoes,  and  a  leathern  dublett  of  9  yeares  olde  and 
upward.  Indeed,  I  had  (by  reason  of  the  sudden- 
nesof  myjurny)  nothing  but  what  I  was  ashamed 
of,  save  only 

1  An  old  fox  broade-sword,  and  a  good  black  gowne ; 
And  thus  Old  Henry  cam  to  London  towne.' " 

Chaplains  have  been  in  the  U.  S.  navy  almost 
from  its  commencement.  We  find  Elie  Vallette 
a  chaplain  February  26,  1800,  discharged  June 
8,  1801,  under  the  Peace  Establishment  Act. 
Kear-Admiral  Elie  A.  F.  Vallette,  or  La  Vallette, 
as  subsequently  called,  was  appointed  a  lieuten 
ant  December  19,  1814,  and  was  probably  his 
son. 

At  the  present  time  (1880)  there  are  24  chap 
lains  on  the  active  list  in  the  IT.  S.  navy,  4  hold 
ing  the  relative  rank  of  captain,  7  the  rank  of 
commander,  13  the  rank  of  lieutenant.  On  the 


NAVAL  CONSTRUCTORS 


512 


NAVAL  HOSPITAL 


retired  list,  6  with  the  rank  of  captain,  and  1 
with  that  of  commander. 

Naval  Constructors.  The  first  naval  con 
structor  of  the  U.  S.  navy  who  was  appointed 
under  the  War  Department  before  the  Navy 
Department  was  established  was  Joshua  Hum 
phreys,  who  died  or  retired  from  office  October 
26, 1801.  His  son,  Samuel  Humphreys,  succeeded 
him,  and  died  in  office  August  16,  1846.  There 
are  now  (1880)  in  the  service  on  the  active  list: 

One  chief  constructor  with  the  relative  rank  of 
commodore. 

Two  naval  constructors  with  the  relative  rank 
of  captain. 

Three  naval  constructors  with  the  relative  rank 
of  commander. 

Five  nnval  constructors  with  the  relative  rank 
of  lieutenant. 

One  assistant  naval  constructor  with  the  rela 
tive  rank  of  lieutenant. 

Four  assistant  naval  constructors  with  the  rel 
ative  rank  of  master. 

And  on  the  retired  list : 

One  chief  naval  constructor  with  the  relative 
rank  of  commodore. 

Three  naval  constructors  with  the  relative  rank 
of  captain. 

Naval  Crown.  One  of  the  nine  crowns  in 
heraldry,  consisting  of  a  rim  of  gold  or  silver, 
round  which  are  placed  alternately  prows  of 
galleys  arid  square  sails.  It  is  said  to  have  origi 
nated  with  the  Roman  emperor  Claudius,  who, 
after  the  conquest  of  Britain,  instituted  it  as  a 
reward  for  maritime  services.  He  who  first 
boarded  an  enemy's  ship,  and  was  the  occasion 
of  its  being  captured,  was  entitled  to  a  naval 
crown. 

Naval  Hoods.  Those  hoods  wrought  above 
and  below  the  hawse-holes,  outside  a  ship,  where 
there  are  no  cheeks  to  support  a  bolster. 

Naval  Hospital,  Brooklyn.  The  United  States 
Naval  Hospital  Establishment  for  the  New  York 
Station  is  in  Brooklyn,  half  a  mile  to  the  east 
ward  of,  but  separated  from,  the  navy-yard. 
It  occupies  the  hill  portion  (56  feet  above  tide 
water)  of  the  Schenck  farm,  purchased  by  the 
government  in  1820.  The  grounds,  inclosed  by 
a  high  and  substantial  brick  wall,  comprise  20 
acres,  laid  out  in  lawns,  walks,  flower-  and 
kitchen-gardens,  with  an  abundance  of  well- 
grown  shade-  and  fruit-trees. 

At  first  the  family  mansion  and  farm  build 
ings  were  metamorphosed  and  extended  so  as  to 
answer  the  hospital  requirements  of  our  adoles 
cent  navy,  and  it  was  not  until  1828  that  the 
main  building  of  the  present  hospital  became 
ready  for  occupancy.  This  edifice,  200  by  60 
feet,  is  two  stories,  with  full  basement  and  attic. 
There  were  added  to  it  in  1840  two  wings,  each 
73  by  49  feet,  of  same  height  as  main  building ; 
and  at  the  same  time  was  built  a  "  pest-house"  of , 
uniform  height  and  style, — this  latter  structure 
was  subsequently  transformed  into  the  naval 
laboratory,  and  an  ample  building  for  pestilen 
tial  diseases  located  more  remotely.  By  another 
change  the  dead-house  was  converted  into  a  taste 
ful  chapel.  These  buildings  are  of  white  marble 
from  the  quarries  near  Sing  Sing. 

The  hospital  is  appointed  to  accommodate  125 
patients,  though  during  the  Rebellion  the  lists 
ran  up  as  high  as  450,  but  many  of  these  were 
billeted  in  a  wooden  annex,  which  was  torn 


down  after  hostilities  ceased.  The  general  con 
veniences  and  appurtenances  of  the  hospital,  and 
the  system  of  heating  and  ventilation,  are  as 
complete  as  it  is  possible  to  arrange.  The  same 
machinery  that  drives  heated  air  throughout  the 
buildings  during  winter  fans  the  wards  and 
rooms  and  corridors  with  a  cooling  breeze  in 
summer. 

Connected  with  the  grounds  is  a  naval  ceme 
tery,  where  many  officers  and  members  of  their 
families  have  been  buried,  as  well  as  sailors  and 
marines.  Up  to  1880  there  had  been  registered 
1134  interments. 

The  residence  of  the  medical  officer  in  charge 
is  a  comfortable  suburban  villa,  built  half  a  cen 
tury  ago,  and  sequestered  by  an  intersecting 
wall.  The  more  modern  and  conspicuous  dwell 
ing  near  the  hospital  was  erected  during  the  war 
for  the  director  of  the  laboratory.  Besides  these 
are  the  usual  and  necessary  lodges  and  houses  for 
employes,  conservatory, '  engine-house,  sheds, 
barns,  stables,  etc. 

Medical  Inspector  Delavan  Bloodgood  is  in 
charge  of  the  hospital,  and  Medical  Director 
Samuel  F.  Coues  of  the  laboratory. — Delavan 
Bloodgood,  Medical  Inspector  U.S.N. 

Naval  Hospital,  Chelsea,  Mass.,  is  beauti 
fully  situated  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Mystic 
River.  It  furnishes  accommodations  for  all  the 
sick  or  wounded  officers,  seamen,  and  marines  of 
the  navy  at  Boston,  Portsmouth,  N.  H.,  and  New 
London,  Conn.,  and  for  all  invalids  from  our 
naval  vessels  on  foreign  stations  who  may  come 
into  the  port  of  Boston.  The  land  occupied  by 
the  hospital  was  purchased  from  Dr.  Aaron  Dex 
ter,  of  Boston,  on  the  22d  of  September,  1823, 
by  a  commission  composed  of  the  Secretary  of 
the  Navy,  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  and  the 
Secretary  of  War.  There  were  originally  115 
acres  in  the  tract,  for  which  the  government 
paid  $18,000 ;  there  now  remains  about  75  acres, 
the  remainder  having  been  transferred  to  the 
Ordnance  Department  of  the  navy,  and  to  the 
Marine  Hospital  Service.  The  hospital  building 
is  149  feet  by  71  feet,  and  was  completed  January 
7,  1836 ;  a  wing  was  added  in  1865.  It  is  sub 
stantially  built~of  granite,  and  is  capable  of  ac 
commodating  100  sick  men  comfortably.  It  has 
three  floors  beside  the  cellar  and  the  attic,  and  has 
a  pyramidal  roof.  On  the  first  or  ground  floor 
are  the  entrance-hall,  the  dispensary,  kitchen, 
and  offices.  The  second  story  contains  the  wards 
that  are  usually  occupied  by  the  sick.  The 
hospital  fronts  the  river,  and  is  on  the  south 
ern  exposure  of  the  hill.  There  is  a  good  supply 
of  sunlight,  the  sun  shining  into  all  the  windows 
at  some  period  of  the  day.  There  are  westerly 
breezes  from  the  river,  and  the  hospital  is  per 
fectly  protected  by  the  hill  from  the  northeast 
storms,  which  prevail  for  six  months  of  the 
year,  and  are  very  penetrating.  The  ventilation 
of  the  hospital  is  by  flues  in  the  partition- walls, 
which  are  continued  four  feet  above  the  roof.  The 
water  is  supplied  from  the  Mystic  reservoir,  and 
is  abundant  in  quantityvand  very  good  in  quality. 
The  particular  merit  of  this  hospital  is  that  it  is 
the  only  naval  hospital  on  the  entire  Atlantic 
coast  that  is  absolutely  free  from  malarial  poison. 
Patients  suffering  from  this  disease  have  been 
sent  here  from  all  the  naval  hospitals  south  of 
Boston,  and  often  recover.  Most  of  the  cruising 
of  our  naval  vessels  is  within  the  tropics,  and 


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513 


NAVAL  HOSPITAL 


nearly  all  cases  of  sickness  are  more  or  less  com 
plicated  by  malarial  poison,  so  that  this  hospital 
is  better  situated  for  treating  the  sick  of  the  navy 
than  any  other  that  we  have. —  Wm.  T.  Hard, 
Medical  Director  U.S.N. 

Naval  Hospital,  Mare  Island,  Cal.  Topog 
raphy. — This  hospital  comprises  an  area  of  about 
27  acres,  situated  near  the  southeastern  ex 
tremity  of  Mare  Island,  and  about  1  mile  from 
the  navy-yard,  with  which  it  is  connected  by  a 
smooth  roadway  and  a  planked  walk.  It  lies 
upon  the  eastern  slope  of  a  series  of  curving, 
somewhat  elevated  hills,  which  incline  gently 
to  the  straits,  an  arm  of  San  Pablo  Bay,  sepa 
rating  the  island  from  the  mainland. 

The  soil  is  a  thin,  dark  loam,  with  underlying 
clay  and  a  bedrock  of  granite.  Midway  upon 
the  hill-side,  the  ground  has  been  leveled  for  the 
site  of  the  hospital  building.  Above  this  is  a, 
young  park  of  eucalyptus-trees,  while  the  re 
mainder  of  the  grounds  is  covered  with  a  variety 
of  trees,  chiefly  eucalyptus  and  acacia,  and  orna 
mental  shrubbery,  all  laid  out  into  roadways, 
walks,  and  garden-plots,  where  flowers  of  the 
temperate  and  subtropical  zones  are  grown  in 
profusion.  Here  and  there  a  fountain  throws  a 
jet  or  a  spray  from  the  centre  of  a  fish-pond  or  a 
rockery. 

The  view  from  the  hospital  affords  a  pleasing 
variety.  To  the  left  is  the  navy-yard,  with  the 
town  of  Vallejo  opposite;  in  the  middle  distance 
lie  the  straits,  with  a  cultivated,  rolling  plain 
beyond  them,  dotted  with  residences,  while  a 
chain  of  mountains  fills  in  the  background  and 
the  right,  as  we  look  eastward  from  the  hospital 
front. 

Buildings. — The  hospital  building  was  erected 
in  1869-70,  under  the  supervision  of  Medical 
Director  (then  Surgeon)  J.  M.  Browne,  U.S.N., 
and  was  opened  for  the  reception  of  patients  in 
February,  1871. 

Its  length  is  256£  feet,  height  3£  stories,  in 
cluding  the  basement,  and  the  shape  a  rectangu 
lar  parallelogram,  the  regularity  of  the  outline 
being  broken  by  jutting  portions. 

The  structure  is  brick,  made  from  clay  obtained 
near  the  site  of  the  hospital.  It  is  strengthened 
by  perpendicular  iron  rods  anchored  in  the  walls 
and  crossing  five  lines  of  similar  rods,  which  en 
circle  the  building  in  a  horizontal  direction. 

The  building  consists  of  a  central  portion  and 
two  wings.  The  latter  are  provided  with  veran 
das  for  the  first  and  second  stories,  which  extend 
their  entire  length,  and  are  easily  accessible 
from  the  wards.  In  the  central  portion  is  the 
main,  entrance,  protected  by  a  portico,  at  each 
end  of  which  a  jutting  tower  rises  several  feet 
above  the  Mansard  roof,  and  supports  an  iron 
tank  from  which  water  is  distributed  to  various 
parts  of  the  house. 

In  the  basement  are  the  general  mess-room, 
kitchen,  smoking-room,  store-rooms,  chambers,, 
and  mess-room  for  all  attendants,  bakery,  laun 
dry,  with  stationary  tubs  and  drying  coils,  and 
the  fire-room,  with  donkey-engine  for  filling  the 
tower-tanks  and  flushing  the  sewers. 

On  the  first  floor  are  the  reception-room,  gen 
eral  and  private  offices,  quarters  and  mess-room 
for  the  attending  medical  officers,  and  the  dis 
pensary  on  either  side  of  a  central  corridor, 
near  the  extremities  of  which  are  a  nurse's  room 
and  a  diet-kitchen.  At  each  end  of  this  corridor 


is  a  ward  for  patients  of  the  following  dimen 
sions,  viz. :  length  68  feet  5  inches,  width  24 
feet,  height  14  feet  9  inches.  It  is  lighted  by  13 
windows,  5  on  each  side  and  3  at  the  farther  end, 
each  9  feet  2  inches  by  2  feet  11  inches,  heated 
by  an  open  grate  at  either  end  of  the  ward,  and 
ventilated  satisfactorily  by  the  windows  and  8 
ventilating  flues.  It  is  provided  with  water- 
closets,  stationary  marble  wash-basins,  and  a 
bath-room  with  hot  and  cold  water.  The  capacity 
is  20  beds,  and  when  all  are  occupied  each 
patient  has  about  82  square  feet  of  floor-space. 

On  the  second  floor  are  the  two  remaining 
wards,  similar  in  all  respects  to  those  below. 
They  also  are  connected  by  a  corridor,  opening 
upon  which  are  apartments  for  invalid  officers 
and  the  executive  surgeon.  A  nurse's  room  and 
a  diet-kitchen  are  near  each  ward. 

On  the  attic  floor  are  additional  chambers  for 
attendants,  the  post-mortem  room,  a  prison  for 
refractory  patients,  and  the  bag-room  for  the. 
patients'  hammocks. 

There  are  two  water-closets  and  a  bath-room, 
on  each  floor  besides  those  in  the  wards.  A 
linen  shute  near  each  ward  and  an  elevator  ex 
tend  from  the  attic  to  the  basement. 

Electric  call-bells  are  attached  to  the  officers' 
rooms,  and  a  telephone  connects  the  hospital 
with  the  navy-yard. 

The  building  is  lighted  at  night  by  gas  man 
ufactured  on  the  premises,  heated  throughout  by 
open  grates,  and  provided  with  a  good  sewerage, 
the  conformation  of  the  grounds  rendering  effi 
cient  drainage  easy. 

The  water  used  in  the  hospital  is  rain-water 
collected  by  drainage  from  the  neighboring  hill 
sides  into  a  large  reservoir,  whence  it  is  delivered 
through  iron  pipes  into  two  subterranean  cisterns^ 
near  the  building  having  each  a  capacity  of 
90,000  gallons. 

The  ward  for  patients  affected  with  contagious 
diseases  is  situated  beyond  the  hills,  and  about 
one-half  mile  west  of  the  hospital.  It  is  an  ordi 
nary  frame  building,  and  merits  no  particular 
description. 

The  administration  of  the  hospital  consists  of 
a  medical  director  in  charge,  an  executive  and 
two  attending  surgeons,  an  apothecary,  purveyor, 
two  nurses,  and  general  subordinates. 

Climatology. — In  the  absence  of  complete  me 
teorological  data  it  must  suffice  to  say  that  the 
mean  annual  temperature  of  Mare  Island  is 
about  60°,  the  extremes  35°  and  86°  F.  The 
latter  are  the  minimum  and  maximum  recorded 
during  the  10  years  from  1869  to  1879.  The 
rain-fall  varies  from  16  to  38  inches,  approxi 
mately,  and  occurs  almost  wholly  between  No 
vember  and  May  in  a  succession  of  April  show 
ers.  Snow  rarely  falls,  and  never  lies  upon  the 
ground  longer  than  a  few  minutes.  Ice,  and 
even  heavy  frost,  is  exceptional,  so  that  flowers 
may  be  seen  blooming  in  the  open  air  throughout 
the  year,  and  but  little  fire  is  commonly  needed 
even  in  midwinter. 

The  prevailing  winds  are  westerly,  and  during 
the  summer  months  are  steady,  fresh,  and  some 
times  chill.  The  nights  are  always  cool. 

As  a  sanitarium,  this  hospital  is  probably 
unsurpassed  by  any  similar  institution  in  the 
country.  The  mildness  and  equability  of  the 
climate,  and  the  picturesque  surroundings,  invite 
the  invalid  to  an  out-of-door  life  with  its  attend- 


NAVAL  INSTITUTE 


514 


NAVAL   LYCEUM 


ant  sunshine,  fresh  air,  and  gentle  exercise,  and 
while  conveniently  near  Vallejo  and  San  Fran 
cisco  for  the  purchase  of  supplies,  the  compara 
tive  isolation  of  the  hospital  affords  the  quiet  and 
repose  of  country  life.  It  is  the  sanitary  resort 
of  patients  from  all  the  United  States  men-of-war 
cruising  on  the  Pacific,  and  although  they  come 
from  the  coast  of  Mexico,  Central  and  South 
America,  Japan,  and  China,  yet  all  find  the 
climate  grateful  and  conducive  to  restoration  of 
health. — J.  M.  Browne,  Medical  Director  U.S.N. 

Naval  Institute.  The  United  States  Naval 
Institute  was  organized  at  Annapolis,  in  the  fall 
of  1873.  The  object  of  the  institute  is  to  pro 
vide  a  medium  for  the  circulation  of  knowledge 
on  subjects  of  interest  to  the  profession,  and  to 
bring  the  subjects  under  discussion. 

As  the  officers  of  the  navy  are  scattered  all  over 
the  globe,  it  is  impossible  to  get  any  very  great 
number  of  them  together  in  one  locality  ;  for  this 
reason  the  society  is  divided  into  branches,  each 
branch  holding  its  own  meetings  and  electing  its 
own  local  officers.  The  headquarters  are  at  An 
napolis. 

The  papers  read  in  the  branches,  and  the  dis 
cussions  which  arise  from  them,  are  forwarded 
to  headquarters,  where,  with  those  from  that 
place,  they  are  published  for  general  circulation 
among  the  members.  All  officers  holding  posi 
tions  under  the  Navy  Department  are  eligible  to 
membership.  Provision  is  also  made  to  admit, 
as  associate  and  honorary  members,  such  persons 
out  of  the  profession  as  may  desire  to  become 
members,  or  whom  it  may  be  thought  desirable 
to  associate  with  the  undertaking. 

Any  person  eligible  to  membership  has  only 
to  send  in  his  name  to  the  secretary  of  the  insti 
tute,  who  is  stationed  at  the  Naval  Academy, 
Annapolis,  in  order  to  become  a  member. 

The  published  proceedings  form  a  very  inter 
esting  and  instructive  collection  of  service  litera 
ture.  As  we  have  stated,  they  are  sent  to  all 
members  from  the  date  of  admission,  and  may 
be  purchased  by  any  person  at  a  slight  advance 
on  the  cost  price. 

The  institute  has  met  with  great  success  in  the 
service,  and  the  membership  is  becoming  larger 
every  year.  There  is  hardly  a  quarter  of  the 
globe  where,  during  one  evening  in  each  month, 
some  of  the  members  may  not  be  found  assem 
bled  for  discussion. 

Each  year  the  institute  offers  a  gold  medal 
and  a  life-membership  •  as  a  prize  for  the  best 
essay  on  some  subject  selected  and  published 
during  the  preceding  year. 

The  general  officers  of  the  institute  are  a  presi 
dent,  a  secretary,  a  corresponding  secretary,  and 
a  treasurer.  Each  branch  has  a  vice-president 
and  a  corresponding  secretary,  who  acts  as  local 
secretary  and  treasurer. 

The  dues  are  very  small,  $3  for  a  member, 
and  $1  for  an  associate,  and  are  payable  an 
nually  on  the  first  day  of  January.  The  ad 
mission  fee  is  only  nominal.  As  yet  the  gov 
ernment  has  done  but  very  little  to  foster  this 
undertaking,  but  it  is  hoped  that  before  long  it 
may  be  recognized  as  one  of  the  institutions  of 
the  Navy  Department,  as  is  the  case  with  similar 
societies  under  foreign  governments. — Theo.  B. 
M.  Mason,  Lieutenant  U.S.N. 

Naval  Lyceum.  The  United  States  Naval 
Lyceum  was  organized  at  the  New  York  Navy- 


Yard,  November  28,  1833,  by  the  officers  of  the 
navy  and  marine  corps  stationed  at  the  yard  or 
living  in  its  vicinity.  Master-Commandant  M. 
C.  Perry  presided  at  the  first  meeting,  and  Com 
modore  Chas.  Gr.  Ridgely,  then  commandant  of 
the  yard,  was  the  first  president.  In  May,  1835, 
the  lyceum  was  incorporated  by  the  Legislature 
of  New  York,  and  authorized  to  hold,  property 
valued  at  $25,000. 

The  constitution  of  the  society  in  its  preamble 
declares  that  it  was  formed  "  in  order  to  promote 
the  diffusion  of  useful  knowledge,  to  foster  a 
spirit  of  harmony  and  a  community  of  interests 
in  the  service,  and  to  cement  the  links  which 
unite  us  as  professional  brethren."  To  carry  out 
the  objects  mentioned  a  library  and  reading- 
room  were  formed,  a  museum  was  established, 
and  papers  on  naval  ordnance,  construction,  and 
equipment,  etc.,  were  read  and  discussed,  the 
lyceum  being  thus  the  forerunner  by  forty  years 
of  the  United  States  Naval  Institute. 

During  the  years  1836  and  1837  a  bi-monthly 
called  The  Naval  Magazine  was  published  by 
the  lyceum,  with  Chaplain  C.  S.  Stewart  as  edi 
tor  ;  it  contained  articles  on  professional  subjects, 
narratives  of  cruises,  and  general  naval  intelli 
gence.  J.  Fenimore  Cooper,  Commander  A.  S. 
Mackenzie,  Wm.  C.  Redfield,  Esq.,  Chaplain 
Walter  C.  Colton,  and  Dr.  Usher  Parsons  were 
among  the  contributors  to  what  it  is  believed  was 
the  only  purely  naval  periodical  ever  issued  in 
the  United  States.  The  lyceum  was  an  earnest 
advocate  of  the  establishment  of  a  naval  school 
and  of  the  increase  of  the  steam  navy,  and  in 
addition  to  its  magazine  published,  during  its 
earlier  years,  various  pamphlets  on  professional 
subjects.  In  those  days,  having  a  permanent 
librarian,  the  lyceum  took  charge  of  letters  di 
rected  to  its  care  and  forwarded  them  to  the  vari 
ous  foreign  stations.  The  society  flourished  with 
a  very  large  membership  for  over  25  years ;  during 
the  war  of  the  Rebellion,  however,  it  dwindled  in 
size,  and  its  organization  was  suspended  for  some 
time;  it  was  reorganized  in  1871,  and  now  has 
over  a  hundred  members. 

The  museum,  library,  and  reading-room  oc 
cupy  the  upper  floor  of  the  building  in  the  navy- 
yard,  which  derives  its  name  from  the  society,  but 
which  is  also  used  for  the  offices  of  the  command 
ant,  captain,  and  paymaster  of  the  yard,  and 
their  assistants. 

The  museum  grew  very  rapidly  at  first,  and 
received  many  donations  from  citizens  as  well  as 
more  numerous  contributions  from  officers;  it 
contains  a  fair  collection  of  coins,  minerals, 
models  of  vessels,  and  general  curiosities,  a  fine  lot 
of  autographs,  and  a  valuable  set  of  portraits  in 
oil  of  the  earlier  Presidents  of  the  United  States 
and  of  distinguished  naval  officers,  including 
Bainbridge,  Chauncey,  Decatur,  Hull,  Nicholson, 
Shaw,  and  Rogers.  It  is  one  of  the  chief  objects 
of  interest  in  the  yard,  and  is  daily  visited  by 
numerous  parties  from  all  sections  of  the  United 
States,  and  even  from  other  countries ;  in  1879 
the  number  of  visitors  was  over  10,000. 

The  library,  like  the  museum,  received  many 
valuable  contributions  during  the  earlier  years 
of  the  society  from  citizens,  as  much  as  $500  be 
ing  given  at  one  time  by  some  marine  insurance 
companies  for  the  purchase  of  books ;  of  late 
years  many  books  have  been  donated  by  the 
various  bureaus  of  the  Navy  and  War  Depart- 


NAVAL   OFFICER 


515 


NAVAL  SONGS 


ments,  the  naval  observatory  and  the  coast  sur 
vey.  It  now  has  5000  volumes,  many  of  them 
of  great  value,  and  not  easily  replaced ;  this  is 
particularly  the  case  with  the  volumes  pertain 
ing  to  military  and  naval  history,  biography, 
and  science ;  there  is  also  a  valuable  collection 
relating  to  voyages  and  travels.  Nearly  all  the 
professional  journals  of  this  country  and  some 
of  the  best  European  ones  are  taken,  as  well  as 
several  of  the  literary  periodicals  of  the  day. 

The  officers  of  the  society  consist  of  a  presi 
dent,  vice-president,  secretary,  treasurer,  libra 
rian,  auditor,  and  library  committee.  The  com 
mandant  of  the  yard  is  ex  officio  the  president. 
The  entrance  fee  is  $3,  and  the  annual  dues 
$1 ;  the  regular  meetings  occur  monthly,  on 
officers'  pay-day,  at  11  A.M.  All  cadet  midship 
men  and  cadet  engineers  are  invited  to  avail 
themselves  of  the  benefits  of  the  institution  by 
the  tender  on  the  part  of  the  society  of  access  to 
its  rooms,  cabinet,  and  library;  and  the  same 
privilege  is  extended  to  all  the  officers  of  vessels 
temporarily  at  the  New  York  Navy- Yard.  Con 
tributions  of  books  and  pamphlets  and  curiosities 
are  solicited  from  old  members  and  friends  of 
the  society,  particularly  of  books  relating  to  na 
val  affairs  and  maritime  explorations. — F.  Han- 
ford,  Lieutenant  U.S.N. 

Naval  Officer.  An  officer  in  the  naval  service. 
A  custom-house  officer.  See  CUSTOMS. 

Naval  Songs.  Lyrical  poetry  is  the  most 
ancient  and  enduring  method  of  instructing  the 
young,  and  of  keeping  alive  the  history  and  tra 
ditions  of  a  nation. 

With  every  intelligent  people  there  is  a  natu 
ral  curiosity 'to  know  something  of  past  events, 
and  of  those  who  have  rendered  themselves  illus 
trious.  When,  therefore,  books  were  scarce  and 
libraries  unknown,  metrical  composition  became 
a  necessity.  Those  who  could  compose  or  recite 
high  themes  in  pleasing  numbers  were  held  in 
great  esteem  ;  not  simply  that  their  verses  de 
lighted  the  ear,  but  because  they  instructed  the 
heart  and  mind,  and  stimulated  the  memory  to 
retain  all  that  was  good  and  noble  and  worthy  of 
emulation  in  the  past.  These  verses  were  not  only 
repeated  at  high  festivals  and  great  banquets,  but 
beneath  the  vine  and  fig-tree,  and  in  the  seclusion 
of  home  ;  the  earliest  lays  that  caught  the  infant 
ear  told  of  the  glories  of  other  days.  Thus  was 
handed  down  from  father  to  son  the  history  of  a 
race. 

Of  all  the  works  of  man,  Song  is  the  most  en 
during.  The  great  Assyrian  empire  has  crum 
bled  into  dust,  Nineveh  and  Babylon,  Tadmor 
and  Baalbek  have  suffered  Time's  remorseless 
doom  ;  and  yet  the  Song  of  Moses,  telling  how  the 
Lord  delivered  his  people  out  of  the  hands  of 
Pharaoh's  hosts,  is  as  fresh  to-day  as  when  Mir 
iam  and  all  the  daughters  of  Israel  raised  their 
dark  Jewish  eyes  to  heaven  and  to  the  sounding 
timbrels  sang  praises  to  their  fathers'  God. 

The  Sacred  Songs  of  David  have  carried  hope 
and  comfort  to  the  hearts  of  thousands  upon 
thousands;  and  the  "Song  of  Songs,"  so  old 
that  its  authorship  is  unknown,  has  told,  and 
will  for  all  ages  continue  to  tell,  of  the  ineffable 
pleasures  of  pure  and  faithful  love. 

The  wrath  of  Achilles,  the  devotion  of  Patro- 
clus,  the  noble  actions  of  Hector,  the  love  of  An 
dromache,  all  embalmed  in  immortal  verse,  have 
served  to  incite  countless  generations  of  youths 


to  deeds  of  daring.  From  the  days  when  the 
Argonauts  rowed  in  unison  to  the  charmed  mel 
odies  of  Orpheus,  the  sailors  of  ancient  Greece 
ceased  not  to  enliven  with  song  the  labors  of  the 
oar.  They  chanted  hymns  on  going  into  battle, 
and  sang  paeans  in  honor  of  victory. 

Cato,  the  Censor,  in  speaking  of  the  ballad 
poetry  of  ancient  Rome, — unhappily  lost, — said 
that  many  ages. before  his  time  there  were  bal 
lads  in  praise  of  illustrious  men,  which  it  was 
the  fashion  for  the  guests,  at  banquets,  to  sing  in 
turn  while  the  piper  pla}red. 

"  Where,"  Cicero  mournfully  asks,  "  are  those 
old  verses  now?"  Valerius  Maximus  observes 
that  the  ancient  Roman  ballads  were  probably 
of  more  benefit  to  the  young  than  all  the  lectures 
of  the  Athenian  schools,  and  that  to  the  influence 
of  the  national  poetry  were  to  be  ascribed  the 
virtues  of  such  men  as  Camillus  and  Fabricius. 
This  observation  certainly  lends  weight  to  the 
oft-quoted  remark  of  Andrew  Fletcher,  of  Sal- 
toun,  who  said,  "I  knew  a  very  wise  man  that 
believed  that,  if  a  man  were  permitted  to  make 
all  the  ballads,  he  need  not  care  who  should  make 
the  laws  of  a  nation." 

We  have  the  authority  of  Tacitus  for  saying 
that  songs  were  the  only  memorials  of  the  past 
which  the  ancient  Germans  possessed.  The  brave 
actions  of  the  ancient  Gauls  were  commemorated 
by  their  bards,  and  the  ancient  Skalds  sang  in 
Runic  rhymes  the  deeds  of  the  sons  of  the 
fjords. 

The  exploits  of  Athelstane  were  sung  by  the 
Anglo-Saxons ;  those  of  Canute  by  the  Danes. 
The  chants  of  the  Welsh  harpers  preserved 
through  ages  of  darkness  a  memory  of  Arthur, 
and  the  long  struggle  of  the  Servians  against  the 
Ottoman  power  was  recorded  in  lays  full  of 
martial  spirit. 

The  sea  victories  achieved  by  the  heroes  of 
modern  times  have  not  wanted  poets  to  celebrate 
them  in  verse.  The  "  Battle  of  the  Baltic,"  by 
Thomas  Campbell,  will  continue  to  tell  of  "  Nel 
son  and  the  North"  long  after  St.  Paul's  shall 
have  fallen  into  ruin.  But  the  poet  par  excel 
lence  of  the  English  navy  was  Dibdin.  What 
was  said  of  the  effect  of  the  ballads  of  ancient 
Rome  in  forming  the  character  of  the  Roman 
youths  is  certainly  true  of  the  sea-songs  of 
Charles  Dibdin.  He  not  only  sang  of  England's 
naval  heroes  and  their  victories,  but  of  the  sailor 
and  the  sailor's  life  ;  of  his  loyalty,  his  courage, 
and  his  devotion.  Most  of  Dibdin's  sea-songs, 
indeed,  are  pervaded  by  a  wholesome  moral  tone 
and  an  elevation  of  principle  that  could  not  but 
exert  the  happiest  influence  on  the  young. 

"  Poor  Jack,"  quoting  the  chaplain,  says: 


..."  let  storms  e'er  so  oft 
Take  the  topsails  of  sailors  aback, 

There's  a  sweet  little  cherub  that  sits  up  aloft, 
To  keep  watch  for  the  life  of  poor  Jack." 


What  more  touching  tribute  to  the  memory 
of  a  departed  shipmate  than  the  lines  to  poor 
Tom  Bowling?  He  was 


"  The  darling  of  our  crew ; 
No  more  he'll  hear  the  tempest  howling, 

For  death  has  broached  him  to. 
His  form  was  of  the  manliest  beauty, 

His  heart  was  kind  and  soft ; 
Faithful  below  he  did  his  duty, 

But  now  he's  gone  aloft." 


NAVAL  SONGS 


516 


NAVAL  STATION 


The  virtues  of  another  tar  are  told  of  Tom 
Tackle,  who 

"  Was  noble,  was  true  to  his  word ; 
If  merit  brought  titles,  Tom  might  be  a  lord  ; 
How  gayly  his  bark  through  life's  ocean  would  sail ! 
Truth  furnished  the  rigging  and  Honor  the  gale." 

And  so  of  Tom  Transom,  "  a  seaman  sound  to 
the  backbone,"  and  scores  of  others. 

The  great  influence  of  Dibdin's  songs  may  be 
estimated  from  the  fact  that  in  1803  the  British 
government  engaged  him  to  write  a  series  of 
songs,  "  to  keep  alive  the  national  feelings  against 
the  French."  His  biographer  adds,  "His  engage 
ment  ceased  with  the  war  he  thus  assisted  in 
bringing  to  a  glorious  close. ' ' 

While  Dibdin's  songs  of  victory  were  being 
sung,  not  only  on  every  forecastle,  but  in  every 
town  and  hamlet  of  England,  the  infant  navy 
of  the  United  States  found  itself  suddenly  con 
fronted  by  ships  fresh  from  the  glories  of  Traf 
algar  !  When,  therefore,  the  news  spread  over 
the  country  that  the  "Constitution"  had  cap 
tured  the  "Guerriere,"  an  English  frigate  of 
about  the  same  rating,  there  was  scarcely  any 
bounds  to  the  popular  enthusiasm.  Songs  were 
composed  in  honor  of  the  event,  and  sung  at 
public  dinners,  public  meetings,  and  in  the  navy. 
For  years  after  the  close  of  the  war  of  1812, 
such  songs  as  "Constitution  and  Guerriere," 
"Decaturand  the  Navy,"  "The  United  States 
and  Macedonian,"  "The  Hornet;  or,  Victory 
Number  Five,"  contributed  very  materially  to 
wards  keeping  up  the  popularity  of  the  navy. 
The  Revolutionary  war  gave  rise  to  compara 
tively  few  naval  songs.  One  of  them,  how 
ever, — "  Paul  Jones's  Victory," — was  for  many 
years  a  great  favorite  in  the  navy.  A  memory 
of  the  quasi  war  with  France  is  well  preserved 
in  "  Truxtun's  Victory"  : 

"  Come  all  ye  Yankee  sailors,  with  swords  and  pikes  advance, 
'Tis  time  to  try  your  courage  and  humble  haughty  France ; 
The  sons  of  France  our  seas  invade, 
Destroy  our  commerce  and  our  trade, 
'Tis  time  the  reck'ning  should  be  paid 
To  brave  Yankee  boys." 

The  war  with  Mexico  gave  rise  to  very  few 
naval  songs, — the  late  war  of  the  Rebellion  to 
very  few. 

That  our  old  naval  songs  have  died  out  is  due 
in  no  slight  degree  to  the  comparatively  small 
proportion  of  native-born  seamen  who  have 
manned  our  ships.  Of  those  who  could  claim  to 
be  Americans,  many  were  interchangeable  with 
the  merchant  service,  so  that  the  recognized  body 
of  American  men-of-war's-men  was  extremely 
limitedi  Furthermore,  there  were  no  means  of 
making  good  the  waste  by  death,  casualties,  etc. 
The  old  type  of  sailor,  therefore,  died  out,  and 
with  him  passed  away  the  songs  and  traditions 
of  the  old  navy. 

But  a  new  era  has  opened  for  the  American 
sailor.  The  training  of  boys  for  the  navy  will 
now  yield  a  continuous  supply  of  American  men- 
of-war's-men  of  the  best  type.  The  songs  which 
commemorate  our  early  naval  victories,  once  re 
vived,  could  not  fail  to  inspire  the  rising  gen 
eration  of  seamen  with  that  spirit  of  loyalty  to 
their  flag  and  devotion  to  duty  which  distin 
guished  those  who  laid  the  foundation  of  our  naval 
renown.  (Macaulay'suLaysof  Ancient  Rome," 
Aikin's  "  Origin  of  Songs,"  Dibdin's  "  Universal 


Songster,"  London,  1827;  "  Songs  for  Sailors," 
W.  C.  Bennett ;  "  The  Book  of  Battle  Songs  and 
others.")— S.  B.  Luce,  Captain  U.S.N. 

Naval  Station,  Key  West,  Fla.  The  naval 
station  at  Key  West,  Fla.,  is  situated  on  the 
western  side  of  the  island,  and  directly  on  the 
harbor.  It  embraces  2J  acres  of  land,  with  an  L- 
shaped  wharf.  Length  of  wharf  from  store-house 
to  water  front  225  feet,  and  breadth  31  feet ; 
length  of  water  front  250  feet,  with  a  breadth 
of  41  feet.  The  wharf  contains  a  double  rail 
road  track  and  a  heavy  crane.  Mean  depth  of 
water  at  low-tide  at  wharf  is  18  feet,  running 
abruptly  to  25  feet,  so  that  the  largest  ships  can 
remain  alongside  at  all  times. 

At  the  northern  end  of  the  station  is  the  store 
house,  a  heavy  brick  building  of  two  stories,  184 
by  80  feet,  the  brick-work  of  which  was  completed 
in  1857.  The  building  underwent  the  necessary 
improvements  at  different  times  until  it  was  fin 
ished  in  1866,  and  has  been  used  ever  since  as  a 
store-house  for  the  different  bureaus,  and  con 
tains  offices  for  the  officers  of  the  station.  The 
room  at  present  occupied  by  the  paymaster  of 
the  station  was  the  first  office  of  the  Interna 
tional  Ocean  Telegraph  Company  in  Key  West. 

Connected  with  the  store-house  are  two  cisterns 
containing  76,000  gallons  each,  which  were  con 
structed  in  1862. 

The  next  naval  building  is  the  coal-shed,  built 
1^1868  of  wood,  150  by  60  feet,  capable  of  con 
taining  2400  tons,  and  connected  with  the  water 
front  of  wharf  by  a  railroad  track,  but  separated 
from  the  store-house  by  the  U.  S  custom-house, 
U.  S.  light-house  building,  and  the  lots  called 
the  Mallory  property. 

Next  is  the  foundry,  built  of  brick  in  1873,  73 
by  43  feet ;  and  very  near  the  foundry,  at  the 
southern  end  of  the  station,  is  the  machine-shop, 
built  of  wood  in  1862,  137  by  41  feet. 

There  are  the  following  smaller  buildings:  1 
store-house,  25  by  16  feet,  of  wood;  1  store 
house,  23  by  13  feet,  of  wood ;  1  scale-house, 
8  by  6  feet,  of-  wood;  1  transit-house,  8  by  6 
feet,  of  wood  ;  1  carpenter's  shop,  23  by  1.7  feet, 
of  wood.  Total  value  of  property,  $230,000. 

In  1874,  on  account  of  anticipated  trouble  with 
Spain,  the  North  Atlantic,  South  Atlantic,  and 
the  greater  part  of  the  European  fleets  were  or 
dered  to  Key  West,  numbering  in  all  26  ves 
sels  of  every  description,  under  the  command 
of  Admiral  A.  L.  Case.  Commodore  F.  A. 
Parker  was  detailed  for  special  duty  as  chief- 
of-staff,  to  superintend  the  grand  naval  drill 
in  accordance  with  his  tactics.  Four  thousand 
men  were  landed  on  the  south  beach  of  the 
island,  and  were  exercised  in  .skirmish  and  bat 
talion  drill.  In  May  of  the  same  year,  the 
trouble  having  been  amicably  settled,*the  fleets 
were  dispersed  to  their  respective  stations,  and 
the  North  Atlantic  Squadron  was  left  in  com 
mand  of  Rear-Admiral  G.  H.  Scott.  In  April, 
1875,  the  fleet  left  this  place  on  account  of  yel 
low  fever,  and  it  has  never  since  that  time  been 
used  as  headquarters  for  the  squadron. 

List  of  line-  and  staft-officers  from  1872  to  the 
present  time : 

Line-officers. — Lieut.-Com.  A.  N.  Mitchell, 
from  1872  to  1873;  Commander  A.  E.  K.  Ben- 
ham,  from  1873  to  1874;  Commander  A.  R. 
Yates,  from  April,  1874,  to  June,  1874;  Lieut. 
J.  K.  Winn,  from  1874  to  1875 ;  Lieut.  E.  B. 


NAVAL  STATION 


517 


NAYAL  STATION 


Thomas,  from  December,  1876,  to  1879  ;  Lieut.- 
Com.  J.  K.  Winn,  from  November,  1879,  to  the 
present  time. 

Paymasters. — Passed  Assistant  Paymaster 
Henry  Girrard,  from  1871  to  1872  ;  Passed  As 
sistant  Paymaster  F.  C.  Alley,  from  1872  to 
1873 ;  Assistant  Paymaster  F.  Clark,  tempo 
rarily,  1873 ;  Passed  Assistant  Paymaster  F. 
Bissell,  from  1873  to  1874  ;  Paymaster  A.  J. 
Clark,  from  1874  to  1875  ;  Passed  Assistant  Pay 
master  E.  Melach,  from  1875  to  1877  ;  Passed  As 
sistant  Paymaster  H.  C.  Machette,  from  1877  to 
1879  ;  Assistant  Paymaster  Wm.  W.  Gait,  from 
1879  to  the  present  time.  Passed  Assistant  Pay 
master  E.  Melach  was  in  charge  of  depot  from 
1875  to  1876. 

Surgeons. — Acting  Assistant  Surgeon  E.  J. 
Perry,  from  April,  1872,  to  May,  1876  ;  Acting 
Assistant  Surgeon  L.  H.  Armstrong,  from  May, 
1876,  to  May,  1878 ;  Acting  Assistant  Surgeon 
R.  J.  Perry,  from  May,  1878,  to  June  30,  1879, 
when  he  was  discharged  by  the  Hon.  Secretary 
of  the  Navy,  in  accordance  with  act  of  February 
15,  1879,  to  abolish  the  volunteer  navy  of  the 
United  States. 

In  February,  1878,  by  order  of  the  Secretary 
of  the  Navy,  this  was  made  a  station,  and  no 
longer  included  as  a  part  of  the  Home  Squadron. 

One  beautiful  feature  is  the  monument  oppo 
site  the  front  entrance  of  the  store-house,  at  the 
intersection  of  Whitehead  and  Front  Streets,  on 
land  owned  by  the  city  of  Key  West,  which  was 
erected  by  the  Navy  Club  of  Key  West  in  mem 
ory  of  the  gallant  officers,  sailors,  and  soldiers  of 
the  U.  S.  army,  navy,  and  marine  corps  who 
died  while  on  duty  on  this  station  from  1861  to 
1865. 

Until  Lieut.  Thomas,  who  rebuilt  the  wharf 
and  otherwise  improved  and  beautified  the  sta 
tion,  assumed  command,  owing  to  very  limited 
appropriations,  very  little  care  had  been  bestowed 
upon  this  monument  and  its  surroundings,  but 
one  of  his  first  acts  was  to  have  the  lot  on  which 
it  stands  surveyed  and  inclosed  in  a  neat  picket- 
fence,  grass-seed  sown,  and  shade-trees  planted  ; 
and  his  successor,  Lieut.-Com.  Winn,  has  con 
tinued  to  bestow  the  same  solicitous  supervision, 
so  that  each  year  it  is  becoming  more  beautiful 
in  appearance  and  creditable  to  those  who  had  it 
erected. 

The  importance  of  Key  West  as  a  naval  sta 
tion  has  never  been  overestimated  by  the  govern 
ment,  and  as  far  back  as  1824  it  was  used  as  a 
.rendezvous  by  the  gallant  Commodore  Porter 
when  in  command  of  a  fleet  of  gunboats  en-  , 
gaged  in  cruising  for  pirates  on  the  coast  of 
Cuba  and  in  the  West  Indies. 

During  the  late  civil  war  the  port  of  Key 
West  was  brought  prominently  into  notice  by 
being  the  headquarters  of  the  Gulf  Squadron. 
It  was  the  only  port  in  the  Gulf  possessed  by 
the  government,  until  the  capture  of  New  Or 
leans  and  the  evacuation  of  Pensacola. 

Key  West  has  a  fine  harbor,  easy  of  access, 
and  safe  anchorage ;  28  feet  of  water  can  be  car 
ried  at  all  times  through  the  southwest  channel. 

Naval  ships  of  the  class  of  the  u  Colorado"  and 
"  Niagara"  have  visited  this  port  often,  and  have 
never  experienced  any  difficulty  in  entering  it. 

Naval  Station,  New  London,  Conn.  The 
New  London  Naval  Station  was  established  by 
the  government  in  1868.  It  is  situated  on  the 


east  bank  of  the  Thames  River,  and  about  6 
miles  from  its  entrance  to  the  sound, — contain 
ing  about  100  acres  of  land  with  a  mile  of  shore 
front.  The  Thames  River  has  depth  for  the 
largest  vessels  for  some  miles  above  the  site, 
within  the  harbor  of  New  London,  reputed  to  be 
one  of  the  best  harbors  on  the  Atlantic  coast.  It 
is  about  equidistant  from  New  York  and  Boston, 
and  has  a  fine,  clear  entrance  to  and  from  the 
ocean. 

The  government  has  made  appropriations  from 
time  to  time  for  improvements  at  this  site;  a 
wharf  800  feet  long,  2  store-houses,  and  sev 
eral  other  buildings  have  been  constructed,  and 
some  25  acres  of  ground  has  been  graded  to  a 
proper  level  for  the  purposes  of  the  yard. 

Commodore  T.  A.  Hunt  was  the  first  com 
mandant;  then  Commodore  R.  Werden,  who 
was  succeeded  by  Commodore  D.  McN.  Fairfax. 
Commodore  Edward  Simpson  is  the  present  com 
mandant  of  the  yard. 

No  vessels  have  yet  been  built  at  this  yard,  but  it 
is  considered  admirably  adapted  for  that  purpose, 
and  for  the  erection  of  any  structures  which  may 
be  required  at  a  navy-yard,  the  foundations  being 
solid  and  plenty  of  excellent  granite  close  at 
hand.  It  was  recommended  by  a  board  of  offi 
cers  in  1862,  of  which  Rear-Admiral  Stringham 
was  president,  and  it  is  believed  has  the  unani 
mous  approval  of  all  nautical  men. 

The  "  Dictator,"  "  Florida,"  and  other  vessels 
of  large  draft  have  been  at  its  wharf.  The  u  Min 
nesota,"  the  largest  of  the  Training  Fleet,  com 
manded  by  Capt.  Luce,  is  stationed  there  during 
the  winter,  with  500  or  600  men  and  boys  in 
training.  The  site  was  a  gift  from  the  State  of 
Connecticut  to  the  government  for  naval  pur 
poses,  and  it  has  been  recommended  by  the  dif 
ferent  Secretaries  of  the  Navy  as  one  of  the  best 
locations  for  a  national  navy-yard,  as  the  Thames 
River  never  freezes,  and  is  accessible  from  the 
sea  at  all  seasons. 

Naval  Station,  Port  Royal,  S.  C.  Port  Royal 
possesses  many  natural  advantages,  one  of  the 
greatest  being  its  salubrity  of  climate,  which  is 
much  warmer  than  many  places  situated  far 
south  of  it.  The  depth  of  water  on  the  bar  at 
the  entrance  to  the  harbor  is  20  feet  at  dead  low- 
water,  with  a  mean  rise  and  fall  of  tide  of  between 
6  and  7  feet,  and  as  it  is  from  200  to  300  miles 
nearer  to  all  the  Southern  and  Western  shipping 
centres  than  New  York,  this  fact  of  itself  would 
seem  to  insure  its  eventually  becoming  a  place 
of  importance  ;  but,  in  addition  to  this  fact,  it  is 
the  only  place  on  our  whole  coast  between  Nor 
folk  and  Key  West  which  has  this  great  depth 
of  water  in  the  harbor,  and  at  the  same  time  is 
large  enough  to  afford  shelter  to  our  largest  ships 
of  war,  and  where  a  naval  station  possessing 
the  requirements  for  refitting  and  replenishing 
our  squadrons  could  be  established.  But  before 
establishing  such  a  station  it  would  be  necessary 
to  select  the  site  beyond  the  reach  of  an  enemy's 
long-range  guns,  and  to  have  the  approaches  de 
fended  by  fortifications  which  an  enemy  would 
not  attempt  to  pass. 

Port  Royal  was  first  occupied  by  Rear-Ad 
miral  Dupont  in  1861,  and  continued  an  impor 
tant  naval  station  until  1865,  since  which  time 
its  importance  has  been  decreasing  until  the 
present  time,  when,  although  the  vessels  of  the 
North  Atlantic  Squadron  may  obtain  supplies 


NAVAL  STORES 


518 


NAVAL  TACTICS 


of  nearly  every  description,  there  are  no  facilities 
for  repairs. 

Although  no  ships  have  ever  been  built,  the 
government  had  large  shops  established  here 
during  our  late  war,  where  repairs  of  nearly  every 
description  could  be  effected.  The  town  of  Port 
Royal  is  gradually  increasing  in  mercantile  im 
portance,  and  capitalists  are  realizing  the  fact 
of  its  many  natural  advantages,  and  recently 
large  and  extensive  docks  and  a  large  steam 
cotton-compress  have  been  constructed,  and  a 
grain-elevator  and  cotton-factory  are  now  under 
contemplation. 

The  harbor  of  Port  Royal  was  the  rendezvous 
for  our  ironclad  fleet  until  the  spring  of  1877, 
and  after  its  removal  the  "  New  Hampshire" 
was  converted  into  a  training-ship  for  appren 
tices  ;  but  owing  to  her  being  so  heavily  sparred 
as  to  render  anything  like  seamanship  evolutions 
impossible,  the  apprentices,  60  in  number,  were, 
in  June,  1879,  transferred  to  the  other  training- 
ships,  since  which  time  she  has  been  used  as  a 
store-  and  receiving-ship,  the  only  other  perma 
nent  vessel  being  the  "Pawnee,"  which  is  used 
as  a  store-ship  for  coal. 

The  station  has  generally  been  commanded  by 
a  flag-officer,  the  first  being  Commodore  I.  M.  B. 
Clitz,  who  was  relieved,  in  the  spring  of  1877,  by 
Commodore  A.  K.  Hughes,  who  remained  in 
command  until  August,  1878,  when  he  was  suc 
ceeded  by  Commodore  George  M.  Ranson,  who 
was  relieved  by  Commodore  Thomas  Pattison, 
in  January,  1879,  and  he  was  succeeded,  in  Aug 
ust,  1880,  by  Capt.  James  E.  Jouett.—  W.  E. 
Whitfield,  Ensign  U.S.N. 

Naval  Stores.     Ship's  stores. 

Naval  Tactics  (Greek  ro/m/cof,  capable  of 
being  arranged,  as  in  the  order  of  battle).  Tac 
tics  may  be  defined  as  the  art  of  military 
movements.  Naval  tactics  comprehend  those 
evolutions  which  are  designed  to  bring  the 
ships  of  a  fleet  or  squadron  into  a  determined 
order,  or  to  change  them  from  one  order  to 
another.  They  have  for  their  object  the  con 
ducting,  according  to  certain  rules,  of  a  naval 
force  in  and  out  of  port;  anchoring  and  get 
ting  it  under  way;  navigating  it  on  the  high 
seas  ;  the  formation  of  the  line  of  battle ;  the 
pursuit  of  any  enemy ;  the  protection  of  a  con 
voy;  retreating  from  a  superior  force;  and,  when 
the  several  ships  of  the  command  have  been  dis 
persed  by  battle,  by  the  violence  of  the  elements, 
or  other  cause,  their  restoration  to  any  one  of 
the  recognized  orders.  These  various  move 
ments,  and  the  evolutions  necessary  to  effect 
them,  are  to  be  found  in  the  Signal  Book  (see 
SIGNALS),  each  evolution  being  accompanied  by 
a  diagram  showing  the  movement  of  each  ship 
of  the  command. 

On  paper  they  appear  so  simple  that  the  possi 
bility  of  mistakes  seems  remote  indeed  ;  and  yet 
we  have  the  melancholy  examples  of  the  u  Van 
guard,"  the  "Grosser  Kiirfurst,"  a  collision  be 
tween  two  ironclads  in  the  French  navy,  and  the 
sinking  of  a  Russian  man-of-war  while  engaged 
in  tactical  evolutions,  to  say  nothing  of  numer 
ous  collisions  of  lesser  note,  to  show  that  nothing 
but  the  school  of  actual  and  continued  practice 
will  ever  enable  officers  to  handle  their  ships  so 
skillfully  as  to  insure  the  invariable  success  of  fleet 
evolutions.  If  the  weather  were  always  pleasant 
and  the  sea  smooth ;  if  signals  could  always  be  read 


with  certainty  and  correctly  interpreted ;  if  the 
several  ships  of  the  command  were  all  homogene 
ous  ;  if  they  all  maintained  the  same  speed,  and 
under  similar  circumstances  described  equal  arcs 
of  evolution,  the  manoeuvring  of  a  fleet  would 
be  comparatively  easy.  But  these  conditions  are 
rarely,  if  ever,  fulfilled.  Scarcely  any  two  ships 
will  be  found  possessed  of  the  same  facility  of 
turning,  or  able  to  maintain  the  same  speed 
under  varying  circumstances.  Hence  the  fol 
lowing  definitions : 

The  co-efficient  of  speed  is  the  ratio  between  the 
number  of  revolutions  per  minute  of  the  engines 
of  a  given  ship  and  those  of  the  flag-ship,  when 
the  speed  of  both  is  the  same. 

The  co-efficients  of  helm  are  the  ratios  under 
various  conditions  of  speed  between  the  angles  of 
a  given  ship's  helm  and  those  of  a  flag-ship's 
helm,  when  both  are  describing  the  same  circle. 

Every  ship  of  a  command  should  know  its 
own  co-efficient  of  speed  and  its  own  co-efficients 
of  helm  for  different  rates  of  steaming.  Every 
ship  should  know,  also,  the  mast-head  angles  of 
every  other  ship  of  the  command,  both  for  open 
and  for  close  orders :  2  cable's  lengths,  or  240 
fathoms,  and  1  cable's  length,  respectively.  This 
is  the  only  means  by  which  the  proper  distances 
may  be  observed.  Distances  are  reckoned  from 
mainmast  to  mainmast. 

An  assemblage  of  vessels  of  war  takes  the  name 
of  fleet  when  it  consists  of  12  or  more  ships  of 
the  line,  or  vessels  of  equal  military  value;  dis 
patch-boats,  transports,  etc.,  are  not  considered. 

A  naval  force  of  less  than  12  line-of-battle 
ships,  or  vessels  of  equal  military  value,  takes 
the  name  of  squadron  or  division,  according  to 
its  numerical  strength. 

A  fleet  is  separated  into  three  divisions  of  one, 
two,  or  three  squadrons  each,  each  squadron 
comprising  not  less  than  four  vessels. 

The  command  is  distributed  as  follows :  the 
commander-in-chief  commands  the  fleet,  the  sec 
ond  in  command  the  van  division,  the  third  in 
command  the  rear  division,  the  fourth  in  com 
mand  the  centre. 

The  smaller  and  lighter  vessels  constitute  the 
light  squadron  ;  the  transports,  the  convoy. 

The  reserve  division  should  be  about  one-fourth 
the  strength  of  the  whole  fleet,  and  be  drawn 
equally  from  the  van,  centre,  and  rear  divisions. 

There  are  but  three  formations,  any  one  of 
which  may  form  an  order  of  battle,  viz. : 

1.  The  line  (Fig.  1),  in  which  the  ships   are 
ranged  on  a  line  at  right  angles  to  the  course ; 
in  natural  order  when  the  van  is  on  the  right, 
inverse  order  when  it  is  on  the  left. 

2.  The  column  (Fig.  2).    Single  column  is  when 
each  ship  follows  in  the  wake  of  the  leading  ship  ; 
double  column  when  the  two  leading  ships  are 
on  a  line  at  right  angles  to  the  course,  and  at  a 
prescribed  distance  from  each  other,  and  the  two 
columns  are  parallel.     The  column  is  in  natural 
order  when  the  van  is  leading,  in  inverse  order 
when  the  rear  squadron  or  division  is  leading. 

3.  The  echelon  (Fig.  3),  when  the  ships  of  the 
command  steering  the  same  course  are  ranged 
on  a  line  of  bearing  four  points  from  the  course. 
Double  echelon  is  when  there  are  two  such  lines 
of  bearing,  the  two  wings  forming  a  right  angle, 
as  in  Fig.  4.     The  echelon  is  in  natural  order 
when  the  van  is  on  the  right,  in  inverse  order 
when  it  is  on  the  left. 


NAVAL  TACTICS 


519 


NAVAL  TACTICS 


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NAVAL  TACTICS 


520 


NAVAL  TKATNING  SYSTEM 


"When  the  ships  steer  in  direct  double  echelon, 
as  in  Fig.  4,  they  are  said  to  be  in  the  offensive 
order,  or  order  of  chase.  When  reversed,  as  in 
Pig.  5,  the  order  is  termed  the  defensive,  the 
order  of  retreat,  or  the  order  of  convoy. 

The  foregoing  constitute  the  simple  orders. 
Compound  orders  are  those  wherein  the  squad 
rons  or  divisions,  considered  as  units  and  in  the 
same  formation,  are  ranged  on  one  of  the  simple 
orders,  thus : 

Fig.  6,  a  column  of  squadrons  or  column  of 
fours,  in  natural  order,  heading  north. 

Fig.  7,  columns  of  vessels  abreast  by  squadrons, 
in  natural  order,  heading  north. 

Fig.  8,  in  echelon  of  squadrons,  natural  order, 
heading  north. 

Taking  now  the  two  simple  orders,  line  and 
column,  and  regarding  the  ship  as  a  company  of 
infantry  and  the  squadron  as  a  battalion — or, 
better  still,  the  ship  as  a  section  of  artillery  and 
the  squadron  as  a  battery — we  have  only  to  apply 
the  rules  of  military  tactics  to  enable  us  to  form 
the  command  in  any  desired  order.  The  fleet  be 
ing  in  line,  for  example,  heading  north  (Fig.  1), 
let  it  be  required  to  form  column  of  squadrons  to 
the  right.  The  commander-in-chief  signals,  Fleet, 
by  squadrons,  wheel,  to  east.  The  movement  is 
then  effected  as  in  Fig.  9.  The  column  may  be 
brought  into  line  again  by  a  left  oblique  move 
ment  of  the  centre  and  rear,  or  by  Fig.  6.  From 
this  it  would  appear  that  Admiral  George  Monk, 
whilom  chief  of  artillery  under  Cromwell,  was 
simply  wiser  than  his  generation  when  he  moved 
the  mirth  of  the  sailors  by  calling  out,  "  Wheel 
to  the  right!1'  when  he  wanted  to  tack  ship. 

The  foregoing  is  a  summary  of  what  is  called 
elementary  tactics,  that  branch  of  the  art  of  war 
which  immediately  precedes  grand  tactics,  or  the 
tactics  of  battles,  strategy  being  the  highest 
branch,  for  which  reason  it  has  been  called  the 
science  of  generals. 

In  what  order  soever  the  fleet  may  be  formed, 
whether  at  anchor  or  under  way,  the  ultimate  ob 
ject  of  elementary  tactics  is  the  formation,  in  the 
most  expeditious  manner  possible,  for  battle  ;  the 
two  first  branches  above  named,  therefore,  merge 
in 

The  order  of  battle.  This,  in  the  sail-period, 
when  ships  carried  their  batteries  in  broadside 
only,  and  depended  on  the  wind  for  the  motive- 
power,  was  the  close-hauled  line  ahead.  The 
tactical  order  of  battle  of  the  steam-period  is  the 
column  (Fig.  2)  for  vessels  carrying  their  bat 
teries  in  broadside,  and  the  line  (Fig.  1)  for  ves 
sels  whose  offensive  powers  lie  in  the  ram  and 
"  end-on"  fire. 

But  the  single  line,  by  its  liability  to  be  broken 
or  doubled  up,  is  considered  the  weakest  of  all 
recognized  orders  of  battle.  The  ablest  tacti 
cians  of  both  ancient  and  modern  times  have 
therefore  doubled  the  line  (Figs.  10  and  11),  and 
added  a  reserve  to  strengthen  any  particular 
point  at  will. 

With  a  view  to  the  formation  of  a  strong  line 
of  battle,  as  well  as  facility  of  manoeuvring,  and 
a  system  of  mutual  support,  the  French  have  in 
troduced  into  their  system  of  tactics  the  peloton, 
or  groups  of  three  vessels  acting  together.  Thus, 
in  Fig.  12  we  have  the  column  of  pelotons,  and 
in  Fig.  13  the  pelotons  in  line. 

The  expression  order  of  battle  is,  in  fact,  an  ar 
bitrary  term  applicable  to  any  disposition  of  a 


fleet  for  battle  which  the  commander-in-chief 
may  adopt  to  suit  the  occasion.  Conon,  Phor- 
mio,  Alcibiades,  Themistocles,  the  Athenian  fleet 
at  Arginusae,  the  Koman  fleet  at  Ecnomus,  Csesar 
at  Alexandria,  Agrippa  and  Antony  at  Actium, 
afford  some  admirable  illustrations  of  orders  of 
battle  of  the  ram-period, — the  period,  in  fact,  to 
which  we  have  returned. 

Of  the  naval  powers  of  modern  times  the 
French  have  paid  most  attention  to  naval  tac 
tics,  though  in  actual  warfare  they  were  charged, 
during  the  sail-period,  with  a  somewhat  too  close 
adhesion  to  rules. 

De  Grasse,  after  the  action  of  12th  of  April, 
1782,  justified  himself  against  the  charges  brought 
against  him  by  the  other  flag-officers  of  his  fleet  by 
pleading  his  compliance  with  the  Ordonnance  du 
Roy,  which  specified  a  particular  line  of  condnet 
under  similar  circumstances.  Rodney 's  fleet  being 
to  leeward,  was  enabled  by  a  shift  of  wind  during 
the  action  to  lead  through  the  enemy's  line. 
The  Ordonnance  prescribed  that  the  French  fleet 
was  then  to  tack  together.  De  Grasse  made  the 
signal  for  that  purpose,  which  was  not  obeyed 
by  M.  de  Vandreuil,  the  second  in  command, 
and  his  squadron,  under  the  pretense  that  no 
man  in  his  senses  would  have  ordered  such  a 
manoauvre  under  an  enemy's  fire.  An  eminent 
French  writer  notices  the  same  defect,  and  ridi 
cules  what  he  terms  the  pious  regard  of  his  coun 
trymen  for  the  "  sacred  order  of  the  line  of  bat 
tle"  to  which  the  combined  fleets  were  sacrificed 
at  Trafalgar. 

While  Nelson  advanced  in  two  close  columns 
to  overwhelm  the  centre  of  this  "sacred  line" 
the  two  wings  remained  immovable  ;  they  were 
"  in  line,"  he  says,  and  that  was  enough;  and  in 
this  position  they  looked  on  "  avec  une  effrayante 
impassibilite"  until  the  centre  was  destroyed; 
then,  and  not  till  then,  forgetting  all  respect 
for  the  "  sacred  order  of  the  line,"  they  thought, 
not  of  seeking  to  remedy  any  part  of  the  evil, 
but  of  making  their  escape.  (See  "  Fleet  Tactics 
Under  Steam,"  by  Commodore  F.  A.  Parker, 
U.S.N.)— S.  B.  Luce,  Captain  U.S.N. 

Naval  Training  System.  In  1835,  Mr.  John 
Goin,  of  New  York,  first  suggested  the  idea  of 
opening  nautical  schools  for  boys  wishing  to 
follow  the  sea  as  a  livelihood.  There  was  such  a 
large  proportion  of  foreign  seamen  in  both  the 
national  and  mercantile  marines,  that  the  train 
ing  of  boys  for  the  sea  was  thought  to  be  the 
only  means  of  manning  our  fleets  with  native- 
born  Americans.  The  press  advocated  Mr.  Goin's 
proposition  with  much  zeal.  When  the  subject 
was  brought  to  the  attention  of  Congress,  an  act 
was  passed  (approved  March  2,  1837)  making  it 
lawful  to  enlist  boys  for  the  navy  (with  the  con 
sent  of  their  parents  or  guardians)  not  under  13, 
nor  over  18  years  of  age,  to  serve  until  21.  Under 
this  act  enlistments  commenced  at  once  and  pro 
ceeded  with  vigor,  the  boys  being  sent  to  the 
"  Hudson,"  frigate,  then  a  receiving-ship  at 
New  York,  to  the  line-of-battle  ships  "North 
Carolina"  and  "  Columbus,"  and  to  the  "Java," 
frigate,  the  receiving-ship  at  Norfolk.  The  Sec 
retary  of  the  Navy  in  his  instructions  to  the  com 
manders  of  ships  having  boys  on  board,  directed 
that  they  (the  apprentices)  were  to  be  thoroughly 
instructed,  so  as  to  best  qualify  them  to  perform 
the  duties  of  seamen  and  petty  officers.  In  his  an 
nual  report  of  November  30,  1839,  the  Secretary 


NAVAL  TRAINING  SYSTEM 


521 


NAVAL  TRAINING  SYSTEM 


says,  •"  Should  this  system  of  apprenticeship  be 
carried  to  the  extent  of  which  it  is  susceptible,  I 
look  forward  to  it.  as  a  source  of  great  and  lasting 
benefit  to  the  navy.  There  is  every  reasonable 
prospect  of  its  becoming  a  nursery  for  the  supply 
of  petty  officers,  one  of  the  most  important  con 
stituents  in  the  service ;  nor  can  I  doubt  that  it 
may  be  made  the  means  of  supplying  a  large 
number  of  capable,  intelligent  seai.oen,  more 
strongly  attached  to  their  country  by  the  bene 
fits  she*  has  conferred  on  them."  But  the  idea 
got  abroad  that  the  apprentice-boys  weie  in  time 
to  be  advanced  to  the  grade  of  midshipmen,  and 
thus  enter  the  line  of  promotion  to  the  highest, 
rank.  Many  boys  of  excellent  family  enlisted 
under  this  impression.  By  dint  of  political  in 
fluence  two  or  three  of  the  enlisted  boys  vvere 
appointed  midshipmen.  This  had  the  effect  of 
rendering  the  less  fortunate  ones  discontented 
with  the  service.  This,  with  the  discovery  of 
the  true  nature  of  the  apprentice  system  as  set 
forth  in  the  letter  of  the  Secretary  of  the  Navy, 
caused  a  general  clamoring  for  discharges,  and 
as  these  applications  were  backed  up  in  most 
cases  by  strong  political  influence,  they  were 
generally  successful.  Failing  to  obtain  their 
discharge,  many  deserted.  The  apprentice  sys 
tem  of  1837  lacked  organized  effort,  cohesion, 
stability, — in  short,  every  element  of  perma 
nency.  After  lingering  a  few  years  it  finally 
died  out. 

In  1863  a  repoi^t  was  made  to  the  Navy  De 
partment  on  the  training  system  of  the  English 
navy,  with  a  recommendation  that  a  similar  sys 
tem  be  adopted  for  the  U.  S.  navy.  The  recom 
mendation  was  so  favorably  received  that  the 
Department  authorized  (circular  of  March  27, 
1874)  the  resuming  of  the  enlistment  of  boys 
under  the  provisions  of  the  act  of  March  2,  1837. 
The  u  Sabine,"  frigate,  was  selected  as  the  school- 
ship,  and  in  due  course  of  time  the  "Saratoga"  and 
"  Portsmouth"  were  added.  For  a  time  every 
thing  proceeded  so  well  as  to  justify  the  most 
sanguine  hopes.  Unfortunately,  the  Secretary 
of  the  Navy,  in  his  annual  report  for  1864,  gave 
expression  to  the  following  views  in  relation  to 
the  boys  on  board  the  "  Sabine"  :  "  Commencing 
as  apprentices  on  the  school-ship,  it  would  be 
well  to  open  to  the  sailor-boy  the  way  to  promo 
tion  by  giving  him  an  opportunity,  if  he  shall 
deserve  it,  of  entering  the  Naval  Academy. 
From  among  the  apprentices  on  the  school- 
ship  a  selection  of  one-half  of  the  midshipmen 
annually  appointed  might  be  made  with  great 
advantage  to  the  service  and  the  country.  .  .  . 
It  would  popularize  the  navy,  and  open  to  those 
who  may  have  enlisted  the  highest  positions  and 
honors  of  the  service."  In  accordance  with  these 
views  a  limited  number  of  apprentice-boys  were 
sent  every  year  to  the  Naval  Academy  to  be  ex 
amined  for  admission.  There  followed  naturally 
a  repetition  of  the  experiment  of  1837.  Many 
boys  of  our  best  families,  having  failed  to  secure 
appointments  to  the  Naval  Academy  in  the  usual 
way,  had  enlisted  for  the  sole  purpose  of  gaining 
admission  into  that  institution.  Failing  in  their 
object,  and  having  no  longer  a  motive  for  re 
maining  in  the  service,  some  obtained  their  dis 
charge,  others  deserted.  Among  the  several 
school-ships  there  seems  to  have  been  no  con 
cert  of  action ;  there  was  no  controlling  power, 
no  head, — in  short,  no  system.  The  experiment 


of  1864  lingered,  like  its  predecessor,  for  a  few 
short  years,  and,  like  it,  died  out. 

Under  date  of  November  12,  1872,  the  subject 
of  training-ships  was  again  brought  to  the  notice 
of  the  Navy  Department,  but  failed  for  the 
time  to  gain  the  attention  its  importance  de 
served.  In  the  meanwhile  the  Legislature  of 
the  State  of  New  York  passed  an  act  to  estab 
lish  a  nautical  school  "  for  the  education  and 
training  of  pupils  in  the  science  and  practice 
of  navigation."  To  aid  this  school,  and  to 
encourage  other  States  to  follow  the  example 
of  New  York,  Congress  passed  the  "  Marine 
School"  bill  (approved  June  20,  1874),  author 
izing  the  Secretary  of  the  Nav}*1  to  furnish  a 
suitable  vessel  of  the  navy  to  any  nautical  school 
established  at  the  ports  of  New  York,  Boston, 
Philadelphia,  Baltimore,  Norfolk,  or  San  Fran 
cisco.  Under  the  provisions  of  this  act  the  Navy 
Department  turned  over  to  the  city  of  New  York 
for  the  use  of  her  nautical  school  the  old  sailing 
sloop-of-war  "St.  Mary's,"  to  be  used  as  a  school- 
ship.  Shortly  after  the  "  Jamestown"  was  loaned 
to  the  city  of  San  Francisco  for  the  same  purpose. 
The  latter,  however,  was  soon  given  up.  Stim 
ulated,  perhaps,  by  the  example  of  New  York, 
the  Navy  Department,  under  date  of  April  8, 
1875,  issued  a  circular  stating  that  a  limited 
number  of  boys  between  the  ages  of  16  and  17 
years  would  be  enlisted  under  the  provisions  of 
the  act  of  Congress  of  March  2,  1837.  The 
steam-frigate  "  Minnesota,"  then  flying  the  flag 
of  Vice-Admiral  S.  C.  Rowan,  at  New  York, 
was  designated  as  the  school-ship.  As  yet  the 
number  oP-boys  enlisted  had  to  be  taken  from 
the  7500  men  allowed  the  navy  by  Congress. 
As  this  drain  on  the  complement  of  men  hamp 
ered  the  operations  of  the  navy,  an  act  was 
passed  (approved  May  12,  1879)  authorizing  the 
enlistment  of  750  boys  over  and  above  the  com 
plement  of  7500  seamen,  and  reducing  the  age 
of  admission  from  16  to  15  years.  The  Navy 
Department  thereupon  issued  the  following : 

"  Circular  relating  to  the  Enlistment  of  Boys  in 
the  U.  S.  Naval  Service. 

"NAVY  DEPARTMENT,  WASHINGTON,  May  31, 1879. 

"  The  circular  of  April  8,  1875,  relating  to  the 
enlistment  of  boys  in  the  U.  S.  naval  service, 
is  hereby  rescinded,  and  the  following  substi 
tuted,  in  accordance  with  the  amendments  to  the 
Revised  Statutes  of  the  United  States,  approved 
May  12,  1879,  to  wit: 

"' SECTION  1418.  Boys  between  the  ages  of 
fifteen  and  eighteen  years  may  be  enlisted  to 
serve  in  the  navy  until  they  shall  arrive  at  the 
age  of  twenty-one  years,  etc.,  etc.' 

"  '  SECTION  1419.  Minors  between  the  ages 
of  fifteen  and  eighteen  years  shall  not  be  enlisted 
for  the  naval  service  without  the  consent  of  their 
parents  or  guardians.' 

"  '  SECTION  1420.  No  minor  under  the  age  of 
fifteen  years,  no  insane  or  intoxicated  person, 
and  no  deserter  from  the  naval  or  military  ser 
vice  of  the  United  States  shall  be  enlisted  in  the 
naval  service.' 

"  These  boys  will  be  sent  on  board  of  suitable 
vessels,  to  be  trained  for  the  naval  service,  under 
the  following  regulations : 

"  Every  boy  previous  to  being  enlisted  must 
satisfy  the  Examining  Board  of  Officers — 


NAVAL  TRAINING  SYSTEMS 


522 


NAYAL   TRAINING  SYSTEMS 


"  That  he  is  of  robust  frame,  intelligent,  of 
'perfectly  sound  and  healthy  constitution,  free 
from  any  physical  defects  or  malformation,  and 
not  subject  to  fits. 

"  That  he  is  able  to  read  and  write. 

"  In  special  cases  where  the  boy  shows  a  gen 
eral  intelligence,  and  is  otherwise  qualified,  the 
Examining  Board,  if  they  think  fit,  may  enlist 
him,  notwithstanding  his'knowledge  of  reading 
and  writing  is  imperfect. 

"That  his  height  and  measure  are  sufficient, 
being  as  follows : 


Height. 

Chest    Measure 

Ago. 

Weight. 

ment  —  breath 
ing  naturally. 

Fifteen  years 

4  feet  11  inches. 

85  pounds. 

27l<  inches. 

Sixteen       " 

5 

1  inch. 

90        " 

28 

Seventeen  " 

5 

"      2  inches. 

100        " 

29 

Eighteen    " 

5 

"      3       " 

110        " 

30         " 

"  The  education  of  the  boys  will  comprise  the 
elements  of  an  ordinary  English  education,  al 
ternating  with  practical  seamanship  and  other 
professional  occupations  designed  to  prepare 
them  for  sailors  in  the  navy. 

"The  prime  object  is  to  place  in  the  naval 
service,  with  the  consent  of  their  parents,  such 
good  and  deserving  boys  as  will  elevate  its  stand 
ard,  and  make  the  navy  more  reliable  as  an  arm 
of  the  national  defense.  Boys  who  have  been 
convicted  of  crime  cannot,  therefore,  be  received, 
as  it  is  not  advisable  that  they  should  become  the 
associates  of  the  better  class. 

"  The  boys  will  be  enlisted  as  third-class  boys, 
at  the  rate  of  $9.50  per  month  and  one  ration. 
"While  serving  on  the  training-ships,  they  may, 
if  deserving,  be  promoted  to  the  rating  of  second- 
and  first-class  boys,  at  the  pay  of  $10.50  and 
$11.50  per  month,  respectively,  and  on  cruising- 
vessels  will  be  entitled  to  higher  ratings,  at  the 
discretion  of  their  commanding  officers,  as  a  re 
ward  of  proficiency  and  good  conduct." 

At  the  present  date  (October  19,  1880)  the 
training-ships  "Minnesota,"  "Constitution," 
"Saratoga,"  and  "Portsmouth,"  having  on 
board  a  total  of  715  boys,  have  been  assembled 
at  Hampton  Roads  for  the  purpose  of  being  in 
spected  by  the  Secretary  of  the  Navy ;  after 
which  they  will  be  sent  to  different  ports  to  re 
sume  enlistments. 

The  present  system  has  been  in  operation  about 
five  years  ;  just  about  the  lifetime  of  the  experi 
ments  of  1837  and  1864.  It  is  yet  to  be  seen 
whether  it  will  meet  with  the  fate  of  its  prede 
cessors,  or  justify  the  hope  expressed  by  Mr. 
Secretary  Paulding  in  1839,  "that  it  will  be  a 
great  arid  lasting  benefit  to  the  navy." — S.  B. 
Luce,  Captain  U.S.N. 

Naval  Training  Systems,  Foreign.  Schools 
have  been  established  by  most  of  the  more  im 
portant  naval  powers  of  Europe  for  the  training 
of  the  men  of  their  fleets,  both  naval  and  mer 
cantile, — England,  France,  Germany,  Italy,  and 
Holland  having  well  and  completely  organized 
systems  for  this  purpose.  The  importance  of  so 
doing  was  recognized  by  these  long  before  it  was 
felt  by  the  government  of  the  United  States,  which 
has,  until  within  the  last  five  years,  had  nothing 
of  the  kind  which  might  be  called  a  system. 


England,  of  course,  as  being  pre-eminently  a 
naval  and  mercantile  power,  has  taken  the  lead, 
and  has  at  present,  all  things  considered,  the 
most  complete  and  satisfactory  methods  of  train 
ing  her  sailors.  There  are  at  present  employed 
in  this  duty  in  the  United  Kingdom  five  line- 
of-battle  ships  (with  brigs  as  tenders)  for  the 
navy,  and  twenty  large  ships  for  the  boys  in 
tended  for  the  merchant  service ;  two  ships  of 
the  latter  class  are  for  the  education  of  officers 
only.  There  are  besides  these,  at  several  of  the 
great  industrial  (reformatory)  schools,  vessels 
built  ashore,  from  the  berth-deck  up,  which  serve 
for  the  training  of  boys  who  evince  a  taste  for  the 
sea ;  at  Hull  is  a  special  free  school  for  the  teach 
ing  of  navigation  (established  under  an  old  en 
dowment),  and  finally,  at  Greenwich  is  a  govern 
ment  school  for  the  sons  of  seamen,  in  which  are 
at  all  times  1000  boys,  who  are  admitted  between 
10£  and  13  years  of  age  and  retained  until  15J 
years,  when  they  are  sent  into  the  navy,  if  phys 
ically  fit.  All  the  foregoing  establishments  are 
for  young  boys  who  have  not  been  to  sea ;  for 
the  further  training  of  seamen  in  the  navy,  there 
are  the  gunnery  and  torpedo  schools  at  Ports 
mouth  and  Devonport,  established  on  board  the 
"  Excellent"  and  "  Cambridge,"  to  each  of  which 
ships  are  attached  several  other  vessels  as  sub 
sidiary  schools. 

To  take  first  the  navy  :  the  five  line-of-battle 
ships  are  stationed, — the  "  St.  Vincent"  at  Ports 
mouth,  the  "Boscawen"  at  Portland,  the  "Im 
pregnable"  and  "  Implacable"  at  Devonport,  the 
"Ganges"  at  Falmouth.  In  these,  at  present 
writing  (September,  1880),  there  are  a  few  over 
3000  boys,  2400  of  which  are  the  entries  of  this 
year.  The  number  entered  varies  with  the  de 
mands  of  the  service,  and  is  estimated  to  be  such 
as  will  fill  the  vacancies  in  the  blue-jacket  class 
of  the  navy.  The  total  number  in  this  class  is 
about  19,000  out  of  the  30,000  men  of  the  navy, 
so  that  the  annual  waste  of  the  blue-jacket  class 
may  be  estimated  as  about  12  per  cent. 

The  boys  are  received  from  15  to  16^  years  of 
age,  and  undergo  a  training  which  lasts  through 
16  months  before  being  ready  for  sea-service. 
When  first  received  he  is  placed  for  a  week  on 
board  a  hulk,  which  is  used  as  a  tender  to  the 
parent  ship  ;  he  is  there  supplied  with  his  cloth 
ing  and  bedding  (which  is  given  him  free  of 
charge),  takes  a  daily  bath,  is  taught  to  lash  his 
hammock,  stow  his  clothing,  and  made  to  learn 
many  other  small  details  which  are  necessary  to 
enable  him  to  take  care  of  himself  when  he  goes 
on  board  the  training-ship. 

The  training  received  thereafter  is  divided  be 
tween  school-work,  drill,  and  practical  seaman 
ship  in  the  brig  tender.  The  schooling  consists 
in  learning  reading  and  writing  from  dictation  ; 
arithmetic,  to  include  decimals ;  geography, 
and  religious  knowledge.  Daily  exercises  in 
drills  of  various  kinds  take  place ;  boat  sailing 
and  pulling,  swimming,  signaling,  etc.,  are 
taught,  a  special  class  of  boys  being  selected  for 
the  last.  In  April  the  brigs  are  ready  for  sea 
and  the  boys  are  sent  on  board,  about  100  at  a 
time, — as  they  are  prepared, — for  a  cruise  of  six 
weeks  or  two  months,  in  the  vicinity  of  the  pa 
rent  ship  ;  they  are  then  sent  to  the  gunnery-ship 
for  a  six  weeks'  course  in  gunnery,  after  which 
they  are  ready  for  sea-service.  At  18  years  of 
age  they  are  rated  ordinary  seamen,  or  ordinary 


NAVAL  TRAINING  SYSTEMS          523         NAVAL  TRAINING  SYSTEMS 


seamen,  2d  class,  and  serve  from  that  time  until 
they  are  28,  which  is  the  end  of  the  period  for 
which  they  are  bound.  The  bandsmen  and 
buglers  of  the  English  service  are  also  trained  in 
these  ships,  boys  not  under  14  years  of  age  being 
received  for  this  purpose. 

The  entire  system  is  under  one  head,  the  cap 
tain  of  the  "  Impregnable"  ;  all  the  other  ships 
are  commanded  by  commanders,  who  refer  all 
questions  relating  to  the  training-service  to  this 
officer.  A  complete  system  of  regulations  has 
been  adopted,  which  is  rigidly  adhered  to,  so  that 
every  ship  is  supposed  to  be  doing  the  same  thing 
at  the  same  time  ;  rigid  uniformity  is  sought,  so 
that  the  boys  turned  out  from  one  ship  are  quite 
the  same  as  those  from  either  of  the  others  ;  this 
has  great  benefits,  as  it  tends  to  make  a  perfectly 
homogeneous  mass  of  the  seamen  of  the  fleet. 

The  ship's  writers,  ship's  steward's  boys, 
schoolmasters,  yeomen,  etc.,  of  the  British  fleet, 
are  furnished  from  the  Greenwich  Hospital 
School,  these  being  specially  selected  from  the 
mass  of  boys,  and  specially  trained  for  their 
duties ;  the  remainder  of  the  boys  are  sent,  on 
arriving  at  the  age  of  15J,  to  the  training-ships, 
where  they  take  a  front  rank  on  account  of  their 
previous  excellent  training.  The  school  has  a 
sloop-of-war  built  in  its  grounds  from  the  berth- 
deck  up,  on  which  the  boys  get  their  seamanship 
training.  The}7  also  have  excellent  working 
models  in  the  school-rooms.  The  education 
given  at  this  school  is  excellent  throughout, 
making  it  in  many  respects  a  model  school.  It 
is  on  the  half-time  system,  in  which  half  the 
time  is  given  to  the  learning  of  trades,  those 
being  taught  which  go  to  make  the  establishment 
as  self-supporting  as  possible,  such  as  mattress- 
making,  tailoring,  shoe-making,  etc. 

The  course  of  those  intended  for  schoolmasters 
covers  a  period  of  six  years  after  they  are  selected 
for  such  training.  While  undergoing  this  course, 
which  is  divided  into  three  periods  of  two  years 
each,  they  are  termed  pupil  teachers.  The  first 
period  is  passed  at  Greenwich,  the  second  on  board 
the  training-ships,  and  the  third  again  at  Green 
wich.  During  all  these  years  their  time  is  largely 
taken  up  with  teaching,  though  a  fixed  and 
very  difficult  course  of  study  is  laid  down  for 
themselves.  The  result  is  that  the  British  navy 
is  supplied  with  one  of  the  most  efficient  and 
able  body  of  schoolmasters  in  the  world.  Too 
high  praise  can  scarcely  be  given  them  as  a 
.class. 

To  complete  the  naval  training  there  are,  as 
aiefore  stated,  the  gunnery-ships  and  their  ad 
juncts,  in  the  training  of  the  older  seamen.  The 
course  on  board  these  ships  includes  everything 
connected  with  the  subjects  of  practical  gunnery 
and  ammunition ;  it  is  usually  for  six  months, 
but  many  of  the  men  stay  three  years.  There  are 
at  this  time  in  the  British  navy  3000  seamen  gun 
ners,  and  6000  trained  men  who  have  undergone 
the  course  in  whole  or  part. 

For  the  mercantile  marine  there  are  the  "  Con- 
way,"  at  Liverpool,  and  the  "Worcester,"  in 
the  Thames,  for  officers  ;  the  "  Indefatigable,"  at 
Liverpool,  for  the  sons  and  orphans  of  sailors 
and  for  destitute  boys  ;  the  "  Warspite, "  off  Wool 
wich,  for  poor  boys  ;  the  "  Shaftesbury,"  off 
Grays,  in  the  Thames,  under  the  jurisdiction 
of  the  ^London  School  Board,  for  boys  who  de 
sire  a  sea-training;  and  the  "  Exmouth,"  at  the 


same  point,  for  pauper  boys.  The  remaining 
vessels,  the  "  Akbar"  and  "Clarence,"  in  the 
Mersey,  the  "  Chichester,"  "Arethusa,"  and 
"  Cornwall,"  in  the  Thames,  the"  Cumberland," 
in  Row  Bay,  Scotland,  the  "Formidable," 
"Bristol,"  "Gibraltar,"  at  Belfast,  "  Havan- 
nah,"  at  Cardiff,  "  Mars,"  at  Dundee,  the 
"Southampton,"  at  Hull,  the  "  Wellesley,"  in 
the  River  Tyne,  and  the  "  Mount  Edgecumbe," 
at  Devenport,  are  all  ships  of  the  reformatory 
class,  in  which  are  received  convicted  boys.  The 
great  number  of  such  ships  militates  much 
against  the  successful  training  of  boys  for  the 
merchant  service,  as  it  gives  the  service  itself  a 
bad  character  to  have  so  many  boys  of  this  kind 
sent  into  it.  The  aim  should  be  to  raise  the  tone 
of  the  merchant  sailor  by  inducing  the  better 
class  boys  to  enter,  and  there  are  very  few  ships 
in  England  where  boys  of  this  class  are  received. 
The  training  given  in  all  the  ships  above  men 
tioned  is  the  teaching  the  duties  of  the  sailor  in 
general.  The  elements  of  an  English  education 
are  likewise  given.  The  most  successful  appears 
to  be  the  "  Exmouth,"  in  which  the  drill,  disci 
pline,  and  general  appearance  of  the  boys  are 
most  admirable.  About  600  boys  are  kept  in 
this  ship,  which  in  three  years  has  sent  over  200 
boys  to  sea,  and  30  into  the  army, — the  latter  as 
musicians. 

The  "  Warspite,"  supported  by  voluntary  con 
tributions,  is  under  a  society  which  was  founded 
in  1772,  and  since  that  time  has  sent  59,000  boys 
to  sea.  All  the  other  ships  have  been  founded 
within  the  past  30  years,  and  most  of  them  are 
of  much  later  date. 

The  reformatory  (or  industrial)  school-ships 
are  largely  supported  by  government  grants,  and 
all  have  in  addition  large  sums  given  by  sub 
scribers.  The  total  amount  expended  on  these 
various  ships  is  about  £90,000,  the  expenditure 
per  boy  being  about  £20,  there  being  about  4000 
boys  under  training. 

The  "  Conway"  and  "Worcester"  are  prac 
tically  nautical  colleges,  which  are  supported  by 
the  fees  of  the  pupils,  50  guineas  a  year  being 
charged  for  the  two  terms  in  each  year.  As 
neither  ship  has  a  tender,  the  nautical  practice 
in  the  two  years  on  board  is  limited.  The  school 
ing  given  includes  trigonometry,  navigation, 
nautical  astronomy,  French,  and  some  steam- 
engineering.  The  boys  of  these  two  schools  have 
been  very  successful  in  the  merchant  service. 

In  France  there  is  a  school  similar  to  the 
Greenwich  Hospital  School,  of  England,  which 
receives  the  sons  of  sailors  to  the  number  of  400  ; 
a  ship  (the  "  Austerlitz")  which  has  a  comple 
ment  of  800  boys,  who  are  received  between  13 
and  14  and  kept  until  16,  when  they  are  trans 
ferred  for  further  instructions  to  the  "  Bretagne." 
In  this  latter  ship  are  nearly  1400  young  men 
and  boys  under  instruction,  w'ho  are  taken  (with 
the  exception  of  those  from  the  "  Austerlitz") 
from  the  various  divisions  established  at  the  five 
principal  naval  ports  and  trained  for  specialties. 
All  the  foregoing  are  at  Brest,  which  may  be  es 
teemed  the  headquarters  of  the  French  naval 
training  system.  After  from  four  to  six  months' 
training  on  board  the  "Bretagne"  (to  which  a 
small  frigate  is  attached,  which  daily  gets  under 
way,,  being  manned  for  a  week  at  a  time  by  one  of 
the  six  companies  into  which  the  "  Bretagne's" 
complement  is  divided)  the  young  appren- 


NAVAL  TRAINING  SYSTEMS 


524 


NAVIGATION 


.tices  are  distributed  to  the  various  schools  of 
specialties  :  to  the  cruising  training-ships  (of 
which  there  are  two),  to  train  as  topmen,  and  for 
quartermasters  and  signal-men  ;  to  the  school  of 
musketry  at  Lorient  (a  fifth  of  the  ship's  com 
pany  of  a  French  man-of-war  being  made  up  of 
these  sailor-musketeers,  no  marines  going  to  sea); 
and  to  the  gunnery  school  at  Toulon  (similar  to 
that  on  board  the  "  Excellent,"  at  Portsmouth). 
About  8000  men  are  at  all  times  in  the  divisions, 
who  undergo  such  instruction  as  can  be  given 
there  ;  they  are  housed  in  capital  barracks,  and 
have  at  hand  excellent  means  for  drill  and  in 
struction  otherwise  than  in  seamanship.  Each 
division  has  its  permanent  cadre,  and  has  in 
divisions  of  the  first  class  (those  of  Brest  and 
Toulon)  one  company  of  seamen-gunners,  one 
company  of  musketeers,  one  company  of  ma 
chinists  and  firemen,  three  companies  of  men  of 
the  Inscription  Maritime,  and  one  company  of 
volunteers  or  conscripts.  The  divisions  of  the 
second  class  (Cherbourg,  L'Orient,  and  Roche- 
fort)  have  one  company  of  seamen-gunners. and 
musketeers,  and  two  companies  of  inscrits-mari- 
times  and  recruits.  Excellent  schools  have  been 
established  at  the  divisions,  and  there  are  good 
libraries  open  to  the  men,  and  means  of  amuse 
ment  and  exercise.  Schools  are  established  also 
on  board  of  each  ship,  which  are  held  four  days 
in  the  week,  such  returns  being  made  by  the 
commanding  officer  that  there  is  no  chance  of 
avoiding  the  regulations  regarding  these. 

The  French  sailor  is  thus  becoming  a  far  less 
illiterate  man  than  those  of  a  few  years  since, 
22  per  cent,  of  the  ship's  companies  knowing  how 
to  write  and  cipher  in  1878,  and  58  per  cent, 
additional  being  able  to  read  and  write  a  little, 
but  not  to  cipher. 

The  schoolmasters  of  the  French  navy  are  edu 
cated  at  Rochefort,  where  there  is  a  normal  school 
for  that  purpose  ;  they  are  selected  from  the  men 
of  the  service  who  desire  to  undertake  these  duties 
and  are  considered  fit  for  them.  The  course  com 
prises  grammar  and  composition,  arithmetic, 
French  history,  and  geography  in  its  principal 
branches. 

To  all  the  preceding  should  be  added  the  school 
for  firemen  and  machinists  at  Toulon,  the  train 
ing  of  instructors  in  gymnastics  in  the  army 
school  at  Joinville  le  Pont  near  Paris,  and  the 
school  of  coast  pilots,  which  furnishes  pilots  to  the 
fleet,  in  ships  which  are  employed  on  the  French 
coast. 

In  each  of  the  large  ports  of  France  are  estab 
lished  schools  for  the  free  teaching  of  navigation 
to  officers  in  the  merchant  service.  The  close 
connection  of  the  navy  and  mercantile  marine  in 
France  does  away  to  a  great  degree  with  the 
necessity  of  specially  training  boys  for  the  latter, 
as  nearly  all  the  merchant  sailors  in  deep-sea 
ships  are  men  of  the  Inscription  Maritime  who 
have  taken  service  in  these  after  having  com 
pleted  their  time  of  service  in  the  navy. 

Germany  has  400  boys  at  all  times  under  train 
ing,  the  course  lasting  three  j'ears.  They  are 
received  in  October  and  spend  the  winter  in  bar 
racks  ;  in  the  spring  they  are  placed  on  board 
ship  for  the  summer,  hut  do  not  leave  the  Baltic  ; 
in  the  fall  they  go  again  into  barracks,  and  the 
succeeding  year  make  a  cruise  at  sea  of  eight 
months,  and  then  return  again  into  barracks.  A 
very  complete  routine,  which  compels  a  great  deal 


of  work,  is  laid  down ;  the  ships  in  which  they 
go  to  sea  are  fitted  and  laid  up  by  the  boys  them 
selves  ;  much  infantry  is  taught,  long  marches 
being  taken,  and  the  whole  course  is  a  very  rig 
orous  one.  These  boys  become  the  warrant  and 
petty  officers  of  the  German  navy,  and  certainly, 
if  training  can  make  good  men,  they  are  such. 
At  Wilhelmshaven  is  the  gunnery  school  of  the 
German  service,  similar  to  those  of  the  French 
and  English.  The  Germans  also  have  a  school 
of  pilots,  and  one  for  engineers  and  firemen. 

Italy  has  also  its  school  for  seamen  and  for  fire 
men,  the  course  followed  being  similar  to  that  of 
the  French.  Holland  also  trains  the  larger  num 
ber  of  its  men  ;  indeed,  throughout  Europe  a 
very  great  attention  has  been  wisely  given  to 
this  subject,  and  the  sailors  of  the  fleets  of  its 
greater  powers  are  a  very  superior  class  of  men 
to  those  of  even  a  decade  since. — F.  E.  Chadwick, 
Lieutenant- Commander  U.S.N. 

Navel  Laver.     The  sea-weed  Ulva  umbilicus. 

Navigable.  Capable  of  being  passed  by  ships 
or  boats. 

Navigant.     An  old  word  for  sailor. 

Navigation  (Lat.  navigo,  to  sail,  from  navis, 
a  ship,  and  ago,  to  do  business)  may  be  defined 
as  the  art  or  science  of  conducting  a  ship  from 
one  part  of  the  world  to  another. 

The  two  fundamental  problems  of  this  art  or 
science  are,  first,  the  determination  of  the  ship's 
place  at  the  present  moment,  and,  second,  the 
deciding  on  the  future  course  to  be  steered  to 
reach  the  desired  port  with  the  least  delay  and 
the  least  wear  and  tear  of  the  vessel,  and,  if  in  a 
steamer,  with  the  least  expenditure  of  coal. 

The  limits  of  this  article  will  not  admit  an 
elaborate  account  of  the  history  of  navigation, 
but  it  will  be  interesting  to  glance  at  a  few  of 
the  improvements  and  discoveries  which  have 
gradually  made  the  task  of  the  navigator  easier 
and  his  results  more  accurate. 

Although  the  mariner's  compass  is  supposed 
to  have  been  used  at  an  earlier  period  among  the 
nations  of  the  East,  it  was  not  commonly  used 
by  Europeans  till  about  the  year  1420.  Until 
that  time  navigation  was  of  a  very  rude  and  un 
certain  kind,  being  chiefly  confined  to  coasting; 
when  out  of  sight  of  land,  rough  bearings  of  the 
heavenly  bodies  affording  the  only  indication  of 
the  course  sailed.  In  1485,  Martin  de  Bohemia, 
a  native  of  Fayal,  calculated  tables  of  the  sun's 
declination  for  the  use  of  navigators,  and  recom 
mended  the  use  of  the  astrolabe,  an  instrument^ 
consisting  of  a  graduated  circular  arc,  with  sight 
attached  for  measuring  altitudes  of  the  sun  an*_ 
stars. 

The  variation  of  the  compass  was  discovered 
about  1492,  the  credit  of  the  discovery  being 
claimed  by  Christopher  Columbus  and  by  Sebas 
tian  Cabot. 

The  first  treatise  on  navigation  in  the  English 
language  appeared  in  1561,  being  translated  from 
the  work  of  a  Spanish  author  named  Cortez. 

About  1569  the  first  chart  on  Mercator's  pro 
jection,  so  called,  was  published. 

Early  in  the  17th  century  logarithms  were  in 
vented  by  Baron  Napier,  and  have  proved  of  in 
estimable  service  to  the  art  of  navigation.  - 

About  the  beginning  of  the  last  century;  Sir 
Isaac  Newton  invented  the  reflecting  sextant, 
which  is  still  the  principal  instrument  iry  nauti 
cal  astronomy.  See  SEXTANT. 


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525 


NAVIGATION 


Among  the  later  discoveries  in  navigation, 
that  of  finding  the  longitude  with  accuracy  is 
the  principal.  To  Dr.  Nevil  Maskelyne,  an 
English  astronomer,  who  determined  the  method 
during  a  voyage  which  he  made  to  St.  Helena  in 
1761  to  observe  the  transit  of  Venus,  we  are  in 
debted  for  the  means  of  solving  this  problem  by 
lunar  observations,  and  to  the  rewards  offered 
and  paid  by  the  British  government  the  present 
degree  of  perfection  of  the  solution  by  means  of 
time-keepers  is  due.  Of  late  years,  probably  the 
invention  of  the  widest  usefulness  is  that  by 
Capt.  T.  H.  Sumner,  of  finding  a  ship's  position 
at  sea,  which  will  be  described  hereafter.  Al 
though  known  and  practiced  before  Capt.  Sum 
ner 's  publication,  it  is  now  universally  known 
as  Sumner 's  method,  and  has  been  elaborated 
by  many  others,  notably  by  Lieut,  de  Magnac, 
of  the  French  navy,  and  Sir  William  Thomson. 

Generally  speaking,  the  place  of  a  ship  at  sea 
is  found  by  one  of  the  four  following  methpds : 
(1)  by  reference  to  one  or  more  known  and  visi 
ble  landmarks  ;  (2)  by  ascertaining  by  sounding 
the  depth  of  water  and  character  of  the  bottom  ; 
(3)  by  calculating  the  direction  and  distance 
sailed  from  a  previously-determined  position ; 
and  (4)  by  ascertaining  the  latitude  and  longi 
tude  by  observations  of  one  or  more  of  the  heav 
enly  bodies.  See  LATITUDE,  LONGITUDE. 

The  first  of  these  methods  is  readily  employed 
when  known  landmarks  are  in  sight,  by  deter 
mining  simultaneously  their  bearings  by  com 
pass,  and  laying  off  on  the  chart  the  lines  of  di 
rection  from  these  terrestrial  points,  when  the 
place  of  the  ship  must  necessarily  be  at  the  inter 
section  of  the  lines  of  bearing.  The  exact  posi 
tion  of  the  ship  with  regard  to  any  landmark  by 
which  the  ship  is  sailing  is  also  determined  by 
successive  angles  between  the  ship's  course  and 
the  bearing  of  the  landmark,  in  connection  with 
the  distance  sailed  between  the  bearings. 

In  th,ick,  foggy  weather,  or  at  night,  when  not 
in  the  vicinity  of  a  light-house,  the  second  method 
becomes  of  great  importance.  "When  the  depth 
of  water  is  less  than  about  100  fathoms,  a  ship  is 
said  to  be  on  soundings,  and  when  near,  though 
out  of  sight  of  land,  the  skillful  navigator  can,, 
with  the  aid  of  the  chart,  ascertain  a  ship's  place, 
and  direct  her  course  frequently  with  great  accu 
racy  by  observed  changes  in  the  depth  of  water, 
or  in  the  character  of  the  bottom,  as  the  ship 
proceeds  on  her  way.  See  LEAD. 

The  third  method  is  known  as  Dead- Reckoning, 
and  consists  in  calculating  from  the  recorded 
courses  and  distances  the  ship  has  sailed  (see 
Loa)  the  amount  of  change  in  latitude  and 
longitude  to  be  applied  to  a  previously-ascer 
tained  position  to  determine  the  present  one. 
For  this  purpose  the  compass  gives  the  direction 
the  ship  sails,  and  by  the  log  is  measured  the 
distance  on  each  course.  Where  the  distance  in 
volved  is  small,  no  great  error  will  be  made  by 
considering  that  part  of  the  earth's  surface  sailed 
over  as  a  plane,  and  when  any  two  of  the  four 
elements,  course,  distance,  difference  of  latitude, 
and  departure,  be  given,  the  others  may  be  found 
by  the  solution  of  a  right-angled  plane  triangle, 
the  term  departure  being  understood  as  the  dis 
tance  in  nautical  miles  made  by  the  ship  toward 
the  east  or  west.  This  method  of  solution  is 
known  as  Plane  Sailing.  Parallel  sailing  is  em 
ployed  where  a  ship's  track  lies  along  a  parallel 


of  latitude.  Middle-latitude  sailing  is  a  com-, 
bi nation  of  plane  and  parallel  sailing,  and  is 
founded  on  the  consideration  that  the  arc  of  the 
parallel  of  middle  latitude  between  two  places,  in 
tercepted  between  the  meridians  of  those  places,, 
is  very  nearly  approximate  to  the  departure. 

Mercator's  sailing  is  founded  on  the  principles 
which  govern  the  construction  of  Mercator's 
chart,  in  which  all  the  meridians  are  parallel  to 
each  other,  but  proportionally  lengthened,  so  as. 
to  conform  to  the  spherical  figure  of  the  earth. 
(See  CHART.)  This  method  accurately  solves  the 

Eroblems  of  spherical  sailing,  and  is  characterized 
y  the  use  of  a  table  of  meridional  parts  found 
in  all  treatises  on  navigation. 

If  the  course  and  distance  sailed  could  always 
Be  accurately  determined,  the  place  of  the  ship 
could  be  computed  with  sufficient  exactness  by 
dead-reckoning,  but  these  data  can  be  only  roughly 
approximated  owing  to  errors  in  the  estimated 
distance  sailed,  to  unknown  currents,  faulty 
steering,  errors  in  the  assumed  variation  of  the 
compass,  or  in  its  local  deviation,  and  numerous 
other  uncertainties.  For  this  reason,  when  the. 
weather  will  permit,  a  careful  navigator  loses  no. 
opportunity  of  determining  the  position  of  the 
ship  by  observations  of  the  sun,  moon,  and  stars.. 

Astronomy  thus  applied  to  navigation  is 
termed  nautical  astronomy,  and,  concisely  speak 
ing,  the  problems  solved  by  its  practice  are  the 
determination  of  the  latitude,  the  longitude,  and 
the  error  of  the  compass  by  which  the  ship's 
course  is  directed. 

For  such  determinations  the  navigator  must 
have  a  sextant  or  quadrant  (see  SEXTANT,  QUAD- 
KANT)  for  measuring  the  altitudes  of  heavenly 
bodies  above  the  horizon,  or  their  distances  from, 
each  other,  a  watch  or  other  time-piece  to  mark 
the  instant  of  an  observed  altitude,  distance,  or 
bearing,  one  or  more  chronometers  (see  CHRO 
NOMETER)  to  show  the  time  at  the  first  meridian, 
a  nautical  almanac  (see  NAUTICAL  ALMANAC),, 
an  azimuth  compass  (see  COMPASS),  and  a  set  of 
tables  for  facilitating  computations.  These  tables 
are  contained  in  all  treatises  on  navigation,  and 
are  also  published  separately. 

The  simplest  problem  of  nautical  astronomy  is 
the  determination  of  the  latitude  from  the  alti 
tude  of  a  heavenly  body  when  on  the  meridian, 
only  its  declination  (or  distance  from  the  equi 
noctial  measured  on  the  meridian)  and  its  angu 
lar  distance  from  the  zenith  of  the  observer  (the 
complement  of  its  altitude)  being  required.  Ob 
servations  of  the  sun's  altitude  at  apparent  noon, 
or  of  a  star's  altitude  at  its  meridian  passage,  give 
the  latitude  with  the  greatest  facility. 

As  the  altitude  of  the  pole  of  the  heavens  above 
the  horizon  at  any  place  is  exactly  the  same  as 
the  latitude,  the  close  approximation  of  the  north 
star  to  the  pole  affords  an  excellent  method'  of 
determining  the  latitude  at  any  time  when  it  and 
the  horizon  are  visible,  and  tables  have  been  com 
puted  affording  the  exact  correction  to  be  applied 
to  its  altitude  for  latitude  determinations.  To 
insure  a  greater  degree  of  accuracy  than  can  be 
obtained  by  one  observation  when  exactly  on  the 
meridian,  a  number  of  altitudes  maybe  observed 
when  the  body  is  near  the  meridian,  taking,  if 
practicable,  an  equal  number  before  and  after  its 
meridian  passage,  and  noting  the  time  of  each. 
These  are  called  circum-meridian  altitudes.  The 
determination  of  latitude  by  the  meridian  alti- 


NAVIGATION 


526 


NAVIGATION 


tude  of  the  moon  is  slightly  more  complicated 
and  uncertain.  The  method  of  determining  the 
latitude  by  two  altitudes  of  the  sun,  moon,  or 
stars,  or  by  simultaneous  altitudes  of  two  bodies, 
though  formerly  much  practiced  has  been  al 
most  entirely  superseded  by  the  practice  of  Sum- 
ner's  method,  which  will  be  mentioned  here 
after,  and  by  which  both  latitude  and  longitude 
are  determined  at  the  same  time  with  great 
accuracy. 

As  it  is  frequently  the  case  that  just  at  noon 
the  sun  is  obscured,  preventing  the  navigator 
from  measuring  its  altitude  when  on  the  merid 
ian,  a  most  valuable  method  has  been  devised  by 
which  an  altitude  measured  near  noon  can,  with 
in  certain  limits,  when  the  time  at  the  ship  is 
approximately  known,  be  used  with  great  success 
for  determining  the  latitude,  and  by  careful  navi 
gators  is  very  "generally  used,  even  in  perfectly 
clear  weather,  as  a  check  on  the  meridian  obser 
vation. 

The  problem  of  finding  the  longitude  at  sea 
was  formerly  a  very  difficult  one  for  navigators, 
and  many  ingenious  devices  have  been  practiced 
for  its  solution. 

In  1700,  Dr.  Halley  published  a  chart  on  which 
lines  of  equal  magnetic  variation  were  laid  down, 
and  it  was  proposed  to  ascertain  the  longitude  by 
comparing  the  observed  variation  at  the  ship 
with  the  data  on  this  chart;  but  the  fallacy  of 
the  method  was  soon  shown.  A  reward  of 
£10,000  was  for  many  years  offered  by  the  Eng 
lish  government  to  any  one  who  would  devise 
an  efficient  method  of  determining  the  longitude 
at  sea  with  accuracy,  and  this  reward  was  finally 
divided  between  Mr.  Harrison,  who  first  made 
trustworthy  chronometers,  and  Dr.  Nevil  Mas- 
kelyne,  whose  tables  made  the  method  of  lunar 
distances  practicable.  The  latter  method  is  now, 
however,  seldom  used,  the  increased  accuracy 
and  decreased  cost  of  chronometers  having  made 
their  use  almost  universal. 

Observations  of  eclipses,  of  occultations  of  the 
satellites  of  Jupiter  and  of  stars  by  the  moon, 
although  of  great  value  on  shore,  cannot  be  ac 
curately  made  at  sea  on  account  of  the  ship's  con 
stant  motion. 

The  determination  of  longitudes  at  sea  by 
chronometer  being  effected  by  comparing  the 
time  at  the  ship  with  the  time  of  the  prime  me 
ridian  as  shown  by  the  chronometer,  it  is  neces 
sary  for  the  navigator  before  sailing  to  inform 
himself  of  the  exact  error  of  his  chronometer  on 
the  time  of  the  prime  meridian,  and  of  its  daily 
rate  gaining  or  losing.  The  determination  of 
the  time  at  the  ship  then  becomes  of  the  first  im 
portance.  In  consequence  of  the  perpetual  ap 
parent  revolution  of  the  heavenly  bodies,  the  ex 
act  measure  of  time  is  afforded  'by  the  observed 
hour-angle  of  a  celestial  object ;  that  is,  the 
angle  at  the  pole  contained  between  the  meridian 
of  the  place  and  the  celestial  meridian  passing 
through  that  body. 

At  sea,  where  the  only  fixed  object  to  which 
the  positions  of  the  heavenly  bodies  can  be  re 
ferred  is  the  horizon,  the  measurement  of  the 
altitude  affords  a  ready  and  accurate  method  of 
determining  the  hour-angle.  The  hour-angle  of 
the  sun,  reckoning  westward  from  the  meridian, 
is  apparent  time,  which,  by  applying  the  equa 
tion  of  time  from  the  Nautical  Almanac,  gives 
the  desired  mean  time. 


Mean  time  is  determined  from  the  hour-angle 
of  a  star  or  planet  by  allowing  for  the  difference 
between  the  right  ascension  of  the  body  observed 
and  that  of  the  sun. 

Government  vessels  and  many  mail-steamers 
now  almost  universally  carry  three  chronometers 
to  guard  against  an  accidental  error. 

The  lunar  method  of  finding  the  longitude  at 
sea  consists  in  an  exact  measurement  of  the 
moon's  distance  from  the  sun  or  from  one  of 
certain  planets  and  stars,  and  a  simultaneous  de 
termination  of  the  local  time.  " 

This  method  was  first  proposed  by  John  Wer 
ner,  of  Nuremberg,  as  early  as  1514 ;  but  the 
theory  of  the  lunar  motion  was  for  a  long  time 
after  too  imperfect  to  permit  its  practical  appli 
cation.  The  distance  of  the  moon  from  the  sun, 
from  Jupiter,  Saturn,  Venus,  and  Mars,  and 
from  certain  fixed  stars,  is  given  in  the  Nautical 
Almanac  for  every  third  hour  of  Greenwich 
mean  time. 

A  measurement  with  a  sextant  or  reflecting 
circle  of  the  angle  between  the  moon  and  any 
one  of  these  bodies  gives  the  apparent  distance, 
to  which  various  corrections  are  applied  to  obtain 
the  true  distance.  From  the  Nautical  Almanac 
by  interpolation  is  found  the  Greenwich  time 
corresponding  exactly  to  this  true  distance,  and 
by  comparison  with  the  time  at  the  ship  the  lon 
gitude  is  deduced.  Simple  as  this  problem  may 
appear,  its  rigorous  computation  is  by  no  means 
brief,  and,  in  spite  of  all  precautions, 'the  longi 
tude  thus  obtained  is  liable  to  serious  error,  as 
the  moon's  motion  among  the  stars  being  nearly 
thirty  times  slower  than  the  rotation  of  the  earth 
on  its  axis,  any  error  in  the  observed  distance 
will  be  multiplied  by  a  factor  nearly  equal  to 
thirty  in  the  resulting  longitude. 

For  this  reason  this  method  of  obtaining  the 
longitude  is  seldom  practiced  at  present,  except 
when  trustworthy  chronometers  are  not  procur 
able. 

As  the  latitude  enters  into  the  computation  of 
the  hour-angle,  if  the  latitude  is  uncertain  the 
longitude  by  chronometer  is  also  uncertain  to  a 
greater  or  less  degree  ;  but  if  the  Greenwich  time 
by  chronometer  be  trustworthy,  the  ship's  posi 
tion  may  be  accurately  determined  by  a  process 
generally  known  as  Sumner's  method.  This 
process  is  founded  on  the  principle  that  the  ship 
is  somewhere  on  a  constantly  changing  curve  of 
equal  altitudes,  which  may  be  defined  as  an  arc 
of  a  circle  joining  points  in  different  latitudes, 
where  the  sun  or  other  heavenly  body  in  ques 
tion  has  the  same  altitude.  If,  therefore,  two 
latitudes  be  assumed,  one  10'  greater  and  the 
other  10'  less  than  that  calculated  for  the  ship, 
and  the  corresponding  longitudes  be  ascertained, 
the  ship's  position  will  certainly  (if  her  com 
puted  latitude  be  not  in  error  more  than  10r) 
be  somewhere  on  a  line  drawn  on  the  chart 
joining  these  two  positions,  as  the  small  portion 
of  the  curve  of  equal  altitudes  between  two 
points  so  close  together  would  be  almost  exactly 
represented  by  a  straight  line.  A  second  obser 
vation  of  the  same  or  of  a  different  body  gives  a 
second  line  of  equal  altitudes,  and  their  intersec 
tion  corrected  for  the  run  of  the  ship  between 
the  observations  gives  the  position.  When 
only  one  set  of  observations  can  be  obtained 
giving  one  line,  if  this  line  is  parallel  to  the 
shore  the  ship's  distance  from  the  shore  is  de- 


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527 


NAVIGATOR 


termined,  or  if  the  line  being  produced  passes 
through  a  point  of  land,  the  bearing  of  the  point 
is  known  ;  and  this  information,  combined  with 
that  derived  from  sounding,  frequently  serves  to 
fix  exactly  the  ship's  position.  The  various  cases 
in  which  Sumner's  method  may  be  utilized  have 
been  very  fully  elaborated  by  Lieut,  de  Magnac, 
of  the  French  navy,  in  "  La  Nouvelle  Naviga 
tion,"  by  a  recent  writer  in  the  "  Nautical  Maga 
zine,"  and  by  Sir  William  Thomson,  who  has 
computed  and  published  tables  to  facilitate  the 
use  of  this  method. 

In  addition  to  the  instruments  and  books  al 
ready  mentioned,  charts  of  the  regions  to  be 
visited,  with  sailing  directions  and  meteorological 
charts,  are  necessary  to  the  navigator.  The  sail 
ing  directions  contain  accounts  of  the  winds  and 
currents  for  certain  coasts  and  seas,  with  descrip 
tions  of  the  coasts  and  anchorages.  From  the 
various  works  of  this  kind  information  with  re 
gard  to  all  the  coasts  of  the  world  may  be  ob 
tained,  including  the  physical  aspect  of  the 
shores,  climate,  and  natural  phenomena,  as  well 
as  accounts  of  the  manners  and  customs  of  the 
inhabitants,  the  productions,  and  articles  of  mer 
chandise.  The  meteorological  charts  give  in 
formation  for  each  month  in  the  year  of  the 
probable  winds,  weather,  and  currents  the  navi 
gator  will  encounter,  assisting  him  to  direct  his 
course  to  the  best  advantage. 

From  the  position  of  the  ship  to  the  port  of 
destination  the  shortest  distance  is  on  the  arc  of 
a  great  circle ;  i.e.,  a  circle  the  plane  of  which 
passes  through  the  centre  of  the  earth. 

As,  however,  to  keep  on  a  great  circle,  except 
in  the  case  of  the  equator  or  a  meridian,  a  ship 
must  constantly  keep  changing  her  course,  great- 
circle  sailing  is  practiced  only  when  an  appreci 
able  distance  may  be  saved"  without  any  cor 
responding  disadvantage.  Steamers  between 
Europe  and  America  almost  invariably  follow  a 
great-circle  track,  and  all  telegraph-cables  where 
practicable  are  laid  on  the  arc  of  a  great  circle. 
On  a  Mercator  chart  a  great-circle  track  is  repre 
sented  by  a  curve,  but  charts  have  been  made  on 
such  a  projection  that  a  great-circle  arc  is  shown 
by  a  straight  line.  The  computation  of  the  course 
and  distance  between  two  points  on  a  great- 
circle  arc  is  slightly  more  complicated  than  by 
Mercator's  or  middle-latitude  sailing,  and  vari 
ous  devices  have  been  invented  to  facilitate  it ; 
among  the  best  of  which  are  Prof.  Chauvenet's 
Great-Circle  Protractor,  Mr.  G.  Herrle's  Gno- 
monic  Chart,  Godfrey's  Diagram  and  Tables, 
Towson's  Index  and  Tables,  etc. 

When  the  distance  to  be  saved  by  the  practice 
of  great-circle  sailing  is  of  no  special  importance, 
or  when  it  is  impracticable  from  other  reasons, 
the  straight  course  to  be  followed  may  be  exactly 
computed  by  Mercator's  sailing,  or  it  may  be 
shown  on  the  chart  by  laying  a  ruler  along  the 
line  joining  the  ports  of  departure  and  destina 
tion.  The  angle  between  this  line  and  the  me 
ridians  will  be  the  true  course  to  which  the  vari 
ation  of  the  magnetic  needle  and  its  local  devia 
tion  must  be  applied  to  determine  the  course  to 
be  steered.  (See  COMPASS.)  For  a  more  detailed 
account  of  the  methods  in  use  in  navigation,  the 
reader  is  referred  to  the  "  American  Practical 
Navigator,"  by  Dr.  Bowditch  ;  Professor  Coffin's 
"  Treatise  on  Navigation";  Lieut.  Kaper's  "Prac 
tice  of  Navigation"  ;  Harbord's  "  Glossary  of 


Navigation,"  Professor  Chauvenet's  "  Lunar 
Distances  and  Equal  Altitudes,"  etc. — Francis 
M.  Green,  Lieutenant- Commander  U.S.N. 

Navigation  Laws.  The  laws  determining  the 
national  character  of  ships.  See  INTERNATIONAL 
LAW— 4  (b). 

Navigator.  The  officer  or  person  to  whom  is 
intrusted  the  navigation  of  the  vessel. 

In  the  navies  of  the  world  the  duties  of  this 
important  position  are  performed  by  different 
officers.  In  some  there  is  a  special  corps  for  it, 
in  others  one  of  the  line  or  executive  officers  is 
detailed  for  the  purpose. 

'In  the  merchant  marine  usually  the  com 
manding  officer  navigates  the  vessel ;  but  some 
times  the  work  is  done  by  the  first  mate,  under 
the  supervision  of  the  commander. 

In  the  United  States  navy,  formerly  the  junior 
line-officer  of  a  man-of-war  was  by  the  regula 
tions  the  navigator,  under  the  title  of  the  "  mas 
ter"  of  the  vessel,  and  the  title  "sailing-master" 
was  synonymous  with  that  of  navigator.  Now 
the  line-officer  third  in  rank  is  the  navigator, 
though  for  sufficient  cause  the  proper  authority 
may  detail  some  other  line-officer  to  do  the  duty, 
but  this  case  rarely  occurs. 

The  navigator's  duties  consist  in  shaping  the 
vessel's  course  from  port  to  port  across  the  oceans 
and  seas;  finding  her  position  at  sea  from  time  to 
time  by  observations  of  the  celestial  bodies  and 
by  dead-reckoning;  piloting  the  vessel  into  port 
to  her  anchorage,  and  out  again  to  sea,  when 
pilots  cannot  be  had  ;  surveying,  etc.,  when  called 
upon,  or  in  places  where  it  is  necessary  from  the 
meagre  hydrographic  information  of  the  locality. 

The  navigator  has  charge  of  all  the  instru 
ments,  charts,  and  books  pertaining  to  the 
navigation  of  the  vessel,  exercises  a  supervision 
over  the  anchors  and  cables,  sees  that  they  are 
properly  secured  at  all  times,  that  the  cables  are 
distinctly  marked,  and  that  all  necessary  ar 
rangements  are  made  for  getting  under  way, 
anchoring,  mooring  and  unmooring,  flipping  or 
shifting  parts  of  a  cable,  and  that  the  shackle- 
pins  can  be  removed  easily. 

He  has  charge  of  the  steering-gear,  and  sees 
that  it  is  at  all  times  in  proper  condition. 

He  must  examine  frequently  the  compasses, 
time-glasses,  log- and  lead-lines,  and  see  that  they 
are  in  proper  order. 

He  has  charge  of  the  stowing  of  the  hold,  bal 
last,  water,  provisions,  etc.,  and  must  place  in 
the  log-book  plans  specifying  the  quantity  and 
arrangement  of  the  ballast,  the  number,  size, 
and  disposition  of  the  water-tanks,  and  the  quan 
tity  and  stowage  of  provisions  «nd  other  stores. 

He  must  inspect  the  hold,  cable-tiers,  chain- 
lockers  daily,  and  see  that  they  are  kept  clear 
and  in  good  order,  reporting  to  the  executive- 
officer  at  9.30  A.M. 

He  has  charge  of  the  time  of  the  vessel,  and 
must  determine  the  error  and  rate  of  the  chro 
nometers  before  going  to  sea,  and  at  all  practi 
cable  places  during  the  cruise. 

He  must  make  frequent  observations  for  deter 
mining  the  local  deviation  of  the  ship's  compasses 
on  all  courses,  tabulating  the  results  for  use  in 
shaping  the  vessel's  course,  and  place  a  copy  of 
the  result  in  the  log-book. 

He  must  make  tidal  observations  at  all  places 
visited  where  careful  observations  have  not  been 
made. 


\ 


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528 


NAVY 


He  must  keep  a  book  in  which  all  calculations 
connected  with  the  navigation  of  the  vessel  are 
made;  no  erasures  are  allowed,  but  the  book 
must  be  a  complete  record  of  all  observations, 
computations,  and  results,  with  their  date.  At. 
the  end  of  the  cruise  the  book  is  to  be  sent  to  the 
Bureau  of  Navigation. 

He  has  charge  of  the  ship's  log-book,  commen 
cing  it  when  the  vessel  is  put  into  commission, 
sees  that  all  particulars  are  duly  entered  accord 
ing  to  prescribed  forms,  that  the  watch-officers 
sign  their  remarks  daily,  and  takes  it  to  the 
commanding  officer  for  his  inspection  at  noon 
each  day.  He  sends  a  certified  copy  to  the  com 
manding  officer  for  transmission  to  the  Bureau  of 
Navigation  every  six  months.  See  LOG-BOOK. 

At  sea  he  ascertains  and  reports  daily  to  the 
commanding  officer  the  position  of  the  vessel  at 
8  A.M.,  at  meridian,  and  at  8  P.M.,  and  makes 
daily  observations  for  the  variation  of  the  com 
pass*,  when  the  weather  permits,  with  such  other 
determinations  as  the  commanding  officer  may 
direct. 

In  every  port  he  must  determine  the  variation 
of  the  compass  free  from  local  deviation. 

When  there  are  three,  or  less  than  three  watch- 
officers  on  duty,  he  will  be  required  to  keep  a 
night-watch. 

He  is  also  ordnance-officer  of  the  vessel,  and  in 
action  or  battle  handles  the  ship  under  direction 
of  the  commanding  officer. — <7.  E.  Noel,  Lieuten 
ant-Commander  U.S.N. 

Navvies.  The  vigorous  laborers  employed  in 
cutting  canals,  railroads,  or  river  works  in  tem 
porary  gangs. 

Navy.  The  armed  force  of  a  nation  operating 
at  sea  or  on  coast  and  harbor  defense. 

NAVY  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES  (1775  TO 
1812). — The  navy  came  into  existence  soon 
after  the  Declaration  of  Independence,  and  was 
based  upon  the  laws  of  Congress  preceding  and 
following  that  declaration. 

Descendants  of  a  warlike  nation,  whose  security 
on  land  and  supremacy  at  sea  were  manifestly 
due  to  her  naval  power,  it  was  natural  that  the 
wisdom  of  the  leading  statesmen  should  have 
turned  their  thoughts  in  this  direction.. 

The  country  was  rich  in  her  forests,  which 
afford  a  variety  of  timber  suitable  for  ship-build 
ing,  and  was  not  entirely  destitute  of  mechanics 
and  artisans,  but  was  compelled  to  rely  almost 
entirely  upon  a  foreign  market  for  ordnance,  am 
munition,  sails,  rigging,  etc.,  for  an  outfit  suit 
able  for  cruisers  before  passing  into  the  hands  of 
the  officers  and  crew  who  were  finally  to  man 
and  control  them. 

As  early  as  October  13,  1775,  an  act  of  Con 
gress  authorized  the  building  of  one  vessel  of  10 
guns  and  another  of  14  guns,  to  be  equipped 
as  national  cruisers.  At  the  same  time  a  law 
was  passed  establishing  a  marine  committee,  con 
sisting  of  Messrs.  John  Adams,  John  Langdon, 
and  Silas  Deane,  the  place  of  Mr.  Adams  being 
afterwards  supplied  by  Mr.  Gadsden. 

This  committee,  subsequently  enlarged  to  13, 
was  chosen  by  Congress  from  its  own  body  and 
given  control  of  all  naval  matters. 

October  29,  a  resolution  was  passed  forbidding 
privateers  and  merchantmen  wearing  pennants 
in  the  presence  of  Continental  ships  or  vessels  of 
war  without  the  permission  of  the  commanding 
officers  of  the  latter.  The  following  day  another 


law  was  passed  authorizing  the  fitting  out  of  two 
more  cruisers,  one  to  be  armed  with  20  guns,  the 
other  with  36  guns;  and  following  this  (Decem 
ber  13),  the  construction  of  13  vessels,  3  of 
which  were  to  be  armed  with  24  guns  each,  5 
with  28  guns,  and  5  with  32  guns,  was  authorized. 
In  the  mean  time  the  immediate  wants  of  the 
service  were  supplied  by  purchasing  and  equip 
ping  such  vessels  as  could  be  procured  in  open 
market. 

These  vessels  constituted  the  first  naval  force 
of  the  country.     They  were  as  follows  : 


<  Alfred,"  24  guns. 
'  Columbus,"  24  guns. 


Ship 
« 

Brig   '  Lexington,"  16  guns. 
'Cabot,"  16  guns. 
4  Reprisal,"  16  guns. 
1  Andrea  Doria,"  14  guns. 
'  Hampden,"  14  guns. 
'  Providence,"  12  guns. 
Schooner  "  Wasp,"  8  guns. 

«          (i  Fly,"  8  guns. 
Sloop  "  Hornet,"  10  guns. 
"      "  Independence,"  10  guns. 
"      "Sachem,"  10  guns. 
"      "  Mosquito,"  4  guns. 
In  this  hastily  improvised  force  were  repre 
sented  the  various  types  of  vessels  carrying  their 
battery  on  one  deck,  with  which  were  fought  the 
first  battles  of  the  Revolutionary  war.  They  were 
ordered  to  cruise  on  the  coast  and  intercept  trans 
ports  laden  with  munitions  of  war  intended  for 
the  English  army  or  navy. 

To  officer,  man,  and  equip  this  little  fleet  from 
the  raw  material  of  the  country,  and  in  the  ab 
sence  of  educated  and  trained  officers,  of  arsenals,, 
store-houses,  and  dock-yard  facilities,  was  a  labor 
perhaps  little  less  than  that  encountered  by  the 
sailor  King  Alfred,  1000  years  previous,  in  fitting 
out  the  fleet  that  he  personally  commanded 
against  the  Danes. 

There  was  no  lack  of  patriotism  and  activity 
in  this  transition  period  of  the  country  ;  but  there 
was  necessarily  a  want  of  order  and  system,  which 
experience  and  time  alone  could  supply. 

The  act  of  Congress,  December  22,  appointed 
the  following  officers : 

Ezekiel  Hopkins,  commander-in-chief. 
Dudley  Saltonstall,   captain  of  his   flag-ship 
"Alfred." 

Abraham  Whipple,  captain  "  Columbus." 
Nicholas  Biddle,  captain  "  Andrea  Doria." 
J.  B.  Hopkins,  captain  "  Cabot." 

First  Lieutenants. 

John  Paul  Jones,*  "  Alfred." 
Rhodes  Arnold,  "  Columbus." 

Stansbury,  "  Andrea  Doria." 

Hoysted  Hacker,  "  Cabot." 
Jonathan  Pitcher,  "  Hornet." 

Second  Lieutenants. 

Benjamin  Seabury,  "  Alfred." 
Joseph  Olney,  "Columbus." 
Elisha  Warner,  "  Andrea  Doria." 
Thomas  Weaver,  "Cabot." 
McDougal,  "Alfred." 


*  Claims  to  have  first  hoisted  the  American  flag  (pine-tree 
and  rattlesnake)  on  board  of  the  "  Alfred,"  lying  in  the  DelaT 
ware  River,  December,  1775,  upon  the  occasion  of  Commodore 
Hopkius's  visit  to  her. 


NAVY 


529 


NAVY 


Third  Lieutenants. 

John  Fanning,  "Columbus." 

Ezekiel  Burroughs,  "  Andrea  Doria." 

Daniel  Vaughn,  "  Cabot." 

The"  Alfred,"  "  Columbus,"  "  Cabot,"  "  An 
drea  Doria,"  "Providence,"  "Wasp,"  "Fly," 
and  "  Hornet"  composed  the  squadron  of  Commo 
dore  Hopkins,  that  put  to  sea  February  17,  1776, 
bound  to  the  West  Indies.  On  the  second  night 
out  the  "Hornet"  and  "  Fly"  parted  company, 
and  did  not  rejoin  during  the  cruise.  The 're 
mainder  of  the  squadron  finally  made  a  descent 
upon  New  Providence,  capturing  some  military 
stores,  including  nearly  100  cannon,  which 
were  much  needed  at  this  period  in  arming 
cruisers. 

Leaving  here  March  17,  and  taking  with  him 
the  governor  and  a  few  other  persons  of  note, 
Hopkins  returned  North,  and  off  Long  Island 
fell  in  with  and  captured  an  English  bomb-brig  of 
8  guns,  a  tender  of  6  guns,  and  had  a  running 
fight  of  several  hours  with  H.  B.  M.  ship  "  Glas 
gow,"  of  20  guns,  which  made  a  very  creditable 
defense,  and  finally  escaped  by  good  management. 
Early  in  April  the  squadron  arrived  in  New  Lon 
don,  and  in  October  following  Congress  passed  a 
vote  of  censure  upon  the  commanding  officer  for 
not  performing  the  duties  upon  which  he  had 
been  sent,  and  he  was  dropped  from  the  service 
in  the  following  year,  January  2. 

Thus  ended  the  title  of  "  Commander-in-Chief 
of  the  Navy,"  except  as  applied  to  the  President, 
asthecommander-in-chiefof  both  army  and  navy. 

March  23,  letters  of  marque  and  reprisal  were 
issued  by  the  Continental  authorities  of  the  United 
States  against  Great  Britain,  and  on  February 
7  following,  retaliatory  edicts  Were  issued  by  the 
latter. 

June  25,  a  marine  corps,  consisting  of  a  major 
(Samuel  Nichols),  9  captains,  10  first  and  7  sec 
ond  lieutenants,  was  appointed. 
^See,  also,  acts  of  January  8,  1780,  and  July, 

Following  the  Declaration  of  Independence, 
July  4,  1776,  wasaneffort  toequipthefleetalready 
ordered,  and  the  following  officers  were  assigned 
to  their  respective  vessels  in  the  order  of  rank: 

James  Nicholson,  to  command  the  "  Virginia," 
28  guns. 

John  Manley,  to  command  the  "Hancock," 
32  guns. 

Hector  McNiel,  to  command  the  "Boston," 
24  guns. 

Dudley  Saltonstall,  to  command  the  "  Trum- 
bull,"  28  guns. 

Nicholas  Biddle,  to  command  the  "  Ran- 
dolph,"  32  guns.* 

Thomas  Thompson,  to  command  the  "  Ra- 
leigh,"  32  guns. 

John  Barry,  to  command  the  "Effingham," 
28  guns. 

Thomas  Reed,  to  command  the  "Washing 
ton,"  32  guns. 

Thomas  Grennall,  to  command  the  "  Con 
gress,"  28  guns. 

Chas.  Alexander,  to  command  the  "  Dela 
ware,"  24  guns. 


*  Was  completely  dismasted  on  the  coast  in  a  gale,  in  1779. 
Subsequently  lost  a  mast  by  a  stroke  of  lightning,  and  was 
finally  blown  up  at  sea,  March  7,  1778,  during  an  action  with 
H.  B.  M.  ship  "  Yarmouth,"  64  guns,  ami  all  but  4  out  of  315 
souls  perished. 

34 


Lambert  Wickes,  to  command  the  "  Repri 
sal,"  16  guns.f 

Abraham  Whipple,  to  command  the  "  Provi 
dence"  (2d),  28  guns. 

John  B.  Hopkins,  to  command  the  "  Warren," 
32  guns. 

John  Hodge,  to  command  the  "  Montgomery," 
24  guns. 

William  Hallock,  to  command  the  "  Lexing 
ton,"  16  guns. 

Hoysted  Hacker,  to  command  the  "  Hampden," 
14  guns. 

Isaiah  Robinson,  to  command  the  "Andrea 
Doria,"  14  guns.J 

John  Paul  Jones,  to  command  the  "  Provi 
dence,"  12  guns. 

James  Josiah,  to  command  the  "  Camden" 
(galley). 

Elisha  Hindman,  to  command  the  "Alfred," 
24  guns. 

Joseph  Olney,  to  command  the  "  Cabot,"  14 
guns. 

James  Robinson,  to  command  the  "Sachem," 
10  guns. 

John  Young,  to  command  the  "  Independ 
ence,"  10  guns. 

Elisha  Warner,  tocommand  the  "  Fly,"  8  guns. 

November  9,  a  law  was  passed  authorizing  the 
building  of  the  first  line-of-battle  ship  of  74  guns ; 
her  keel  was  laid  at  Portsmouth,  N.  H.,  where 
she  was  completed  in  1781,  and  named  the 
"America";  her  armament  was  reduced  to  56 
guns,  and  in  the  following  year  she  was  presented 
by  the  government  to  Louis  XVI.  of  France  to  re 
place  the  "Magnifique,"  74,  lost  in  Boston  harbor. 

The  same  month,  a  Continental  Navy  Board, 
consisting  of  three  persons,  was  appointed  subor 
dinate  to  the  Marine  Committee.  These  were 
John  Nixon,  John  Wharton,  and  F.  Hopkinson, 
who  were  supposed  to  be  skilled  in  maritime  af 
fairs  ;  they  were  given  a  salary  of  $1500  each  per 
annum,  and  were  empowered  to  regulate  the  rank 
of  lieutenants  and  subordinate  officers. 

November  15,  1776,  Congress  apparently  con 
templating  higher  grades  of  rank  in  the  navy, 
established  the  following  relative  rank  between 
the  navy  and  army  officers  : 

Admiral,  with  general. 

Vice-Admiral,  with  lieutenant-general. 

Rear-Admiral,  with  major-general. 

Commodore,  with  brigadier-general. 

Captain  of  a  40-gun  ship  and  upwards,  with 
colonel. 

Captain  of  a  20-  to  40-gun  ship,  with  lieuten 
ant-colonel. 

Captain  of  a  10-  to  20-gun  ship,  with  major. 

Lieutenant,  with  captain. 

And  officers  of  marines  with  similar  commis 
sions  in  the  land  service. 

The  first  four  naval  grades  above  were  only 
created  by  law  in  1862,  although  in  the  official 
correspondence  of  the  State  Department  the  title 
of  admiral  was  conceded  to  John  Paul  Jones  just 
previous  to  his  death,  in  1792,  and  his  commission 
may  have  been  so  worded,  though  I  find  no  law 


f  The  first  American  vessel  of  war  that  visited  European 
waters,  where  she  took  several  prizes  this  year,  and  being  joined 
by  the  "  Lexington"  and  "  Dolphin"  in  the  following  year, 
cruised  in  English  waters,  making  captures  and  causing  a  sen 
sation  that  raised  the  rates  of  insurance  25  per  cent.  In  1778 
foundered  at  sea,  and  all  but  the  cook  lost. 

Received  the  first  foreign  salute,  which  cost  the  Dutch, 
governor  of  St.  Eustalia  his  commission. 


NAVY 


530 


NAVY 


creating  the  title.  The  subordinate  grades  of 
master,  surgeon,  purser,  chaplain,  midshipman, 
boatswain,  gunner,  carpenter,  and  sailmaker, 
came  early  into  existence  with  prescribed  duties, 
pay,  and  responsibilities  corresponding  very 
much  to  those  of  the  English  service,  from  which 
the  navy  very  naturally  copied. 

The  same  is  true  in  regard  to  naval  laws,  regu 
lations,  and  customs,  as  well  as  naval  construc 
tion,  armament,  etc.,  which  have  since  under 
gone  many  changes.  Vessels  at  this  period  were 
poorly  armed  and  hastily  put  together ;  often  built 
of  green  timber,  which  decayed  in  a  few  years.* 

By  those  familiar  with  the  early  history  of 
the  country  it  will  be  noticed  that  several  very 
spirited  conflicts  of  a  nautical  character  took 
place  that  have  been  passed  over,  for  the  reason 
that  they  were  not  purely  naval.  One  of  these 
was  fought  by  Capt.  Broughton,  of  Marblehead, 
who,  upon  the  authority  of  the  biographer  of 
Gen.  Washington  (Mr.  Sparks),  was  the  first 
officer  commissioned  by  him  in  the  navy. 

It  would  be  difficult  at  this  day  to  name  or 
properly  locate  all  of  the  early  appointments 
that  were  made.  Some  had  but  a  brief  exist 
ence,  and  changes  were  frequent. 

Limited  appointments  were  conferred  abroad 
by  the  minister  to  France,  Dr.  Franklin,  who 
was  also  authorized  to  purchase  or  accept  the 
loan  of  vessels  from  foreign  subjects.  Among 
these  were  the  "  Duras,"  "Pallas,"  "  Cerf," 
and  "Vengeance,"  which,  with  the  "Alliance," 
composed  the  little  squadron  that  cruised  in  Eng 
lish  waters  under  Commodore  J.  P.  Jones  in  1779, 
niakjng  many  captures.  While  in  command 
of  the  former  (her  name  being  changed  to  the 
"  Bon  Homme  Richard")  he  engaged  H.  B.  M. 
ship  "  Serapis,"  Capt.  Pearson,  September  23,  in. 
the  British  Channel,  and  captured  her  after  one 
of  the  most  obstinate  naval  duels  on  record. 
The  ships  were  nearly  equally  armed  and 
manned,  and  each  lost  about  one-half  of  her 
crew  in  killed  or  wounded ;  the  former  sank 
two  days  after  the  action. 

October  28,  1779,  naval  administration  was 
intrusted  to  a  Board  of  Admiralty  consisting 
of  five  persons,  three  of  whom  were  Congress 
men,  and  these  were  given  control  of  all  naval 
and  marine  affairs.  April  20,  1780,  this  board 
drafted  the  commission  which  in  substance  is 
the  same  as  that  now  issued  to  all  officers  entitled 
to  a  commission.! 

February  7,  1781,  Secretaries  of  War,  Fi 
nance,  and  Marine  were  appointed.  The  latter 
office  was  conferred  upon  Brig.-G-en.  Alex.  Mc- 
Dougall,  who  had  been  a  seaman  in  his  early 
manhood,  with  all  the  powers  and  duties  pre 
viously  confided  to  the  Board  of  Admiralty,  and 
in  the  following  August  an  Agent  of  Marine  was 
appointed  to  supersede  all  agents,  boards,  or  com 
mittees  previously  established  by  law.  The 
duties  of  this  office  subsequently  devolved  upon 
the  celebrated  Robert  Morris,  who  was  the  Secre 
tary  of  Finance  until  November,  1784.| 

*  June  14, 1777,  it  was  "  Resolved,  That  the  flag  of  the  thir 
teen  United  States  he  13  stripes,  alternate  red  and  white  ;  that 
the  union  be  13  stars,  white,  in  a  blue  field,  representing  a  now 
constellation." 

t  The  "  Saratoga,"  16  guns,  Capt.  J.  Young,  was  lost  at  sea 
this  year  and  never  after  heard  from. 

I  August  5,  1783,  he  reports  "that  it  is  an  object  highly 
dcsirutile  to  establish  a  respectable  marine,  yet  the  situation 
of  the  public  treasury  renders  it  not  advisable  to  purchase 
shipe  for  the  present,  nor  until  the  several  States  shall  grant 


For  some  reason  there  appears  to  have  been 
much  difficulty  in  finding  the  right  man  to  place 
at  the  head  of  the  navy,  arid  these  frequent 
changes  operated  unfavorably  to  the  service  in 
many  ways.  The  war  of  the  Revolution  had  wit 
nessed  many  gallant  encounters  and  the  capture 
of  some  800  prizes.  Nevertheless,  the  navy  had 
suffered  severely,  losing  by  capture  11  vessels  of 
war,  besides  the  little  fleet  of  gunboats  on  Lake 
Champlain ;  so  that,  including  13  others  de 
stroyed  to  prevent  their  falling  into  the  hands  of 
the  enemy,  with  3  foundered  at  sea  and  5  con 
demned  or  sold,  the  country  was  virtually  with 
out  a  navy  from  1780  to  1785.  A  treaty  of  peace, 
however,  had  been  concluded  with  Great  Britain 
as  early  as  September  23,  1783. 

Taking  advantage  of  this  lull,  commerce  in 
creased,  and  ventured  into  the  Mediterranean, 
where  in  its  defenseless  condition  it  soon  became 
a  prey  to  the  cruisers  of  the  Barbary  powers.  This 
revived  the  naval  problem,  and  demonstrated  to 
the  country  not  only  the  necessity  of  providing 
a  navy  capable  of  protecting  our  commerce 
abroad,  but  that  it  should  be  placed  upon  a  more 
permanent  basis  at  home,  by  constructing  docks, 
arsenals,  etc.,  and  by  building  ships  under  the 
supervision  of  experienced  naval  officers. 

August  7,  1789,  the  Secretary  of  War  was 
given  control  of  naval  affairs. 

It  was  during  this  and  the  following  year 
that  the  American  ship  "Columbus"  and  sloop 
"  Washington"  circumnavigated  the  globe, — 
the  first  American  vessels  it  is  believed  that  ac 
complished  this  feat. 

Efforts  at  negotiation  with  the  Barbary  pow 
ers  failed;  up  to  1793  13  vessels  had  been  cap 
tured  by  the  Algerine  corsairs,  and  their  officers 
and  crews,  to  the  number  of  119,  had  been  con 
fined  as  prisoners,  when  President  Washington 
recommended  the  building  of  6  frigates,  which 
recommendation  a  subsequent  act  of  Congress, 
March  27,  1794,  adopted,  prescribing  that  4  of 
them  should  be  armed  with  44  guns  each,  and  2 
with  36  guns. 

Other  sections 'of  the  law  prescribed  the  num 
ber  of  officers  and  men  of  each  grade,  including 
pay  and  rations,  that  should  make  up  the  com 
plement  of  each  class  of  vessels.  Naval  construc 
tors  and  agents  were  also  appointed. 

It  is  worthy  of  record  that  at  this  early  date  an 
act  prohibiting  the  slave-trade  was  passed. 

A  treaty  of  peace  with  Morocco,  Algiers,  and 
Tripoli  following  in  1796,  the  number  of  frig 
ates  previously  authorized  was  reduced  one-half. 
In  the  discussion  that  arose  in  Congress  in  re 
gard  to  this  reduction,  the  President  strongly 
urged  a  gradual  increase  of  the  navy,  remarking 
that  "it  is  our  own  experience  that  the  most 
sincere  neutrality  is  not  a  sufficient  guard  against 
the  depredations  of  nations  at  war,"  that  "the 
protection  of  a  naval  force  is  indispensable  to  an 
active,  external  commerce,"  and  that  "  to  secure 
respect  to  a  neutral  flag  requires  a  naval  force 
organized  and  ready  to  vindicate  it  from  insult 
or  aggression." 

1797.— The  frigate  "Constitution,"  44  guns, 
was  launched  at  Boston;  the  "United  States," 
44  guns,  at  Philadelphia;  and  the  "  Constella- 

such  funds  for  the  construction  of  ships,  docks,  and  naval  ar 
senals,  and  for  the  support  of  the  naval  service  as  shall  enable 
th«  United  States  to  establish  their  marine  upon  a  permanent 
and  respectable  footing." 


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531 


NAVY 


tion,"  36  guns,  at  Baltimore.  Each  of  these  ships 
has  won  an  enviable  reputation  in  the  navy.  The 
first  and  last  still  belong  to  the  service.  Their 
timbers  have  of  course  been  often  renewed,  as  the 
life  of  a  ship  seldom  exceeds  15  years  ;  but  their 
name  and  fame  will  outlast  the  material  of  which 
they  are  constructed. 

They  were  beautiful  models  of  their  time,  with 
strength  and  stability,  carrying  capacity,  sailing 
and  manoeuvring  qualities,  that  modern  types 
have  not  always  improved  upon.  They  were 
modeled  by  Naval  Constructor  Samuel  Hum 
phries,  and  built  under  the  superintendence  of 
Commodores  Samuel  Nicholson,  John  Barry,  and 
Thomas  Truxtun.  The  first  two  had  a  length 
of  175  feet,  beam  43£  feet,  and  depth  of  hold  14£ 
feet,  with  a  tonnage  of  1607,  old  measurement. 
The  latter  was  :  length,  161  feet ;  beam,  40  feet ; 
depth  of  hold,  13 £  feet ;  and  tonnage,  1278.  Their 
batteries  frequently  underwent  change  conform 
ably  to  the  continual  changes  in  ordnance. 

April  30,  1798,  the  Navy  Department  was  es 
tablished,  and  Benjamin  Stoddart  became  the  first 
Secretary  of  the  Navy,  with  a  salary  of  $3000 
per  annum.  The  marine  corps  was  re-established, 
and  there  were  added  to  the  navy  11  ships,  car 
rying  from  18  to  24  guns,  and  as  many  smaller 
vessels,  carrying  from  10  to  18  guns  each. 

The  personnel  available  for  this  reorganized 
navy  was  28  captains,  7  master-commandants, 
and  a  proportionate  number  of  lieutenants  and 
other  subordinate  officers. 

Among  the  lieutenants  was  Charles  Stewart, 
who  alone  lived  to  be  promoted  to  the  rank  of  ad 
miral,  and  was  probably  the  only  survivor  in  1862. 

To  our  republican  form  of  government,  our 
growing  and  competing  commerce,  our  weakness 
as  a  naval  power,  or  to  all  combined,  may  per 
haps  be  attributed  a  certain  unfriendly  spirit  on 
the  part  of  European  powers, — especially  mani 
fested  in  the  changed  relations  of  France,  and 
the  wanton  attacks  of  her  cruisers  upon  the  com 
merce  of  the  country, — until  forbearance  ceasing 
to  be  a  virtue,  the 'acts  of  May  28  and  July  9 
authorized  the  President  to  instruct  the  com 
manders  of  public  armed  vessels  and  privateers, 
duly  commissioned,  to  make  reprisals. 

The  Secretary  of  the  Navy  urged  in  his  report 
to  Congress  a  large  increase  of  the  navy,  adding, 
"  that  it  should  be  so  augmented  as  to  make  the 
most  powerful  nations  desire  our  friendship,  and 
the  most  unprincipled  respect  our  neutrality."* 


*  The  committee  in  Congress  appointed  to  take  this  matter 
into  consideration  sustained  and  amplified  the  Secretary's  rec 
ommendations. 

Then  followed  a  lively  debate,  upon  which  the  opponents  of 
course  wished  to  impress  upon  their  constituency,  if  not  the 
country,  that  they  were  in  favor  of  economy  and  retrenchment, 
and  above  all,  that  they  were  opposed  to  "  large  military  and 
naval  organizations  as  dangerous  to  the  liberties  of  the  people"  !  A 
very  ancient  weapon,  but  fortunately  having  no  application  to 
either  the  army  or  the  navy  so  far  as  its  present  history.  The 
contest  finally  ended  in  giving  discretionary  power  to  the  Secre 
tary  to  erect  a  dock,  to  increase  the  number  of  men  and  guns 
in  certain  vessels,  and  to  have  built  C  line-of-battle  ships,  none 
of  which  were  launched  until  after  the  war  with  Great  Britain. 

The  theory  of  the  English  government,  that  their  subjects 
wherever  found  owed  their  first  allegiance  to  the  crown,  was 
exemplified  this  year  in  the  seizure  of  5  men  on  board  of  the 
U.  S.  S.  "  Baltimore,"  Capt.  Phillips,  off  Havana,  by  the  Brit 
ish  squadron  under  Commodore  Loring,  resulting  in  the  dis 
mission  of  the  former  and  instructions  from  President 
Adams,  through  the  Secretary  of  the  Navy,  to  the  commanders 
of  all  United  States  vessels  of  war  to  resist  to  their  utmost  any 
future  insult  of  detention,  search,  or  seizure,  and  when  no 
longer  aide  to  resist,  to  surrender  the  vessel,  but  not  the  men 
without  the  vessel. 


March  2,  1799,  an  act  was  passed  deducting  20 
cents  per  month  from  the  pay  of  each  officer, 
seaman,  and  marine  of  the  navy  to  constitute  a 
hospital  fund. 

To  carry  out  previous  instructions  the  follow 
ing  squadrons  were  dispatched : 

Windward  Islands.    Rendezvous,  Rupert's  Bay : 
"  United  States,"  44,  Commodore  John  Barry. 
"Constitution,"  44,  Captain  Samuel  Nicholson. 
"George  Washington,"  24,  Captain  P.  Fletcher. 
"  Merrimack,"  24,  Captain  Moses  Brown. 
"Portsmouth,"  24,  Captain  Danl.  McNiel. 
"Herald,"  18,  Master-Commander  C.  C.  Russel. 
"  Pickering,"  14,  Lieut.-Commander  E.  Preble. 
"Eagle,"  18,  Captain  H.  G.  Campbell. 
"  Scammel,"  14,  Captain  J.  Adams. 
"Diligence,"  12,  Captain  J.  Brown. 

Leeward  Islands.     Rendezvous,  St.  Kitts  : 
"  Constellation,"  36,  Commodore  T.  Truxtun. 
"Richmond,"  18,  Captain  Samuel  Barren. 
"  Baltimore,"  20,  Captain  Isaac  Phillips. 
"  Norfolk,"  18,  Captain  Thomas  Williams. 
"Virginia,"  14,  Captain  Francis  Bright. 

To  guard  the  passage  between  Cuba  and  San 

Domingo  : 

"  Ganges,"  24,  Commodore  Thomas  Tingey. 
"  Gen.  Pinckney,"  18,  Captain  S.  Hay  ward. 
"South  Carolina,"  12,  Captain  J.  Payne. 

To  cruise  off  Havana  : 
"  Delaware,"  20,  Captain  S.  Decatur,  Sen. 
"  Gen.  Green,"  10,  Captain  Geo.  Price. 
"  Gov.  Jay,"  14,  Captain  J.  W.  Leonard. 

The  act  of  March  2,  1799,  for  the  government 
of  the  navy  of  the  United  States,  was  followed 
by  the  act  of  April  3,  1800,  for  the  better  govern 
ment  of  the  navy  of  the  United  States,  usually 
known  as  the  Articles  of  War,  that  have  since 
been  in  force,  and  are  frequently  read  to  the  offi 
cers  and  crew  assembled  on  the  quarter-deck  of 
vessels  in  commission. 

In  1800  the  seat  of  government  was  transferred 
to  Washington,  D.  C. 

The  previous  acts  of  Congress  of  May  and  July, 
1798,  amounted  to  a  virtual  declaration  of  war 
against  France,  and  during  its  continuance  till 
the  close  of  1800  nearly  100  prizes  were  captured 
by  the  squadrons  previously  named,  and  many 
sharp  conflicts  occurred  between  single  vessels, 
which  were  generally  short  and  decisive,  and  re 
flected  credit  upon  the  young  navy. 

Among  these  were  the  actions  of  the  U.  S.  S. 
"Constellation,"  Commodore  Truxtun,  with  the 
French  frigate  "  L'Insurgente,"  in  1799,  and  "  La 
Vengeance,"  in  1800,  in  which  the  enemy  were 
superior  in  number  of  guns  and  men,  and  suffered 
a  greater  loss  in  killed  and  wounded.  In  the  latter 
action  the  enemy  opposed  a  battery  of  twenty- 
eight  18-pounder,  sixteen  12-pounder,  and  eight 
42-pounder  carronades  to  the  "Constellation's" 
twenty-eight  18  pounder  and  ten  24-pounder 
carronades  ;  the  latter  are  believed  to  be  the  first 
ever  used  in  the  United  States  service,  and  are 
only  effective  at  very  close  quarters. 

The  "  Constellation"  lost  her  mainmast  in  this 
action,  Midshipman  Jarvis  and  all  the  topmen 
going  with  it.  Commodore  Truxtun  was  given 
a  gold  medal  for  his  gallantry  by  an  act  of  Con 
gress. 

The  U.  S.  brig  "  Pickering,"  commanded  by 
Lieut.  Hillar,  that  sailed  in  August  of  this  year 
on  a  cruise  to  the  West  Indies,  was  never  more 
heard  from. 


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532 


NAVY 


The  whole  expense  of  the  navy  up  to  this 
period,  including  the  purchase  of  six  sites  for 
navy-yards,  was  estimated  at  about  $10,000,000, 
while  the  annual  exports  had  increased  to  $93,- 
000,000,  and  the  revenue  to  $10,000,000. 

February  3,  1801,  a  treaty  of  peace  was  rati 
fied  with  France,  and  Capt.  C.  C.  Kussel  was 
dispatched  with  the  "Herald"  to  recall  the 
squadrons  in  the  West  Indies. 

By  the  act  of  March  3,  the  navy  was  reduced 
to  a  peace-footing  by  the  sale  of  all  the  remaining 
vessels,  excepting  the  frigates  "Constitution," 
"  Adams,"  "General  Green,"  "  Constellation," 
"  J.  Adams,"  "  New  York,"  "Congress,"  "  Bos 
ton,"  "President,"  "Chesapeake,"  "Essex," 
"  Philadelphia,"  and  the  schooner  "  Enterprise." 
Those  sold  were  first  divested  of  their  armaments 
and  stores,  and  brought  less  than  it  would  now 
cost  to  build  a  first-class  frigate. 

Their  services,  however,  in  protecting  com 
merce  and  maintaining  the  honor  of  the  country 
cannot  well  be  estimated. 

Unfortunately,  this  reduction  of  the  navy  oc 
curred  at  a  period  when  the  bashaw  of  Trip 
oli  was  threatening  to  dispatch  his  cruisers  to 
prey  upon  the  commerce  of  the  country  unless 
presents  were  immediately  sent  him,  adding  that 
he  had  always  exacted  this  from  the  English, 
French,  and  Spaniards. 

The  bey  of  Tunis  made  demands  no  less  im 
portunate,  saying  that  Denmark,  Spain,  Sicily, 
and  Sweden  had  made  concessions  to  him,  and 
that  if  the  President  did  not  send  him  without 
delay  forty  cannon  of  different  calibres  (adding 
that'he  wished  them  all  to  be  24-pounders),  be 
sides  10,000  stand  of  arms,  peace  would  be  no 
longer  possible. 

The  dey  of  Algiers,  to  whom  the  government 
presented  the  frigate  "Crescent"  in  1798,  was 
also  becoming  inconsolable  again. 

The  government  therefore  wisely  concluded 
that  an  exhibition  of  force  instead  of  presents 
would  better  meet  the  occasion. 

Commodore  Dale  was  dispatched  January  1, 
1801,  with  a  small  squadron  to  the  Mediterra 
nean,  with  full  instructions  from  Secretary  S. 
Smith  to  meet  all  demands,  and,  if  necessary,  to 
punish  these  insolent  people.  "  Millions  for  de 
fense  but  not  one  cent  for  tribute"  had  become  the 
watch-word. 

This  squadron  consisted  of  the  frigate  "  Presi 
dent,"  44,  flag-ship,  Capt.  Jas.  Barron ;  frigate 
"Philadelphia,"  36,  Capt.  Sam.  Barron;  frigate 
"Essex,"  32,  Capt.  Wm.  Bainbridge;  schooner 
"  Enterprise,"  12,  Lieut.  Sterrett. 

The  commodore  reached  Gibraltar  in  July, 
where  he  found  at  anchor  a  Tripolitan  ship  of 
26  guns  and  a  brig  of  16  guns,  which  looked 
suspicious ;  but  the  officers  declared  that  they 
were  not  at  war  with  the  United  States,  and  the 
contrary  did  not  fully  appear  until  their  arrival  at 
Malta. 

Lieut.  Sterrett,  in  the  "  Enterprise,"  had  in  the 
mean  time,  August  1,  fallen  in  with  and  captured 
a  Tripolitan  corsair  of  14  guns,  her  commander, 
Mahomet  Sous,  making  an  obstinate  resistance, 
and  being  rewarded  on  his  return  to  Tripoli  in  his 
disarmed  vessel,  used  as  a  cartel,  by  a  public 
"bastinado."  Lieut.  Sterrett,  for  his  gallant 
conduct  on  this  occasion,  was  rewarded  by  the 
presentation  of  a  sword  by  Congress. 

President  Jefferson,  in  alluding  to  this  duel  in 


his  message  to  Congress,  remarked  that  "  the 
measure  was  seasonable  and  salutary ;  .  .  .  the 
bravery  exhibited  by  our  citizens  will,  I  trust, 
be  a  testimony  to  the  world  that  it  is  not  a 
want  of  that  virtue  which  makes  us  seek  their 
peace." 

The  bashaw  of  Tripoli  still  declining  all  friendly 
overtures,  and  refusing  to  surrender  American 
prisoners  in  his  possession,  Congress  enacted  laws 
that  were  equivalent  to  a  declaration  of  war  as 
early  as  February  6,  1802,  and  a  squadron  was 
sent  out  to  relieve  Commodore  Dale.  This 
squadron  was  under  the  command  of  Commodore 
K.  V.  Morris,  and  consisted  of  the  following 
vessels : 

'  Chesapeake,"  38,  flag-ship,  Lieut.  Chauncey. 

'Constellation,"  36,  Capt.  A.  Murray. 

'  New  York,"  36,  Capt.  Jas.  Barron. 
Adams,"  32,  Capt.  H.  G.  Campbell. 
John  Adams,"  32,  Capt.  John  Rodgers. 
Enterprise,"  12,  Lieut.  A.  Sterrett. 

Commodore  Truxtun  had  been  selected  for  this 
squadron,  but  declined  on  a  question  of  a  flag- 
captain. 

The  crews  were  shipped  for  two  years  instead 
of  one,  as  heretofore.  The  ships  were  well  offi 
cered  and  manned  ;  but  the  guns  were  mostly  ill 
suited  to  long-range  bombardment. 

Commodore  Morris  was  also  authorized  to  de 
tain  the  U.  S.  S.  "  Boston,"  Capt.  McNiel,  then 
in  the  Mediterranean  ;  also  to  purchase  from  the 
European  powers  some  small  gunboats,  to  pro 
tect  commerce  in  the  Strait  of  Gibraltar  and 
assist  in  blockade  duty. 

The  vessels  sailed  as  tl\ey  were  ready,  and 
arrived  out  at  different  periods  between  May  and 
September.  The  "Chesapeake"  sprung  her  main 
mast  and  the  "Constellation"  her  foremast  on 
their  way  out.  The  latter  was  the  first  frigate 
to  reach  Tripoli,  and  the  first  to  open  hostilities 
by  an  attack  upon  some  gunboats  that  were 
driven  on  shore  near  Tripoli. 

The  commodore  reached  Gibraltar  May  25, 
where  he  found  Capt.  Bainbridge  in  the  "Es 
sex"  blockading  a  Tripolitan  ship  of  22  guns. 
Malta  was  the  port  appointed  as  a  rendezvous, 
where  the  squadron  finally  assembled. 

The  year  passed  without  anything  especial  be 
ing  accomplished,  and  Commodore  Morris  was 
subsequently  censured  for  this. 

1803. — Early  this  year  the  squadron  visited 
the  Barbary  powers  that  were  evidently  in  collu 
sion  with  each  other  and  meditating  mischief. 

Commodore  Morris  transferred  his  flag  to  the 
"  New  York,"  and  sent  the  "  Chesapeake"  home 
under  Capt.  J.  Barron.  Being  recalled  in  June, 
he  returned  home  in  the  "  Adams"  ;  he  was  cen 
sured  by  a  court  of  inquiry,  and  in  the  following 
year  was  dismissed  from  the  service  by  the  Presi 
dent.  This  left  the  squadron  in  command  of 
Commodore  J.  Kodgers,  who  was  in  turn  relieved 
by  Commodore  Ed.  Preble,  at  Gibraltar,  Sep 
tember  12,  1803,  having  previously  destroyed  the 
"  Meshouda,"  of  22  guns,  when  attempting  to 
evade  the  blockade  off  Tripoli,*  June  21. 

Commodore  Preble's  squadron  consisted  of  his 
flag-ship  "  Constitution,"  44  guns  ;  ship  "  Phila 
delphia,"  36  guns,  Capt.  W.  Bainbridge  ;  brig 


*  This  vessel,  originally  Tripolitan,  then  belonged  to  the 
emperor  of  Morocco,  and  is  the  same  one  previously  men 
tioned  as  blockaded  at  Gibraltar. 


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533 


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"  Siren,"*  16  guns,  Lieut.  C.  Stewart ;  schooner 
'Vixen,"*  14  guns,  Lieut.  J.  Smith  ;  schooner 
'Nautilus,"*  12  guns,  Lieut.  R.  Somers ;  brig 
'Argus,"*  16  guns,  Lieut.  I.  Hull;  schooner 
'Enterprise,"  12 guns,  Lieut.  S.  Decatur,  already 
in  the  Mediterranean. 

As  in  the  case  of  the  previous  squadron,  the 
vessels  left  the  United  States  singly  as  their  out 
fits  were  completed,  and  had  an  average  passage 
of  35  days  to  Gibraltar. 

August  26,  the  "  Philadelphia"  being  off  Cape 
de  Gatt,  fell  in  with  and  captured  the  armed  ship 
"  Meshboha,"  of  22  guns,  belonging  to  Morocco, 
having  in  company  the  American  brig  "  Celia" 
as  a  prize.  The  officers  confessed  they  were  or 
dered  by  the  governor  of  Tangier  to  capture 
American  vessels ;  and  this  necessitated  a  visit 
of  the  squadron  to  Tangier,  where  the  emperor 
of  Morocco  expressed  his  regrets  that  any  hostile 
acts  had  been  committed,  declared  that  he  would 
punish  the  authors,  and  would  release  all  vessels 
previously  captured  under  the  orders  of  his  gov 
ernors  ;  and  further,  that  he  would  ratify  the 
treaty  made  by  his  father  in  1786,  adding  "  that 
his  friendship  for  America  should  last  forever." 
Friendly  salutes  were  exchanged,  arid  Commo 
dore  Rodgers  sailed  for  the  United  States.  Com 
modore  Preble  sailed  up  the  Mediterranean,  after 
touching  at  Cadiz  and  Gibraltar,  and  reached 
Malta  on  the  27th  of  November,  where  he  re 
ceived  a  confirmation  of  the  report  of  the  loss 
of  the  U.  S.  S.  "Philadelphia,"  Capt.  Bain- 
bridge,  off  Tripoli,  Oct.  31,  1803,  having  run 
upon  a  rock  while  endeavoring  to  intercept  the 
enemy's  vessels  near  the  land.  The  officers 
and  crew  of  the  "Philadelphia,"  numbering 
307  souls,  became  prisoners,  and  were  retained 
as  such  during  the  war.  This  unfortunate  ac 
cident  increased  the  pretensions  of  the  enemy, 
and  rendered  peace  negotiations  more  difficult. 
A  subsequent  decision  of  a  court  of  inquiry  held 
at  Syracuse  exonerated  Capt.  Bainbridge  from 
all  blame  for  the  loss  of  his  ship.  The  sailor  of 
the  present  day,  with  the  advantages  of  steam 
and  reliable  charts,  would  not  have  fared  so  well. 
Previous  to  surrendering  the  ship,  Capt.  Bain- 
bridge  had,  while  under  the  fire  of  the  enemy's 
gunboats,  made  every  effort  to  extricate  her  by 
cutting  away  the  foremast,  throwing  overboard 
guns,  etc.  The  enemy,  with  the  aid  of  their  gun 
boats  and  the  high  tides,  were  more  successful 
a  few  days  after,  not  only  floating  the  vessel 
into  their  harbor,  but  weighing  and  remounting 
her  guns,  thus  affording  a  temptation  for  her  de 
struction,  which  was  not  long  deferred.  De 
cember  23,  Lieut.  Decatur,  in  the  "  Enterprise," 
captured  the  ketch  "  Mastieo,"  loaded  with 
female  slaves,  and  bound  to  Constantinople  as  a 
present  to  the  Porte.  This  vessel  was  taken  into 
the  service  under  the  name  of  the  "Intrepid," 
and  armed  with  4  guns.  The  cargo  was  of  course 
released. 

February  3,  1804,  having  been  prepared  with  a 
view  of  destroying  the  "  Philadelphia,"  she  was 
placed  in  charge  of  Lieut.  S.  Decatur,  and  dis 
patched  from  Syracuse  by  Commodore  Preble, 


*  Built  under  the  act  of  February  28,  the  brigs  having  a 
battery  of  two  long  12-pounders  and  sixteen  24-pounder  car- 
ronades;  the  schooners  two  long  9-poumlers  and  twelve  18- 
pounder  carronades.  They  were  a  class  of  vessels  much  needed 
on  this  service,  and  having  survived  this  war,  were  all  captured 
in  the  subsequent  war  with  England. 


with  a  crew,  including  officers,  numbering  75 
souls,  all  volunteers,  and  under  the  escort  of 
Lieut.  Charles  Stewart  in  the  "  Siren."  Febru 
ary  9,  Tripoli  was  sighted,  but  owing  to  gales 
and  stormy  weather  a  favorable  opportunity  did 
not  offer  until  the  night  of  the  16th,  when,  favored 
by  the  darkness,  Lieut.  Decatur  laid  his  vessel 
alongside  of  the  "  Philadelphia,  "drove  the  Turks 
overboard,  set  fire  to  the  ship,  and  in  less  than 
half  an  hour  was  sweeping  the  "Intrepid"  out 
of  the  harbor  under  the  fire  of  the  batteries,  2 
corsairs,  and  1  galley,  which  was  returned  by 
the  guns  of  the  "  Philadelphia"  as  the  tire  pro 
gressed  and  the  guns  became  heated. 

As  this  has  been  regarded  as  one  of  the  best 
planned  and  most  successful  and  gallant  feats  of 
this  war,  I  here  add  the  names  of  the  officers 
who  volunteered  and  took  part  in  it:  Lieut. 
Commandant  S.  Decatur,  in  the  "Intrepid"; 
Lieuts.  J.  Lawrence,  J.  Bainbridge,  J.  Thorn; 
Surgeon  Heerman  ;  Midshipmen  C.  Morris,  T. 
McDonough,  R.  Isard,  A.  Laws,  J.  Davis,  J. 
Rowe,  T.  O.  Anderson ;  Pilot  Salvador  Cata- 
lano.  All  of  these  officers  were  promoted. 

During  March,  Lieut.  Stewart,  in  the  "  Siren,'' 
captured" the  brig  "  Transfer,"  of  16  guns  and  80 
men,  while  attempting  to  run  the  blockade.  She 
had  an  English  commission.  Was  taken  into  the 
service,  and  named  the  "Scourge." 

Commodore  Preble,  who  had  made  his  head 
quarters  at  Syracuse,  was  in  the  mean  time  pre 
paring  his  squadron  for  more  serious  work. 
Leaving  here  July  14,  in  the  "Constitution," 
with  3  brigs,  3  schooners,  6  gunboats,  and  2 
bomb-vessels,  he  touched  at  Malta,  and  appeared 
off  Tripoli  on  the  25th.  Here  he  found  opposed 
to  him  batteries  mounting  115  cannon  of  various 
calibre,  19  gunboats,  1  brig  of  10  guns,  2  schoon 
ers  of  8  guns  each,  and  2  galleys,  all  moored  in 
front  of  the  town. 

The  first  attack,  August  3,  was  made  by  all  the 
squadron,  the  "  Constitution"  covering  the 
smaller  vessels  and  occasionally  delivering  a 
broadside  at  the  batteries,  which  could  only  be 
reached  by  the  thirty  long  24-pounders  mounted 
on  her  gun-deck,  and  six  26-pounders  mounted 
on  the  spar-deck,  if  the  shells  thrown  by  the 
mortar-vessels  are  excepted,  and  a  shot  from  a 
long  24-pounder  carried  by  each  of  the  gun 
boats  which  was  used  against  their  immediate 
foe  afloat.  The  bombardment  lasted  two  hours, 
and  resulted  in  the  death  of  Lieut.  James  Deca 
tur,  and  13  wounded ;  the  enemy  had  3  of  their 
gunboats  sunk,  3  captured,  and  suffered  more 
severely  in  killed  and  wounded. 

The  second  attack,  August  7,  lasted  three  hours. 
The  3  prize  gunboats,  numbered  7,  8,  and  9,  went 
in  under  the  command  of  Lieuts.  Crane,  Cald- 
well,  and  Thorn.  After  being  engaged  about  one 
hour,  No.  8  received  a  hot  shot  through  her  maga 
zine  and  blew  up,  killing  her  commander,  Lieut. 
Caldwell,  and  Midshipman  Dorse  and  6  men,  and 
wounding  as  many  more.  The  other  vessels  re 
ceived  more  damage  aloft  than  in  their  hulls. 
The  "  Constitution"  remained  out  of  this  action, 
but  maintained  a  signal  supervision.  During 
the  evening  the  "John  Adams,"  28,  Capt. 
Chauncey,  arrived  with  stores  and  dispatches 
from  the  United  States. 

The  third  attack,  August  24,  was  made  by  two 
bomb-vessels  sent  in  to  practice  upon  the  town 
without  drawing  the  enemy's  fire,  and  it  was  sub- 


NAVY 


534 


NAVY 


sequently  learned  that  all  the  shells  fell  short, 
and  of  those  previously  fired,  only  one  burst 
owing  to  defective  fuzes.  This  was  learned 
from  Capt.  Bainbridge,  who  occasionally  com 
municated  with  the  squadron. 

The  fourth  attack,  August  28,  was  a  night  at 
tack.  All  the  small  vessels,  excepting  the  bomb- 
brigs,  accompanied  by  the  boats  of  the  squadron, 
were  sent  in,  and  were  joined  by  the  commodore, 
in  the  "Constitution,"  at  daylight.  The  rapidity 
and  accuracy  of  the  latter's  guns  created  much 
loss  and  havoc  among  the  enemy,  sinking  one  of 
their  gunboats  and  driving  others  ashore.  A  boat 
belonging  to  the  "John  Adams"  was  destroyed 
by  a  double-headed  shot,  and  3  of  the  crew  killed. 
Nothing  more  serious  occurred.  Seven  hundred 
shot  had  been  fired  by  the  flag-ship,  and  the  enemy 
confessed  that  they  had  been  roughly  handled. 

The  fifth  attack,  September  3,  was  madefy  the 
whole  squadron,  and  lusted  for  one  and  a  half 
hours,  the  enemy  judiciously  changing  their  tac 
tics  and  gradually  retreating  when  hard  pressed. 
The  "  Constitution"  ran  in  close,  and  as  her 
broadside  would  bear,  silenced  the  enemy's  bat 
teries  by  her  rapid  and  well-delivered  fire.  That 
she  should  have  escaped  with  only  slight  damage 
aloft  is  due  to  poor  gunnery  on  the  part  of  the 
enemy.  The  bombards  suffered  more  severely, 
but  no  one  was  killed. 

Following  this  last  squadron  attack,  and  during 
the  next  night,  the  ketch  "Intrepid,"  that  had 
been  employed  in  destroying  the  "  Philadel 
phia,"  was  sent  in  with  powder  and  combustibles 
and  a  picked  crew  to  destroy  the  shipping  in 
port.  For  some  cause  which  will  never  be 
known  she  blew  up  when  near  her  destination, 
killing  all  on  board,  including  her  commander, 
Lieut.  Commandant  R.  Somers,  H.  Wadsworth, 
J.  Israel,  and  10  men. 

In  the  language  of  the  naval  historian  Cooper, 
this  "scene  of  sublime  destruction"  was  really 
the  last  blow  aimed  at  this  weak  and  arrogant 
power,  and  was  a  sad  winding  up  of  a  war  last 
ing  over  three  years  on  an  exposed  and  misera 
ble  coast,  in  which  ships,  officers,  and  men  suf 
fered  alike  in  wear  and  tear.  It  was,  nevertheless, 
an  excellent  school  for  professional  training, 
while  it  taught  a  severe  lesson  to  the  Moham 
medan  race,  and  put  an  end  to  further  tribute. 

A  few  days  later,  September  10,  the  frigate 
"President,"  Commodore  Samuel  Barren,  and 
the  "  Constellation,"  Capt.  H.  Campbell,  ar 
rived,  when  the  squadron  was  turned  over  to 
the  former,  and  Commodore  Preble  left  for 
Malta,  taking  with  him  the  two  prizes  captured 
on  the  12th.  At  this  port  he  turned  over  the 
"  Constitution"  to  Capt.  S.  Decatur,  and  pro 
ceeded  to  Syracuse  in  the  "Argus,"  from  thence 
home  in  the  "John  Adams,"  where,  upon  his 
arrival,  he  was  presented  with  a  gold  medal  and 
the  thanks  of  Congress  to  himself,  officers,  and 
crew  for  gallant  and  faithful  services. 

In  November,  Capt.  J.  Rodgers  being  senior 
officer,  was  transferred  to  the  "  Constitution," 
and  Decatur  to  the  "  Congress." 

The  blockade  of  Tripoli  was  still  maintained, 
and  to  create  a  favorable  diversion  a  combined  sea 
and  land  force  was  dispatched,  April  27,  1805,  to 
assist  the  deposed  bashaw,  Hamet  Caramalli,  in 
an  attack  upon  the  Tripolitan  town  of  Derne, 
Which  was  bombarded  by  the  "  Argus,"  "  Nau 
tilus,"  and  "Hornet"  from  seaward,  and  at  the 


same  time  attacked  in  the  rear  by  the  land  forces 
under  Consul-General  Eaton  and  Lieut.  O.  Ban- 
non.  After  a  spirited  resistance  of  one  hour  and 
a  half  the  town  surrendered,  and  was  given  in 
charge  of  the  deposed  bashaw,  whose  brother 
was  the  power  at  Tripoli.  Of  the  assailing  force 
only  14  were  killed,  and  among  the  wounded  was 
Gen.  Eaton. 

Following  this,  a  demonstration  was  made 
against  Tunis,  and  so  well  followed  up  by  Com 
modore  Rodgers  (who  had  relieved  Commodore 
Barron,  May  26)  that  negotiations  were  much 
facilitated,  and  a  treaty  of  peace  followed,  June 
3,  when  all  prisoners  were  surrendered  and  it 
was  stipulated  that  no  more  tribute  should  be  paid. 

The  squadron,  which  had  increased  to  20  ves 
sels,  including  the  2  bombards  "Etna"  and  "Ve 
suvius,"  and  the  ship  "Wasp,"  18,  and  brig 
"  Hornet,"  18,  was  gradually  withdrawn  from 
the  Mediterranean. 

The  gunboat  policy,  which  originated  in  1803, 
was  this  year,  March  2,  revived  by  an  act  au 
thorizing"  the  President  to  have  25  built  for 
the  protection  of  the  harbors  of  the  country. 
These  were  increased  to  50  by  the  act  of  April 
21,  1806,  and  to  188  by  the  act  of  December  18, 
1807.  They  were  numbered  as  they  were  built 
or  purchased  ;  and  of  the  first  9  sent  to  the  Medi 
terranean  in  1805,  all  but  No.  7,  though  sailing 
from  different  ports  of  the  United  States,  arrived 
in  Syracuse  within  28  hours  of  each  other.  No. 
7,  commanded  by  Lieut.  Ogilvie,  was  lost  at  sea. 
No.  2  was  armed  with  one  long  32,  and  the  re 
maining  8  with  two  long  32's.  Of  the  other 
vessels  of  this  class  but  very  few  performed  valu 
able  service  on  the  coast.  Some  were  lost  and 
others  condemned.  At  best  they  were  only  an 
auxiliary  force,  and  never  in  favor  with  the  offi 
cers  of  the  navy. 

From  this  period  on  to  the  war  with  Great 
Britain  the  navy  was  sadly  neglected,  and  but 
for  the  appeals  of  the  older  officers,  and  the  in 
creasing  depredations  upon  the  commerce  of  the 
country,  it  was  in  a  fair  way  of  being  forgotten. 

The  nation,  although  slow  in  her  resentment, 
was  not  disposed  to  excuse  continual  encroach 
ments  upon  her  commerce,  much  less  to  condone 
the  insult  conve}red  in  the  act  of  the  commander 
of  H.  B.  M.  ship  "  Leopard,"  in  firing  into  the 
TJ.  S.  S.  "  Chesapeake"  on  the  coast,  June  22, 
1807.  In  consequence  of  this  outrage  all  British 
vessels  were  ordered  to  leave  the  ports  of  the 
United  States.  War  would  seem  to  have  been 
the  proper  remedy,  but  the  country  was  ill  pre 
pared  for  this,  and  negotiations  continued. 

The  embargo  laid  upon  vessels  (December  22) 
this  year  was  repealed,  and  a  non-intercourse  act 
passed  March  4,  1809. 

At  the  close  of  this  year  it  became  painfully 
manifest  that  a  crisis  was  approaching,  for  which 
the  country  was  unprepared.  A  feeble  effort  was 
made  to  increase  the  personnel  of  the  navy  to 
about  7000  officers  and  men,  and  the  frigates 
"United  States,"  "President,"  "  Essex, ""and 
"John  Adams"  were  ordered  to  be  equipped; 
the  last  named  had  been  razeed  to  a  sloop-of-war. 
June  24, 1810,  H.  B.  M.  ship  "  Moselle"  fired  into 
the  U.  S.  brig  "Vixen"  near  the  Bahamas,  and 
May  16,  1811,  Commodore  Rodgers,  in  the  frig 
ate  "  President,"  exchanged  shots  with  H.B.M. 
ship  "  Little  Belt,"  killing  and  wounding  sev 
eral  of  her  crew.  This  was  at  night,  and  partly 


NAVY 


535 


NAVY 


accidental,  but  it  showed  a  preparation  for  return 
ing  compliments,  and  an  earnest  of  what  was 
soon  to  follow — in  the  declaration  of  war  against 
Great  Britain,  June  18,  1812. 

And  here  I  will  leave  to  another  the  continua 
tion  of  this  record,  commencing  with  the  war 
with  Great  Britain,  the  principal  actors  in  which 
have  passed  away  ;  but  the  history  of  the  navy 
in  this  crisis,  and  during  subsequent  events,  may 
well  challenge  the  criticism  of  the  world. — 
George  F.  Emmons,  Rear- Admiral  U.S.N. 

NAVY  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES  FROM  THE 
COMMENCEMENT  OF  THE  WAR  WITH  GREAT 
BRITAIN  IN  1812  TO  1880. — From  the  commence 
ment  of  the  great  wars  between  Napoleon  and 
England  and  the  Continental  powers  of  Europe, 
our  rights  as  a  maritime  nation  had  been  fre 
quently  violated  by  the  principal  maritime  bellig 
erents,  and  England,  by  her  course  of  conduct, 
had  exasperated  the  national  sentiment  to  such 
a  degree  that  quiet  submission  to  her  pretensions 
and  exactions  became  no  longer  possible.  The 
injury  to  our  commerce  through  her  orders  in 
council,  the  impressment  of  our  seamen  upon  the 
high  seas,  the  arrogant  and  oppressive  conduct 
of  her  officers  in  asserting  the  right  of  search, 
together  with  the  discovery  of  a  plot  on  the  part 
of  English  agents  to  sever  the  American  Union, 
roused  the  indignation  of  the  country,  and  led 
to  a  declaration  of  war  by  Congress  against  the 
king  of  Great  Britain  on  the  18th  of  June,  1812. 

At  the  breaking  out  of  the  war  the  navy  of 
Great  Britain  contained  1080  sail,  of  which  be 
tween  700  and  800  were  efficient  cruisers,  and 
she  possessed  in  her  West  India  possessions  and 
Bermuda  and  Halifax  ports  proximate  to  our 
coast  for  refitting  her  vessels  of  war  and  places 
of  refuge  for  her  prizes.  The  naval  force  of  the 
United  States  consisted  of  17  cruising-vessels,  of 
which  9  were  of  a  class  less  than  frigates,  and  a 
number  of  gunboats  of  limited  size  and  arma 
ment  for  the  protection  of  our  rivers,  bays,  and 
inlets.  Under  this  great  disparity  in  naval 
strength  and  with  a  vast  extent  of  sea-coast, 
every  port  upon  which  was  liable  to  blockade, 
the  United  States  was  about  to  engage  in  war 
with  a  nation  who  possessed  a  navy  more  pow 
erful  than  all  the  rest  of  Christendom  combined, 
and  which  had  proven  its  invincibility  upon  the 
ocean.  Under  such  conditions  and  disparity  of 
means  it  was  thought  impossible  to  keep  our 
cruisers  at  sea,  and  a  project  was  entertained 
by  the  Cabinet  of  laying  up  all  our  vessels  in 
ordinary  to  prevent  their  capture.  Fortunately, 
at  this  time  Capts.  Bainbridge  and  Stewart  were 
at  the  seat  of  government,  and  through  their  vig 
orous  representations  and  remonstrances  the  Cab 
inet  was  induced  to  change  its  policy.  Outside 
of  the  navy  even  its  friends  looked  forward  to  the 
conflict  with  distrust,  while  the  English  officers 
— many  of  them  veterans  who  had  served  with 
Nelson  and  England's  famous  captains,  and  had 
seen  the  flag  of  England  always  triumphant — 
felt  a  degree  of  confidence  that  begets  success. 

Upon  the  declaration  of  war  the  "  President," 
44,  Commodore  Kodgers  ;  "  Essex,"  32,  Capt. 
Porter;  and  "  Hornet/'  18,  Capt.  Lawrence,  were 
in  New  York.  These  vessels,  with  the  exception 
of  the  "  Essex,"  which  vessel  was  fitting  for  sea, 
were  ready  to  sail.  Commodore  Kodgers,  with 
the  "President"  and  "Hornet,"  dropped  into 
the  bay,  where  he  was  joined  by  the  "United 


States,"  44,  Commodore  Decatur ;  "Congress," 
38,  Capt.  Smith;  and  "Argus,"  18,  Lieut  Com 
mandant  Sinclair.  Within  an  hour  of  the  re 
ceipt  of  his  orders  and  official  information  of 
the  declaration  of  war  Commodore  Rodgers  was 
under  way,  passing  Sandy  Hook  with  hfs  squad 
ron  the  afternoon  of  June  21.  On  the  23d,  at 
6  A.M.,  a  vessel  was  seen  to  the  northward  and 
eastward,  to  which  chase  was  given,  and  at  half- 
past  four  the  "  President"  opened  with  her  chase- 
guns.  The  first  hostile  shot  afloat,  it  is  under 
stood,  was  fired  by  Commodore  Rodgers  in  per 
son.  This  shot  struck  the  chase  in  the  rudder- 
coat  arid  lodged  in  the  wardroom.  Several 
effective  shots  followed,  but  at  the  fourth  dis 
charge,  fired  from  the  first  division  below,  the 
gun  burst,  killing  and  wounding  16  men,  the 
commodore  being  thrown  by  the  explosion  into 
the  air  and  breaking  a  leg  by  the  fall.  The  fore 
castle  deck  was  damaged,  and  through  the  acci 
dent  firing  was  delayed  for  some  time.  This  en 
abled  the^enemy  to  open  with  his  stern-guns,  one 
shot  killing  a  midshipman  of  the  "  President" 
and  2  men.  By  lightening  the  enemy  managed 
to  escape  It  was  afterward  known  that  the 
vessel  chased  was  the  "  Belvidere,"  Capt.  Byron. 
She  arrived  in  Halifax  a  few  days  after,  and  car 
ried  with  her  the  news  of  the  declaration  of  war. 
The  "  President"  had  22  men  killed  and  wounded, 
16  of  whom  were  by  the  bursting  of  the  gun. 
The  "Belvidere"  lost  7  killed  and  wounded  by 
shot  and  several  others  by  accidents,  and  she  was 
materially  injured  in  her  spars,  sails,  and  rigging. 
Capt.  Byron  was  among  the  wounded.  The  in 
juries  to  the  "  President"  were  slight.  On  the 
9th  of  July  the  "  Hornet"  captured  an  English 
letter  of  marque.  Commodore  Rodgers,  after 
continuing  his  cruise  until  within  a  day's  sail 
of  the  chops  of  the  English  Channel,  stood  to 
the  southward,  and,  after  passing  Madeira,  re 
turned  to  Boston.  Early  in  July  an  English 
squadron,  of  which  Capt.  Broke,  of  the  "Shan 
non,"  was  senior  officer,  appeared  off  New  York 
and  made  several  captures,  the  "  Nautilus,"  14, 
Lieut.  Commandant  Crane,  being  one  of  the 
number.  She  was  captured,  after  all  the  re 
sources  of  an  accomplished  officer  were  exhausted, 
by  an  overwhelming  force.  This  was  the  first 
vessel  of  war  taken  by  either  side.  After  refit 
ting  on  her  return  from  Europe,  the  "  Constitu 
tion"  sailed  from  Annapolis  on  the  12th  of  July, 
and  stood  to  the  northward.  Upon  this  cruise  she 
was  chased  for  three  days  by  the  English  squadron, 
composed  of  the  "Africa,"  64,  Capt.  Bastard; 
"Shannon,"  38,  Capt.  Broke;  "Guerriere,"  38, 
Capt.  Dacres;  "Belvidere,"  36,  Capt.  Byron; 
and  "Eolus,"  32,  Capt.  Townsend,  and  only 
escaped  capture  through  the  most  skillful  sea 
manship  of  her  commander  and  officers  and 
the  perfect  discipline  and  obedience  of  her  crew. 
The  story  of  the  chase  is  familiar  to  every  reader 
of  American  naval  history.  Not  a  boat  was 
stove  nor  an  anchor  or  gun  lost. 

The  "Essex,"  Capt.  Porter,  sailed  from  New 
York  shortly  after  the  departure  of  Commodore 
Rodgers,  going  to  the  southward.  When  a  few 
weeks  out  she  discovered  a  fleet  of  vessels  consist 
ing  of  a  few  transports  under  convoy  of  a  frigate, 
one  of  which  she  made  prize  of,  capturing  about 
150  soldiers  in  her.  It  was  Capt.  Porter's  inten 
tion  to  make  a  dash  at  the  convoying  frigate, 
but  day  dawning  before  he  could  come  up  with 


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536 


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her,  the  attempt  was  given  up ;  this  vessel  was 
said  to  be  the  "  Minerva,"  36.  A  few  days  after 
this  success  the  "Essex"  surprised  and  captured 
H.  B.  M.  ship  "  Alert,"  Capt.  Langhorne,  mount 
ing  twenty  18-poundercarronades,and  with  a  full 
crew.  There  was  great  disparity  in  the  arma 
ment  and  size  of  the  two  vessels,  but  the  resist 
ance  of  the  "Alert"  was  so  feeble  as  to  excite 
surprise.  The  "  Essex"  continued  to  cruise  to 
the  southward  of  tht,  Grand  Banks,  and  at  one 
time  was  so  hard  pressed  by  the  enemy's  frigates 
that  Capt.  Porter  determined  as  a  last  alternative 
to  make  the  attempt  to  carry  one  of  them  by 
boarding  in  the  night.  The  arrangements  for 
this  purpose  were  so  complete  as  to  give  reason 
to  think  the  plan  would  have  been  successful. 

On  the  2d  of  August,  a  short  time  after  his 
famous  escape  from  the  English  squadron,  Capt. 
Hull  sailed  from  Boston  in  the  "  Constitution," 
and  on  the  19th,  at  2  P.M.,  lat.  41°  44'  N.,  Ion.  55° 
48'  W.,  a  sail  was  made  bearing  E.S.E.,  and  to 
leeward,  to  which  chase  was  given.  At  5  o'clock 
the  chase  hoisted  three  English  ensigns,  and  im 
mediately  after  opened  fire  at  long  range.  At  6 
o'clock  the  enemy  bore  up  under  his  three  topsails 
and  jib,  with  the  wind  on  his  qua'rter;  the  "Con 
stitution"  immediately  set  her  main  topgallant- 
satl  and  foresail  to  get  alongside.  Shortly  after 
the  bows  of  the  American  frigate  began  to'double 
on  the  quarter  of  the  English  ship,  when  the 
former  opened  with  her  forward  guns,  drawing 
slowly  ahead,  both  vessels  keeping  up  a  close  and 
heavy  fire  as  their  guns  bore.  Just  as  the  ships 
were  fairly  side  by  side  the  mizzen-mast  of  the 
Englishman  was  shot  away,  when  the  American, 
ranging  ahead,  luffed  short  round  on  her  bow  to 
prevent  being  raked.  In  attempting  this  she 
fell  foul  of  her  antagonist,  when  both  parties 
prepared  to  board.  Both  sides  now  suffered 
severely  by  the  closeness  of  the  musketry  fire, 
Mr.  Morris,  the  first  lieutenant  of  the  "Con 
stitution,"  being  shot  through  the  body.  It 
being  impossible  to  board  owing  to  the  heavy 
sea,  the  sails  were  filled  on  the  "  Constitution," 
and  as  she  shot  ahead  the  fore- and  mainmast  of 
the  enemy  fell,  leaving  her  a  helpless  wreck. 
Shortly  after  the  enemy  struck.  She  proved  to 
be  the  "  Guerriere,"  38,  Capt.  Dacres,  though 
actually  carrying  40  guns, — one  of  the  ships  that 
had  so  lately\-hased  the  "  Constitution"  off  New 
York.  Mr.  Charles  Morris,  the  first  lieutenant 
of  the  "  Constitution,"  was  promoted  to  a  post- 
captain  for  his  part  in  this  brilliant  achievement. 
The  loss  of  the  "  Guerriere"  was  79  killed  and 
wounded;  that  of  the  "Constitution,"  7  killed 
and  7  wounded. 

Sunday,  October  25,  the  "United  States,"  44, 
Commodore  Decatur,  then  in  lat.  24°  N.,  Ion.  29° 
30/  W.,  captured,  after  a  brief  action,  H.  B.  M. 
frigate  "  Macedonian,"  38,  Capt.  Garden.  On 
taking  possession  the  enemy  was  found  fearfully 
cut  up,  having  received  no  less  than  100  round 
shot  in  her  hull  alone.  Of  300  men,  36  were 
killed  and  68  wounded.  The  "Macedonian" 
was  a  fine  ship,  actually  mounting  49  guns.  The 
"United  States"  suffered  comparatively  little 
nloft,  and  but  slightly  in  her  hull.  She  lost  5 
killed  and  7  wounded.  The  style  in  which  the 
"  Macedonian"  was  captured  added  materially 
to  Commodore  Decatur's  high  reputation,  his 
services  were  handsomely  acknowledged,  and  Mr. 
Allen,  his  first  lieutenant,  was  promoted.  These 


brilliant  successes  changed  the  whole  current  of 
public  opinion  on  the  part  of  our  people,  and  a 
feeling  of  just  pride  replaced  that  of  despondency. 

On  the  17th  of  October,  lat.  37°  N.,  Ion.  65° 
W.,  the  "  Wasp,"  18,  Capt.  Jones,  captured, 
after  a  spirited  contest,  H.  B.  M.  brig  "  Frolic," 
18,  Capt.  Whinyates.  The  "  Wasp"  had  5  men 
killed  and  5  wounded.  Capt.  WThin3rates,  in  his 
official  report,  states  that  not  20  of  his  entire 
crew  escaped  unharmed.  Both  vessels  were 
nearly  equally  matched  in  size  and  armament, 
the  advantage  in  the  latter  respect  being  with  the 
English.  The  conduct,  skill,  and  seamanship 
displayed  in  this  conflict  greatly  increased  the 
reputation  of  the  American  navy.  Capt.  Jones 
and  Mr.  James  Biddle  were  both  promoted,  be 
sides  receiving  other  testimonials  for  their  con 
spicuous  gallantry.  Both  the  "  Wasp"  and 
"  Frolic"  were  shortly  after  captured  by  the 
"  Poictiers,"  74. 

In  lat.  13°  06/  N.,  Ion.  31°  W.,  the  "  Consti 
tution,"  44,  Commodore  Bainbridge,  captured, 
after  an  hour's  actual  fighting,  H.  B.  M.  frigate 
"Java,"  38,  Capt.  Lambert/  Though  rated  at 
38,  as  vessels  of  a  similar  class  to  the  "Java"  ac 
tually  carried  49  guns,  it  is  fair  to  presume  this 
was  the  case  with  that  vessel.  In  this  combat, 
though  the  "  Constitution"  was  a  somewhat 
heavier  vessel  in  all  respects,  in  the  difference  in 
the  execution  of  the  fire  of  the  two  vessels  there 
is  a  wide  disparity.  The  "  Constitution"  lost  9 
killed  and  25  wounded,  among  the  latter  Com 
modore  Bainbridge  and  the  junior  lieutenant, 
Mr.  Alwyn,  who  died  some  time  after  of  his  in 
juries.  The  "  Java,"  according  to  the  statement 
of  Commodore  Bainbridge,  lost  60  killed  and  101 
wounded, — Capt.  Lambert  mortally  ;  one  of  her 
lieutenants,  the  master,  and  many  of  her  inferior 
officers,  were  slain  or  seriously  hurt.  The  "  Con 
stitution"  went  into  action  with  her  royal  yards 
across,  and  came  out  with  all  in  their  places,  and 
her  injuries  were  slight.  The  "Java"  lost  her 
three  masts  and  bowsprit,  and  her  hull  was 
greatly  injured.  No  friendly  port  being  at 
hand  to  refit  the  "  Java,"  she  was  blown  up. 

On  the  24th  February,  1813,  the  "Hornet," 
18,  Capt.  Lawrence,  being  then  about  7  miles  off 
the  Demarara  River,  South  America,  encoun 
tered  and,  after  an  engagement  of  15  minutes, 
captured  H.  B.  M.  ship  "Peacock,"  18,  Capt. 
Peake.  Shortly  after  she  struck  she  went  down 
with  3  of  the  "Hornet's"  crew  and  9  of  her 
own.  The  "Hornet"  lost  1  man  killed  and  4 
wounded.  The  "  Peacock"  lost  her  captain  and 
4  men  killed,  and  33  wounded.  The  "  Hornet" 
was  not  materially  damaged.  The  tine  handling 
of  the  "Hornet"  and  her  superior  gunnery 
quickly  decided  the  day.  Inspired  by  these 
brilliant  successes,  Congress  empowered  the 
President,  in  January,  1813,  to  build  4  ships  to 
rate  not  less  than  74  guns,  and  6  frigates  to  rate 
44  guns  each  ;  and  on  the  3d  of  March  ensuing 
directed  6  sloops-of-war  to  be  built  on  the  sea 
board,  and  as  many  vessels  on  the  lakes  as  the 
public  service  required. 

The  space  allowed  for  an  article  on  the  navy 
in  a  work  of  this  character  compels  only  a  brief 
notice  of  the  famous  cruise  of  the  "  Essex,"  32, 
Capt.  Porter, — a  cruise  which  for  boldness  of  con 
ception,  fertility  of  resource,  self-reliance,  and 
indomitable  energy  and  enterprise,  is  almost 
without  a  parallel  in  any  navy.  Cutting  adrift 


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537 


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from  all  provided  means  of  supplies,  he  struck 
boldly  out  for  the  Pacific,  capturing  and  destroy 
ing  the  enemy's  commerce  wherever  found,  and 
for  many  months  he  continued,  with  his  con 
sort,  the""  Essex  Jr."  (a  prize  converted  into  a 
man-of-war),  his  work  of  destruction  and  depre 
dation.  Up  to  the  time  of  the  arrival  of  the  two 
ships  at  Valparaiso,  about  the  1st  of  February, 
1814,  the  cruise  had  been  one  of  uninterrupted 
success,  and  a  brilliant  victory  over  a  vessel  of 
equal  force  alone  was  wanting  to  its  complete 
ness.  Entertaining  this  sentiment,  so  character 
istic  of  the  officer  and  man,  Capt.  Porter  con 
cluded  to  remain  in  Valparaiso  and  wait  for  the 
arrival  of  H.  B.  M.  frigate  "Phoebe,"  36,  one 
of  the  ships  fitted  out  expressly  to  search  for 
him.  In  due  time  the  "  Phoebe"  arrived,  but 
not  alone,  being  accompanied  by  the  "  Cherub," 
20,  Capt.  Tucker.  Various  devices  were  resorted 
to  by  Capt.  Porter  to  engage  the  "Phoebe" 
singly,  but  without  avail.  Finally,  as  he  had 
reason  to  believe  his  vessel  outsailed  both  the 
enemy's  ships,  he  decided  to  go  to  sea,  and  draw 
ing  the  enemy  away  from  the  port,  give  the 
"  Essex  Jr."  a  chance  to  escape.  This  intention 
was  frustrated  by  the  loss  of  his  main  topmast 
off  Angel  Point  in  a  squall,  which  compelled  his 
return.  Unable  to  reach  the  harbor,  he  anchored 
about  3  miles  from  the  town,  within  pistol-shot 
of  the  shore,  where  the  Chilians  had  a  small  bat 
tery.  Disregarding  the  neutrality  of  Chili  and 
all  neutral  rights,  'he  was  attacked  by  both  the 
"  Phoebe"  and  "  Cherub,"  and  after  a  most  de 
termined  and  bloody  resistance,  and  a  display 
of  unexampled  heroism  against  overwhelming 
odds,  in  which  his  loss  was  152  out  of  a  comple 
ment  of  255  men,  he  was  obliged  to  yield.  The 
loss  of  the  enemy  was  5  killed  and  10  wounded, 
the  first  lieutenant  of  the  "  Phoebe"  being  among 
the  former.  '  The  English  ships  were  cut  up  more 
than  could  have  been  expected,  the  "  Phoebe" 
having  received,  besides  other  injuries,  18  shot 
below  the  water-line.  From  the  dauntless  and 
determined  spirit  displayed  on  the  part  of  the 
Americans  in  this  conflict,  it  is  more  than  probable 
the  result  would  have  been  different  had  Capt. 
Porter  been  able  to  fight  his  ship  under  way. 
Mr.  Gamble,  of  the  marines,  who  commanded 
the  "  Andrew  Hammond,"  another  prize  of  Capt. 
Porter's  converted  into  a  cruiser,  was  with  Capt. 
Porter's  command  during  most  of  his  memorable 
cruise.  He  and  his  command  were,  shortly  after 
the  loss  of  the  "  Essex,"  captured  at  the  Sand 
wich  Islands  by  the  "  Cherub." 

The  action  between  the  "Chesapeake,"  38, 
Capt.  Lawrence,  and  the  "Shannon,"  38,  Capt. 
Broke,  which  resulted  in  the  capture  of  the  for 
mer  after  a  sanguinary  struggle,  occurred  on  the 
1st  of  June,  1813,  about  30  miles  off  Boston 
Sound.  The  capture  of  the  "  Chesapeake"  is  to 
be  attributed  to  various  causes.  It  is  well  known 
that  the  "Shannon"  had  been  officered  and 
manned  with  a  picked  crew  with  a  view  to  en 
gaging  the  "  Chesapeake,"  and  was  in  a  high 
state  of  discipline.  The  officers  of  the  "  Chesa 
peake,"  on  the  contrary,  were  most  of  them 
young  and  inexperienced,  and  her  first  lieuten 
ant,  though  an  officer  of  merit,  was  new  to  his 
duties.  Her  crew  was  a  mixed  one,  raw  and 
disaffected,  and  composed  of  a  large  proportion 
of  landsmen.  Under  these  circumstances  it  is 
thought  Capt.  Lawrence  should  have  declined 


the  challenge  of  Capt.  Broke  until  ,the  ship  and 
crew  were  in  a  better  state  of  preparation.  Capt. 
Lawrence  was  a  man  of  the  loftiest  and  most 
chivalrous  spirit;  and  upon  a  previous  occasion, 
while  in  command  of  the  "Hornet,"  having 
sent  a  challenge  to  the  captain  of  the  "  Bonne 
Citoyen,"  he  felt  it  incumbent  upon  him  to  ac 
cept  the  gage  of  battle  offered.  Few  battles  have 
been  more  sanguinary.  The  "  Chesapeake"  lost 
48  killed  and  "98  wounded,  the  "Shannon"  had 
23  killed  and  56  wounded.  On  board  the  "  Ches 
apeake"  fell  or  died  of  their  wounds  Capt. 
Lawrence,  Lieuts.  Ludlow  and  Ballard,  of  the 
navy,  and  Broome,  of  the  marines,  Mr.  White, 
the  master,  Mr.  Adams,  the  boatswain,  and  3 
midshipmen.  Mr.  Budd,  second,  and  Mr.  Cox, 
third  lieutenant,  were  also  wounded.  The 
"  Shannon"  lost  her  first  lieutenant  and  one  or 
two  inferior  officers,  and  Capt.  Broke  was  badly 
wounded,  the  boatswain  lost  an  arm,  and  one 
midshipman  was  wounded.  Capt.  Lawrence  and 
Mr.  Ludlow  were  both  buried  at  Halifax  with 
military  honors. 

On  the  12th  of  July  the  brig  "  Siren,"  14,  was 
captured  by  the  "  Medway,"  74,  after  a  long  chase. 

Off  Portland,  Me.,  on  the  4th  September, 
1813,  the  "  Enterprise,"  14,  Lieut.  Commandant 
Burrows,  captured,  after  a  heavy  combat,  H.B.M. 
brig  "  Boxer,"  14,  Capt.  Blythe.  In  this  en- 

fagement  both  the  commanding  officers  were 
illed.  Both  vessels  were  fought  gallantly.  The 
damage  to  the  American  was  comparatively 
slight,  while  the  "  Boxer"  was  badly  cut  up  in  her 
hull,  spars,  sails,  and  rigging,  and  had  several 
guns  dismounted.  The  "  Boxer"  had  14  men 
wounded  and  several  men  killed ;  the  "  Enter 
prise"  1  man  killed  and  13  wounded,  of  whom  3 
subsequently  died.  Capts.  Burrows  and  Blythe 
were  both  buried  at  Portland  with  military  hon 
ors.  This  success  was  the  first  that  had  fallen  to 
the  American  navy  since  the  capture  of  the 
"Chesapeake,"  and  its  effect  in  restoring  the 
confidence  of  the  nation  was  very  great. 

In  June,  1813,  the  brig  "  Kattlesnake,"  16, 
Lieut.  Commandant  Kenshaw,  was  captured  by 
the  British  frigate  "Leander,"  50.  After  a 
daring  and  most  successful  cruise  off  the  English 
coast,  rivaling  in  audacity  the  exploits  of  Paul 
Jones,  the  "Argus,"  18,  Capt.  Allen,  was  cap 
tured  by  H.  B.  M.  brig  "Pelican,"  18,  Capt. 
Maples,  a  greatly  superior  vessel  in  armament, 
the  "  Pelican"  mounting  32-pounder  carronades, 
while  the  "Argus"  carried  24's.  The  "Argus," 
in  an  action  lasting  three-quarters  of  an  hour, 
had  2  midshipmen  and  4  men  killed,  and  17 
wounded,  among  the  latter  Capt.  Allen,  who 
subsequently  died  in  the  hospital  of  Mill  Prison, 
and  was  buried  with  the  honors  of  war.  The 
"  Pelican"  lost  7  in  killed  and  wounded. 

In  June,  1813,  the  "Constellation"  being 
blockaded  near  Norfolk  by  a  large  English  force, 
several  attempts  were  made  to  destroy  or  capture 
her  by  boats  from  the  English  fleet,  all  of  which 
resulted  in  heavy  loss  to  the  enemy  from  the  fire 
of  the  batteries  on  Craney  Island,  and  that  of 
our  gunboats.  In  one  of  the  minor  conflicts  with 
the  enemy,  Mr.  Sigourney,  a  gallant  and  prom 
ising  young  officer,  was  killed,  while  defending, 
sword  in  hand,  his  command,  the  "Asp,"  then 
lying  in  the  Yeocomico.  She  was  finally  carried 
by  boarding  by  an  overwhelming  force,  and  set 
on  fire  and  abandoned ;  but  Mr.  McClintock,  the 


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538 


NAVY 


officer  second  in  command,  upon  the  enemy  re 
tiring  again,  got  on  board  and  extinguished  the 
flames. 

About  this  time  the  frigates  "United  States" 
and  "Macedonian"  and  sloop-of- war  "  Wasp," 
under  Commodore  Decatur,  were  chased  into 
New  London,  where  they  were  blockaded,  and 
never  again  got  to  sea  during  the  war,  though 
every  effort  was  made  to  elude  the  enemy. 

For  the  defense  of  the  bays,  rivers,  and  inlets 
several  small  vessels  had  been  fitted  out,  and 
among  them  the  "  Alligator."  While  this  ves 
sel  was  lying  at  anchor  near  Cole's  Island,  she 
was  attacked  by  the  enemy's  boats.  Mr.  Bas- 
sett,  her  commander,  cut  her  cables  and  made 
sail,  and  with  the  assistance  of  a  light  breeze, 
which  enabled  him  to  bring  his  vessel  under  con 
trol,  succeeded  in  defeating  the  attempt  of  the 
enemy  and  inflicting  upon  him  heavy  loss.  Mr. 
Bassett  was  promoted  for  his  gallantry  upon  this 
occasion.  The  "Alligator"  was  subsequently 
capsized  in  a  violent  squall  in  Port  Royal  Sound, 
and  many  of  her  crew  perished. 

Among  the  gallant  exploits  of  the  war,  those 
performed  by  Lieut.  Lawrence  Reamey  are 
among  the  most  conspicuous.  In  January,  1815, 
this  officer,  in  command  of  3  barges,  captured, 
under  the  guns  of  the  English  frigate  "  Hebrus," 
a  heavily-armed  tender  and  launch  belonging  to 
that  vessel,  with  40  men,  and  a  few  days  later, 
in  the  captured  launch  of  the  "Hebrus,"  with 
a  crew  of  25  men,  he  captured  a  tender  belonging 
to  the  frigate  "Severn,"  having  on  board  be 
tween  30  and  40  men.  No  more  dashing  exploits 
occurred  during  the  war. 

In  October,  1814,  gunboat  No.  160,  com 
manded  by  Mr.  Payne,  while  convoying  a  num 
ber  of  coasters  from  Savannah  to  St.  Mary's,  was 
captured  by  a  tender  and  10  armed  boats  after  a 
spirited  and  obstinate  resistance,  in  which  half 
her  crew  were  killed  or  wounded.  The  enemy 
suffered  severely.  Mr.  Payne  was  badly  wounded. 

In  July,  18i3,  gunboat  No.  121,  commanded 
by  Mr.  Shead,  was  captured  by  8  armed  boats 
from  the  "Innon,"  38,  and  the  "Martin,"  16, 
after  a  persistent  defense,  in  which  the  enemy 
lost  7  killed  and  12  wounded.  No.  121  had  7 
men  wounded. 

During  the  summer  of  1813  our  government 
had  but  3  vessels  of  war  at  sea, — the  "  Presi 
dent,"  44,  the  "Congress,"  38,  and  "Essex," 
32.  Within  a  year  after  the  declaration  of  war 
all  the  brigs,  with  the  exception  of  the  "  Enter 
prise,"  had  been  captured.  The  loss  of  these 
vessels  induced  a  change  of  policy  with  the  gov 
ernment,  and  it  was  decided  to  build  sloops-of- 
war  of  a  class  sufficiently  large  to  cope  with  any 
thing  beneath  the  small  frigates  of  the  enemy. 
In  June,  1814,  the  "  Guerriere,"  44,  was  launched 
at  Philadelphia,  and  on  the  20th  July  following 
the  "Independence,"  74,  was  launched  at  Bos 
ton.  The  first  two-decked  ship  that  ever  prop 
erly  belonged  to  our  navy — the  "Java,"  44 — 
was  soon  after  launched  at  Baltimore.  Commo 
dore  Rodgers  was  appointed  to  the  first-,  Bain- 
bridge  to  the  second-,  and  Perry  to  the  third- 
named  vessels.  The  new  sloops-of-war  began  to 
get  to  sea  during  the  summer.  The  "  Frolic," 
18,  was  captured  shortly  after  sailing  by  H.  B.  M. 
frigate  "Orpheus,"  36,  without  resistance,  as 
during  the  chase  her  guns  were  thrown  over 
board.  The  "  Adams,"  28,  had  been  cut  down 


at  Washington  to  a  sloop-of-war,  and  lengthened 
so  as  to  carry  28  guns  on  a  single  deck.  Under 
the  command  of  Capt.  Morris  she  succeeded  in 
getting  to  sea,  and  after  several  narrow  escapes 
and  an  extended  cruise,  in  which  she  made  many 
captures,  she  was  obliged,  on  account  of  damages 
by  grounding,  to  go  into  the  Penobscot  liiver  for 
repairs,  going  as  far  up  as  Hampden.  While 
the  vessel  lay  ready  to  be  hove  out,  and  with 
nothing  in  her,  she  was  attacked  by  a  strong 
force  of  the  enemj-,  consisting  of  troops  and  ves 
sels  of  war,  and  to  prevent  her  capture  she  was 
destroyed,  the  crew  all  escaping  and  reaching 
Portland  but  1  man  and  1  marine,  who  fell  into 
the  enemy's  hands. 

On  the  28th  June,  1814,  the  "Wasp,"  18, 
Capt.  Blakelev,  one  of  the  new  sloops-of-war, 
in  lat.  48°  36'  N.,  Ion.  11°  15'  W.,  captured 
H.  B.  M.  sloop-of-war  "Reindeer,"  Capt.  Mari 
ners.  On  the  part  of  the  enemy  this  fight  lasted 
28  minutes,  on  that  of  the  "  Wasp,"  19  minutes. 
It  is  conceded  the  English  captain  fought  his  ship 
with  great  skill  and  gallantry.  In  attempting 
to  board  he  was  mortally  wounded.  The  cool 
ness,  skill,  and  seamanship  displayed  by  Capt. 
Blakeley  during  every  phase  of  this  conflict  has 
never  been  surpassed.  The  "  Reindeer"  was  cut 
to  pieces  in  a  line  with  her  ports.  The  "  WTasp" 
was  hulled  6  times,  and  she  was  pitted  with 
grape.  She  had  5  killed  and  22  wounded, 
among  the  latter  2  midshipmen,  who  subse 
quently  died  of  their  wounds.  The  "  Rein 
deer"  lost  25  killed  and  42  wounded,  her  first 
lieutenant  and  master  among  the  latter.  The 
prize  was  destroyed  to  prevent  recapture.  On 
the  1st  of  September,  1814,  Capt.  Blakeley,  in 
the  same  vessel,  being  then  in  lat.  47°  30'  N., 
Ion.  11°  W.,  engaged  "and  sunk  the  "Avon,"  18, 
Capt.  Arbuthnot,  within  sight  of  her  consort,  the 
"Castilian,"  18,  and  two  other  vessels,  one  of 
them  known  to  be  a  man-of-war.  After  the 
engagement,  Capt.  Blakeley  ran  off  dead  before 
the  wind  in  order  to  reeve  new  braces  and  to 
draw  the  nearest  vessel  from  her  consort.  This 
vessel,  the  "  Castilian,"  18,  continued  the  chase, 
but  after  firing  a  broadside  into  the  "Wasp," 
hauled  her  wind  to  rejoin  her  sinking  consort, 
who  was  making  signals  of  distress.  The  "Avon" 
is  supposed  to  have  lost  from  30  to  50  in  killed 
and  wounded.  The  "  Wasp"  lost  1  killed  and 
2  wounded.  Capt.  Blakeley 's  conduct  in  the 
destruction  of  the  "Avon,"  and  his  ready  prep 
aration  to  engage  the  "Castilian"  after  the  de 
struction  of  the  "Avon,"  indicate  the  splendid 
character  and  spirit  of  the  man  and  the  school 
in  which  he  was  trained.  The  last  heard  of  the 
"  Wasp"  and  her  glorious  commander  was  in  a 
letter  brought  to  Savannah  on  the  4th  of  No 
vember,  1814,  in  a  prize  called  the  "  Atlanta," 
commanded  by  Lieut  Geisinger.  Various  con 
jectures  have  been  formed  as  to  her  fate,  but  it 
is  generally  believed  she  foundered  in  a  gale. 
Lieut.  McKnight,  late  of  the  "Essex,"  and 
Master's  Mate  Lyman,  passengers,  were  also 
lost  in  her. 

In  lat.  27°  47'  N.,  Ion.  80°  09'  W.,  the  "  Pea 
cock,"  18,  Capt.  Warrington,  on  the  29th  April, 
1814,  engaged  and  captured  after  an  engagement 
of  45  minutes  H.  B.  M.  brig  "  Epervier,"  18, 
Capt.  Wales.  The  loss  of  the  latter  was  22 
killed  and  wounded,  and  at  the  close  of  the 
engagement  she  had  5  feet  of  water  in  her  hold, 


NAVY 


539 


NAVY 


and  in  her  spars  and  rigging  was  extensively  in 
jured.  The  "  Peacock"  had  but  2  men  wounded, 
and  her  injuries  were  slight.  The  prize  was  put 
under  the  charge  of  Mr.  J.  B.  Nicholson,  the  first 
lieutenant  of  the  "  Peacock,"  who,  after  several 
critical  escapes  from  the  enemy,  carried  her  safely 
into  Savannah.  The  establishment  of  peace  in 
Europe,  owing  to  the  downfall  of  Napoleon, 
enabled  England  to  employ  a  largely  increased 
force  in  the  prosecution  of  the  war  against  the 
United  States  and  in  carrying  out  her  policy, 
which  seemed  to  be  twofold, — that  of  conquest 
and  the  infliction  of  injuries  of  a  partisan  char 
acter.  To  meet  the  operations  of  the  enemy 
the  U.  S.  government  had  equipped  a  force  in 
the  'Chesapeake  under  the  command  of  Capt. 
Joshua  Barney.  This  force  consisted  principally 
of  barges  carrying  heavy  guns,  a  few  galleys,  and 
one  or  two  schooners.  With  this  force  Commo 
dore  Barney  distinguished  himself  in  defeating 
the  plans  and  attacks  of  the  enemy,  and  upon 
every  occasion  displayed  the  highest  and  best 
qualities  of  the  officer,  notably  "in  the  Patux- 
ent,  where  he  resisted  successfully  the  heavy 
attacks  of  the  enemy,  in  one  of  which  the  "  Sev 
ern,"  frigate,  or  the  "  Loire,"  was  seriously  in 
jured,  and  in  opposing  at  Bladensburg  the  march 
of  the  enemy  upon  Washington,  where  Barney 
and  his  flotilla-men,  who  had  left  the  flotilla 
to  co-operate  with  the  army,  sustained  a  large 
share  of  the  fighting.  Upon  this  occasion  the 
flotilla  in  the  Patuxent  was  destroyed  to  prevent 
falling  into  the  enemy's  hands.  With  the  cap 
ture  of  Washington,  for  a  similar  reason,  the 
"Columbia,"  44,  on  the  stocks,  was  destroyed, 
the  "Boston,"  28,  and  the  "  Argus,"  18,  beside 
quite  an  amount  of  naval  stores.  The  seamen 
and  marines  of  the  "  G-uerriere,"  "Java,"  and 
flotilla,  tinder  command  of  Commodore  Rodgers, 
assisted  materially  in  resisting  the  advance  of 
the  enemy  upon  Baltimore,  and  in  the  battle  of 
North  Point  were  conspicuous  for  valuable  ser 
vice.  In  the  attacks  also  upon  Fort  McHenry, 
the  warm  and  well-directed  fire  from  Fort  Cov- 
ington,  manned  by  men  from  the  "Guerriere," 
and  commanded  by  Mr.  Newcomb,  and  of  Fort 
Babcock,  manned  by  50  men  from  the  flotilla 
under  charge  of  Sailing- Master  Webster,  together 
with  that  of  the  barges  under  Lieut.  Rutter,  as 
sisted  materially  in  the  repulse  of  the  enemy.  All 
of  these  gentlemen  were  distinguished  by  their 
steadiness  and  efficiency.  The  complete  failure 
of  the  enemy  in  these  attacks  terminated  active 
operations  in  the  Chesapeake. 

In  December,  1814,  Vice-Admiral  Cockburn 
suddenly  appeared  off  the  mouth  of  the  Missis 
sippi,  with  the  intention  of  making  a  formidable 
attempt  against  New  Orleans.  Mr.  Thomas 
Ap  Catesby  Jones  with  a  division  of  5  gunboats 
guarded  the  entrance  of  Lake  Borgne,  one  of 
the  approaches  to  the  city.  On  the"l4th  of  De 
cember,  1814,  he  was  attacked  by  an  overwhelm 
ing  force,  consisting  of  40  or  50  barges,  mounting 
42  guns,  principally  12-.,  18-,  24-po\inder  carron- 
ades,  manned  by  1200  men,  and  after  a  persistent 
and  heroic  defense  on  the  part  of  all  engaged,  he 
was  forced  to  yield.  Our  loss  was  comparatively 
light,  while  the  loss  of  the  enemy  in  killed  and 
wounded  is  supposed  to  have  reached  between 
200  and  300,  which  exceeded  the  number  of  the 
Americans  engaged.  Lieut.  Jones  was  badly 
wounded.  Mr.  McKeever,  in  No.  23,  was  the 


last  vessel  taken,  after  a  most  gallant  defense. 
The  country,  while  regretting  so  important  a 
loss,  looked  upon  the  result  against  hopeless  odds 
as  a  triumph. 

Capt.  Daniel  T.  Patterson  commanded  the 
naval  force  at  New  Orleans,  and  after  the  capture 
of  the  gunboats  he  had  but  two  vessels  remain 
ing, — the  "Louisiana,"  16,  and  the  "Carolina," 
14.  The  latter  vessel  rendered  signal  service, 
under  Capt.  Patterson,  in  assisting  Gen.  Jackson 
by  threatening  the  enemy's  left  flank,  and  by 
her  galling  fire  to  resist,  by  a  spirited  night  at 
tack,  the  first  demonstration  of  the  enemy,  under 
Maj.-Gen.  Keane,  upon  New  Orleans.  Shortly 
after  this  vessel,  under  command  of  Capt.  Hen 
ley,  was  destroyed  by  the  fire  of  a  battery  of 
heavy  guns.  In  this  affair  7  men  were  killed 
and  wounded.  All  but  these  escaped,  and  volun 
teered  to  man  some  of  the  heavy  guns  mounted 
on  the  American  lines,  and  rendered  valuable 
service  in  all  the  subsequent  successes  under  Gen. 
Jackson  in  his  memorable  defense  of  New  Or 
leans.  The  "  Louisiana"  alone  remained  to  co 
operate  with  the  army,  and  in  the  great  battle 
of  the  8th  January  her  services,  under  Capt. 
Patterson,  were  of  eminent  value.  Capt.  Patter 
son  also  erected  a  battery  on  the  right  bank  of 
the  river,  which  he  placed  in  charge  of  Capt. 
Henley,  and  which  rendered  important  service. 
Upon  "the  retreat  of  the  enemy,  several  expedi 
tions  in  boats  were  dispatched"  by  Capt.  Patter 
son  to  harass  and  cut  off  the  enemy,  and  Mr. 
Thomas  Shields,  a  purser,  with  6  boats  and  50 
men,  captured  one  of  the  enemy's  large  boats 
with  40  officers  and  men  belonging  to  the  dra 
goons  and  14  seamen,  and  immediately  after  cap 
tured  a  barge,  a  transport  schooner,  and  5  other 
boats,  with  83  more  prisoners.  Sailing-Master 
Johnson  also  performed  creditable  service  in  de 
stroying  a  transport  and  capturing  a  number  of 
men.  In  all  the  important  service  connected 
with  the  defense  of  New  Orleans  the  na'vy  bore 
a  conspicuous  part.  Capts.  Patterson  and  Hen 
ley,  Lieuts.  Jones,  Thompson,  McKeever,  Sped- 
den,  Cunningham,  Norris,  and  Crowley,  with 
other  junior  officers,  were  distinguished  for  gal 
lant  conduct  and  services.  The  spirited  conduct 
and  gallant  exploits  of  Purser  Shields  have  been 
before  mentioned.  The  marines  under  Major 
McCormick,  who  was  wounded  in  resisting  an 
advance  of  the  enemy  upon  the  American  lines 
on  the  20th  of  December,  bore  their  share  in  the 
glories  of  this  brilliant  and  decisive  campaign. 

Upon  the  commencement  of  hostilities,  the 
American  government  caused  the  "  Oneida,"  16, 
to  be  built  on  Lake  Ontario,  where  the  English 
had  long  maintained  a  small  force.  Shortly  after 
the  English  built  the  "Royal  George,"  a' vessel 
designed  to  carry  22  guns.  "  On  the  29th  July, 
1812,  Lieut.  Commanding  Woolsey,  in  command 
of  the  "Oneida,"  then  lying  at  Sackett's  Harbor, 
successfully  resisted  an  attempt  to  capture  this 
vessel,  made  by  a  squadron  composed  of  the 
"Royal  George,"  22,  "Prince  Regent,"  16, 
"Earl  of  Moira,"  14,  "Duke  of  Gloucester," 
"Seneca,"  and  "Simcoes."  This  was  the  com 
mencement  of  hostilities  on  the  great  lakes, — ere 
the  conclusion  of  the  war  to  become  the  theatre 
of  grand  events.  In  August,  1812,  Commodore 
Isaac  Chauncey  was  ordered  to  this  important 
command.  With  characteristic  energy,  judg 
ment,  and  enterprise,  under  the  authority  of  the 


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540 


NAVY 


government,  he  immediately  adopted  prompt 
measures  to  increase  our  force  to  an  extent  com 
mensurate  with  that  of  the  enemy  on  Lake  On 
tario.  Several  vessels  were  immediately  bought, 
armed,  and  equipped,  and  put  in  service,  and 
called  the  "  Hamilton,"  "  Governor  Tompkins," 
"  Conquest,"  "  Growler,"  "  Julia,"  and  "  Pert." 
Their  armament  consisted  of  long  guns,  mounted 
on  circles,  with  a  few  light  guns,  averaging 
about  4  guns  each.  The  keel  of  a  ship  to  carry 
twenty-four  32-pounder  carronades  was  laid  in 
September.  With  the  "  Oneida,"  the  entire 
flotilla  mounted  40  guns,  manned  by  430  men, 
including  marines.  At  this  time  the  force  of 
the  enemy  was  more  than  double  that  of  the 
Americans  in  guns  and  men,  and,  as  cruisers, 
were  greatly  superior.  On  the  upper  lakes  the 
enemy  had  two  or  three  vessels,  which,  for  the 
time,  gave  them  control  of  those  waters  before 
the  arrival  of  Commodore  Chauncey  at  Sackett's 
Harbor.  Lieut.  I.  D.  Elliott  was  ordered  to  the 
upper  lakes  to  purchase  suitable  vessels  for  the 
creation  of  a  suitable  force  in  those  waters.  On 
his  way  in  the  execution  of  these  orders,  learning 
that  the  first  detachment  of  seamen  for  service 
on  the  lakes  was  within  a  short  distance  of  the 
Niagara  frontier,  and  that  the  "Detroit"  and 
"Caledonia,"  armed  vessels  of  the  enemy,  were 
anchored  under  Fort  Erie,  he  organized,  in  con 
nection  with  Capt:  Towson,  of  the  army,  an  ex 
pedition  for  their  capture.  Beside  the  officers 
named,  Sailing-Master  Watts,  of  the  navy,  and 
Lieuts.  Roach  and  Pressman,  of  the  army,  par 
ticipated.  The  success  was  complete,  and  re 
sulted  in  the  capture  of  both  vessels.  The 
"  Caledonia"  was  brought  to  the  American  side. 
The  "  Detroit"  having  grounded  on  Squaw  Island, 
within  reach  of  the  guns  of  Fort  Erie,  she  was 
burned  by  the  Americans  after  removing  most 
of  her  stores.  The  enterprise  was  full  of  daring, 
and  was  the  first  success  on  either  side  in  the 
warfare  on  the  lakes.  Congress  voted  Mr.  Elliott 
a  sword,  and  Capt.  Towson  acquired  great  repu 
tation  for  his  part  in  the  enterprise;  to  his  un 
flinching  courage  and  skill  the  capture  of  the 
"Caledonia"  is  materially  due,  while  all  par 
ticipating  in  the  glowing  achievement  deserved 
and  received  high  praise.  Soon  after  the  arrival 
of  Mr.  Angus,  who  was  senior  to  Elliott,  the 
latter  rejoined  Commodore  Chauncey's  command. 
On  the  8th  November,  Commodore  Chauncey 
hoisted  his  broad-pennant  on  the  "  Oneida,"  16, 
Lieut.  Commandant  Woolsey,  and  having  the 
rest  of  his  flotilla  in  company,  sailed  to  cut  off 
the  enemy's  vessels.  Upon  this  occasion  the 
"  Royal  George,"  having  sought  protection  un 
der  the  forts  at  Kingston,  a  spirited  engagement 
between  the  flotilla  and  forts  followed,  but, 
owing  to  the  coming  on  of  a  gale,  without  ma 
terial  results,  and  the  vessels^  on  the  10th,  re 
turned  to  Sackett's  Harbor.  Commodore  Chaun 
cey,  in  the  "Oneida,"  used  every  possible  means 
to  bring  on  an  engagement  with  the  "  Royal 
George,"  a  much  heavier  vessel,  but  without 
success.  JBrig.-Gen.  Smythe,  towards  the  close 
of  November,  preparatory  to  a  descent  on  the 
Canada  shore,  requested  the  co-operation  of  Mr. 
Angus,  with  a  naval  force,  in  driving  the  enemy 
from  the  batteries  on  the  Canada  side.  The  night 
of  the  28th  November  was  selected  for  the  occa 
sion.  The  expedition  was  divided  into  two  par 
ties,  one  consisting  of  10  boats  and  70  seamen, 


exclusive  of  officers,  under  Mr.  Angus,  accom 
panied  by  Capt.  King,  with  a  detachment  of  150 
soldiers,  and  Mr.  Samuel  Swartout,  of  New  York, 
as  a  volunteer.  The  other,  with  10  more  boats 
and  a  detachment  of  200  strong,  was  commanded 
by  Col.  Boerstler.  The  arrangements  being 
completed,  the  expedition  left  the  American  shore 
about  1  A.M.  The  plan  was  for  one  party  to  as 
cend  the  river  while  the  other  descended  with 
the  current.  Upon  nearing  the  shore,  the  enemy, 
who  were  prepared,  opened  a  destructive  fire ; 
but  the  boats,  commanded  by  efficient  officers, 
dashed  in  and  effected  a  landing.  A  body  of 
the  enemy  was  drawn  up  in  front  of  the  bar 
racks,  known  as  the  Red  House,  their  left  flank 
protected  by  two  guns.  As  soon  as  the  troops 
formed  the  fire  was  returned. 

At  this  juncture  a  few  seamen  armed  with  pis 
tols  and  pikes,  led  by  Sailing-Master  Watts  and 
Midshipman  Holdup  Stevens,  made  a  detour 
around  the  hill,  and  charging  the  artillerists, 
captured  the  guns  in  the  most  gallant  manner, 
mortally  wounding  Lieut.  King,  who  com 
manded  them  ;  the  remaining  troops  and  sea 
men  charged  in  front,  when  the  enemy  fled  to 
his  barracks,  where  his  fire  becoming  very  de 
structive,  it  became  indispensable  to  dislodge 
him.  Several  spirited  young  midshipman,  Messrs. 
Wragg,  Dudley,  and  Holdup  Stevens, — neither 
of  whom  were  yet  twenty, — with  a  few  men  suc 
ceeded  in  bursting  open  a  window  in  the  bar 
racks,  through  which  an  entrance  was  made,  and 
unbarred  an  outer  door,  when  Mr.  Angus  and 
the  seamen  rushed  in  and  drove  the  enemy 
out.  Some  confusion  here  followed,  owing  to 
an  order  to  retreat  by  some  irresponsible  person, 
and  a  portion  of  the  soldiers  and  seamen  em 
barked.  Mr.  Angus  attempting  in  vain  to  stop 
the  retreat,  retired  with  his  men.  Capt.  King, 
however,  with  a  part  of  his  troops,  still  re 
mained  engaged,  and  with  him  a  few  seamen, 
with  Messrs.  Wragg,  Dudley,  and  Stevens  at 
their  head.  A  charge  being  ordered,  the  enemy 
again  broke,  and  fled  into  a  battery ;  he  was 
driven  from  place  to  place  until  completely 
routed  and  all  the  batteries  at  that  point  were 
captured.  The  young  sea-officers  who  remained, 
believing  their  part  of  the  work  accomplished, 
crossed  to  the  American  side  in  the  best  manner 
they  could,  Messrs.  Dudley,  Wragg,  and  Stevens 
crossing  with  some  wounded  men  in  a  leaky 
canoe,  which  sunk  twice  before  they  reached  our 
shore.  The  fighting  was  of  the  most  desperate 
character,  and  the  impression  made  by  the  sea 
men  with  their  pikes  was  long  remembered. 
Their  loss  was  equal  to  their  gallantry.  Of  12 
sea-officers  engaged,  8  were  wounded,  Sailing- 
Masters  Sisson  and  Watts  mortally.  Mr.  Car 
ter,  another  master,  was  wounded  ;  Midshipman 
Wragg  was  wounded  in  the  abdomen,  Midship 
man  Graham  lost  a  leg,  Midshipman  Holdup 
Stevens  received  a  wound  which  shattered  his 
hand,  Mr.  Brailesford  was  wounded  in  the  leg, 
and  Mr.  Mervine  received  a  ball  in  the  side. 
Most  of  the  seamen  who  were  not  killed  got  back 
to  the  American  side.  Our  entire  loss  on  the 
part  of  the  navy  was  30  in  killed  and  wounded, 
which  was  quite  half  of  all  who  landed.  Capt. 
King  and  several  army  officers,  with  about  60 
men,  having  no  means  of  retreat,  eventually  fell 
into  the  enemy's  hands.  The  troops  behaved 
gallantly,  and  Capt.  King  was  conspicuously  dis- 


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541 


NAVY 


tinguished.  Many  of  the  officers  were  wounded. 
The  enemy  was  effectually  beaten, — batteries 
carried,  barracks  burned,  guns  spiked,  and  cais- 
§ons  destroyed. 

On  April  25,  1813,  the  American  squadron, 
under  Commodore  Chauncey,  consisting  of  the 
flag-ship  "  Madison,"  Lieut.  Commandant  El 
liott ;  "  Oneida,"  Lieut.  Commandant  Woolsey  ; 
"Fair  American,"  Lieut.  Chauncey  ;  "  Hamil 
ton,  "Lieut.  McPherson;  " Governor Tompkins," 
Lieut.  Brown ;  "  Conquest,"  Mr.  Wallaby  ; 
"  Asp,"  Lieut.  Smith  ;  "  Pert,"  Lieut.  Adams  ; 
"Julia,"  Mr.  Trant ;  "Growler,"  Mr.  Mix; 
"Ontario,"  Mr.  Stevens;  "Scourge,"  Mr.  Os- 
good ;  "Lady  of  the  Lake,"  Mr.  Flinn ;  and 
"  Raven,"  transport,  having  on  board  a  body  of 
1700  men,  under  Gen.  Pike,  appeared  off  York. 
All  the  vessels  ran  within  a  mile  of  the  shore  to 
the  southward  and  westward  of  the  principal  fort. 
Two  hours  after  the  troops  under  Gen.  Pike  were 
disembarked,  and,  under  cover  of  a  fire  of  grape 
from  the  vessels,  a  successful  landing  was  effected, 
with  a  loss  to  the  army  of  about  40  men.  As 
soon  as  Gen.  Pike  with  his  command  moved  to 
the  assault,  the  small  vessels  worked  up  to  within 
600  yards  of  the  principal  fort,  when  they  opened 
fire  upon  the  enemy,  and  contributed  largely  to 
the  success  of  the  day.  Commodore  Chauncey 
directed  in  person  the  naval  operations,  pulling 
in  his  gig  through  the  enemy's  fire,  encouraging 
all  by  his  coolness  and  conduct.  After  sustain 
ing  some  loss  by  an  explosion,  which  killed  Gen. 
Pike,  the  place  capitulated,  and  remained  in  our 
hands  until  the  1st  of  May.  The  loss  to  the 
navy  was  14  men  killed  and  wounded.  The 
"Duke  of  Gloucester,"  undergoing  repairs,  fell 
into  our  hands,  a  20-gun  vessel  was  burned,  a 
number  of  boats  for  transportation  of  troops  were 
taken,  and  a  large  amount  of  naval  and  military 
stores  were  destroyed,  after  sending  a  considera 
ble  amount  to  Sackett's  Harbor.  The  navy  con 
tributed  largely  to  the  success,  and  the  different 
vessels  were  well  handled. 

On  May  27,  1813,  a  combined  army  and  navy 
demonstration  was  made  against  Fort  George, 
resulting  in  its  capture.  Upon  this  occasion 
Capt.  Perry,  who  was  second  in  command,  at 
tended  to  the  disembarkation  of  the  troops.  The 
marines  of  the  squadron  were  embodied  with 
the  regiment  of  Col.  Macomb.  The  arrange 
ments  for  landing  being  completed,  under  cover 
of  the  fleet  the  boats  under  Capt.  Perry  dashed 
in,  and  Col.  Scott  effected  a  landing,  though 
opposed  by  a  concealed  party,  who  advanced  to 
repel  the  boats,  which  was  driven  back  by  the 
grape  and  canister  of  the  vessels  and  the  steady 
fire  of  our  troops.  When  Scott  landed  the  suc 
cess  of  the  day  was  assured.  He  was  supported  by 
the  remainder  of  the  brigade  under  Gen.  Boyd, 
and  after  a  short  conflict  the  enemy  was  driven 
from  the  field  and  retreated  towards  Queens- 
ton.  Upon  this  occasion  Lieut.  Brown,  in  the 
"Governor  Tompkins,"  was  highly  commended 
for  the  handsome  manner  in  which  he  brought 
his  ship  into  action,  and  the  splendid  execution 
of  his  fire.  The  skill  and  service  of  Commodore 
Chauncey  upon  this  occasion  were  handsomely 
recognized  by  the  army  and  by  Gen.  Dearborn, 
the  commander-in-chief.  Commodore  Chauncey 
commended  all  acting  under  him,  and  made  spe 
cial  mention  of  CapC Perry  arid  Lieut.  McPhcr- 
son.  Lieut.  Brown  was  not  named  in  the  dis 


patches,  the  omission  doubtless  being  an  accident ; 
no  officer  was  more  distinguished.  After  the  oc 
cupation  of  Fort  George  the  British  evacuated 
the  whole  Niagara  frontier.  Capt.  Perry  was 
shortly  after  sent  to  Erie  to  superintend  the  fit 
ting  out  of  the  squadron  at  that  place. 

About  the  same  time  as  the  descent  on  Fort 
George,  Sir  Geo.  Prevost,  the  British  commander- 
in-chief,  and  Commodore  Sir  I.  L.  Yeo,  planned  a 
coup  de  main  against  Sackett's  Harbor  in  retalia 
tion  for  the  blow  they  had  received  at  York,  and 
to  destroy  the  new  ship  building  there.  The  expe 
dition  was  a  failure  as  regarded  its  main  objects, 
but  owing  to  false  information  conveyed  to  the 
officer  in  charge  of  the  store-house  most  of  the 
stores  captured  at  York,  with  quite  an  amount 
from  the  sea-board,  were  destroyed.  Every  effort 
was  made  on  the  part  of  Commodore  Chauncey 
to  get  the  new  ship  afloat,  and  on  June  12  she 
was  launched  and  placed  in  command  of  Capt. 
Sinclair.  She  was  named  the  "General  Pike." 
At  this  time  many  promotions  occtirred  in  the 
navy  :  Sinclair  was  posted,  Woolsey,  Trenchard, 
and  Elliott  made  master  commandants,  and 
Holdup  Stevens,  Dudley,  Packett,  Yarnall, 
Wragg,  Adams,  Pearce,  Edwards,  Ives,  Conklin, 
and  Smith  were  raised  to  the  rank  of  lieuten 
ants. 

Towards  the  close  of  the  season  Capt.  Thomas 
McDonough  was  sent  to  assume  command  on 
Lake  Champlain.  In  the  spring  of  1813  our 
force  on  that  lake  consisted  of  the  "President," 
"Growler,"  and  "Eagle."  The  two  last  were 
sho'rtly  after  captured  by  the  enemy  after  a  stub 
born  resistance,  and  transferred  to  the  British 
flotilla.  In  August  the  enemy  appeared  off  Bur 
lington,  and  succeeded  in  destroying  some  stores 
and  in  capturing  several  small  tniding-craft. 
Capt.  McDonough  now  commenced  building  and 
purchasing  vessels  to  secure  again  the  command 
of  the  lake.  In  June,  Lieut.  Chauncey,  in  the 
"  Lady  of  the  Lake,"  captured  on  Lake  Ontario 
a  schooner  loaded  with  provisions  and  ammuni 
tion.  On  June  30,  Col.  Scott  embarked  in  the 
vessels  of  the  squadron,  landed  at  York  without 
opposition,  and  seized  a  quantity  of  provisions 
and  ordnance  stores,  and  5  cannon  ;  11  boats,  built 
to  transport  troops,  were  destroyed. 

In  the  early  part  of  August  the  squadron  sailed 
from  the  mouth  of  the  Niagara  in  pursuit  of  the 
English  squadron,  Commodore  Chauncey  doing 
bis\itmost  to  bring  on  an  engagement.  On  the 
night  of  the  7th  the  "  Hamilton"  and  "  Scourge" 
capsized  in  a  squall,  and  only  16  of  the  crew  of 
both  vessels  were  saved.  On  the  10th,  while  the 
squadrons  were  manoeuvring  for  the  weather- 
gauge,  the  "Growler,"  Lieut.  Deacon,  and  the 
"Julia,"  Mr.  Trant,  became  separated  from  the 
rest  of  the  squadron,  and  were  captured  after  a 
dashing  attempt  to  run  the  gauntlet  of  the  Eng 
lish  vessels.  On  the  28th  September  an  engage 
ment  occurred  between  the  two  squadrons,  which 
resulted  in  the  discomfiture  of  the  English  and 
in  chasing  them  into  Burlington  Bay.  The 
English  flag-ship,  in  the  engagement,  lost  main 
and  mizzen  topmast  and  main  yard,  and  was 
only  saved  from  capture  by  flight  and  the  gal 
lant  interposition  of  the  "Royal  George,"  Capt. 
Mulcaster.  It  is  thought  if  Sir  James  Yeo  had 
not  borne  up  when  he  did,  and  waited  long 
enough  for  the  carronades  of  the  "  Madison"  and 
"Oneida"  to  reach,  his  entire  force  would  have 


NAVY 


542 


NAVY 


been  captured  or  destroyed.  A  storm  coming 
on,  and  for  other  weighty  considerations,  Com 
modore  Chauncey  was  prevented  from  attacking 
the  English  in  Burlington  Bay.  In  this  affair 
the  late  Capt.  W.  C.  Boltin  was  prominent  for 
the  gallant  and  effective  manner  in  which  he 
handled  the  "Madison."  The  "Pike"  having 
for  some  time  borne  the  brunt  of  the  fight,  was 
a  good  deal  cut  up  in  her  hull,  spars,  and  rigging, 
and  by  the  bursting  of  her  bow-gun  22  men  were 
slain  or  wounded.  On  the  part  of  the  enemy  the 
"  Wolfe"  and  "  Royal  George"  suffered  most, — 
the  former  sustained  a  heavy  loss  in  men.  Upon 
the  abatement  of  the  weather  on  the  29th,  Com 
modore  Chauncey,  still  in  pursuit,  chased  the 
English  squadron  again  into  Burlington  Bay. 
Every  precaution  was  taken  to  prevent  his 
escape  in  the  thick  weather  prevailing.  Upon 
the  weather  clearing  a  trusty  officer  was  sent  in  to 
reconnoitre,  who  reported  nothing  was  to  be  seen 
of  the  squadron.  Commodore  Chauncey  then 
ran  off  the  Ducks.  It  was  known  afterward 
that  the  English  fleet  had  not  left  Burlington 
Bay.  But  for  this  mistake  the  English  fleet 
would  have  been  taken,  as  this  end  of  the  lake 
being  near  the  weather  shore  our  vessels  could 
have  safely  attacked.  At  3  P.M.  on  the  5th 
October  seven  sail  were  seen  ahead,  and  chase 
was  made ;  the  strangers  now  set  fire  to  one  of 
their  vessels,  the  others  vainly  attempting  to 
escape.  At  sunset,  opposite  the  Real  Ducks,  the 
"  Confiance,"  "  Hamilton,"  and  "  Mary"  struck 
to  the  "Pike,"  The  "Sylph"  captured  the 
"  Drummond"  cutter,  and  the  "Lady  Gore." 
The  other  vessel,  the  "  Enterprise,"  escaped.  The 
prizes  were  gun- vessels,  mounting  from  one  to 
three  guns  each,  and  were  used  as  transports. 
Two  hundred  and  sixty-four  prisoners  were 
taken,  including  some  officers  belonging  to  an 
English  regiment.  The  "  Confiance"  and  "  Ham 
ilton"  were  the  schooners  "  Growler"  and  "  Ju 
lia,"  taken  from  us  on  the  night  of  the  8th  Au 
gust.  For  the  rest  of  the  season  Commodore 
Chauncey  was  co-operating  with  the  army  and 
in  watching  the  enemy  off  Kingston.  The  suc 
cess  of  the  naval  operations  for  the  season  was 
largely  with  the  Americans.  The  hostile  squad 
rons  were  three  times  engaged, — twice  the  enemy 
avoided  the  conflict,  and  on  the  third  occasion 
Commodore  Chauncey  attacked  so  vigorously 
with  an  inferior  force  as  to  leave  no  doubt  of  the 
result  had  not  the  English  vessels  put  before  the 
wind.  The  success  at  York  and  the  fall  of  St. 
George,  which  depended  entirely  upon  the  co 
operation  of  the  navy,  and  the  captures  recently 
alluded  to,  were  all  important  results, — rarely  or 
ever  before  had  English  officers  declined  a  com 
bat  with  an  inferior  force.  The  more  our  naval 
operations  on  Lake  Ontario  are  studied,  the  more 
conspicuous,  brilliant,  and  successful  will  the  ser 
vices  and  splendid  qualities  of  Commodore 
Chauncey  appear. 

By  extraordinary  exertions  Capt.  O.  H.  Perry, 
who  had  been  ordered  to  the  command  on  Lake 
Erie,  assisted  materially  by  Sailing-Master  Dob 
bins,  had  succeeded,  by  purchase  and  building, 
in  organizing  at  Erie  a  force  of  vessels,  con 
sisting  of  the  "Lawrence,"  20,  "Niagara,"  20, 
"Caledonia,"  3,  "Ariel,"  4,  "  Trippe,"  1, 
"Somers,"  2,  "Scorpion,"  2,  "Ohio,"  1,  and 
"  Porcupine,"  and  on  the  4th  of  August,  1813, 
by  the  use  of  camels,  floated  the  heavy  vessels 


over  the  7-foot  bar  lying  at  the  entrance  to  the 
harbor  of  Erie  and  anchored  outside.  At  this 
time  the  force  of  the  enemy  consisted  of  the  flag 
ship  "Detroit,"  19,  the  "*Queen  Charlotte,"  17, 
the  "  Lady  Prevost,"  13,  the  "  Hunter,"  10,  and 
three  or  four  light  cruisers,  all  under  command 
of  Capt.  Barclay.  On  the  5th  September,  Capt. 
Perry  sailed  with  his  squadron  in  quest  of  the 
enemy,  and  after  cruising  several  days  anchored, 
on  account  of  the  illness  of  Capt.  Perry,  in  Put 
in-Bay.  On  the  morning  of  the  10th,  while 
still  at  anchor  there,  the  enemy's  squadron  was 
discovered  bearing  N.W.,  when  a  signal  was 
made  to  get  under  way.  The  wind  was  light  at 
S.W.,  but  shortly  after  changed  to  S.E.,  which 
placed  the  Americans  to  windward.  About  10 
o'clock  the  enemy  hove  to  in  line  ahead,  heading 
S.W.,  and  distant  about  3  leagues.  When  within 
about  a  league  of  the  enemy,  discovering  how 
the  enemy  had  formed,  Capt.  Perry  communi 
cated  his  order  of  attack.  The  English  com 
mander  had  formed  his  line  with  the  "  Chippe- 
way,"  Mr.  Campbell,  armed  with  one  pivot- 
gun,  in  the  van;  the  "  Detroit,"  his  own  vessel, 
next;  the  "Hunter,"  Lieut.  Bignall ;  "Queen 
Charlotte,"  Capt.  Finnis ;  "Lady  Prevost," 
Lieut.  Commandant  Buchan;  and  "Little  Belt," 
astern,  in  order  named.  To  oppose  this  the 
"Ariel,"  Lieut.  Packett,  four  long  12's,  was 
placed  in  the  van;  the  "Scorpion,"  Mr.  Champ- 
lin,  one  long  and  one  short  pivot-gun,  next; 
then  the  "  Lawrence,"  Capt.  Perry  ;  the  "  Cale 
donia,'''  Lieut.  Turner,  next  astern;  the  "Niag 
ara,"  Capt.  Elliott,  followed  by  the  "Tigress," 
Lieut.  Conklin ;  the  "Somers,"  Mr.  Almy ; 
"Porcupine,"  Mr.  Sennalt ;  and  "Trippe," 
Lieut.  Holdup  Stevens,  in  order  named,  pre 
scribed  distance  being  half  a  cable's  length. 

From  the  commencement  of  the  battle,  shortly 
after  meridian,  and  for  two  hours,  the  fire  of 
the  enemy  was  mainly  directed  against  the 
"Lawrence,"  her  only  support  being  the  two 
schooners  ahead,  which  were  gallantly  fought. 
The  cannonade  had  deadened  the  wind,  and 
during  this  time  there  was  little  air.  The 
"Queen  Charlotte"  having  filled  passed  the 
"Hunter,"  and  concentrated  her  fire  with  that 
of  the  "  Detroit,"  upon  Perry's  flag-ship,  pro 
ducing  great  slaughter  on  board  and  almost 
dismantling  her.  After  the  firing  had  con 
tinued  some  time,  the  "Niagara"  hailed  the 
"  Caledonia"  and  ordered  her  to  make  room  for 
the  former  to  pass  ahead.  Mr.  Turner  immedi 
ately  bore  down  upon  the  enemy,  and  took  up  a 
position  closer  to  his  line  than  any  other  vessel. 
At  the  end  of  2£  hours,  the  enemy  having  filled 
and  the  wind  increasing,  the  two  squadrons  drew 
slowly  ahead,  leaving  the  "  Lawrence"  partially 
out  of  the  fight.  At  this  time  the  "  Niagara" 
passed  to  windward  of  the  "  Lawrence,"  steer 
ing  for  the  head  of  the  enemy's  line,  the  "  Cale 
donia"  falling  to  leeward.  The  vessels  astern 
had  not  been  idle,  but,  by  dint  of  great  efforts, 
had  gradually  been  closing,  though  not  in  regu 
lar  order.  The  rear  of  the  line  seems  to  have  in 
clined  toward  the  enemy,  bringing  the  "Trippe," 
Lieut.  Holdup  Stevens,  so  near  Turner's  vessel, 
the  "  Caledonia,"  that  the  latter  had  sent  a  boat 
to  her  for  a  supply  of  cartridges.  Capt.  Perry, 
finding  the  "  Lawrence"  thoroughly  disabled 
and  dropping  out  of  the  combat,  got  into  his 
gig  and  pulled  for  the  "  Niagara,"  which  vessel 


NAVY 


543 


NAVY 


he  boarded  at  half-past  two.  Soon  after  the 
"  Lawrence,"  then  a  wreck  and  with  hardly  a  man 
uninjured  aboard,  hauled  down  her  colors.  After 
a  short  consultation  between  Perry  and  Elliott, 
the  latter  volunteered  to  go  in  Perry's  boat  and 
order  the  smaller  vessels,  already  hotly  engaged, 
into  closer  action,  within  half-pistol  distance  of 
the  enemy;  this  accomplished,  Capt.  Elliott  re 
mained  on  board  and  took  charge  of  the  "  Som- 
ers."  According  to  the  statement  of  several  of 
Perry's  captains,  up  to  the  time  Perry  arrived  on 
board  the  "  Niagara"  and  took  command  of  her 
that  vessel  had  taken  but  a  slight  part  in  the 
conflict,  and  was  almost  uninjured.  When  the 
"  Lawrence"  lowered  her  colors,  the  enemy, 
supposing  they  had  won  the  day,  cheered  lus 
tily,  and  for  a  few  minutes  there  was  a  general 
cessation  of  firing,  both  parties  preparing  for  the 
final  struggle.  The  wind  had  freshened,  ena 
bling  the  gunboats  to  close  rapidly.  At  45 
minutes  past  2  the  "  Niagara,"  then  to  wind 
ward  of  the  leading  vessels  of  the  enemy,  made 
signal  for  close  action  (which  order  was  received 
with  cheers  and  obe}red  with  alacrity),  and  bore  up 
immediately  under  foresail,  topsails,  and  topgal 
lant-sail.  The  enemy  observing  this,  attempted 
to  wear  to  get  fresh  broadsides  to  bear,  but  in 
doing  so  his  two  ships  for  a  time  got  foul,  throw 
ing  liis  whole  line  into  confusion  and  bringing 
the  "Lady  Prevost"  to  westward  and  leeward 
of  the  "  Detroit."  At  this  juncture  the  "  Niag 
ara1'  bore  steadily  down  upon  the  enemy,  pass 
ing  between  the  "  Chippeway"  and  "  Lady 
Prevost"  on  the  one  hand  and  the  "Detroit," 
"  Queen  Charlotte,"  and  "Hunter"  on  the  other, 
and,  pouring  in  both  broadsides  as  she  passed, 
ranged  ahead  of  the  ships,  and  luffing  athwart 
their  bows,  continued  delivering  a  close,  deadly, 
and  raking  fire.  Simultaneously  the  "  Caledo 
nia,"  with  the  gun-vessels,  was  throwing  in  at 
close  quarters  a  raking  fire  of  grape  and  canis 
ter,  and  15  or  20  minutes  from  the.  time  the 
"Niagara"  bore  up  a  hail  was  passed  among 
the  small  vessels  that  the  enemy  had  struck. 
When  the  smoke  of  battle  cleared  the  two  squad 
rons  were  found  partly  intermingled;  the  "Ni 
agara"  lay  to  leeward  of  the  "  Detroit,"  "Queen 
Charlotte,"  and  "Hunter,"  and  the  "Caledo 
nia,"  with  the  "  Trippe"  and  another  gun-ves 
sel,  were  between  the  "Hunter"  and  "Lady 
Prevost,"  while  the  "Lawrence,"  with  her  col 
ors  again  flying,  was  astern.  The  "  Little  Belt" 
and  "  Chippewa"  attempting  to  escape,  were 
chased  and  captured  about  an  hour  after  by 
Champlin  in  the  "  Scorpion,"  and  Holdup  Ste 
vens  in  the  "  Trippe."  The  opposing  squadrons 
suffered  equally  in  killed  and  wounded.  The 
"  Lawrence"  was  cut  up  to  a  degree  almost  un 
paralleled  in  naval  warfare;  of  her  crew,  22  were 
killed  and  61  wounded.  When  Perry  left  for 
the  i' Niagara"  hardly  a  sound  man  remained 
on  board.  The  "Niagara"  had  2  killed  and  25 
wounded.  The  "Caledonia,"  Lieut.  Turner, 
though  carried  into  the  thickest  of  the  fight  and 
entirely  without  quarters,  had  but  3  men  wounded. 
The  "  Trippe,"  Lieut.  Holdup  Stevens,  which 
for  some  time  was  as  hotly  engaged,  and  was 
equally  without  quarters,  had  2  men  wounded  ; 
the"Somers,"Mr.  Almy,  the  same;  the  "Ariel," 
Lieut.  Packett,  1  man  killed  and  3  wounded ;  the 
"Scorpion,"  Mr.  Champlin,  2  killed,  one  being 
a  midshipman ;  the  others  had  no  one  hurt.  More 


than  a  hundred  men  of  Perry's  fleet  previously 
to  the  action  were  unfit  for  duty,  and  Perry  him 
self,  when  he  met  the  enemy,  was  suffering  from 
the  effects  of  sickness,  which  greatly  enhanced 
the  value  of  his  great  services  and  heroic  ex 
ploits.  On  the  part  of  the  Americans,  Lieut. 
Brooks,  commanding  the  marines,  and  Midship 
men  Clark  and  Lamb,  were  killed,  and  Lieuts. 
Yarnall  and  Forrest,  Mr.  Taylor,  the  master, 
Mr.  Hambleton,  the  purser,  and  Midshipmen 
Swartout  and  Claxton,  all  of  the  "Lawrence," 
were  wounded.  Mr.  Edwards,  second  lieuten 
ant  of  the  "Niagara,"  and  Midshipman  Cum- 
mings  were  also  wounded.  The  loss  of  the 
English  was  41  killed  and  94  wounded.  The 
"Detroit"  had  her  first  lieutenant  killed,  and 
Capt.  Barclay  and  the  purser  were  wounded. 
Capt.  Finnis,  of  the  "Queen  Charlotte,"  was 
slain  and  her  first  lieutenant  wounded.  The 
commanding  officer  of  the  "Lady  Prevost," 
with  the  first  lieutenant  and  commanding  officer 
of  the  "  Chippewa,"  were  also  wounded.  What 
ever  may  have  been  said  and  written  of  the  supe 
riority  of  the  Americans  in  guns  and  weight  of 
metal  over  the  English  in  the  commencement  of 
the  conflict,  it  must  be  conceded  this  advantage 
was  more  than  offset  by  the  complete  disability 
of  the  "Lawrence,"  which  ceased  to  be  in  the 
supreme  crisis  of  the  fight  a  factor,  and  that 
the  complete  success  of  this  great  and  glorious 
achievement,  when  defeat  seemed  inevitable^  is 
due  greatly  to  the  unconquerable  will  and  daring 
spirit  of  the  American  commander-in-chief,  when 
he,  seizing  the  opportune  moment,  bore  gallantly 
down  upon  the  enemy,  and,  in  breaking  his  lines, 
shattered  his  ships  by  his  broadsides  and  achieved 
victory  and  immortal  renown.  Congress  voted 
to  Perry  and  Elliott  each  a  gold  medal,  to  the 
commanding  officers  a  silver  medal,  and  to  the 
others  a  sword ;  prize-money  was  given  to  all. 
The  results  of  the  victory  were  of  the  first  impor 
tance.  The  English  evacuated  Detroit,  and  Perry 
soon  after  reached  that  place  in  the  "Ariel, "and, 
in  conjunction  with  the  army,  took  possession. 
Perry  co-operated  with  Harrison  in  his  move 
ments  against  the  enemy,  and  was  present  with 
the  latter  in  the  battle  of  the  Thames.  Most  of 
the  upper  part  of  the  province  fell  under  our  con 
trol,  and  large  quantities  of  military  stores  were 
captured. 

On  the  23d  of  October,  Perry  with  his  squad 
ron  transported  Harrison's  army  to  Buffalo, 
where  he  resigned  his  command  to  Elliott,  hav 
ing  been  promoted  to  a  captain  and  ordered  to 
command  the  "Java,"  44,  then  at  Baltimore. 

Upon  Lake  Ontario  the  energetic  and  inde 
fatigable  Commodore  Chauncey  vied  with  the 
English  in  increasing  his  force,  and  in  the  spring 
of  f814  the  keels  of  several  sizable  vessels  were 
laid  down  by  the  Americans,  and  on  the  2d  of 
May  the  "Superior,"  50,  was  launched. 

In  the  early  part  of  May,  Sir  James  Yeo,  with 
Lieut.-Gen.  Drummond,  having  a  force  of  from 
1200  to  1800  men,  made  a  descent  upon  Oswego, 
and  captured  a  small  quantity  of  stores.  The 
defense,  though  hopeless,  was  obstinate.  The 
Americans  lost  in  killed,  wounded,  and  missing 
79  men.  Lieut.  Pearce,  of  the  navy,  took  part  in 
the  defense  and  fought  bravely.  The  "  Growler" 
was  sunk,  but  was  raised  and  carried  off  by  the 
enemy,  who  admitted  a  loss  of  95  men.  About 
the  middle  of  June,  Commodore  Chauncey  sent 


NAVY 


544 


NAVY 


'Acting  Lieut.  F.  H.  Gregory  with  3  gigs  into 
the  St.  Lawrence,  where  the  enemy  had  a  line 
of  gunboats  stationed  to  protect  his  communica 
tions.  Mr.  Gregory  lay  in  ambush  on  one  of 
the  islands,  where  he  was  discovered,  and  a  gun 
boat  sent  in  chase.  Instead  of  retiring,  Mr. 
Gregory  made  a  dash  at  the  vessel,  and  carried 
her  without  loss.  She  was  armed  with  an  18- 
pounder  carronade,  having  a  crew  of  18  men. 
While  proceeding  up  the  river  he  was  again  chased 
by  a  much  larger  gunboat,  carrying  2  guns,  which 
compelled  him  to  scuttle  and  abandon  his  prize. 
Two  days  later  Mr.  Gregory,  accompanied  by 
two  gallant  lake  seamen,  Messrs.  Vaughan  and 
Dixon,  destroyed  at  Fresque  Isle  a  cru'iser  nearly 
ready  to  launch,  intended  to  carry  14  guns.  Mr. 
Gregory  was  promoted  for  these  gallant  exploits. 
Subsequently  this  brave  officer,  while  reconnoi 
tring  off  Kingston  in  a  gig,  was  pursued  by  2 
barges  of  the  enemy,  carrying  20  men,  and  after 
sustaining  the  loss  of  Midshipman'  White,  who 
was  killed,  and  having  5  out  of  a  crew  of  8 
wounded,  was  compelled  to  surrender. 

During  the  season  no  encounter  occurred  be 
tween  the  hostile  squadrons,  ours  being  employed 
in  watching,  blockading,  and  harassing  the 
enemy,  and  in  transporting  troops  and  stores  for 
the  army  operating  on  the  frontier.  On  the  19th 
of  November,  Midshipman  McGowan,  accom 
panied  by  Mr.  Johnson,  a  famous  partisan,  at 
tempted  to  blow  up  the  "  St.  Lawrence, ;'  120, 
recently  built  and  supposed  to  be  at  Kingston  ; 
being  discovered,  2  boats  were  sent  in  pursuit, 
which  he  captured,  with  as  many  men  as  his  own 
crew  numbered,  when,  learning  that  the  "St. 
Lawrence"  was  not  in  Kingston,  he  returned  to 
Sackett's  Harbor. 

To  counteract  and  oppose  the  movements  of 
the  enemy,  who  contemplated,  it  was  thought,  a 
descent  upon  Northeastern  New  York,  the  com 
mand  of  Lake  Champlain,  flanking  as  it  did 
for  200  miles  the  march  of  an  invading  army, 
became  of  the  first  importance.  With  this  object 
both  parties  during  the  spring  of  1814  were 
actively  engaged  in  building  and  equipping  ves 
sels  and  gunboats.  About  the  middle  of  May, 
while  the  American  squadron  lay  in  Otter  Creek, 
a  force  under  Capt.  Pring,  consisting  of  the  brig 
"Linnet"  and  8  or  10 galleys,  made  an  ineffectual 
attempt  to  fill  up  the  channel  with  vessels  loaded 
with  stones.  On  the  3d  of  September,  Commodore 
McDonough  anchored  his  squadron  off  Platts- 
burg,  the  point  selected  for  defense,  on  the  flank 
of  our  troops  intrenched  there.  About  this  time 
Sir  George  Prevost,  with  an  army  of  12,000  men, 
advanced  against  Plattsburg,  then  held  by  Gen. 
Macomb,  with  a  force  of  about  1200  effective 
men.  Commodore  McDonough  selected  an  an 
chorage  a  little  to  the  southward  of  the  mouth  of 
the  Saranac,  with  his  vessels  in  line  parallel  to 
the  shore,  running  north  and  south,  and  distant 
from  the  western  shore  2  miles.  The  "  Eagle," 
20,  Capt.  Henley,  lay  at  the  northern  extremity 
of  the  American  line;  the  "Saratoga,"  26,  Mc 
Donough 's  flag-ship,  second  ;  the  "  Ticonderoga," 
17,  Lieut.  Commandant  Cassin,  third;  the 
"Preble,"  7,  Lieut.  Charles  Budd.  The  last 
vessel  was  anchored  near  the  shoal  to  prevent 
the  enemy  passing  that  end  of  the  line.  The 
Americans  had  also  6  large  and  4  small  gunboats, 
each  of  the  former  carrying  a  long  24  and  an  18- 
pounder  columbiad,  and  each  of  the  latter  one 


long  12.  The  American  force  consisted  of  14  ves 
sels  in  all,  mounting  86  guns,  with  a  total  comple 
ment  of  850'men,  including  officers,  and  a  small 
detachment  of  soldiers.  To  complete  his  order 
of  battle,  Commodore  McDonough  placed  2  of 
the  gunboats  inshore  of  the  "Eagle,"  and  the 
rest  of  the  gunboats  were  placed  in  the  intervals 
between  the  different  vessels,  thus  forming  two 
lines,  distant  from  each  other  about  40  yards. 
The  force  of  the  enemy  was  largely  in  excess  of 
that  of  the  Americans.  The  "  Contiance,"  Capt. 
Downie,  carrying  on  her  gun-deck  thirty  long 
24's,  an  armament  similar  to  that  of  the  "  Con 
stitution"  ;  on  her  topgallant  forecastle  she 
mounted  a  long  24  in  circle,  and  4  heavy  car- 
ronades,  and  on  her  poop-deck  2  heavy  carron- 
ades,  making  in  all  37  guns.  The  "'Linnet," 
Capt.  Pring,  carried  sixteen  long  12's  ;  the 
"  Chubb,"  Lieut.  McGhee,  carried  ten  18-pounder 
carronades,  and  one  long  6,  and  the  "Finch," 
Lieut.  Hicks,  one  18-pounder  columbiad  and  four 
long  6's.  In  addition,  the  English  had  12  or  13 
gunboats,  8  mounting  2,  and  the  remainder  1 
gun  each.  Their  whole  force  consisted  of  16  or 
17  vessels,  mounting  in  all  95  guns,  and  carrying 
about  1000  men.  About  8  A.M.  of  the  llt'h  of 
September  the  enemy  stood  in,  with  the  wind 
northeast,  to  the  attack.  When  the  two  squad 
rons  were  distant  about  a  league,  the  enemy  hove 
to  to  complete  his  line  of  battle,  and  as  soon  as 
his  gunboats  were  in  position  the  English  filled 
with  their  starboard  tacks  aboard,  and  headed 
for  the  American  squadron  in  line  abreast;  the 
"  Chubb"  heading  well  to  windward  of  the 
"  Eagle,"  the  "  Linnet"  steering  for  the  bows  of 
the  same  brig,  the  "  Contiance"  shaping  a  course 
far  enough  ahead  of  the  "  Saratoga"  to  lay  that 
vessel  athwart  hawse,  and  the  "  Finch,"  with  the 
gunboats,  standing  for  the  "Ticonderoga"  and 
"  Preble."  The  Americans  were  anchored  with 
springs.  In  addition,  Commodore  McDonough 
had  run  out  a  kedgeboard  on  each  bow,  and 
brought  the  hawsers  in  upon  each  quarter,  letting 
them  hang  in  bights  below  the  water.  To  this 
seamanlike  and  wise  provision  the  victory  to  a 
degree  is  due.  The  action  was  opened  by  the 
"  Eagle,"  and  as  soon  as  her  shots  began  to  tell 
Commodore  McDonough  sighted  a  long  24- 
pounder  and  fired.  The  shot  is  said  to  have 
struck  the  "  Contiance"  in  the  outer  hawse-hole, 
and,  passing  the  whole  length  of  her  deck,  killed 
and  wounded  several  of  her  crew  and  disabled 
her  wheel.  Immediately  all  the  long  guns  of 
the  Americans  opened,  and  it  was  soon  apparent 
that  the  English  flag-ship  was  suffering  severely. 
Still  she  kept  on  in  the  most  gallant  manner, 
hoping  to  get  to  close  quarters,  when  the  over 
powering  battery  of  the  "  Confiance"  would  soon 
decide  the  day.  Finding  this  impossible  under 
the  telling  fire  of  the  Americans  and  the  baffling 
of  the  wind,  Capt.  Downie  determined  to  anchor 
head  and  stern,  but  in  using  the  kedge  astern 
with  this  object  the  hawser  fouled,  when  the  star 
board  bows  was  let  go,  and  the  kedge  became 
almost  useless.  The  "  Linnet"  anchored  soon 
after  in  a  good  position  nearer  than  the  "  Confi 
ance,"  and  forward  of  the  "  Eagle's"  beam. 
The  "  Chubb"  kept  under  way,  intending  if  pos 
sible  to  rake  the  American  line.  The  "".Finch" 
got  abreast  of  the  "  Ticonderoga,"  supported  by 
the  gunboats.  As  soon  as  the  "  Confiance"  was 
secured,  Capt.  Downie,  with  his  whole  broadside, 


NAVY 


545 


NAVY 


opened  with  fearful  execution  upon  the  a  Sara 
toga."  It  is  supposed  by  this  single  broadside 
one-fifth  of  her  crew  were  killed  or  wounded. 
Among  the  killed  was  the  first  lieutenant,  Mr. 
Gamble,  and  Acting  Lieut.  Vallette  was  the  only 
ofiicer  left  of  that  rank  on  board  the  "Sara 
toga"  at  this  early  stage  of  the  action. 

The  battle  now  became  general.  The  "  Chubb," 
about  a  quarter  of  an  hour  after  the  enemy 
anchored,  while  manoeuvring  near  the  head  of 
our  line,  was  disabled  by  the  fire  of  the  "  Eagle," 
and  drifting  down  between  the  contestants,  a 
shot  was  fired  into  her  by  the  "  Saratoga," 
when  she  struck,  and  was  taken  possession 
of  by  Midshipman  Platt,  and  anchored  near  the 
mouth  of  the  Saranac.  About  an  hour  later 
the  "  Finch"  was  crippled  and  driven  out  of  her 
position  by  the  "  Ticonderoga,"  and  drifting 
down  upon  Crabb  Island,  was  taken  possession 
of  by  the  invalids  belonging  to  the  hospital.  At 
this  end  of  the  line  the  enemy's  gunboats  made 
desperate  attempts  to  close,  and  forced  the 
"  Preble,"  soon  after  the  capture  of  the  "  Finch," 
from  her  place  in  line  to  a  position  considerably 
inshore,  where  she  was  of  no  further  service. 
This  accomplished,  the  enemy  turned  their  at 
tention  to  the  "Ticonderoga,"  and  so  deter 
mined  were  some  of  these  assaults  that  several 
times  the  gunboats  laid  in  their  sweeps  prepara 
tory  to  boarding,  but  the  cool,  determined  fire 
they  encountered  defeated  every  attempt.  At 
the  other  end  of  the  line  the  Americans  were 
suffering  severely.  The  "  Linnet"  secured  a 
commanding  position,  while  the  "Eagle"  was  so 
situated — her  springs  having  been  shot  away — 
as  not  to  be  able  to  bring  her  guns  fairly  to  bear 
on  either  the  "  Confiance"  or  "  Linnet,"  who 
were  firing  into  her.  Capt.  Henley  now  shifted 
his  berth,  and  took  up  a  position,  anchoring  by 
the  stern,  between  the  "Saratoga"  and  "  Ticon 
deroga,"  necessarily  a  little  inshore  of  both,  and 
opened  with  better  effect  on  the  "  Confiance" 
and  her  supporting  gunboats ;  this  change,  un 
fortunately,  left  the  "Saratoga"  exposed  to  the 
raking  fire  of  the  "  Linnet."  Shortly  after,  the 
fire  of  the  "  Saratoga"  and  "  Confiance"  materi 
ally  lessened.  On  the  "  Saratoga"  every  gun  in 
her  starboard  battery  was  disabled, — nothing  re 
mained  but  to  wind  the  ship,  which  McDonough, 
through  the  timely  provisions  already  alluded 
to,  succeeded  in  accomplishing,  and  her  fresh 
broadside  was  brought  to  bear  upon  the  "  Con- 
fiance,"  which  ship  also  attempted  to  wind,  but 
failed,  and  having  borne  for  some  time  the  fresh 
broadside  of  the  "  Saratoga,"  until  she  had  barely 
a  gun  to  return  the  fire,  the  English  commander- 
in-chief,  two  hours  and  a  quarter  after  the  com 
mencement  of  the  battle,  lowered  his  flag.  The 
"  Saratoga's"  broadside  was  immediately  brought 
to  bear  upon  the  "  Linnet,"  which  vessel  struck 
fifteen  minutes  later,  when  all  the  enemy's  gun 
boats  lowered  their  colors.  All  but  two  of  these 
finally  escaped,  owing  to  the  disabled  condition 
of  the  large  vessels,  which  required  the  crews  of 
our  gunboats  at  the  pumps  to  prevent  their 
sinking.  This  prevented  pursuit.  Our  total  loss 
was  52  killed  and  51  wounded.  The  English 
lost  57  killed  and  110  wounded  on  board  the 
large  vessels,  and  the  two  gunboats  captured  lost 
30  in  killed  and  wounded  between  them.  The 
slaughter  on  board  the  gunboats  that  escaped  is 
believed  to  have  been  very  heavy.  Though  a 
35 


report  was  circulated  to  the  contrary,  the  Eng 
lish  gunboats  were  well  fought,  and  bore  a  con 
spicuous  part  in  the  conflict.  Many  of  the 
American  officers  were  wounded,  though  but 
two  commissioned  line-officers  were  killed, — 
Mr.  Gamble,  the  first  lieutenant  of  the  "Sara 
toga,"  and  Mr.  Stansberry,  the  first  lieutenant 
of  the  "Ticonderoga."  Mr.  Smith,  the  first 
lieutenant  of  the  "Eagle,"  though  severely 
wounded,  after  his  wounds  were  dressed  returned 
to  his  post,  and  remained  during  the  action.  Be 
sides  Capt.  Downie,  who  was  killed,  the  English 
lost  several  officers,  and  three  or  four  were 
wounded.  Both  squadrons  were  fearfully  cut 
up  in  hull,  spars,  and  rigging.  Commodore 
McDonough,  by  his  consummate  skill,  heroic 
endurance,  and  indomitable  courage,  won  in  this 
splendid  triumph  a  reputation  second  to  none  in 
the  long  line  of  our  great  naval  captains.  He 
was  promoted  and  honors  showered  upon  him. 
Capt.  Cassin,  who  was  throughout  this  memo 
rable  contest  conspicuous  for  his  heroic  and  de 
termined  courage  in  the  defense  of  the  rear  of 
our  line  and  for  noble  conduct,  received  high 
praise  and  merited  honors,  and  all  participating 
received  also  their  share  in  distinction  and 
honors.  Mr.  Vallette  was  specially  mentioned, 
and  the  services  of  Mr.  Brum,  the  master  who 
superintended  the  winding  of  the  "Saratoga" 
in  the  climax  of  the  fight,  were  handsomely 
acknowledged.  Capt.  Henry  and  Lieut.  Com 
mandant  Cassin  gave  merited  praise  to  all  under 
their  command.  Messrs.  Conner,  Breese,  Kobins, 
and  Stellwagen,  in  command  of  gunboats,  fought 
gallantly.  Capt.  Downie  has  been  censured  for 
his  mode  of  attack,  which  brought  him  for  some 
time  under  a  raking  fire, — a  plan  of  attack  which 
had  been  successfully  adopted  by  the  English  in 
their  naval  fights  with  the  European  naval 
powers.  That  he  was  not  successful  with  his 
largely  superior  force  is  to  be  attributed  to  the 
firm  and  unconquerable  courage  and  magnificent 
gunnery  of  his  adversaries.  During  the  progress 
of  the  fight  Sir  George  Prevost  was  skirmishing 
in  front  of  the  American  works  and  preparing 
for  a  grand  attack.  The  fate  of  the  day  was 
scarcely  determined  when  he  commenced  a  hasty 
and  disorderly  retreat,  leaving  behind  him  many 
of  his  heavy  guns,  stores,  and  supplies.  From 
that  time  to  the  end  of  the  war  the  northern 
frontier  was  cleared  of  the  enemy. 

In  August,  1814,  Commodore  Sinclair,  then 
in  command  on  the  upper  lakes,  made  an  unsuc 
cessful  attempt  upon  Mackinaw,  though  several 
vessels  belonging  to  the  Northwest  Company 
were  captured  and  a  block-house  destroyed.  On 
the  night  of  the  12th  August  the  "Somers," 
"  Ohio', "  and  "  Porcupi ne, ' '  while  lying  at  anchor 
near  the  outlet  of  Lake  Erie  engaged  in  protect 
ing  the  left  flank  of  the  American  works,  were 
attacked  by  six  or  eight  heavy  bateaus  manned 
by  a  party  of  seamen  under  Capt.  Dobbs.  The 
"  Ohio"  and  "  Somers"  were  both  surprised  and 
captured,  but  the  "Porcupine,"  having  timely 
warning,  escaped.  The  American  loss  was  1 
killed  and  10  wounded.  By  the  resistance  on  the 
"  Ohio"  the  enemy  lost  about  the  same.  Lieut. 
Radcliffe,  of  the  "Netley,"  was  slain.  On  the 
night  of  the  3d  September,  Lieut.  Worsley  with 
five  large  boats,  one  conveying  a  6-  and  another 
a  3-pounder,  accompanied  Jby  19  canoes  and 
about  200  men,  surprised  at  St.  Joseph,  owing 


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546 


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to  the  darkness  of  the  night,  and  captured,  after 
every  officer  on  board  of  her  was  shot  down,  the 
"Tigress,"  Lieut.  Champlin, — this  vessel  had  a 
complement  of  28  men  and  carried  a  24-pounder. 
The  enemy's  guns  were  transferred  to  the  vessel, 
and  the  evening  of  the  next  day  Lieut.  Turner,  in 
the  "  Scorpion,"  anchored  about  5  miles  from  her. 
The  next  morning,  at  daylight,  the  "Tigress" 
stood  down,  under  American  colors,  towards  the 
"  Scorpion,"  and  Turner,  having  no  cause  to  sus 
pect  her  change  of  character,  permitted  her  to  get 
close  alongside,  when  she  fired  all  her  guns,  ran 
the  "Scorpion"  aboard,  and  captured  her  after 
a  slight  resistance.  Lieut.  Turner  was  honor 
ably  acquitted,  the  surprise  being  attributable  to 
the  want  of  signals.  In  capturing  the  "  Tigress" 
the  enemy  lost  a  lieutenant  and  2  men  killed  and 
7  wounded. 

Capt.  Steward  having  succeeded  Commodore 
Bainbridge  in  command  of  the  "  Constitution," 
sailed  in  the  winter  of  1814  for  a  cruise  through 
the  West  Indies,  upon  which  occasion  he  cap 
tured  the  "  Picton,"  14,  and  made  several  prizes, 
and  subsequently  returned  to  Boston.  On  the 
17th  December  she  again  sailed.  On  the  morning 
of  the  25th  February,  1815,  the  "  Constitution," 
then  off  the  coast  of  Spain,  captured,  after  an 
actual  contest  of  about  three-quarters  of  an  hour, 
the  "  Cyane,"  a  frigate-built  ship,  with  an  actual 
armament  of  34  guns,  and  the  "  Levant,"  carry 
ing  21  guns.  The  splendid  seamanship  of  Capt. 
Stewart  in  the  handling  of  the  "  Constitution"  in 
the  encounter  with  these  two  vessels,  by  means 
of  which  he  not  only  succeeded  in  avoiding  a 
raking  fire  by  the  enemy,  but  in  raking  both  his 
opponents,  has  always  been  regarded  with  admi 
ration  by  professional  men.  The  "  Constitution" 
lost  3  killed  and  12  wounded.  Capt.  Stewart 
estimates  the  loss  of  the  "Cyane"  at  12  killed 
and  26  wounded,  and  on  the  "Levant,"  23 
killed  and  16  wounded.  Capt.  Stewart  pro 
ceeded  with  his  prize  to  Port  Praya,  where  he 
arrived  on  the  Wlh  March.  While  lying  here  a 
heavy  English  force  appeared  in  the  offing,  and 
knowing  that  the  English  would  disregard  all 
neutral  rights  unless  supported  by  force,  Capt. 
Stewart  promptly  got  under  way  with  his  prizes 
and  proceeded  to  sea.  The  English  prisoners 
ashore  manned  a  battery  and  fired  at  the  "  Con 
stitution"  as  she  passed  out.  The  cool,  prompt, 
decided  conduct  of  Capt.  Stewart  in  getting  to 
sea  saved  his  command.  The  ships  in  chase 
proved  to  be  the  "Leander,"  50,  "New  Castle," 
50,  and  "Acosta,"  frigate.  The  "  Levant"  was 
chased  back  into  Port  Praya,  where  she  anchored 
within  150  yards  of  a  strong  battery.  The  enemy, 
disregarding  the  neutrality  of  the  port,  opened 
fire  from  all  his  vessels.  After  sustaining  this 
for  some  time,  Mr.  Ballard,  the  officer  in  charge, 
lowered  his  colors.  The  reputation  of  Capt.  Stew 
art,  already  very  high,  was  largely  added  to  by  his 
conduct  on  this  occasion.  The  "Constitution" 
arrived  safely  at  Maranham,  where  he  landed  his 
prisoners,  and,  hearing  that  peace  had  been  de 
clared,  sailed  for  New  York,  where  he  arrived 
the  middle  of  May.  Thus  ends  for  the  war  the 
exploits  of  the  noble  "Old  Ironsides,"  a  ship 
dear  to  every  American  heart. 

On  the  night  of  the  14th  November,  1814,  the 
"President,"  44,  in  command  of  Commodore 
Decatur,  in  attempting  to  cross  the  bar  at  New 
York  in  the  night  got  out  of  the  channel,  and, 


grounding  upon  the  hard  bottom,  was  considera 
bly  injured.  It  was  inipossible  to  return  owing 
to  the  adverse  tide,  and  as  a  strong  blockading 
force  was  in  the  offing  it  was  necessary  to  carry 
sail  to  get  off  the  coast  before  morning.  At  day 
light  4  ships  were  discovered  in  chase,  when  Com 
modore  Decatur  immediately  commenced  lighten 
ing.  Soon  after  3  o'clock  P.M.  the  "Endymion," 
40,  the  nearest  vessel,  opened  with  her  bow-guns, 
the  "President"  returning  the  fire  with  her  stern- 
chasers.  Finding  the  fire  of  the  "  Endymion" 
very  annoying,  and  that  she  was  gradually  gain 
ing,  Commodore  Decatur  determined  to  make  an 
effort  to  exchange  ships  by  carrying  the  "Endym 
ion"  by  boarding,  which  intention  was  received 
with  joy  by  his  crew.  All  attempts  to  close, 
however,  failed,  when  Commodore  Decatur  di 
rected  his  efforts  to  dismantling  her,  and  for  two 
and  a  half  hours  the  two  frigates  kept  up  a  heavy 
fire,  when  the  "  Endymion's"  sails  being  cut  from 
her  yards  she  fell  astern.  At  this  time  the  "Pres 
ident"  was  under  all  sail,  and  by  choosing  her 
position  could  have  forced  the  enemy  to  strike, 
but  the  near  approach  of  the  other  ships  com 
pelled  Decatur  to  resume  his  original  course  to 
escape  them.  All  efforts  were  made  for  the  pur 
pose,  but  by  11  P.M.  the  "  Pomona,"  38,  got  on 
the  weather  bow  of  the  "  President,"  and  poured 
in  a  broadside;  the  "  Tenedos,"  38,  was  fast 
coming  up  on  the  quarter,  and  the  "Majestic," 
razee,  was  within  gunshot  astern,  when  Commo 
dore  Decatur  yielded.  The  loss  of  the  "Presi 
dent"  was  24  men  killed  and  56  wounded. 
Among  the  slain  were  the  first,  fourth,  and 
fifth  lieutenants,  Babbit,  Hamilton,  and  Howell. 
Much  of  the  loss  occurred  from  the  fire  of  the 
"  Pomona,"  who  continued  her  fire  after  the 
signal  of  surrender  was  made.  The  "  End.ym- 
ion"  lost  11  killed  and  14  wounded.  The  fact 
that  this  vessel  did  not  join  the  other  ships  for 
three  or  four  hours  after  shows  her  crippled  con 
dition.  The  "  President"  was  taken  to  Bermuda, 
where  Decatur  and  his  crew  were  paroled.  He 
was  acquitted  with  honor  for  the  loss  of  his  ship. 
Off  Tristan  d'Acunha,  on  the  23d  March,  1815, 
at  1.40  P.M.,  the  "Hornet,"  18,  Capt.  Biddle,  en 
gaged  H.  B.  M.  brig  "  Penguin,"  18,  Capt.  Dick 
inson.  For  15  minutes  both  vessels  kept  up  a 
close  and  sharp  cannonade,  when  the  enemy,  find 
ing  the  fire  of  the  "Hornet"  too  hot,  bore  up  with 
the  intention  of  boarding.  The  enemy's  bowsprit 
came  in  between  the  main  and  mizzen  rigging 
of  the  "Hornet,"  affording  the  opportunity,  but 
the  attempt  was  not  made.  The  vessels  lay  in 
this  position  for  a  few  minutes,  the  Americans 
pouring  in  a  raking  fire,  when  the  sea  lifted 
the  "^Hornet"  ahead,  the  enemy  swinging 
round  and  hanging  on  her  starboard  quarter. 
Capt.  Biddle  ordered  the  foresail  to  be  set, 
when  the  enemy  called  out  that  they  surren 
dered,  but  after  this  two  marines  fired  at  and 
wounded  Capt.  Biddle  quite  seriously,  when  the 
crew  of  the  "  Hornet"  poured  in  a  volley  and 
shot  them  dead.  The  two  vessels  were  equal  in 
size,  armament,  and  weight  of  metal  and  crew, 
but  notwithstanding  the  "  Penguin"  had  the 
advantage  of  the  wind  she  was  taken  in  28 
minutes.  The  "Penguin"  lost  14  killed  and 
28  wounded.  Among  the  slain  was  her  com 
mander  and  the  boatswain  ;  among  the  wounded 
a  lieutenant,  a  midshipman,  and  the  purser. 
The  "  Penguin"  was  completely  riddled,  and 


NAVY 


547 


NAVY 


lost  both  lower  masts  and  bowsprit.  The  "Hor 
net"  had  1  man  killed  and  10  wounded,  includ 
ing  Capt.  Biddle  and  Mr.  Connor,  her  first  lieu 
tenant,  whose  life  for  a  time  was  in  great  danger. 
The  "  Hornet"  was  a  good  deal  cut  up  in  her 
sails  and  rigging,  otherwise  her  injuries  were 
slight.  A  few  hours  after  the  action  a  suspicious 
sail  heaving  in  sight,  Capt.  Biddle  towed  the 
"  Penguin"  some  distance  off  the  land  and  scut 
tled  her,  after  taking  such  stores  and  provisions 
as  he  required.  Shortly  after  the  "Hornet"  was 
chased  by  the  "Belvidere,"  74,  and  he  only  es 
caped  capture  by  lightening  his  vessel  and  throw 
ing  overboard  his  battery.  At  times  the  "  Belvi 
dere"  was  so  near  that  her  shot  passed  beyond 
the  "  Hornet."  Arriving  at  San  Salvador,  Capt. 
Biddle  learned  of  the  peace,  when  he  sailed  for 
New  York,  arriving  on  the  3d  of  July.  For  his 
splendid  achievement  in  the  capture  of  the  "  Pen 
guin"  Capt.  Biddle  received  distinguished  hon 
ors.  The  action  between  the  "  Hornet"  and 
"  Penguin"  was  the  last  regular  action  of  the 
war. 

In  the  Straits  of  Sunda,  on  the  30th  June,  1815, 
the  "Peacock,"  Capt.  Warrington,  captured  the 
East  India  Company's  schooner  "Nautilus,"  14, 
but  Capt.  Warrington  on  learning,  a  few  days 
after,  that  peace  had  been  ratified,  gave  her  up. 
Government  was  about  fitting  out  two  flying 
squadrons  of  small  vessels  when  peace  was  de 
clared,  and  all  operations  ceased.  Thus  closed 
the  war  of  1812,  a  war  in  which  the  American 
navy,  by  the  splendid  prowess  and  signal  suc 
cesses  over  a  power  that  had  never  found  its 
equal  upon  the  sea,  covered  itself  with  glory. 
The  nation  points  with  just  pride  to  the  exploits 
of  our  illustrious  line  of  naval  heroes,  and  as 
long  as  the  republic  lasts  their  gallant  deeds 
will  be  remembered  and  honored. 

At  the  breaking  out  of  hostilities  between  the 
United  States  and  Great  Britain  the  Barbary 
powers,  particularly  Algiers,  committed  wanton 
aggressions  wpon  our  commerce,  which  at  the 
time  the  government  could  not  properly  redress. 
These  powers  were  little  better  than  communities 
of  pirates,  to  whom  tribute  for  a  long  time  had 
been  paid  by  every  nation,  England  included. 
Shortly  after  the  termination  of  the  war  with 
that  country  war  was  declared  by  the  United 
States  against  the  dey  of  Algiers,  and  two  squad 
rons  were  fitted  out  to  punish  him  for  his  aggres 
sions  and  perfidy.  One  was  commanded  by  Com 
modore  Bainbridge,  and  the  other  by  Commodore 
Decatur,  the  former  being  appointed  commander- 
in-chief.  Decatur,  with  a  squadron  composed 
of  3  frigates,  1  sloop-of-war,  4  brigs,  and  2 
schooners,  sailed  from  New  York,  May  20,  1815, 
for  the  Mediterranean.  On  June  17  an  Algerine 
frigate  was.  made  out,  which  Decatur,  in  the 
"  Guerriere,"  engaged  and  captured.  She  proved 
to  be  the  Algerine  frigate  "  Mashouda,"  46  guns, 
commanded  by  Admiral  Rais  Hammada,  who 
was  killed.  Shortly  after,  off  Cape  Palos,  an 
other  Algerine  corsair,  the  "  Estudio,"  carrying 
22  guns,  was  captured.  On  June  28,  Decatur's 
squadron  anchored  in  the  Bay  of  Algiers,  and  in 
24  hours,  by  his  decision  and  firmness,  Decatur 
succeeded  in  compelling  a  treaty  such  as  had 
never  before  been  obtained  from  any  of  the  Bar 
bary  powers.  With  the  prestige  of  this  success 
Decatur  appeared  with  his  squadron  in  the  Bay 
of  Tunis  on  July  26,  and  immediately  made  cer 


tain  demands  upon  the  bashaw  of  Tunis,  which, 
after  some  blustering  on  the  part  of  the  bashaw, 
were  complied  with.  The  United  States  was  the 
first  nation  to  compel  these  faithless  powers  to  a 
recognition  of  maritime  rights  without  the  con 
tinuance  of  tribute,  and  her  example  being  fol 
lowed  by  other  nations,  these  petty  states  soon 
declined  into  their  proper  insignificance.  Since 
this  time  our  relations  with  these  people  have 
been  generally  satisfactory. 

In  1815,  Commodores  Rodgers,  Hull,  and  Por 
ter  were  appointed  a  Board  of  Navy  Commis 
sioners,  and  charged  with  all  duties  relating  to 
the  provision  of  supplies  and  stores,  and  the  con 
struction,  armament,  and  employment  of  vessels. 
In  1819-20  Congress  passed  an  act  for  the  grad 
ual  increase  of  the  navy,  and  authorized  the 
building  of  12  line-of-battle  ships,  14  first-class 
and  3  second-class  frigates,  6  sloops-of-war,  and 
a  proportionate  number  of  small  vessels. 

In  1821  an  expedition  was  fitted  out  for  the 
suppression  of  piracy  in  the  West  Indies,  where 
it  prevailed  to  an  alarming  extent.  On  October 
16,  Lieut.  Lawrence  Kearney,  commanding  the 
"  Enterprise,"  captured  2  piratical  schooners  and 
1  sloop,  with  about  40  pirates.  On  October  29, 
Capt.  Henley,  of  the  "Hornet,"  captured  the 
schooner  "  Moscow,"  which  he  sent  into  Norfolk. 
In  the  month  of  December  following  Lieut. 
Kearney  destroyed  the  rendezvous  of  the  pirates 
off  San  Antonio.  On  January  7,  1822,  Lieut. 
Rammage,  commanding  the  "Porpoise,"  des 
troyed  5  piratical  vessels  and  broke  up  their 
depot  on  the  north  side  of  Cuba.  On  March  6, 
Lieut.  Kearney  captured  3  piratical  launches 
and  4  barges  w'ith  their  crews,  numbering  about 
160  men.  On  August  16,  Lieut.  Gregory,  com 
manding  the  "Grampus,"  captured  off  Porlo 
Rico  the  privateer  "Palinurus,"  carrying  one 
long  brass  18,  and  eight  18-pounder  carronades, 
with  a  complement  of  85  men,  her  character  as  a 
pirate  being  well  established.  In  the  month  of 
November,  Lieut.  Wm.  H.  Allen,  commanding 
the  "Alligator,"  an  officer  of  great  merit  and  dis 
tinction,  was  killed,  with  2  of  his  men,  in  a  suc 
cessful  attack  upon  the  pirates.  In  September, 
Capt.  Cassin  captured,  in  the  "  Peacock,"  5  pirati 
cal  vessels.  In  February,  1823,  piracy  being  still 
on  the  increase,  our  force  in  the  West  Indies  was 
largely  augmented,  and  placed  under  command  of 
Commodore  Porter.  The  Porto  Rico  privateers 
having  upon  several  occasions  interrupted  our 
commerce,  Commodore  Porter  sent  a  communica 
tion  to  the  authorities  upon  the  subject.  Lieut.  W. 
H.  Cocke,  in  command  of  the  "Fox,"  in  attempt 
ing  to  enter  the  port  of  St.  Johns  in  order  to  ascer 
tain  the  probabilities  of  an  answer,  was  killed  by 
a  shot  from  the  castle,  which  opened  a  heavy  fire 
upon  the  vessel  and  forced  her  to  anchor.  It  is 
supposed  that  this  was  in  retaliation  for  the  cap 
ture  of  the  "  Palinurus."  On  the  morning  of 
April  8,  Lieut.  Stribling,  in  the  "  Gallinipper," 
captured  the  schooner  "  Pilot,"  formerly  of  Nor 
folk,  commanded  by  the  notorious  buccaneer  Do 
mingo.  About  the  same  time  Capt.  Cassin  cap 
tured  a  piratical  felucca  and  broke  up  sevefal 
piratical  establishments,  compelling  the  pirates 
to  destroy  3  of  their  schooners.  In  July,  Lieut. 
Watson,  in  the  "  Gallinipper,"  accompanied  by 
the  "  Mosquito,"  Lieut.  Inman,  having  a  com 
plement  all  told  of  25  men  and  oflicers,  attacked 
and  captured  a  large  piratical  topsail  schooner 


NAVY 


548 


NAVY 


and  an  armed  launch,  having  on  board  about 
80  men,  most  of  whom  were  destroyed.  The 
schooner  was  the  "  Catalina,"  commanded  by  the 
noted  pirate  Diaboleto,  who  was  killed  in  action. 
In  the  same  month  Kearney,  in  the  "  Grey 
hound,"  and  Newton,  in  the  "Beagle,"  landed 
a  force  at  Cape  Cruz,  and  after  a  sharp  encoun 
ter  broke  up  a  piratical  settlement,  burnt  sev 
eral  houses,  and  captured  some  guns.  In  1824, 
Skinner,  of  the  "  Porpoise,"  captured  a  schooner, 
and  Paine,  in  the  "  Terrier,"  recaptured  a  French 
ship  from  the  pirates.  To  add  to  the  difficulties 
Commodore  Porter  encountered  in  his  operations 
against  the  freebooters,  there  was  an  evident  col 
lusion  between  the  authorities  of  some  of  the 
islands  and  these  outlaws. 

In  October,  Lieut.  Platt,  commanding  the 
"  Beagle,"  learning  that  one  of  our  merchants 
residing  at  St.  Thomas  had  been  plundered,  and 
that  the  pirates  had  taken  the  goods  to  Foxado, 
a  small  port  of  Porto  Rico,  proceeded  thither  to 
recover  the  property.  On  making  known  the 
object  of  his  visit,  he  and  Lieut.  Ritchie,  who 
accompanied  him,  were  both  arrested  and  de 
tained  under  guard  for  a  day.  Commodore  Por 
ter  upon  learning  this,  with  his  characteristic 
promptness,  proceeded  to  Foxado  to  demand  ex 
planation  and  redress.  Finding  that  the  au 
thorities,  upon  his  arrival  there,  intended  to  fire 
into  his  vessel,  he  landed  a  force,  took  their  bat 
teries,  and  compelled  from  the  offenders  the 
amplest  apologies.  Unfortunately,  for  this 
thoroughly  justifiable  retaliatory  act  Commodore 
Porter  was  relieved  of  his  command,  and  Com 
modore  Warrington  succeeded  him.  This  officer 
continued  to  carry  out  the  plan  of  operations  in 
augurated  by  Commodore  Porter. 

In  March,  1825,  Lieut.  Sloat,  in  the  "  Gram 
pus,"  fitted  out  a  trading-sloop  with  a  comple 
ment  of  27,  all  told,  to  capture  a  piratical  vessel 
cruising  off  St.  Thomas.  The  expedition  resulted 
in  the  destruction  of  the  pirate  ship  ;  2  of  her  crew 
were  killed  and  10  made  prisoners,  among  them 
being  the  celebrated  piratical  chief  Colfrecinas, 
who,  with  the  others,  was  executed  by  the  authori 
ties  of  Porto  Kico.  In  May,  Lieut.  McKeever 
co-operated  with  the  English  in  breaking  up  a 
piratical  retreat  and  in  capturing  a  large  pirat 
ical  schooner.  These  severe  lessons  finally  broke 
up  the  nefarious  business,  and  piracy,  as  an  or 
ganization,  ceased. 

In  February,  1832,  Commodore  Downes,  in  the 
"Potomac,"  arrived  off  Quellah  Battoo  for  the 
purpose  of  chastising  the  natives  for  their  pi 
ratical  attack  upon  the  ship  "  Friendship,"  of 
Salem.  An  expedition  was  fitted  out  from  the 
"Potomac,"  and  officered  by  Lieuts.  Shubrick, 
Hoff,  Ingersoll,  and  Mr.  Totten,  of  the  navy, 
and  Lieut.  Edson,  of  the  marines.  The  Malays 
made  a  determined  resistance,  but  were  finally 
overcome,  and  several  of  their  forts  captured  and 
destroyed.  The  lesson,  though  severe,  was  salu 
tary  and  needed,  and  the  good  effects  of  this  well- 
deserved  punishment  still  continue  in  our  inter 
course  with  these  semi-piratical  people. 

The  United  States  Exploring  Expedition  sailed 
from  Hampton  Koads  on  the  l9th  August,  1838, 
under  command  of  Lieut.  Charles  Wilkes.  Mid 
shipman  Spencer  and  two  of  the  petty  officers  of 
the  brig  "  Somers"  were  executed  on  board  that 
vessel  December  1,  1842,  for  conspiring  to  cap 
ture  the  vessel  and  convert  her  into  a  pirate. 


Commander  Slidell  Mackenzie,  the  officer  in 
command,  felt  compelled  to  adopt  this  summary 
course  for  the  security  of  the  vessel  and  the  pres 
ervation  of  the  lives  of  those  under  his  charge. 
Upon  his  arrival  in  the  United  States  a  court  of 
inquiry  was  ordered  to  inquire  into  all  the  facts 
connected  with  the  transaction,  which  resulted 
in  a  complete  and  thorough  justification  of  Com 
mander  Mackenzie  and  his  officers. 

In  October,  1842,  Commodore  Thomas  Ap 
Catesby  Jones,  commanding  the  Pacific  Squad 
ron,  took  possession  of  Monterey,  Cal.,  under 
the  supposition  that  war  existed  between  the 
United  States  and  Mexico  ;  shortly  after,  receiv 
ing  advices  to  the  contrary,  the  town  was  re 
stored.  Subsequently,  and  upon  the  declaration 
of  war  between  the  two  countries,  Commodore 
Sloat,  then  in  command  of  the  Pacific  Station, 
took  possession  of  California,  and  hoisted  the 
American  flag  at  Monterey,  San  Francisco,  and 
other  points.  Shortly  after  Commodore  Sloat 
was  relieved  by  Commodore  Stockton,  whose 
services  were  very  valuable  in  securing  the 
newly-acquired  territory  to  the  United  States. 
Detachments  of  sailors  and  marines  were  left  to 
hold  the  various  points  taken  possession  of. 
While  occupying  Los  Angeles,  the  capital,  in 
formation  was  received  that  Lieut.  Gillespie,  of 
the  marines,  with  his  command,  were  besieged 
in  the  government-house.  The  "Savannah," 
Capt.  Mervine,  went  immediately  to  his  relief. 
A  landing  was  made  of  a  strong  force  at  San 
Pedro,  and  a  march  then  commenced  upon  Los 
Angeles.  When  within  about  four  miles  of  that 
place,  they  were  met  in  force  by  a  party  of  the 
enemy,  having  the  advantage  of  a  field-piece, 
by  means  of  which  the  advance  of  our  men  was 
checked,  and  the  command  fell  back  upon  San 
Pedro.  Shortly  after  Commodore  Stockton 
arrived  and  sailed  for  San  Diego.  From  this 
point  an  expedition  was  fitted  out  for  the  pur 
pose  of  re-occupying  Los  Angeles,  which  Lieut. 
Gillespie  had  been  compelled  to  abandon,  and  of 
forming  a  junction  with  Col.  Fremont,  who  was 
marching  southward.  While  preparations  were 
making  for  this  purpose  intelligence  was  received 
of  the  severe  check  Col.  Kearney  had  received 
at  San  Pasqual,  and  of  his  critical  condition. 
Lieut.  Gray,  of  the  navy,  with  a  force  of  200 
men,  was  immediately  sent  to  his  relief,  and 
soon  after  Col.  Kearney,  with  the  remainder  of  his 
command,  arrived  at  San  Diego.  When  Com 
modore  Stockton's  preparations  were  completed, 
he  took  up  the  line  of  march  for  Los  Angeles 
with  a  force  of  about  600  men.  On  the  7th 
January  the  command  arrived  at  the  San  Ga 
briel  River,  where  the  enemy  were  found  strongly 
intrenched.  On  the  next  day  our  forces  attacked 
vigorously,  led  by  Commodore  Stockton  in  per 
son,  and  drove  the  enemy  from  the  field.  On 
the  9th,  Commodore  Stockton  advanced  upon 
the  town,  where  he  was  again  met  by  the  enemy 
on  the  plains  of  Mesa.  A  sharp  cannonade  fol 
lowed,  the  Mexicans  making  several  abortive 
attempts  to  charge.  After  a  final  effort,  Gen. 
Flores  abandoned  the  defense,  and  moved  off  to 
wards  Sonora.  Soon  after  re-occupying  Los  An 
geles,  Commodore  Stockton  was  joined  by  Col. 
Fremont,  when  the  combined  forces  amounted 
to  1000  men.  Negotiations  were  entered  into 
with  Don  Andreas^Pico,  the  governor  of  Cali 
fornia,  by  which  the  Mexicans  agreed  to  lay 


NAVY 


549 


NAVY 


down  their  arms  and  yield  quiet  possession  of 
the  province.  Thus  to  the  navy  mainly  belongs 
the  acquisition  of  California,  with  all  its  untold 
wealth.  To  Commodores  Sloat  and  Stockton, 
for  prompt  and  energetic  management  and  firm 
and  determined  measures  in  these  emergencies, 
the  country  owes  a  deep  and  lasting  debt  of 
gratitude.  Shortly  after  these  important  occur 
rences,  Commodore  Stockton,  having  learned 
that  Commodore  Shubrick  had  arrived  to  take 
command  of  the  naval  forces  in  the  Pacific,  re 
turned  overland  to  the  United  States.  In  Au- 
fust,  Capt.  Lavalette  took  possession  of  Guaymas. 
n  September,  1847,  Lieut.  S.  C.  Rowan  landed 
with  a  party  at  San  Bias  and  destroyed  a  num 
ber  of  guns.  A  very  creditable  affair  occurred 
at  Muleje,  in  which  Lieuts.  G.  W.  Hainsoii  and 
E.  Higgins,  with  Midshipmen  Lewis  and 
Crabbe,  participated  in  the  destruction  of  a 
Mexican  brig  by  boats  from  the  "Cyane." 
Later,  Lieut."  Hainsoii,  with  three  of  the  "  Cy- 
ane's"  boats,  successfully  resisted  an  attack  at 
Mazatlan.of  the  enemy  with  a  greatly  superior 
force.  On  the  llth  November,  1847,  Commodore 
Shubrick  occupied  Mazatlan — the  most  impor 
tant  Mexican  seaport  on  the  Pacific — without  op 
position.  On  the  20th  November,  two  parties 
— one  in  boats  under  Lieut.  S.  C.  Rowan,  and 
one  on  land  under  Lieut.  G.  L.  Selden— were 
sent  to  disperse  a  force  of  the  enemy  about  10 
miles  from  Mazatlan,  which  resulted  in  the  total 
rout  of  the  enemy.  Our  loss  was  1  man  killed 
and  3  officers  and  17  men  wounded ;  that  of  the 
enemy  7  killed  and  about  30  wounded.  In  the 
same  month  Commander  Selfridge  landed  at 
Guaymas  and  drove  the  enemy  from  the  place. 
Commander  Selfridge  was  the  only  one  wounded, 
while  the  enemy  lost  some  30  in  killed  and 
wounded. 

On  the  19th  of  November,  Lieut.  Heywood, 
with  4  officers,  20  marines,  and  the  same  number 
of  volunteers,  while  occupying  San  Jose,  Lower 
California,  was  attacked  by  150  of  the  enemy. 
Lieut.  Heywood  upon  this  occasion  repulsed  the 
enemy,  inflicting  upon  him  severe  loss.  On  the 
22d  of  January,  1848,  a  detachment  of  Lieut. 
Heywood's  command,  consisting  of  Passed  Mid 
shipmen  Duncan  and  Warley,  with  6  men,  were 
captured  on  the  beach  by  a  large  party  of  the 
enemy's  cavalry, — a  serious  loss  to  the  little  gar 
rison.  In  the  latter  part  of  January  the  enemy 
again  appeared  in  force  at  San  Jose,  and  fired 
upon  all  who  showed  themselves.  Several  bold 
and  daring  sorties  were  made  by  the  little  gar 
rison  who  occupied  the  old  mission  building  for 
the  purpose  of  checking  the  advance  of  the  en 
emy.  On  the  morning  of  the  12th  Passed  Mid 
shipman  McLanahan  was  mortally  wounded, 
and  survived  but  two  hours.  On  the  evening 
of  the  14th  the  "  Cyane"  arrived  and  dropped 
anchor  off  the  town.  The  next  morning  Com 
mander  Dupont,  with  102  officers  and  men, 
landed  and  marched  to  the  relief  of  the  belea 
guered  garrison.  Upon  their  approach  Heywood 
sallied  from  the  fort,  and,  charging  upon  the 
enemy,  effected  a  junction  with  the  relieving 
party.  The  loss  to  Dupont,  though  spiritedly 
opposed,  was  but  4  slightly  wounded,  while  the 
enemy  lost  at  least  13  killed.  The  casualties  to 
Heywood's  command  during  this  heroic  defense 
of  16  days,  in  which  there  was  scarcely  a  time 
in  which  he  was  not  under  fire,  were  3  killed  and 


4  wounded,  while  the  enemy  suffered  a  loss  of 
15  killed  and  many  wounded.  The  high  cour 
age,  inflexible  resolution,  and  heroic  endurance 
displayed  in  this  remarkable  defense  against  an 
active,  vigilant,  and  untiring  enemy  with  a 
largely  superior  force,  places  it  side  by  side 
with  the  most  brilliant  achievements  in  Amer 
ican  naval  history.  Aside  from  these  various 
duties,  the  navy  was  employed  on  the  west  coast 
of  Mexico  in  blockading  her  ports  and  in  de 
stroying  her  commerce.  In  the  Gulf  of  Mexico, 
at  the  commencement  of  hostilities,  Commodore 
Connor  commanded  our  naval  forces,  and  a  sys 
tem  of  rigid  blockade  was  at  once  established. 
In  addition  to  these  duties,  the  navy  was  em 
ployed  co-operating  with  the  army  whenever 
its  services  were  required  and  could  be  made 
available.  During  the  battle  of  Palo  Alto,  Maj. 
Monroe,  in  command  of  the  depot  at  Point  Is 
abel,  having  requested  the  aid  of  the  navy,  500 
seamen  and  marines  were  landed  under  Capt. 
Gregory  for  the  purpose.  On  the  18th  of  May 
a  detachment  of  200  seamen  and  marines,  under 
Capt.  Aulick,  effected  a  junction  with  a  detach 
ment  of  the  army  at  Barita,  about  15  miles  from 
the  mouth  of  the  Rio  Grande,  and  established  a 
post.  On  the  23d  of  October,  Commodore  Perry, 
with  several  light-draft  vessels,  ascended  the 
Tabasco  River  and  took  possession  of  Frontera, 
capturing  all  the  vessels  in  port,  including  2 
steamers.  Pursuing  his  way  still  farther  up 
the  river,  several  merchant  vessels  were  captured, 
and  the  noon  of  the  next  day  he  reached  Tabasco, 
where  some  opposition  was  encountered.  Com 
modore  Perry  having  effected  the  object  of  the 
expedition,  he  ordered  the  prizes  to  move  down 
the  river  while  the  armed  vessels  followed.  One 
of  the  prizes  grounded  near  the  shore,  when  the 
enemy  opened  fire  upon  her ;  the  officer  in  charge, 
Lieut.  Parker,  defended  her  gallantly,  and  got 
his  vessel  off  with  1  man  killed  and  2  wounded. 
In  carrying  a  message  from  the  commodore  to 
Lieut.  Parker,  a  very  gallant  and  promising 
young  officer,  Lieut.  Charles  W.  Morris,  re 
ceived  a  fatal  wound,  of  which  he  died  in  a  few 
days.  Later  an  unsuccessful  demonstration  was 
made  against  Tabasco,  which  failed  on  account 
of  the  grounding  of  the  steamer  "  McLane"  on 
the  bar,  and  also  one  against  Tuspan,  which  re 
sulted  in  the  loss  of  the  brig  "  Truxtun"  and  the 
capture  of  most  of  her  officers  and  crew.  In 
November  an  expedition  was  fitted  out  against 
the  place,  which  resulted  in  its  capture  without 
opposition.  On  the  night  of  the  20th  of  Novem 
ber,  Lieut.  Parker,  Passed  Midshipmen  Rodgers 
and  Hynson,  with  5  men,  destroyed  the  bark 
"Creole,"  loaded  with  munitions  of  war,  an 
chored  under  the  castle  arid  guns  of  San  Juan 
de  Ulloa.  On  the  5th  of  December  Passed  Mid 
shipman  Rodgers  and  Dr.  Wright,  of  the  "Som- 
ers,"  landed  for  the  purpose  of  a  reconnoissance, 
but  were  surprised  by  a  party  of  Mexicans.  Dr. 
Wright  made  his  escape,  but  Mr.  Rodgers  was 
made  prisoner  and  taken  to  the  city  of  Mexico, 
from  whence,  after  enduring  great  hardships,  he 
made  his  escape,  and,  joining  the  army  of  Gen. 
Scott,  served  with  distinction  during  the  final 
battles  of  the  war.  On  the  8th  of  December  the 
brig  "Somers,"  in  carrying  sail  to  cut  off  a  vessel 
attempting  to  enter  the  harbor  of  Vera  Cruz,  was 
struck  by  a  squall  and  foundered,  carrying  with 
her  the  gallant  Clemson  and  Hynson  and  40  men. 


NAVY 


550 


NAVY 


"Upon  this  occasion  boats  from  the  English, 
French,  and  Spanish  men-of-war  succeeded  in 
rescuing  quite  a  number.  Gold  and  silver  med 
als  were  given  by  the  government  to  the  partici 
pants  in  the  rescue  in  acknowledgment  of  the 
gallant  and  humane  assistance  rendered.  On 
the  20th  of  December,  Commodore  Perry  took 
possession  of  Laguna,  in  the  province  of  Yuca 
tan,  and  seized  all  the  military  stores. 

In  March,  1847,  Gen.  Scott  having  decided 
upon  the  investment  of  Vera  Cruz,  the  navy  was 
employed  in  landing  troops,  provisions,  and  mu 
nitions  of  war  for  this  purpose.  Through  the 
able  and  judicious  arrangements  of  Commodore 
Connor,  this  was  effected  speedily  and  without 
loss.  Gen.  Scott  made  acknowledgment  in  the 
most  forcible  language  for  the  valuable  assist 
ance  rendered.  Pending  the  bombardment  of 
Vera  Cruz,  the  health  of  Commodore  Connor 
having  failed,  he  was  relieved  by  Commodore 
Perry.  On  the  22d  of  March  the  investment  of 
the  city  being  established,  surrender  was  de 
manded.  Upon  this  being  refused,  the  batteries, 
assisted  by  the  "  Spitfire"  and  "  Vixen,"  with 
5  gunboats  under  the  command  of  Tatnall,  hav 
ing  taken  up  a  position  near  the  shore,  opened 
fire;  this  position  was  gallantly  maintained 
during  the  day.  On  the  morning  of  the  24th, 
Tatnall,  with  his  command,  moved  up  still 
nearer,  when  it  becoming  apparent  that  he  was 
in  a  highly  exposed  position,  signal  of  recall  was 
made.  The  officers  of  the  navy  naturally  anxious 
to  take  an  active  part  in  the  operations  of  the 
siege  made  known  their  desire,  when  Gen.  Scott 
readily  assigned  a  place  in  the  trenches  for  the 
establishment  of  a  naval  battery  of  three  8-inch 
Paixhans  and  three  long  32's,  under  the  superin 
tendence  of  Commander  Mackenzie.  The  battery 
was  served  by  detachments  from  the  larger  vessels, 
each  detachment  serving  24  hours,  and  was  first 
opened  under  the  command  of  Capt.  Aulick,  on 
the  24th,  with  marked  effect  until  the  supply  of 
ammunition  failed.  The  loss  from  this  detach 
ment  was  5  killed  and  1  officer  and  4  men 
wounded.  The  relief  arrived  in  the  afternoon 
under  the  command  of  Capt.  Mayo,  who  spent 
the  night  in  repairing  the  breastworks,  shattered 
by  the  severe  fire  of  the  enemy.  Early  on  the 
25th  the  fire  of  4  heavy  batteries  was  turned 
upon  these  works.  Capt.  Mayo  opened  a  well- 
directed  fire,  which  continued  until  half-past 
2  P.M.,  when  the  enemy's  guns  were  silenced. 
Two  other  batteries  now  opened  upon  him,  which 
were  soon  rendered  inefficient.  Upon  this  occa 
sion  Midshipman  Shubrick  was  killed  whilesight- 
ing  a  gun  ;  1  seaman  was  also  killed  and  3 
wounded.  In  the  evening  Capt.  Mayo  was  re 
lieved  by  a  detachment  under  Capt.  Breese. 
The  night  was  passed  in  repairing  damages.  The 
next  day  orders  were  received  to  discontinue  fire, 
as  negotiations  were  in  progress  for  surrender. 
In  the  capitulation,  Capt.  Aulick  represented  the 
navy,  and  on  the  29th  of  March  city  and  castle 
were  occupied  by  the  army  and  navy  under  a 
grand  salute  from  ships  and  batteries.  Imme 
diately  after  the  fall  of  Vera  Cruz,  it  was  ar 
ranged  that  a  combined  attack  should  be  made 
on  Alvarado.  Commodore  Perry  was  to  ap 
proach  by  the  river,  while  Gen.  Quitman,  with 
a  sufficient  force,  was  to  attack  in  the  rear  for 
the  purpose  of  cutting  off  the  retreat  of  the  enemy, 
and  securing  a  large  amount  of  cattle  and  other 


supplies  of  the  enemy  in  the  neighborhood  of  the 
place.  The  main  object  of  the  movement  was 
frustrated  by  the  gallant  but  overzealous  con 
duct  of  Lieut.  Hunter,  who  attacked  and  occu 
pied  both  Alvarado  and  Tlacotalpan  before  the 
arrival  of  either  Perry  or  Quitman 's  commands. 
Shortly  after  Commodore  Perry  proceeded 
against  Tuspan,  which  was  occupied  after  a  feeble 
resistance.  The  guns  and  ordnance  stores  of  the 
"  Truxtun,"  lost  at  the  mouth  of  the  river,  were 
recovered.  Capt.  Mayo,  who  had  been  appointed 
governor  of  Alvarado,  secured  the  submission  of 
many  of  the  interior  towns.  On  the  16th  of  June, 
Commodore  Perry  again  entered  Tabasco  after 
a  weak  resistance.  A  large  quantity  of  military 
stores  were  destroyed,  cannon  brought  off,  the 
powder-magazine  blown  up,  and  the  fortifications 
of  the  city  demolished.  Commander  Bigelow, 
who  was  left  in  command,  adopted  prompt  meas 
ures  to  punish  the  guerrillas  operating  in  the 
neighborhood.  At  many  points  occupied  by 
Commodore  Perry  provisional  governors  were 
appointed,  the  ports  opened,  and  custom-house 
regulations  established  under  our  officers.  During 
the  latter  part  of  the  war,  a  detachment  of  ma 
rines  under  Lieut.-Col.  Watson  served  with  the 
division  of  Gen.  Quitman,  and  took  part  in  the 
stormingof  the  fortress  of  Chapultepec,  the  storm- 
ing-party,  led  by  Maj.  Twiggs,  being  composed 
of  volunteers  and  marines,  a  party  of  sappers 
arid  miners  under  Capt.  Reynolds,  and  a  de 
tachment  of  regulars  from  Gen.  Twiggs's  division 
under  its  own  officers.  The  gallant  and  lamented 
Twiggs  was  killed  on  the  first  advance,  but 
through  a  severe  and  withering  fire  the  stormers 
pushed  on  with  resistless  force,  and,  sweeping  all 
before  them,  captured  the  Mexican  works,  when 
the  gallant  party  fought  their  way  into  Chapul 
tepec  by  the  side  of  their  army  comrades.  The 
marines  also  acquired  distinction  in  the  attack 
upon  the  Bela  gate,  and  were  among  the  first  to 
enter  the  city.  Lieut.-Col.  Watson,  with  his 
command,  was  placed  in  charge  of  the  palace  to 
preserve  order  and  keep  out  plunderers.  Lieut. 
Semmes  and  Passed  Midshipman  Rodgers,  who 
served  as  volunteer  aids,  were  specially  corn- 
mended  for  distinguished  conduct  in  the  battles 
around  the  city  of  Mexico.  Shortly  after  the 
occupation  of  the  city  of  Mexico  peace  was  de 
clared. 

In  the  year  1848,  Lieut.  William  F.  Lynch 
sailed  in  the  "Supply"  with  an  expedition  un 
der  his  command  to  explore  the  river  Jordan 
and  the  Dead  Sea.  In  May,  1850,  an  expedi 
tion  sailed  from  New  York,  consisting  of  the 
brigs  "Advance"  and  "Rescue,"  for  the  pur 
pose  of  searching  for  Sir  John  Franklin.  In 
June,  1855,  Kane's  expedition  and  Hartstene's, 
for  the  same  purpose,  followed.  In  1854,  Com 
modore  Perry,  while  in  command  of  the  East 
India  Squadron,  succeeded  in  establishing  com 
mercial  relations  with  Japan.  While  Com 
mander  Kelly  was  at  Shanghai  in  the  "  Plym 
outh,"  1854,  a  combined  attack  of  the  Ameri 
can  and  English  naval  forces  was  made  upon  the 
encampment  of  the  Imperialists  in  retaliation  for 
aggressions  committed  by  them.  The  Imperial 
ists  suffered  severely.  About  this  time  an  Ameri 
can  pilot-boat  was  captured  by  the  Imperialists, 
which  was  retaken  in  the  most  gallant  style  by 
Lieut.  Guest  in  a  boat  of  the  "  Plymouth!"  In 
the  latter  part  of  June,  1853,  while  Commander 


NAVY 


551 


NAVY 


Ingraham,  in  thesloop-of-war  "  St.  Louis,"  was  at 
Smyrna,  he  received  information  that  a  Hun 
garian  refugee  with  an  American  passport  and 
papers  had  been  arrested  by  some  Austrian  offi 
cials  and  placed  on  board  an  Austrian  brig. 
Commander  Ingraham  immediately  made  a  de 
mand  for  his  release  with  the  guns  of  the  u  St. 
Louis"  bearing  upon  the  Austrian,  both  vessels 
being  cleared  for  action.  Koszta,  the  Hungarian 
referred  to,  was  finally  released,  and  the  spirited 
action  of  Commander  Ingraham  received  the 
highest  commendation  from  the  government,  and 
a  gold  medal  was  voted  by  Congress  in  recogni 
tion  of  his  prompt,  energetic,  and  patriotic  con 
duct.  In  January,  1854,  Lieut.  Isaac  G.  Strain 
landed  at  Caledonia  Bay  for  the  purpose  of  ex 
ploring  a  route  across  the  Isthmus,  recommended 
as  suitable  for  a  ship-canal.  About  this  time,  in 
accordance  with  instructions,  Capt.  Hollins,  in 
the  sloop-of-war  "  Cyane,"  bombarded  and  de 
stroyed  the  town  of  San  Juan  de  Nicaragua,  in 
retaliation  for  various  outrages  committed  upon 
the  persons  and  property  of  American  citizens. 
On  the  28th  of  September,  1854,  the  sloop-of- 
war  "Albany,"  Commander  Gerry,  sailed  from 
Aspinwall,  and  no  trace  of  her  having  been  dis 
covered,  is  supposed  to  have  foundered  at  sea. 

In  1855,  Commander  John  Rodgers,  in  the 
sloop-of-war  "  Vincennes,"  penetrated  farther 
the  Arctic  Ocean,  through  Behring  Strait,  than 
any  previous  navigator.  In  the  summer  of  1855, 
Commander  Boutwell,  in  the  "John  Adams," 
visited  the  Feejee  Islands,  and  destroyed  several 
villages  in  retaliation  for  outrages  committed  on 
our  countrymen,  and  compelled  ,the  high  chiefs 
to  a  promise  of  good  conduct.  During  this  year 
Lieut.  James  Gillis  began  to  publish  the  results 
of  his  astronomical  observations,  and  Lieut.  M. 
F.  Maury  his  wind  and  current  charts,  which 
have  been  of  great  value  to  the  navigator  and 
the  interests  of  commerce.  In  1855  a  board  was 
convened,  under  a  law  of  Congress,  by  the  Sec 
retary  of  the  Navy  for  the  reorganization  of  the 
navy.  Upon  a  forced  construction  of  the  law 
this  board  met  in  secret  session,  and  officers  were 
arraigned,  tried,  and  sentenced  without  any  in 
timation  being  given  to  the  parties  affected  that 
they  were  even  upon  trial.  Ninety  officers  of  all 
grades  were  dismissed  or  dropped,  and  150  placed 
on  furlough  or  the  reserved  list.  The  whole  pro 
ceeding  was  so  repugnant  to  the  entire  country 
and  opposed  to  all  principles  of  justice,  that  Con 
gress  passed  a  bill  for  the  relief  of  all  affected, — 
every  officer  under  this  new  legislation  was 
afforded  a  fair  hearing,  and  the  opportunity  to 
know  wherewith  he  had  been  charged.  In  most 
instances  where  the  revisory  boards  were  appealed 
to  for  redress  the  work  o'f  the  Star  Chamber  In 
quisition  was  annulled,  and  the  officers  restored  to 
their  rights  and  rank.  Of  those  who  composed 
this  secret  organization  some  took  the  first  occa 
sion  to  desert  their  flag  and  country  in  the  war 
of  the  Rebellion  ;'  others,  in  the  time  of  trial,  were 
found  wanting,  and  passed  into  oblivion,  while 
among  the  foremost  for  zeal,  ability,  and  service, 
and  distinguished  for  conspicuous  gallantry  in  the 
national  struggle  for  life,  many  were  found  who 
had  been  condemned  by  these  men  as  unworthy 
to  serve  the  country.  During  the  year  1857, 
Berryman,  in  the  "Arctic,"  was  employed  in 
running  a  line  of  deep-sea  soundings  across  the 
Atlantic,  to  establish  the  practicability  of  laying 


wires  across  the  ocean  for  telegraphic  purposes. 
Our  naval  forces  were  engaged  in  arresting  un 
lawful  expeditions  against  Nicaragua,  in  resist 
ing  the  exercise  of  the  right  of  search  by  British 
cruisers  in  the  neighborhood  of  Cuba,  and  in  de 
manding  and  enforcing  redress  from  the  govern 
ment  of  Paraguay  for  an  insult  to  our  flag  and 
injuries  to  our  citizens.  The  English  bark 
"  Resolute,"  abandoned  in  the  Arctic  Ocean 
and  picked  up  by  Capt.  Buddington,  in  com 
mand  of  a  New  London  whaler,  was  restored  by 
the  United  States  to  the  English  government. 
In  the  beginning  of  1858  the  exploration  of  the 
Paraguay,  under  Lieut.  Page,  which  had  been 
interrupted  by  the  Paraguayans,  was  resumed. 
In  April,  1858,  Lieut.  Almy,  in  the  "  Fulton," 
compelled  the  release,  at  Tampico,  Mexico,  of  6 
American  vessels  that  had  been  illegally  seized 
and  detained.  Lieuts.  Craven,  of  the  navy,  and 
Michler,  of  the  army,  who  had  been  employed  in 
surveying  a  route  for  a  ship-canal  from  the  At 
lantic  to  the  Pacific,  by  way  of  the  rivers  Atrato 
and  Truando,  returned  in  June  to  New  York. 
In  August,  Capt.  Kelly,  in  the  "  Saranac,"  com 
pelled  by  a  display  of  force  at  San  Juan  del  Sur, 
in  Nicaragua,  the  release  of  two  American  citi 
zens  who  had  been  unjustly  imprisoned.  In  the 
same  month  Commander  Sinclair  visited  Waga, 
one  of  the  Feejees,  and  inflicted  summary  pun 
ishment  upon  the  natives  for  the  murder  of  two 
American  citizens.  In  November,  1858,  Flag- 
Officer  Lavalette,  in  the  "  Wabash,"  visited 
Beyrout,  Syria,  to  investigate  the  outrages  com 
mitted  upon  our  citizens,  and  the  murder  of  Mr. 
Dickson  near  Jaffa.  All  but  one  of  the  party 
implicated  were  arrested,  tried,  and  summarily 
punished. 

War  of  the  Rebellion.— The  war  of  the  Rebel 
lion,  that  had  been  so  long  threatening,  and 
finally  inaugurated  by  the  firing  upon  Sumter, 
found  the  country  in  a  most  untoward  state 
of  preparation.  Our  vessels  were  scattered  in 
remote  seas,  and  such  was  the  condition  of  the 
navy  that  it  might  be  reasonably  supposed  the 
conspirators  against  the  nation's  life  had  made 
the  dispersion  of  our  men-of-war  a  part  of  their 
scheme  to  assist  in  breaking  up  the  Union  and 
in  carrying  out  their  designs.  Orders  were  im 
mediately  issued  for  the  return  of  most  of  the 
national  vessels  from  abroad,  and  a  proclama 
tion  of  blockade  issued.  To  enforce  the  block 
ade,  vessels  of  all  description  that  could  in  any 
way  be  made  serviceable  for  these  purposes,  or 
improvised  as  armed  vessels,  were  purchased^ 
and  with  the  regular  vessels  of  war  were  di 
vided  into  two  squadrons, — the  one  known  as 
the  Atlantic  Blockading  Squadron,  under  Flag- 
Officer  Stringham,  the  field  of  whose  operations 
extended  from  the  Capes  of  Virginia  to  Cape 
Florida;  the  other  the  Gulf  Squadron,  under 
Flag-Officer  Mervine,  embracing  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico  from  Cape  Florida  to  the  Rio  Grande.* 
The  sound  of  North  Carolina  affording  more 


*  Soon  after  the  secession  of  Virginia  information  was  re 
ceived  at  Washington  of  the  designs  of  the  Confederates  upon 
the  navy-yard  at  Norfolk.  Several  vessels  of  war,  under  a 
distinguished  officer,  were  immediately  ordered  thither.  Act 
ing  under  instructions  of  the  Navy  Department,  with  a  suffi 
cient  force  for  its  protection,  the  great  naval  station,  with  an 
immense  amount  of  valuable  property  in  ships,  guns,  muni 
tions  of  war,  provisions,  etc.,  was  abandoned  without  a  struggle. 
The  "  Merrimac,"  afterward  converted  into  a  powerful  iron 
clad,  was  one  of  the  abandoned  vessels. 


NAVY 


552 


NAVY 


.than  ordinary  facilities  for  the  evasion  of  the 
blockade,  an  expedition,  under  Flag-Officer 
Stringham,  was  fitted  out  in  August,  1861,  for 
an  attack  upon  the  defenses  of  Hatteras  Inlet. 
It  consisted  of  the  flag-ship  "  Minnesota,"  Capt. 
Van  Brunt;  the  frigate  "  Wabash,"  Capt.  Mer 
cer  ;  steam-sloop-of-war  "  Pawnee,"  Commander 
S.  C.  Rowan  ;  "  Monticello,"  Commander  J.  P. 
Gillis;  revenue-cutter  "Harriet  Lane,"  Capt. 
Faunce;  "Adelaide,"  Commander  H.  S.  Stell- 
wagen ;  "  George  Peabody,"  Lieut.  Commanding 
R.  B.  Lowry;  and  tug  "Fanny,"  Lieut.  Com 
manding  Pierce  Crosby,  and  a  military  force,  800 
strong,  under  Gen.  B.  F.  Butler.  The  inlet  was 
defended  by  Forts  Hatteras  and  Clarke,  mount 
ing  heavy  guns.  The  fire  of  the  fleet,  which 
opened  about  10  A.M.  of  the  28th  August,  drove 
the  enemy  from  Fort  Clarke  ;  the  troops  having 
been  successfully  disembarked,  moved  up  the 
beach,  and  at  2  P.M.  took  possession.  Early  the 
following  morning  the  fire  from  the  fleet  was 
renewed  upon  Fort  Hatteras  with  such  effect 
that  before  noon  the  enemy  surrendered  to  the 
navy  and  army,  and  the  fort  was  occupied  by 
our  troops.  The  enemy  lost  largely,  but  not  a 
single  casualty  occurred  on  our  side.  The  mili 
tary  force  being  insufficient,  the  important  ad 
vantage  gained  could  not  be  immediately  fol 
lowed  up  by  securing  a  foothold  on  the  main 
land.  With  the  breaking  out  of  the  Rebellion 
a  flotilla,  under  the  command  of  Commander  J. 
C.  Ward,  was  organized  to  prevent  the  obstruc 
tion  of  the  Potomac  River  by  the  enemy  through 
the  erection  of  batteries.  This  gallant  and  ac 
complished  officer  was  killed  in  October,  1861,  in 
the  prosecution  of  his  arduous  duties  while  in  the 
act  of  sighting  a  gun  to  clear  the  way  for  a  land 
ing  at  Matthias  Point.  Commander  Ward  was 
the  first  officer  of  the  navy  killed  in  action  during 
the  war.  Shortly  after  the  capture  of  Hatteras 
Inlet  the  Atlantic  Squadron  was  divided.  Capt. 
L.  M.  Goldsborough  was  appointed  to  the  North 
Atlantic  Blockading  Squadron,  to  guard  the 
coasts  of  Virginia  and  North  Carolina,  and  Capt. 
S.  F.  Dupont  to  the  command  of  the  South  At 
lantic  Blockading  Squadron,  which  comprised  the 
coasts  and  waters  of  South  Carolina,  Georgia,  and 
Florida.  In  February,  1862,  the  Gulf  Squadron 
was  also  divided, — Flag-Officer  McKean  was  ap 
pointed  to  the  East  Gulf  Blockading  Squadron, 
and  Flag-Oflicer  D.  G.  Farragut  to  the  West 
Gulf  Blockading  Squadron,  the  dividing  point 
being  just  eastward  of  Pensacola,  which  was  in 
cluded  in  the  latter  squadron. 

North  Atlantic  Blockading  Squadron. — Early 
in  January,  1862,  a  joint  naval  and  military  ex 
pedition,  under  Flag-Officer  Goldsborough  and 
Gen.  Burnside,  moved  from  Hampton  Roads  for 
operating  in  the  waters  of  North  Carolina.  The 
naval  force  consisted  of  the  steamer  "  Valley 
City,"  Lieut.  Commanding  S.  C.  Chaplin,  bear 
ing  the  flag  of  Flag-Office/Goldsborough  ;  "  Del 
aware,"  Lieut.  Commanding  J.  P.  Quackenbush, 
bearing  the  divisional  flag  of  Commander  S.  C. 
Rowan  ;  "  Stars  and  Stripes,"  Lieut.  Command 
ing  Reed  Werden ;  "Louisiana,"  Lieut.  Com 
manding  Alexander  Murray;  "  Hetzel,"  Lieut. 
Commanding  H.  K.  Davenport ;  "  Underwriter," 
Lieut.  Commanding  William  N.  Jeffers  ;  "  Com 
modore  Perry,"  Lieut.  Commanding  C.W.  Flus- 
ser;  "Commodore  Barnev,"  Lieut.  Commanding 
R.  S.  Renshaw;  "Hunchback,"  Lieut.  Com 


manding  E.  R.  Colhoun;  "  Southfield,"  Acting 
Volunteer  Lieut.  Commanding  C.  W.  F.  Behm  ; 
"  Morse,"  Acting  Master  Peter  Hayes ;  "  White- 
head,"  Acting  Master  C.  A.  French;  "Lock- 
wood,"  Acting  Master  G.  W.  Graves;  "Henry 
Brinker,"  Acting  Master  J.  E.  Giddings;  "  J.  N. 
Seymour,"  Acting  Master  F.  S.  Wells ;  "  Ceres," 
Acting  Master  J.  McDirmid;  "General  Put 
nam,"  Acting  Master  W.  S.  Hotchkiss ;  and 
"Shawsheen,"  Acting  Master  T.  J.  Woodward, 
— all  light-draft  vessels,  with  a  total  armament  of 
48  guns,  most  of  them  of  heavy  calibre.  These 
vessels  arrived  about  the  15th  of  January  in  the 
neighborhood  of  Roanoke  Island,  the  first  ob 
jective-point.  It  was  not  until  some  weeks  later 
the  army  were  ready  for  co-operation.  Roanoke 
Island  lies  between  Pamlico  and  Albemarle 
Sounds,  being  separated  from  the  mainland  by 
Croatan  Sound,  a  shallow  body  of  water.  Oppo 
site  the  southern  extremity  of  the  island  the 
mainland  juts  out  in  a  low  marshy  point,  around 
which  the  vessels'  course  lay.  On  the  morning 
of  the  7th  of  Februarj7,  the  army  being  in  readi 
ness,  the  fleet  moved  up  Croatan  Sound  in  three 
columns,  commanded  respectively  by  Lieuts. 
Werden,  Murray,  and  Davenport,  the  whole  un 
der  the  immediate  command  of  Commander  S. 
C.  Rowan.  The  defenses  in  this  direction  con 
sisted  of  a  double  row  of  piles  and  sunken  vessels 
between  the  batteries  on  Polk  and  Wier  Points, 
and  behind  these  obstructions  the  enemy's  ves 
sels,  8  in  number,  were  drawn  up.  The  attack 
upon  the  enemy's  defenses  commenced  at  half- 
past  10 ;  by  noon  the  action  became  general,  and 
was  continued  so  hotly  that,  at  2  P.M.,  the  bar 
racks  behind  the  fort  on  Polk  Point  were  burning 
furiously.  At  half-past  4  the  enemy's  batteries 
ceased  firing,  and  five  of  the  enemy's  steamers, 
apparently  injured,  retired  behind  the  point, 
when  the  first  landing  of  troops  took  place. 
This  was  effected  at  Ashby's  Harbor,  the  point 
selected  for  debarkation,  where  a  large  force  of 
the  enemy  were  drawn  up,  but  were  soon  dis 
persed  by  shrapnel  from  the  "  Delaware."  By 
midnight  some  10,000  of  the  troops  were  landed, 
when  they  were  joined  by  six  launches  from  the 
fleet,  with  their  howitzers  and  crews,  to  hold  the 
road  during  the  night  and  be  ready  for  work  in 
the  morning. 

At  9  o'clock  the  next  morning  a  continuous 
firing  in  the  interior  showed  that  Burnside  was 
hotly  engaged,  when  the  vessels  moved  up  and 
re-opened  upon  the  forts,  continuing  the  fire 
until,  the  firing  in  the  interior  beginning  to 
slack,  Flag-Officer  Goldsborough  concluded  our 
troops  were  approaching  the  rear  of  the  bat 
teries,  and  made  signal  to  cease  firing  and  to  pro 
ceed  to  clear  the  way  through  the  obstructions, 
which  the  vessels  burst  through  about  4  P.M., 
when  the  American  flag  was  hoisted  over  the 
works  at  Pork  Point.  Shortly  after,  the  enemy 
set  fire  to  the  works  on  Red  Stone  Point,  and  to 
a  steamer  which  had  taken  refuge  under  its  guns. 
Thus,  after  a  two  days'  struggle,  Roanoke  Island 
fell  into  our  hands.  Retreating  from  Roanoke 
Island,  the  enemy's  vessels  fled  towards  Elizabeth 
City,  while  Commander  Rowan,  with  14  vessels, 
followed  in  pursuit.  On  the  morning  of  the  10th 
they  were  discovered  drawn  up  behind  a  battery 
of  four  heavy  guns,  and,  moored  to  the  oppo 
site  bank,  lay  the  schooner  "Black  Warrior," 
carrying  two  heavy  32-pounders.  When  within 


NAVY 


553 


NAVY 


range  fire  was  opened  upon  our  vessels,  which 
moved  steadily  on  until  within  1200  yards,  when 
Rowan  made  signal,  "Ahead,  full  steam,"  and 
dashed  at  the  enemy,  opening  at  the  same  time 
a  vigorous  fire.  Completely  demoralized  by  the 
suddenness  and  rapidity  of  the  movement,  the 
"  Black  Warrior"  was  set  on  fire  by  the  enemy, 
the  battery  abandoned,  and  the  entire  fleet  cap 
tured  or  destroyed.  Pushing  on,  the  flotilla  took 
possession  of  Elizabeth  City,  and  Lieut.  Murray 
was  sent  with  a  small  flotilla  to  Edenton,  of 
which  he  took  possession,  and  proceeded  to  ob 
struct  the  Albemarle  and  Chesapeake  Canal, 
which  he  thoroughly  accomplished.  At  the  same 
time  Rowan  proceeded  up  the  Chowan  River  as 
far  as  Winton,  where,  on  the  19th,  a  sharp  en 
gagement  occurred  ;  but  the  next  morning  Col. 
Hawkins  entered  the  town  and  destroyed  the 
military  stores  and  quarters  found  there.  Com 
mander  Rowan  having  been  left  in  command  of 
the  naval  forces  in  the  sound,  a  combined  expe 
dition  of  the  navy  and  army  was  organized  for 
an  attack  on  Newbern,  N.  C.  The  fleet  and  trans 
ports  proceeded  up  the  Neuse  River,  and  an 
chored,  on  the  evening  of  the  12th  of  March,  off 
Slocum's  Point,  the  place  selected  for  the  de 
barkation  of  the  troops.  Early  the  following 
morning  our  vessels  opened  upon  the  landing- 
place  with  grape  and  canister  to  clear  the  way, 
when  the  troops  landed.  As  soon  as  this  was 
effected,  the  "  Delaware"  (flag-ship),  with  a  sup 
porting  vessel,  proceeded  up  the  river  on  a  recon- 
noissance,  when  they  were  fired  upon  by  Fort 
Dixie,  and  a  spirited  engagement  ensued,  which 
lasted  until  dark.  At  daylight,  on  the  14th, 
Burnside,  having  with  him  a  battery  of  how 
itzers  under  Lieut.  R.  S.  McCook,  engaged  the 
enemy  in  force,  while  Rowan  advanced  steadily 
up  the  river  with  his  fleet.  The  river  was  ob 
structed  by  piles  and  torpedoes,  and  at  distances 
of  from  half  a  mile  to  a  mile  and  a  half  for 
midable  batteries  of  heavy  guns  were  erected  ; 
but  under  pressure  of  the  combined  attack  the 
enemy  abandoned  their  defenses  in  succession, 
and  at  noon  the  fleet  anchored  off  the  deserted 
town  of  Newbern.  A  large  amount  of  public 
stores  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  navy,  and  were 
turned  over  to  the  army,  who  arrived  and  took 
possession  of  the  town  at  2  P.M.  On  the  21st, 
Lieutenant  Commanding  Murray  took  posses 
sion  of  Washington,  N.  C.  In  the  beginning  of 
April,  Commander  Rowan  sent  to  New  York 
9  vessels  loaded  with  captured  naval  stores. 
Fort  Macon,  Beaufort  harbor,  N.  C.,  next  en 
gaged  the  attention  of  the  army  and  navy.  On 
the  morning  of  the  25th  of  April,  Commander 
Samuel  Lockwood,  with  3 steamers, — the  "Day 
light,"  "  State  of  Georgia,"  and  "  Chippewa," — 
opened  fire  upon  the  fort,  and  continued  for 
about  an  hour  and  a  half,  when  the  vessels  were 
obliged  to  haul  off  on  account  of  the  heavy  sea. 
Towards  evening  a  flag  of  truce  appeared  on  the 
fort ;  negotiations  for  surrender  followed,  and 
terms  of  capitulation  were  agreed  upon  by  Burn- 
side  on  the  part  of  the  army,  and  Rowan  on  that  of 
the  navy.  The  army  having  failed  to  accomplish 
the  object  for  which  it  was  landed  at  Elizabeth 
City, — in  destroying  the  canal, — Lieut.  Hurser 
was  dispatched  for  the  purpose  with  3  gunboats 
and  2  steamers,  which  duty  he  effectually  accom 
plished. 

On  the   3d   of  March   the  enemy's   ironclad 


"Merrimac,"  supported  by  several  small  gun 
boats,  made  an  attack  upon  the  frigates  "Cum 
berland"  and  "Congress"  off  Newport  News. 
The  defense,  though  determined  and  valorous, 
was  hopeless  against  this  invulnerable  monster, 
upon  whose  sides  the  heaviest  shot  from  our 
vessels  made  no  impression.  Ramming  the 
"  Cumberland"  just  under  the  fore-chains,  and 
inflicting  mortal  injuries,  the  noble  vessel  sank 
beneath  the  waters,  carrying  down  with  her 
many  of  her  wounded,  whom  it  was  impossible 
to  remove.  The  gallant  and  indomitable  Morris 
commanded  her,  and  fought  his  ship  for  two 
hours  against  all  hope.  In  reporting  to  his  com 
manding  officer,  he  writes  :  "  I  will  only  say,  in 
conclusion,  all  did  their  duty,  and  we  sank  with 
the  American  flag  at  the  peak."  The  "Cum 
berland"  lost,  in  killed  and  missing,  a  third  of 
her  crew.  While  the  "Merrimac"  engaged  the 
"Cumberland"  the  smaller  vessels  attacked  the 
"  Congress."  Her  commander,  seeing  the  fate  of 
the  "  Cumberland,"  slipped  his  moorings  and  ran 
his  vessel  ashore.  At  half-past  3  the  "  Merri 
mac"  opened  upon  her,  directly  astern,  at  a  dis 
tance  of  about  150  yards.  The  smaller  vessels  of 
the  enemy  also  opened.  To  oppose  this  fire  the 
"  Congress"  had  but  2  stern-guns,  which  were 
soon  disabled.  Lieut.  J.  Smith,  the  noble  com- 
manderof  the  "  Congress,"  fell  mortally  wounded 
about  half-past  4,  when  the  command  devolved 
upon  Lieut.  Pendergrast.  This  officer,  seeing  the 
rapid  slaughter  of  his  men,  finding  it  impossible 
to  bring  any  of  his  guns  to  bear,  with  his  ship 
on  fire  in  several  places,  and  with  no  prospect  of 
relief,  decided  to  lower  his  colors.  An  officer 
from  the  "Merrimac"  boarded  the  vessel,  or 
dered  her  surrender,  and  directed  her  crew  to 
leave,  as  he  intended  to  burn  her.  A  sharp  fire 
from  the  shore  compelled  the  party  to  leave, 
when  the  enemy  again  opened  fire,  hauling  off 
finally  to  engage  the  "Minnesota,"  which  had 
grounded  within  a  mile  and  a  half  of  Newport 
News  in  coming  to  the  relief  of  the  "  Congress" 
and  "Cumberland."  Fortunately,  the  heavy 
draft  of  the  "Merrimac"  prevented  her  getting 
nearer  than  a  mile,  but  the  2  smaller  vessels  of  the 
enemy  opened  with  their  rifle-guns  and  inflicted 
considerable  damage  until  driven  off  by  the  heavy 
gun  of  the  "  Minnesota,"  when  all  three  steamed 
towards  Norfolk.  While  the  "  Minnesota"  lay 
in  this  critical  condition,  Worden,  in  the  "  Mon 
itor,"  appeared  about  midnight  upon  the  scene. 
At  8  o'clock  the  next  morning  the  "  Merrimac" 
again  approached.  When  within  a  mile  of  the 
"  Minnesota,"  Worden  got  underway  and  went 
to  meet  her ;  then  followed  a  contest  upon  the 
results  of  which  not  only  the  fate  of  the  "  Min 
nesota"  depended,  but  also  to  a  large  degree  the 
destinies  of  the  Union  and  the  fate  of  a  great  peo 
ple, — a  contest  which  was  destined  to  revolution 
ize  the  whole  system  of  naval  warfare  and  oper 
ations,  and  give  rise,  in  this  regard,  to  a  new 
order  of  things.  With  a  sublime  faith,  an  un 
erring  judgment,  and  a  stout  heart,  nobly  Wor 
den  went  to  meet  the  grave  and  weighty  respon 
sibilities  resting  upon  him.  For  four  hours  the 
furious  combat  raged  between  the  monster  "  Mer 
rimac"  and  the  tiny  "  Monitor" — the  Goliath 
and  David  of  the  deep — without  apparent  injury 
to  either  vessel,  when  the  enemy  retreated  to 
Sewell's  Point.  Towards  the  close  of  this  re 
markable  engagement  the  gallant  Worden  was 


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554 


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disabled  by  the  explosion  of  a  shell  which  struck 
the  look-out  slit  in  the  pilot-house,  through 
which,  at  the  time,  he  was  looking.  The  com 
mand  then  devolved  upon  his  sturdy  and  cour 
ageous  executive,  Lieut.  Dana  Greene.  No  sin 
gle  encounter  ever  attracted  throughout  the 
civilized  world  so  much  attention,  and  rarely  in 
history  has  the  fate  of  a  great  nation  been  so  de 
pendent  upon  a  single  result.  But  for  the  genius 
of  Ericsson.  Vvho  planned  the  "Monitor,"  and 
the  skill  and  courage  of  Worden  and  those  who 
fought  her,  what  would  the  pen  of  history  have 
written ! 

Gen.  McClellan  occupied  Yorktown  May  14, 
and  immediately  requested  the  co-operation  of 
the  navy  in  his  advance  upon  Richmond.  On 
May  7,  Gen.  Franklin's  command,  while  debark 
ing  from  the  transports  at  West  Point,  "was 
heavily  attacked  by  the  enemy,  when  the  imme 
diate  assistance  of  the  navy  was  requested.  Lieut. 
Commanding!?.  H.Stevens,  in  the  "  Maratanza," 
and  Lieut.  Wilkes  Henry,  in  the  "Sebago," 
moved  up  as  near  to  the  enemy's  position  as  possi 
ble  and  opened  fire.  The  assistance  rendered  to 
the  army  upon  this  occasion  was  of  great  value, 
and  enabled  Franklin  to  repulse  the  attack  and 
hold  his  ground.  The  next  day  a  division  of  gun 
boats  under  the  command  of  Lieut.  Commanding 
Stevens,  comprising  the  "Maratanza";  "  Cho- 
cura,"  Lieut.  Commanding  T.  H.  Patterson ; 
11  Marblehead,"  Lieut.  Commanding  S.  Nichol 
son;  "  Sabago,"  Lieut.  Commanding  W.  Henry, 
and  another  gunboat,  proceeded  up  the  Pamunkey 
Kiver  to  open  the  way  and  in  support  of  McClel- 
lan's  advance.  Stevens,  in  the  "  Chocura,"  pro 
ceeded  as  far  as  the  White  House,  distant  12 
miles  from  Richmond,  arriving  opportunely  to 
give  support  to  the  cavalry  advance  under  Col. 
*L.  Williams.  Subsequently,  Lieut.  Command 
ing  Murray,  with  an  expedition  of  gunboats,  went 
some  distance  beyond  that  point  and  destroyed  a 
large  amount  of  the  enemy's  property,  including 
2  large  steamers  and  25  vessels,  Lieut.  Command 
ing  Stevens  having  in  the  mean  time  been  or 
dered  to  the  James  River  to  take  part  in  the 
contemplated  attack  upon  the  battery  at  Drury's 
Bluff.  On  the  8th  of  May  the  "'Monitor"  opened 
fire  upon  the  Sewell's  Point  batteries,  when  the 
"  Merrimac"  came  out,  but  showed  no  disposi 
tion  to  engage.  Two  days  after,  Norfolk  sur 
rendered  to  Gen.  Wool,  and  the  next  morning 
the  "  Merrimac"  was  blown  up  by  the  enemy. 
About  this  time  Commander  John  Rodgers,  in 
the  "Galena,"  with  the  "Aroostook,"  Lieut. 
Commanding  J.  C.  Beaumont;  "Monitor," 
Lieut.  Commanding  Wm.  N.  Jeffers ;  "Port 
Royal,"  Lieut.  Commanding  George  Morris, 
and  "Naugatuck,"  arrived  at  Drury's  Bluff,  8 
miles  from  Richmond,  where  a  heavy  battery 
had  been  erected,  which  Rodgers  with  his  com 
mand  opened  upon.  The  fire  was  kept  up  for  3 
hours,  when  the  ammunition  giving  out,  and  the 
"  Galena"  being  badly  cut  up,  the  vessels  with 
drew.  On  the  4th  of  July,  Lieut.  Commanding 
T.  H.  Stevens,  in  the  "'Maratanza,"  captured 
the  enemy's  gunboat  "  Teazer,"  near  Haxhall's 
Landing.  She  was  provided  with  all  the  appli 
ances  for  laying  down  torpedoes,  and  had  on 
board  a  large  balloon  for  reconnoitring  purposes. 

During  the  summer  the  navy  was  employed  on 
the  James  in  co-operating  with  the  army  and  in 
keeping  the  James  River  open,  and  at  the  battle 


of  Malvern  Hill  the  fire  of  the  gunboats  contrib 
uted  materially  to  the  success  of  the  day.  On 
the  5th  of  September,  Rear-Admiral  S.  P.  Lee 
relieved  Golds  borough  (who  had  asked  to  be  re 
lieved)  in  command  "of  the  North  Atlantic  Block 
ading  Squadron.  In  the  sounds  of  North  Caro 
lina  the  navy  was  constantly  occupied  during  the 
summer  in  assisting  the  army  to  hold  the  occu 
pied  points  and  in  aiding  the  movements.  On 
the  6th  of  September  the  enemy  attacked  and 
entered  Washington,  N.  C.,  but  were  driven  out 
by  the  timely  action  of  Lieut.  R.  T.  Renshaw, 
who  opened  fire  from  the  "  Louisiana"  upon 
them.  About  the  1st  of  October  an  unsuccessful 
combined  movement  was  made  upon  Franklin, 
Va.  Upon  this  occasion  numerous  acts  of  dis 
tinguished  gallantry  were  performed,  and  Lieut. 
Commanding  Flusser,  who  commanded  on  the 
part  of  the  navy,  specially  commended  the  in 
trepid  and  dashing  Gushing  to  the  notice  of  the 
Department.  In  the  latter  part  of  November  the 
enterprising  Cushing  led  an  expedition  which 
had  for  its  object  the  destruction  of  salt-works 
and  vessels  engaged  in  the  contraband  trade,  and 
the  capture  of  public  property  at  Jacksonville, 
N.  C.,  in  all  of  which  he  was  successful..  On  his 
return  his  vessel,  the  "Ellis,"  grounded.  All 
attempts  to  lighten  her  proved  unavailing. 
Everything  was  removed  to  the  schooner  in  com 
pany,  but  the  pivot-gun,  some  stores,  and  6 
men,  who  volunteered  to  remain  with  their  com 
mander,  when  she  was  ordered  to  drop  down. 
The  next  morning  a  heavy  cross-fire  was  opened 
upon  the  "Ellis,"  which  soon  disabled  the  en 
gine,  but  the  brave  little  party  held  on  until  the 
time  came  when  they  must  either  surrender  or 
attempt  to  escape  in  the  small  boat.  The  "  Ellis" 
was  fired  and  abandoned,  and  the  gallant  party 
happily  escaped  to  the  schooner  and  passed  out  to 
sea.  On  the  29th  of  December  the  famous  "  Mon 
itor"  foundered  off  Hatteras  with  4  officers  and 
12  of  her  men  ;  the  rest  of  the  crew  were  saved 
through  the  coolness  and  gallantry  of  her  com 
manding  officer,  Lieut.  Bankhead  The  year 
1863  was  spent  by  the  North  Atlantic  Blockad 
ing  Squadron  in  constant  activity  in  guarding 
the  extended  coast,  penetrating  the  rivers  and 
sounds,  repelling  attacks  upon  occupied  points, 
and  protecting  and  aiding  the  army  in  times  of 
difficulty  and  embarrassment. 

On  the  17th  April,  1864,  the  enemy  besieged 
Plymouth,  N.  C.,  and  two  days  after  the  iron- 
plated  ram  "  Albemarle"  descended  the  Roanoke 
and  attacked  the  wooden  gunboats  eft'  that  town, 
sinking  the  "  Southfield,"  and  disabling  the 
"  Miami,"  whose  gallant  commander,  Lieuten 
ant  Commanding  Flusser,  was  killed,  and  ob 
tained  possession  of  the  river.  The  next  day 
the  defenses  of  the  town  were  carried,  the  gar 
rison  made  prisoners,  and  the  control  of  the  upper 
sounds  passed  into  the  enemy's  hands.  On  the 
5th  May  the  enemy  besieged  Newbern,  when 
the  ram  again  came  out.  Capt.  llelanctaa 
Smith,  the  senior  naval  officer,  promptly  en 
gaged  her  with  the  "  Mattabassett,"  "  Wyalus- 
ing,"  "Sassacus,"  and  "Whitehead."  After 
an  engagement  lasting  3  hours,  the  ram  re 
tired  up  the  river.  On  the  night  of  the  27th 
October,  Lieut.  W.  B.  Cushing,  who  had  been 
selected  for  the  duty,  with  14  men  in  a  light 
picket  launch,  having  attached  a  torpedo  of  great 
power,  ascended  the  Roanoke  River  to  Plymouth, 


NAVY 


555 


NAVY 


approached  the  ram  under  a  heavy  fire  and  sunk 
her.  A  shot  from  the  "  Albemarle"  just  as  the 
torpedo  exploded  sunk  the  launch.  Gushing  with 
four  of  his  daring  party  escaped  miraculously, 
the  remainder  were  killed  or  wounded.  This 
dashing  and  brilliant  achievement  accomplished, 
Commander  Macomb  with  his  command  pushed 
into  the  town,  drove  the  enemy  out  and  took  pos 
session  of  the  place  with  all  its  armament,  and 
re-established  the  supremacy  of  the  government 
in  the  waters  of  North  Carolina.  In  July,  1864, 
Lieut.  Gushing,  with  Ensign  J.  E.  Jones  and 
Master's  Mate  William  Howertt  and  15  men, 
made  a  daring  reconnoissance  to  Wilmington, 
and  returned  with  valuable  information  in  re 
gard  to  the  enemy's  fleet  and  fortifications  off 
Wilmington.  In  the  fall  of  1864,  the  govern 
ment  having  decided  upon  a  demonstration 
against  Fort  Fisher  and  the  defenses  of  Wil 
mington,  Admiral  D.  D.  Porter  was  assigned 
to  the  command  of  the  naval  forces,  and  Gen. 
B.  F.  Butler  those  of  the  army.  On  the  18th 
December,  Admiral  Porter  sailed  from  Beaufort 
with  all  the  monitors  and  smaller  vessels,  and 
off  New  Inlet,  N.  C.,  was  joined  by  the  larger 
war- vessels  and  transports  assembled  there. 
Preparatory  to  the  attack  a  novel  experiment  was 
first  to  be  tried,  in  the  attempt  to  blow  up  Fort 
Fisher  by  the  explosive  power  of  a  large  quan 
tity  of  powder  placed  in  a  vessel  called  the 
"  Louisiana,"  fitted  for  the  purpose.  The  gal 
lant  and  chivalrous  officers  volunteering  for  this 
extremely  perilous  enterprise  were  Commander 
A.  C.  Lihind  and  Lieut.  Preston,  both  of  whom 
had  been  already  conspicuous  in  dashing  enter 
prises.  On  the  night  of  the  23d  the  powder- 
boat  was  towed  so  near  the  shore  that  the  guns 
in  the  casemates  of  Fort  Fisher  were  distinctly 
to  be  seen.  The  vessel  being  in  position,  the  fuzes, 
etc.,  were  lighted  by  the  brave  little  party,  who 
then  took  to  the  boat  and  pulled  away.  In  about 
an  hour  a  terrific  explosion  occurred,  but  without 
the  hoped-for  results,  no  material  damage  being 
done  to  the  fort.  The  morning  after  the  explo 
sion  the  fleet  appeared  off  Fort  Fisher  and  opened 
fire,  to  which  the  fort  replied  briskly  for  some 
time,  and  then  relapsed  into  silence  under  the 
concentrated  fire  of  the  fleet.  Two  of  the  ene 
my's  magazines  were  blown  up.  On  the  25th  the 
transports  arrived,  when  the  fleet  again  opened 
fire.  Upon  an  arranged  plan  3000  troops  landed 
about  5  miles  from  the  fort,  and  a  reconnois 
sance  was  made  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  works. 
Two  light  batteries  and  a  few  men  were  captured. 
Gen.  Butler  having  decided  that  the  works  were 
uninjured  as  works  of  defense,  and  could  only 
be  reduced  by  a  regular  siege,  for  which  he  was 
not  prepared,  withdrew  his  command  to  the  trans 
ports  and  returned  to  Fortress  Monroe.  The  fleet 
remained  and  kept  up  a  steady  fire.  On  the  8th 
of  January,  1865,  Gen.  Grant  having  decided  to 
send  a  competent  force,  Gen.  Terry  with  his  com 
mand  arrived  at  Beaufort.  A  plan  of  operations 
having  been  decided  upon  between  Admiral  Por 
ter  and  Gen.  Terry,  the  troops  under  cover  of  the 
fire  of  the  fleet  were  all  landed  by  2  P.M.  of  the 
14th.  The  next  day  was  appointed  for  the  grand 
attack.  At  9  A.M.  the  fleet  opened  a  vigorous 
fire,  which  was  sustained  throughout  the  day,  and 
the  enemy  were  soon  driven  to  their  bomb-proofs. 
Sixteen  hundred  sailors  and  400  marines,  under 
Lieut.  R.  K.  Breese,  were  landed  to  join  in  the 


assault.  When  the  army  was  put  in  motion, 
the  men  from  the  fleet  were  ordered  to  advance 
also  ;  the  former  to  assault  on  the  land  side, 
the  latter  on  the  sea  front  of  the  fort.  The  at 
tack  on  the  part  of  the  navy  resulted  in  a  repulse, 
though  the  demonstration  served  a  good  purpose 
in  diverting  the  attention  of  the  enemy,  who  sup 
posed  this  to  be  the  main  attack,  so  that  the  army 
met  with  less  opposition.  The  fire  from  the  fleet 
was  kept  up  on  those  portions  of  the  fort  held  by 
the  enemy,  the  direction  of  the  fire  being  changed 
as  the  traverses  were  occupied  by  our  troops.  In 
this  remarkable  manner  the  army  and  the  navy 
co-operated,  and  in  7  hours  this  enormous  work, 
assisted  by  the  fire  of  the  fleet,  was  captured  by  a 
handful  of  men.  Seventy-five  guns  were  cap 
tured,  and  2500  men  taken  prisoners,  among 
them  Gens.  Whiting  and  Lamb,  who  were 
wounded.  Porter,  his  officers,  and  men  re 
ceived  the  thanks  of  Congress.  Twenty-four 
hours  after  the  fall  of  Fort  Fisher,  Fort  Cas- 
well,  Baldhead  Fort,  and  Fort  Shaw  were  evacu 
ated.  Fort  Campbell  was  abandoned  a  few  hours 
later,  and  this  entire  chain  of  rebel  defenses  fell 
into  our  hands.  About  the  15th  February  the 
combined  forces  resumed  operations  against  Wil 
mington.  Fort  Anderson,  the  most  important 
work  remaining  to  the  enemy,  surrendered  on 
the  18th  February,  after  a  vigorous  bombard 
ment  by  the  vessels  of  the  fleet,  supported  by 
Gen.  Schofield,  who  advanced  upon  the  fort 
with  2000  men.  On  the  21st  February  the 
enemy  were  driven  from  Fort  Strong,  and  on 
the  22d  Wilmington  was  evacuated. 

During  the  year  1864  a  portion  of  the  naval 
force  attached  to  the  North  Atlantic  Blockading 
Squadron  was  actively  engaged  in  co-operating 
on  the  James  River  with  the  army  of  Gen. 
Grant.  A  number  of  sharp  and  severe  engage 
ments  occurred  between  these  vessels  and  the 
powerful  batteries  which  lined  the  shore  of  the 
river,  in  many  of  which  the  navy  acquired  great 
credit,  particularly  in  the  engagement  with  the 
rebel  batteries  at  Deep  Bottom,  where  Com 
mander  A.  C.  Rhind,  in  the  "Agawam,"  spe 
cially  distinguished  himself  for  "gallantry  and 
endurance,"  and  received  the  thanks  of  the  Navy 
Department. 

South  Atlantic  Blockading  Squadron. — In  Oc 
tober,  1861,  a  joint  naval  and  military  expedi 
tion  was  organized,  the  object  being  to  seize  and 
occupy  points  on  the  Southern  coast  as  places  of 
supply  and  to  afford  protection  to  loyal  citizens. 
Flag-Officer  S  F.  Dupont  was  appointed  the  na 
val  commander,  and  Gen.  W.  T.  Sherman  to  the 
command  of  the  military  forces.  Port  Royal, 
S.  C.,  was  selected  as  the  first  objective-point. 
On  the  29th  of  October  the  fleet,  consisting  of 
48  vessels,  including  transports,  sailed  from 
Hampton  Roads.  OfFHatteras  the  severest  storm 
known  for  many  years  was  encountered,  in  which 
the  steamer  "  Governor,"  having  on  board  the 
battalion  of  marines,  was  lost,  and  also  the 
transport  steamer  "Peerless."  The  crew  and 
marines  of  the  former  were  rescued  by  Capt. 
Cadwallader  Ringgold  in  the  "Sabine,"  and  the 
crew,  etc.,  of  the  latter  were  saved  by  Commander 
S.  Godon  in  the  "Mohican."  On  the  morning 
of  the  4th  of  November  the  rest  of  the  fleet  an 
chored  off  the  bar  of  Port  Royal.  The  buoys, 
etc.,  having  been  removed,  Commander  C.  H. 
Davis  and  Mr.  Boutelle,  of  the  coast  survey, 


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556 


NAVY 


Sounded  out  the  channel  and  buoyed  it.  The 
"Ottawa,"  Lieut.  Commanding  T.  H.  Stevens; 
"  Seneca,"  Lieut.  Commanding  D.  Ammen  ; 
"  Pembina,"  Lieut.  Commanding  J.  P.  Bank- 
head ;  "Pawnee,"  Lieut.  Commanding  B.  H. 
Wyman  ;  and  "Curlew,"  Lieut.  Commanding 
P.  G.  Watmough,  were  sent  forward  to  cover 
the  transports,  which  crossed  the  bar  and  an 
chored  in  the  lower  anchorage  of  Port  Royal. 
The  enemy's  fleet  under  Tatnall  shortly  after 
steamed  down  the  harbor,  when  the  gunboats 
got  under  way  and  chased  them  under  the  forts. 
The  next  morning  Gen.  Wright  and  Commander 
John  Kodgers,  in  the  "Ottawa,"  supported  by 
the  other  gunboats,  made  a  reconnoissance  and 
drew  the  fire  of  the  forts  on  Bay  Point  and  Hil 
ton  Head  sufficient  to  show  them  to  be  works 
of  strength  and  well  constructed.  A  fleet  of  7 
of  the  enemy's  vessels,  armed  with  rifle-guns, 
occupied  the  inner  portion  of  the  harbor.  Prep 
arations  for  the  attack  were  immediately  made. 
The  order  of  battle  comprised  a  main  squadron 
in  line  ahead  and  a  flanking  squadron  to  engage 
the  enemy's  flotilla  and  cover  the  rear  of  the 
main  line  as  the  ships  swung  to  the  southward. 
The  main  squadron  consisted  of  the  "  Wabash," 
Commander  C.  K.  P.  Kodgers;  the  "  Susque- 
hannah,"  Capt.  J.  L.  Lardner;  "Mohican," 
Commander  S.  W.  Godon ;  "Seminole,"  Com 
mander  J.  P.  Gillis ;  "Pawnee,"  Lieut.  Com 
manding  R.  H.  Wyman  ;  and  gunboats  "  Una- 
dilla,"  Lieut.  Commanding  N.  Collins;  "Ot 
tawa,"  Lieut.  Commanding  T.  H.  Stevens  ; 
"Pembina,"  Lieut.  Commanding  J.  P.  Bank- 
head;  sailing  sloop-of-war  "  Vandalia,"  Com 
mander  F.  S.  Haggert,  towed  by  the  "Isaac 
Smith,"  Lieut.  Commanding  J.  W.  A.  Nichol 
son ;  and  the  steamer  "Augusta,"  Commander 
E.  G.  Parrott.  The  flanking  squadron  consisted 
of  the  steamer  "  Bienville,"  Commander  Charles 
Steedman  ;  the  gunboats  "  Seneca,"  Lieut.  Com 
manding  D.  Ammen;  the  gunboat  "Curlew," 
Lieut.-Commander  P.  G.  Watmough  ;  "  Pen 
guin,"  Lieut.  Commanding  T.  A.  Budd  ;  and 
the  steamer  "Augusta,"  E.  G;  Parrott.  The 
plan  of  attack  was  to  pass  midway  between  the 
forts,  engaging  both  batteries  to  a  point  about 
2^  miles  beyond ;  then  to  turn  to  the  southward 
round  by  the  west,  and  after  passing  Hilton 
Head  to  turn  to  the  northward  by  the  east. 
These  evolutions  were  to  be  repeated.  Three 
times  the  larger  vessels  of  the  fleet  circled  be 
tween  the  forts,  while  the  gunboats  "Ottawa," 
"Seneca,"  "Pembina,"  and  "Curlew"  took  up 
an  enfilading  position  after  passing  between  the 
forts,  and  poured  in  a  destructive  fire  upon  the 
Hilton  Head  fort,  which  was  very  effective. 
The  engagement  lasted  three  hours,  when  the 
enemy  deserted  the  Hilton  Head  defenses.  With 
the  fall  of  these  works  the  fort  on  Bay  Point  was 
also  abandoned.  Flag-Officer  Dupont,  his  offi 
cers,  and  men  received  the  thanks  of  Congress. 
In  the  latter  part  of  November  Tybee  Island,  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Savannah  River,  was  occupied 
without  opposition.  At  about  the  same  time 
naval  reconnoissances  were  made  by  Commander 
Drayton  in  St.  Helena  Sound,  and  in  the  Coosa 
and  Ashepoo  and  the  North  and  South  Edisto 
Rivers.  He  found  the  works  erected  by  the  en 
emy  abandoned.  St.  Helena  Island  was  occu 
pied  by  the  navy.  Similar  reconnoissances  were 
made  in  Warsaw  and  Ossibaw  Sounds,  with  like 


results,  excepting  on  the  eastern  end  of  Green 
Island  a  battery  was  found  erected  of  8  guns. 
In  the  latter  part  of  December,  Gen.  Sherman 
having  requested  the  co-operation  of  the  navy 
to  arrest  the  designs  of  the  enemy,  who  were  at 
tempting  to  shut  up  our  forces  on  Port  Royal 
Island  by  obstructing  the  Coosa  and  Whale 
Back  Rivers  and  by  erecting  batteries  at  Port 
Royal  Ferry,  Seabrooke,  and  Boyd's  Neck,  where 
the  enemy  had  concentrated  a  force  of  3000  men, 
Commander  C.  R.  P.  Rodgers  was  appointed  to 
command  the  naval  forces,  which  consisted  of 
the  "  Ottawa,"  "  Seneca,"  "  Pembina,"  "  Ellen," 
and  "C.  B.  Hale."  The  attack  was  made  on 
the  1st  of  January,  1862,  and  the  movement 
was  entirely  successful.  Gen.  Isaac  Stevens, 
who  commanded  the  military  forces,  rendered 
the  most  cordial  thanks  for  the  hearty  co-opera 
tion  and  assistance  of  the  navy. 

On  the  1st  of  February,  an  expedition  under 
command  of  Commander  C.  H.  Davis,  consisting 
of  the  "Ottawa,"  "Seneca,"  "Isaac  Smith," 
"Potomska,"  Lieut.  Commanding  P.  G.  Wat- 
mouth,  "  Ellen,"  and  "Western  World,"  with 
3  army  transports,  having  on  board  2400  troops, 
under  command  of  Gen.  H.  G.  Wright,  sailed 
from  Port  Royal  to  make  a  reconnoissance  of  the 
Little  Tybee  River  and  adjacent  streams.  Com 
mander  C.  R.  P.  Rodgers,  with  2  armed  launches 
of  the  "  Wabash,"  accompanied  the  expedition. 
On  the  2d  the  vessels  entered  the  Little  Tybee, 
and  after  passing  Fort  Pulaski  without  being 
fired  upon,  proceeded  to  a  point  beyond  the  high 
lands  on  Wilmington  Island.  Here  a  row  of 
piles  were  placed,  and  the  vessels  anchored. 
Scouting-parties  were  sent  out  in  all  directions 
without  seeing  anything  of  the  enemy,  and  Lieut. 
Commanding  Ammen  landed  and  cut  the  tele 
graph-wire  between  Fort  Pulaski  and  Savannah. 
About  noon  5  steamers  of  the  enemy,  under 
command  of  Tatnall,  having  scows  in  tow,  at 
tempted  to  pass  down  the  Savannah  River,  but 
were  driven  back  by  the  fire  of  the  gunboats. 
At  night-fall  the  expedition  got  under  way,  to 
the  regret  and  disappointment  of  most  connected 
with  it,  and  returned  to  Port  Royal.  Nothing 
but  a  few  rotten  piles  and  rusty  guns  many  be 
lieved  stopped  the  way  to  Savannah  in  that  di 
rection.  Commander  Davis  was  a  strict  con- 
structionist  of  orders,  and,  however  promising 
of  success,  did  not  feel  justified  in  making  the 
attempt.  On  the  last  of  February,  1862,  Flag- 
Officer  Dupont  left  Port  Royal  with  most  of  his 
squadron  and  several  transports,  having  on  board 
a  brigade  of  troops  under  Gen.  Wright,  for  the 
purpose  of  attacking  Fort  Clinch.  On  the  2d  of 
March,  when  off  St.  Andrews,  the  entrance  to 
Cumberland  Sound,  all  the  light-draft  vessels 
were  directed  to  proceed  through  the  sound  for 
the  purpose  of  attacking  the  fort  in  that  direc 
tion,  while  the  heavy  vessels  were  to  proceed 
outside  and  attack  from  that  quarter.  In  pass 
ing  through  the  narrow  and  difficult  inside  pass 
age  one  after  another  of  the  vessels  grounded ; 
and  the  "Ottawa,"  Lieut.  Commanding  Stev 
ens,  alone  succeeded  in  getting  through.  When 
within  about  3  miles  of  the  fort,  Commanders 
Drayton  and  C.  R.  P.  Rodgers  came  on  board 
that  vessel.  It  being  the  impression  that  the 
enemy  were  about  to  abandon  the  fort,  the  "  Ot 
tawa"  proceeded  at  full  speed  to  cut  off  the  re 
treat  of  the  enemy  and  to  prevent  the  destruction 


NAVY 


557 


NAVY 


of  property.     In  passing  Fort  Clinch,  Lieut.  G. 

B.  White,  the  executive  of  the  "  Ottawa,"  was 
sent  in  the  gig  to  hoist  the  American  flag  over 
the  first  national  fort  retaken  from  the  rebels. 
While  passing  up  to  the  draw  of  the  railroad 
bridge,  a  train  of  cars  was  descried  leaving  Fer- 
nandina,  to  which  the  "  Ottawa"  gave  chase,  and 
disabled  by  a   shot  from    her   pivot-gun.     The 
steamer  "Darlington"  also  attempted  to  escape, 
but  was  brought  to  by  a  well-directed  shot  from 
the  "Ottawa/'  when  Commander  Kodgers,  of 
the  "  Wabash,"  who  had  brought  to  that  vessel 
two  of  his  armed  launches,  boarded  the  "  Dar 
lington"  and  took  possession.     A  pilot-boat  was 
also  captured,  and  all   the  guns,  munitions  of 
war,  stores,  etc.,  belonging  to   the  fort.     That 
night  the  "Ottawa"  proceeded  up  the  river  to 
the    town   of    St.    Mary's,    which    Commander 
Rodgers  took  possession  of  about  midnight,  cap 
turing  the  horses  and  accoutrements  of  a  cav 
alry  guard,  which,  so  sudden  was  the  surprise, 
the  enemy  did  not  find  time  to  mount.     The 
next  morning,  learning  that  2  steamers  had  es 
caped  up  the  river,  Lieut.  Commanding  Stevens 
pushed  on  in  pursuit,  going  as  far  as  Woodstock 
Mills,  a  point  50  miles  above  St.  Mary's.    On  the 
return  of  the  "  Ottawa,  "she  was  heavily  attacked 
from  both  sides  of  the   crooked   river,  not  100 
yards  wide,  by  a  large  body  of  the  enemy.     The 
firing  was  kept  up  for  a  distance  of  about  2  miles, 
and  was  so  severe  as  to  drive  our  men  from  all 
the  guns  but  the  howitzers,   which  were  well 
served,  and  from  the  effects  of  which  the  enemy 
must  have  suffered  severely.     Scarcely  a  person 
on  board  the  "Ottawa"  escaped  untouched  in 
clothing  or  person.     On  the  7th  of  March,  Com 
mander  Godon,  in  the  "  Mohican,"  having  with 
him  the  "  Potomska"  and  "  Pocahontas,"  took 
possession  of  Brunswick,  Ga.     About  the  same 
time  an  expedition  was  organized  under  Lieut. 
Commanding  Stevens,  to  make  a  reconnoissance 
of  the  St.  John's  River  as  far  as  Jacksonville, 
Fla.     The  expedition  comprised  the  "Ottawa," 
"Seneca,"     Ammen,    "Pembina,"    Bankhead, 
"Isaac     Smith,"     Nicholson,     and     "Ellen," 
and   about   1000  troops.     About   10  o'clock  in 
the    evening   of   the    day    the    vessels    crossed 
the  shallow  and  difficult  bar  at  the  mouth  of 
the  river  large  fires  were  discovered  in  the  di 
rection  of  Jacksonville,  which  proved  to  be  the 
burning  of  saw-mills,  the  property  of  men  with 
Union  proclivities,  and  a  gunboat  on  the  stocks 
was  also  destroyed.     The  expedition  was  entirely 
successful.     The  batteries  at  the  mouth  of  the 
river   were  abandoned,   and  also  a  fort  on  St. 
John's  Bluff,  and  their  guns  secured.     Upon  ap 
proaching  Jacksonville,  a  boat  bearing  a  flag  of 
truce  came  alongside  of  the  "Ottawa"  to  sur 
render  the  city,  which  was  taken  possession  of 
without  opposition.      Penetrating  into  Dunn's 
Creek,   Lieut.  Stevens  found  the  famed  yacht 
"  America,"  which  had  been  sunk  by  the  enemy. 
She  was  raised  and  taken  to  Port  Royal.     It  is 
understood  she  had  been  purchased  by  the  Con 
federacy  for  $60,000  in  gold,  for  the  purpose  of 
taking  their  commissioners,  Slidell  and  Mason, 
to  Europe.     On  the  12th  of  May,  Commander 

C.  R.  Rodgers  received  the  surrender  of  St.  Au 
gustine,  Fla.     The  results  of  these  various  expe 
ditions  gave  us  possession  of  the  coast  and  inland 
waters  from  St.  Simon's  southward.     Upon  the 
information  derived  from  Robert  Small,  a  colored 


pilot,  who  had  made  a  daring  escape  from  Charles 
ton,  Stone  River  and  inlet  were  occupied.  In 
March,  Lieut.  Commanding  Budd  and  Acting 
Master  Mather,  and  others,  were  ambushed  and 
killed  while  engaged  on  a  boat  expedition  into 
Mosquito  Inlet.  After  a  bombardment  of  2 
days,  Fort  Pulaski  surrendered  on  the  12th  of 
April.  Commander  C.  R.  P.  Rodgers,  upon  this 
occasion,  represented  the  navy. in  command  of 
Battery  Siegel,  officered  and  manned  by  a  de 
tachment  from  the  "  Wabash."  On  the  26th  of 
January,  1863,  Commander  J.  L.  "Worden,  in 
the  monitor  "Montauk,"  engaged  for  4  hours 
the  enemy's  battery  at  Genesis  Point,  on  the 
Great  Ogeechee  River.  On  the  30th  of  January, 
the  Confederate  rams  raided  the  blockading  fleet 
off  Charleston,  disabling  the  "  Mercedita"  by  a 
shot  which  exploded  her  boiler  and  scalded  many 
of  her  crew,  and  by  the  explosion  of  a  shell  set 
the  "  Keystone  State"  on  fire.  Le  Roy,  who 
commanded  the  latter  vessel,  hauled  oft'  to  ex 
tinguish  the  fire,  which  done,  he  ordered  a  full 
head  of  steam  with  the  intention  of  running  down 
one  of  the  ironclads.  In  the  act  of  running  for 
her  with  a  speed  of  12  knots,  a  shot  struck  her 
steam-chest  and  disabled  the  vessel.  In  the 
mean  time,  Parrot  in  the  "Augusta,"  Fraley  in 
the  "  Quaker  City,"  and  Watmough  in  the 
"Memphis,"  kept  up  a  steady  fire  upon  the 
enemy,  in  which  they  were  shortly  joined  by  the 
"  Housatonic,"  Taylor,  when  the  enemy  soon 
withdrew.  The  "  Keystone  State"  lost  about  a 
fourth  of  her  crew  in  killed  and  wounded.  On 
the  30th  of  January  the  steamer  "  Isaac  Smith," 
having  grounded  in  Stono  River  under  the  fire 
of  a  heavy  battery,  after  a  gallant  resistance, 
was  captured.  At  daylight  on  the  27th  of  Feb 
ruary,  Commander  Worden,  in  the  monitor 
"  Montauk, "accompanied  by  the  gunboats"  Sen 
eca,"  Gibson,  "  Wissahickon,"  Davis,  and 
"  Dawn,"  shoved  up  under  aheavy  fire  from  Fort 
McAllister,  and  destroyed  the  enemy's  armed 
steamer  "  Nashville,"  lying  under  the  fort,  by  a 
well-directed  shot  from  the  "Montauk,"  which 
exploded  her  magazine.  Government  having 
determined  to  attempt  the  capture  of  Charleston, 
a  force  consisting  of  the  ironclad  "New  Iron 
sides,"  Turner,  accompanied  by  the  monitors 
"Passaic,"  Drayton,  "  Weehawken,"  John 
Rodgers,  "Montauk,"  Worden,  "  Patapsco," 
Ammen,  "  Catskill,"  George  W.  Rodgers, 
"  Nantucket,"  Fairfax,  "  Nahant,"  Downes,  and 
"  Keokuk,"  Rhind,  crossed  the  bar  off  Charles 
ton,  on  the  6th  of  April,  and  anchored  out 
side.  At  noon  the  next  day  the  vessels  moved 
to  the  attack.  The  plan  of  attack  contemplated 
passing  by  Fort  Sumter  without  stopping  to  en 
gage  any  of  the  supporting  batteries,  which  fort 
was  to  be  attacked  on  the  northwest  front.  The 
heavy  fire  of  these  batteries,  together  with  the 
nature  of  the  obstructions,  defeated  this  inten 
tion,  and  the  fleet  were  compelled  to  make  the 
attack  from  the  outside,  on  the  sea  front  of  the 
fort.  The  attack  was  a  failure.  Several  of  the 
monitors  were  reported  partially  disabled,  and 
the  "Keokuk,"  whose  chivalrous  commander 
had  carried  her  almost  under  the  walls  of  Fort 
Sumter,  was  so  badly  cut  up  that  she  sank  the 
next  morning.  On  the  17th  of  June  the  enemy's 
ironclad  "Atlanta"  was  captured,  after  a  brief 
engagement  of  15  minutes,  by  the  monitor"  Wee 
hawken,"  John  Rodgers,  and  taken  possession 


NAVY 


558 


NAVY 


of  by  a  boat  from  the  "  Montauk,"  Downes. 
The  action  was  so  brief  the  "  Nahant"  did  not 
have  an  opportunity  to  fire,  and  the  "  Weehaw 
ken"  fired  but  5  shots.  On  the  6th  day  of  July, 
Rear-Admiral  Dupont  was  relieved  at  his  own 
request  by  Hear- Admiral  Dahlgren,  in  com 
mand  of  the  squadron.  On  the  18th  of  July  a 
combined  attack  was  made  upon  Fort  Wagner 
by  the  troops  and  ironclads.  The  fort  was  en 
gaged  at  short  range  by  the  latter,  and  silenced 
for  the  day,  but  the  troops  were  repulsed,  owing 
to  the  inadequacy  of  the  force.  On  the  17th  of 
August  the  land  batteries  opened  upon  Sumter, 
in  which  the  "  Patapsco"  and  "  Passaic"  joined, 
while  the  "  Ironsides"  and  the  other  monitors 
engaged  Wa,gner.  Forts  Sumter  and  "Wagner 
were  silenced.  During  this  engagement  the  gifted 
and  gallant  George  W.  Rodgers,  in  command  of 
the  "  Catskill,"  was  killed,  and  also  Paymaster 
"Woodbury,  who  was  standing  by  his  side.  On  the 
22d  of  August,  Commander  T.  H.  Stevens,  in 
the  "  Patapsco,"  and  Commander  E.  Ross  Col- 
houn,  in  the  a  Weehawken,"  engaged  Fort  Wag 
ner  for  about  2  hours.  About  this  time  several 
changes  occurred,  Commander  Rodgers  having 
been  killed,  and  Fairfax  and  Downes  relieved  at 
their  own  request.  Commander  Bryson  was 
ordered  to  the  command  of  the  "  Lehigh,"  Lieut. 
Commanding  John  Lee  Davis  to  that  of  the 
"  Montauk,"  Lieut.  Commanding  Cilley  to  that 
of  the  "Catskill,"  and  Cornwelf  to  that  of  the 
"  Nahant."  On  the  23d  of  August  the  "  Iron 
sides"  and  all  the  monitors  bombarded  Sumter 
for  about  4  hours  at  a  distance  of  800  yards  under 
a  very  heavy  cross-fire  from  the  enemy's  defenses. 
On  the  31st  of  August  a  division  of  monitors 
under  Commander  T.  H.  Stevens,  embracing  the 
"Patapsco,"  "Weehawken,"  "Passaic,"  and 
"Nahant,"  attacked  Fort  Moultrie  and  the  ad 
jacent  batteries  for  about  3.}  hours,  when  signal 
was  made  to  withdraw.  Some  of  the  monitors 
were  heavily  hit.  Simpson,  commanding  the 
"  Passaic,"  in  his  work  on  "  Armored  Vessels," 
refers  to  this  engagement  as  the  severest  that  had 
occurred  between  land  batteries  and  ironclads. 
On  the  night  of  the  next  day  another  demon 
stration,  participated  in  by  the  "  New  Iron 
sides"  and  all  the  monitors,  was  made  upon 
Sumter,  which  lasted  for  about  4  hours  under  a 
heavy  cross-fire  from  the  enemy's  batteries,  con 
siderable  damage  being  done  to  some  of  the  mon 
itors.  On  the  night  of  the  6th,  under  the  com 
bined  operations  of  the  army  and  navy,  Forts 
Gregg  and  Wagner  fell,  and  Morris  Island  was 
evacuated  by  the  enemy. 

At  5.30  P.M.  of  the  7th  the  "Ironsides"  and 
all  the  monitors,  with  the  exception  of  the  "Wee 
hawken"  (aground),  got  under  way  to  attack  the 
enemy's  defenses  on  Sullivan  Island.  The  object 
of  the  demonstration  was  to  cover  the  "  Patap 
sco"  while  she  proceeded  to  make  an  exami 
nation  of  the  obstructions.  When  the  enemy 
discovered  the  object  of  the  movement,  all  the  bat 
teries  upon  Sullivan  Island  opened  upon  the  "  Pa 
tapsco."  Under  this  terrific  fire  she  was  struck 
23  times  in  as  many  minutes.  She  proceeded  to 
within  150  yards  of  Fort  Sumter  and  the  obstruc 
tions,  and  having  made  the  required  examina 
tion,  dropped  down  to  the  flag-ship,  when  Com 
mander  Stevens  went  on  board  to  report.  On 
the  morning  of  the  8th  September,  the  "  New 
Ironsides'"  and  all  the  monitors,  under  command 


of  Commodore  Rowan,  got  under  way  and  an 
chored  within  800  yards  of  the  batteries  on  Sul 
livan  Island  to  cover  the  "  Weehawken,"  still 
aground.  The  engagement,  lasting  3  hours,  was 
very  severe,  during  the  close  of  which  the  "  Pa 
tapsco"  was  disabled  and  towed  to  her  anchorage. . 
Admiral  Dahlgren,  having  the  impression  that 
there  was  nothing  but  a  corporal's  guard  in  Sum 
ter,  sent,  on  the  night  of  the  same  day,  an  expedi 
tion  composed  of  400  men  and  officers  in  40  boats, 
under  Commander  Stevens,  to  surprise  the  fort. 
On  nearing  Sumter  the  boats  were  hailed,  and 
simultaneously  a  rocket  was  sent  up  from  the 
northeast  bastion,  when  all  the  batteries  on  James 
and  Sullivan  Islands,  and  an  ironclad  with  grape 
and  canister,  opened  upon  the  attacking  party, 
and  the  solitary  approach  to  the  fort — the  parapets 
— being  lined  with  sharpshooters,  the  boats  were 
being  rapidly  sunk  by  hand-grenades  and  heavy 
stones  ;  those  who  had  landed  could  not  get  back 
through  the  terrific  tempest  of  shot  arid  shell, 
grape  and  canister  and  musketry,  nor  could  re 
lief  be  rendered  them,  and  as  a  further  persist 
ence  in  the  attack  would  have  been  madness,  the 
order  was  given  to  fall  back.  About  a  fourth  of 
the  command  was  killed  or  taken  prisoners ; 
among  the  latter  the  gallant  Porter,  Preston,  and 
Williams,  who  were  among  the  first  to  land. 
Gen.  Beauregard,  who  commanded  the  defenses 
in  Charleston  harbor,  writes :  "  If  we  had  not 
opened  so  soon  and  fired  so  rapidly  we  would 
have  captured  or  destroyed  your  whole  com 
mand."  The  enemy  were  enabled  to  read  all 
our  signals,  and  as  the  preparations,  imperfect  as 
they  were,  were  made  in  open  day,  the  enemy 
were  fully  prepared — as  Gen.  Beauregard  states 
and  the  sequel  shows — to  repel  the  assault.  Just 
outside  of  the  line  of  fire  lay  a  number  of  army- 
boats  loaded  with  men  ready  to  participate  had 
the  movement  been  a  success,  which  retired 
without  making  a  single  demonstration.  For 
about. 10  days  in  November  the  monitors  "Pa 
tapsco"  and  "  Lehigh"  co-operated  with  the 
army  in  bombarding  Sumter  until  it  was  reduced 
apparently  to  ruin  ;  but  no  subsequent  attempts 
were  made  to  occupy  it  until  Charleston  was 
flanked  by  Sherman,  when  all  its  defenses  were 
abandoned.  In  February,  1864,  a  division  of 
gunboats  was  sent  to  the  St.  John's  River  to 
co-operate  with  the  army  in  a  movement  into 
Florida.  On  the  night  of  the  17th  February, 
1864,  the  sloop-of-war  "  Housatonic"  was  sunk 
oft'  Charleston  by  a  torpedo-boat.  Other  similar 
but  fruitless  attempts  were  made  upon  our  ves 
sels.  In  February,  Admiral  Dahlgren  having 
received  a  leave,  Commodore  Rowan  was  left 
temporarily  in  command.  In  March  a  diversion 
was  made  into  Bull's  Bay.  In  May  a  force  was 
detailed  to  co-operate  with  the  army  in  an  effort 
to  sever  the  railroad  between  Charleston  and  Sa 
vannah.  Information  having  been  received  of 
Sherman's  advance  to  the  sea,  at  the  proper  time 
every  available  means  were  used  to  aid  in  the 
success  of  the  movement  by  creating  diversions 
in  various  directions  and  to  embarrass  the  enemy. 
On  the  12th  December  Sherman  arrived  in  the 
neighborhood  of  Savannah,  when  Dahlgren  im 
mediately  opened  communication  with  him.  On 
the  18th  December  the  investment  of  that  city 
by  the  army  on  one  side  and  the  navy  on  the 
other  was  accomplished.  Savannah  was  occu 
pied  by  Sherman  on  the  21st.  Early  in  January, 


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559 


NAVY 


1865,  the  forces  under  Dahlgren  assisted  in  trans 
ferring  the  right  wing  of  Sherman's  army  to 
Beaufort,  S.  C.  On  the  12th  and  13th  February 
a  joint  army  and  navy  movement  was  made 
along  the  approaches  from  Bull's  Bay  to  Mount 
Pleasant  with  a  view  to  threaten  Charleston, 
which  was  evacuated  on  the  night  of  the  17th,  and 
Georgetown  was  soon  after  occupied  by  the  navy. 
Rear- Admiral  Dahlgren  received  the  thanks  of 
the  Department  for  his  untiring  energy,  etc., 
while  in  command. 

East  Gulf  Blockading  Squadron. — This  squad 
ron  embraced  within  its  limits  the  coast  of 
Florida  from  Cape  Florida  to  Pensacola.  In 
January,  1862,  Flag-Officer  McKean,  then  in 
command,  dispatched  Commander  Emmons  in 
the  "Hatteras"  to  operate  against  the  enemy  at 
Cedar  Keys.  The  expedition  destroyed  a  large 
amount  of  public  property,  including  military 
stores,  and  captured  several  loaded  schooners 
ready  to  run  the  blockade,  and  a  battery  of 
2  guns  in  position  at  Sea-Horse  Key.,  In  the 
latter  part  of  March,  Commander  Stellwagen, 
in  the  "  Mercedita,"  arrived  off  Appalachicola 
with  the  "Sangamon,"  Lieut.  Commanding 
Drake,  and  organized  a  boat  expedition  for  the 
capture  of  a  number  of  vessels  above  the  city. 
No  resistance  was  offered,  and  the  expedition 
brought  out  a  number  of  vessels  and  destroyed 
others.  On  the  4th  of  April,  Lieut.  Command 
ing  Gate,  in  the  "  Pursuit,"  captured  at  St.  An 
drews  a  valuable  side-wheel  steamer  of  500  tons 
with  200  bales  of  cotton.  During  the  year  1863, 
the  squadron,  being  then  under  command  of 
Rear-Admiral  T.  Bailey,  captured  or  destroyed 
more  than  300  blockade-runners.  In  May,  an 
expedition  of  several  hundred,  led  lay  Confeder 
ate  naval  officers,  made  an  attempt  to  capture, 
off  Appalachicola,  the  U.  S.  steamer  "  Adela," 
which  resulted  in  their  complete  discomfiture, 
the  capture  of  most  of  them  with  several  boats, 
their  armaments  and  accoutrements.  During 
the  year  many  armed  incursions  were  made  into 
the  interior  of  Florida,  which  resulted  in  the 
destruction  of  a  number  of  salt-works.  During 
the  year  1864  the  East  Gulf  Blockading  Squad 
ron  engaged  in  no  active  operations  against  the 
enemy. 

West  Gulf  Blockading  Squadron. — On  the  night 
of  the  12th  April,  1861,  Fort  Pickens  was  re 
inforced  by  a  party  of  U.  S.  troops  under  Capt. 
Vogdes,  and  by  the  marines  of  the  squadron  un 
der  Lieut.  Cash.  The  "Brooklyn,"  Capt.  Wal 
ker,  and  the  "Wyandotte,"  Lieut.  Command 
ing  Mullany,  were  engaged  in  landing  them. 
On  the  night  of  September  13,  1861,  an  expe 
dition  was  "fitted  out,  consisting  of  the  first  launch, 
and  the  first,  second,  and  third  cutters  of  the 
"  Colorado,"  under  the  command  of  Lieuts. 
Russell,  Sproston,  and  Blake,  and  Midshipman 
Steece,  accompanied  by  Capt.  Reynolds,  of  the 
marines,  Assistant  Surgeon  Kennedy,  Assistant 
Engineer  White,  and  Midshipmen  Forrest  and 
Higginson.  The  entire  force  numbered  about 
100,  including  officers,  sailors,  and  marines. 
The  object  of  the  expedition  was  the  destruc 
tion  of  a  schooner  lying  off  the  Pensacola  Navy- 
Yard  intended  to  be  fitted  out  as  a  privateer,  and 
the  spiking  of  a  gun  in  the  southeast  end  of  the 
yard.  A  desperate  resistance  was  made,  but  the 
objects  of  the  expedition  were  gallantly  accom 
plished,  the  vessel  was  destroyed  and  the  gun 


spiked.  Our  loss  was  3  killed.  Midshipman 
Higginson  had  the  end  of  his  thumb  shot  off, 
and  Capt.  Reynolds  received  a  severe  contusion 
in  the  shoulder.  Handsome  acknowledgments 
were  made  to  those  participating  in  this  dashing 
enterprise.  On  the  night  of  the  7th  November, 
an  expedition  consisting  of  the  first  and  second 
launches  of  the  "Santee,"  under  the  command 
of  Lieut.  James  E.  Jouett,  having  with  him 
Lieut.  J.  J.  Mitchell,  Acting  Gunner  William 
Carter,  and  Acting  Master's  Mate  C.  W.  Adams, 
with  2  armed  boats,  left  the  "  Santee,"  then 
blockading  off  Galveston,  Texas,  for  thepurposeof 
destroying  the  armed  steamer  "General  Rusk," 
lying  under  Pelican  Island  fort.  The  armed 
schooner  guarding  the  channel,  and  Bolivar  and 
Pelican  Island  forts,  were  successfully  passed 
without  discovery,  but  the  boats  having  grounded 
on  Bolivar  Spit,  were  discovered.  Lieut.  Jouett 
deeming  it  imprudent  after  being  discovered  to 
make  an  attempt  upon  a  vessel  so  heavily  armed 
as  the  "  Rusk,"  concluded  to  abandon  that  por 
tion  of  the  expedition.  In  returning  he  boarded 
and,  after  a  sharp  and  severe  contest,  in  the  com 
mencement  of  which  he  was  severely  wounded, 
captured  the  schooner  "Royal  Yacht,"  armed 
with  a  light  32-pounder.  Thirteen  prisoners 
were  captured,  several  stands  of  arms,  and  the 
colors.  As  the  pilot  of  the  expedition  had  been 
shot  down,  and  the  schooner  had  received  a 
shot  between  wind  and  water,  Lieut.  Jouett  con 
cluded  to  burn  her.  After  this  the  party  re 
turned  to  the  frigate.  Lieut.  Jouett  and  Gun 
ner  Carter  were  seriously  wounded,  as' were  also 
6  men,  2  of  them  mortally.  Flag-Officer  McKean 
issued  a  general  order  thanking  the  officers  and 
men  who  composed  the  expedition,  expressing 
the  conviction  "that  their  names  would  be  en 
rolled  by  a  grateful  country  among  those  who  in 
former  years  have  shed  so  bright  a  lustre  upon 
the  American  navy."  Jouett's  intrepid  conduct, 
and  his  indomitable  will  and  courage,  which, 
overcoming  all  obstacles,  carried  the  enterprise 
to  a  successful  conclusion,  were  acknowledged  by 
the  Department  in  his  immediate  appointment  to 
an  important  command,  and  in  a  letter  from  the 
Department  to  Flag  Officer  McKean,  which  says, 
"The  Department  cannot  in  too  high  terms  ex 
press  its  admiration  of  the  daring  and  successful 
exploit  of  Lieut.  Jouett,  and  the  officers  and 
men  under  him.  The  capture  of  a  schooner  well 
armed,  and  with  every  advantage  of  resistance, 
after  a  desperate  encounter,  speaks  well  of  the 
intrepidity  and  bravery  of  the  captors."  On  the 
25th  May,  1862,  Lieut.  Commanding  Abner 
Read,  in  the  "New  London,"  had  a  spirited  en 
gagement  off  Pass  Christian  with  the  "Oregon" 
and  "  Pimlico,"  two  of  the  enemy's  armed  ves 
sels,  which  lasted  2J  hours,  when  they  retired. 

Capt.  D.  G.  Farragut  having  been  appointed 
to  the  command  of  the  West  Gulf  Blockading 
Squadron,  and  charged  with  the  reduction  of 
the  defenses  guarding  the  approaches  to  New  Or 
leans  and  the  capture" of  that  city,  arrived  at  Ship 
Island  on  the  21st  February,  1862,  and  at  once 
commenced  active  preparations  for  that  purpose. 
Eighteen  thousand  troops  under  Gen.  B.  F.  But 
ler  were  to  co-operate,  and  a  fleet  of  mortar- 
vessels  and  armed  steamers  under  Commander 
David  D.  Porter  were  to  take  part  in  the  opera 
tions.  The  squadron  for  the  purpose  had  been 
largely  increased  by  many  of  the  largest  frigates 


NAVY 


560 


NAVY 


and  sloops-of-war  in  the  navy.  Much  difficulty 
was  experienced  in  getting  some  of  the  former  over 
the  bar,  and  with  the  "  Colorado"  it  was  found 
impossible.  On  the  16th  March,  Porter  with  his 
mortar  fleet,  assisted  by  the  gunboats,  com 
menced  the  bombardment  of  Fort  Jackson. 
On  the  1st  April,  Capt.  Bell,  assisted  by  Lieuts. 
Caldwell  and  Crosby,  who  had  been  selected  for 
the  purpose,  succeeded  in  cutting  the  chain  placed 
in  the  river  to  obstruct  our  vessels.  At  2  o'clock 
A.M.,  all  preparations  for  the  attack  having  been 
completed,  signal  was  made  to  get  under  way. 
Owing  to  some  difficulty  with  the  "  Pensacola" 
and  some  of  the  other  vessels  in  getting  their 
anchors,  they  were  not  under  way  for  an  hour 
later.  The  vessels  then  advanced  in  two  columns, 
Capt.  Bailey  leading  the  right  and  the  advance 
in  the  gunboat  "  Cayuga,"  Lieut.  Commanding 
N.  B.  Harrison,  followed  by  the  "Oneida,"  Com 
mander  S.  P.  Lee;  "  Varuna,"  Commander  C. 
S.  Boggs;  "Katahdin,"  Lieut.  Commanding  G. 
H.  Preble ;  "Kineo,"  Lieut.  Commanding  Geo. 
M.  Ransom  ;  and  "  Wissahickon,"  Lieut.  Com 
manding  Albert  Smith,  supported  by  the  steam- 
sloop  "Pensacola,"  Capt.  H.  W.  Morris,  and 
frigate  "  Mississippi,"  Commander  M.  Smith. 
This  division  was  to  attack  Port  St.  Philip.  The 
second  division  of  the  column  was  led  by  the 
"  Hartford"  (flag-ship),  Commander  Richard 
"Wain wright,  followed  by  the  "  Brooklyn," 
Capt.  Thomas  T.  Craven;  the  "Richmond," 
Commander  James  Alden ;  and  the  second  di 
vision  of  gunboats  led  by  Capt.  H.  H.  Bell  in  the 
"Sciota,"  Lieut.  Commanding  Edward  Donald 
son,  followed  by  the  "  Iroquois,"  Commander 
John  DeCamp  ;  "  Kennebec,"  Lieut.  Command 
ing  John  H.  Russell;  "  Pinola,"  Lieut.  Com 
manding  Pierce  Crosby  ;  "  Itasca,"  Lieut.  Com 
manding  C.  H.  B.  Caldwell ;  and  "Winona," 
Lieut.  Commanding  E.  T.  Nichols,  in  the  order 
named.  The  fleet  soon  passed  the  barrier  chains, 
the  right  division  attacking  Fort  St.  Philip,  and 
the  left  Fort  Jackson.  Commander  Porter  had 
by  previous  arrangement  moved  up  to  a  certain 
point  on  the  Fort  Jackson  side  with  his  gun 
boats,  while  his  mortar-vessels,  with  the  "  Ports 
mouth,"  engaged  the  water-batteries  to  the  south 
ward  and  east  ward  of  Fort  Jackson,  and  poured  in 
a  terrific  fire  of  shells.  A  fire-raft  was  started  down 
upon  the  "  Hartford,"  in  avoiding  which  the  ship 
grounded,  when  the  enemy's  ram  "  Manassas" 
appeared,  and  pushed  the  raft  down  upon  the 
"Hartford,"  setting  her  on  fire  half-way  up  to 
her  tops.  She  was  soon  backed  off  and  the  fire 
extinguished.  In  the  mean  time,  Fort  St.  Philip 
was  soon  silenced  by  the  fire  of  the  "  Hartford." 
By  the  time  the  enemy's  gunboats,  reported  to 
be  13  in  number,  besides  the  ironclads  "  Manas 
sas"  and  "  Louisiana,"  appeared,  they  were 
taken  in  hand  and  most  of  them  destroyed. 
The  fleet,  with  the  exception  of  the  "  Winona" 
and  "  Kennebec,"  which  were  unable  to  pass  the 
forts  before  the  day  broke,  was  now  fairly  past 
the  forts,  and  the  victory  won.  The  "  Varuna," 
which  was  some  distance  in  advance  of  most  of 
the  fleet,  was  sunk.  Just  at  the  close  of  the  fight 
the  ram  "  Manassas"  made  a  demonstration  upon 
the  "Hartford,"  when  the  "  Mississippi"  made 
after  her,  drove  her  ashore,  and,  pouring  two 
broadsides  into  her,  left  her  a  perfect  wreck. 
This  closed  the  morning's  fight.  Capt.  Bailey 
proceeded  on  and  captured  the  Chalmette  regi 


ment.  The  fleet  reached  the  English  turn  about 
10  A.M.  of  the  15th.  It  was  now  formed  in  two 
columns  as  before.  As  Capt.  Bailey  in  the 
advance  approached  the  Chalmette  batteries 
they  opened  a  galling  fire,  but  the  larger  ves 
sels  coming  to  his  assistance  opened,  when  the 
batteries  were  silenced  and  the  troops  driven  out. 
New  Orleans  was  shortly  after  taken  possession 
of  by  Capt.  Bailey,  all  the  steamboats  seized  and 
sent  down  the  river  to  bring  up  Gen.  Butler's 
forces.  Farragut  then  pushed  on  to  Carrollton, 
where  there  were  two  other  forts,  which  were 
found  deserted.  On  the  28th  April,  Forts  Jack 
son  and  Philip,  after  a  bombardment  of  144  con 
secutive  hours  by  Porter's  mortar  fleet,  surren 
dered  to  that  officer.  On  the  29th,  Gen.  Butler 
reached  New  Orleans,  and  shortly  after  his  troops 
were  in  full  possession  of  the  city.  A  detachment 
of  smaller  vessels,  under  Commander  S.  P.  Lee, 
was  sent  as  high  as  Yicksburg.  Farragut,  and 
Porter  and  his  command,  received  the  thanks 
of  Congress.  May  7,  Commander  James  Palmer, 
in  the  "  Iroquois,"  took  possession  of  Baton 
Rouge  with  all  the  public  property.  On  the 
28th  June  the  mortar-vessels  commenced  the 
bombardment  of  the  Vicksburg  batteries,  which 
were  soon  silenced  by  this  fire  and  that  of  the 
squadrons,  but  as  there  was  not  a  sufficient  land 
force  to  co-operate,  the  enemy  soon  returned  to 
their  guns.  On  the  2d  July,  Flag-Officer  Davis, 
commanding  the  Mississippi  Flotilla,  joined  Far 
ragut  above  Vicksburg  with  a  force  of  gunboats 
and  mortar-vessels.  On  the  15th  'the  enemy's 
ram  "  Arkansas"  ran  past  the  fleet  and  took 
refuge  under  the  guns  of  Vicksburg.  An  un 
successful  attempt  was  made  to  destroy  her. 
"While  the  ironclad  "  Essex,"  Commander  Wil 
liam  Porter,  and  the  gunboats  "Kineo,"  "Ka 
tahdin,"  and  "Sumter,"  were  lying  off  Baton 
Rouge,  a  vigorous  attack  was  made  by  the 
enemy  on  Gen.  Williams's  command,  occupying 
that  place,  and  the  recapture  attempted  by  a 
largely  superior  force  led  by  Gen.  Breckenridge, 
but  were  repulsed  by  the  fire  of  the  gunboats. 
The  next  morning,  Commander  Wm.  Porter, 
in  the  "  Essex,"  encountered  the  "Arkansas"  a 
short  distance  above  Baton  Rouge,  and  after  a 
short  engagement  the  "Arkansas"  was  aban 
doned  and  blown  up.  The  middle  of  September, 
Corpus  Christi  was  occupied.  Shortly  after, 
Acting  Master  Francis  Crocker,  in  the  "  Ken 
sington,"  captured  and  took  possession  of  the 
defenses  of  Sabine  City.  On  the  4th  of  October, 
Commander  W.  B.  Rensha'w,  of  the  "West- 
field,"  having  with  him  the  "Harriet  Lane," 
"Owasco,"  and  "Clifton,"  after  a  feeble  resist 
ance,  captured  the  city  of  Galveston  and  its  de 
fenses.  On  New  Year's  day,  1863,  the  gunboats 
holding  the  city  were  attacked  by  4  of  the  ene 
my's  vessels.  The  "  Harriet  Lane,"  after  a 
desperate  resistance,  was  carried  by  boarding. 
Wainwright,  her  gallant  commander,  was  killed, 
and  his  executive,  Lieut.-Commander  Lee,  mor 
tally  wounded.  The  "Westfield,"  in  coming 
to  her  assistance,  grounded,  and,  to  prevent 
capture,  Commander  Renshaw  blew  her  up, — 
that  officer,  Lieut.  Zimmerman,  Chief  Engineer 
Green,  and  nearly  a  dozen  men  perishing  with 
her.  On  the  llth  of  January  the  "  Hatte- 
ras,"  a  purchased  vessel,  Lieut.  Blake  command 
ing,  was  sunk  by  the  enemy's  steamer  "  Ala 
bama,"  off  the  coast  of  Texas,  where  the  "  Hat- 


NAVY 


561 


NAVY 


teras"  was  stationed  as  a  blockade  vessel.  In 
March,  1863,  Farragut,  with  a  strong  force  of 
vessels,  attempted  the  passage  of  the  Port  Hud 
son  batteries,  but  only  the  "  Hartford"  and  "  Al 
batross"  succeeded.  With  them  he  approached 
Vicksburg,  and  opened  communication  with 
Rear-Admiral  D.  D.  Porter,  commanding  the 
Mississippi  Squadron,  and  Gen.  Grant,  both  of 
whom  were  operating  against  that  place.  In  at 
tempting  to  pass  Port  Hudson  the  steamer  "  Mis 
sissippi"  grounded  and  was  destroyed.  Upon 
this  occasion  the  gallant  and  promising  Cum- 
mings  was  killed.  The  navy  now  held  control 
of  the  river  between  Vicksburg  and  Port  Hudson, 
and,  by  establishing  a  blockade  of  the  Red  River, 
cut  off  the  supplies  from  Texas  destined  to  the 
use  of  the  enemy.  A  naval  force  was  always 
kept  ready  to  co-operate  with  the  army  in  the 
reduction  of  Port  Hudson,  and  a  continuous 
shelling  of  the  place  from  mortar-boats,  vessels, 
and  a  naval  battery  on  shore  was  maintained. 
Nearly  three  thousand  13-inch  shells  were  thrown 
into  the  works  by  the  mortar-vessels,  and  the 
naval  battery  of  9-inch  guns,  used  as  a  breaching 
battery,  did  good  work.  With  the  fall  of  Vicks 
burg,  Port  Hudson  surrendered  on  the  9th  of 
July.  Military  co-operation  having  been  se 
cured  early  in  July,  and  2  ironclads  from  the 
Mississippi  and  2  from  the  James  River  having 
arrived,  Farragut  made  his  final  preparations  for 
the  attack  on  the  defenses  of  Mobile  Bay.  The 
ironclad  "  Tecumseh"  arrived  on  the  evening 
of  the  4th  of  August,  and  everything  being  pro 
pitious,  the  attack  commenced  on  the  following 
morning.  At  5.40  A.M.  of  the  5th  of  August 
the  fleet  moved  in  the  following  order,  2  abreast, 
and  lashed  together:  "  Brooklyn,"  Capt.  James 
Alden,  with  the  "  Octorara,"  Lieut. -Command- 
der  C.  H.  Green,  on  the  port  side ;  flag-ship 
"  Hartford,"  Capt.  Percival  Draytori,  with  the 
"Metacomet,"  Lieut.-Commander  James  E. 
Jouett;  "Richmond,"  Capt.  T.  A.  Jenkins, 
with  the  "Port  Royal,"  Lieut.-Commander  B. 
Gherardi ;  "  Lackawanna,"  Capt.  J.  B.  Mar- 
chand,  with  the  "Seminole,"  Commander  Ed 
ward  Donaldson  ;  "  Monongahela,"  Commander 
James  H.  Strong,  with  the  "Itasco,"  Lieut. 
Commanding  George  Brown ;  "Oneida,"  Com 
mander  J.  A.  Mullany,  with  the  "  Galena," 
Lieut.-Commander  Clark  H.  Wells.  The  iron 
clad  "Tecumseh,"  Commander  T.  M.  Craven; 
the  "  Winnebago,"  Commander  T.  H.  Stevens; 
the  "Manhattan,"  Commander  J.  W.  A.  Nich 
olson  ;  and  the  "  Chickasaw,"  Lieut. -Commander 
G.  H.  Perkins,  were  under  Sand  Island,  and 
had  been  ordered  to  take  position  on  the  star 
board  side  of  the  wooden  vessels,  or  between 
them  and  Fort  Morgan,  to  keep  down  the  fire  of 
the  water-battery,  and  to  attack  the  ram  "Ten 
nessee"  when  the  fort  was  passed.  As  the  at 
tacking  vessels,  in  order  of  battle,  moved  steadily 
up  the  main  channel  and  neared  Sand  Island, 
the  monitors  weighed  anchor  and  took  up  their 
assigned  positions.  At  6.47  A.M.  of  the  5th  of 
August  the  "Tecumseh,"  the  leading  monitor, 
fired  the  first  shot.  At  7.06  the  fort  opened 
upon  the  fleet,  when  the  action  became  general, 
the  vessels  firing  as  their  guns  could  be  brought 
to  bear.  The  leading  vessel,  the  "  Brooklyn," 
had  barely  passed  Fort  Morgan  when  the  "  Te 
cumseh"  struck  a  submarine  torpedo  and  sunk 
instantaneously,  carrying  down  her  commander, 
36 


the  noble  Craven,  and  most  of  her  officers  and 
crew.  A  boat  dispatched  from  the  "  Meta- 
comet,"  Capt.  Jouett,  rescued  12  of  the  survivors, 
who  were  brought  on  board  the  monitor  "  Win 
nebago,"  within  200  yards  of  the  fort.  Mr. 
Nields,  a  volunteer  officer  in  charge  of  the  boat, 
won  distinction  and  honor  by  the  gallantry  he 
displayed  upon  this  occasion.  With  the  sinking 
of  the  "Tecumseh"  the  "Brooklyn,"  the  lead 
ing  vessel,  stopped,  and  in  doing  so  without  no 
tice  threw  the  wooden  vessels  out  of  line  and 
into  a  confused  and  helpless  condition,  which  the 
enemy  took  advantage  of,  and  poured  in  a  de 
structive  fire  from  the  forts  and  vessels,  to  which 
the  monitors  alone  were  enabled  to  reply.  Farra 
gut  at  once  comprehended  the  situation,  and  when 
Alden  reported  a  heavy  line  of  torpedoes  ahead, 
the  quick  response  came,  "  Damn  the  torpedoes  ! 
Four  bells, — go  ahead,  Capt.  Drayton."  And  re 
sponsive  to  the  will  of  her  master,  the  grand  old 
"  Hartford"  dashed  by  the  "  Brooklyn,"  straight 
ened  out  the  line,  restored  the  fortunes  of  the  day, 
and  swept  proudly  on  to  victory.  A  little  after 
8  o'clock,  Buchanan,  in  the  ram  "  Tennessee," 
made  a  dash  at  the  "Hartford,"  who  took  no 
other  notice  of  her  than  to  pour  in  a  broadside. 
In  the  mean  time  the  enemy's  gunboats  (particu 
larly  the  "  Selma")  lying  athwart  the  channel 
poured  in  a  raking  fire  upon  the  advancing  ves 
sels,  and  inflicted  considerable  damage.  Jouett 
was  ordered  to  cast  off  and  go  in  pursuit ;  he  was 
after  her  in  a  moment,  and  in  an  hour's  time  had 
her  as  a  prize.  The  "Morgan"  and  "  Gaines" 
escaped  under  the  guns  of  Fort  Morgan, — the  lat 
ter  so  badly  injured  that  she  sunk  shortly  after. 
During  the  night  the  "Morgan,"  chased  and 
tired  upon  by  the  "  Winnebago,"  escaped  to  Mo 
bile.  At  8.45,  as  the  vessels  were  about  to  anchor, 
the  ram  "  Tennessee"  was  perceived  making  for 
the  fleet.  The  vessels  most  adapted  to  the  pur 
pose,  with  the  monitors,  were  ordered  to  attack 
her,  not  only  with  their  guns,  but  to  run  her 
down.  The  "Monongahela,"  Strong,  was  the 
first  vessel  that  struck  her,  without  doing  much 
injury;  the  "Lackawanna,"  Marchand,  going 
at  full  speed,  also  struck  her,  the  only  effect  be 
ing  to  give  her  a  heavy  list;  the  ""Hartford" 
struck  her  a  glancing  blow,  pouring  in  at  the 
same  time,  within  10  feet  of  her  casemates,  a 
broadside  of  9  inch  solid  shot ;  the  monitors  d,e- 
livered  their  fire  as  opportunity  offered.  Imme 
diately  after  the  collision  with  the  flag-ship, 
Drayton,  in  the  "  Hartford,"  was  directed  to  bear 
down  for  the  ram  again,  and  was  doing  so  at  full 
speed  when  the  "Lackawanna"  ran  into  the 
"  Hartford"  and  cut  her  down  to  within  2  feet 
of  her  water-line.  Just  at  this  time  the  ram  was 
sorely  beset;  the  "Chickasaw"  was  pounding 
away  under  her  stern,  the  "  Manhattan,"  not  far 
distant,  and  the  "  Ossipee"  and  "Winnebago" 
near  at  hand,  approaching  at  full  speed,  while  the 
"Monongahela,"  "Lackawanna,"  and  "Hart 
ford"  were  bearing  down  determined  upon  her 
destruction,  when  she  hauled  down  her  colors, 
ran  up  the  white  flag,  and  surrendered.  In 
coming  out  to  attack  the  fleet  the  ram  made  for 
the  "  Oneida,"  when  the  interposition  of  the 
"  Winnebago"  compelled  her  to  sheer  off. 

On  the  following  day  the  "Chickasaw,"  Per 
kins,  shelled  Fort  Gaines  with  such  effect  that  Col. 
Anderson,  the  commanding  officer,  capitulated. 
On  the  22d  August  a  bombardment  was  opened 


NAVY 


562 


NAVY 


from  the  shore  batteries,  the  monitors,  and  one 
or  two  of  the  wooden  vessels  upon  Fort  Morgan, 
which  unconditionally  surrendered  to  the  navy 
and  army  on  the  23d.  Fort  Powell  was  aban 
doned  on  the  night  of  the  5th  and  blown  up. 
The  capture  of  these  forts  closed  the  port  against 
all  illicit  trade  with  the  enemy.  Indications 
that  the  enemy  were  about  to  evacuate  the  city 
led  to  a  naval  reconnoissance,  consisting  of  4 
monitors.  This  movement  drew  such  a  fire  as  to 
show  the  defenses  were  still  intact.  A  joint 
movement  by  land  and  water  was  arranged  be 
tween  Rear-Admiral  Thatcher,  in  command  of 
the  naval  forces  after  Farragut's  departure  North, 
and  Gen.  Canby,  commanding  the  land  forces, 
for  the  capture  of  Mobile.  The  troops  were 
landed,  on  the  21st  March,  on  the  left  bank  of 
Fisher's  River  and  pushed  forward,  while  the 
naval  vessels  shelled  the  woods  and  co-operated 
bv  signal  with  Gen.  Canby.  In  crossing  the 
bar  of  Blakely  Kiver  the  monitors  "  Milwaukee" 
and  "  Osage"  and  4  wooden  gunboats  were  sunk 
by  torpedoes.  Beyond  this  and  the  loss  of  a  few 
lives  no  serious  consequences  attended  the  cap 
ture  of  Mobile.  Fort  Alexis  and  Spanish  Fort, 
after  a  short  but  severe  bombardment,  Were  cap 
tured  on  the  morning  of  the  9th  April,  and  with 
them  about  2000  men  and  16  heavy  guns.  Bat 
teries  Tracy  and  Huger  were  evacuated  on  the 
evening  of  the  llth.  On  the  12th  all  the  remain 
ing  defenses  were  found  abandoned.  The  works 
.which  surrounded  Mobile  were  of  great  strength 
and  extent.  Nearly  400  guns  of  the  heaviest 
calibre  fell  into  our  hands.  The  city  was  sur 
rendered  to  Admiral  Thatcher  and  Gen.  Granger. 
On  the  10th  May,  Farrand  surrendered  all  the 
enemy's  naval  forces  in  the  waters  of  the  Ala 
bama.  Sabine  Pass  and  Galveston  soon  after 
surrendered,  and  the  supremacy  of  the  govern 
ment  was  established  on  the  entire  coast  from 
Maine  to  Texas. 

Mississippi  Squadron. — Commander  Andrew 
H.  Foote  having  been  appointed  to  the  command 
of  the  Mississippi  Flotilla,  the  first  important 
operation  was  the  attack  and  capture  of  Fort 
Henry,  on  the  Tennessee  Kiver.  At  12.30  P.M. 
on  the  6th  February  Commander  Foote  com 
menced  the  bombardment  of  the  fort.  The 
attacking  force  consisted  of  the  flag-ship  "Cin 
cinnati,"  Commander  Stemble  ;  "Essex,"  Com 
mander  W.  D.  Porter;  "  Carondolet,"  Com 
mander  Walke ;  "St.  Louis,"  Lieut.  Command 
ing  Paulding;  "Conestoga,"  Lieut.  Command 
ing  S.  L.  Phelps  ;  "  Tyler,"  Lieut.  Commanding 
Gwinn;  and  "Lexington,"  Lieut.  Commanding 
Shirk.  Fire  was  opened  at  1700  yards'  distance  by 
the  flag-ship,  followed  by  the  other  vessels,  and 
continued  until  within  600  yards  of  the  fort.  In 
an  hour  and  a  quarter  Gen.  Tilghman,  in  com 
mand,  surrendered  the  fort  and  his  forces  to  Flag- 
Officer  Foote.  Gen.  Grant  arrived  about  an  hour 
afterward,  when  they  were  turned  over  to  him. 
Lieut.  Commanding  Phelps,  in  the  "  Conestoga," 
with  the  "Tyler"  and  "Lexington,"  proceeded 
up  the  Tennessee  River  as  far  as  Florence  and 
captured  the  steamer  "  Eastport,"  which  the 
enemy  were  converting  into  a  gunboat,  and  took 
several  other  prizes.  From  Fort  Henry  Flag- 
Officer  Foote  proceeded  with  a  portion  of  his  com 
mand  up  the  Cumberland  to  attack  Fort  Donel- 
son.  On  the  14th  February,  with  the  ironclads 
"St.  Louis"  (flag-ship),  "Carondolet,"  "Louis 


ville,"  and  "Pittsburgh"  and  the  wooden  gun 
boats  "Conestoga"  and  "Tyler,"  he  engaged  the 
fort  and  water-batteries.  After  a  severe  fight  of 
an  hour  and  a  half,  during  which  the  flag-officer 
was  seriously  wounded,  and  when  he  was  on  the 
point  of  enfilading  the  fort  and  the  enemy's  fire 
had  slackened,  the  "  St.  Louis"  and  "  Louis 
ville"  were  disabled  in  their  steering-gear,  when 
the  vessels  retired  for  the  night.  The  enemy 
were  so  demoralized  they  could  not  be  brought 
into  effective  action  the  next  day,  and  the  fort 
surrendered  to  Gen.  Grant,  commanding  the 
military  forces.  With  the  "  Conestoga"  and 
"Cairo"  Foote  ascended  the  Cumberland,  and 
on  the  19th  seized  Clarksville  and  the  3  forts 
which  defended  the  city  and  river.  On  the  4th 
March  a  force  of  gunboats  convoying  transports 
conveying  troops  moved  upon  Columbus,  on  the 
Mississippi  Kiver.  When  the  national  forces 
arrived  the  forts,  of  unusual  strength,  were  found 
unoccupied.  On  the  14th,  Foote,  with  a  force 
of  10  ironclads  and  10  mortar-boats,  joined,  at 
Columbus,  by  Col.  Buford  with  1500  troops, 
nioved  down  and  took  possession  of  Hickrnan. 
The  next  day,  arriving  in  the  vicinity  of  Island 
No.  10,  the  mortar-vessels  were  placed  in  posi 
tion  and  shelled  out  several  encampments.  A 
siege  of  23  days  followed,  during  which  a  canal 
was  cut  to  admit  the  light  transports  to  reach 
Pope  with  his  army  at  New  Madrid,  below  Isl 
and  No.  10,  and  enable  him  to  cross  to  the  Ten 
nessee  shore.  A  formidable  battery  was  spiked 
and  a  floating  battery  protecting  the  channel 
shelled  out,  to  enable  the  "  Carondolet"  and 
"  Pittsburgh"  to  run  the  blockade,  which  they 
did  at  night  in  a  heavy  thunder-storm  under  a 
terrific  fire  from  47  guns.  Several  batteries, 
erected  to  prevent  Pope's  command  from  cross 
ing,  were  demolished  by  the  2  gunboats,  and  the 
landing  was  effected.  This  accomplished,  the 
enemy  surrendered  Island  No.  10  to  the  com 
mander  of  the  naval  forces.  One  gunboat,  4 
transports,  immense  munitions  of  war,  and  many 
prisoners  fell  into  our  hands  by  this  important 
capture.  Proceeding  to  Fort  Pillow,  Foote  was 
joined  b}T  Pope  and  his  army ;  while  in  the  act 
of  making  a  combined  attack  upon  this  fort  the 
troops  were  ordered  to  Corinth.  Flag-Officer 
Foote,  suffering  from  his  long-neglected  wound, 
on  the  advice  of  the  surgeons  was  relieved  in 
command  of  the  flotilla  by  Capt.  C.  H.  Davis  in 
the  early  part  of  May.  On  the  llth  May  the 
flotilla  was  attacked  near  Fort  Pillow  by  8  of 
the  enemy's  ironclad  steamers,  4  of  them  fitted 
as  rams.  The  action  continued  for  an  hour, 
when  the  enemy  retreated  under  the  guns  of 
Fort  Pillow,  3  of  their  gunboats  having  boon 
disabled.  Shortly  after  the  ram  fleet  under  Col. 
Ellet  joined  Davis,  and  on  the  5th  June  Fort 
Pillow  was  abandoned.  On  the  evening  of  the 
7th  the  fleet  anchored  a  mile  and  a  half  above 
Memphis.  The  next  day  an  attack  was  made 
upon  the  enemy's  gunboats  and  rams  lying  oppo 
site  the  city.  Ellet  with  his  rams  pressed  into 
action  under  full  steam,  the  gunboats  in  the  mean 
time  keeping  up  a  well-directed  fire.  Two  of  the 
enemy's  gunboats  blew  up,  and  the  "  Queen  of 
the  West,"  commanded  by  Col.  Ellet  in  person, 
encountered  the  "  General  Lovell"  and  sunk  her. 
A  running  fight  followed,  resulting  in  the  cap 
ture  or  destruction  of  the  enemy's  entire  fleet,  ex 
cept  the  "  Van  Dorn,"  which  escaped.  Memphis 


NAVY 


563 


NAVY 


was  surrendered  and  taken  military  possession 
of  by  Col.  Fitch. 

On  the  20th  of  July,  Davis,  with  a  part  of  his 
command  and  6  mortar-boats,  joined  Farragut 
above  Vicksburg,  where  the  latter  officer,  with 
some  of  his  squadron,  had  arrived  a  few  days 
before.  The  mortar-vessels  of  both  commands 
bombarded  the  defenses  of  Vicksburg  for  some 
days  from  both  above  and  below.  On  the  18th 
of  July,  in  the  mouth  of  the  Yazoo  Kiver,  a  se 
vere  conflict  occurred  between  the  enemy's  iron 
clad  ram  "Arkansas"  and  the  gunboats  "Caron- 
dolet"  and  "Tyler,"  which  resulted  in  the  escape 
of  the  "Arkansas,"  which  vessel  succeeded  in 
passing  through  the  fleets  of  Farragut  and  Da 
vis  and  finding  refuge  under  the  batteries  of 
Vicksburg.  In  August  a  joint  expedition  up 
the  Yazoo  under  Flag-Officer  Davis  and  Gen. 
Curtis  was  successful ;  a  battery  of  heavy  guns 
and  quantities  of  munitions  of  war  were  captured. 
A  detachment  from  the  squadron  under  Com 
mander  A.  H.  Kilty,  with  the  46th  Indiana 
Regiment  under  Col.  Fitch,  left  Memphis  for 
"White  River  on  June  13  to  form  a  junction 
with  Gen.  Curtis.  On  the  morning  of  the  17th 
an  attack  was  commenced  by  the  gunboats  on 
the  enemy's  fortifications  near  St.  Charles, 
Ark.,  when  Col.  Fitch  landed  to  assault  the 
rear.  The  front  battery  was  carried  by  the  gun 
boats,  and  Fitch  gallantly  charged  the  second 
battery  and  carried  it  without  loss.  A  shot  ex 
ploded  the  steam-drum  of  the  "Mound  City," 
killing  and  wounding  a  large  portion  of  her 
officers  and  crew.  The  "Tyler,"  Lieut.  Com 
manding  Gwinn,  and  "  Lexington,"  Lieut.  Com 
manding  Shirk,  of  the  Western  Flotilla,  preceded 
the  march  of  the  army  southward  on  the  line  of 
the  Tennessee  River,  and  rendered  service  in 
convoying  transports,  clearing  the  banks  of 
batteries,  and  in  frustrating  the  attempts  of  the 
enemy  to  fortify.  At  Shiloh  the  services  of 
these  vessels  were  of  great  value  in  restoring  the 
fortunes  of  the  day.  In  September,  1862,  Flag- 
Officer  Davis  was  relieved  in  command  by  Rear- 
Admiral  David  D.  Porter,  who,  with  his  charac 
teristic  energy,  at  once  began  active  operations 
against  the  enemy.  In  the  month  of  Novem 
ber,  Capt.  H.  Walke,  in  the  "Carondolet,"  com 
manded  an  .expedition  of  ironclads  and  wooden 
gunboats  up  the  Yazoo  River,  during  which 
the  ironclad  "  Cairo"  was  sunk  by  a  torpedo.  A 
few  days  after  Porter  arrived  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Yazoo,  and  led  an  expedition  up  the  river  to  clear 
the  channel  of  torpedoes  and  to  draw  a  portion  of 
the  enemy  from  Vicksburg  to  the  defense  of  the 
river.  By  the  26th  of  December  the  river  was 
cleared  of  all  obstructions  up  to  where  the 
"  Cairo"  was  sunk.  On  the  27th  the  expedition 
arrived  at  a  bend  in  the  river  where  a  line  of 
fortifications  commenced,  and  the  river  was  ob 
structed  by  a  heavily  iron-plated  raft.  While 
the  boats  were  engaged  in  clearing  the  river  the 
flag-ship  "  Benton,"  Lieut.-Commander  Gwinn, 
moved  up  to  cover  them.  She  was  struck  some 
80  times,  and  many  of  her  crew  were  killed  or 
wounded, — among  the  latter  her  commander, 
mortally.  The  other  vessels  handsomely  sup 
ported  the  flag-ship,  two  of  the  guns  in  the 
fort  were  silenced;  the  enemy's  works  could 
only  have  been  captured  by  a  strong  landing- 
party. 

On  the  4th  of  January,  1863,  Gen.  McCler- 


nand  having  requested  the  co-operation  of  Ad 
miral  Porter  in  an  attack  upon  Arkansas  Post, 
the  "Baron  de  Kalb,"  Commander  Walke; 
"Louisville,"  Lieut.  Commanding  Owen;  and 
"Cincinnati,"  Lieut.  Commanding  Bache,  with 
a  number  of  light-draft  vessels,  were  detailed 
for  the  purpose.  Rear-Admiral  Porter,  in  the 
flag-ship  "  Black  Hawk,"  accompanied  the  ex 
pedition.  After  a  battle  of  two  days,  Col.  Dun- 
nington,  the  commander  of  the  fort,  surrendered 
to  the  army  and  navy,  yielding  his  sword  to  Ad 
miral  Porter ;  17  heavy  guns  and  a  large  num 
ber  of  troops  were  captured.  On  the  day  after, 
Commander  Walke,  with  a  force  of  gunboats, 
proceeded  up  White  River.  On  the  14th  the 
town  of  St.  Charles  was  found  evacuated.  At 
Duvall's  Bluff  he  landed  a  party  and  took  pos 
session  of  2  fine  8-inch  guns  and  about  200  stand 
of  arms  and  accoutrements.  At  4.30  A.M.,  Feb 
ruary  2,  the  ram  "Queen  of  the  West,"  Col. 
Charles  E.  Ellet,  ran  the  Vicksburg  batteries, 
with  orders  from  Porter  to  capture  or  destroy  the 
enemy's  transports  between  Vicksburg  and  Port 
Hudson.  Col.  Ellet  arrived  at  the  Red  River,, 
capturing  and  destroying  on  his  way  several  fine 
transports.  The  "  Queen  of  the  West"  then  re 
turned  to  the  vicinity  of  Vicksburg.  A  few 
days  later,  she  steamed  down  and  entered  the 
Red  River.  On  the  13th  of  February,  Lieut. 
Commanding  George  Brown,  in  the  "  Indian- 
ola,"  ran  the  batteries  of  Vicksburg  with  orders 
to  join  the  "  Queen  of  the  West."  Shortly  after 
intelligence  was  received  of  the  destruction  of 
the  "Queen  of  the  West"  in  Red  River,  and 
that  the  "  Indianola"  had  been  sunk  in  the  Mis 
sissippi.  They  had  destroyed  a  large  amount  of 
the  enemy's  property.*  In  March  a  daring  and 
novel  attempt  was  made  by  Porter  to  get  into 
the  rear  of  Vicksburg.  By  ascending  Steel's 
Bayou,  which  is  merely  a  ditch,  he  was  hopeful, 
by  cutting  a  way  through  the  woods  and  widen 
ing  the  channel,  he  could  find  an  entrance  into 
the  Yazoo  River,  and  here  effect  his  object. 
When  Porter  arrived  within  a  short  distance  of 
Rolling  Fork,  he  found  the  channel  impractica 
ble,  and  was  forced  to  return.  The  expedition 
penetrated  into  the  heart  of  the  enemy's  coun 
try  before  being  discovered,  when  large  quanti 
ties  of  cotton  were  destroyed.  An  attempt  was 
made  by  Lieut.-Commander  Watson  Smith,  with 
a  detachment  of  gunboats,  to  secure  control  of 
the  Coldwater,  Tallahatchee,  Yallabusha,  and 
Yazoo  Rivers,  which  would  have  opened  the 
way  to  the  capture  of  Vicksburg,  as  most  of  the 
enemy's  supplies  were  received  through  these 
streams.  Owing  to  the  want  of  troops  to  co 
operate  the  object  of  the  expedition  failed,  al 
though  several  steamers  and  5000  bales  of  cotton 
were  destroyed.  The  "Switzerland"  and  "Lan 
caster,"  in  attempting  to  pass  the  Vicksburg  bat 
teries  to  join  Farragut  at  Port  Hudson,  were 
both  sunk,  and  many  of  their  officers  and  crews 
killed  or  wounded.  *On  the  16th  of  April,  1863, 
the  fleet  led  by  Porter,  who  had  hoisted  his  flag 
on  board  the  "  Benton,"  ran  past  the  Vicksburg 
batteries.  The  vessels  started  in  the  following 
order,  50  yards  apart:  "Benton,"  Lieut.-Com 
mander  Green  ;  "  Lafayette,"  Capt.  Walke, 
with  the  "Gen.  Price"  lashed  on  the  starboard 
side;  "Louisville,"  Lieut.-Commander  Owen; 
"Mound  City,"  Lieut.  Wilson;  "Pittsburgh," 
Acting  Volunteer  Lieut.  Hoel ;  "Carondolet," 


NAVY 


664 


NAVY 


Acting  Lieut.  Murphy;  and  "  Tuscumbia,'' 
Lieut.-Commander  Shirk,  with  9  army  trans- 
ports.  Nearly  all  the  vessels  took  in  tow  barges 
containing  each  10,000  bushels  of  coal,  and  all 
passed  the  batteries  in  safety.  On  the  29th  of 
April,  Porter,  with  most  of  the  armed  vessels 
that  had  passed  the  batteries,  bombarded  for  6 
hours  the  formidable  works  at  Grand  Gulf.  At 
6  P.M.  the  transports  containing  a  detachment  of 
Gen.  Grant's  command  passed  down  under  cover 
of  the  fire.  On  the  3d  of  May,  Porter,  with  4 
ironclads,  proceeded  to  Grand  Gulf  to  attack  the 
forts,  but  found  them  evacuated  ;  before  leaving 
the  enemy  had  destroyed  all  the  ammunition  and 
spiked  the  guns.  Next  to  Vicksburg  this  was 
the  strongest  position  on  the  Mississippi.  Its 
occupation  greatly  facilitated  Grant's  operations 
in  reducing  Vicksburg. 

On  the  29th  April,  Lieut.-Commander  Breeze, 
with  the  "  De  Kalb,"  "  Choctaw,"  and  "  Tyler," 
made  a  feigned  attack  upon  Haines'  Bluff  in  co 
operation  with  a  division  of  the  army  under  Gen. 
Blair,  to  prevent  the  enemy  from  sending  rein 
forcements  to  Grand  Gulf.  The  desired  effect  was 
Accomplished.  In  the  early  part  of  May,  Porter 
proceeded  up  the  Red  River  as  far  as  Alexandria, 
which  he  took  possession  of  and  held  until  Gen. 
Banks  arrived.  On  the  15th  he  crossed  over  to 
Yazoo  River  to  be  ready  to  co-operate  with  Gen. 
Grant.  On  the  18th,  the  firing  in  the  rear  of 
Vicksburg  indicated  the  approach  of  Grant.  The 
cannonading  was  kept  up  furiously  for  some  time, 
when  Porter  discovered  a  company  of  artillery  ad 
vancing,  taking  position,  and  driving  the  enemy 
before  them.  Gen.  Sherman's  division  had  come 
in  to  the  left  of  Snyder's  Bluff,  and  the  enemy 
had  been  cut  off  from  joining  the  forces  in  the 
city.  The  "  De  Kalb,"  "  Choctaw,"  "  Linden," 
"  Romeo,"  "  Petro,"  and  "  Forest  Rose,"  under 
Lieut.-Commander  Breeze,  were  sent  up  the  Ya- 
zoo  to  open  communication  with  Gen.  Grant  and 
Sherman.  This  they  succeeded  in,  and  in  3 
hours  Porter  received  letters  from  Grant,  Sher 
man,  and  Steele,  informing  him  of  their  suc 
cesses,  and  asking  that  provisions  be  sent  up, 
which  was  at  once  done.  In  the  mean  time, 
Walker,  in  the  "  De  Kalb,"  pushed  on  to  Haines' 
Bluff,  which  was  found  evacuated,  and  took  pos 
session  of  the  guns,  tents,  etc.,  which  were  found 
in  good  order.  The  works  were  destroyed. 
Upon  this  being  reported  to  Porter,  he  sent  up  a 
force  of  gunboats  from  below  Vicksburg  to  fire 
at  the  hill  batteries,  which  was  kept  up  for  2  or 
3  hours.  At  midnight  they  moved  up  to  the 
town  and  opened  upon  it  for  an  hour,  and  con 
tinued  at  intervals  during  the  night  to  annoy 
the  garrison.  On  the  19th,  6  mortars  were 
placed  in  position,  with  orders  to  fire  rapidly  day 
and  night.  On  the  evening  of  the  21st,  Porter 
received  a  communication  from  Grant  stating  he 
intended  to  attack  the  whole  of  the  enemy's 
works  at  10  A.M.  the  next  day,  and  asking  the 
admiral  to  shell  the  batteries  from  9.30  P.M. 
until  10.30  A.M.  The  mortars  were  playing 
rapidly  on  the  town  and  works  all  night,  and  the 
"  Benton,"  "Mound  City,"  and  "Carondolet" 
went  up  and  shelled  the  water-batteries  and  other 
places  where  troops  might  find  rest  during  the 
night.  At  7  A.M.  the  "  Mound  City"  proceeded 
across  the  river  and  made  an  attack  on  the  hill 
batteries  opposite  the  canal.  At  8  o'clock,  Por 
ter  joined  her  with  the  "Benton,"  "Tuscum 


bia,"  and  "  Carondolet."  All  the  vessels  opened 
on  the  hill  batteries,  and  finally  silenced  them. 
The  "  Benton,"  "  Mound  City,"  and  "  Carondo 
let"  then  closed  with  the  water-batteries,  leaving 
the  "  Tuscumbia" — out  of  repair — to  keep  the 
hill  batteries  from  firing  on  the  vessels  after  they 
had  passed  by.  The  water-batteries  opened  furi 
ously,  supported  by  a  hill  battery  on  the  star 
board  beam  of  the  vessels.  The  ironclads  ad 
vanced  to  within  280  yards  and  returned  the  fire 
without  cessation,  the  enemy's  fire  being  accu 
rate  a.nd  incessant.  The  vessels  having  been  en 
gaged  an  hour  longer  than  Grant  requested,  and 
all  having  received  shots  under  water  which 
could  not  be  stopped  while  under  way,  withdrew 
in  a  cool  and  handsome  style.  After  dropping 
back  it  was  found  the  enemy  had  taken  posses 
sion  again  of  one  of  the  lower  hill  batteries  and 
was  endeavoring  to  remove  his  guns,  and  had 
mounted  a  12-pounder  field-piece  to  fire  at  Gen. 
McArthur's  troops  that  had  landed  a  short  time 
before.  The  "  Mound  City"  and  "  Carondolet" 
opened  fire  and  drove  them  off  in  a  few  minutes. 
On  May  27,  Porter,  at  the  urgent  request  of 
Grant  and  Sherman,  being  led  to  believe  the 
enemy  had  removed  his  guns  to  the  land  side, 
fitted  the  "  Cincinnati"  for  the  occasion  by  pack 
ing  her  with  logs  and  hay,  and  sent  her  down  to 
shell  some  works  retarding  the  progress  of  the 
army.  At  8.30  the  "  Cincinnati"  left  her  an 
chorage  and  stood  for  the  position  assigned  her. 
The  enemy  fired  rapidly  from  all  their  guns,  in 
cluding  those  which  were  supposed  to  have  been 
removed  to  the  land  side.  The  fire  was  very  ac 
curate,  striking  the  "Cincinnati"  almost  every 
time,  and  passing  entirely  through  her  protection 
of  iron,  hay,  and  wood.  Finding  his  vessel 
would  sink,  Lieut.  Bache  ran  up  stream  as  far 
as  circumstances  would  allow,  ran  his  vessel 
ashore,  and  succeeded  in  saving  his  wounded. 
She  sank  within  range  of  the  enemy's  batteries, 
in  about  3  fathoms'  water.  Her  fire,  until  the 
magazine  was  drowned,  was  effective.  Lieut. 
Bache  received  the  thanks  of  the  Department 
for  his  brilliant  conduct  on  this  occasion.  On 
the  night  of  June  19,  Porter  was  notified  by 
Grant  he  intended  to  open  a  general  bombard 
ment  on  the  city  at  4  A.M.,  and  continue  it  until 
10  o'clock.  Commander  Woodward,,  of  the 
"  General  Price,"  received  orders  from  Porter  to 
move  up  with  the  "  Mound  City"  and  "  Benton" 
and  attack  at  the  specified  time.  Lieut  -Com 
mander  Ramsay  was  given  charge  of  a  100- 
pounder  rifle,  a  10-inch  gun,  and  a  9-inch  gun, 
fitted  on  scows,  and  placed  them  after  midnight 
close  to  the  point  opposite  Vicksburg  protected 
by  the  bank.  At  the  appointed  time  all  the 
shore  batteries  opened  fire,  and  also  the  guns  on 
the  scows  and  mortars.  A  little  later  the  gun 
boats  opened  and  kept  up  a  heavy  fire,  advancing 
all  the  time  and  throwing  shells  into  all  batteries 
along  the  hills  and  near  the  city.  There  was 
no  response, — the  batteries  were  all  deserted.  At 
10  o'clock  the  vessels  and  mortars  ceased  tiring. 

On  the  4th  July,  Vicksburg  surrendered  to 
Gen.  IT.  S.  Grant.  On  the  7th  June,  Porter  learn 
ing  that  a  force  of  the  enemy  of  about  4000  men 
were  about  to  attack  Milliken's  Bend,  where  a 
quantity  of  military  stores  were  kept,  guarded  by 
two  colored  regiments  and  part  of  the  29th  Jowa, 
the  "Choctaw"  and  "Lexington,"  under  Lieut.- 
Commander  Ramsay,  were  dispatched  to  protect 


NAVY 


565 


NAVY 


them.  The  enemy  attacked  before  daylight. 
The  colored  troops  met  the  onset  courageously, 
and  a  company  of  the  Iowa  regiment  stood  their 
ground  until  they  were  slaughtered  to  a  man, 
killing  an  equal  number  of  "the  enemy.  The 
fight  was  desperate,  and  the  troops  overpowered 
were  driven  behind  a  bank  near  the  water's  edge, 
pursued  by  the  enemy.  When  the  gunboats 
opened  on  the  enemy  with  shell,  grape,  and  can 
ister  they  fled  in  wild  confusion.  Upon  the  fall 
of  yicksburg  Porter  received  letters  of  congratu 
lation  from  Sherman  and  the  Navy  Department, 
acknowledging  the  powerful  co-operation  of  the 
navy  under  his  command,  and  its  great  services 
during  this  memorable  campaign.  The  fall  of 
Vicksburg  is  referred  to  by  Sherman  in  his  terse 
style  as  a  "  victory  won  by  the  united  navj'  and 
army  of  our  country."  Porter  was  made  a  full 
rear-admiral,  to  date  from  the  4th  July,  the  day 
Vicksburg  surrendered.  On  the  same  day 
Helena,  Ark.,  was  attacked  by  18,000  of  the 
enemy.  Gen.  Prentice,  the  commander,  defended 
the  place  with  great  skill  and  daring,  but  his 
small  force  of  3500  men  were  fast  being  over 
whelmed,  when  Pritchett,  in  the  gunboat  "Ty 
ler,"  came  to  his  relief  and  changed  the  fortunes 
of  the  day. 

Shortly  after  this  the  "  Baron  de  Kalb," 
"New  National,"  Kenwood,  and  "Signal," 
under  Lieut-Commander  J.  G.  Walker,  were 
sent  to  drive  out  from  Yazoo  City  the  command 
of  Gen.  Johnson,  who  was  fortifying  the  place 
with  heavy  guns  for  the  purpose  of  making  it  a 
depot  for  military  supplies ;  5000  troops  under 
Gen.  Frank  Herron  accompanied  them.  The 
army  and  navy  made  a  combined  attack,  when 
the  enemy  fled,  leaving  everything  in  possession 
of  the  United  States  forces  but  4  of  their  finest 
steamers,  which  they  destroyed.  The  army  pur 
sued  the  enemy,  captured  many  prisoners,  6 
heavy  guns,  and  all  their  munitions  of  war. 
One  vessel,  formerly  a  gunboat,  was  captured 
by  the  navy.  Upon  this  occasion  the  "  De  Kalb" 
was  destroyed  by  a  torpedo.  A  force  of  gun 
boats  under  Lieut.-Commander  Selfridge  was 
sent  about  the  middle  of  July  into  Red  River. 
Many  fine  steamers,  used  by  the  enemy  to  trans 
port  troops,  were  captured.  While  these  opera 
tions  were  in  progress,  the  gunboats  on  the  Ten 
nessee  and  Cumberland  were  actively  engaged. 
But  for  the  energy  and  activity  of  Pennock,  the 
fleet-captain  and  commandant  at  Cairo,  and  of 
Lieut.-Commanders  Phelps  and  Fitch,  the  divis 
ional  commanders  on  these  rivers,  Rosecrans's 
army  would  have  been  without  provisions.  In 
July,  Morgan,  the  famous  guerrilla,  with  his 
command  crossed  the  river  into  Ohio,  and,  hotly 
pursued  by  Gen.  Judah,  endeavored  to  recross. 
Lieut.-Commander  Fitch  intercepted  him  at 
Buffingtori  Island,  where  Morgan  and  his  band 
were  captured  by  the  army  and  naval  forces 
under  Judah  and  Fitch.  In  November,  when 
Porter  heard  of  Sherman's  move  from  Memphis 
for  Corinth,  he  assembled  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Cumberland  and  Tennessee  a  suitable  force  of 
vessels.  Though  the  water  was  low,  Fitch  suc 
ceeded  in  convoying  the  steamers  with  stores,  so 
much  needed  by  the  army.  A  fortunate  rise 
enabled  Phelps  with  his  gunboats  to  ascend  the 
Tennessee  as  far  as  Eastport,  and  a  few  hours 
after  his  arrival  Sherman  reached  luka.  With 
the  aid  of  the  barges  the  troops  were  ferried  over 


in  an  incredibly  short  time  by  the  gunboats,  and 
Sherman  was  thus  enabled  to  bring  his  formid 
able  corps  into  action  before  Chattanooga.  Later 
the  transports  were  convoyed  with  provisions, 
and  the  gunboats  held  Eastport,  thus  protecting 
the  communications  until  Grant  ordered  its 
evacuation  and  the  troops  sent  to  Columbus, 
where  they  arrived  safely  unc^er  convoy  of  a  force 
of  gunboats.  On  the  1st  of  March  a  force  of 
gunboats  was  sent  under  Lieut.-Commander 
Ramsay  up  the  Black  and  Washita  Rivers.  The 
enemy,  2000  strong,  under  Gen.  Polignac,  were 
driven  from  point  to  point,  some  extensive  works 
destroyed,  and  three  heavy  32-pounders  cap 
tured.  On  the  7th  of  March,  Porter  had  assem 
bled  at  the  mouth  of  the  Red  River  a  formidable 
fleet  of  ironclads  and  light-draft  vessels.  The 
fleet  were  joined  at  the  mouth  of  the  Red  River 
by  a  portion  of  Sherman's  army,  in  transports, 
under  Gen.  A.  J.  Smith.  The  joint  forces  moved 
on  the  10th  of  March  to  form  a  junction  with 
Gen.  Banks  at  Alexandria.  On  their  way  some 
of  the  vessels  branched  off  into  the  Atchafalaya. 
The  enemy  were  driven  from  Simmsport  and 
Fort  De  Russy,  the  latter  being  again  captured, 
with  its  guns,  munitions  of  war,  and  a  few  pris 
oners.  Alexandria  was  occupied  by  the  com 
bined  forces  about  the  1st  of  April,  when  they 
commenced  to  move  towards  Shreveport.  Only 
a  part  of  the  naval  force  could  proceed  farther 
than  Alexandria  ;  but  the  assistance  of  the  gun 
boats  was  so  essential  to  success  that  extraordi 
nary  exertions  were  made  to  get  above  the  falls. 
Grand  Ecore  was  reached  and  occupied.  There 
were  indications  of  the  usual  rise  in  the  river, 
and  everything  promised  success,  and  23  heavy 

§uns  had  been  captured  since  entering  the  river, 
pringfield  Landing,  the  next  point  of  junction, 
was  reached  at  the  appointed  time  by  6  gunboats 
and  20  heavy  transports.  Here  they  learned,  of 
Banks's  reverse,  and  that  he  was  falling  back  to 
Pleasant  Hill,  some  distance  below  ;  Porter  was 
thus  compelled  to  turn  back.  On  his  return  he 
was  attacked  at  every  assailable  point,  but  the 
gunboats  fought  their  way  through,  repelling  at 
times  their  assailants  with  terrible  slaughter. 
On  reaching  Grand  Ecore,  he  found  the  vessels 
left  there  still  detained.  Instead  of  rising,  the 
river  had  fallen.  The  army  was  preparing  to 
move  back  upon  Alexandria.  There  was  little 
prospect  of  getting  the  vessels  out.  and  destruc 
tion  seemed  inevitable.  "  Providence,"  as  Por 
ter  says,  "  provided  the  man  for  the  occasion"  in 
Lieut.-Col.  Joseph  Bailey,  acting  engineer  of  the 
19th  Army  Corps,  who  devised  a  plan  for  con 
structing  a  series  of  dams  across  the  rocks  at  the 
falls,  thus  supplying  a  sufficient  depth  of  water 
for  the  needed  want.  The  dams  were  built,  the 
project  was  a  success,  and  the  fleet  was  relieved 
from  its  critical  situation.  Rarely  has  the  genius 
of  man  overcome  such  peril  and  difficulty. 
Bailey  received  the  handsomest  acknowledgments 
from  Congress,  and  he  was  promoted  for  his 
great  services.  A  division  of  vessels  under  Fos 
ter,  while  these  operations  were  in  progress,  pro 
ceeded  up  the  Washita  as  far  as  Monroe,  and 
captured  3000  bales  of  Confederate  cotton  and 
destroyed  much  property.  On  the  25th  of  March 
the  enemy  attacked  Paducah,  and  demanded  its 
immediate  surrender,  threatening  to  give  no 
quarter  if  refused.  The  gunboats  "  Peosta"  and 
"  Paw  Paw,"  and  Fort  Hindman  opened  fire 


NAVY 


566 


NAVY 


upon  them,  and  drove  them  back  with  great  loss. 
Capt.  Pennock,  naval  commander  at  Cairo,  upon 
receiving  information  of  the  attack  on  Paducah, 
at  once  sent  up  additional  vessels,  and  saved 
Columbus,  Ky.,  and  recovered  Fort  Pillow  by 
his  zeal  and  promptness  in  pushing  forward  re 
inforcements.  On  the  1st  of  November,  Rear- 
Admiral  S.  P.  Lee  relieved  Porter  in  command 
of  the  Mississippi  Squadron,  the  latter  after  two 
years  of  arduous,  exhaustive,  and  harassing  ser 
vice,  having  requested  to  be  relieved. 

In  November,  1804,  the  light-draft  vessels 
"Tawah,"  "Key  West,"  and  "Elfin,"  after  a 
severe  engagement  of  several  hours  with  the 
enemy's  batteries  near  Johnsonville,  on  the  Ten 
nessee,  were  burned  to  avoid  capture.  Lieut.- 
Commander  Shirk,  the  division  commander, 
adopted  prompt  measures  to  regain  the  control 
of  the  Tennessee  lost  through  this  cause,  and  in 
a  few  days  was  able  to  report  the  capture  of  sev 
eral  transports  laden  with  the  enemy's  troops. 
On  the  4th  November,  Gen.  Hood  was  driven 
from  Decatur,  Ala.,  in  which  affair  the  gunboat 
"  General  Thomas"  took  a  prominent  part,  re 
ceiving  acknowledgments  from  Gen.  Thomas  for 
her  efficient  services.  On  the  3d  December, 
Lieut.-Commander  Fitch,  commanding  the  tenth 
district  of  the  Mississippi  Squadron,  defeated  and 
drove  from  the  Tennessee  the  left  wing  of  Hood's 
army  under  Gen.  Buford,  with  heavy  loss  to  the 
enemy,  including  several  prominent  officers,  and 
recaptured  two  transports.  Early  in  December 
the  gunboats  "  Vindicator"  and  "  Prairie  Bird" 
co-operated  successfully  with  the  army  in  de 
stroying  the  enemy's  railroad  communications 
in  Mississippi.  The  expedition  also  destroyed 
the  bridge  over  the  Big  Black  River,  and  cap 
tured  a  considerable  amount  of  the  enemy's 
stores. 

Early  in  January,  1865,  Admiral  Lee  was 
enabled  to  report  to  the  Navy  Department  that 
Hood's  army,  completely  demoralized,  were  re 
treating  rapidly  before  the  victorious  force  of 
Gen.  Thomas.  Under  date  of  December  30, 
Gen.  Thomas  wrote  a  complimentary  letter  to 
Admiral  Lee,  in  which  he  says,  "  Your  co-oper 
ation  on  the  Tennessee  has  contributed  largely 
to  the  demoralization  of  Hood's  army.  It  gives 
me  great  pleasure  to  tender  to  you,  your  officers, 
and  men  my  hearty  thanks  for  your  cordial  co 
operation  during  the  last  30  days."  After  the 
battle  of  Nashville,  Gen.  Steedman,  of  Thomas's 
army,  was  sent  to  retake  Decatur.  Lieut.  Moreau 
Forrest  co-operated,  and  the  place,  with  the  ar 
tillery  there,  was  captured.  On  the  23d  April, 
1865,  the  enemy's  ram  "  Webb"  ran  out  of  the 
Red  River  and  continued  on  to  a  point  25  miles 
below  New  Orleans,  where  she  was  intercepted 
by  the  "Richmond,"  and  run  ashore  and  de 
stroyed  by  those  on  board.  In  June,  1865,  the 
enemy's  naval  forces  in  Red  River  surrendered  to 
Lieut.-Commander  Fitzhugh,  of  the  "Ouichita." 

West  India  Squadron. — In  1862  a  force  of 
vessels  was  fitted  out,  placed  under  command 
of  Rear-Admiral  Charles  Wilkes,  and  sent  to 
the  West  Indies,  for  the  purpose  of  breaking 
up  blpckade-running  to  and  from  these  islands  ; 
to  capture  the  piratical  steamers  preying  upon 
the  commerce  of  the  United  States,  and  afford 
protection  to  steamers  engaged  in  the  Califor 
nia  trade.  With  an  insufficient  force  of  un 
suitable  vessels,  Admiral  Wilkes,  through  his 


untiring  energy,  which  he  infused  into  all  under 
his  command,  and  by  his  skillful  arrangements, 
made  many  valuable  captures.  The  "  Sonoma," 
Commander  T.  H.  Stevens,  a  vessel  attached  to 
his  squadron,  while  crossing  the  Bahama  Banks 
from  Cay  Lobos  to  the  Tongue  of  the  Ocean,  dis 
covered  and  chased  the  Confederate  steamer 
"  Florida"  for  34  hours  through  the  Tongue  of 
the  Ocean,  past  Nassau  and  Northwest  Provi 
dence  Channel,  124  miles  to  sea.  This  was  the 
sole  instance,  it  is  believed,  during  their  career 
of  destruction  and  devastation,  in  which  either 
of  these  noted  cruisers,  the  "  Alabama"  or 
"  Florida,"  were  sighted  or  seen  outside  of  a 
harbor.  While  ample  provisions  were  made  by 
the  government  to  establish  and  enforce  the 
blockade  of  our  extensive  coast,  from  the  Capes 
of  Virginia  to  the  Rio  Grande,  and  to  provide 
suitable  vessels  and  means  to  attack  and  operate 
against  the  defenses  of  the  enemy,  the  policy  of 
the  government  in  relation  to  the  "  Alabama" 
and  "  Florida,"  and  vessels  of  a  similar  character, 
was  one  of  absolute  weakness.  With  full  and 
timely  warning  of  the  intent  of  the  Confederate 
government  to  depredate  upon  our  commerce,  no 
suitable  provisions  were  made  for  its  protection. 
Month  after  month,  year  after  year  went  by, 
each  day  bringing  intelligence  of  the  doings  of 
the  Confederate  cruisers  ;  but  no  number  of  fast 
vessels  were  dispatched  in  search  of  them  ;  no 
vessels  built  or  purchased  with  speed  and  long- 
range  guns  as  the  first  essentials  to  overhaul  and 
destroy  them.  A  steamer  of  ordinary  speed  was 
dispatched  to  Europe,  one  to  Asia,  and  two  or 
three  in  some  other  direction,  and  with  these 
weak  and  spasmodic  efforts  the  Navy  Depart 
ment  seemed  content.  Admiral  Wilkes,  after 
continuing  in  command  of  the  West  India  Squad 
ron  for  about  18  months,  was  relieved  by  Rear- 
Admiral  James  L.  Lardner,  and  shortly  after 
the  squadron  was  broken  up. 

Potomac  Flotilla.— Early  in  1861  a  flotilla  was 
organized  and  sent  to  the  Lower  Potomac  to  cut 
off  communication  between  the  enemy  in  Vir 
ginia  and  their  coadjutors  and  sympathizers  on 
the  Maryland  side,  to  prevent  the  erection  of 
batteries  "on  the  Virginia  side,  and  to  give  protec 
tion  to  the  commerce  of  loyal  citizens.  In  the 
heroic  discharge  of  his  duty,  as  previously  no 
ticed,  the  first  commander  of  the  flotilla— Com 
mander  James  H.  Ward — was  killed  at  Matthias 
Point,  on  the  27th  June,  1861.  Capt.  Thomas 
T.  Craven  succeeded  Commander  Ward,  and  re 
mained  in  command  until  relieved,  in  the  fall 
of  1861,  by  Lieut.  R.  H.  Wyman.  During  the 
years  1864-65  Commander  F.  A.  Parker  com 
manded  the  flotilla.  Upon  the  flotilla  devolved 
the  duty  of  patroling  the  Potomac  and  Rappa- 
hannock,  and  on  all  occasions  the  flotilla  actively 
co-operated  in  the  military  movements.  While 
the  army  was  in  the  vicinity  of  Fredericksburg 
the  services  of  the  smaller  steamers  were  of  great 
value.  The  flotilla  was  disbanded  on  the  31st 
July,  1865. 

Vessels  on  Special  Service. — On  the  8th  No 
vember,  1861,  Capt.  Charles  Wilkes,  then  in 
command  of  the  "  San  Jacinto,"  while  cruising 
in  search  of  the  privateer  "Sumter,"  in  the  Ba 
hama  Channel,  took  from  the  English  steamer 
"Trent"  the  Confederate  ambassadors  Mason  and 
Slidell.  The  prisoners  were  retained  and  con 
veyed  to  Fort  Warren,  where  they  were  given  in 


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567 


NAVY 


charge  to  Col.  Dimmick,  in  command  of  that 
fortress.  On  Sunday,  June  19,  1864,  the  "  Kear- 
sarge,"  Capt.  John  A.  Winslow,  after  an  engage 
ment  of  1|  hours,  sunk  the  enemy's  steamer 
"Alabama,"  of  equal  size.  For  particulars  of 
this  memorable  Engagement,  see  biographical  no 
tice  of  Capt.  Winslow.  Capt.  Winslow  was  ad 
vanced  a  grade,  and  his  executive,  Lieut.  James 
S.  Thornton,  who  was  the  executive  of  Farragut's 
Hag-ship,  the  "  Hartford,"  in  the  passage  of  the 
forts  on  the  Mississippi,  was  also  advanced.  His 
splendid  and  skillful  handling  of  the  "  Kear- 
sarge"  in  her  fight  with  the  "Alabama"  deserved 
and  received  high  praise.  Thornton  was  always 
distinguished  for  high  professional  acquirements 
and  dauntless  courage.  On  the  7th  October,  1864, 
the  "Wachusett,"  Commander  N.  B.  Collins, 
captured  in  the  Bay  of  San  Salvador,  Brazil, 
the  enemy's  privateer  "Florida."  In  May,  1865, 
after  the  fall  of  Richmond  and  the  collapse  of 
the  Rebellion,  the  Spanish  authorities  of  Cuba 
delivered  the  ironclad  "  Stonewall,"  lately  a 
Confederate  vessel,  to  the  United  States. 

During  the  war  of  the  Rebellion  4647  men  and 
officers  were  killed.  The  number  of  vessels  cap 
tured  was  1149  of  all  kinds,  including  139  small 
boats  ;  the  number  sunk,  wrecked,  and  other 
wise  destroyed  was  355,  including  96  boats, 
making  a  total  of  1504,— amounting  to  $31,500,- 
000, — much  of  which  was  British  property  en 
gaged  in  unneutral  commerce.  Nearly  ail  the 
captures  of  value  were  vessels  built  in  the 
so-called  neutral  ports,  and  fitted  out  in  the 
ports  of  the  governments  with  which  we  had 
treaties  and  were  on  friendly  terms,  and  who 
had  pledged  themselves  to  a  strict  neutrality. 
Three  hundred  and  twenty-two  naval  ofiicers 
threw  up  their  commissions  at  the  breaking 
out  of  the  Rebellion  and  their  places  were  filled 
by  volunteer  officers,  many  proving  worthy  of 
the  trust  reposed  in  them ;  and  the  additional 
want  of  officers  required  by  the  war  was  supplied 
from  this  source.  The  navy  contained  at  the 
close  of  the  war  51,500  seamen,  and  7500  officers, 
of  all  grades  ;  6880  artisans,  of  ell  kinds,  were 
employed  at  the  different  naval  stations ;  208 
steamers  were  built  during  the  war  (since  the  4th 
of  March,  1861) ;  481  vessels  were  purchased,  of 
which  313  were  steamers,  at  a  cost  of  $18.366,681 ; 
of  these  340  have  been  sold  for  $5,621,800.  By 
the  Geneva  award  England  paid  to  the  U.  S. 
government  $15,000,000  for  depredations  com 
mitted  upon  our  commerce  by  Confederate  crui 
sers  fitted  out  in  its  ports.  On  the  19th  of  June, 
1868,  the  sloop-of-war  "Sacramento,"  Capt.  N. 
B.  Collins,  was  wrecked  on  the  reefs  off  the 
mouth  of  the  Kathapalem,  a  branch  of  the  Go- 
davery  River,  in  the  Bay  of  Bengal.  No  lives 
were  lost.  In  the  autumn  of  1866  intelligence  was 
received  that  the  American  schooner  "  General 
Sherman"  had  been  wrecked  in  the  Ping- Yang 
River,  Corea.  and  her  officers,  passengers,  and 
crew  murdered.  The  "  Wachusett,"  Commander 
R.  W.  Shufeldt,  on  the  23d  of  January,  1867,  was 
dispatched  to  investigate  the  circumstances,  and 
to  demand  of  the  authorities  the  survivors,  if  any. 
No  satisfactory  answers  were  given  to  Com 
mander  Shufeldt.  Information  having  been 
received  of  the  wreck  of  the  American  bark 
"  Rover"  on  the  southeast  end  of  the  island  of 
Formosa,  and  of  the  murder  of  all  on  board, 
Commander  Febiger,  in  the  "Ashuelot,"  pro 


ceeded  to  the  locality  to  gather  what  information 
he  could  in  reference  to  the  affair,  and  to  rescue 
the  survivors,  if  any.  He  arrived  in  April,  1867, 
and  required  of  the  three  different  authorities  an 
immediate  investigation  of  the  outrage.  They 
claimed  to  be  unable  to  bring  to  justice  the  per 
petrators  of  the  crime,  who  belonged  to  a  horde 
of  savages  not  obedient  to  their  laws.  Com 
mander  Febiger,  with  his  limited  force,  deemed 
it  unadvisable  to  resort  to  hostilities.  Admiral 
Bell,  in  the  "  Hartford,"  with  the  "  Wyoming," 
left  Shanghai  in  the  month  of  June  for  the  pur 
pose  of  destroying,  if  possible,  the  lurking-places 
of  the  savages  who  had  murdered  the  crew  of  the 
"Rover."  Arriving  at  the  locality,  a  force  of  181 
officers,  sailors,  and  marines,  under  Commander 
G.  E!  Belknap,  accompanied  by  Lieut.-Com- 
mander  A.  S.  Mackenzie,  as  second  in  command, 
— this  officer  having  earnestly  sought  to  go  with 
the  expedition, — they  found  the  savages  well 
armed  and  equal  in  courage  to  our  North  Amer 
ican  Indians,  who  delivered  their  fire  without 
being  seen ;  owing  to  the  high  grass  our  men, 
in  charging  their  coverts,  fell  into  ambuscades. 
Upon  one  of  these  occasions  the  gifted,  prom 
ising,  and  gallant  Mackenzie  was  mortally 
wounded,  and  died  before  reaching  the  ship, 
lamented  by  all  who  knew  him.  Finding  the 
inutility  of  further  contending  against  a  wily  and 
brave  horde  of  savages  with  men  untrained  to 
warfare  of  such  a  character,  Belknap,  about  2 
P.M.,  wisely  concluded  to  re-embark. 

On  the  1st  January,  1868,  Osaka  and  Hiogo, 
Japan,  were  quietly  opened  to  foreigners.  The 
harmony  that  prevailed  on  the  opening  of  these 
ports  was  of  short  duration.  Those  opposed  on 
the  part  of  the  Japanese  broke  out  into  open  re 
volt.  On  the  27th  January  the  contending  par 
ties  came  in  conflict  at  Osaka.  The  tycoon,  who 
was  defeated,  and  who  favored  the  extension  of 
commercial  intercourse,  during  the  night  of  Jan 
uary  31,  with  some  of  his  adherents,  sought  shel 
ter  on  board  the  "  Iroquois,"  and  remained  until 
morning,  when  the  party  went  on  board  one  of 
their  war-vessels.  On  the  4th  February,  1868, 
an  assault  was  made  by  some  Japanese  troops  at 
Hiogo  on  the  foreign  residents,  during  which  one 
of  the  "  Oneida's"  crew  was  seriously  wounded. 
All  the  foreign  naval  forces  present  united  to 
protect  the  foreign  settlement.  On  the  8th  Feb 
ruary  a  change  of  government  occurred,  when 
assurances  were  given  to  the  U.  S.  legation  that 
foreigners  would  be  respected.  The  Japanese 
officer  who  ordered  his  troops  to  fire  on  the  for 
eigners  was  executed  in  presence  of  a  number  of 
our  naval  officers,  and  of  those  of  other  nation 
alities.  In  April,  1868,  Commander  Febiger 
was  again  sent  to  the  Corea  to  rescue,  if  possible, 
the  crew  and  passengers  of  the  "General  Sher 
man,"  but  on  his  arrival  learned  that  none  were 
alive.  During  the  year  1868  the  "  Waterree" 
and  "  Fredonia"  were  destroyed  by  earthquakes 
on  the  western  coast  of  South  America.  Twenty- 
seven  officers  and  men  were  drowned  on  the 
"  Fredonia."  On  the  morning  of  the  29th  Oc 
tober  the  "Saginaw,"  Commander  M.  Sicard, 
was  wrecked  on  Ocean  Island,  in  the  Pacific  Ocean. 
Officers  and  crew  were  saved  through  valuable 
assistance  sent  by  the  Hawaiian  government, 
and  a  vessel  sent  by  our  commissioner,  Mr. 
Pierce.  Immediately  after  the  disaster,  Lieut. 
John  G.  Talbot  ana1  5  others  volunteered  to 


NAVY 


568 


NAVY 


make  the  hazardous  voyage  to  Honolulu,  Sand 
wich  Islands,  a  distance  of  1500  miles,  in  a 
small  boat  to  seek  assistance.  After  a  voyage 
of  31  days,  during  which  they  encountered  ter 
rible  difficulties  and  dangers,  and  endured  great 
suffering,  they  arrived  on  the  19th  of  Decem 
ber  off'  Kanai,  Sandwich  Islands.  They  had 
previously  lost  their  oars  in  a  storm,  and  .in 
attempting  to  land  the  boat  capsized,  and  Lieut. 
Talbot  and  3  others,  already  greatly  debilitated, 
were  drowned.  William  Halford,  who  alone 
survived,  delivered  Capt.  Sicard's  dispatches, 
upon  the  receipt  of  which  the  relief  was  at 
once  dispatched.  During  the  year  1871,  Com 
mander  R.  W.  Shufeldt  sent  to  the  Department 
his  report  of  and  accompanying  maps  of  the 
survey  by  the  party  under  his  command  of  the 
Tehuantepec  route  for  a  ship-canal.  The  survey 
for  the  Darien  canal  has  been  successfully  com 
pleted  by  a  party  under  Commander  T.  O.  Sel- 
fridge,  despite  the  great  difficulties  encountered 
in  making  way  through  the  dense  and  almost 
impenetrable  wilderness.  He  found  the  Atrato 
Kiver,  which  he  ascended  150  miles,  navigable 
for  vessels  of  the  largest  class  the  whole  distance, 
with  a  width  of  1500  feet  and  a  depth  of  30  feet. 
He  reported  that  the  actual  length  of  the  canal  will 
be  31^  miles.  Our  government  sent  the  "  Worces 
ter,"  "  Supply,"  and  "  Relief"  to  Europe  with 
supplies  for  the  sufferers  of  the  European  war  then 
raging.  Our  minister  to  China  having  been  in 
structed  to  arrange  a  convention  for  the  protec 
tion  of  sailors  and  others  shipwrecked  on  the 
Corean  coast,  Rear-Admiral  John  Rodgers,  with 
the  "  Colorado,"  "  Alaska,"  "  Monocacy,"  "  Be- 
nicia,"  and  "  Palos,"  proceeded  to  Bois  anchor 
age,  Corea,  for  that  purpose,  accompanied  by  our 
minister  to  China.  Upon  the  arrival  of  the  fleet, 
and  after  communications  and  visits  from  the 
local  authorities,  a  surveying  party  was  sent  out 
to  pass  up  the  channel  past  the  Corean  forts. 
After  being  allowed  to  pass,  the  boats  on  their 
return  were  treacherously  fired  upon.  The  small 
vessels  accompanying  the  party  hurried  into  ac 
tion,  drove  the  Coreans  from  their  works,  and 
succeeded  in  rescuing  them,  with  2  men  wounded. 
An  explanation  was  immediately  demanded.  At 
the  end  of  10  days  none  being  offered,  on  the  9th 
and  10th  June  an  attack  was  made  upon  the 
Coreans,  5  of  their  forts  were  captured  and  de 
stroyed,  50  battle-flags  and  481  pieces  of  artil 
lery  were  taken.  Our  losses  were  3  killed  and  10 
wounded,  among  the  former  being  Lieut.  Hugh 
W.  McKee,  a  dashing  and  courageous  officer. 
Finding  it  impossible  to  conclude  a  peaceful 
treaty,  the  expedition  left.  In  the  year  1872, 
Commander  R.  W.  Meade,  in  the  "  Narragan- 
sett,"  concluded  a  verbal  treaty  of  peace  and 
amity  with  the  native  chiefs  of  the  Navigator 
Islands. 

On  the  18th  June,  1875,  the  "  Saranac,"  while 
proceeding  to  Sitka,  in  passing  through  the  Sey 
mour  Narrows,  was  caught  in  a  whirlpool  and 
thrown  on  a  sunken  rock,  and  so  badly  injured  as 
to  sink  in  deep  water  soon  after.  On  this  occa 
sion  valuable  assistance  was  rendered  by  direc 
tion  of  the  officer  commanding  the  English  naval 
forces.  Preparations  for  observing  the  transit  of 
Venus  having  commenced  in  December,  1874,  the 
expedition  sailed  during  1875,  and  the  results  of 
the  observations  were  forwarded  to  the  Depart 
ment.  Two  expeditions  were  sent  out  this  year 


to  complete  the  surveys  for  a  canal  route  across 
the  Darien  Isthmus  :  one,  under  Lieut.  Fred 
erick  Collins,  to  survey  the  Napipi  route ;  the 
other,  under  Commander  E.  P.  Lull,  to  make  a 
survey  near  the  line  of  the  Panama  Railroad. 
During  the  past  eight  years  no  less  than  seven 
surveys,  with  a  view  to  ascertain  the  most  prac 
ticable  route  for  a  ship-canal  to  connect  the  At 
lantic  and  Pacific  Oceans,  have  been  made ;  three 
of  these  have  already  been  noticed.  In  addition, 
a  route  has  been  surveyed  between  the  Chepo 
River  and  the  Bluff  of  San  Bias  ;  another  in 
the  vicinity  of  Caledonia  Bay ;  also,  a  route  by 
the  way  of  the  Tayra  River  and  the  valley  of 
the  Atrato.  An  instrumental  survey  was  also 
made  and  a  route  located  via  Urana  River,  the 
mouth  of  the  Atrato  River,  and  by  way  of  the 
Napipi  River  to  the  Pacific.  These  surveys  have 
been  performed  with  great  zeal,  skill,  arid  self- 
devotion,  several  of  the  distinguished  officers 
employed  having  been  seriously  injured  in  health 
by  protracted  exposure  in  a  sickly  and  pestilen 
tial  climate.  Much  has  been  accomplished  in 
the  direction  of  deep-sea  soundings.  Commander 
E.G.  Belknap,  in  the  "Tuscarora,"  upon  two 
successive  cruises,  ran  lines  of  soundings  in  the 
Pacific,  between  California,  the  Sandwich  Isl 
ands,  and  Japan,  with  a  view  of  laying  telegraph- 
cables  between  those  countries.  The  soundings 
were  taken  by  means  of  an  apparatus  the  genius 
of  Belknap  had  devised,  and  the  merits  of  which 
have  been  acknowledged  and  have  received  the 
highest  commendation  at  home  and  abroad  ;  483 
soundings  were  taken  on  the  first  cruise;  on  the 
second  107  were  made.  He  was  assisted  by  Com 
mander  J.  N.  Miller.  Deep-sea  soundings  have 
also  been  made  between  St.  Thomas,  West  In 
dies,  and  Cape  Henry,  by  way  of  Bermuda,  in 
the  "Gettysburg."  During  the  year  1879  the 
"Tuscarora,"  Commander ^J.  W.  Philip,  was 
engaged  in  important  surveys  in  the  Pacific  ; 
Commander  T.  O.  Selfridge  in  surveying  the 
river  Amazon,  etc. ;  and  Lieut.-Commanders 
F.  M.  Green  and  C.  H.  Davis  were  engaged  in 
completing  the  work  of  telegraphically  deter 
mining  the  longitudes  of  the  east  coast  of  South 
America,  A  complete  chain  of  telegraphic 
measurements  has  been  made  with  great  exact 
ness  for  the  first  time  from  Greenwich  to  Buenos 
Ayres,  establishing  precisely  the  geographical 
positions  of  Lisbon,  Madeira,  Porto  Grande, 
Pernambuco,  Bahia,  Rio  Janeiro,  Montevideo, 
Buenos  Ayres,  and  Para,  and  surveys  and  ex 
plorations  in  the  interest  of  commerce  have  been 
made  by  several  vessels  of  the  navy  cruising  in 
different  portions  of  the  world. 

For  the  facts  and  incidents  connected  with 
this  summary  of  the  achievements  of  the  navy 
acknowledgment  is  made  to  Cooper's  "  Naval 
History,"  the  "History  of  the  Rebellion"  em 
braced  in  Hamersly's  first  edition  of  the  "Rec 
ords  of  Living  Officers  of  the  Navy,"  and  Far- 
ragut's  life  by  his  son,  all  of  which  have  been 
accepted  as  authority.  To  the  part  the  navy 
has  taken  in  the  various  expeditions  in  the  in 
terest  of  science  and  commerce  only  allusion 
has  been  made,  as  they  form  subjects  for  separate 
articles  in  this  work.  So  also  in  regard  to  the 
Naval  Academy,  the  Torpedo  School,  Ordnance 
Instruction,  Experiments,  and  kindred  subjects. 
Of  the  present  condition  of  the  navy  little  can  be 
said.  Since  the  close  of  the  war  of  the  Rebellion 


NAVY 


569 


NAVY 


nothing  has  been  done  by  the  government  in  re 
lation  to  the  contest  which  has  been  going  on 
between  ordnance  and  armor.  Our  policy  seems 
wise  in  waiting  for  the  final  determination  of 
the  question  before  building  heavily-armored 
vessels.  In  regard  to  ordnance  the  conditions 
are  changed ;  and  it  is  a  lamentable  fact,  we 
have  not  in  service  a  gun  of  sufficient  power  to 
penetrate  the  plating  of  even  a  moderately  arm 
ored  vessel,  and,  saving  some  converted  guns  and 
howitzers,  not  a  breech-loader.  It  is  to  be  hoped 
that  Congress  will  speedily  make  appropriations 
to  supply  guns  of  the  most  approved  type  and 
construction  for  our  vessels  of  war,  to  place  us 
upon  an  approximate  equality  with  other  mari 
time  powers.  Time  was  when  our  ships  of  war 
attracted  admiration  wherever  they  floated,  and 
filled  with  just  pride  the  American  heart.  Pre 
eminent  in  their  day  were  the  famous  "  Old 
Ironsides"  and  the  "United  States";  then  the 
line-of-battle  ships  "Ohio"  and  "Pennsylva 
nia"  ;  later  the  sloops-of-war  "  Portsmouth"  and 
"Plymouth";  and  more  recently  the  "Colo 
rado,"  "  Wabash,"  and  "Minnesota,"  magnifi 
cent  steam-frigates,  full  of  power  and  grace  and 
beauty.  In  their  day  and  generation  these  were 
the  nrodel  ships  of  the  world,  and  the  United 
States  in  this  regard  the  leading  naval  power. 
How  hard  to  realize  this  when  we  are  so  poor  in 
ships  to-day  as  to  be  compelled  to  send  an  ad 
miral  to  represent  the  power  and  majesty  of  a 
nation  of  50,000,000  of  people,  and  to  command 
a  foreign  squadron  composed  of  two  small  ves 
sels,  with  one  of  these  corvettes  for  his  flag-ship, 
and  with  half  her  captain's  cabin  for  his  accom 
modation  ! — Thomas  H.  Stevens,  Rear-Admiral 
U.S.N. 

NAVY,  VOLUNTEER. — On  account  of  the  emer 
gency  created  by  the  great  Rebellion  of  1861,  a 
large  increase  in  the  number  of  officers  of  the 
navy  became  absolutely  necessary.  The  number 
of  vessels  in  the  navy,  of  all  kinds,  on  March  4, 
1861,  was  76  ;  the  number  purchased  during  that 
year  was  138,  and  the  number  constructed  52, 
making  the  total  number  of  vessels  in  the  navy, 
in  December,  1861,  264,  or  188  more  than  March 
4,  1861 ;  and  the  number  of  enlisted  men  was  in 
creased  during  the  same  period  from  7600  to 
22,000.  This  great  increase  of  vessels  and  men 
required  more  officers  than  the  navy  at  that 
period,  weakened  by  the  withdrawal  of  many 
officers  of  all  grades  to  engage  in  the  Rebellion, 
could  furnish  ;  hence  the  Secretary  of  the  Navy, 
early  in  1861,  determined  to  appoint  acting  offi 
cers,  or,  as  they  were  called,  to  distinguish  them 
from  regulars,  volunteer  officers.  There  were 
several  sources  from  which  this  required  supply 
of  officers  could  be  obtained  :  1st,  the  officers  who 
had,  during  time  of  peace,  resigned;  2d,  acting 
midshipmen  who  had  resigned,  before  gradua 
tion,  from  the  naval  school ;  3d,  those  persons 
who  had  formerly  served  in  the  navy  as  petty 
officers  and  enlisted  men;  4th,  pilots  and  men 
employed  in  the  Western  rivers;  and,  5th, 
and  by  far  the  most  prolific,  the  commercial 
marine.  Those  appointed  from  the  commercial 
marine,  while  being  good  seamen,  were  not  pro 
ficient  in  gunnery,  and,  besides,  they  lacked  the 
advantages  of  naval  training ;  therefore,  they 
were  generally  ordered  first  for  ordnance  in 
struction  and  the  requisite  and  proper  training. 
Notwithstanding  the  stringent  regulations  for 


discipline  peculiar  to  the  navy,  the  military 
bearing  and  address  required,  and  the  disad 
vantages  before  referred  to,  the  good  services 
and  record  of  these  officers  are  attested  not 
only  by  the  large  number  of  promotions,  after 
examination,  but  by  many  promotions  for  gal 
lantry  in  battle  and  for  faithful  service,  and  by 
the  fact  that  after  the  close  of  the  Rebellion  4500 
were  honorably  discharged  with  the  thanks  of 
the  Department,  and  many  were  admitted,  after 
examination,  to  the  regular  navy  and  to  the  ma 
rine  corps. 

During  the  year  1861  there  were  appointed  23 
acting  lieutenants,  29  acting  volunteer  lieuten 
ants,  562  acting  masters,  about  300  master's 
mates,  88  acting  assistant  surgeons,  93  acting 
assistant  paymasters,  240_engineers,  and  340  offi 
cers  of  all  grades  in  the  Mississippi  Squadron 
(those  in  the  Mississippi  Squadron  were  mostly 
appointed  early  in  the  year  1862),  a  total  of  about 
1700.  The  acting  lieutenants  were  officers  who 
had  formerly  served  in  the  navy  ;  the  acting  vol 
unteer  lieutenants  had  not  previously  served  in  the 
navy,  at  least  not  as  commissioned  officers.  Mas 
ter's  mates  having  been,  in  many  cases,  appointed 
by  commanding  officers  of  navy-yards,  squad 
rons,  and  vessels,  under  general  authority  from 
the  Secretary  of  the  Navy,  considerable  trouble 
is  experienced  in  arriving  at  the  precise  number 
in  that  grade,  but  300  is  doubtless  a  fair  ap 
proximation. 

Between  March  4,  1861,  and  July  24  of  that 
year,  all  acting  appointments  were  made  as  a 
"military  necessity,"  without  direct  authoriza 
tion  of  law,  but  the  act  of  July  24  provided  that 
the  "  temporary  appointments  made,  or  which 
may  be  made,  by  the  Secretary  of  the  Navy  of 
acting  lieutenants,  acting  paymasters,  acting 
assistant  surgeons,  acting  masters  and  master's 
mates  are  ratified  and  confirmed  as  teniporary 
acting  appointments  until  the  return  of  the  ves^ 
sels  in  which  they  are  respectively  employed,  or 
until  the  suppression  of  the  present  insurrection, 
as  maybe  deemed  necessary."  In  July,  1862, 
the  Secretary  of  the  Navy  began  appointing  act 
ing  ensigns,  and  the  act  of  March  3,  1863,  legal 
ized  the  appointments. 

As  the  rank  of  all  the  acting  officers  (except 
master's  mates)  corresponded  with  that  of  regular 
officers  of  like  grade,  their  pay  was  made  the 
same.  By  the  act  of  May  17,  1864,  the  appoint 
ments  of  acting  commanders  and  acting  lieuten 
ant-commanders  were  authorized,  and  by  the  act 
of  March  3,  1865,  the  appointments  of  acting 
passed  assistant  surgeons ;  and  the  same  act  di 
rected  that  master's  mates  (or  acting  master's 
mates)  should  be  styled  mates,  and  also  provided 
that  mates  could  be  rated  from  seamen  and  or 
dinary  seamen,  such  rating  not  to  discharge  them 
from  their  enlistment.  The  rating  of  enlisted 
men  as  mates  had,  however,  been  previously  au 
thorized  by  the  Secretary  of  the  Navy  under  the 
Department  circular  of  October  7,  1863. 

It  is  entirely  impracticable  to  give  anything 
like  a  fair  and  correct  history  of  the  individual 
services  of  these  officers  of  the  volunteer  navy  ; 
indeed,  such  history  would  necessarily  be  incom 
plete,  and  there  would,  doubtless,  be  "invidious 
distinctions."  Many  acts  of  personal  prowess 
were  not  specially  reported,  and,  in  the  hurry  and 
confusion  incident  to  the  times,  the  gallantry  and 
meritorious  services  of  not  a  few  were  uninten- 


NAVY 


570 


NAVY 


tionally  overlooked,  or  not  properly  recognized 
and  rewarded.     In  the  second  year  of  the  war 
(July  16,  1862)  it  was  enacted  that  any  person 
who  shall  have  received,  or  shall  hereafter  re 
ceive,  a  temporary  appointment  as  acting  volun 
teer  lieutenant,  or  acting  master,   in  the  navy 
from  civil  life,  may  be  confirmed  in  said  appoint 
ment  in  the  navy,  and  placed  in  line  of  promo 
tion  from  the  date  of  said  confirmation,  if,  upon 
the   recommendation   of  the   President,   he  re 
ceives  the  thanks  of  Congress  for  highly  merito 
rious  conduct  in  conflict  with  the  enemy.     Al 
though  no  promotions  were  specially  made  under 
this  act,  there  were  many  made  for  gallant  and 
meritorious  conduct,  and  at  the  close  of  the  war 
a  board  was  organized  (act  of  July  25,  1866)  for 
the  examination  of  candidates  from  the  volunteer 
for  admission  to  the  regular  naval  service.    Any 
line-officer  who  had  served  two  or  more  years  in 
the  volunteer  service  was  allowed  to  appear  before 
the  board.    The  number  of  candidates  summoned 
to  appear  before  the  board  was  426,  the  number 
appearing  was  305,  and  the  number  found  physi 
cally,  mentally,  and  professionally  qualified  was 
64.    The  names  of  those  thus  found  qualified,  and 
also  the  names  of  those  officers  who  held  the  rank 
of  acting  lieutenant  and  acting  volunteer  lieu 
tenant-commander,  are  hereinafter  given,  as  well 
as  the  names  of  those,  of  all  grades,  who  were 
transferred  from  the  volunteer  to  regular  service, 
or  to  the  marine  corps. 

Found  Qualified  for  Admission  into  the  Regular 
Service. 

Found  Qualified  for  Admission  into  the  Regular 
Service.  —  Continued. 

Name. 

Rank  for 
which  found 
Qualified. 

Remarks. 

Charles  A.  Schetky... 
John  K  Winn 

Master  

In   service,   as  lieutenant- 
commander. 
In   service,  as  lieutenant- 
commander. 
In  service,  as  lieutenant- 
commander. 
In  service,  as   lieutenant- 
commander. 
In   service,   as   lieutenant- 
commander. 
In  service,  as   lientenant- 
commander. 
Retired  list  (as  lieutenant), 
October  31,  1879. 
Resigned  (as  ensign  \  1868. 
Died  (as  ensign),  March  23, 
1868. 
Retired    list    (as    ensign), 
February  14,  1874. 
In  service,  as  lieutenant. 

Died  (as  lieutenant)    June 
1,  1879. 
Died    (as    lieutenant)    De 
cember  1,  1872. 
In  service,  as  lieutenant. 

Died  (as   lieutenant)  July 
'20,  1874. 
In  service,  as  lieutenant. 

Resigned  (as   ensign)    Sep 
tember  11,1868. 
Died  (as    lieutenant)  July 
6,  1874. 
In  service,  as  lieutenant. 
Did  not  accept. 
Died   (as  lieutenant)   July 
29,  1870. 
In  service,  as  lieutenant. 

u                   « 

((                                    U 

Declined  appointment. 
Retired  list  (as  lieutenant), 
December  2,  1876. 
In  service,  as  lieutenant. 

"                   " 

Retired    list    (as    master), 
May  23,  1870. 
In  service,  as  lieutenant. 
Lost  (as  master)  in  "Onei- 
da,"  January  24,  1870. 
In  service,  as  lieutenant. 

Resigned  (as  ensign)  April 
4,  1869. 

Thomas  M.  Gardner- 
Charles  H.  Rockwell. 
Charles  M.  Anthony.. 
James  M.  Forsyth  
George  F  Wilkins 

„ 

u 

if 

H.  Walton  Grinnell... 
Nicholas  B.  Willetts.. 

Gilbert  Morton 

Ensign  

William  P.  Randall- 
George  B.  Livingston. 

<4 

F  Aug  Mil  lei- 

<< 

William  H   Mayer 

<< 

Henry  G  Macy 

J 

Oscar  W.  Farenholt... 
William  B.  Newman. 
Andrew  J.  Iveison.... 
William  T  Buck 

M 

« 

M 

Edward  T.  Strong  
William  J.  Dumout... 

William  H.  Brice  

u     

Name. 

Rank  for 
which  found 
Qualified. 

Remarks. 

William  H  Webb 

M 

Charles  S.  Coy  

u 

Ezra  Leonard 

u 

David  G.  McRitchie... 
Zera  L.  Tanner  

«( 

N  Mayo  Dyer 

Lieutenant... 

M 

«< 

... 

Master  

({ 

In  service,   as  lieutenant- 
commauder. 
In  service,   as   lieutenant- 
commander. 
In  service,  as  lieutenant- 
commander. 
In  service,  as  lieutenant- 
commander. 
Lost    (as    lieutenant-com 
mander)   in   the   "  Onei- 
da,"  January  24,  1870. 
Did  not  accept  appointment. 
In  service,  as   lieutenant- 
commander. 
In  service,  as  lieutenant- 
commiuider. 
In  service,  as  lieutenant- 
commander 
Dismissed    (as    lieutenant- 
commander)  February  4, 
1879. 
In  service,  as  lieutenant- 
commander. 
In  service,   as  lieutenant- 
commaucjer. 
Died    (as     lieutenant-com 
mander)    September    28, 
1875. 
Died    (as    lieutenant-com 
mander)     November    7, 
1874. 
In   service,  as  lieuteJiant- 
comrnander. 
Retired  list  (as  lientenailt- 
commander),    November 
3,  1877. 
In  service,  as   lieutenant- 
commander. 
lu  service,  as  lieutenant- 
commander. 
In  service,  as   lieutenant- 
commander. 

Francis  M.  Green  
Edward  Hooker  
Henry  H.  Gorringe... 
Alonzo  W.  Muldaur... 

Joseph  S  Cony  

Joseph  E.  Jones  
William  Welch  . 

M   

Samuel  Belden 

K 

James  H.  Stimpson... 
Henry  R  Baker 

a 

H 

Eugene  W  Watson 

„ 

John  F  Merry 

u 

William  W.  Rhoades 
John  C.  Morons;  
William  C.  Gibson  
William  B.  Arrants... 

Thomas  G.  Grove  ..  .. 

«  :::::::: 

Charles  O'Neil  
Edward  S.  Keyser  
Thomas  Nelson  

Walter  Sargent 

u 

De  Witt  C  Kells 

William  A.  Morgan... 

William  L.  Howorth. 

Felix  McCurley  
John  McGowan  
Gerhard  C.  Schulze... 

Edwin  H.  Miller  

(C 

H 

Officers  holding  Appointment  as  Acting  Lieutenant. 

When  Ap- 
Name-                   pointed 

How  and  when  left  Volun 
teer  Service. 

Henry  C.  Nields  
Thomas  F  Wade 

(( 

„ 

Thomas  F.  Wade...  M 

James  Parker  
E.  Y.  McCauley  .... 
John  S.  Barnes  
j  g  Neville  

ay  8,  1861. 

"      8,  1861. 
"    11,1861. 
"    13,  1861. 
"     13,1861. 
"    13,  1861. 
"     13,  1861. 
"     13,  1861. 

Appointment  revoked  Oc 
tober    2,   1861,   and    ap 
pointed  an  acting  volun 
teer  lieutenant. 
Trans,  to  regular  service. 

u                         u 
Appt,  revoked  Nov.  12,  1861. 
Trans  to  regular  service. 
Resign.  Dec.  12,1861  (sick). 
Trans,  to  regular  service. 

James  G.  Green  
George  E.  Wingate... 
George  R.  Durand  

• 

J.  N.  Quackenbush 
J.  P.  K.  Mygatt  
R.  T.  Renshaw  

NAVY 


671 


NAVY 


Officers  holding  Appointment  as  Acting  Lieutenant. 
—  Continued. 

George  S.  Culbreth,  Fredk.  M.  Dearborne,  Henry 
A.   Dauker,   Isaiah   Dewling,  J.  Milton    Flint, 

George  S.  Fife,  Leslie  D.  Frost,  Edward  Froth- 

Name. 

When  Ap 
pointed. 

How  and  when  left  Volun 
teer  Service. 

ingham,    Charles   L.    Green,   James    N.   Hyde, 
William  H.  Jones,  William  T.  Kemp,  Fredk. 

Krecker,  Jerome   H.  Kidder,  Grenville   B.  Le 

Compte,  William  V.  Marmion,  Ernest  D.  Mar 

Edgar  Brodhead... 

May  13,  1861. 

Promoted  to  acting  volun- 

tin,  Joseph  W.   Newcomer,  Charles  H.   Page, 

J  P  Sanford   

"     13,  1861. 

Trans.  to  regular  service. 

Henry    L.    Plympton,    Henry  T.   Percy,    Jere 

Thomas  A.  Budd... 

"     13,  1861. 

Killed  in  action,  March  22, 

miah  J.  Page,  William  M.  Reber,  John  S.  Ram 

Charles  Weston  
P.  G.  Watmough... 

muz. 
"    13,  1861.    [Resigned  August  16,  1861. 
"     13,  1861.    Trans,  to  regular  service. 

say,  William  J.  Simon,  John  D.  Smith,  J.  Rufus 
Tryon,  Adam  Trau,  Edmund  C.  Ver  Meulen, 

J.  Van  Ness  Philip 

"     14,1861.   |  Died  September  3,  1862. 

George  F.  Winslow,  William  H.  Wescott,  Rob 

Robert  A.  Knapp... 
S.  E.  Woodworth  ... 
R.  Townsend  

July  27,  1861. 
Sept.  10,  1861. 
"     17,  1861. 

Resigned  Nov.  18.  1861. 
Trans,  to  regular  service. 

ert  Willard,  David  V.  Whitney,  James  Wilson, 
F.  W.  Wunderlich,  Edward  H.  Ware,  Robert 

Edm.  R.  Colhoun... 

"     24,1861. 

"                   " 

A.  Whedon,  Holmes  Wikoff. 

R.  W.  Shuieldt  
S.  J.  Shipley  

"    25,1861. 
"    25,1861. 

Appointment  revoked  Feb 
ruary  6,  1863  (sick). 

From  .Acting  Assistant  Paymaster  to  Passed 
Assistant    Paymaster:     R.    W.    Allen,    H.    M. 

DeG.  Livingston... 

"     30,1861. 

Declined  appointment. 

Meade,  Frank  Clark,  A.  D.  Bache,  D.  B.  Ba- 

Simon  C.  Mish  
C.  II.  Baldwin  
Joseph  C.  Walsh... 

Nov.  23,  1861.    Dismissed  Dec.  24,  1861. 
Dec.  27,  1861.    ;  Trans,  to  regular  service. 
Feb.  11,  1862.     Resigned  May  1,  1862. 

tione,  W.  F.  A.  Torbert,  E.  H.  Cushing,  L.  A. 
Frailey,  John  H.  Stevenson,  T.  L.  Tullock,  J. 

F.  S.  Conover  !Sept.  13,  1862. 

Aug.  11,  1863. 

W.  Fairfleld,  E.  M.  Hart,  G.  E.  Hendee,  M.  B. 

J.  McLeod  Murphy 
J  D.  Danels  

Dec.  4,  1862. 
June  3,  1863. 

"          July  30,  1864. 
Promoted  to  acting  volun 
teer  lieut.-commander. 

Cushing,  J.  H.  Bulkley,  R.  B.  Rodney,  J.  S. 
Giraud,  S.  S.  Wood,  F.  J.  Painter,  G.  L.  Mead, 

E.  C.  Merriman  

Sept.  25,  1863.   ;Trans.  to  regular  service. 

W.  W.  Woodhull,  G.  R.  Watkins,  D.  P.  Wight, 

j 

H.  T.  Wright,  D.  A.  Smith,  C.  A.  McDaniel, 

F.  H.  Arms,  John  Furey,  J.  Linsly,  F.  T.  Gil- 

Officers  holding  Appointment  as  Acting  Volun 

lett,   G.    H.   Griffing,    E.   Mellach,   George  W. 

teer  Lieutenant-  Commander. 

Brown,  Edward  Sherwin,  G.  A.  Robertson,  J. 

H.  Mulford. 

Name. 

When  Ap 
pointed. 

How  and  when  left  the 
Service. 

From  Acting  Assistant  Paymaster  to  Assistant 
Paymaster  :  Charles  H.  Eldredge,  Richd.  Wash 

ington,    Rufus   Parks,   William  W.   Williams, 

Joseph  D.  Danels... 
Edgar  Brodhead... 
W.  C.  Rogers  

May  18,1864. 
Oct.  22,  1864. 
"    24,  1864. 

Trans,  to  regular  service. 
Resigned  March  2,  1865. 
Hon.  disch.  July  18,  1866. 

Forbes  Parker,  George  W.  Beaman,  Joseph  T. 
Lisle,  F.  R.  Curtis,  W.  H.  Sells,  C.  S.  Perley, 
W.  S.  Blunt,  Charles  Fairchild,  C.  E.  Chenery, 

William  Budd  
Thomas  P.  Ives  
William  R.  Hoel... 

Nov.    5,1864. 
"      7,  1864. 
"    10,  1864. 

"         Jan.  6,  1866. 
Died  November  17,  1865. 
Hon.  disch.  Dec.  30,  1865. 

H.  A.  Strong,  Jesse  P.  Woodbury,  W.  L.  Dar 
ling,   G.    R.  Martin,  W.  H.  Anderson,  W.  C. 

Joseph  B.  Breck... 

"    25,  1864. 

Died  July  26,  1865. 

Cook,  G.  S.  Benedict,  Theoron  Merritt,  G.  R.. 

Theo.  B.  DuBois  ... 
William  H.  West... 
Edward  Conroy  
Pierre  Giraud  

"     26,1864. 
"     30,1864. 
Dec.    8,  1864. 
"      9,  1864. 

Hon.  disch.  Feb.  7,  186R. 
Oct.  24,  1865. 
"          Oct.  30,  1868. 
"          Jan.  15,  1869. 

Rand,  W.  N.  Watmough,  Worthington  Golds- 
borough,  G.  DeF.  Barton,  W.  R.  Winslow,  H. 
P.  Tuttle,  F.  H.  Hinman,  R.  P.   Lisle,   C.   F. 

Wm.  B.  Eaton  

"     12,1864. 

"          Jan.  13,  1866. 

Guild,  J.  E.  Tolfree,  L.  G.  Billings,  J.  F.  Ham 

C.  F.  W.  Behm  "     22,1864. 
J  W  Smith              i^h  7  IRK*; 

"          Nov.  28,  1865. 
"          Feb.  21,  1866. 

ilton,  C.  P.  Thompson,  F.  H.  Swan,  J.  J.  Phil- 

Edward  Hooker.... 

"     7,  1865. 

Trans,  to  regular  service. 

brick,  S.  T.  Browne,  A.  W.  Bacon,  F.  C.  Imlay, 

Edward  F  .  Devens 

"    7,1865. 

Hon.  disch.  Nov.  19,  1866. 

R.  S.  McConnell,  C.  D.  Mansfield,  H.  T.  Ske'l- 

J.  MacDiarmid  
L.  W.  Penniiigton. 

March  3,  1865 
"      3,  1865. 

"          Oct.  28,  1866. 
"          Nov.  12,  1865. 

ding,  C.  W.  Slamm,  J.  A.  Berry,  Joseph  Fos 

W.  S  Cheeseman... 

"      9,  1865. 

"          Sept.  3D,  1865. 

ter,  E.  N.  Whitehouse,  John  MacMahon,  Theo. 

Wm.  P.  Randall.... 
C.  H.  Rockwell  
T.  A.  Harris  

"      9,  1865. 
"      27,  I86.i. 
Anvil  26.  1865. 

"          Dec.  19,  1865. 
Dec  8,  1865. 
"          Oct.  24,  1865. 

S.  Thompson,  William  J  Thomson,  H  G.  Colby, 
J.  R.  Carmody,  J.  B.  Redfield,  William  J.  Healey, 

R.  B.  Smith  1     "      29,1865. 

Jan.  1,  1863. 

Henry  Gerrard,  John  F.  Tarbell,  I  G.  Hobbs,  J. 

Frederick  Crocker  May    1,  1865. 

"           Oct.  2,  1865. 

P.  Loomis,  H.  T.  B.  Harris,  H.  C.  Machette,  C. 

J.  F.  Nickels  
James  Trathen  

6.  1865. 
"     16,  1865. 

"          Oct.  26,  1865. 
"          May  26,  1866. 

H.    Lockwood,  A.  T.  Hubbard,  C.    E    Boggs, 

John  A.  Johnston.. 

"     19,  1865. 

"          Dec.  9,  1865. 

Frank  Bissell,  H.  T.  Stancliff,  A.  H.   Nelson, 

Wm.  G  Saltonstall      "    20,  1865. 

"          Oct.  5,  1-65. 

G.  F.  Bemis,  F.  C.  Alley,  G.  H.  Read,  J.  Q. 

Frederick  S.  Wells 
Chas.  A.  French.... 

"     27,  1865. 
"     30,  1865. 

"          March  31,  1866. 
"          Oct   21,  1865. 

Barton,  A.  J.  Greeley,    S.   D.  Hurlbut,  H.  A. 

Samuel  Huse  

"     31,1865. 

"          March  31,  1866. 

Thompson,  Jr.,  C   A   Cable. 

H.  H.  Gorringe  
Wm  Hamilton  
William  Flye  

'July  10,  1865. 
"     17,  1865. 
"     21,  1865. 

Trans,  to  regula"  service. 
Hon.  disch.  April  15,  1866. 
"          Dec.  24,  1865. 

Officers  of  the  Marine  Corps  who  served  as  Vol 
unteer  Officers  in  the  Navy:  D.  Pratt  Mannix, 

C.  J.  Van  Alstine.. 

Aug.  14,  1865. 

April  30,  1866. 

Lewis   R.  Hamersly,  Henrv  C.  Cochrane,  Wil 

liam  S.  Muse,  Albert  H.  O'Brien. 

From  Acting  Third  Assistant  Engineer  to  As 

Other  Volunteer  Officers  who  entered  the  Reg 

sistant  Paymaster:  Stephen  Rand. 

ular  Service.  —  From  Acting  Passed  Assistant  Sur 
geon  to  Passed  Assistant  Surgeon  :  Daniel  C.  Bur- 

From  Acting  Chief  Engineer  to  Chief  Engineer: 
J.  Q.  A.  Zieg'ler. 

leigh  and  Francis  V.  Greene. 

From  Acting  Third  Assistant  Engineer  to  Sec 

From  Acting  Assistant  Surgeon  to  Assistant 

ond  Assistant  Engineer  :  Jabez  Burchard,  W.  B. 

Surgeon:   John    H.    Austin,  Joseph    G.   Ayres, 

Bayley,  J.  P.  Mickley,  E.  F.  McElmell,  W.  H. 

George  A.  Bright,  Henry  W.  Birkey,  J.  Wesley 

Platt,  H.  E.  Rhoades. 

Boyden,  Edward  B.  Bingham,  Horatio  N.  Beau 

From  Acting  Second  Assistant  Engineer  to  Sec 

mont,  Hosea  J.  Babin,  Thomas  R.  Brown,  John 

ond  Assistant  Engineer  :  T.  J.  W.  Cooper,  Geo. 

W.  Coles,  Elwood  M.  Corson,  Joseph  T.  Cottrell, 

Cowie,  J.  T.  Smith. 

NAVY 


572 


NAVY 


From  Acting  Third  Assistant  Engineer  to  Third 
Assistant  Engineer:  George  W.  Baird,  O.  B. 
Mills,  W.  G-.  McEwen,  H.  L.  Slosson,  Harrie 
Webster,  E.  G  Allen. 

As  Boatswain:  William  Allen,  W.  S.  Bond, 
Jeremiah  Harding,  Josiah  B.  Aiken,  John  H. 
Brown,  T.  S.  Collier,  W.  G.  Tompkins,  F.  A. 
Dran,  John  Smith,  James  Heron,  James  Nash, 
Joseph  McDonald,  Hallowell  Dickinson,  J.  S. 
Sinclair,  J.  W.  Simmons,  Thomas  Savage,  C. 
E.  Hawkins,  Daniel  Ward,  Michael  Mickey,  W. 
Burditt,  W.  P.  Burke,  Edward  Cavendy,  Edwin 
Consey,  Woodward  Carter. 

As  Gunner:  Felix  Cassidy,  James  Hayes,  D. 
W.  Burroughs,  Cornelius  Cronin,  W.  T.  Devlan, 
George  Dunn,  W.  A.  Ferrier,  John  Kussell,  C. 
B.  Magruder,  A.  A.  Phelps,  C.  H.  Venable,  C. 
A.  Young,  C.  C.  Neil,  M.  K.  Henderson. 

As  Carpenter:  Oliver  W.  Griffiths,  E.  D.  Hall. 

As  Saiimaker:  Thomas  S.  Gay. 

Appointed  from  the  Volunteer  Navy  to  the  Reg 
ular  Navy  on  the  Retired  List :  Henry  C.  Keene 
(as  lieutenant),  E.  E.  Bradbury  (as  master),  L. 
K.  Chester  (as  master),  H.  F.  Moffatt  (as  master), 
Wesley  W.  Bassett  (as  master). 

Appointed  a  Lieutenant  in  the  Navy  from  Mas 
ter's  Mate:  William  B.  Cushing. 

The  names  of  these  volunteer  officers  of  the 
higher  ranks  are  given  not  because  they  were  in 
all  instances  more  conspicuous  for  gallantry  and 
more  faithful  in  their  services  than  others  of 
lower  rank,  but  because  the  space  allotted  to 
this  article  renders  it  impossible  to  give  the  long 
roll  of  those  worthy  of  mention.  Nor  should  it 
be  presumed  that  those  admitted  into  the  regular 
service  were  the  only  ones  qualified  therefor.  A 
large  majority  entered  the  volunteer  navy  for  the 
single  and  heroic  purpose  of  giving  their  services, 
and,  if  need  be,  their  lives,  for  the  preservation 
of  the  Union.  That  object  attained  and  the  au 
thority  of  the  government  re-established  on  land 
and  sea,  resignations  in  large  numbers  immedi 
ately  followed,  the  volunteer  deeming  his  work 
and  duty  done  and  the  object  for  which  he  en 
tered  accomplished. 

On  May  1, 1865,  the  Kebellion  being  then  prac 
tically  ended,  the  work  of  reducing  the  volunteer 
navy  was  commenced.  The  Secretary  of  the 
Navy  ordered  that,  in  mustering  out  volunteer 
officers,  all  in  the  service  on  that  date  should  be 
allowed  one  month's  leave  of  absence  for  each 
year  of  service.  On  the  1st  of  January,  1865, 
there  were  5278  volunteer  officers  of  all  grades 
in  the  navy,  while  on  the  1st  of  January,  1869, 
there  were  but  170,  and  on  the  1st  of  January  of 
the  year  following  onl}T  111. 

It  was  not,  however,  until  July  15,  1870,  that 
all  acts  or  parts  of  acts  authorizing  the  appoint 
ment  of  temporary  acting  officers  of  the  navy, 
except  as  to  assistant  surgeons,  were  repealed. 
The  authority  of  the  Secretary  of  the  Navy  to 
retain  any  volunteer  officers  after  the  close  of 
the  Kebellion  was  given  by  the  act  of  July  25, 
1866,  and  the  exercise  of  that  authority  was  by 
the  act  made  conditional  upon  its  being  required 
by  the  exigencies  of  the  service. 

The  act  of  February  15,  1879,  provided  for  the 
honorable  discharge  or  transfer  to  the  regular 
service,  as  might  be  determined,  of  acting  passed 
assistant  surgeons  and  acting  assistant  surgeons, 
and  abolished  the  volunteer  navy  of  the  United 
States. — J.  E.  Dow. 


NAVY  OF  THE  SOUTHERN  CONFEDERACY. — 
The  history  of  the  navy  of  the  Southern  Con 
federacy  has  yet  to  be  written.  This  article  does 
not  aim  at  giving  that  history  even  in  its  most 
epitomized  form.  Our  object  is  simply  to  notice 
briefly  and  cursorily  the  general  character  of  that 
service,  some  of  the  embarrassments  attending 
its  creation,  and  a  few  of  its  more  prominent 
operations,  more  especially  those  which  may 
serve  to  illustrate  the  action  and  value  of  the 
new  class  of  vessels  which  the  South  for  the  first 
time  ushered  into  naval  warfare. 

The  Southern  navy  was  modeled  precisely 
after  that  of  the  United  States.  The  same  arti 
cles  of  war  and  internal  rules  were  adopted,  and 
the  same  discipline,  usages,  and  general  routine 
prevailed.  With  all  these  accessories,  the  older 
officers,  holding  their  accustomed  rank  and  sur 
rounded  very  much  by  their  former  familiar  as 
sociates,  might  have  had  need  at  times  to  cast  a 
glance  at  the  flag  overhead  or  at  the  gray  they 
had  donned  in  place  of  the  blue  to  realize  fully 
that  they  belonged  to  a  new  service,  foreign  and 
hostile  to  the  one  in  which  they  had  passed  the 
better  part  of  their  lives. 

This  organization  was  working  smoothly  and 
efficiently  when  a  sweeping  change  was  made  by 
an  act  of  Congress  passed  in  May,  18G3,  creating 
a  new  service  styled  the  "provisional  navy." 
The  officers  appointed  to  it  were  all  taken  from 
the  older  service,  now  contradistinguished  as  the 
"  regular  navy."  The  juniors  were  transferred 
in  toto ;  the  seniors  were  selected  by  the  Secretary 
of  the  Navy  :  all  maintained  unimpaired  their 
status  in  the  old  navy. 

The  vessels,  with  all  their  materiel  and  their 
entire  crews,  were  next  summarily  transferred  en 
masse  to  the  new  creation,  and  the  regular  navy, 
thus  stripped  of  all  its  properties,  was  reduced  to 
a  small  body  of  veterans  still  in  the  vigor  of  life, 
yet  cutoff  from  all  participation  in  service  afloat, 
and  consigned  to  the  comparative  inaction  of 
"  shore  duties,"  which,  nevertheless,  were  shared 
in  common  with  the  provisionals. 

This  duplicate  organization  of  a  general  ser 
vice,  which,  despite  its  nominal  partition,  re 
mained  essentially  one  and  the  same,  was  at 
tended  with  confusion,  embarrassments,  and  even 
more  serious  objections,  that  after  a  year's  trial 
led  the  chief  of  the  bureau  of  detail  to  recom 
mend  that  the  transfer  to  the  new  service  should 
be  made  to  embrace  all  the  officers  indiscrimi 
nately  ;  but  high  officials  are  seldom  inclined  to 
brook  any  interference  with  pet  measures,  and 
the  suggestion  found  no  favor. 

About  the  same  time  another  act  was  passed 
to  establish  what  was  called  the  "  volunteer 
navy."  The  effect  of  this  measure  would  have 
been  to  systematize  privateering,  and,  by  combin 
ing  its  forces  under  the  guise  of  a  new  name  into 
a  national  marine,  to  raise  it  to  a  higher  level 
than  could  be  attained  by  single  and  independent 
vessels  sailing  under  the  authority  of  letters  of 
marque  and  reprisal.  There  is  reason  to  believe 
that  Congress  was  in  some  degree  prompted  to 
this  course  by  the  agreement  which  had  been 
concluded  between  the  maritime  powers  of  Eu 
rope,  in  1855,  to  place  privateering  hors  de  loi, 
for,  though  this  agreement  was  only  binding 
upon  the  parties  assenting  to  it,  its  moral  effect 
as  a  public  expression  of  European  sentiment 
tended  to  put  that  method  of  aggression  under 


NAVY 


573 


NAVY 


ban  and  at  discredit  wherever  practiced.  The 
more  immediate  object,  however,  was  to  induce 
capitalists  to  invest  in  enterprises  that  promised 
swift  and  profitable  returns,  with  the  advantage 
to  the  government  of  despoiling  the  commerce  of 
the  enemy  without  cost  to  the  treasury. 

The  law  authorized  the  President  to  accept 
the  services  of  armed  vessels,  furnished  and 
equipped  at  the  expense  of  the  owners,  to  appoint 
officers,  confer  assimilated  rank,  define  the  rights 
and  duties  of  those  engaged  in  the  ventures,  and 
establish  rules  for  the  general  government  of  the 
whole.  But  the  statute  was  adapted  rather  to 
the  genius  of  a  commercial  than  an  agricultural 
people,  and  met  no  hearty  response.  It  is  be 
lieved  that  no  vessel  was  ever  equipped  for  the 
service  proposed. 

There  was  yet  another  marine  force,  which  is 
only  noticed  to  dissociate  it  from  the  navy  with 
which  the  historians  of  the  day  confound  it.  It 
was  styled  the  "river  defense,"  or  more  popu 
larly  "Montgomery's  fleet,"  and  consisted  of  a 
number  of  Mississippi  steamboats,  commanded 
and  manned  exclusively  by  river-men,  and 
placed  under  the  control  of  the  War  Depart 
ment.  These  boats,  with  their  engines  protected 
by  a  barricade  of  cotton  and  their  bows  revetted 
with  a  plating  of  iron,  were  designed  for  the 
special  purpose  of  running  down  and  sinking  the 
ironclads  of  the  enemy.  Part  of  the  fleet  was 
eventually  destroyed  by  their  own  commanders 
after  co-operating  with  the  navy  in  the  unsuc 
cessful  attempt  to  prevent  the  Federal  fleet  from 
passing  Forts  Jackson  and  St.  Philip,  in  April, 
1862,  and  the  rest  for  the  most  part  were  captured 
or  sunk  during  a  hotly  contested  engagement 
with  a  superior  force  of  ironclads  off  Memphis, 
in  June  of  the  same  year. 

It  is  no  disparagement  to  the  Confederate  navy 
to  say  that  it  played  comparatively  a  subordinate 
role  in  the  war.  The  reason  for  this  is  obvious. 
At  the  outbreak  of  hostilities  the  South  had  no 
navy,  in  the  proper  sense  of  the  term,  nor  did 
she  possess  at  any  time  during  the  struggle  a 
sufficient  number  of  efficient  vessels  to  cope  with 
the  powerful  squadrons  mustered  along  the  entire 
coast.  She  had  a  body  of  valuable  recruits  of 
every  grade  in  the  naval  officers  who  had  re 
signed  from  the  U.  S.  service,  and  a  limited 
number  of  seamen  and  stokers  who  had  been 
thrown  out  of  employment  by  the  stoppage  of 
trade,  but  was  destitute  of  ships,  and  before  she 
had  time  to  construct  them  found  herself  in 
the  thick  of  the  conflict.  In  this  strait  the  gov 
ernment  was  driven  to  the  usual  expedient  in 
such  cases, — a  wretched  makeshift  at  best, — that 
of  attempting  to  turn  merchant  craft  into  war 
ships  But  no  ingenuity  of  the  shipwright  could 
achieve  the  transformation  with  such  material  as 
the  dock-yards  of  the  South  afforded.  Vessels 
like  British  mail-steamers,  adapted  in  their 
original  structure  to  war  contingencies,  or  the 
stoutly  timbered  clipper-ships  of  New  York 
might  be  proper  objects  for  such  conversion;  but 
the  South,  with  the  exception  of  a  few  sea-going 
vessels  picked  up  here  and  there,  had  to  rely 
mainly  on  steamboats  and  steam-tugs,  river 
barges,  canal-  and  ferry-boats.  The  inadequacy 
of  trumpery  fleets  made  up  of  such  material  soon 
became  evident. 

When  Dupont  appeared  with  his  large  and 
well-appointed  squadron  off  Port  Koyal  in  No 


vember,  1861,  he  found  nothing  to  oppose  him 
on  the  water  but  7  small  merchant  craft  impro 
vised  into  war-ships,  and  commonly  known  under 
the  derisive  name  of  "  mosquito  fleet."  They 
were  under  the  command  of  Commodore  Tatnall, 
who  could  do  no  more  than  hover  on  the  out 
skirts  of  the  enemy,  and  attempt  ineffectually  to 
interrupt  the  sounding-parties  as  they  were  feel 
ing  their  way  over  the  bar.  Later,  during  the 
following  February,  Commodore  Lynch  found 
himself  in  a  similar  position.  He  was  stationed 
on  the  sounds  of  North  Carolina  with  orders  "  to 
hold  those  waters  to  the  last  extremity."  To 
make  good  those  brave  words  his  pennant  was 
floating  over  the  same  number  of  vessels  of  in 
significant  size  that  but  a  few  weeks  since  had 
been  river  traders  or  canal-boats.  When  the 
Federals  made  their  combined  attack  on  Koan- 
oke  Island,  on  the  7th,  he  was  confronted  by  33 
vessels  of  various  descriptions,  comprising  17 
steam-gunboats  armed  with  guns  of  the  heaviest 
calibre,  among  which  were  80-  and  100-pound- 
ers.  In  the  first  action,  conducted  at  long  range, 
he  lost  two  of  his  vessels, — one  sunk  and  the 
other  disabled.  Two  days  afterwards  the  battle 
was  renewed  off  Elizabeth  City,  and  the  small 
flotilla  was  well-nigh  annihilated,  one  boat  only 
escaping,  which  made  its  way  through  Dismal 
Swamp,  the  rest  being  captured  by  the  enemy  or 
blown  up  by  their  own  commanders.  On  the 
Mississippi  similar  disasters  overtook  the  same 
wretched  class  of  vessels  about  the  same  time. 
Here,  in  February,  1862,  Commodore  Hollins 
was  co-operating  with  the  land  forces  with  a 
force  of  5  converted  gunboats  carrying  in  all  32 
guns, — 7J-inch  rifles  and  8-inch  smooth-bores. 
These  "  shells, "^as  they  were  facetiously  called, 
answered  pretty  well  for  intercepting 'military 
transports  or  occasional  brushes  with  the  hostile 
batteries  ;  but  as  yet  they  were  separated  by  the 
formidable  batteries  on  Island  No.  10,  at  the 
bend  of  the  river  near  New  Madrid,  from  Foote's 
ironclads  and  mortar  flotilla,  the  first  alone 
mounting  75  guns  in  the  aggregate,  including 
10-inch  columbiads,  9-inch  smooth-bores,  and 
100-pounder  rifles. 

They  were  not,  however,  fated  to  encounter 
that  powerful  fleet.  Upon  the  fall  of  Island 
No.  10  they  were  dismantled  of  their  guns, 
which  went  to  strengthen  the  batteries  of  Fort 
Pillow,  and  in  this  defenseless  state  were  finally 
burnt  to  escape  capture  on  the  approach  of  the 
Federal  squadron  from  below. 

Early  measures  were  taken  for  forming  a  navy. 
A  secret  agent  employed  at  New  York  was  di 
rected  in  March,  1861,  to  purchase  vessels  suit 
able  for  conversion  into  men-of-war.  Soon  af 
terwards  an  officer  of  the  line,  accompanied  by 
a  competent  engineer,  was  sent  for  the  same 
purpose  to  New  York,  Philadelphia,  and  Balti 
more,  and  yet  another  envoy  was  dispatched  to 
buy  a  certain  steamer  in  Canada.  All  these 
efforts  proved  fruitless ;  the  Canadian  steamer, 
for  some  reason,  could  not  be  obtained,  and  the 
United  States  had  forestalled  the  South  by  pur 
chasing  or  chartering  whatever  was  available  in 
its  own  waters.  Naval  officers  were  also  hurried 
to  England  and  France,  provided  with  ample 
funds  to  purchase  ironclads,  or,  in  default  of 
this,  to  have  them  built,  and  to  procure  arms, 
ordnance  stores,  and  supplies  of  all  kinds.  The 
hope  of  acquiring  ironclads  in  this  way  must 


NAVY 


574 


NAVY 


have  been  prompted  by  the  prevailing  delusion 
of  the  moment  that  the  great  staple  of  the  South 
would  control  the  policy  of  those  nations  by 
forcing  them  into  open  hostilities  in  her  behalf, 
or  at  'least  by  inducing  them  to  connive  at  the 
equipment  of*  armaments  in  their  ports.  These 
hopes,  as  we  all  know,  were  not  realized.  The 
officers,  being  thus  baffled  in  their  first  purpose, 
were  instructed  to  have  wooden  vessels  built  in 
England  for  cruising  on  the  high  seas. 

To  accomplish  this  required  secrecy,  tact,  and 
finesse  of  no  common  order.  The  English  law 
known  as  the  "Enlistment  Act,"  passed  under 
one  of  the  Georges,  prohibits,  "  under  a  penalty 
of  fine  and  imprisonment,  with  forfeiture  of 
property,"  the  equipment  of  any  vessel  to  be 
employed  against  the  subjects  or  citizens  of  a 
state  at  the  time  in  amity  with  England.  To 
evade  this  act  in  the  face  of  police  authorities 
kept  keenly  on  the  alert  by  spies  and  detectives 
employed  by  the  United  States  seemed  almost  a 
hopeless  attempt;  yet,  in  spite  of  every  obstacle, 
the  "  Alabama,"  the  "  Georgia,"  the  "  Florida," 
and  the  "  Shenandoah,"  which  severally  inflicted 
so  much  damage  on  the  commerce  of  the  United 
States,  forcing  almost  the  entire  trade  into  foreign 
bottoms,  were  all  built  in  British  waters,  from 
which,  as  soon  as  completed,  they  sailed  openly 
under  the  English  flag,  bound  to  the  appointed 
rendezvous  of  some  lonely  island,  where  they 
received  their  armament,  hoisted  the  Confeder 
ate  flag,  and  launched  forth  on  their  adventurous 
career. 

The  views  of  the  Secretary  of  the  Navy  in  re 
gard  to  the  character  and  extent  of  the  naval 
preparations  that  were  required  to  put  the  South 
on  a  good  naval  footing  may  be  gathered  from  a 
communication  addressed  by  him  to  the  Execu 
tive  under  the  date  of  March  2,  1882,  for  the 
information  of  Congress.  In  this  document  he 
states  that  there  was  or  might  be  necessary  dur 
ing  the  current  year  "  50  light-draft  and  power 
ful  steam-propellers  plated  with  5-inch  bar-iron 
and  equipped  for  service  in  our  own  waters,  4 
iron-  or  steelclad  10-gun  frigates  of  about  2000 
tons  each,  and  10  clipper-propellers  with  supe 
rior  marine  engines,  both  classes  of  vessels  de 
signed  for  deep-sea  cruising."  He  desires  pro 
vision  made  for  "  3000  tons  of  boiler-  and  plate- 
iron,  1000  tons  of  rod-,  b6lt-,  and  bar-iron,  3000 
pieces  of  heavy  ordnance  ranging  in  calibre 
from  6  to  11  inches  and  in  weight  from  6000  to 
14,000  pounds,  1000  tons  of  musket-powder  for 
filling  projectiles  and  pyrotechny,  4000  naval 
revolvers,  and  4000  cutlasses  with  equipments 
and  ammunition."  To  utilize  this  vast  amount 
of  material  he  requires  "3000  seamen,  4000  or 
dinary  seamen  and  landsmen,  and  2000  me 
chanics." 

Looking  at  the  poverty  of  our  internal  re 
sources  and  almost  entire  dependence  for  means 
and  appliances  for  naval  purposes  on  foreign 
supplies  at  the  time  this  communication  was 
penned,  the  project  it  unfolds  would  rather  seem 
the  Secretary's'  ideal  of  what  the  foundation  of 
the  Southern  navy  should  be  than  a  well-studied 
plan  proper  for  legislative  consideration.  But 
that  official  was  looked  to  by  Congress  for  the 
initiation  of  its  naval  measures,  and  it  was  per 
haps  his  wisest  policy  to  present  affairs  under 
such  an  aspect  as  would  inspire  confidence  and 
promote  liberal  appropriations.  The  suggestion 


of  ironclads  for  sea-cruisers  at  the  time  seemed 
premature.  The  question  of  rendering  that,  class 
of  vessels  capable  of  encountering  the  perils  of 
the  sea  had  not  yet  been  solved  by  satisfactory 
tests.  As  the  most  advanced  ship  in  that  line  of 
improvement,  the  representative  vessel  was  the 
French  frigate  "  La  Gloire."  Sh.e  was  the  final 
product  of  the  best  French  engineering  science 
and  skill  which  had  been  prosecuting  its  inves 
tigations  through  a  succession  of  costly  experi 
mental  structures,  and  it  was  claimed  that  she 
was  as  invulnerable  to  the  storms  of  the  ocean 
as  to  the  shot  of  the  enemy.  The  English, 
however, — better  authorities  on  nautical  subjects 
than  their  neighbors  across  the  Channel, — denied 
the  sea-going  qualities  of  their  crack  ship, 

But,  accepting  the  Secretary's  views  as  real 
and  earnest,  let  us  examine  as  briefly  as  may  be 
some  of  the  difficulties  he  had  to  encounter  in 
the  attempt  to  carry  them  out,  and  what  finally 
was  the  outcome  of  his  labors,  which  continued 
up  to  the  last  year  of  the  war. 

It  will  be  readily  seen  that  it  was  no  easy  task 
to  create  a  navy  in  a  country  at  once  invested 
by  sea  and  invaded  by  land,  depending  largely 
on  foreign  supplies  for  many  of  the  most  im 
portant  materials,  yet  snatching  them  as  it  were 
from  the  chances  of  blockade-runners,  and  con 
stantly  compelled  by  the  advance  of  the  enemy 
to  abandon  or  destroy  vessels  still  on  the  stocks 
or  retreat  with  others  more  advanced  to  safer 
points  for  completion.  Thus  the  progress  of  the 
work  was  frequently  checked  and  delayed,  and 
much  that  had  been  accomplished  at  great  cost 
rendered  abortive.  Gunboats  in  process  of  build 
ing  were  lost  in  this  way  by  the  capture  of  Nash 
ville  ;  2  were  destroyed  on  the  ways  when  Nor 
folk  was  evacuated;  some  10  or  15  in  various 
stages  of  construction  on  the  shores  of  the  York 
and  Pamunkey  liivers  were  sacrificed  as  the 
Confederates  retired  from  the  Peninsula ;  when 
Memphis  was  threatened  one  ironclad  unfinished 
was  hurried  off  to  the  upper  waters  of  the  Yazoo, 
and  the  torch  applied  to  her  consort  still  un- 
launched  ;  and  the  greatest  loss  of  all  was  that 
of  the  "Mississippi,"  a  powerful  ironclad,  de 
stroyed  when  nearly  completed,  off  New  Orleans, 
to  prevent  her  capture  by  the  Federal  fleet  near 
at  hand. 

These  were  only  some  of  the  disasters  arising 
from  the  cause  stated.  Had  all  of  them  been 
reckoned  at  the  time,  the  sum-total  might  have 
created  a  fear  that  the  work  of  demolition  was 
fast  overtaking  that  of  construction. 

Besides  such  reverses,  the  inadequacy  of  our 
resources  beset  the  task  of  construction  at  the 
outset  with  endless  hinderances.  The  South  had 
two  dock-yards  only.  That  at  Pensacola  was 
too  remote  and  isolated  for  the  occasion.  The 
Norfolk  yard  was  a  priceless  acquisition,  with 
its  dry-dock,  foundry,  machine-shops,  its  stores 
of  material  and  supplies  and  large  amount  of 
ordnance,  but  the  facilities  it  afforded  could  only 
be  utilized  on  the  spot,  while  the  necessities  of 
the  case  required  that  the  vessels  should  be  built 
in  every  quarter. 

The  Tredegar  Iron- Works,  at  Richmond,  were 
the  only  ones  in  the  whole  Confederacy  capable 
of  casting  guns  of  heavy  calibre,  until  the  gov 
ernment  erected  its  own  establishments  at  Char 
lotte  and  Selma. 

In  the  entire  Confederacy  there  was  not  a  re- 


NAYY 


575 


NAVY 


liable  establishment,  except  in  Tennessee,  where 
a  first-class  marine  engine  could  be  constructed. 
Three  rolling-mills  only  existed  in  the  whole 
country,  two  of  which,  in  Tennessee,  were  una 
vailable  owing  to  the  disturbed  condition  of  the 
districts  in  which  they  were  located,  and  the 
third,  at  Atlanta,  Ga.,  had  to  undergo  extensive 
alterations,  involving  serious  delay,  before  it 
could  undertake  the  heavy  work  of  the  navy. 
The  private  machine-shops  and  foundries  re 
sorted  to  by  the  government  in  the  absence  of 
public  establishments  of  the  kind  were  every 
where  more  or  less  crippled  by  the  loss  of  opera 
tives,  who  had  enlisted  in  the  land  service.  The 
navy  was  especially  pushed  for  skilled  workmen 
to  build  its  ships,  and  seamen  to  man  them  when 
built.  Both. of  these  classes  had  been  largely 
absorbed  by  the  army,  which  was  unwilling  to 
relinquish  them.  Laws  passed  for  the  recovery 
of  them  for  naval  uses  became  well-nigh  inopera 
tive  from  the  complicate  and  dilatory  processes 
of  red  tape  and  routine  that  hampered  every 
effort  to  attain  the  object.  Not  more  than  one- 
tenth  of  those  for  whom  application  was  made 
could  be  obtained,  and  these  were  mostly  de 
tailed  for  limited  periods  instead  of  being  per 
manently  transferred. 

At  the  outset  the  navy  was  in  pressing  need  of 
everything, — hemp,  coal,  iron,  powder,  ordnance, 
ordnance  stores,  medical  supplies,  provisions, 
clothing  ;  in  short,  almost  every  article  of  prime 
necessity.  Even  the  wood  of  which  the  vessels 
were  built  was  generally  standing  green  and 
flourishing  in  the  forest  when  the  contract  which 
was  to  utilize  it  was  signed. 

To  supply  most  of  these  wants  the  main  reli 
ance  of  the  South,  ,as  already  stated,  was  upon 
blockade-runners.  All  the  Southern  ports  were 
busily  engaged  in  these  enterprises,  much  of 
their  capital  and  energy,  shut  out  from  the  usual 
fields  of  activity,  being  now  concentrated  in  this^ 
one  eager  pursuit.  Wilmington,  N.  C.,  took  the 
lead,  trading  chiefly  with  Europe,  but  Charles 
ton,  Mobile,  Savannah,  and  New  Orleans  had 
their  full  share  in  the  new  game  of  chance.  Nor 
were  other  places  less  noted  idle.  Along  the  ex 
tensive  Southern  estuaries  might  be  found  here 
and  there  at  some  obscure  inlet  or  sheltered  cove 
an  improvised  settlement  diligently  prosecuting 
the  same  traffic,  the  vessel  screened  by  a  con 
venient  headland  tufted  with  trees,  and  the 
neighboring  beach  strewn  with  cotton  in  process 
of  shipment,  or  perhaps  piled  with  a  freight  just 
landed  and  worth  now  a  hundredfold  its  cost, 
and  all  th^se  busy  doings  going  on  with  the 
watchers  outside  not  a  whit  the  wiser. 

The  Navy  Department  was  soon  itself  com 
pelled  to  become  an  active  and  direct  participant 
in  these  ventures.  When,  from  the  exhaustion  of 
its  funds  abroad  and  the  depreciation  of  its  cur 
rency,  it  was  found  impracticable  to  purchase 
exchange  in  the  ordinary  way,  shipments  of  cot-^ 
ton  were  made  to  Europe  on  naval  account  to 
provide  means  for  obtaining  home  freights.  The 
appropriations  applied  in  this  way  incurred  the 
double  risk  of  the  homeward  and  outward  voy 
ages,  and  the  ventures  were  not  always  fortu 
nate. 

In  addition  to  all  these  drawbacks  to  the  work 
of  construction,  one  of  no  little  magnitude  had 
to  be  encountered  in  the  transportation  of  heavy 
naval  material,  such  as  ordnance,  propeller  shafts, 


and  machinery,  from  the  point  of  manufacture 
to  the  building  depots,  over  dilapidated  railways 
already  overburdened  by  the  conveyance  of  troops 
with  provisions  and  munitions  of  war  and  by  the 
general — or  it  might  be  called  the  universal — 
travel,  for  the  whole  population  seemed  to  be  in 
motion. 

As  time  advanced  some  of  these  evils  were 
remedied,  some  wants  keenly  felt  at  first  abun 
dantly  supplied,  and  new  means  and  appliances 
brought  into  active  play.  Naval  ordnance  works 
and  laboratories  were  established  at  Kichmond, 
Charlotte,  Atlanta,  and  Selma,  which  facilitated 
the  work  and  largely  increased  the  war  products. 
A  special  bureau  was  appointed  to  foster  the  coal 
and  nitre  interests,  with  satisfactory  results. 
Powder-works  at  Columbus,  Ga.,  were  made  to 
yield  all  the  powder  the  navy  required.  Roll 
ing-mills  at  Richmond  turned  out  iron  plating 
whenever  the  raw  material  could  be  obtained, 
and  at  rope-walks  set  up  at  the  same  place  the 
cotton  fibre  was  successfully  substituted  for  hemp, 
making  a  substantial  cordage.  But  no  human 
agency  could  find  a  substitute  for  iron,  the  great, 
the  pressing  want  of  the  Confederacy  during  the 
whole  struggle.  Scarce  at  the  beginning,  to 
wards  the  close  it  was  not  to  be  had  at  any  price. 
In  the  early  part  of  1861  it  was  quoted  at  $25  per 
ton,  in  1862  it  had  risen  to  $200,  and  in  Janu 
ary,  1865,  the  price  was  $1300.  The  home  prod 
uct,  never  adequate  to  meet  the  ordinary  local 
wants,  much  less  the  necessities  of  the  govern 
ment,  had  by  this  time  been  narrowed  down  to  its 
minimum  through  the  occupation  of  the  mining 
areas  by  the  enemy,  and  the  supply  from  abroad 
had  dwindled  to  driblets. 

The  work  of  constructing  a  navy,  once  com 
menced,  was  prosecuted  with  as  much  vigor  as 
limited  resources  and  trammeled  facilities  al 
lowed.  It  began  to  take  shape  and  system  in 
July,  1861,  though  before  that  time  the  keels  of 
some  15  gunboats  had  been  laid  at  the  York 
River  and  Pamunkey,  and  a  few  others  at  scat 
tered  points. 

Our  active  naval  force  af  that  period  could  be 
easily  reckoned.  The  "Sumter,"  of  530  tons  and 
10  guns,  had  run  the  blockade  and  was  cruising 
in  open  sea.  The  "  McRea,"  of  180  tons  and  7 
guns,  with  the  "Jackson,"  converted  from  a 
river  tug-boat,  were  in  commission  on  the  lower 
Mississippi.  Two  small  steamers  had  been  pur 
chased  from  North  Carolina  for  the  defense  of 
her  sounds.  Three  side-wheel  steamers,  the 
"  Patrick  Henry,"  "  Jamestown,"  and  "York- 
town,"  had  been  brought  from  Yirginia.  The 
first  of  these  was  our  most  powerful  vessel.  She 
was  of  1300  tons  burden,  armed  with  six  8-inch 
broadside  guns  and  two  10-inch  pieces  on  pivot, 
and  had  the  most  vulnerable  parts  of  her  engine 
shielded  with  iron.  These  vessels,  with  the 
"Lady  Davis,"  the  "Simpson,"  the  "Resolute," 
and  perhaps  a  few  other  light  vessels  not  worthy 
to  figure  in  naval  annals,  "constituted  the  active 
naval  force  of  the  South  at  th«  period  stated. 
The  "Merrimac,"  afterwards  the  "Virginia," 
was  on  the  stocks  undergoing  her  conversion  into 
an  ironclad.  The  sloops  "  Germantown"  and 
"  Plymouth,"  sunk  before  the  Gosport  yard  came 
into  the  possession  of  the  South,  had  been  raised 
and  restored,  but  were  never  put  in  commission. 

The  personnel  of  the  navy  consisted  of  9  cap 
tains,  28  commanders,  64  lieutenants,  4  masters, 


NAVY 


576 


NAVY 


75  midshipmen  (full  and  acting),  19  surgeons  and 
10  assistants,  7  paymasters,  3  chief  engineers  and 
10  assistants  of  all  classes,  4  boatswains,  3  gun 
ners,  4  carpenters,  3sailmakers,  and  500  enlisted 
men.  All  the  officers  of  the  superior  grades  and 
the  greater  part  of  those  of  the  lower  had  resigned 
from  the  Federal  navy. 

In  the  summer  and  autumn  of  1861  contracts 
were  made  for  11  steam-gunboats  in  all  at  the 
several  points  of  New  Orleans,  Jacksonville,  Rich 
mond,  Norfolk,  Charleston,  Chattahoochee  River, 
and  Pensacola  Bay.  In  August  two  armored 
vessels  were  commenced  under  contract  at  Mem 
phis,  and  in  October  the  keels  of  two  additional 
ones  were  laid  at  New  Orleans. 

Reserving  for  a  somewhat  more  extended  no 
tice  the  "  Virginia,"  which carne  first  in  the  order 
of  construction,  let  us  here  trace  in  a  few  words 
the  history  of  these  ironclads  up  to  their  final 
fate.  One  of  the  two  last  mentioned,  the  "  Loui 
siana,"  Capt.  Mitchell,  not  yet  properly  sheathed, 
altogether  in  an  unfinished  state,  and  totally  un 
prepared  for  action,  was  forced  by  the  emergency 
to  take  part  in  the  defense  of  the  approaches  to 
New  Orleans  when  that  city  was  captured.  At 
the  earnest  solicitation  of  Gen.  Duncan,  com 
manding  Forts  Jackson  and  St.  Philip,  she  was 
hurried  down  to  the  approaching  scene  of  conflict 
between  the  forts,  where  she  arrived  only  three 
days  before  the  hostile  squadron  made  its  mem 
orable  advance  up  the  river  on  the  24th  of  April, 
1852.  She  had  left  the  levee,  under  tow  of  an 
other  vessel,  with  gangs  of  mechanics  still  work 
ing  at  her  engine  and  her  raw  crew  short  in  com 
plement  and  eked  out  by  an  artillery  company, 
who  volunteered  for  the  occasion,  busy  in  mount 
ing  a  battery  at  which  they  had  never  been  ex 
ercised.  Up  to  the  hour  of  the  fight  she  had  not 
sufficient  motive-power  to  stem  the  current  of 
the  river,  and  even  to  shift  her  berth  from  point 
to  point  required  extraneous  assistance.  During 
the  desperate  contest  that  took  place  she  was 
secured  to  the  shore  under  Fort  St.  Philip  in  a 
position  that  precluded  the  use  of  half  her  guns. 
She  was  so  powerful  a  vessel  that  had  she  been 
thoroughly  completed  and  prepared  for  battle 
some  interesting  incidents  would  have  been 
added  to  that  night's  encounter. 

The  "  Louisiana"  was  264  feet  long,  with  a 
beam  of  64  feet.  Her  hull,  which  was  nearly  sub 
merged,  was  surmounted  by  a  casemate  protected 
by  a  covering  of  double  T-rails  as  a  substitute  for 
iron  plates  thatcould  not  be  obtained,  and  inclined 
at  both  sides  and  ends  at  an  angle  of  45°.  A 
metallic  deck  formed  the  top  of  the  casemate,  and 
was  the  station  of  the  small-arm  men  when  at 
quarters.  It  was  open  overhead,  but  guarded 
against  grape  and  canister  by  heavy  bulwarks 
plated  with  iron.  The  battery  consisted  of  16 
guns,  made  up  of  two  7-inch  rifles,  three  9-inch 
shell  pieces,  four  8-inch  and  seven  6-inch  smooth 
bores.  The  propelling  power  was  two  central 
wheels  inclosed  in  the  body  of  the  hull  and  a 
propeller  on  each  quarter,  which  last  assisted  in 
steering.  The  armor  passed  through  a  severe 
test  during  the  action,  receiving  a  broadside  at 
close  quarters  from  the  8-inch  rifled  guns  of  the 
"  Hartford."  The  shells  buried  themselves  to 
about  half  their  diameter,  then  fell  crumbling 
into  the  river. 

The  surrender  of  the  forts  to  the  mortar  flotilla 
three  days  after  the  action  with  the  fleet  com 


pletely  isolated  the  ironclad.  Hemmed  in  above 
and  below  by  overpowering  forces,  without  means 
of  replenishing  her  supplies,  and  scarcely  capa 
ble  of  stemming  the  current,  notwithstanding 
the  completion  of  her  engines  since  the  engage 
ment,  her  capture  even  by  simple  blockade  was 
a  mere  question  of  a  few  days.  In  this  extremity 
a  council  of  war  was  held,  which  decided  upon 
her  destruction.  She  was  accordingly  set  on 
fire,  and  her  officers  and  crew,  who  had  taken 
refuge  on  board  of  tenders,  where  they  were 
soon  made  prisoners,  witnessed  from  the  decks 
of  the  enemy  the  final  catastrophe,  when  her 
magazine  exploded  and  her  fragments  were 
given  to  the  waters. 

The  new  ironclad  built  at  New  Orleans  was 
pronounced  "  wonderful"  by  a  veteran  commo 
dore  who  had  served  in  almost  as  many  ships  as 
he  had  years.  And  she  was  wonderful  for  her 
novel  structure,  her  massive  weight  and  strength, 
and  her  abundant  promise  of  speed  and  power 
The  work  upon  her  had  been  watched  and  urged 
with  unusual  solicitude  by  the  Department  from 
the  moment  the  first  plank  was  laid,  and  the  most 
glowing  hopes  were  entertained  of  successes  that 
were  to  follow  her  completion.  It  was  believed 
— and  the  belief  was  not  thought  extravagant  at 
the  time — that  when  armed  and  equipped  she 
would  almost  unaided  be  capable  of  assuring 
naval  supremacy  in  the  Mississippi  waters,  and 
even  of  raising  the  blockade  of  the  Gulf  ports. 

The  structure  of  this  vessel  was  peculiar  and 
entirely  new.  Some  years  ago  a  Scotchman  who 
had  never  been  to  sea  wrote  an  original  treatise 
on  naval  tactics  which  became  the  text-book  of 
the  royal  navy,  and  in  the  instance  of  the  "  Mis 
sissippi,"  a  planter  in  the  interior  of  Georgia, 
Mr.  Nelso  Tift,  who  knew  nothing  of  naval 
architecture,  incited  by  the  exigencies  of  the 
moment,  conceived  a  new  method  for  building 
-naval  ships,  which  his  brother,  Mr.  Asa  F.  Tift, 
a  merchant  of  Key  West,  assisted  him  in  devel 
oping.  His  device  was  designed  to  obviate  the 
difficulties  arising  from  the  great  scarcity  of  ship 
builders,  and  the  equal  scarcity  of  the  crooked 
timber  which  they  employed.  The  hull  of  an 
ordinary  vessel  is  made  of  a  skeleton  of  futtocks, 
curved  ribs,  and  crooked  cross-knees,  to  which 
the  planking,  artificially  bent  to  follow  the  lines 
of  the  model,  is  bolted  outside  and  inside.  The 
plan  of  the  Tifts  dispensed  altogether  with  this 
complicate  frame-work,  and  substituted  for  the 
sides  of  the  vessel  a  solid  wall  of  pine  planks 
built  with  the  requisite  thickness  upon  a  flat 
bottom,  and  having  only  straight  lines  and  flat 
surfaces  except  at  the  junction  of  the  sides  with 
the  ends.  This  plan  made  available  for  every 
purpose  of  the  structure,  from  stem  to  stern,  the 
tall  straight  timber  of  the  Southern  forests,  and 
the  simplicity  of  it  placed  the  work  within  the 
capacity  of  ordinary  house  carpenters  and  joiners. 

The  Tift  brothers  submitted  their  plan  to  the 
Secretary  of  the  Navy,  and  that  official,  upon  its 
being  approved  by  a  board  of  experts,  appointed 
the  inventors  agents  of  the  Navy  Department  to 
carry  the  plan  into  execution  by  the  construction 
of  the  "  Mississippi"  at  New  Orleans.  That  city, 
as  the  great  commercial  metropolis  of  the  South, 
and  at  the  gateway,  as  it  were,  of  the  Mississippi, 
was  one  of  the  most  important  strategic  points 
indicated  in  the  movements  of  the  enemy,  and 
as  yet  it  was  almost  naked  of  naval  defenses. 


NAVY 


577 


NAYY 


It  were  tedious  to  recount  all  the  obstacles 
these  men,  who  voluntarily  served  without  com 
pensation,  had  to  conquer  to  achieve  the  work 
they  had  undertaken.  A  building  depot  had"  in 
the  first  instance  to  be  created,  which  involved 
the  sinking  of  piles  in  the  alluvial  banks  of  the 
river  for  the  bed  of  the  ship,  and  the  erection 
of  sheds,  saw-mills,  blacksmith-shops,  and  other 
adjuncts  usually  found  ready  and  at  hand.  The 
bolt-iron  required  was  collected  piecemeal  from 
every  quarter, — New  Orleans,  Macon,  Mobile, 
Chattanooga,  and  elsewhere.  The  building  tim 
ber  was  still  in  leaf,  and  had  to  be  transported, 
when  felled  and  sawed,  from  various  points  in 
an  area  a  hundred  miles  around.  The  Con 
federacy  was  scoured  for  iron- workers  who  were 
willing  or  able  to  roll  the  plates  for  the  casemate, 
until  a  contract  was  made  at  last  with  an  estab 
lishment  at  Atlanta,  which  had  to  change  its 
rollers  for  the  purpose,  but  the  scarcity  of 
iron  had  nearly  balked  this  arrangement.  The 
manufacture  of  the  engines  was  perforce  com 
mitted  to  establishments  already  overtaxed  by 
private  work  and  army  contracts.  Next  to  the 
machinery,  the  most  important  object  was  the 
shafting  for  the  propellers.  It  was  essential  for 
the  security  of  the  vessel  that  this  should  be  of 
wrought  iron.  It  is  a  striking  evidence  of  the 
nakedness  of  the  land  in  regard  to  naval  neces 
sities  that  in  the  whole  Confederacy  there  was 
not  a  foundry  competent  to  make  the  shafting. 

When  at  last  the  inventors  seemed  to  be  driven 
to  the  sorry  expedient  of  substituting  cast-  for 
wrought-iron  shafts,  they  were  fortunate  enough 
to  induce  a  party  in  New  Orleans  who  was  put 
ting  up  an  air-furnace  and  forging  a  large  steam- 
hammer  for  the  purpose  of  making  Armstrong 
guns  for  the  government,  to  adapt  these  appli 
ances  also  to  making  the  shafting.  The  two  side 
or  quarter  shafts  were  thus  made  at  New  Orleans, 
and  the  central  one  was  manufactured  at  Rich- 
mond,  from  a  wrought-iron  shaft  recovered  from 
a  burnt  ship. 

Superadded  to  all  these  difficulties  were  strikes 
of  laborers  for  higher  wages,  delays  in  the  de 
livery  of  timber  from  contractors,  and  financial 
troubles  from  want  of  proper  arrangements  at 
Richmond. 

The  first  plank  of  the  new  vessel  was  laid  on 
the  14th  of  October,  and,  with  little  exception,  a 
force  varying  from  500  to  600  men,  stimulated 
by  liberal  wages  and  jealously  watched  by  the 
committee  of  safety  of  the  city,  were  kept  work 
ing  on  her  from  that  day  forward. 

Anxiety  to  avoid  interruption  in  the  work  in 
duced  the  Tifts,  with  the  concurrence  of  the  naval 
authorities  on  the  spot,  to  postpone  launching 
the  ship  to  the  last  moment.  This  solicitude 
proved  fatal  in  the  end. 

The  enemy's  preparations  for  the  descent  on 
New  Orleans  began  at  Ship  Island  in  the  latter 
part  of  February.  In  March  the  fleet  had  mus 
tered  at  the  mouth  of  the  river,  with  many  of 
the  heaviest  ships  over  the  bar.  The  ability  of 
war-ships  to  run  successfully  past  shore  batteries 
had  been  too  frequently  exemplified  to  admit  of 
question.  Such  was  the  opinion  of  military  and 
naval  men  at  New  Orleans  at  the  time.  The  in 
adequacy  of  our  naval  force  to  cope  with  the 
enemy  was  also  apparent.  The  first  and  most 
effective  obstructions  stretched  across  the  river 
had  been  swept  away  by  the  spring  freshets, 
37 


and  gaps  had  been  made  by  drift-wood  in  those 
that  had  been  substituted.  All  these  admoni 
tory  considerations,  which  it  might  have  been 
supposed  would  have  quickened  the  action  of  the 
Confederates  into  immediate  efforts  to  save  a  ves 
sel  so  formidable  and  so  invaluable  as  the  "  Mis 
sissippi"  by  taking  her  in  time  to  some  secure 
retreat,  failed  to  produce  any  serious  impression. 
Yazoo  River  offered  a  temporary  refuge  at  least, 
and  Vicksburg  was  still  in  our  possession  with 
foundries  and  machine-shops  available  for  con 
tinuing  the  work.  But  one  dominant  idea  seems 
to  have  filled  the  mind  of  the  Tifts,  who,  by  spe 
cial  orders,  had  exclusive  charge  of  the  vessel 
until  delivered  over  for  service, — that  of  pushing 
forward  the  work;  and  this  all-engrossing 'pur 
pose  closed  their  eyes  to  the  palpable  danger  in 
which  she  stood  from  the  menacing  attitude  of 
the  enemy. 

Though  sufficiently  advanced  for  launching 
long  before,  it  was  not  until  the  bombardment 
of  the  forts  by  the  mortar  fleet  had  begun  that 
she  was  put  afloat.  The  first  attempt  to  accom 
plish  this  was  made  on  the  17th  of  April,  and 
proved  abortive.  Three  powerful  steamboats 
attached  to  her  broke  their  connecting  hawsers 
in  the  fruitless  effort  to  pull  her  off  the  ways. 
At  last  it  was  discovered  that  she  had  been  bolted 
to  her  bed  by  some  treacherous  hand.  This  im 
pediment  being  removed,  she  glided  into  the 
river  on  the  following  day  almost  of  her  own  voli 
tion.  It  would  not  yet  have  been  too  late  to 
save  her.  Between  the  18th,  when  she  was 
launched,  and  the  25th,  when  the  enemy  reached 
the  city,  ample  time  and  means  were  at  hand  to 
send  her  up  the  river,  but  the  golden  opportu 
nity  was  not  improved.  She  was  still  allowed 
to  lie  at  the  wharf  with  the  work  upon  her  go 
ing  on,  perhaps  with  more  intense  earnestness 
and  pressing  dispatch,  but  as  serenely  as  if  Far- 
ragut's  fleet  were  a  thousand  miles  away  instead 
of  storming  at  the  cuter  gates  of  the  city. 

At  last,  at  early  daylight  on  the  24th,  the 
startling  intelligence  came  that  the  great  body 
of  the  fleet  had  passed  the  forts  and  was  swiftly 
steaming  up  the  river.  The  news  fell  like  a  clap 
of  thunder  and  produced  general  consternation, 
followed  by  a  relaxation  of  all  police  restraints, 
during  which  the  dregs  of  the  populace  aban 
doned  themselves  to  violence  and  plunder.  It 
was  in  the  midst  of  this  riot  and  uproar  that  the 
hot  and  hurried  attempt  was  at  last  made  to  save 
the  "Mississippi."  But  it  was  now  too  late. 
Commander  Sinclair,  who  had  been  assigned  to 
the  command,  took  her  out  of  the  hands  of  the 
builders.  The  day  was  passed  in  freighting  her 
with  building  materials.  At  about  8  P.M.  he 
started  up  the  river  under  tow  of  two  steam 
boats,  but  a  freshet  was  prevailing  at  the  time, 
and  half  the  night  was  consumed  in  vain  efforts 
to  stem  the  rapid  current.  Midnight  found  the 
fated  vessel  again  at  her  old  moorings.  Early 
the  following  morning,  when  every  attempt  had 
failed  to  obtain  additional  steam-power,  and 
when  the  Federal  squadron  was  in  full  view,  the 
case  had  become  hopeless,  and  the  "  Mississippi" 
was  committed  to  the  flames  to  save  her  from  the 
hands  of  the  enemy. 

The  "  Mississippi"  was  260  feet  long,  with  an 
extreme  breadth  of  58  feet  and  a  depth  of  hold 
of  15  feet.  Her  casemate  sloped  at  an  angle  of 
about  36°  to  the  horizon.  The  upper  slopes 


NAVY 


578 


NAVY 


were  covered  with  three  plates  of  iron  1^  inches 
thick,  each  disposed  in  two  horizontal  courses 
helow,  making  joints  covered  by  the  upper  or 
bolting  course  running  vertically.  The  lower 
slopes  had  two  courses  of  the  same  thickness 
crossing  each  other,  the  one  beneath  running 
lengthwise,  and  the  sides  of  the  ship  between 
these  slopes  had  a  double  layer  of  plates  placed 
lengthwise.  The  level  portion  of  her  shield  or 
upper  deck  was  spread  with  iron  plates  1£  inches 
thick.  She  was  pierced  for  18  guns.  Her  in 
tended  battery  was  a  mixture  of  7^-inch  and  10- 
inch  rifles.  Her  engines  were  horizontal,  with 
cylinders  36  inches  in  diameter,  with  2J  feet 
stroke  of  piston.  She  was  fitted  with  10  double- 
flued  boilers  in  two  different  sets,  30  feet  long 
each,  and  3  propellers,  whose  shafts,  9  inches 
in  diameter,  were,  the  central  one  50  and  the 
others  40  feet  in  length.  She  was  calculated 
for  a  draft,  when  fully  equipped,  of  14  feet,  and 
speed  in  smooth  water  of  from  12  to  14  knots, 
and  was  adapted  for  sea  as  well  as  harbor  and 
river  service. 

The  "Arkansas"  we  have  already  referred  to 
as  the  vessel  that  was  conveyed  from  Memphis 
to  the  upper  waters  of  the  Yazoo  for  completion. 
Like  the  others,  she  had  a  sloping  shield,  which 
was  covered  by  iron  rail  (double  T),  and  her  bat 
tery, — but  in  this  we  may  be  subject  to  correc 
tion, — we  believe,  consisted  of  10  rifled  guns  of 
8-inch  calibre. 

Commanded  by  Commander  Brown,  this  ves 
sel  issued  from  her  river  fastness,  protected  by  a 
barricade  of  rafts  and  a  small  battery,  on  the  15th 
of  July,  1862,  bound  to  Vicksburg.  Near  the 
mouth  of  the  river  she  met,  as  had  been  antici 
pated,  a  reconnoitring  expedition  of  the  enemy, 
consisting  of  the  "  Carondelet,"  a  Western  iron 
clad,  armed  with  8-  and  9-inch  guns  and  one  100- 
pounder  rifled,  the  wooden  gunboat  "Tyler," 
and  the  ram  "Queen  of  the  West,"  unarmed, 
but  manned  with  a  crew  of  sharpshooters.  The 
engagement  which  followed  was  sharp  and  brief 
and  very  destructive  to  the  enemy,  whose  shot 
and  shell  were  wasted  on  the  shield  of  their 
antagonist.  The  shattered  and  almost  disabled 
vessels  ran  for  shelter  to  the  combined  squad 
rons  of  Farragut  and  Davis,  which  lay  directly 
on  the  road  to  Vicksburg,  followed  by  the  "  Ar 
kansas,"  which  dashed  through  this  formidable 
barrier  without  a  moment's  hesitation,  receiv 
ing,  unharmed  and  at  point-blank  range,  the 
fire  of  their  9-  and  10-inch  guns,  and  delivering 
her  own  broadsides  with  fearful  effect.  Before 
the  Federals  had  fairly  recovered  from  the  be 
wilderment  of  the  sudden  and  unexpected  onset 
she  had  dropped  her  anchor  under  the  Vicksburg 
batteries  unharmed  in  hull  or  crew.  On  the 
other  hand,  in  these  rapid  encounters,  which 
occupied  but  a  few  minutes  each,  the  enemy, 
besides  the  damages  sustained  by  their  ships, 
suffered  a  loss  in  killed,  wounded,  and  missing 
of  78  men. 

A  few  hours  after  the  battle  the  Federals, 
under  the  cover  of  a  dark  night,  made  a  des 
perate  attempt  to  destroy  the  "Arkansas"  in 
spite  of  the  batteries  protecting  her,  but  were 
successfully  repulsed.  The  attack  was  renewed 
on  the  night  of  the  22d  with  the  same  result. 

The  career  of  this  vessel  was  destined  to  be 
brief.  While  on  her  way,  on  the  5th  of  the  fol 
lowing  August,  to  co-operate  with  Gen.  Breck- 


enridge  in  an  attack  on  Baton  Rouge,  she  was 
disabled  when  she  had  reached  the  bend  above 
that  place  by  the  breaking  down  of  her  port 
engine.  It  was  patched  up  with  such  means  as 
were  -at  hand,  but  the  engineer  would  not  guar 
antee  that  it  would  last  more  than  half  a  day. 
The  next  morning  she  started  from  her  anchor 
age  with  the  immediate  purpose  of  attacking  the 
"  Essex,"  which  was  seen  approaching  up  the 
river,  when  her  starboard  engine  gave  way.  Be 
ing  thus  rendered  helpless  and  unmanageable  in 
full  sight  of  the  enemy,  her  destruction  was  the 
only  means  left  to  prevent  her  capture.  She  was 
accordingly  run  on  shore  and  set  on  fire  by  the 
officer  then  in  charge,  Lieut.-Communder  Ste 
vens,  the  officers  and  crew  making  their  escape. 

The  impression  made  upon  the  Federals  by  the 
exploits  and  formidable  character  of  the  "Ar 
kansas"  is  pithily  expressed  in  a  letter  of  Ad 
miral  Farragut  to  the  Secretary.  "It  is  one  of 
the  happiest  moments  of  my  life,"  writes  the 
admiral,  "  that  I  am  enabled  to  inform  the  De 
partment  of  the  destruction  of  the  ram  'Ar 
kansas.'  " 

It  is  not  our  purpose  to  follow  up  the  naval 
preparations  in  detail.  They  began  mostly  with 
the  construction  of  wooden  vessels,  for  the 
American  mind  had  been  so  little  occupied  with 
ironclads  that  the  most  enlightened  among  the 
officers  knew  little  on  the  subject.  It  was  Maury 
who  proposed  the  first  vessels  that  were  built, 
and  he  rejected  the  suggestion  that  they  should 
be  mailed  with  iron.  The  idea,  however,  gradu 
ally  gained  ground,  and  at  length  the  success  of 
the  "  Virginia"  in  the  battle  of  Hampton  Roads 
determined  the  policy  of  the  government.  There 
after  all  the  naval  engineering  skill  and  mechani 
cal  labor  that  could  be  commanded  was  devoted 
to  the  construction  of  armored  vessels.  They 
were  built  at  every  available  point, — Charleston, 
Wilmington,  Richmond,  Savannah,  and  on  in 
land  waters  of  the  Carolinas,  Alabama,  and 
Georgia.  As  the  work  progressed,  marked  im 
provements  were  made  on  the  original  models. 
The  submerged  ends  and  knuckles,  the  charac 
teristic  feature  of  the  "  Virginia,"  were  dropped 
out  of  the  future  plans  or  considerably  modified, 
but  the  sloping  shield  prevailed  in  all  the  struc 
tures.  In  three  instances  the  batteries  were 
placed  in  low  citadels  plated  with  6-inch  iron.  The 
vessels  were  generally  built  by  contract  with  pri 
vate  parties,  the  government  agreeing  to  furnish 
the  metal  for  armor,  engines,  and  shafting  ;  these 
were  supplied  by  the  naval  works  at  Richmond, 
Charlotte,  and  Columbus,  and  the  armaments, 
projectiles,  and  all  objects  of  pyrotechny  were 
prepared  by  the  ordnance  establishments  at 
Selma,  Charlotte,  and  Atlanta,  or  Augusta  after 
the  last  place  had  fallen.  We  have  already  more 
than  once  adverted  to  the  scarcity  of  iron.  Dur 
ing  the  whole  construction  of  these  vessels  the 
want  became  more  and  more  urgent.  Finally 
by  the  fall  of  1864  the  last  supply  of  that  metal 
had  been  consumed,  leaving  on  the  stocks  12 
vessels  completed  but  for  their  armor,  which 
would  have  required  4230  tons  that  never  was 
obtained.  This  brought  the  construction  of  that 
class  of  vessels  to  a  final  close.  The  number 
which  had  been  completed  and  commissioned  up 
to  the  24th  of  No vem  ber ,  1 864,  was  25.  Of  these, 
9,  at  that  period,  had  been  lost  to  the  Confed 
eracy, — viz.,  2  by  casualties,  4  burnt  by  their 


NAVY 


579 


NAVY 


own  commanders  to  prevent  capture,  2  captured, 
and  1  destroyed  by  the  enemy. 

The  number  of  wooden  vessels  of  all  classes 
and  descriptions  within  the  waters  of  the  Con 
federacy  fluctuated  so  much  from  month  to 
month  that  it  would  be  hazardous  to  state  it 
positively  without  more  reliable  data  than  we 
have  on  hand.  Probably  they  never  amounted 
to  more  than  50  at  any  one  time.  The  Confed 
erate  navy  had  also  a  peculiar  class  of  boats 
fitted  for  submarine  and  torpedo  service,  which, 
under  the  charge  of  officers  who  devoted  them 
selves  to  that  specialty,  proved  a  valuable  auxili 
ary,  not  only  for  its  capacity  to  inflict  sudden 
and  unexpected  damage,  but  for  the  dread  and 
distrust  it  inspired.  In  July,  1863,  the  Federal 
steamer  "  De  Kalb"  was  sunk  by  a  torpedo  in 
Yazoo  River.  In  April,  1864,  the  "Squib,"  a 
small  torpedo-boat,  darted  unobserved  under  the 
cover  of  night  through  the  Federal  fleet  off 
Newport  News  and  exploded  one  of  these  engines 
under  the  bilge  of  the  "Minnesota,"  greatly 
damaging  the  vessel  without  destroying  her.  In 
May  an  expedition  of  the  enemy  ascending  James 
River  was  retarded  in  its  advance  to  the  speed 
of  a  half-mile  per  hour  by  the  necessity  of  scour 
ing  the  banks  of  the  stream  and  dragging  its 
bottom  to  clear  the  path  of  these  dangerous  im 
pediments,  and  was  finally  diverted  from  the  in 
tended  descent  on  Richmond  by  an  explosion 
under  the  bottom  of  one  of  the  leading  vessels, 
which  was  hurled  into  fragments.  And  it  is  an 
event  to  be  remembered  how,  in  August,  1864, 
the  monitor  "Tecumseh,"  in  the  midst  of  the 
fleet  standing  into  Mobile  Bay,  vanished,  as  it 
were,  from  the  face  of  the  waters  with  every  soul 
on  board  by  coming  in  contact  with  one  of  the 
torpedoes  strewn  in  the  channel. 

From  what  has  preceded  it  may  be  seen  that 
by  the  fall  of  1864  the  Confederate  navy  had 
reached  its  maximum.  To  recapitulate,  it  pos 
sessed  then  16  ironclads,  3  of  which  were  rated 
floating  batteries,  50  wooden  vessels  (assumed), 
and  1  cruiser,  the  "  Shenandoah,"  on  the  high 
seas.  This  final  result  of  all  the  labors  of  prepa 
ration  falls  signally  short  of  that  foreshadowed 
by  the  letter  of  the  Secretary  of  the  Navy  of 
May,  1862,  but,  considering  the  delays  and  diffi 
culties  and  reverses  that  were  encountered,  and 
which  we  have  but  inadequately  described,  it  is 
a  proof  of  wonderful  vigor  and  enterprise  that  so 
much  could  have  been  accomplished. 

The  general  policy  of  the  South  throughout 
the  war  was  to  act  on  the  defensive.  So  far  as 
the  navy  was  concerned,  no  other  could  have 
been  pursued.  Both  the  character  of  its  vessels 
and  their  limited  number  rendered  any  sys 
tematic  course  of  aggression  impossible.  The 
armored  boats  were  adapted  only  for  operating 
in  smooth  water,  and  the  whole  force  was  neces 
sarily  divided  into  detachments,  occupying  the 
most  important  points  of  defense,  where  each 
command  was  kept  at  bay  by  the  superior 
strength  of  the  enemy.  The  Confederacy  was 
therefore  compelled  to  submit  to  the  humilia 
tion  of  a  continuous  blockade  without  the  power 
to  raise  it,  its  vessels  for  the  most  part  lying  idly 
at  their  anchors  and  passively  awaiting  events, 
with  steam  up  and  fires  banked  ready  for  the 
emergency  when  it  should  arrive. 

This  state  of  things  afforded  but  little  scope  for 
enterprises  of  any  magnitude,  but  frequent  oppor 


tunities  occurred  or  were  made  for  striking  a 
blow  by  means  of  special  expeditions. 

The  first  ironclad  employed  by  the  South  was 
a  vessel  of  some  power  called  the  "Manassas." 
She  was  originally  a  ferry-boat,  and  was  trans 
formed  into  a  ram  by  a  private  company  in  New 
Orleans  by  the  addition  of  a  casemate  faced  with 
iron  f  inch  thick,  and  an  iron  prow  10  feet  long. 
She  swam  low  in  the  water,  and  carried  a  60- 
pound  Dahlgren  gun.  The  owners  lent  this 
vessel  to  Commodore  Hollins  for  an  attack  on 
the  blockading  force  in  October,  1861,  then  con 
sisting  of  the  sloops  "  Vincennes,"  "Preble," 
"Water- Witch,"  and  "Richmond,"  all  lying 
inside  of  the  Southwest  Pass. 

With  the  addition  to  his  flotilla  of  razeed  river 
boats,  5  in  number,  and  carrying  11  guns  vary 
ing  from  24-pounders  to  8  inch  columbiads,  Hol 
lins,  having  secretly  made  his  preparations,  car 
ried  the  enterprise  into  effect  on  a  night  so 
profoundly  dark  that  objects  were  not  visible 
20  yards  ahead.  Issuing  from  between  the  Forts 
Jackson  and  St.  Philip,  the  little  squadron,  with 
the"  Manassas, "Lieut.-Commander  Wharley, in 
the  lead,  dropped  down  the  river  so  quietly  Ifcat 
the  surprise  was  complete.  The  crash  of  the  ram 
as  she  buried  her  prow  into  the  first  vessel  that 
could  be  discerned,  which  proved  to  be  the 
"  Richmond,"  followed  by  an  appalling  cry  that 
rang  out  from  the  apparently  sinking  vessel, 
awakened  the  whole  fleet  to  its  first  sense  of 
danger.  Fortunately  for  the  "  Richmond,"  her 
assailant  suffered  from  the  shock  almost  as  much 
damage  as  she  inflicted.  Her  prow  was  badly 
twisted,  and  one  of  her  engines  disabled.  In 
this  crippled  condition  the  ironclad  found  her 
self  carried  by  the  current  all  alone  into  the 
midst  of  the  squadron,  and,  exposed  as  far  as  the 
darkness  permitted  to  its  concentrated  fire,  she 
would  have  fared  badly,  but,  throwing  up  a 
rocket,  the  concerted  signal,  the  fire-barges 
came  sweeping  down  in  full  flame  upon  the 
Federals,  followed  by  the  flotilla,  and  caused  a 
general  stampede.  The  "Richmond,"  though 
with  a  great  hole  in  her  bow,  contrived  to  keep 
afloat,  and  daylight  disclosed  the  dispersed  block- 
aders  far  dow'n  within  the  Southwest  Pass,  with 
two  of  their  vessels  stranded  on  the  middle 
ground.  The  Confederates  stood  down  the  Pass 
within  range,  and  the  little  drama  was  closed  by 
a  distant  cannonade,  in  which  neither  party 
suffered  further  damage.  The  "  Manassas"  had 
so  well  acquitted  herself  on  this  occasion  that 
she  became  the  property  of  the  government  by 
purchase. 

The  first  great  naval  triumph  of  the  South  was 
the  victory  achieved  by  the  ironclad  "Virginia," 
in  the  memorable  battle  of  Hampton  Roads,  on 
the  8th  of  March,  1861, — an  event  interesting  not 
only  for  the  immediate  issues  involved,  but  as 
introducing  a  new  element  in  naval  warfare, 
and  inaugurating  a  revolution  in  the  means 
and  methods  of  future  encounters. 

The  "  Virginia"  was  the  first  naval  structure 
of  any  magnitude  invulnerable  to  shot  and  shell 
that  was  ever  launched  upon  American  waters, 
if  we  except  "  Stevens's  floating  battery,"  de 
signed  for  the  protection  of  New  York,  the  keel 
of  which  was  laid  in  1845.  She  was  originally 
the  "  Merrimac"  of  the  Northern  service,  and 
had  shared  in  the  general  conflagration  of  the 
men-of-war  at  the  Gosport  Navy- Yard,  when 


NAVY 


580 


NAVY 


the  effort  was  made  to  destroy  that  depot  by  a 
party  under  the  command  of  Commander  Pauld- 
ing  in  April,  1861.  She  had  been  scuttled  as  well 
as  set  on  fire  on  that  occasion,  but  on  raising  and 
docking  her  it  was  found  that  the  destruction  had 
not  extended  below  the  water-line,  and  that  the 
vital  portions  of  her  engine  had  escaped  intact. 

The  design  for  converting  the  wreck  of  the  old 
steam-frigate  into  an  ironclad  ram  was  furnished 
by  Commodore  Brooke,  the  naval  chief  of  ord 
nance,  who  also  devised  the  powerful  guns  of 
her  battery.  She  was  about  300  feet  long,  with 
about  55  feet  beam.  The  chief  characteristics  of 
the  new  form  she  was  made  to  assume  as  an  iron 
clad  were  an  armored  casemate,  sloping  at  an 
angle  of  45°,  and  the  submergence  2  feet  below 
the  surface  of  the  water  of  her  entire  hull  proper. 
The  casemate  was  constituted  by  a  wooden  back 
ing  7  inches  thick,  covered  with  two  layers  of 
wrought-iron  plates,  each  2j  inches  thick,  dis 
posed  horizontally  and  vertically  one  above  the 
other.  She  had  in  addition  a  cast-iron  stem  or 
prow  projecting  4  feet,  and  somewhat  in  the  shape 
of  a  hog's  head.  Her  general  appearance  sug 
gested  the  roof  of  a  house,  or  perhaps  a  rope- 
waiK,  floating  on  the  water  with  its  eaves  im 
mersed.  Her  armament  consisted  of  two  7-inch 
Brooke  rifles,  one  forward  and  the  other  aft, 
with  a  broadside  of  two  32-pounder  Brooke  rifles, 
and  six  Dahlgren  9-inch  shell-guns.  When  she 
was  fitted  out,  as  the  pressure  for  the  supply  of 
projectiles  was  very  great  on  the  ordnance  de 
partment,  and  it  was  not  expected  that  she  would 
have  any  but  wooden  vessels  to  encounter,  she 
was  not  supplied  with  solid  shot  or  bolts. 

The  peculiar  structure  of  the  "  Virginia"  in 
volved  new  and  untried  conditions  affecting  her 
speed,  steerage,  and  general  manoeuvring  which 
there  was  no  opportunity  of  testing.  The  ship 
was  begun  the  latter  part  of  June,  1861,  com 
pleted  the  latter  part  of  February,  1862,  and 
hurried  into  action  the  moment  she  was  equipped. 
In  point  of  fact,  her  experimental  trip  was  made 
when  she  plunged  into  battle. 

The  Federals  had  been  watching  with  no  little 
concern  the  work  as  it  progressed  on  the  "  Vir 
ginia,"  while  hurrying  at  the  same  time  to  com 
pletion  the  "  Monitor,"  of  which  we  shall  directly 
have  occasion  to  speak.  Meanwhile,  a  powerful 
fleet  had  been  mustered  in  the  waters  near  Fort 
ress  Monroe  and  Newport  News,  one  of  whose 
principal  objects  was  to  intercept  and  destroy  the 
"  Virginia"  as  soon  as  she  should  make  her  ap 
pearance, — a  task  which  with  such  a  force  might, 
before  the  unhappy  experience  of  the  8th  of 
March,  have  been  reasonably  deemed  easy  to 
accomplish.  The  Federal  squadron  consisted 
of  the  steam-frigates  "  Minnesota"  and  "  Ro- 
anoke,"  of  50  guns  each,  the  sailing-frigates 
"Congress"  and  "St.  Lawrence,"  of  50  and  of 
12  guns  respectively,  and  the  sloop-of-war  "  Cum 
berland,"  of  24  guns.  The  guns  were  all  of  8- 
or  9-inch  calibre,  and  made  in  the  aggregate  186 
broadside  pieces,  in  addition  to  which  were  sev 
eral  10-inch  guns  on  pivot.  This  force  of  the 
enemy  was  further  swelled  by  six  or  seven  steam- 
gunboats  heavily  armed. 

Everything  seemed  propitious  when  the  "  Vir 
ginia,"  bearing  the  broad-pennant  of  Commodore 
Buchanan  and  accompanied  by  two  small  steam 
ers,  the  "  Beaufort"  and  "  Raleigh,"  of  1  gun 
each,  at  11  A.M.  started  from  the  Gosport  Navy- 


Yard  to  encounter  the  enemy.  The  sky  was 
bright,  the  water  smooth,  the  hostile  vessels 
within  easy  reach,  and  the  officers  and  crew 
cheerful  and  confident.  And  yet  at  the  mo 
ment  the  success  of  the  enterprise  could  by  no 
means  have  been  held  as  certain.  The  ironclad 
had  yet  to  prove  her  invulnerability,  and  the 
ordeal  in  prospect  was  a  formidable  one.  The 
Federal  squadron  was  divided  into  two  bodies ; 
the  "  Minnesota,"  "  Roanoke,"  and  "St.  Law 
rence"  lay  near  Fortress  Monroe,  and  the  "Con 
gress,"  with  the  "  Cumberland,"  was  anchored 
off  Newport  News,  so  that,  whichever  field  of 
battle  was  chosen,  it  was  not  only  the  guns  afloat 
that  were  to  be  met,  but  those  on  shore. 

A  part  of  the  Confederate  fleet,  the  "  Patrick 
Henry,"  of  12  guns,  the  "  Jamestown,"  of  2, 
and  the  "  Teazer,"  of  1,  at  this  time  were  wait 
ing,  a  little  inside  of  the  mouth  of  the  James 
River,  the  first  shot  from  the  "  Virginia"  as  the 
signal  to  run  the  gauntlet  of  the  batteries  at  New 
port  News  and  take  their  share  in  the  fight.  The 
accession  of  these  vessels  would  swell  the  number 
of  Confederate  guns  to  27. 

Buchanan  reached  Sewell's  Point  at  1  P.M., 
and  found  the  enemy,  who  had  caught  sight  of 
his  smoke,  on  the  alert  in  both  directions.  Doub 
ling  round  Craney  Island  flats  and  taking  the 
lead  he  selected  the  "  Cumberland"  as  the  first 
object  of  attack,  between  which  vessel  and  the 
Confederates  there  lay  a  clear  reach  of  about  3 
miles  of  unobstructed  water.  He  bore  directly 
down  on  that  ship,  and,  notwithstanding  the 
"  Congress"  lay  close  to  his  path,  held  unflinch 
ingly  to  his  course  till  he  struck  her.  As  he 
came  within  easy  range  of  the  "  Congress"  he 
opened  the  battle  with  his  bow-guns  charged 
with  grape,  which  flew  over  her  or  lodged  in 
her  sides  without  much  damage.  This  drew 
from  her  a  full  broadside  when  the  two  ships 
were  about  1200  yards  apart.  Her  shell  burst 
against  the  armor  and  fell  in  fragments,  and 
her  solid  shot  glanced  or  rebounded  and  tum 
bled  into  the  water ;  both  were  as  harmless  as 
would  have  been  a  shower  of  paper  bullets. 
The  return  broadside  of  the  "Virginia"  was 
terribly  destructive,  crashing  through  the  wooden 
sides  and  slaughtering  a  large  number  of  the  crew. 

Still  holding  steadily  to  her  course,  she  pushed 
onward  and  past  the  "  Congress,"  and,  receiving 
the  same  ineffectual  fire  from  the  "  Cumberland," 
poured  into  her  as  she  approached  the  contents 
of  her  bow-gun,  which  raked  her  fore-and-aft 
and  literally  mowed  down  the  men  in  heaps  as 
they  stood  at  their  quarters.  The  next  moment, 
in  the  midst  of  this  frightful  carnage,  the  iron 
clad,  with  the  impetus"  of  a  full  head  of  steam, 
plunged  headlong  into  the  bows  of  her  antago 
nist  with  instantaneous  and  decisive  effect.  The 
crash  of  the  rending  planks  and  timbers  was  dis 
tinctly  heard  in  the  midst  of  the  roar  of  guns 
and  the  reverberations  of  the  armored  casemate 
on  which  the  missiles  were  playing  as  upon  an 
iron  drum.  The  "  Cumberland"  was  a  helpless 
wreck  from  that  instant..  As  the  "Virginia" 
withdrew  from  the  contact  she  left  a  great 
breach  behind,  into  which  the  water  gushed  in 
torrents,  and  the  hapless  ship  began  at  once  to 
settle.  In  a  short  time  she  heeled  over  and  sank, 
grounding  at  a  depth  of  50  feet  with  nothing  visi 
ble  left  but  the  tops  of  her  mast  and  her  flag  still 
flying.  The  contest,  though  so  unequal,  had 


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581 


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been  as  desperate  as  it  was  brief.  The  firing 
from  both  ships  had  never  ceased  from  the  be 
ginning  to  the  end  of  the  encounter,  and — be  it 
said  in  all  honor  to  the  heroic  defenders  of  the 
Stars  and  Stripes — the  last  shot  from  the  sink 
ing  ship  came  from  guns  that  were  about  dipping 
their  muzzles  in  the  water.  So  rapid  had  been 
the  destruction  of  the  "  Cumberland"  no  time 
was  afforded  to  save  the  wounded,  and  those  in 
capable  of  helping  themselves  were  carried  to  the 
bottom.  The  rest  of  the  crew  jumped  overboard 
as  the  ship  went  down,  and  many  were  drowned 
before  being  reached  by  the  boats  which  were 
sent  from  Newport  News  to  their  rescue.  Out  of 
a  complement  of  376  men,  officers  and  crew  all 
told,  117  were  lost  and  23  missing. 

While  the  "Virginia"  was  thus  proving  her 
resistless  power  on  the  "  Cumberland,"  the 
"Beaufort"  and  "Raleigh"  were  each  playing 
their  single  rifled  piece  upon  the  "  Congress" 
with  quick  and  sharp  results,  the  odds  against 
them  being  largely  compensated  by  their  ability 
through  steam-power  to  choose  distance  and  posi 
tion  as  well  as  by  the  larger  and  fixed  target  the 
enemy  presented. 

As  the  "Cumberland"  disappeared  from  the 
scene  the  Confederate  vessels  hove  in  sight  in 
rapid  approach  from  James  River.  They  dashed 
through  a  storm  of  shot  and  shell,  grape  and 
canister,  poured  into  them  from  the  batteries  of 
Newport  News,  in  which  the  "  Patrick  Henry" 
in  the  loss  of  a  few  men  was  the  only  sufferer, 
and  joined  the  two  small  steamers  in  the  attack 
on  the  "  Congress."  Meanwhile,  to  escape  the 
fate  of  her  consort  that  vessel,  with  the  help  of 
her  topsails  and  a  tug-boat,  had  contrived  to  put 
herself  in  shoal  water,  where  she  grounded. 

While  all  this  was  going  on  Buchanan  was 
manoeuvring  for  the  best  position  to  turn  his 
guns  on  the  "  Congress."  This  was  a  matter  of 
no  little  difficulty  in  the  contracted  space  of  the 
theatre  of  the  combat  with  a  vessel  of  the  length 
and  draft  of  the  "Virginia,"  so  that  he  was 
compelled  to  run  past  the  batteries  of  Newport 
News  for  a  more  roomy  area  in  the  mouth  of  the 
James,  in  order  to  put  her  head  in  the  proper  di 
rection.  The  "  Congress,"  mistaking  the  move 
ment  for  a  withdrawal  from  action,  gave  three 
cheers.  The  shore  batteries  opened  a  furious  fire 
during  the  ironclad's  passage  to  and  fro  in  close 
proximity.  The  pounding  she  endured  did  not 
start  a  single  rivet  or  bolt  of  her  armor.  Her 
return  fire  silenced  some  of  the  batteries,  blew 
up  a  steamer  at  the  wharf,  and  sank  a  schooner. 

The  fate  of  the  "  Congress"  was  now  swiftly 
determined.  The  "  Virginia"  took  a  raking  posi 
tion  under  her  stern  at  a  distance  of  about  200 
yards,  and  delivered  her  shot  and  shell  with 
all  the  deliberation  and  precision  that  might 
have  attended  a  holiday  practice.  The  "Con 
gress"  had  thus  the  concentrated  fire  of  the 
whole  squadron  upon  her,  which  she  endured 
to  the  last  moment.  It  was  not  until  her  whole 
broadside  batteries  were  disabled  and  her  crew 
were  rapidly  falling  in  every  discharge  from  the 
enemy  that  two  white  flags  were  displayed,  one 
at  the  gaff  and  the  other  half-masted  at  the  main. 

This  gave  a  momentary  pause  to  the  havoc. 
The  "  Beaufort"  and  "  Raleigh"  were  dispatched 
with  orders  to  take  possession,  make  prisoners  of 
the  officers,  allow  the  crew  to  land,  and  burn  the 
frigate.  While  in  the  execution  of  this  mission, 


and  while  the  white  flags  were  still  flying  upon 
the  conquered  ship,  a  fire  was  opened  upon  those 
vessels  from  the  shore  batteries.  This  took  place 
after  the  formal  surrender  of  themselves  and  of 
their  vessel  had  been  made  on  board  of  the 
"  Beaufort"  by  the  commanding  officer  and  ex 
ecutive,  who,  at  their  own  request,  had  been 
temporarily  released  to  assist  in  having  the 
wounded  transferred  to  the  two  steamers.  Those 
vessels  were  thus  compelled  to  leave,  and  made 
their  way  to  Norfolk  with  such  of  the  wounded 
as  they  had  received. 

Buchanan  now  sent  a  boat  in  charge  of  Lieut. 
Minor,  convoyed  by  the  "Teazer,"  with  orders 
to  set  fire  to  the  "  Congress,"  but  was  baffled  in 
this  fresh  effort  by  a  renewal  of  volleys  from  the 
enemy  upon  the  party,  under  which  some  lives 
were  lost  and  Minor  was  wounded.  Finally, 
under  these  repeated  provocations,  he  determined 
to  effect  his  object  by  incendiary  shot.  This 
was  soon  accomplished,  and  the  "Congress," 
which  had  been  abandoned  by  her  officers  and 
crew,  who  saved  the  wounded  in  their  retreat, 
was  speedily  wrapped  in  flames  and  reduced  to 
fragments  as  soon  as  they  reached  the  magazine. 

Leaving  the  burning  vessel  to  her  fate,  the 
"Virginia,"  with  the  "Patrick  Henry"  and 
"Jamestown"  in  company,  next  proceeded  to 
attack  the  "  Minnesota."  That  vessel,  manoau- 
vring  in  shoal  water  to  avoid  the  direct  onset  of- 
the  ironclad,  had  run  aground,  and  was  now  a 
firm  and  fast  fixture  about  2  miles  from  Newport 
News  on  the  north  side  of  the  North  Channel. 
With  the  "  Roanoke"  and  "  St.  Lawrence"  she 
had  come  late  into  action,  in  which  they  engaged 
at  long  range. 

The  attack  on  the  "  Minnesota"  occupied  the 
three  closing  hours  of  that  eventful  day.  The 
"  Virginia"  opened  her  fire,  but  without  serious 
effect,  at  a  distance  of  about  1  mile  from  the  en 
emy,  the  nearest  point  she  could  reach.  The  rifled 
guns  of  the  "  Patrick  Henry"  and  "  James 
town"  were  now  telling  and  did  considerable 
damage.  The  only  gun  the  "  Minnesota"  could 
bring  to  bear  was  her  11-inch  gun  on  pivot. 

Night  at  last  put  an  end  to  the  contest.  The 
Confederates,  satisfied  that  the  shoal  would  hold 
fast  the  frigate  till  next  day,  doubled  the  west 
end  of  the  middle  ground  and  made  their  way 
for  anchorage  under  Se well's  Point,  merely  paus 
ing  to  give  her  a  parting  broadside  as  they  came 
abreast  of  her  in  their  passage  thither. 

About  9  o'clock  in  the  evening  of  that  exciting 
day  the  worsted  Federal  squadron,  or  what  was 
left  of  it,  was  cheered  by  a  new  and  important 
accession  to  its  force  in  the  arrival  of  the  "  Mon 
itor."  The  fame  of  that  iron  vessel  had  pre 
ceded  her,  and  her  arrival  at  so  opportune  a 
moment  was  as  welcome  as  it  was  unexpected. 
She  was  built  after  a  design  and  plan  devised 
by  the  distinguished  mechanician  Ericsson,  and 
had  no  antetype  in  any  known  naval  structure. 
She  was  smaller,  lighter,  and  from  her  inferior 
draft  and  greater  mobility  was  infinitely  more 
manageable,  than  the  bulky  competitor  against 
which  she  was  about  to  be  pitted.  She  swam 
the  water  at  a  depth  that  brought  her  metallic 
spar-deck  flush  with  the  water,  and  offered  no 
mark  to  the  shot  of  the  enemy  but  a  revolving 
central  citadel  10  feet  high  and  20  in  diameter, 
surmounted  by  a  pilot-house  in  the  form  of  a 
low  turret,  and  concentrating  within  its  imper- 


NAVY 


582 


NAVY 


'vious  iron  walls  her  whole  battery,  which  con 
sisted  of  two  11-inch  rifled  guns. 

The  contest  under  this  change  of  conditions 
was  renewed  early  in  the  forenoon  of  the  9th,  the 
"Virginia"  now  commanded  by  Lieut.-Com- 
mander  Jones,  who  had  succeeded  Buchanan, 
disabled  by  a  severe  wound  the  previous  day. 
The  "  Virginia"  was  again  supported  by  the 
"  Patrick  Henry"  and  "  Jamestown." 

The  combat  was  of  a  novel  and  striking  char 
acter.  It  resolved  itself  largely  into  a  duel  be 
tween  the  ironclad  and  the  "  Monitor,"  the  one 
cumbrous  and  heavy,  dragging  at  times  in  the 
mud  owing  to  her  great  draft,  and  requiring  a 
free  scope  for  effective  evolutions,  but  fighting 
in  a  very  restricted  space;  the  other  of  light 
draft,  agile,  and  buoyant,  and  turning  round  in 
an  area  whose  diameter  might  almost  be  meas 
ured  by  her  own  length,  while  each  vessel  was 
impenetrable  to  the  missiles  of  the  other. 

The  efforts  of  the  "  Virginia"  were  mainly 
directed  to  two  objects,  viz.,  to  sink  her  antag 
onist  by  running  her  down  and  to  improve  every 
opportunity  to  hurl  her  shot  into  the  "  Minne 
sota,"  still  lying  helplessly  aground.  The  "  Mon 
itor,"  on  the  other  hand,  while  not  declining  an 
engagement  at  close  quarters,  aimed  at  manoeu 
vring  so  as  to  elude  an  onset  that  might  be  fatal, 
and,  while  endeavoring  to  crush  the  armor  of  the 
."  Virginia"  with  her  heavy  11-inch  guns,  at  the 
same  time  sought  to  maintain  a  position  that 
would  most  effectually  cover  the  stranded  frigate. 

Twice  the  "  Virginia"  succeeded  in  running 
into  her,  but  not  with  the  required  impetus  or  a 
stroke  sufficiently  direct  to  effect  her  purpose. 
The  buoyancy  of  the  struck  vessel  saved  her :  she 
glided  from  beneath  the  blow  and  swam  as  up 
right  as  ever. 

During  the  action  the  "  Minnesota"  was  very 
much  cut  up  in  spite  of  the  interposition  of  the 
"  Monitor."  One  shot  especially  from  the  bow- 
gun  of  the  ironclad  produced  great  havoc,  bat 
tering  down  her  bulkheads  and  in  its  passage 
along  her  decks  exploding  cartridges,  which  set 
her  on  fire.  The  next  shot  blew  up  a  steamer 
alongside  of  her.  The  rifle-guns  of  the  two 
steamers  did  also  their  part  in  crippling  her. 

On  this  occasion  the  "  Minnesota"  was  able  to 
employ  her  broadside  guns,  which  in  one  in 
stance,  were  leveled  against  her  adversary  at 
point-blank  range,  but  they  might  as  well  have 
been  discharged  in  the  air.  In  the  midst  of  the 
battle  the  ironclad  ran  on  shore.  With  her  mas 
sive  dead  weight  the  position  was  a  critical  one, 
but  luckily  she  was  backed  off  before  any  advan 
tage  could  be  taken  of  the  accident. 

The  struggle  between  the  combatants  was  main 
tained  with  desperate  earnestness  on  both  sides 
without  other  results  than  those  noted,  when  the 
Confederate  commander  thought  it  useless  to  pro 
tract  it.  He  was  unprovided  with  solid  shot  or 
bolts  which  might  have  proved  effective  against 
the  citadel  of  the  "  Monitor,"  on  which  his  shell 
could  make  no  impression,  and  that  vessel  had 
retired  to  shoal  water  beyond  the  reach  of  attack 
by  ramming.  The  "  Minnesota"  was  also  inac 
cessible  to  close  approach,  and  believed  to  be  en 
tirely  disabled.  There  was,  therefore,  nothing 
left  to  accomplish,  and  about  noon  the  Confeder 
ate  squadron  left  for  Norfolk  to  repair  such  slight 
damages  as  they  had  sustained  during  the  two 
actions. 


Indeed,  the  damage,  considering  the  pounding 
to  which  the  "  Virginia"  had  been  exposed,  was 
so  inconsiderable  that  the  hopes  of  the  most  san 
guine  as  to  her  powers  of  endurance  were  more 
than  realized.  A  shallow  indentation  on  two  of 
her  plates  was  the  only  mark  left  upon  her  armor  ; 
her  steam-pipe  and  smoke-stack  were  riddled, 
two  of  her  guns  were  shorn  of  their  muzzles,  her 
anchors  were  lost,  her  stem  twisted,  and  her  prow 
was  left  in  the  breach  it  had  gored  in  the  bows 
of  the  "Cumberland."  Thus  in  a  short  time 
every  repair  was  completed,  and  supplied  with 
solid  shot  and  bolts,  she  made  the  tour  of  Hamp 
ton  Roads  in  the  hopes  of  testing  them  on  the 
"  Monitor,"  but  no  engagement  followed. 

The  question  of  the  value  of  ironclads  for  har 
bor  defense  as  compared  with  wooden  vessels  was 
determined  in  Hampton  Roads  at  once  and  for 
ever.  In  the  two  actions  the  entire  loss  of  the 
"  Virginia"  was  2  killed  and  17  wounded.  The 
disastrous  result  to  the  Federals  may  be  summed 
up  as  the  complete  disablement  of  one  frigate  and 
the  destruction  of  another,  with  a  first-class  sloop, 
and  the  aggregate  loss  on  board  of  the  two  latter 
vessels  of  255  killed  and  23  missing.  The  loss 
on  board  of  the  disabled  vessel,  which  must  have 
been  considerable,  we  have  no  means  of  ascer 
taining. 

We  have  been  led  to  dwell  at  some  length  upon 
the  actions  in  Hampton  Roads  by  the  novel  and 
remarkable  expedients  that  were  first  employed 
in  these  contests.  The  "  Virginia"  came  out  of 
the  conflict  a  historical  ship.  In  all  future  narra 
tives  of  naval  war  she  will  loom  up  conspicuously 
as  having  determined  a  new  line  of  development 
in  naval  forces  leading  to  a  complete  revolution  in 
the  naval  systems  of  the  whole  world,  as  well  as 
those  of  coast  and  harbor  defenses.  The  triumph 
of  that  vessel  was  a  brilliant  one,  but  short-lived. 
The  story  of  her  final  fate  is  soon  told. 

When  the  exigencies  of  the  war  compelled  the 
evacuation  of  Norfolk,  the  "Virginia,"  now 
under  command  of  Commodore  Tattnall,  was 
left  in  a  critical  position.  She  had  no  means  of 
sustenance  except  a  limited  supply,  and  no  means 
of  renewing  that  supply  when  exhausted.  She 
was  lying  near  Craney  Island,  and  merely  mis 
tress  of  the  waters  within  reach  of  her  guns  for 
a  few  uncertain  days. 

In  this  dilemma  Commodore  Tattnall,  on  whom 
the  government  seemed  to  have  silently  cast  the 
responsibility  of  disposing  of  the  ship,  determined 
if  possible  to  reach  Richmond.  One  obstruction 
only  lay  in  his  way,  but  that  was  formidable. 
A  shoal,  on  which  at  the  top  of  the  flood  there 
were  3  feet  less  water  than  his  vessel  drew, 
stretched  across  the  river  a  little  above  City 
Point.  The  pilots  promised  to  tide  him  over 
safely  if  he  could  reduce  the  draft,  which  was 
at  the  time  22J,  to  18  feet.  In  the  emergency' 
nothing  was  left  but  to  make  the  attempt.  Every 
object  of  weight  except  what  was  actually  neces 
sary  for  defense  was  cast  overboard  to  lighten  the 
ship  ;  shot  and  shell,  chains,  anchors,  water,  coal, 
provisions,  all  followed  one  another  into  the 
river.  But  all  was  of  no  avail.  The  ironclad 
rose  out  of  the  water  until  her  draft  was 
lessened  to  19£  feet,  and  there  she  stood  with 
all  the  movable  heavy  material  out  of  her  and 
a  broad  streak  of  unsheathed  bottom  resting 
above  her  water-line.  The  alternative  then  pre 
sented  itself  of  a  certain  capture  by  the  enemy, 


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583 


NAVY 


even  by  blockade,  within  a  time  that  might  be 
calculated,  or  her  destruction.  A  council  of 
war  decided  that  she  should  be  burnt,  and  the 
career  of  the  "  Virginia"  was  thus  closed  on  the 
morning  of  May  11,  1862. 

If,  after  the  fight  of  the  "  Virginia,"  the  value 
of  ironclads  for  harbor  defense  required  any  con 
firmation,  it  was  amply  supplied  by  the  extraor 
dinary  display  of  endurance  exhibited  by  the 
"  Tennessee"  in  her  engagement  with  the  Fed 
eral  squadron  in  1864. 

That  vessel  was  in  round  numbers  209  feet 
long  by  an  extreme  breadth  of  beam  of  48  feet, 
and  drew  on  the  average  14  feet  water.  She 
was  built  of  a  combination  of  yellow  pine  and 
oak.  The  sides  of  her  hull  proper  were  about  8 
feet  thick  from  knuckle  to  keel,  and  protected 
by  sponsors  coated  with  a  double  layer  of  2-inch 
wrought-iron  plates.  These  defenses  dipped  5 
feet  below  the  water-surface,  and  terminated 
forward  in  a  stout  iron-sheathed -beak  projecting 
from  the  bow  at  2  feet  under  water. 

The  casemate  was  79  feet  long  by  28  feet  wide 
in  the  clear,  leaving  unoccupied  a  considerable 
margin  of  waist-deck  on  either  side  of  its  base 
and  the  entire  quarter-deck,  both  of  which  were 
sheathed  with  2-inch  wrought-iron  plates.  The 
framing  was  a  marvel  of  strength  and  solidity. 
It  consisted  of  heavy  yellow  pine  beams  closely 
joined  together  in  a  vertical  position,  with  5J- 
inch  planking  of  the  same  material  laid  on  hori 
zontally  outside,  on  which  again  was  a  layer  of 
4-inch  oak  timber  bolted  on  vertically  ;  added  to 
all  was  an  inside  lining  of  2<}-inch  oak  planking 
applied  diagonally,  the  whole  constituting  a 
backing  to  the  wrought-iron  armor,  25  inches 
thick.  The  armor  was  secured  by  bolts  passing 
through  the  entire  mass.  It  was  6  inches  thick 
on  the  forward  slope,  and  consisted  of  two  courses 
of  plates  of  equal  thickness ;  on  the  side  slopes 
and  at  the  rear  three  courses  of  plates  were  laid, 
two  of  which  were  2  inches  thick  covered  by  one 
of  1  inch  thickness. 

The  casemate  had  a  flat  top  consisting  of  heavy 
wrought-iron  grating,  in  which  hatchways  were 
contrived  by  swinging  portions  of  it  on  hinges 
so  as  to  open  outwardly.  The  port-holes,  10  in 
number,  two  on  either  broadside,  three  aft,  and 
three  forward,  were  horizontal  apertures  long 
enough  to  give  free  scope  for  training  the  guns, 
but  affording  little  space  for  elevation  or  de 
pression. 

The  battery  of  the  "  Tennessee"  consisted  of  6 
rifle  Brooke  guns,  two  of  which  were  7|-inch 
bore,  mounted  one  forward  and  one  aft,  and  four 
6-inch  bore,  carried  two  on  each  side.  The  pro 
jectiles  were  95  pounds  in  weight  and  the  solid 
shot  110  pounds. 

The  pressing  urgency  for  the  services  of  this 
vessel  caused  her  to  be  equipped  with  the  utmost 
dispatch,  which  may  account  for  a  remarkable 
oversight  in  the  arrangement  of  her  steering- 
gear,  which,  as  we  shall  see  in  the  sequel,  was 
the  proximate  cause  of  her  capture.  No  leisure 
was  left  for  trial-trips  and  such  corrections  and 
improvements  as  those  tests  would  have  sug 
gested.  Her  crew  were  generally  raw  and  inex 
perienced.  Seamen  were  so  scarce  in  the  Con 
federacy  that  they  formed  but  a  small  fraction 
of  her  ship's  company.  These  observations  apply 
equally  to  the  3  third-class  wooden  steamers 
forming,  with  the  "Tennessee,"  the  squadron 


under  the  command  of  Admiral  Buchanan  at 
Mobile,  viz.,  the  "Morgan,"  Capt.  Harrison; 
"  Games,"  Capt.  Bennett :  and  "  Selma,"  Lieut. 
Commanding  Murphy.  The  "Morgan"  and 
"  Gaines"  mounted  each  six  6-inch  rifle-guns, 
and  the  "  Selma"  four  guns  of  the  same  descrip 
tion.  The  aggregate  force  of  the  squadron  was 
470  men  and  22  guns. 

On  the  morning  of  the  5th  of  August,  1864, 
this  small  fleet  was  waiting  under  the  guns  of 
Fort  Morgan,  in  Mobile  Bay,  the  encounter  with 
the  Federal  squadron  of  18  ships,  including  4 
monitors,  manned  by  2700  men,  and  mounting 
in  all  199  guns,  which  ranged  from  9  to  15 
inches  in  calibre,  and  threw  projectiles  varying 
in  weight  from  84  to  428  pounds. 

The  bare  statement  of  the  immense  disparity 
between  the  antagonistic  forces  foreshadows  the 
inevitable  result  of  the  conflict  we  are  about 
briefly  to  sketch. 

The  Federal  squadron  was  commanded  by  Ad 
miral  Farragut.  It  consisted  of  the  4  monitors 
already  referred  to,  the  "  Tecumseh,"  "  Man 
hattan,"  "  Winnebago,"  and  "Chickasaw,"  the 
two  first  armed  each  with  two  15-inch  guns,  and 
the  others  each  with  four  11-inch  guns,  and  14 
steamers,  viz.,  the  flag-ship  "Hartford,"  28 
guns,  "Brooklyn,"  26,  "Octora,"  10,  "  Meta- 
comet,"  10,  "Eichmond,"  24,  "Port  Eoyal," 
8,  "  Lackawanna,"  14,  "  Seminole,"  9,  "  Mon- 
ongahela,"  12,  "  Kennebec,"  5,  "  Ossipee,"  13, 
"Oneida,"  10,  "  Galena,"  14,  and  "Itasca,"  4 
guns. 

The  preparations  of  the  enemy  for  battle,  from 
all  accounts,  embraced  every  expedient  that  the 
most  wary  foresight  could  suggest  for  putting 
each  vessel  in  the  best  possible  defensive  condi 
tion.  Besides  the  customary  precautions  in  such 
cases,  the  steering-wheels  were  barricaded  with 
sails  and  hammocks,  the  hurricane-decks  spread 
with  sand-bags  to  protect  the  machinery  under 
neath,  while  chain-cables,  snaked  in  close  fakes 
up  and  down  the  sides,  converted  each  wooden 
vessel  for  the  time  being  into  quasi-ironclads. 

The  squadron  passed  over  the  bar  at  the  mouth 
of  Mobile  Bay  at  early  daylight  of  the  day  stated, 
and  steamed  midway  up  the  main  ship-channel, 
which  ran,  at  the  nearest  point,  within  about  a 
half-mile  of  Fort  Morgan.  It  was  ranged  in  an 
order  of  battle  of  one  compact  line,  headed  by 
the  monitors,  with  the  "  Tecumseh"  in  the  lead, 
followed  by  the  wooden  vessels,  lashed  two 
abreast,  with  the  side-wheel  steamers  on  the 
off-shore  or  port  side  of  their  consorts.  The 
"Brooklyn"  was  the  advance  ship  at  starting 
of  the  wooden  vessels,  the  "  Hartford"  following 
in  her  immediate  wake. 

As  the  force  drew  near  Fort  Morgan  the 
"  Tecumseh"  opened  the  drama  by  a  single  shot, 
which  was  returned  by  a  volley  as  the  wooden 
ships  came  in  closer  range.  The  battle  then 
began  in  earnest,  with  a  furious  cannonade  on 
both  sides,  each  ship  plying  her  bow-guns  until 
sufficiently  advanced  to  make  her  broadside  avail 
able,  and  the  fort,  in  its  turn,  maintaining  a 
steady  and  destructive  fire  through  the  hail  of 
shot  and  shell  that  was  making  considerable 
havoc  among  the  gunners  at  the  embrasures. 

The  flag-ship  and  the  "  Brooklyn"  were  the 
severest  sufferers  under  the  fire,  both  losing  a 
number  of  men.  A  startling  event  occurred  soon 
after  the  engagement,  which  might  have  dis- 


NAVY 


584 


NAVY 


turbed  the  equanimity  of  a  less  resolute  man 
than  the  chief  of  the  squadron.  The  "  Tecum- 
seh,"  at  the  moment  some  300  yards  in  the  lead, 
ran  upon  a  torpedo,  and  disappeared  almost  with 
the  suddenness  of  an  apparition,  carrying  down 
nearly  the  whole  ship's  company  of  123  men, 
including  the  commander. 

Almost  upon  the  heels  of  this  thrilling  inci 
dent,  the  "  Brooklyn,"  in  order  to  avoid  a  sup 
posed  nest  of  torpedoes,  as  indicated  by  buoys, 
nearly  under  her  bow,  reversed  her  engine,  and 
commenced  backing,  at  the  risk  of  throwing  the 
whole  column  into  confusion  at  a  critical  junc 
ture.  The  danger  was  averted  by  the  "  Hart 
ford"  promptly  dashing  to  the  head  of  the  line 
and  running  safely  over  the  suspected  spot.  By 
these  manoeuvres  the  flag-ship  and  the  "  Brook 
lyn"  interchanged  positions. 

As  the  enemy  was  about  emerging  from  under 
the  fire  of  the  fort,  he  met  the  Confederate  fleet 
drawn  up  in  mid-channel  behind  a  line  of  torpe 
does,  which,  probably  from  having  been  too  long 
submerged,  proved  of  no  service  in  checking  him. 

The  "Tennessee,"  supported  by  3  gunboats, 
began  the  battle  by  opening  upon  the  flag-ship 
at  about  6.30  A.M.,  and  followed  up  the  attack  by 
bearing  down  upon  her  antagonist  at  full  head 
of  steam,  in  the  hopes  of  sinking  her.  The  alert 
ness  and  superior  speed  of  the  "  Hartford"  saved 
her.  She  steamed  ahead  untouched.  Baffled  in 
this  purpose,  the  ironclad  swept  round  in  a  wide 
circle  to  gain  a  proper  heading  and  impetus  to 
repeat  the  attempt  upon  the  "  Brooklyn,"  the 
next  ship  in  the  line.  The  second  attempt  was 
equally  fruitless  and  owing  to  the  same  cause, — 
the  superior  fleetness  of  her  intended  victim. 
Meanwhile,  the  guns  were  vigorously  plied  on 
both  sides,  while  the  Federals  still  advanced  in 
unbroken  column  up  the  bay  in  the  direction  of 
a  pocket  of  deep  water  known  as  the  "  Lower 
Fleet." 

The  Confederate  gunboats,  comparatively  frail 
structures  at  best,  and  bare  of  all  supplemental 
defenses,  gave  no  very  cheering  promise  of  being 
able  to  render  effective  support  to  their  chief 
against  such  heavy  odds  ;  but  they  were  handled 
skillfully  and  served  their  rifle-pieces  with  spirit 
and  effect.  One  shot  alone  from  one  of  them, 
according  to  the  official  report  of  the  enemy, 
killed  10  men  and  wounded  5  at  number  one  gun 
on  board  the  "  Hartford." 

The  "  Gaines"  was  the  first  one  of  the  three 
put  hors  de  combat.  She  kept  up  an  active  attack 
for  some  time  upon  the  whole  line  while  steering 
in  courses  nearly  parallel  with  the  advancing 
fleet  at  distances  gradually  diminishing,  which 
at  last  brought  her  within  short  range  of  some 
of  the  heaviest  vessels.  Finally  a  shot  under  her 
counter,  combined  with  the  concussion  of  a  shell 
that  exploded  under  her  bilge,  closed  her  career, 
and  her  commander  had  barely  time  to  put  his 
sinking  vessel  about  and  reach  the  beach  near 
Fort  Morgan,  where  she  was  stripped  of  all  valu 
ables  and  abandoned. 

The  "  Morgan"  used  her  guns  to  great  ad 
vantage  by  keeping  well  on  the  bows  of  the 
"  Hartford"  and  delivering  raking  fires,  and  had 
a  slight  brush  with  the  "  Metacomet."  She  sus 
tained  no  serious  damage  in  the  conflict,  and  was 
preserved  to  the  Confederacy  by  running  the 
gauntlet  of  the  enemy's  squadron  under  the  cover 
of  night  and  reaching  Mobile  in  safety. 


The  "  Selma,"  after  the  loss  of  two  of  her  best 
gunners,  and  with  twoof  her  four  guns  already  dis 
abled,  was  attacked  by  the  "  Metacomet,"  carry 
ing  eight  9-inch  Dahlgrens,  and  two  100-pounder 
Parrott  guns,  and  after  a  brief  but  spirited  con 
test,  attended  with  the  additional  loss  of  6  killed 
and  7  wounded,  succumbed  to  the  superior  force 
of  her  enemy. 

After  the  capture  and  dispersion  of  the  gun 
boats  the  battle  assumed  a  new  phase,  and  was 
one  of  the  fiercest  ever  recorded  in  naval  annals. 
At  this  juncture  the  "  Tennessee,"  by  reason  of 
her  evolutions  and  sluggish  movements,  found 
herself  far  astern  in  the  neighborhood  of  Fort 
Morgan.  From  this  point  Admiral  Buchanan 
started  on  the  desperate  venture  of  engaging 
single-handed  the  entire  Federal  squadron.  The 
act  was  a  splendid  specimen  of  naval  intrepidity, 
but  it  almost  provokes  the  terse  criticism  of 
Count  Von  Moltke  upon  the  famous  charge  at 
Balaklava,  "  C'etait  beau,  mais  ce  n'etait  pas  la 
guerre." 

The  approach  of  the  "  Tennessee"  awakened 
anew  the  enemy,  who  had  in  the  mean  time  an 
chored  in  the  "Lower  Fleet,"  into  animated 
movement.  Every  anchor  was  at  once  lifted, 
and  every  preparation  made  to  give  the  ram  a 
warm  reception.  At  length  the  "Tennessee" 
steamed  into  their  midst,  dealing  fearful  destruc 
tion  with  her  shot  and  shell  as  fast  as  her  battery 
could  be  served,  yet  mainly  intent  on  sending 
her  opponents  to  the  bottom  by  direct  onset. 
But  all  her  efforts  to  sink  the  enemy  by  ram 
ming  proved  unavailing.  She  was  directed 
against  ship  after  ship  as  soon  as  in  each  instance 
she  could  be  swung  round  to  the  proper  heading, 
but  in  each  case  the  object  of  her  attack  was  en 
abled  by  superior  speed  to  dart  away  from  her 
path  unharmed.  While  this  was  going  on  every 
gun  of  the  197  that  could  be  brought  to  bear 
upon  her  shield  was  in  full  play  whenever  the 
opportunity  occurred.  It  hardly  seemed  possible 
that  any  structure  of  wood  and  iron  wrought  by 
the  hands  of  man  could  withstand  the  successive 
volleys  at  close  quarters,  varying  in  distance  from 
3  to  30  yards,  of  the  heaviest  ordnance  then  ever 
known  to  be  put  afloat.  Yet  with  a  single  excep 
tion  her  casemate  resisted  every  missile.  This 
exception  was  one  out  of  four  shots  that  struck 
from  the  15-inch  guns  of  the  "  Manhattan."  The 
ball  weighed  428  pounds,  and  was  delivered  at 
close  quarters.  Even  this  did  not  pass  entirely 
through  the  casemate,  but  it  penetrated  the  6- 
inch  armor  and  buried  itself  in  the  wooden 
backing. 

Finding  his  guns  so  ineffective,  the  enemy  now 
adopted  the  tactics  of  his  assailant,  and  three  suc 
cessive  attempts  were  made  at  running  her  down. 
The  "  Monongahela,"  one  of  the  heaviest  ships, 
rushed  upon  her  with  all  the  impetus  she  could 
derive  from  30  pounds  pressure  of  steam,  and 
struck  her  fair,  but  with  no  other  effect  than 
carrying  away  her  own  prow  and  cutwater. 
Swinging  round  she  delivered,  in  parting,  the 
contents  of  her  11-inch  guns  without  producing 
any  apparent  impression.  The  "  Lackawanna," 
a  vessel  of  the  same  class,  made  the  next  trial, 
striking  the  ironclad  at  full  speed  and  at  right 
angles,  but  the  only  fruits  of  the  collision  were 
the  injury  to  herself  of  crushed  bows  and  heavy 
leakage.  The  "  Hartford"  now  tested  her  power 
in  the  same  effort.  Her  blow  was  a  glancing  one, 


NAVY 


585 


NAVY 


and  equally  abortive.  As  she  sheered  off  she 
poured  her  whole  broadside  against  the  casemate 
at  the  distance  of  10  feet  without  sensible  effect, 
and,  in  return,  received  a  shell  from  the  ironclad 
which  exploded  on  her  berth-deck,  causing  great 
havoc. 

But  though,  with  the  exception  noted,  the 
shield  up  to  this  time  had  remained  intact,  the 
"Tennessee"  had  by  no  means  escaped  without 
injury.  The  concussions  resulting  from  the  in 
cessant  play  of  missiles  upon  her  casemate,  and 
the  still  heavier  assaults  by  collision,  had  shaken 
her  stout  timbering  and  produced  a  serious  leak, 
the  after  port  cover  had  been  disabled  by  a  shot 
which  killed  one  man  and  broke  the  leg  of  the 
admiral,  the  sliding  covers  of  the  two  quarter 
ports  had  been  so  jammed  by  the  fire  of  the  enemy 
as  to  become  fixtures,  and  the  smoke-stack,  long 
before  riddled  by  shot,  had  been  at  last  swept 
away  flush  with  the  deck,  in  consequence  of 
which  the  steam  was  fast  going  down  for  want 
of  draft. 

The  next  disaster  was  utterly  irremediable. 
The  shot  that  caused  it  may  be  said  to  have  de 
cided  the  battle;  it  cut  away  the  steering-chains. 
By  some  strange  fatality  these  vital  appliances 
had  been  left  entirely  exposed.  They  led  along 
the  entire  length  of  the  quarter-deck  outside  of 
the  shield  without  cover  or  protection  of  any 
kind,  though  the  severance  of  a  single  link  was 
the  loss  of  the  ship.  The  relieving  tackles,  to 
which  recourse  was  had,  were  equally  bare  of 
protection,  and  a  succeeding  shot  unshipped 
them  from  the  rudder-head. 

This  sounded  the  calamity,  and  made  it  the 
beginning  of  the  end  of  the  struggle.  To  reach 
those  broken  organs  of  a  ship's  guidance  would 
have  been  to  pass  over  a  deck  above  which  a 
swallow  could  not  have  flown  without  being 
brought  down,  so  completely  was  it  swept  by 
the  great  guns  and  Minie  rifles  of  the  enemy. 
Hence  no  thought  of  repair  was  entertained. 

With  her  steering  apparatus  demolished  and 
her  steam  fast  wasting  away,  the  ironclad  was 
incapable  of  executing  the  slightest  manoeuvre, 
incapable,  in  fact,  of  changing  her  position. 
The  enemy  was  not  slow  to  avail  himself  of 
the  advantage.  The  monitors  and  the  most 
powerful  of  the  wooden  vessels  took  position 
astern  and  on  each  quarter  and  poured  their 
broadsides  into  her  without  longer  intermission 
than  was  necessary  to  reload  their  guns.  The 
"Tennessee"  endured  this  concentrated  fire  of 
the  heaviest  guns  nearly  thirty  minutes,  and 
endured  it  in  silence,  for  she  was  unable  to 
bring  a  solitary  gun  to  bear  upon  her  assailants. 
At  last  Commander  Johnson,  the  executive-offi 
cer  upon  whom  the  command  had  devolved,  dis 
covering  that  another  attempt  was  about  being 
made  by  one  of  the  largest  ships  to  sink  the  ves 
sel  by  running  her  down,  and  satisfied  that  all 
further  resistance  was  useless,  with  the  concur 
rence  of  his  wounded  chief  mounted  to  the  top 
of  the  casemate,  and,  amidst  the  whizzing  of 
countless  balls  that  fortunately  spared  his  per 
son,  hauled  down  with  his  own  hands  the  Con 
federate  flag. 

The  victory  was  dearly  purchased  by  the  Fed 
erals,  as  a  comparison  of  the  killed  and  wounded 
on  both  sides  will  show. 

The  casualties  on  the  Confederate  side  were  as 
follows:  on  board  of  the  "Tennessee,"  1  killed, 


1  mqrtally  wounded,  9  wounded;  "  Gaines,"  2 
killed  and  3  wounded ;  "  Selma,"  8  killed  and  7 
wounded. 

The  loss  of  the  enemy  in  killed  and  wounded 
was  300  men,  exclusive  of  100  carried  down  in 
the  "Tecumseh."  Adding  the  last  figure,  the 
entire  number  in  killed  and  wounded  amounts 
to  within  78  of  the  aggregate  complement  of 
officers  and  crew  of  the  whole  Confederate  squad 
ron. 

The  commerce  of  the  United  States,  which  in 
1861  whitened  every  sea,  was  the  more  exposed 
to  attack  by  the  withdrawal  of  her  ships  of  war 
from  foreign  stations  to  co-operate  in  the  invest 
ment  of  the  Southern  coast.  The  South  im 
proved  the  advantage  by  fitting  out  sea-cruisers, 
both  at  home  and  abroad,  for  the  special  purpose 
of  preying  upon  it. 

We  have  only  space  for  a  rapid  and  summary 
notice  of  the  operations  of  the  more  noted  of 
those  vessels. 

The  "Sumter,"  a  small  propeller  of  500  tons 
burden,  was  the  pioneer.  She  was  originally 
a  Havana  packet.  Altered  and  strengthened, 
mounted  with  an  8-inch  shell-gun  on  pivot 
amidships  and  two  24-pounder  howitzers  on  either 
broadside,  and  manned  by  a  crew  of  105  men,  all 
told,  she  turned  out  a  swift,  staunch,  weatherly 
craft,  in  every  respect  adapted  to  her  object. 
Commander  Kaphael  Semmes  was  appointed  to 
the  command. 

On  the  night  of  the  30th  of  June,  1861,  this 
vessel  put  to  sea  from  the  mouth  of  the  Missis 
sippi,  dashing  through  the  blockading  force,  con 
sisting  of  the  "Brooklyn,"  "Iroquois,"  and 
"Minnesota."  Outstripping  the  "Brooklyn," 
which  gave  chase,  she  found  herself  in  a  few 
hours  free  to  start  on  her  roving  mission. 

A  week  after  her  departure  she  entered  Cien- 
fuegos  with  a  fleet  of  7  prizes  in  her  wake,  having 
destroyed  one  during  her  passage. 

Application  was  made  to  the  local  governor 
for  the  privilege  of  leaving  the  prizes  in  charge 
of  an  agent  for  future  adjudication  in  the  courts 
of  the  Confederacy.  A  similar  request  was  sub 
sequently  made  in  the  case  of  another  prize  at 
Puerto  Caballo.  In  both  instances  it  was  re 
fused.  The  European  powers  had,  in  fact,  for 
bidden  the  introduction  of  prizes  into  their  ports 
by  either  party,  and  the  states  on  the  American 
continent  followed  the  example. 

With  the  gates  of  the  world  thus  churlishly 
closed  against  her  captures,  and  her  own  harbors 
rendered  inaccessible  by  the  blockading  forces, 
the  "  Sumter"  was  compelled  to  adopt  the  policy, 
which  afterwards  became  general,  of  burning  as 
fast  as  she  captured,  except  where  the  prize  was 
protected  against  destruction  by  a  neutral  cargo, 
in  which  case  it  was  released  under  bonds  made 
payable  upon  the  declaration  of  peace  between 
the  United  States  and  the  Confederacy. 

The  "  Sumter"  reaped  her  first  and  most  abun 
dant  harvest  in  the  Caribbean  Sea,  where  she  re 
mained  cruising  some  weeks  in  the  most  fre 
quented  tracts  of  trade.  She  then  coasted  the 
shores  of  Venezuela  and  Guiana,  and  finally 
reached  her  most  southern  point  at  Maranham, 
Brazil.  The  necessity  to  renew  her  supplies 
obliged  her  to  touch  at  the  principal  ports  that 
lay  in  her  way,  and,  as  a  general  rule,  she  met 
with  scant  courtesy  from  the  authorities.  The 
world-wide  influence  of  a  powerful  nation  was 


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586 


NAVY 


'against  her  wherever  she  turned,  and  the  hospi 
talities  she  required,  when  not  positively  refused, 
were  bestowed  in  a  carping  and  grudging  spirit. 

From  Maranham  she  proceeded  to  a  new  cruis- 
ing-ground,  some  4  or  5  degrees  north  of  the 
equator,  in  the  path  of  vessels  homeward  bound 
from  Cape  St.  Roque.  Here  several  weeks  passed 
without  bringing  a  single  capture,  and  with  her 
coal  nearly  exhausted  she  bore  up  again  for  the 
West  Indies. 

Rumors  were  constantly  reaching  the  little 
craft  during  her  whole  cruise  of  numberless  ves 
sels  dispatched  in  hot  pursuit  of  her.  The  real 
ization  of  these  tales  seemed  at  length  to  have 
arrived.  About  the  middle  of  November,  while 
busy  coaling  at  St.  Pierre,  Martinique,  the  "  Iro- 
quois"  made  her  appearance.  She  stood  slowly 
in  and  swept  round  her  designed  prey,  narrowly 
inspecting  her,  the  men  of  both  vessels  mean 
while  being  assembled  at  quarters.  This  was  the 
nearest  approach  to  actual  hostilities.  The  su 
perior  force  of  the  Federal  vessel  put  entirely  out 
of  question  any  thought  of  a  voluntary  contest 
on  the  part  of  the  "  Sumter."  Her  enemy  was 
double  her  size,  carried  nearly  twice  her  number 
of  men,  and  was  armed  with  nine  11-inch  guns. 
The  "  Iroquois"  stood  off  and  on  the  port  several 
days,  keeping  up  a  close  blockade,  but  the  object 
of  her  watchfulness,  patiently  waiting  her  oppor 
tunity,  at  last  slipped  out,  under  the  cover  of 
night,  unobserved,  and  in  a  few  weeks  put  the 
Atlantic  between  herself  and  five  steamers,  said 
to  be  engaged  in  searching  every  nook  and  corner 
of  the  Antilles  in  quest  of  her,  viz.,  the  "  Iro 
quois,"  "Keystone  State,"  "Niagara,"  "  Pow- 
hatan,"  and  "  Jacinto." 

The  active  days  of  the  "  Sumter"  terminated 
at  Gibraltar,  where  she  arrived  in  February, 
1862.  She  was  an  old  ship  at  the  outset,  had 
been  battered  by  many  storms  during  her  ser 
vice,  and  her  timbers  had  been  loosened  and 
false  keel  knocked  off  by  running  on  a  sunken 
ridge  in  the  shallow  approaches  to  Maranham. 
A  board  of  survey  found  her  hull  unserviceable 
and  her  boilers  injured  beyond  repair,  and  she 
was  laid  up  for  evermore. 

She  had  captured  during  her  cruise,  extending 
from  the  30th  of  June  to  the  3d  of  the  following 
January,  18  vessels,  2  of  which  were  retaken,  7 
which  had  been  left  at  Cienfuegos  released  by 
the  captain-general  of  Cuba,  4  released  on  ran 
som  bonds,  and  5  burned. 

The  Confederacy  had  five  cruisers  built  in  Eng 
land  for  the  special  service  of  preying  upon  the 
commerce  of  the  enemy.  These  were  the  "  Ala 
bama,"  "Georgia,"  "Florida,"  "  Rappahan- 
nock,"  and  "  Shenandoah." 

The  "Georgia,"  under  command  of  Capt. 
Maury,  was  employed  some  months  in  cruising, 
with  more  or  less  success,  in  1861-62,  but  proving 
deficient  in  the  self-sustaining  qualities  required 
by  a  man-of-war,  she  was  sold  out  of  service. 

The  "  Rappahannock,"  built  late  in  the  war, 
crossed  the  Channel  to  Calais  in  order  to  complete 
her  equipment,  but  the  French  laws  of  neutrality 
so  hampered  her  efforts  that  it  is  believed  she 
never  put  to  sea  again  in  the  Confederate  service. 

The  "  Alabama"  was  distinguished  \>y  her  ac 
tivity  and  extraordinary  success.  Her  depreda 
tions  reached  an  extent  that  caused  her  name  to 
be  afterwards  employed  to  designate  all  the  losses 
sustained  by  the  United  States  from  the  ships 


built  in  British  waters,  and  it  is  perpetuated  both 
in  diplomatic  and  naval  history.  Her  career  is 
crowded  with  interesting  and  instructive  inci 
dents  for  which  we  can  find  no  place  in  the  few 
paragraphs  we  have  to  devote  to  her. 

She  was  a  small  screw-propeller,  registering  a 
trifle  over  1000  tons,  and  built  at  Birkenhead,  on 
the  Mersey,  with  comparatively  light  scantling, 
in  view  of  speed  rather  than  strength.  She  was 
222  feet  long,  with  32  feet  beam  and  18  feet  depth 
of  hold,  and  drew  on  the  average  about  14  feet. 
She  had  two  horizontal  engines  of  300  horse 
power  each,  and  a  capacity  for  stowing  350  tons  of 
coal,  and  berthing  120  men.  She  was  bark-rigged, 
with  a  liberal  breadth  of  canvas  that  rendered 
her  largely  independent  of  steam-power,  and, 
taking  her  all  in  all,  in  speed,  stability,  and  all 
the  weatherly  qualities  essential  to  a  national 
cruiser,  few  vessels  ever  surpassed  her. 

The  "Alabama"  came  very  near  having  her 
career  nipped  in  the  bud  at  the  very  outset.  The 
secret  of  her  destination  had  been  well  kept,  but 
no  vessel  of  her  construction  could  fail  to  awaken 
strong  suspicion  in  the  minds  of  the  British  min 
istry.  At  last  it  was  determined  to  seize  her. 
The  project  took  wind  and  reached  the  ears  of 
those  in  charge,  who  had  barely  time  to  save  her, 
by  hurrying  her  equipment  and  sending  her  to 
sea.  A  few  hours  after  her  departure,  on  the  31st 
of  July,  1862,  the  ministerial  mandate  for  laying 
her  under  embargo  reached  the  customs  autho 
rities  at  Liverpool. 

She  left  ostensibly  for  a  voyage  to  Nassau, 
under  the  charge  of  an  experienced  master,  and 
manned  by  a  crew  of  70  men.  Standing  out  of 
British  waters,  through  the  north  channel  of  the 
Irish  Sea,  she  doubled  round  the  north  of  Ire 
land  and  was  soon  far  beyond  the  reach  of  mu 
nicipal  processes,  with  her  course  shaped  for  Ter- 
ceira,  one  of  the  Azores,  where  she  dropped  her 
anchor  safely  on  the  10th  of  August  in  the  road 
stead  of  Porto  Praya. 

On  the  18th  she  was  joined  by  the  English 
steamer  "  Agrippina,"  laden  with  coal  and  stores 
of  all  kinds,  including  munitions  of  war  and  six 
32-pounders,  which  constituted  a  part  of  the  bat 
tery  that  was  to  convert  the  "  Number  290,"  as 
she  was  still  called,  into  a  Confederate  cruiser. 

Two  days  afterwards,  while  the  transhipment 
of  the  "  Agrippina's"  cargo  was  in  active  pro 
gress,  the  steamer  "  Bahamas"  arrived  from  Liv 
erpool,  bringing  Capt.  Semmes,  of  Sumter  mem 
ory,  who  had  been  appointed  to  the  command, 
accompanied  by  his  oificers  and  the  rest  of  the 
battery,  consisting  of  one  8-inch  smooth-bore  gun 
and  one  7-inch  rifled  Blakely. 

By  the  24th  the  equipment  was  completed,  and 
on  that  day  the  formalities  of  inaugurating  "No. 
290"  into  the  service  of  the  Confederacy  took 
place  in  the  offing,  well  outside  of  the  marine 
league  that  marked  the  Portuguese  jurisdiction. 
Capt.  Semmes,  after  releasing  the  assembled  crews 
of  his  own  ship  and  the  "  Bahamas"  from  their 
articles  of  shipment,  in  a  short  address  announced 
the  character  and  purposes  of  his  command  and 
called  for  volunteers.  Eighty  men  responded 
favorably.  The  English  flag,  which  until  now 
was  still  waving,  was  then  dropped  from  the  peak, 
and  the  ensign  of  the  Confederacy  given  to  the 
breeze  amid  the  cheers  of  the  new  recruits  arid 
the  firing  of  guns. 

The  cruise' of  the  "Alabama,"  thus  prosper- 


NAVY 


587 


NAVY 


ously  begun  off  the  Azores,  carried  her  over  al 
most  every  ocean  highway  pursued  by  the  ship 
ping  of  the  United  States.  The  highest  northern 
latitude  she  reached  was  the  parallel  of  49°.  She 
made  her  way  thence  to  the  West  India  seas  and 
Gulf  of  Mexico.  When  her  fortunes  began  to 
slacken  in  those  fields  she  crossed  the  equator, 
coasted  Brazil  as  far  south  nearly  as  Rio  de  Ja 
neiro,  then,  turning  eastward,  doubled  the  Cape 
of  Good  Hope,  and  pushed  her  explorations  to 
the  farthest  confines  of  the  Indian  Ocean. 

It  is  no  part  of  our  purpose  to  follow  her  in 
these  wanderings.  During  the  nineteen  months 
that  her  cruise  lasted  she  was,  everywhere  and  at 
all  times,  when  in  the  tract  of  trade,  incessantly 
engaged  night  and  day  in  forays  upon  the  ship 
ping  of  the  enemy,  with  a  success  that  was  never 
before  equaled  by  that  of  any  single  national 
cruiser. 

She  captured  in  all  63  vessels  of  every  size 
and  description,  the  estimated  value  of  which 
amounted  in  the  aggregate  to  considerably  up 
wards  of  $4,000,000.  Of  these  prizes,  53  were 
destroyed,  9  released  on  ransom  bonds,  and  1 
commissioned  as  a  tender  under  the  name  of 
"  Tuscaloosa,"  and  armed  with  two  small  pieces 
of  ordnance  taken  from  one  of  the  prizes. 

The  plans  and  movements  of  the  "  Alabama" 
were  so  skillfully  conceived  and  conducted  that, 
in  spite  of  a  number  of  heavy  vessels  dispatched 
in  pursuit  of  her,  she  prosecuted  her  depredations 
unmolested  in  almost  every  quarter.  She  was 
never  even  sighted  by  the  enemy  but  on  two  or 
three  occasions.  One  of  these  occurred  in  No 
vember,  1862.  While  renewing  her  supply  of 
coal  at  St.  Pierre,  Martinique,  she  was  blockaded 
for  a  few  days  by  the  U.  S.  steamer  "  Jacinto,"  of 
14  guns,  12  of  which  were  68-pounders,  and  two 
11-inch  guns.  So  heavy  a  force  watching  for 
her  egress  in  the  immediate  offing  seemed  to 
threaten  an  end  to  her  adventures,  but  she  con 
trived  to  make  good  her  escape  under  the  cover 
of  night,  leaving  her  enemy  ignorant  of  her  de 
parture  until  the  morning  revealed  it. 

During  the  early  part  of  the  following  Janu 
ary,  while  in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  she  encountered 
the  U.  S.  gunboat  "Hatteras."  The  action, 
fought  38  miles  off  Galveston,  lasted  but  13 
minutes,  and  resulted  fatally  to  the  Federal  ship, 
which  surrendered  in  a  sinking  condition,  her 
own  and  the,  boats  of  the  "Alabama"  rescuing 
the  crew  but  a  few  moments  before  she  went  to 
the  bottom.  The  casualties  were  2  killed  and  5 
wounded  on  board  of  the  "Hatteras,"  and  2 
wounded  on  board  of  the  "  Alabama." 

In  this  contest  the  superiority  in  number  of 
guns  and  weight  of  metal  was  with  the  Confed 
erate  vessel,  which  had  also  a  somewhat  larger 
crew  than  her  opponent. 

The  "  Hatteras"  carried  a  battery  of  four  32- 
pounders  (37  cwt.),  two  30-pounders,  rifled,  and 
one  12-pounder  howitzer.  The  armament  of  the 
"Alabama"  was  six  32-pounders  (52  cwt.),  one 
rifled  100-pounder,  and  one  8-inch  smooth-bore 
shell-gun. 

Her  usual  good  fortune  at  last  forsook  her : 
she  was  sunk  in  her  famous  action  with  the 
"  Kearsarge"  off  Cherbourg,  in  the  British  Chan 
nel,  on  the  18th  of  June,  1864.  The  engagement 
took  place  at  an  unpropitious  moment  for  the 
Confederate  vessel.  She  was  not  in  the  best 
fighting  order.  She  had  put  into  Cherbourg  on 


the  4th  of  June  for  repairs,  battered  and  worsted 
by  a  hundred  storms  experienced  during  19 
months  of  arduous  service  on  every  sea.  "Her 
boilers  were  in  bad  condition  :  they  had  to  be 
patched  up  for  the  encounter ;  her  engines  re 
quired  thorough  overhauling ;  her  copper  is 
described  as  partially  detached  in  many  places 
to  the  serious  impairment  of  her  speed.  She 
had  no  longer  the  alertness  and  swiftness  of 
her  earlier  days. 

Preparations  for  docking  her  had  been  already 
set  on  foot,  which  were  postponed  indefinitely  by 
the  appearance  of  the  "  Kearsarge."  That  vessel 
passed  defiantly  through  the  harbor  without 
anchoring,  and  then  took  up  a  position  in  the 
offing  in  full  sight  of  her  adversary.  This 
manoeuvre  was  regarded  as  a  challenge  to  bat 
tle,  and  the  Confederate  commander  may  well 
have  felt  that,  after  lording  it  so  long  over  un 
armed  merchant  ships,  he  could  not  afford  to 
count  closely  the  odds  against  him  when  the 
gauntlet  was  cast  down  by  an  enemy  the  world 
would  regard  as  his  equal. 

The  two  ships  were  nearly  of  the  same  size  and 
tonnage,  but  the  Confederate  was  built,  as  stated, 
of  slight  scantling,  while  her  opponent  was  stoutly 
timbered.  In  addition  the  latter,  though  in 
ferior  numerically  in  guns  (by  one  only),  carried 
heavier  metal.  Her  two  11-inch  guns  gave  her 
a  marked  preponderance.  To  crown  all,  her 
midship  sections  were  clad  with  chain-cables 
enveloped  in  a  wooden  casing,  while  the  sides 
of  the  "Alabama"  were  bare  of  all  extraneous 
defenses. 

The  field  of  battle  was  well  outside  of  the 
marine  league.  The  contest  was  witnessed  by 
throngs  of  spectators  lining  the  French  shore, 
some  straggling  French  pilot-boats,  and  the 
"  Deerhound,"  an  English  yacht. 

We  can  give  but  a  mere  outline  of  the  engage 
ment.  Besides  the  advantages  mentioned,  the 
"  Kearsarge"  had  the  speed  of  her  opponent,  and 
was  thus  enabled  to  choose  her  range.,  The  gen 
eral  manoeuvring  of  both  vessels  was  somewhat 
unusual.  Each  tried  to  get  in  position  for  deliv 
ering  raking  fires.  This  resulted,  during  nearly 
the  whole  combat,  in  continuous  revolutions  of 
the  two  antagonists  round  each  other  in  advanc 
ing  circles  and  at  varying  distances,  with  their 
heads  in  opposite  directions  and  their  starboard 
broadsides  kept  constantly  vis-d-vis. 

The  cannonading  was  furious  and  incessant  on 
both  sides  from  the  beginning  to  the  end,  yet 
withal  marked  with  much  coolness  and  delibera 
tion.  The  battle  lasted  about  an  hour  and  a 
quarter.  By  this  time  the  condition  of  the 
"Alabama"  was  hopeless.  Her  sides  were  gap 
ing  in  wide  rents,  her  fires  were  out,  her  steam 
down,  many  of  her  men  were  killed  and  wounded, 
and  with  her  hold  filled  with  water  from  a  gain 
ing  leak,  she  was  visibly  sinking.  Add  to  all 
this,  the  "  Kearsarge"  was  now  getting  into  posi 
tion  for  pouring  in  raking  fires,  from  which  there 
was  no  escape,  and  which  she  was  powerless  to 
return. 

In  this  desperate  extremity  nothing  was  left 
but  to  haul  down  the  Confederate  flag.  Scarcely 
had  it  disappeared  before  the  "  Alabama"  went 
to  the  bottom,  stern  foremost,  leaving  all  the 
officers  and  crew,  except  the  wounded,  who  had 
been  passed  into  a  boat  before  the  final  catastro 
phe,  struggling  for  life  in  the  sea.  The  English 


NAVY 


588 


NAVY  DEPAKTMENT 


yacht,  referred  to  above,  hastened  to  the  rescue, 
and  saved  many  lives,  including  that  of  the  com 
mander.  The  boats  of  the  "  Kearsarge"  also 
put  forth  their  best  efforts  in  this  office  of  hu 
manity. 

The  officers  of  the  "  Alabama"  felt,  on  touch 
ing  the  deck  of  the  yacht,  that  it  was  at  least 
some  alleviation  to  their  defeat  that  the  waves 
had  cast  them  upon  British  territory.  They  had 
never  been  in  the  custody  of  their  conquerors, 
and,  not  regarding  themselves  as  prisoners  even 
in  a  strained  and  technical  sense,  they  felt  free 
to  avail  themselves  of  the  refuge  they  had  reached 
and  were  landed  in  England. 

The  armament  of  the  "  Alabama"  in  this  con 
flict  consisted  of  one  7-inch  rifled  Blakely,  one 
8-inch  smooth-bore  pivot-gun,  and  six  32-poun- 
der  smooth-bore  broadside  guns.  Her  crew 
amounted  to  120  men. 

The  "  Kearsarge"  carried  a  battery  of  two  11- 
inch  Dahlgrens,  four  32-pounders,  and  one  light 
rifled  28-pounder.  Her  crew,  in  officers  and 
men,  is  stated  to  have  been  162. 

The  loss  of  the  Confederates  in  killed  and 
wounded  was  28,  of  whom  7  were  killed ;  the 
loss  by  drowning  was  19.  The  "  Kearsarge"  is 
alleged  to  have  come  out  of  the  fight  without 
serious  damage  or  the  loss  of  a  single  life. 

The  "  Florida,"  originally  the  "  Greta,"  un 
der  the  command  of  Lieut.  Commanding  Maffitt, 
took  an  active  part  in  the  devastation  of  the  com 
merce  of  the  enemy.  She  was  a  small  bark- 
rigged  propeller  of  560  tons,  mounted  with  en 
gines  of  240  horse-power.  She  sailed  from 
Liverpool,  where  she  was  built,  on  the  18th  Feb 
ruary,  1862,  in  ballast,  bound  to  Nassau,  where 
she  arrived  about  the  20th  of  April.  She  was 
here  seized  by  H.  M.  ship  "  Greyhound"  upon 
the  charge  of  violating  the  British  Foreign  En 
listment  Act,  but  released  by  the  Admiralty 
Court  after  a  short  detention.  The  7th  of  Au 
gust  found  her  at  a  small  rocky  islet  called  Green 
Cay,  some  60  miles  to  the  southward  and  east 
ward  of  Nassau,  busy  receiving  her  stores  and 
ammunition  and  mounting  her  battery,  which 
had  all  been  brought  from  Nassau  under  pre 
concerted  arrangements.  Her  armament  con 
sisted  of  two  Blakely  7-inch  pivot-guns,  and  six 
short  Low  More  7-inch  broadside  guns. 

Sailing  from  Green  Cay  on  the  20th,  the  yel 
low  fever  in  its  most  malignant  form  broke  out 
on  board  on  the  following  day,  and  forced  her  to 
make  harbor  at  Cardenas,  Cuba,  where  the  epi 
demic  swept  off  two-thirds  of  her  crew.  It  be 
came  necessary  in  this  crippled  condition  to  seek 
a  Confederate  port,  and  on  the  4th  of  September 
the  "  Florida"  ran  into  Mobile  Bay  through  the 
blockading  force,  receiving  some  damage  from 
their  fire.  Refitted  and  provided  with  a  full 
crew,  she  put  to  sea  again  early  in  January, 
1863,  in  a  northeast  gale,  again  dashed  through 
the  blockading  force,  now  much  strengthened, 
and  entered  upon  destructive  voyages  which 
lasted  many  months,  and  extended  from  the  lati 
tude  of  New  York  to  the  equator. 

Ultimately  the  cruise  of  the  "  Florida,"  now 
commanded  by  Lieut.  Commanding  Morris,  was 
brought  to  a  disastrous  and  sudden  termination 
on  the  7th  of  October,  1864,  in  the  harbor  of 
Bahia,  Brazil.  She  had  been  preceded  in  her 
arrival  at  this  port  by  the  U.  S.  steamer  "  Wa- 
chusett."  Capt.  Morris,  confiding  in  the  neu 


trality  of  a  friendly  harbor,  whose  hospitalities 
both  vessels  were  enjoying,  took  up  his  quarters 
on  shore  himself  and  allowed  half  of  his  crew  to 
go  on  liberty.  While  his  vessel  lay  in  this  de 
fenseless  condition  she  was  overpowered,  after  a 
brief  resistance,  in  a  night  attack  made  by  the 
"  Wachusett,"  captured,  and  towed  to  sea.  This 
violation  of  both  international  and  municipal 
laws  caused  Brazil  to  make  prompt  reclamations 
against  the  United  States,  in  which  she  insisted 
upon  the  restoration  of  the  vessel  in  statu  quo  to 
the  waters  from  which  she  had  been  taken.  Dur 
ing  the  pendency  of  this  demand  the  "Florida" 
was  run  down  and  sunk,  accidentally  it  is  alleged, 
while  in  tow  of  a  vessel  belonging  to  the  U.  S. 
squadron  in  the  lower  waters  of  the  Chesapeake. 

The  "Shenandoah"  ("Sea  King"),  com 
manded  by  Capt.  Waddell,  was  commissioned 
in  October,  1864.  She  was  a  Clyde-built  auxil 
iary  screw-ship  with  an  iron  frame  and  teak 
planking,  measuring  900  tons,  and  carrying  a 
battery  of  two  32-pounders,  rifled,  four  shell-guns 
(57  cwt.),  and  two  22-pounders.  She  entered 
upon  her  cruise  with  but  13  men,  besides  the 
regular  staff  of  officers,  trusting  to  recruiting 
a  full  complement  by  volunteers  from  captures, 
and  from  this  source  eventually  swelled  her  force 
to  100. 

Her  cruise  extended  into  every  navigable  sea, 
except  the  Antarctic,  and  carried  her  through 
Behring  Strait  into  the  Arctic  Ocean,  where 
she  reached  to  within  20  miles  of  the  67th  par 
allel  of  latitude,  where  her  progress  was  blocked 
by  ice.  Her  entire  cruise  occupied  13  months, 
during  eight  of  which  she  was  actively  employed. 
She  added  to  the  list  of  captures  38  valuable 
prizes,  6  of  which  were  released  on  bonds  and 
the  remainder  destroyed. 

Intelligence  of  the  fall  of  the  Confederacy 
reached  the  commander  of  the  "Shenandoah" 
while  cruising  off  San  Francisco,  on  the  2d  of 
August,  1865.  He  thereupon  proceeded  to  carry 
his  denationalized  command,  by  the  wa}'  of  Cape 
Horn,  to  Liverpool,  which  place  he  reached  in 
November,  and  surrendered  her  to  her  majesty's 
government,  which  transferred  her  to  the  pos 
session  of  the  United  States. 

Eventually,  the  Confederate  navy,  at  least 
that  portion  of  it  in  her  own  waters,  passed  out 
of  existence  piecemeal.  It  was  a  natural  pride 
that  prompted  the  determination  in  the  last  strait 
to  destroy  the  ships  rather  than  leave  them  as 
trophies  to  swell  the  triumph  of  the  victors.  As 
city  after  city  fell  along  the  coast,  the  final  act 
before  evacuating  each  was  to  set  fire  to  the  pub 
lic  vessels,  and  when,  after  the  abandonment  of 
Richmond,  the  Federals  took  possession,  they 
found  the  James  strewed  with  the  fragments  of 
the  "  New  Virginia,"  the  "  Richmond,"  and  the 
"  Fredericksburg,"  all  ironclads,  and  about  six 
wooden  gunboats,  the  last  remnant  of  the  South 
ern  navy,  save  one  only  cruiser  on  the  high  seas, 
the  "Shenandoah,"  which  at  the  moment  was 
unconsciously  floating  at  her  gaff  the  flag  of  a 
nation  well-nigh  passing  away. — C.  H.  McBlair, 
late  Captain  C.S.N. 

Navy  Department.  By  an  act  of  Congress, 
approved  April  30,  1798,  there  was  established 
"an  executive  department  to  be  denominated 
the  Department  of  the  Navy,"  and  the  chief 
officer  of  it  was  therein  directed  to  be  called  the 
"  Secretary  of  the  Navy." 


NAVY   DEPARTMENT 


589 


NAVY  DEPARTMENT 


During  the  Revolutionary  war  Congress  had 

Name. 

State. 

Date  of 

By  whom  Ap 

the  superintendence  of  the  navy,  and  appointed, 

Appointment. 

pointed. 

in  October,  1775,  Messrs.  Deane,  Langdon,  and 

Gadsden,  members  of  Congress,    the   "  Marine 

George  Cabot*  

Mass.. 

May  3,  1798  

1 
/•  John  Adams. 

Committee.  "     On  December  13  of  that  year  Con 
gress  enlarged  and  re-constituted  the  committee, 
by  ballot,  from  its  own   members,  as  follows  : 

Benj.  Stoddert  
Robert  Smith  

Md.... 
Md.... 

May  21,  1798... 
Jan.  26,  1802... 
Jan.  7,  1809  
Jan.  12,  1813... 

Thomas  Jefferson. 
>  James  Madison. 

Paul  Hamilton  
William  Jones  

S.  C.... 
Pa  

Messrs.    Bartlett,    Hancock,    Hopkins,    Deane, 

R.W.  Crowninshield 

Mass.. 

Dec.  19,  1814... 

j 

Lewis,  Crane,  Robert  Morris,  Read,  Chase,  R. 

Smith  Thompson.... 

N.  Y... 
N.  J.... 

Nov.  30,  1818... 
Dec.  9,  1823  

>•  James  Monroe. 

H.  Lee,  Hewes,  Gadsden,  and  Houston.     While 

John  Branch  

N!  c"... 

March  7,  1829.. 

^ 

this   committee   examined   and   reported  on  all 

Levi  Woodbury  

N.  H... 

May  23,  1831... 

>  Andrew  Jackson. 

naval  matters,  Congress  appointed  all  commis 

Mahlon  Dickerson.. 
James  K.  Paulding. 

N.  J... 
N.  Y... 

June  30,  1834... 
July  1,  1838.... 

Martin  Van  Buren. 

sioned   officers,  but   gave  the  committee  power 

George  E.  Badger... 

N.  C... 

March  5,  1841.. 

Wm.  H.  Harrison. 

to  appoint  all  officers  of  subordinate  rank,  and 

Abel  P.  Upshur  

Va  

Sept.  13,  1841... 

authorized  it  to  give  instructions  for  the  em 

David  Henshawf.... 
Thos.  W.  GilmerJ.... 

Mass.. 
Va  

July  24,  1843... 
Feb.  15,  1844... 

John  Tyler. 

ployment  of  ships. 

Lewis  Warriiigton... 

U.S.N. 

ad  interim  

By  a  resolution  of  Congress,  approved   No 
vember  6,  1776,  it  was  ordered  that  three  persons 
well  skilled  in  maritime  affairs  should  be  imme 

John  Y.  Mason  
George  Bancroft  
John  Y.  Mason.  
Wm.  B.  Preston  

Va  
Mass.. 
Va  
Va  

March  14,  1844. 
March  11,  1845. 
Sept.  10,  1846... 
March  8,  1849.. 

James  K.  Polk. 
Zachary  Taylor. 

diately  appointed  to  execute  the  business  of  the 
navy  under  the  direction  of  the  "  Marine  Com 

Wm.  A.  Graham  
John  P.  Kennedy- 
James  C.  Dobbin  

N.  C... 
Md.... 
N.C... 

Aug.  1,  1850.... 
July  26,  1852... 
March  8,  1853.. 

j-MillardFillmore. 
Franklin  Pierce. 

mittee,"  and  John  Nixon,  John  Wharton,  and 

Isaac  Toucey  

Conn.. 

March  7,  1857.. 

James  Buchanan. 

F.  Hopkinson  were  appointed.     These  experts, 
or   advisory  persons,  were   called  "  The  Conti 
nental  Navy  Board,"  or  "Board  of  Assistants 

Gideon  Welles  

Adolph  E.  Borie  
Geo.  M.  Robeson  

Conn.. 

Pa  
N.  J.... 

March  7,  1861.. 

March  9,  1869.. 
June  26,  1869.. 

)  A.  Lincoln. 
j  Andrew  Johnson. 
Ulvsses  S.  Grant. 
Ulysses  S.  Grant. 

to  the  Marine  Committee,"  and  sometimes  the 

Rich.  W.  Thompson. 

Ind.... 

March  13,  1877.  |R.  B.  Hayes. 

"  Board  of  the  Middle  District."    There  was  also 

an  "  Eastern  Board,"  consisting  of  three  persons, 

By  the  act  approved  February  7,  1815,  a  Board 

f\-f  nnYnmi  eeirivtera  -fnr  //i/>   Wniiii  r\f  i}ip   IJ'niJP.fJ  S\tn1p.& 

who  executed  the  instructions  of  the  committee, 
in  their  district. 

The  act  of  October  28,  1779,  established  a 
"  Board  of  Admiralty,"  to  consist  of  three  per 
sons  not  members  of  Congress,  and  two  members 
of  Congress  ;  and  on  the  llth  of  January,  1781, 
Congress,  by  resolution,  invested  James  Reed 
with  full  power  to  conduct  the  business  of  the 
Navy  Board  in  the  middle  department,  and  on 
February  27  of  that  year  Major-General  Alex 
ander  McDougall  was  appointed  "Secretary  of 
Marine"  under  the  act  of  February  7,  1781.  This 
management  continued  but  a  short  time,  for, 
August  29  of  that  year,  Congress  resolved 
that  the  functions  and  appointments  of  the 
Board  of  Admiralty,  the  several  navy  boards, 
and  all  civil  officers  appointed  under  them  should 
cease,  and  an  "  Agent  of  Marine"  should  be  ap 
pointed,  and  on  September  6  following  Robert 
Morris,  Superintendent  of  Finance,  was  assigned 
those  duties.  He  continued  the  superintendence 
and  management  of  the  navy  for  nearly  eight 
years.  The  act  of  August  7,  1789,  charged  the 
Secretary  of  War  with  the  performance  and  exe 
cution  of  such  duties  relative  to  the  naval  forces, 
or  to  such  other  matters  respecting  naval  affairs, 
as  the  President  of  the  United  States  assigned 
him. 

It  was  not  until  nine  years  had  elapsed  that 
these  duties  of  the  Secretary  of  War  ceased, 
when  the  act  of  April  30,  1798,  established  the 
"  Department  of  the  Navy,"  or,  as  it  is  now 
called,  the  "  Navy  Department,"  and  created 
the  office  of  a  Secretary  of  the  Navy." 

The  Secretary  of  the  Navy  is  appointed  by  the 
President,  by  and  with  the  advice  and  consent 
of  the  Senate,  and  is  a  member  of  his  Cabinet. 
George  Cabot,  of  Massachusetts,  was  appointed 
the  first  Secretary  of  the  Navy,  but  he  declined, 
and  Benjamin  Stoddert,  of  Maryland  (a  resident 
of  Georgetown,  D.  C.,  at  the  time  of  his  ap 
pointment),  was  appointed.  The  Secretaries  of 
the  Navy,  in  the  order  of  appointment,  are  as 
follows : 


of  Commissioners  for  the  Navy  of  the  United  St 
was  constituted,  but  the  act  provided  that  no 
thing  in  it  should  be  construed  to  take  from  the 
Secretary  of  the  Navy  his  control  and  direction 
of  the  naval  forces  of  the  United  States  as  now 
by  law  possessed.  This  act  was  repealed  August 
31,  1842,  and  the  following-named  bureaus  were 
established  :  1.  Navy- Yards  and  Docks.  2.  Con 
struction,  Equipment,  and  Repairs.  3.  Pro 
visions  and  Clothing.  4.  Ordnance  and  Hydrog 
raphy.  5.  Medicine  and  Surgery.  This  organ 
ization  was  continued  until,  by  the  act  of  July 
5,  1862,  the  number  of  bureaus  was  increased 
and  their  titles  established,  as  follows  :  1.  Yards 
and  Docks.  2.  Equipment  and  Recruiting.  3. 
Navigation.  4.  Ordnance.  5.  Construction  and 
Repair.  6.  Steam  Engineering.  7.  Provisions 
and  Clothing.  8.  Medicine  and  Surgery. 

The  duties  of  these  bureaus  are  indicated  by 
their  titles  ;  their  chiefs  are  officers  of  the  navy 
appointed  by  the  President,  by  and  with  the  ad 
vice  and  consent  of  the  Senate.  In  addition  to 
the  duties  of  the  chief  of  Bureau  of  Navigation, 
he  is  head  of  the  "Office  of  Detail,"  and  has, 
under  and  by  direction  of  the  Secretary  of  the 
Navy,  the  detailing  and  ordering  of  officers  for 
duty  at  navy-yards  and  stations,  on  vessels,  etc. 

The  chief  clerk  of  the  Navy  Department  has 
the  care  and  custody  of  the  files  and  records  of 
the  Department,  the  general  supervision  of  its 
correspondence,  and  such  other  duties  as  the 
Secretary  assigns  him. 

The  office  of  "Assistant  Secretary  of  the 
Navy"  was  created  by  the  act  of  July  31,  1861, 
and  abolished  by  the  act  of  March  3,  1869.  The 
following-named  gentlemen  held  that  office : 
Gustavus  V.  Fox,  of  Massachusetts,  from  August 
1,  1861,  until  May  31,  1866  ;  William  Faxon,  of 
Connecticut,  from  June  1,  1866,  until  March  3, 
1869. 

The  office  of  "  Solicitor  and  Judge- Advocate" 

*  Declined. 

f  Not  confirmed  by  Senate. 

1  Killed  on  board  "  Princeton,"  February  28, 1844. 


NAVY-YARD 


590 


NAVY-YARD 


was  created  by  the  act  of  March  2,  1865,  and 
finally  abolished  by  the  act  of  June  19,  1878. 
The  following-named  gentlemen  held  that  office  : 
William  E.  Chandler,  of  New  Hampshire,  ap 
pointed  March  9,  1865;  and  John  A.  Bolles,  of 
Massachusetts,  appointed  June  10,  1865,  and 
died  June,  1878. — Jesse  E.  Doio. 

Navy-yard,  Boston,  Mass.  The  navy-yard 
at  Boston,  Mass.,  is  situated  at  the  confluence  of 
the  Charles  and  Mystic  Rivers,  on  land  formerly 
known  as  Moulton's  Point.  Jurisdiction  was 
ceded  by  the  State  of  Massachusetts  to  the 
United  States  in  1800  over  an  area  of  65  acres, 
and  there  was  purchased  for  the  government  in 
that  year,  by  Dr.  Aaron  Putnam,  35  acres  for 
§37,356.  This  area  has  been  increased  by  subse- 

?uent  purchases  of  5186  square  feet  from  Capt. 
saac  Hull,  August  15,  1817,  for  $3889.50,  and 
115,210J  square  feet  from  Oakrmm  and  Eldridge, 
June  1,  1863,  for  $123, 100.  This,  with  the  fill 
ing  in  of  the  flats  and  marsh,  makes  an  area  of 
87f  acres  in  1880.  It  is  surrounded  on  the  land 
side  with  a  substantial  granite  wall  12  feet  high, 
that  was  built  in  1825-26,  with  a  water  frontage 
of  8270  feet,  which  includes  5214  feet  of  wharf 
age  ;  it  has  3  building-slip?,  4  ship-houses — mak 
ing  7  building- ways.  There  is  a  timber-dock  at 
the  eastern  end  of  the  yard  that  has  an  area  of 
5  acres  36  rods.  In  the  upper  part  of  the  yard 
there  are  2  wet-basins,  which  are  only  separated 
by  a  roadway  ;  one  of  them  contains  an  area  of 
2£  acres,  the  other  4J  acres,  capable  of  being 
adapted  for  an  extensive  system  of  dockage. 
There  are  now  (1880)  inside  of  the  walls  20  brick, 
11  stone,  36  wooden,  and  2  iron  buildings,  with 

4  regular  timber-sheds,  besides   numerous  out 
houses  and  temporary  buildings.     Only  8  build 
ings  are  standing  that  were  on  the  yard  plan  for 
1823.     The  oldest  is  No.  5,  built  in  1803  of  brick 
for  a  store-house,  offices,  sail-loft,  etc.,  now  occu 
pied  in  part  by  the  naval  library  and  institute, 
museum,  court-martial  room,  dispensary,  offices, 
etc.,  and  the  dwelling-house  for  the  commandant, 
which  was  finished  in  1809.     There  are  two  fine 
avenues  running  lengthwise  of  the  yard,  orna 
mented  with  shade-trees.      The  commandant's 
office  is  in  a  small  one-story  wooden  building 
located  near  the  centre  of  the  yard  on  the  main 
avenue. 

There  have  been  22  regular  commandants, 
viz.  :  Samuel  Nicholson  was  the  first  (1809). 
He  died  in  command  December  29,  1811.  Wil 
liam  Bainbridge  (who  was  in  command  three 
separate  terms),  Isaac  Hull,  William  Crane, 
Charles  Morris,  Jesse  D.  Elliott,  John  Downes 
(twice),  John  B.  Nicholson,  Foxhall  A.  Parker, 
Francis  H.  Gregory,  Silas  H.  Stringham  (twice), 
William  L.  Hudson,  John  B.  Montgomery,  John 
Rodgers,  Charles  Steedman,  Enoch  G-.  Parrott, 
Edward  T.  Nichols,  Foxhall  A.  .Parker  (2d), 
William  F.  Spicer  (who  died  in  command  Nov. 
29,  1878),  and  the  present  commandant,  George 
M.  Ransom.  There  were  two  of  the  executive- 
officers  in  command  for  over  three  months,  and 
one  for  over  two  months,  during  the  interval  of 
appointment  or  continued  absence  of  the  regular 
commandants,  viz. :  William  B.  Shubrick,  Josiah 
Tattnall,  and  Milton  Haxtun. 

In  1802,  by  order  of  the  Secretary  of  the  Navy, 

5  acres  of  land  in  the  northeast  corner  of  the 
yard  was  assigned  to  the  Treasury  Department 
for  a  marine  hospital,  on  which  a  hospital  with 


all  of  the  necessary  outbuildings  was  erected, 
and  inclosed  with  a  picket-fence  from  the  navy- 
yard.  April  30,  1825,  this  property  was  trans 
ferred  to  the  Navy  Department  upon  payment  to 
the  Treasury  Department  of  $12,875,  the  esti 
mated  value  of  the  buildings  thereon,  and  a  ma 
rine  hospital  was  erected  in  Chelsea.  The  work 
of  tearing  down  the  old  hospital  began  August 
15,  1825,  and  on  its  site  was  erected  a  block  of 
4  brick  dwelling-houses,  facing  the  yard,  with 
the  stone  wall  running  along  the  Salem  turnpike 
in  their  rear.  This  was  changed  in  1836-37  by 
facing  the  buildings  outwardly  to  the  turnpike, 
and  erecting  the  wall  around  them  in  their  rear 
and  an  iron  picket-fence  in  front.  They  were 
first  occupied  in  August,  1826,  by  Master-Com 
mandant  Kearney,  Surgeon  John  A.  Kearney, 
Sailing-Master  Knox,  and  Naval  Storekeeper 
George  Bates.  They  are  now  allotted  to  the 
captain  of  the  yard,  ordnance-officer,  naval  con 
structor,  and  surgeon  of  the  yard. 

The  5  brick  dwelling-houses  near  the  main 
gate,  western  entrance,  were  erected  in  1833  for 
the  warrant-officers.  They  were  first  occupied 
by  Boatswain  W.  Hart,  Gunner  W.  B.  Brown, 
Carpenter  Calvin  Oiks,  Sailmaker  S.  B.  Banister, 
and  Sailing-Master  C.  W.  Waldo,  check-officer. 
They  are  now  occupied  by  the  paymaster  of  the 
yard,  equipment-officer,  civil  engineer,  steam 
engineer,  and  pay  director  in  charge  of  provisions 
and  clothing. 

The  mail  messenger  lives  in  the  brick  house 
next  the  main  gate,  and  the  apothecary  has 
rooms  assigned  him  in  building  No.  5.  These 
are  all  who  live  within  the  walls  except  the  ma 
rines. 

The  marine  barracks  is  a  three-story  brick 
building,  in  line  with  the  wall  on  Chelsea  Street, 
between  the  commandant's  house  and  the  rope- 
walk.  It  occupies  an  area,  including  the  parade- 
ground,  of  1^  acres  and  can  accommodate  250 
marines,  with  the  necessary  complement  of  offices. 

The  rope- walk  is  the  finest  in  the  country ; 
it  was  built,  in  1836,  of  rough  ashlar  granite; 
it  runs  parallel  with  the  wail  on  Chelsea  Street, 
and  is  1360  feet  long,  with  a  laying-ground  1253 
feet  by  45.  The  second  story  is  748  feet  long ;  it 
was  built  in  1856 ;  and  the"  head-house  is  three 
stories,  60  by  70  feet,  slated  roofs ;  it  has  2 
double  engines,  one  of  200  horse-power,  the  other 
150  horse-power,  capable  of  manufacturing  2500 
tons  per  year  of  all  kind  and  sizes  of  rope.  There 
is  a  fire-proof  store-house  for  the  hemp  and  a  tar- 
house,  both  built  of  granite. 

The  two-story  brick  building  to  the  eastward, 
in  line  with  the  wall,  was  arranged  for  the  manu 
facture  of  wire  rigging,  etc.,  in  1873;  it  is  186 
by  38  feet;  it  has  an  engine  of  80  horse-power, 
and  can  produce  500  tons  per  year  of  all  kind 
of  wire-rigging,  besides  green  hide  rope  in  suffi 
cient  quantities  to  supply  the  wants  of  the  ser 
vice. 

In  the  boiler-house,  which  is  built  of  brick,  55 
by  44  feet,  one  story,  are  8  boilers,  each  inde 
pendent  of  the  others ;  these  supply  the  steam 
for  the  engines  in  the  rope- walk  and  wire-shop. 

The  steam-engineering  building,  erected  in 
1856,  is  built  of  brick,  with  granite  trimmings. 
It  is  in  form  a  parallelogram,  and  covers  an  area 
of  135,755  square  feet.  It  contains  a  brass-  and 
iron-foundry,  boiler-,  blacksmith-,  and  machine- 
shops  ;  these  are  filled  with  all  the  necessary 


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591 


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tools,  appliances,  and  machinery  required  for  an 
extensive  business  ;  there  are  2  engines  of  100 
horse-power  each  in  the  building.  The  boiler- 
house  and  chimney  are  in  the  centre  ;  there  are 
8  boilers  that  Avork  in  pairs,  and  5  donkey- 
pumps.  The  chimney  is  239£  feet  high  ;  it  was 
finished  October  7,  1858. 

The  rolling-mill  is  built  of  brick,  207  by  86 
feet,  'and  has  an  engine  of  100  horse-power  to 
work  the  necessary  machinery. 

One  iron  building  is  occupied  by  the  Thil- 
many  process  for  wood  preserving;  it  can  turn 
out  1000  cubic  feet  per  day. 

The  dry-dock  was  begun  July  10,  1827,  under 
the  superintendence  of  Laomi  Baldwin,  and 
finished  in  June,  1833.  It  is  built  of  hammered 
granite  in  a  substantial  manner,  with  a  great 
arch  60  feet  in  width.  It  was  originally  305  feet 
long  by  86  feet  wide,  and  cost  $679,000  ;  in  1857- 
58,  however,  it  was  extended  65  feet  in  length 
at  an  expense  of  $314.825,  making  its  total 
length  370  feet,  and  its  entire  cost  $993,915.  It 
has  a  capacity,  with  average  high-tide,  of  5,764,- 
500  gallons.  The  head-house  was  built,  in  1832, 
of  granite,  and  is  occupied,  in  part,  by  the  engine 
which  pumps  out  the  dock.  This  engine  was 
manufactured  at  Hartford,  Co'nn.,  in  "1855;  it 
has  a  cylinder  20  inches  in  diameter,  with  84- 
inch  length  of  stroke,  makes  25  revolutions  per 
minute,  capable  of  throwing  80J  gallons  per 
revolution  from  the  2  pumps  connected  with  it. 
The  average  time  it  takes  to  pump  out  the  dock 
with  25  feet  of  water  is  about  4  hours.  There  is, 
also,  a  donkey-pump  connected  with  the  above, 
with  a  pumping  capacity  of  160  gallons  per  min 
ute.  The  first  vessel  put  into  this  dock  was  the 
"Constitution"  ("Old  Ironsides"),  June  24, 
1833,  and  its  present  occupant  is  the  "  Hart 
ford," — the  two  most  famous  vessels  in  the  navy. 

Construction  occupies  several  buildings.  The 
mast-shop,  the  most  easterly  building  in  the  yard, 
is  of  wood,  slated ;  the  molding-loft,  boat-  and 
carpenter-shops  are  of  granite  ;  the  joiner-shop, 
of  the  same,  with  an  engine  of  100  horse-power. 
The  saw-mill  is  of  wood,  and  has  an  engine  of  100 
horse-power.  Two  masting-shears,  one  of  130 
feet  in  height,  will  hoist  80  tons ;  the  small 
shears  at  the  lower  part  of  the  yard  is  105  feet 
high,  and  will  hoist  60  tons. 

The  store-houses  of  equipment,  steam-engineer 
ing,  provisions  and  clothing,  and  yards  and  docks 
are  all  built  of  granite  in  a  substantial  manner. 
The  ordnance  building  is  of  brick,  with  granite 
trimmings,  274  by  90  feet ;  it  has  an  engine  of 
100  horse-power.  The  coal-  and  boiler-house,  50 
by  64  feet,  contains  4  boilers.  There  are  2  brick 
shell-houses.  The  magazine  is  on  the  hospital 
grounds  in  Chelsea,  and  the  nitre  depot  in  Mai 
den,  Mass.  There  is  a  gun-park,  363  by  124 
feet ;  it  has  6  skids,  built  of  granite,  with  iron 
rails  running  lengthwise;  a  shot-park,  317  by 
125  feet.  There  is  a  saluting  battery  of  30  guns 
on  the  quay-wall,  with  a  small  magazine  to  hold 
saluting  powder.  A  railroad  track  was  laid  in 
1863  the  length  of  the  yard  ;  it  is  connected  with 
the  Fitchburg  road.  For  putting  out  fires  there 
are  2  steam  fire-engines,  9  hose-carriages,  1  hook- 
and-ladder  truck,  and  24  chemical  extinguishers 
in  the  yard. 

Thirty-nine  ships-of-war  have  been  launched 
at  this  yard.  The  "  Frolic,"  in  1813,  was  the  first 
one;  "Independence,"  June  22,  1814;  "Alli 


gator,"  November  4,  1820;  "Boston,"  October 
15, 1825  ;  "  Warren,"  November  29,  1826  ;  "  Fal- 
mouth,"  November  3,  1827  ;  "  Boxer,"  Novem 
ber  22,  1831 ;  "  Porpoise,"  May  31,  "  Pioneer," 
October  25,  "  Consort,"  October  29, 1836;  "  Cy- 
ane,"  December  2,  1837  ;  "  Marion,"  April  24, 
1839;  "Bainbridge,"  April  26,  1842;  "Erie," 
1842  (a  sloop-of-war  same  name, was  launched  in 
1813,  rebuilt  in  1820  at  a  cost  of  $56,174,  and 
broken  up  at  Boston  in  1841  and  this  store-ship 
constructed) ;  "  Cumberland,"  May  24, 1842  (keel 
laid  in  1825);  "Plymouth,"  October  11,  1843; 
"Vermont,"  September  14,  1848  (keel  laid  in 
1818)  ;  "  Princeton,"  October  29,  1851 ;  "  Merri- 
mac,"  June  14, 1855 ;  "  Hartford,"  November  22, 
1858  ;  "  Narragansett,"  February  15, 1859 ;  "  Wa- 
chusett,"  October  10,  "  Housatonic,"  November 
20,  "  Maritanza,"  November  26,  1861 ;  "  Canan- 
daigua,"  March  28,  "Genesee,"  April  2,  "  Ti- 
oga,"  April  18,  1862;  "  Tallapoosa,"  February 
17,  "  Pequot,"  June  4,  "Winooski,"  July  30, 
"Saco,"  August  28,  1863;  "Monadnock,"  a 
double-turreted  ironclad,  March  23,  "  Ammo- 
noosuc,"  July  21,  1864, — name  changed  in  1869 
to  "Iowa";  "Guerriere,"  September  9,1865; 
"  Manitou,"  August  25,  1866, — name  changed  in 
1869 to  "  Worcester";  "  Nantasket,"  August  15, 
1867;  "Alaska,"  October  31,  1868;  "Intrepid," 
iron  torpedo-boat,  March  5,  1874;  "  Vandalia," 
October  23,  1874,  was  the  last  one  launched. 
Several  vessels  were  built  for  the  treasury,  light 
house,  and  survey,  such  as  the  brig  "Appren 
tice,"  "John  Hancock,"  "Bibb,"  "Cohassett," 
"Blue  Light,"  etc. 

There  are  now  on  the  stocks  at  this  vard  the 
"  Virginia"  (keel  laid  in  1818)  ;  "  Connecticut" 
(keel  laid  January  2,  1864) ;  "Oregon,"  monitor, 
double-turreted  ironclad  (keel  laid  April  15, 
1864);  and  the  "Pennsylvania"  (keel  laid  in 
1865). 

The  "Niagara,"  "Iowa,"  "Ossipee,"  and 
"Ohio"  are  in  ordinary.  The  "Hartford"  is 
under  repairs,  and  the  "  Cohassett"  is  employed 
as  the  yard  tug-boat.  The  U.  S.  receiving-ship 
"  Wabash"  lies  off  the  yard.—  A.  H.  Massie. 

Navy-yard,  Brooklyn.  The  Brooklyn  Navy- 
Yard,  known  officially  as  the  New  York  Navy- 
Yard,  is  situated  on  Wallabout  Bay,  East  River. 
This  bay  is  about  half  a  mile  wide  and  nearly 
semicircular  in  shape,  the  greater  portion  of 
it  being  occupied  by  an  island,  31  acres  in  ex 
tent,  known  as  the  Cob  Dock ;  the  channel  be 
tween  the  Cob  Dock  and  the  yard  proper  is  400 
feet  wide,  and  upon  it  is  most  of  the  water  front 
of  the  yard,  which  includes  more  than  a  mile  of 
the  most  eligible  wharfage  in  the  harbor  of  New 
York.  The  total  area  of  the  yard,  including  the 
Cob  Dock  and  the  Naval  Hospital  grounds,  is 
199.77  acres,  of  which  but  about  45  acres  are 
comprised  in  the  yard  proper,  and  occupied  by 
buildings,  wharves,  docks,  etc. 

During  the  Revolutionary  war  the  "Old  Jer 
sey"  and  other  prison-ships  were  moored  in  the 
Wallabout,  and  the  shores  of  the  bay  were  used 
as  a  burying-place  for  the  thousands  of  Ameri 
cans  who  died  on  board  them.  Toward  the 
close  of  the  last  century  John  Jackson  estab 
lished  a  ship-yard  on  the  west  side  of  Wallabout 
Bay,  and  in  1799  he  built  for  the  United  States 
a  small  frigate,  called  the  "Adams,"  which  was 
the  first  man-of-war  launched  at  the  site  of  the 
present  yard.  In  1801  Jackson  disposed  of  his 


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'property,  about  30  acres,  to  the  government  for 
$40,000  ;  in  1824  the  piece  of  land  now  occupied 
by  the  U.  S.  Naval  Hospital,  some  35  acres,  was 
purchased  for  $7650,  and  in  1848  the  intervening 
portion  was  obtained  for  $285,000;  finally,  in 
1867,  an  irregular  piece  of  land  on  the  northwest 
corner  was  bought  for  $90,000.  Excepting  the 
hill  on  which  the  commandant's  house  stands, 
and  that  where  the  hospital  is  built,  this  prop 
erty  was  originally  little  more  than  a  mud  flat. 

Immediately  after  the  purchase  in  1801,  Lieut. 
Jonathan  Thome  was  ordered  in  charge,  and  re 
mained  until  1806,  nothing  being  done  mean 
while  to  improve  the  property.  He  has  been 
succeeded  by  the  following  commandants,  who 
took  charge  at  the  dates  mentioned : 

Captain  Isaac  Chauncey,  1806. 

Captain  Samuel  Evans,  1812. 

Captain  Isaac  Chauncey  again  in  1824. 

Captain  Charles  G.  Eidgely,  July,  1833. 

Captain  James  Eenshaw,  November,  1839. 

Captain  M.  C.  Perry,  June,  1841. 

Captain  Silas  H.  Stringham,  July,  1843. 

Captain  Isaac  McKeever,  September,  1846. 

Captain  Wm.  B.  Salter,  October,  1849. 

Captain  Charles  Boorman;  October,  1852. 

Captain  Abram  Bigelow,  October,  1855. 

Captain  Lawrence  Kearney,  February,  1857. 

Captain  S.  L.  Breese,  November,  1858. 

Eear-Admiral  Hiram  Paulding,  October,  1861. 

Eear-Admiral  Charles  H.  Bell,  May,  1865. 

Eear-Admiral  S.  W.  Godon,  July,  1868. 

Eear-Admiral  Melancthon  Smith,  October, 
1870. 

Vice- Admiral  S.  C.  Eowan,  June,  1872. 

Commodore  J.  W.  A.  Nicholson,  September. 
1876. 

Commodore  George  H.  Cooper,  May,  1880. 

In  1806-7  the  present  commandant's  house 
was  built,  6  brick  buildings  for  store-houses 
and  offices  were  commenced,  and  by  the  sale  of 
chips  money  was  obtained  to  build  the  stone  em 
bankments  to  the  terraces  on  the  hill.  During 
the  war  of  1812  over  100  vessels  were  fitted  for 
sea,  supplied  with  stores,  etc.  In  1829  the 
"Fulton,"  the  first  steam  war-vessel,  which  had 
been  built  in  1815,  was  accidentally  destroyed  by 
the  explosion  of  her  magazine  while  she  was  at 
anchor  off  the  yard.  Among  other  vessels 
launched  were  the  "Ohio,"  in  1820;  the  "Sa 
vannah,"  begun  in  1822,  but  not  launched  until 
1842;  the  notorious  brig  "Somers,"  in  1842;  and 
the  ill-fated  "  Albany,"  in  1846.  The  stone  dry- 
dock,  begun  in  1841,"  was  not  finished  until  1851. 
It  is  built  of  granite,  and  cost  $2,113,173;  its 
main  chamber  is  285  by  35  feet  at  the  bottom 
and  307  by  98  feet  at  the  top,  and  its  depth  is 
36  feet;  it  can  be  emptied  by  steam-pumps  in 
2£  hours.  During  the  civil  war  14  vessels  were 
built  and  over  400  fitted  out;  the  number  of 
men  employed  increased  from  1650  in  1861  to 
over  6000  in  1863;  and  in  1865  an  average 
of  5000  was  employed,  and  the  pay-roll  was 
$3,952,000,  work  never  ceasing  day  or  night; 
at  present  there  are  about  600  workmen. 

Since  the  war  but  two  new  vessels  have  been 
built,  the  "Trenton"  and  the  torpedo  ram 
"Alarm,"  but  many  improvements  have  been 
made,  and  some  fine  buildings  added  ;  the  streets 
have  been  graded,  paved,  and  sewered,  and  hun 
dreds  of  trees  planted ;  the  Cob  Dock  has  been 
made  attractive  with  trees,  grass,  and  flowers, 


and  Sailors'  Hall  built  for  the  accommodation 
of  the  recruits  on  the  receiving-ships.  It  has 
bath-rooms  and  a  barber-shop  on  the  lower  floor, 
and  a  library,  reading-room,  and  stage  for  ama 
teur  performances  on  the  upper. 

The  Naval  Lyceum,  founded  by  officers  in 
1833,  is  one  of  the  attractions  of  the  yard.  It 
has  a  library  of  5000  volumes,  a  large  collection 
of  curiosities,  and  valuable  cabinets  of  «oins, 
minerals,  etc.  On  the  eastern  side  of  the  yard 
is  the  naval  hospital,  a  fine  building,  with  a  ca 
pacity  for  500  patients.  In  the  same  grounds  are 
the  naval  laboratory  and  the  naval  cemetery. 
The  marine  barracks,  with  their  parade-ground, 
cover  6j  acres,  and  have  accommodations  for 
750  men.  The  old  line-of-battle  ship  "Ver 
mont"  and  the  steam-frigate  "  Colorado"  are 
used  as  receiving-ships,  and  are  moored  to  the 
Cob  Dock  ;  they  can  berth  2000  men.  The  whole 
number  of  buildings  in  the  yard,  including  2 
ship-houses  and  10  houses  for  officers,  is  over  80. 
The  yard  fire  department  includes  2  steam  fire- 
engines  and  a  complete  system  of  fire-alarm  tele 
graph.  For  a  fuller  account  of  the  New  York 
Navy- Yard,  see  "  Lecture  by  Commodore  J.  W. 
A.  Nicholson  before  the  Long  Island  Historical 
Society,"  from  which  much  of  this  article  is  com 
piled. — F.  Hanford,  Lieutenant  U.S.N. 

Navy-yard,  League  Island,  Pa.,  is  situated 
on  League  Island,  in  the  Delaware  Eiver,  the 
western  extremity  of  the  island  being  nearly 
opposite  the  mouth  of  the  Schuylkill  Eiver,  and 
it  extends  easterly  about  2J  miles ;  the  extension 
of  Broad  Street,  of  the  city  of  Philadelphia, 
would  pass  nearly  across  the  centre  of  the  island, 
and  the  main  entrance  of  the  yard  is  at  the  foot 
of  that  street.  The  entire  island,  which  is  now 
the  property  of  the  government,  consists  of, — 
area  within  dikes,  410  acres ;  area  between  the 
banks  of  the  back  channel,  305.5  acres  ;  area  be 
tween  the  back  channel  and  Government  Avenue 
(the  northern  boundary-line  of  the  property), 
37.25  acres  ;  area  outside  of  dikes  to  wharf-line, 
170.25  acres ;  making  in  the  aggregate  an  area 
of  923  acres.  The  dikes  are  absolutely  necessary, 
as  the  natural  surface  of  the  island  is  about  3^ 
feet  below  high-water  mark;  the  land  is  also 
ditched,  and  the  ditches  connect  with  tide-gates, 
so  that  any  water  accumulating  from  rains  or 
other  sources  passes  out  at  low-tide.  Owing  to 
the  recent  establishment  of  this  yard  very  few 
buildings  have  been  erected  as  yet.  At  the  main 
entrance  on  the  right  is  a  porter's  lodge,  and  on 
the  left  a  guard-house ;  the  other  buildings  on 
the  right  of  the  main  avenue  are  a  very  neat 
and  attractive  residence  lately  occupied  by  the 
civil  engineer  of  the  yard,  the  surgeon's  office, 
commandant's  office,  naval  constructor's  offices 
and  shops.  The  ship-house,  which  was  blown 
down  by  a  severe  storm  about  two  years  ago,  has 
not  yet  (1880)  been  rebuilt.  The  machine-shops, 
gun-park,  and  stables  are  on  the  left  side  of  the 
main  avenue.  The  quarters  of  the  marine  guard 
of  the  yard  are  located  in  the  hull  of  the  frigate 
"Antietam."  The  location  of  this  yard  is  ad 
mirably  adapted  for  ship-building  and  repairing, 
as  it  has  sufficient  depth  of  water  on  the  river 
front  to  float  the  largest  vessels  in  the  navy,  and 
it  should  certainly  have  a  sufficient  amount  of 
money  appropriated  by  Congress  to  make  it  one 
of  the  finest  navy-yards  in  the  world. 

Navy-yard,  Mare  Island,  Cal.     This   navy- 


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593 


NAVY-YARD 


yard  is  situated  on  Mare  Island,  which  forms 
a  portion  of  the  eastern  side  of  San  Pablo  Bay, 
its  southernly  end  making  the  intersection 
of  the  Strait  of  Carquinez  and  Mare  Island 
Strait.  The  former  is  the  outlet  of  the  two 
largest  rivers  of  California,  the  Sacramento  and 
San  Joaquin,  arid  the  latter  constitutes  the  im 
proved  front  of  the  navy-yard,  as  well  as  that 
of  the  city  of  Vallejo,  on  the  opposite  shore,  and 
also  the  outlet  of  the  Napa  Creek,  which  drains 
the  fertile  valley  above.  The  distance  from  San 
Francisco  is  26  miles.  The  island  is  about  2| 
miles  long,  with  an  area  of  about  1000  acres  of 
upland,  to  which  may  be  added  some  2000  acres 
of  tule  land  adjoining  it  on  the  north,  also  be 
longing  to  the  United  States.  The  highest  point 
of  the  island  has  an  altitude  of  280  feet.  The  soil 
has  a  rocky  foundation,  very  suitable  to  sustain 
the  weight  of  the  heavy  structures  required  in  a 
naval  dock-yard. 

The  position  is  well  adapted  for  a  naval  sta 
tion.  The  harbor  is  completely  land-locked, 
easy  of  access,  with  excellent  anchorage,  deep 
water,  large  capacity,  and  is  free  from  the  teredo 
and  other  destructive  marine  worms.  It  is  well 
located  for  protection  in  war,  being  within  the 
defenses  of  the  harbor  of  San  Francisco.  It  is 
convenient  of  access  by  land,  as  the  railroad  sys 
tems  of  the  Pacific  coast  form  a  focus  on  the 
shore  of  the  Strait  of  Carquinez,  1  mile  distant 
from  the  island. 

The  principal  structures  are: 

The  sectional  dock,  which  has  been  used  for 
raising  the  largest  vessels  during  the  past  25 
years. 

The  stone  dry-dock,  now  in  course  of  con 
struction,  of  capacity  sufficient  for  docking  the 
largest  ships. 

The  foundry  and  machine-shop. 

The  construction  workshops. 

The  smithery. 

The  blacksmith's  shops. 

The  sail-loft. 

The  rigging-loft. 

The  yards  and  docks  workshops. 

The  iron-plating  shop. 

The  saw-mill  and  the  timber-shed,  all  of  large 
capacity  and  well  adapted  to  the  purposes  for 
which  they  were  designed. 

The  office  building,  in  which  the  command 
ant's  and  other  offices  are  located,  occupies  a 
prominent  position. 

The  officers'  quarters,  including  the  residence 
of  the  commandant,  are  built  on  a  beautiful 
avenue  some  distance  from  the  water  front. 

The  navigation  store-house,  and  the  ordnance 
store-houses  and  magazines,  are  well  located,  and 
kept  in  a  high  state  of  efficiency. 

The  marine  barracks  and  U.  S.  naval  hospital 
are  eligibly  located  on  the  island. 

The  report  of  the  Secretary  of  the  Navy, 
1878,  shows  the  approximate  value  of  property 
belonging  to  the  navy  at  this  yard  to  be  $7,181,- 
720.78,  and  his  report  for  1879  remarks:  "The 
great  importance  of  this  yard  commends  it  to 
the  special  consideration  of  Congress.  It  being 
the  only  one  on  our  Pacific  coast,  it  is  the  exclu 
sive  representative  of  the  Department  in  repair 
ing  vessels  attached  to  the  Pacific  and  Asiatic 
Squadrons." 

The  navy-yard  was  established  on  this  island 
in  the  year  1854,  Admiral  (then  Commander) 
88 


D.  G.  Farragut   having   assumed  command  in 
September  of  that  year. 

The  following  is  a  list  of  commandants  and 
date  of  assuming  command  : 
Commander  D.  G.  Farragut,  September  16,  1854. 
Captain  R.  B.  Cunningham,  July  16,  1858. 
Captain  David  McDougal,  March  13,  1861. 
Captain  W.  H.  Gardner,  June  5,  1861. 
Captain  Thomas  O.  Selfridge,  M'ay  27,  1862. 
Captain  D.  McDougal,  October  17,  1864. 
Commodore  T.  T.  Craven,  September  5,  1866. 
Commodore  James  Alden,  August  I,  1868. 
Captain  Reed  Werden,  March^l7,  1869. 
Rear-Admiral  T.  T.  Craven,  April  15,  1869. 
Commodore  J.  R.  Goldsborough,  January  1, 1870. 
Commodore  E.  G.  Parrott,  April  15,  1871. 
Rear-Admiral  T.  O.  Selfridge,  September  3, 1872. 
Rear-Admiral  John  Rodgers,  July  3,  1873. 
Commodore  E.  R.  Colhoun,  April  17,  1877. 

The  following  vessels  were  reported  at  this 
navy-yard  in  July,  1880,  viz.  :  "  Mohican,"  re 
building ;  "Monadnock,"  rebuilding;  "  Beni- 
cia,"  in  ordinary;  "Independence,"  receiving- 
ship  ;  "  Cyane,"  in  ordinary  ;  "  Iroquois,"  under 
repairs;  "Saco,"  in  ordinary;  "  Narragansett," 
in  ordinary  ;  "  Camanche,"  in  ordinary  ;  "  Ny- 
ack,"  in  ordinary;  "Monterey,"  tug  in  yard 
service  ;  "  Mohican"  (old),  in  ordinary  ;  "  Monad- 
nock"  (old),  in  ordinary;  "  Monongahela,"  in 
ordinary;  "Ranger,"  under  repairs;  "  Tusca- 
rora,"  under  repairs  ;  and  the  flag-ship  "  Pensa- 
cola." — E.  R.  Colhoun,  Commodore  U.S.N. 

Navy-yard  (Gosport),  Norfolk,  Va.  No 
navy-yard  belonging  to  the  United  States,  from 
its  geographical  position,  is  more  important  than 
that  at  Gosport,  Va.  Located  near  enough  to 
the  entrance  of  the  Chesapeake  Bay  to  be  easily 
accessible,  it  is,  at  the  same  time,  'in  a  position 
readily  defended  from  attacks  either  by  land  or 
by  water,  and,  as  has  been  repeatedly  shown, 
can  be  held  by  a  small  force  against  a  very 
largely  superior  one.  There  is  in  the  vicinity  an 
abundant  supply  of  timber  and  other  material, 
while  the  close  proximity  of  a  populous  city  se 
cures  to  it  the  command  of  all  the  skilled  labor 
that  can  be  required.  Such  is  the  mildness  of 
the  climate,  that  work  of  all  sorts  can  be  carried 
on  at  all  seasons  of  the  year  without  interruption. 
Hampton  Roads,  the  outer  harbor,  is  an  excel 
lent  point  of  rendezvous  for  a  fleet  or  squadron. 

A  glance  at  the  map  will  demonstrate  the  very 
great  importance  of  a  naval  station  in  this  vicin 
ity.  The  Chesapeake,  with  its  navigable  tribu- 
ta'ries,  penetrates  into  the  heart  of  several  of  the 
richest  States  in  the  Union,  reaching  to  the 
national  capital.  A  foothold  in  its  waters  would, 
therefore,  be  of  the  utmost  strategic  importance 
to  an  invading  enemy,  and  would  probably  be 
one  of  the  earliest  objects  sought  by  them,  as 
past  history  has  fully  shown.  The  width  of  the 
entrance  of  the  bay  is  so  great  that  it  would  be 
impossible  to  defend  it  except  by  a  naval  force, 
which  should  have  a  repairing,  coaling,  and 
victualing  station  as  near  at  hand  as  possible, 
consistent  with  entire  defensibility  for  itself, 
with  a  reasonably  secure  outer  harbor,  large 
enough  for  the  necessary  manoeuvres  of  a  squad 
ron  in  getting  under  way  and  forming.  All  of 
these  conditions  are  admirably  filled  by  the  loca 
tion  of  the  Gosport  Yard. 

Just  before  the  breaking  out  of  the  war  of  the 
Revolution,  the  British  established  a  marine- 


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594 


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yard,  for  the  use  of  their  navy,  on  the  site  of  the 
present  navy-yard  at  Gosport  (as  that  portion  of 
Portsmouth  has  always  been  called),  having,  as 
is  stated  in  a  letter  now  on  file  in  the  Navy  De 
partment,  written  in  1824,  hy  Miles  King,  United 
States  navy-agent,  selected  this  point,  after  a 
careful  survey  of  all  the  ports  within  its  domin 
ions  in  North  America,  as  the  most  eligible  situ 
ation  for  a  naval  station.  The  name  of  Gosport 
was  doubtless  taken  from  Gosport,  near  Ports 
mouth,  England,  where  one  of  the  most  impor 
tant  of  the  "British  dock-yards  is  located.  There 
is  a  tradition  that  this  spot  had  been  used  for 
some  time  by  the  British  as  a  careening-ground 
for  their  ships,  biit  the  writer  has  not  been  able 
to  find  any  proof  of  the  fact.  Mr.  King's  letter 
further  states  that  scarcely  had  the  British  gov 
ernment  commenced  the  works  when  the  Revolu 
tion  began,  and  the  yard,  together  with  the  adjoin 
ing  property  of  Andrew  Sprowle,  the  British 
navy-agent,  became  confiscate  and  forfeited  to 
the  State  of  Virginia. 

Virginia  immediately  commenced  preparations 
for  establishing  a  navy,  and  vigorous  measures 
were  adopted  to  that  end.  Several  vessels  were 
built  or  purchased.  A  rope-walk  was  established, 
which  was  probably  at  Gosport,  though  it  is  not 
certain.  The  published  histories  of  Virginia  and 
of  the  U.  S.  navy  are  alike  singularly  silent  upon 
the  subject  of  the  Virginia  navy,  which  was  em 
ployed  mainly  for  the  defense  of  the  bays  and 
rivers  of  the  State.  Commodore  Barron  was 
appointed  its  commander-in-chief,  being  styled 
"Commodore  of  all  the  armed  vessels  of  *  the 
Commonwealth."  His  two  sons,  Samuel  and 
James  Barron,  and  also  Richard  Dale,  all  after 
wards  distinguished  officers  of  the  U.  S.  navy, 
served  under  his  command.  At  the  conclusion 
of  the  war  the  State  navy  was  disbanded. 

The  marine-yard  was  retained  for  the  benefit 
of  the  Commonwealth,  though  no  use  is  known 
to  have  been  made  of  it  until  the  year  1794.  The 
lands  adjoining  the  yard  were  sold  in  1785.  It 
was  lent  to  the  government  by  the  State  of  Vir 
ginia,  and  was  purchased  by  the  United  States 
several  years  later.  Capt.  Richard  Dale*  was 
appointed  superintendent  of  the  yard ;  Josiah 
Fox,  naval  constructor  or  master-builder ;  and 
William  Pennock,  navy-agent. 

By  an  act  of  Congress  passed  March  27,  1794, 
the  President  had  been  authorized  to  procure  by 
purchase  or  otherwise,  equip,  and  employ  to  pro 
tect  our  commerce  from  the  Algerines,  4  ships 
of  44  guns  each,  and  2  ships  of  36  guns  each. 
One  of  the  ships  thus  authorized  was  laid  down 
at  the  Gosport  yard.  Various  causes  combined 
to  delay  its  completion,  and  at  the  end  of  the  year 
1795  it  was  still  unfinished. 

In  a  report  of  the  Secretary  of  War,  dated 
December  12  of  that  year,  it  is  stated  that  about 
two-thirds  of  the  live-oak  frame  of  the  frigate 
at  Norfolk  (Gosport)  had  been  received,  a  part 
of  the  planking,  the  copper  for  sheathing  and 
fastening,  most  of  the  iron-work,  the  masts  and 
spars,  and  the  most  of  the  other  materials  neces 
sary  were  in  store  or  getting  ready.  The  keel 
had  been  laid,  and  part  of  the  frame  bolted  to 
gether  ready  for  raising. 

*  Capt.  Dale  was  afterward  appointed  to  the  "  Ganges,"  a  pur 
chased  ship  armed  as  a  24,  and  which,  under  his  command, 
was  the  first  vessel  of  the  present  navy  to  get  to  sea,  sailing  in 
May,  1798. 


On  the  establishment  of  peace,  early  in  1796, 
between  the  United  States  and  Algiers, "work  was 
suspended  upon  the  ship  at  this  yard,  and  such 
of  the  materials  collected  as  were  thought  per 
ishable  were  sold,  and  the  rest  put  in  store,  Mr. 
Pennock,  the  agent,  being  employed  to  take 
charge  of  them.  In  June,  1797,  the  materials 
on  hand  at  Gosport  were  valued  at  $52,989. 

In  July,  orders  were  sent  to  Mr.  Pennock  to 
recommence  work  on  the  frigate  at  Gosport,  for 
which  the  name  "  Chesapeake"  had  been  chosen. 
Daring  the  same  month,  a  brig  of  200  tons, 
which  had  been  built  near  the  navy-yard,  by 
Mr.  Herbert,  and  which  was  nearly  ready  for 
launching,  was  purchased  by  the  government 
and  fitted  out,  under  the  name  of  "'Norfolk." 
Capt.  Thomas  Williams,  of  Norfolk,  was  ap 
pointed  superintendent,  and  afterward  com 
mander  of  the  brig,  being  regularly  commis 
sioned  in  the  navy. 

Mr.  Josiah  Fox,  who  had  been  discharged 
from  the  yard  upon  the  suspension  of  work  in 
March,  1796,  was  now  reappointed  as  naval  con 
structor,  and  directed  to  proceed  with  the  work 
upon  the  "Chesapeake,"  on  a  plan  proposed  by 
himself,  by  which  the  size  of  the  vessel  was  re 
duced  from  a  44-  to  a  36-gun  ship. 

Considerable  activity  prevailed  at  the  yard 
during  the  remainder  of  the  year.  A  brig  was 
purchased  by  the  citizens  of  some  of  the  princi 
pal  towns  of  Virginia,  and  presented  to  the  gov 
ernment.  It  was  named  the  "  Richmond,"  and 
was  fitted  out  under  the  command  of  Capt. 
Samuel  Barron,  who  had  served  in  the  Virginia 
navy  during  the  Revolution. 

The  vessels  of  Commodore  Truxtun's  squadron 
frequently  resorted  to  the  yard  for  repairs  and 
supplies,  and  to  pay  off  their  crews. 

We  also  find  that  large  quantities  of  bread  and 
of  some  other  articles  of  provisions  were  fur 
nished  during  the  year  and  the  next  succeeding 
for  other  stations.  The  yard  was  also  made  a 
depot  for  the  supply  of  masts  and  spars  to  cruis- 
ing-ship?,  and  even  to  vessels  fitting  at  Baltimore 
and  Philadelphia. 

By  a  report  submitted  to  Congress  by  the  Sec 
retary  of  State,  March  2,  1799,  it  appears  that 
commissions  were  issued  for  the  district  of  Nor 
folk,  between  July  9,  1798,  and  January  1,  1799, 
to  10  private  armed  vessels,  mounting  in  the 
aggregate  65  guns. 

In  June,  1799,  a  brig,  called  the  "Augusta," 
was  purchased  and  fitted  out  at  Gosport. 

July  16, 1799,  Commodore  Samuel  Barron  was 
ordered  to  duty  as  superintendent  of  the  y<\rd  ; 
Mr.  Pennock,  the  agent,  not  having  exercised 
the  degree  of  economy  which  the  Department  de 
sired.  In  the  following  month,  however,  Com 
modore  Barron  AVHS  detached  and  ordered  to  the 
command  of  the  "  Constellation,"  at  New  York. 

The  importance  of  the  Gosport  yard,  partic 
ularly  as  an  equipping,  recruiting,  and  victualing 
station,  had  now  become  so  well  established  that 
the  Secretary  of  the  Navy  resolved  to  make  it 
one  of  the  permanent  navy-yards  of  the  country. 
At  his  suggestion  the  Legislature  of  Virginia, 
by  an  act  dated  January  25,  1800,  ceded  to  the 
United  States  the  property  known  as  Gosport  for 
the  purpose  of  establishing  a  navy-yard  there, 
such  cession  to  take  effect  as  soon  as  the  value  of 
the  property  should  be  ascertained,  and  the  Gov 
ernor  be  satisfied  that  the  United  States  were 


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595 


NAVY-YARD 


willing  to  pay  the  amount  thereof  to  the  Com 
monwealth. 

In  accordance  with  the  requirements  of  this 
act,  Thomas  Newton,  Jr.,  was  appointed  on 
behalf  of  the  State  of  Virginia,  and,  by  an 
order  dated  7th  of  April,  1800,  Mr.  William 
Pennock  was  appointed  to  act  on  the  part  of 
the  United  States  to  ascertain,  with  Mr.  New 
ton,  the  value  of  the  lands  required.  In  a  letter 
bearing  the  same  date,  the  Secretary  of  the 
Navy  enjoined  the  greatest  economy  on  the  part 
of  Mr.  Pennock,  and  informed  him  that  the  only 
funds  available,  out  of  which  the  property  could 
be  paid  for,  were  those  appropriated  for  the  build 
ing  the  "  74-gun  ships."  He  also  intimated  to 
Mr.  Newton  that  the  less  the  amount  paid  for 
the  property  the  more  there  would  be  available 
for  improvements,  and  suggested  $100  per  acre 
as  a  fair  valuation. 

In  a  report  to  the  President,  dated  April  25, 
1800,  the  Secretary,  in  recommending  the  estab 
lishment  of  permanent  navy-yards,  to  be  the 
property  of  the  United  States,  remarks  that  a 
large  part  of  the  expense  of  building  the  frigates 
arose  from  handling  the  timber,  owing  to  the 
confined  space  in  which  it  was  piled, — enough,  he 
thinks,  to  have  purchased  ground  and  to  have 
improved  it.  He  states  that  the  ground  at  Gos- 
port  had  recently  been  ceded  to  the  United  States 
on  condition  of  the  payment  of  its  value,  which 
he  hopes  will  not  exceed  $2000. 

To  the  surprise  of  the  Secretary,  the  value 
assigned  to  the  land  was  $12,000,  or  $750  per 
acre.  In  a  letter  addressed  to  Mr.  Pen-nock 
on  the  7th  of  August,  he  expresses  the  opinion 
that  the  ground  should  have  been  given  to  the 
government  without  charge,  but  that  it  must  be 
taken  at  the  valuation  named,  though  he  consid 
ered  it  exorbitant.  He  also  directs  Mr.  Pennock 
to  have  prepared  plans  for  improving  the  timber- 
dock,  a  creek  making  up  into  the  yard,  and  which 
was  then  used  as  such. 

January  24, 1801,  $12, 000  were  remitted  to  Mr. 
John  Hopkins,  of  Richmond,  Va.,  to  be  paid  to 
the  State,  as  the  purchase-money  of  the  Gosport 
lands,  and  under  date  of  June  15,  1801,  a  deed 
was  executed  by  Governor  Monroe,  by  which  the 
title  and  jurisdiction  of  the  property  were  con 
veyed  to  the  United  States.  This  deed  is  now  on 
file  in  the  Bureau  of  Yards  and  Docks,  Navy 
Department. 

In  a  report  submitted  to  the  House  of  Repre 
sentatives,  April  27,  1802,  by  Mr.  Mitchell,  from 
the  Committee  on  Naval  Affairs,  that  gentleman 
stated  that  $12,000  had  been  expended  for  pur 
chase  and  $4000  for  improvements  at  Gosport 
without  authority  of  law.  Under  date  of  March 
10, 1802,  Mr.  Mitchell,  from  the  same  committee, 
reported  that,  in  the  opinion  of  the  committee, 
Gosport  and  Charlestown,  Mass.,  from  the  im 
provements  already  made,  and  from  other  circum 
stances,  were  the  most  eligible  places  for  receiving 
and  repairing  the  ships  in  actual  service ;  and  that, 
should  any  additional  improvements  be  necessary 
at  those  places,  they  ought  to  be  made.  He  also 
recommended  the  appointment  of  suitable  persons 
to  make  plans  for  improving  those  yards,  and  the 
appropriation  of  $50,000  to  carry  the  plans  into 
effect. 

The  $4000  above  referred  to  as  having  been 
expended  in  improvements  at  Gosport  had  been 
used  to  build  a  spar-shed,  timber-shed,  a  bridge 


across  a  small  creek,  which  separated  the  yard 
from  the  rest  of  Gosport  at  that  time  (outside 
of  where  the  present  north  wall  stands),  and 
probably  in  part  for  wooden  wharves  along  the 
water  front,  and  a  fence  around  the  property. 

We  find  mention  of  vessels  laying  up,  repair 
ing,  and  fitting  out  at  this  yard  in  1800,  1801, 
and  1802.  In  1801,  a  squadron  under  Commo 
dore  Dale  fitted  out.  On  the  27th  of  July,  1801, 
orders  were  sent  to  heave  down  the  Chesapeake 
for  repairs. 

In  October,  1801,  a  marine-guard  was  sent  to 
Gosport  Yard,  and  the  navy-agent  was  directed 
to  furnish  it  with  quarters.  It  is  probable 
that  the  wooden  barrack-building  which  stood 
on  about  the  same  site  that  the  brick  barracks 
were  afterwards  built  upon  was  erected  for  the 
purpose. 

In  April,  1802,  Mr.  Pennock  recommended  the 
building  of  a  store-house  for  provisions,  etc., 
within  the  yard.  Up  to  that  time  private  ware 
houses  had  been  hired  for  the  use  of  the  navy 
stores. 

April  26,  1802,  Mr.  Pennock  was  removed, 
and  Daniel  Bedinger  was  appointed  navy-agent 
and  superintendent  of  the  navy-yard. 

In  April,  1803,  $10,000  were  sent  to  Mr. 
Bedinger  to  build  a  warehouse  and  a  timber- 
shed  at  Gosport.  We  find  by  the  correspondence 
of  a  little  later  date  that,  instead  of  expending 
the  money  for  the  purpose  authorized,  Mr.  Bed 
inger  built  with  it,  first,  a  brick  wall,  beginning 
a  short  distance  from  the  water-side,  running 
along  the  north  front  of  the  yard,  and  down  the 
west  side  to  the  creek  which  formed  the  southern 
boundary,  and  part  of  which  forms  the  present 
timber-basin ;  secondly,  a  brick  dwelling-house 
for  himself  within  the  yard,  and  which  was 
afterward  for  many  years  used  as  the  command 
ant's  house,  and,  with  what  money  was  left,  a 
very  indifferent  shed  for  timber,  and  a  ware 
house,  which  afterward  had  to  be  taken  down 
to  prevent  its  falling. 

August  6,  1804,  an  order  was  sent  to  Mr. 
Bedinger  detaching  the  marine-guard  from  the 
navy-yard  and  ordering  it  to  Washington. 

In  May,  1805,  Bedinger  was  ordered  to  repair 
the  wharves,  which  had  been  represented  by  a 
citizen  as  being  much  out  of  order.  We  find, 
under  date  of  February  6,  1806,  a  report  from 
Mr.  Thomas  Turner,  accountant  of  the  navy,  in 
which  that  gentleman  states  that  $42,748.78  had 
been  expended  in  improvements  and  repairs  at 
this  yard,  and  yet,  except  the  wall,  scarcely  any 
thing  of  permanent  value  seems  to  have  been 
done.  The  wharves  were,  and  continued  to  be 
for  many  years  later,  of  wood,  and,  of  course,  in 
waters  infested  with  the  Teredo  navalis,  were 
constantly  requiring  extensive  repairs,  and  oflen 
complete  renewal.  During  the  summer  of  1800 
we  find  several  gunboats  and  ketches  fitting  out 
and  laying  up,  under  the  direction  of  Lieut. 
Arthur  Sinclair. 

On  the  28th  of  November,  1806,  Capt.  Stephen 
Decatur  was  ordered  to  superintend  the  building 
of  4  gunboats  at  Norfolk.  He  seems  to  have 
superseded  Lieut.  Sinclair  in  his  duties  also, 
although  that  officer  continued  on  duty  under 
him.  In  July,  1807,  Mr.  Bedinger  was  ordered 
to  contract  for  materials  for  10  additional  gun 
boats,  and,  a  little  later,  to  contract  for  building 
the  same.  Capt.  Decatur  was  ordered  to  super- 


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596 


NAVY-YARD 


intend  the  construction.  We  now  find  Capt. 
Decatur  addressed  by  the  Department  as  "  Com 
manding  naval  forces  at  Norfolk,"  and  he  ap 
pears  to  have  continued  in  this  command  until 
November,  1811 ;  his  force  consisted  of  the 
frigate  "  United  States,"  which  he  himself  com 
manded,  and  of  such  gunboats  and  other  vessels 
as  were  from  time  to  time  put  into  commission. 
He  appears,  however,  to  have  had  no  immediate 
charge  of  the  navy-yard,  which  continued  under 
the  control  of  the  navy-agent. 

In  November,  1807,  a  marine-guard  was  again 
ordered  to  the  yard.  February  10,  1808,  Bedin- 
ger's  appointment  was  revoked,  and  Theodore 
Armistead  appointed  in  his  place  as  navy-agent 
and  superintendent  of  the  navy-yard.  We  now 
find  complaints  lodged  against  Bedinger  for 
having  used  the  public  wharves  and  property  in 
repairing  his  own  vessels,  though  whether  these 
charges  were  substantiated  does  not  appear. 

The  agents  up  to  this  time  seem  not  to  have 
been  required  to  give  bonds,  and,  in  fact,  to  have 
been  held  very  little  responsible  for  their  acts, 
the  Department  having  no  military  control  over 
them. 

In  March,  1808,  Mr.  Armistead  was  author 
ized  to  contract  for  50  tons  of  native  hemp, 
and  to  have  it  made  into  cordage  for  the  navy. 
The  work  was  done  by  private  manufacturers, 
however,  and  not  at  the  yard. 

In  April  of  the  same  year  authority  was  sent 
to  Mr.  Armistead  to  build  a  new  timber-shed 
and  a  warehouse. 

In  May,  1809,  an  order  was  sent  to  build  a 
powder-magazine  in  the  yard.  This  stood  near 
the  creek,  now  timber-basin. 

In  June,  1810,  on  account  of  the  uncertain 
relations  with  Great  Britain,  a  small  cruising 
squadron  was  ordered  to  Norfolk  under  the  com 
mand  of  Commodore  Decatur. 

July  7  of  the  same  year  the  Department,  having 
become  tired  of  the  practice  of  operating  the  navy- 
yard  under  irresponsible  civil  administration, 
ordered  Commodore  Samuel  Barron  as  com 
mandant  of  the  yard,  the  gunboats,  the  officers, 
and  men.  The  navy-agent  was,  however,  still 
continued  as  purchasing  and  disbursing  agent, 
and,  as  such,  in  charge  of  "  all  stores  other  "than 
military."  The  following  letter,  addressed  to 
Commodore  Barron  by  "the  Secretary  of  the 
Navy,  is  of  some  interest  as  being  the  first  in 
structions  to  the  commandant : 

"NAVY  DEPARTMENT,  September  29, 1810. 

"SiR, — In  defining  your  duties  and  your 
authority  in  the  yard  at  Gosport,  it  will  be  suf 
ficient  for  me  to  state  that  all  the  military  stores 
of  every  description  will  be  under  your  care; 
that  the  direction  of  all  improvements  in  the 
yard  and  of  all  reparations  to  our  vessels  at  the 
yard  are  committed  to  you ;  and  that  within  the 
yard  you  are  to  have  the  entire,  undivided  com 
mand. 

"  The  navy-agent,  as  heretofore,  will  have  the 
charge  of  all  stores  other  than  military,  and  he 
must  have  a  warehouse  at  the  yard  for  their 
safe-keeping,  with  perfect  liberty  of  ingress  and 
egress. 

"  PAUL  HAMILTON." 

The  house  which  has  been  mentioned  as  having 
been  built  by  Mr.  Bedinger  was  assigned  to  Com 


modore  Barron  as  a  residence.  It  was  at  the 
time  occupied  by  the  storekeeper  or  clerk  of  the 
yard,  an  eccentric  person  of  the  name  of  Thomas 
Dulton,  an  ex-shipmaster.  Although  the  navy- 
agent  was  nominally  superintendent  of  the  yard, 
Capt.  Dulton  had  been  in  immediate  charge  of 
it  for  some  years,  performing  all  sorts  of  offices 
therein,  ringing  the  bell  and  mustering  the 
workmen  himself.  Many  singular  anecdotes  of 
him  are  preserved  among  the  traditions  of  the 
yard. 

Commodore  Barron  had  scarcely  entered  upon 
his  command  when,  on  the  29th  of  October,  1810, 
he  was  overtaken  by  death.  Lieut.  Robert 
Henley,  under  date  of  November  10,  was  ordered 
to  assume  temporary  command  of  the  yard  until 
a  relief  should  be  ordered. 

In  May,  1811,  Capt.  Samuel  Evans  wag  or 
dered  as  commandant,  and  from  that  time  we 
find  lieutenants,  masters,  medical  officers,  boat 
swains,  and  gunners  attached  to  the  yard  and  to 
the  vessels  in  ordinary. 

Capt.  Evans  continued  in  command  until 
August  10,  1812,  when  Capt.  John  Casein  was 
ordered  to  relieve  him.  Capt.  Cassin  had,  as 
lieutenant  and  master-commandant,  been  for 
several  years  attached  to  the  navy-yard  at 
Washington,  part  of  the  time  as  superintend 
ent  and  part  of  the  time  second  in  command. 
The  Department  seems  to  have  regarded  him  as 
a  valuable  dock-yard  officer,  and  the  pay  and 
allowances  of  a  captain  commanding  a  separate 
squadron  were  given  him  in  his  new  position, 
although  he  was  almost  the  junior  captain  on  the 
list  when  ordered  to  the  command. 

In  August,  as  above  stated,  Capt.  Evan?  was 
relieved  by  Capt.  Cassin.  Very  little  of  interest 
occurred  during  the  remainder  of  the  year.  In 
October  a  blacksmith's  shop  was  erected.  By  the 
letters  of  Capt.  Cassin  we  find  that  considerable 
quantities  of  timber,  lumber,  and  other  stores,  and 
of  munitions  of  war,  were  furnished  from  time  to 
time  from  the  navy-yard  to  the  army  in  the  vicin 
ity,  particularly  to  the  engineer  officers,  who  were 
erecting  fortifications.  During  the  summer,  Capt. 
Cassin's  little  force  was  increased  by  an  armed 
yacht  under  Lieut  E.  P.  Kennedy. 

Early  in  February,  1813,  Capt.  Charles  Stew 
art,  in  the  "  Constellation,"  which  had  fitted  out 
at  Washington,  in  attempting  to  get  to  sea,  was 
met  by  a  large  force  of  British  ships  which  were 
seen  entering  the  Chesapeake  as  he  came  abreast 
the  Horseshoe.  It  being  calm  when  he  discov 
ered  the  enemy,  Capt.  Stewart  kedged  the  "  Con 
stellation"  from  the  Horseshoe  to  a  position  in 
the  Elizabeth  River,  just  opposite  Fort  Norfolk, 
now  the  navy  magazine. 

Capt.  Stewart  now  became  commanding  officer 
of  the  station  in  general  by  virtue  of  his  senior 
ity,  though  Capt.  Cassin  continued  to  command 
the  gunboat  flotilla,  and  made  his  reports  di 
rectly  to  the  Department.  The  most  untiring 
vigilance,  activity,  and  skill  were  now  required 
to  defend  the  frigate  and  flotilla  from  capture, 
and  at  the  same  time  to  annoy  the  enemy  as 
much  as  possible.  Both  objects  were  successfully 
accomplished. 

On  the  30th  of  November,  1813,  Mr.  Jones, 
the  Secretary  of  the  Navy,  in  answer  to  a  reso 
lution  of  the  House  of  Representatives  calling 
for  information  on  the  subject  of  navy-yards, 
submitted,  among  other  papers,  the  following 


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597 


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letter  of  Capt.  Cassin,  giving  a  description  of  the 
yard  at  the  date  of  the  report  : 

"NAVY-YARD,  QOSPOBT,  May  25,  1813. 

"  SIR,  —  I  have  the  honor  to  inclose  you  a 
statement  of  the  accommodations  provided  in 
this  yard,  with  the  number  of  officers  and  men 
attached.  .  .  .  The  commander's  dwelling  of 
brick,  two  stories  high,  made  comfortable  quar 
ters  ;  marine  barracks,  miserable  huts  of  wood, 
wanting  much  repair;  the  officers'  quarters  are 
low  two-story  frame  buildings,  the  whole  150 
feet  from  the  west  wall,  which  is  only  5£  feet 
high  ;  the  northwest  is  bounded  by  warehouses 
and  timber-sheds,  having  to  extend  a  fence  on 
the  east  end  to  low-water  mark. 

"  The  marine  hospital  stands  in  the  centre  of 
the  yard,  two  stories  high,  was  formerly  occu 
pied  as  boatswain's  and  gunner's  store-rooms, 
built  of  wood,  the  centre  of  which  is  occupied  as 
the  hospital,  the  garret  as  rigging-loft,  and  lower 
part  gunner's  store,  store-keeper's  office,  purser's 
issuing-room  and  office. 

"The  blacksmith's  shops,  begun  of  brick,  165 
feet  by  50,  including  anchor  and  plumber's 
shops,  not  completed,  the  old  shops  being  dan 
gerous  to  heat  a  large  fire. 

"One  large  timber-shed,  300  feet  long,  with 
brick  pillars,  and  50  feet  wide. 

"  One  small  shed  for  the  armorer  and  plumber; 
two  sheds  appropriated,  one  for  the  joiners,  the 
other  for  mast-makers. 

CASSIN." 


In  April,  1815,  an  order  was  sent  to  Capt. 
Cassin  by  the  Secretary  of  the  Navy  to  raise  the 
hulks  which  had  been  sunk  in  the  channel 
during  the  war,  and  which  constituted  a  serious 
obstruction  to  the  narrow  channel. 

During  the  summer  of  1816,  under  an  order 
dated  the  7th  of  May  of  that  year,  an  examination 
was  made  by  the  Board  of  Navy  Commissioners, 
then  consisting  of  three  of  the  most  distin- 

fuished  officers  in  the  navy,  viz.,  Commodores 
ohn  Rodgers,  Stephen  Decatur,  and  David 
Porter,  to  ascertain  the  best  manner  of  defend 
ing  the  Chesapeake  Bay,  and  also  to  determine 
the  most  advantageous  site  for  a  naval  station 
and  depot  within  its  waters. 

Differing  somewhat  in  their  opinions,  espe 
cially  as  to  the  best  location  for  a  naval  station, 
each  officer  made  a  separate  report.  Commodore 
Rodgers  favored  a  position  in  York  River,  10 
miles  above  York,  called  the  Clay  Banks;  Com 
modore  Porter,  the  mouth  of  the  St.  Mary's 
River  ;  and  Commodore  Decatur,  the  site  al 
ready  occupied  at  Gosport. 

No  action  seems  to  have  been  taken  upon  the 
reports  of  the  board,  and  no  material  changes 
occurred  for  the  next  few  years. 

In  the  summer  of  1817  the  keel  of  a  line-of- 
battle  ship  was  laid.  The  timber  for  this  ship 
had  been  in  store  for  years,  having  been  col 
lected  under  the  provisions  of  the  act  of  Con 
gress  of  February  25,  1799,  and  subsequent 
amendments.  The  name  afterward  chosen  for 
this  ship  was  "Delaware."  We  find  authority 
given  during  the  same  summer  to  build  a  saw- 
shed  and  a  steam-stove. 

In  January,  1818,  authority  was  sent  to  Capt. 
Cassin  to  remove  or  pull  down  the  old  hospital 
which  was  situated  within  the  yard.  A  small 
frame  building,  located  near  the  present  dry- 


dock,  was  afterward  used  for  some  years  as  a 
hospital. 

In  June,  1818,  the  ship  "Alert"  was  assigned 
as  receiving-ship  at  Norfolk,  Commander  Jesse 
Wilkinson  being  ordered  to  command  her. 

In  September,  1818,  Capt.  Arthur  Sinclair 
was  ordered  to  this  navy-yard  to  superintend 
the  construction  of  the  "  Delaware"  under  Capt. 
Cassin.  Capt.  Sinclair  is  soon  after  addressed  as 
"Commanding  Naval  Officer  Afloat"  at  Norfolk, 
and  held  a  command  separate  from  the  yard  for 
several  years  later.  The  receiving-ship  was  a  part 
of  his  command,  and  all  recruiting  was  done 
under  his  direction.  We  find  about  this  period, 
and  for  some  years  after,  considerable  quantities 
of  timber,  plank,  knees,  masts,  and  mast-pieces, 
and  also  of  cordage  furnished  from  Gosport  to 
the  navy-yards  in  other  parts  of  the  country. 

In  the  "latter  part  of  1818,  the  old  wooden 
buildings  used  as  marine  barracks  were  pulled 
down  and  a  brick  building  put  up  in  their  place. 
The  line-of-battle  ship  "New  York"  was  also 
commenced  in  this  year. 

In  October,  1820,  the  "  Delaware"  was  launched 
and  housed  over,  not  being  required  for  service 
immediately. 

In  June,  1821,  Oapt.  Cassin  was  relieved  by 
Capt.  Lewis  Warrington.  During  the  summer 
of  that  year  Capt.  Warrington  was  directed  to 
fill  in  the  old  timber-basin.  This  was  a  shal 
low  basin,  originally  formed  by  a  creek  or 
cove,  and  included  the  spot  where  ship-house 
B  was  afterward  built ;  its  banks  were  protected 
by  wharf-logs,  with  a  wharf  across  the  entrance 
provided  with  slips  for  boats  to  enter.  A  ship- 
house  was  authorized  to  be  built  over  the  "  New 
York"  ;  this  was  afterward  lettered  A.  A  pair 
of  masting-shears  was  also  authorized. 

In  August,  1821,  a  school  for  midshipmen  was 
established  under  the  charge  of  Chaplain  David 
P.  Adams,  on  board  the  "Guerriere,"  frigate, 
then  in  ordinary  at  Norfolk. 

Improvements  to  the  navy-yard  buildings,  re 
pairs  to  the  wharves,  filling  in  and  leveling  the 
grounds,  were  carried  on  from  year  to  year  under 
the  current  appropriations. 

In  December,  1824,  Capt.  Warrington  was  re 
lieved  from  the  command  of  the  yard  by  Master- 
Commandant  James  Renshaw. 

On  the  25th  of  May,  1825,  Commodore  James 
Barron  relieved  Capt.  Renshaw  as  commandant 
of  the  yard. 

On  the  28th  of  November,  Commodore  Barron, 
in  answer  to  a  complaint  of  the  Secretary  of  the 
Navy  that  too  long  a  time  was  required  to  repair 
and  fit  out  ships,  informed  the  Secretary  that  the 
delays  were  immediately  owing  to  want  of  proper 
workshops,  store-houses,  and  a  dock,  and  proposed 
a  plan  for  the  improvement  of  the  yard,  which 
involved  the  purchase  of  more  land  (the  yard 
being  altogether  too  confined  for  the  purpose  for 
which  it  was  required),  the  erection  of  suitable 
buildings  and  shops,  and  of  a  floating  dry-dock. 
He  furnished  a  plan  and  estimates  for  the  last. 
He  especially  urged  the  inexpediency  of  erecting 
wooden  wharves  and  docks  in  waters  infested 
with  the  Teredo  navalis,  which  destroyed  the 
structures  at  the  water's  edge,  and  left  the  sub 
structure  to  form  actual  obstructions  in  the 
channel. 

The  question  of  purchasing  additional  ground 
seems  thus  to  have  been  re-opened,  and  under 


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NAVY-YARD 


date  of  February  26,  1826,  Mr.  King,  the  navy- 
agent,  suggests  to  the  Navy  Department  the 
plan  of  applying  to  the  county  court  to  appoint 
a  jury  to  appraise  the  lands  required  by  the 
government.  This  suggestion  was  approved  by 
the  Secretary,  but  seems  to  have  been  a  very  slow 
process. 

On  the  22d  of  May,  1826,  a  resolution  of  Con 
gress  of  the  following  purport  was  approved, 
viz. : 

The  President  to  cause  an  examination  and 
accurate  survey  to  be  made  by  skillful  engineers 
of  a  site  for  a  dry-dock  at  the  navy-yards  at 
Portsmouth,  N.  H.,  Charlestown,  Mass.,  Brook 
lyn,  N.  Y.,  and  Gosport,  Va.,  respectively  ;  and 
that  such  engineers  be  required  to  state  the  di 
mensions  necessary  for  such  docks,  the  advan 
tages  of  each  of  the  above-named  establishments, 
and  the  objections  that  apply  to  either,  with  a 
detailed  estimate  of  the  expense  of  a  suitable  site, 
and  of  constructing  a  dock  at  each  of  said  places  ; 
and  the  President  be  requested  to  communicate 
the  same  to  Congress  in  the  first  week  of  the  next 
session. 

On  the  26th  of  July,  Col.  Baldwin  (the  civil 
engineer  before  mentioned)  was  appointed  by  the 
Department  to  make  the  required  surveys.  The 
first  spot  selected  at  Gosport  as  the  site  of  the 
dock  was  at  the  northern  side  of  the  entrance  of 
the  creek,  now  forming  a  timber-dock  ;  this  site 
was  chosen  as  being  the  best  in  the  yard  as  it  then 
existed. 

During  the  same  year  (1826)  the  frigate  "  St. 
Lawrence"  was  laid  down,  and  a  ship-house 
built,  afterward  lettered  B. 

On  the  3d  of  March,  1827,  Congress  passed  an 
act  entitled  "An  act  for  the  gradual  improvement 
of  the  navy  of  the  United  States,"  by  which  there 
was  appropriated  the  sum  of  $500,000  per  annum 
for  six  years,  to  be  applied  to  the  purposes  specified 
in  the  act. 

By  section  4  of  the  act,  the  President  was 
authorized  to  cause  to  be  constructed  two  dry- 
docks  on  the  most  approved  plan,  for  the  use  of 
the  navy  of  the  United  States ;  one  of  the  said 
docks  to  be  erected  at  some  point  to  the  south, 
and  the  other  to  the  north,  of  the  Potomac  River. 

By  section  6,  the  President  was  authorized  to 
cause  the  navy-yards  of  the  United  States  to  be 
thoroughly  examined,  and  plans  to  be  prepared 
for  the  improvement  of  the  same  and  the  preser 
vation  of  the  public  property  therein  ;  from  which 
plans,  after  they  should  be  sanctioned  by  the 
President,  no  deviation  should  be  made  but  by 
his  special  order. 

On  the  29th  of  March,  1827,  Mr.  King,  the 
navy-agent,  reported  that  the  lands  from  Jeffer 
son  Street,  along  the  line  of  Third  Street  to  the 
county  road,  and  thence  down  to  the  water, 
could  be  purchased  for  $7825.  He  was  author 
ized  to  make  the  purchase,  and  also  of  such  other 
lands  adjoining  the  yard  on  the  south  as  should 
be  deemed  necessary,  and  was  directed  to  con 
sult  with  Commodores  Bainbridge,  Morris,  and 
Chauncey,  who  then  constituted  the  board 
charged,  under  authority  of  the  act  above  al 
luded  to,  with  the  examination  of  the  yards  and 
the  formation  of  plans  for  their  improvement. 

The  Board  of  Commissioners,  of  which  Com 
modore  Bainbridge  was  president,  during  the 
winter  of  1827-28  made  an  elaborate  plan  for  the 
improvement  of  the  yard,  based  on  a  thorough 


survey  of  the  yard  and  the  adjacent  waters  by 
Col.  Baldwin. 

On  the  17th  of  June,  1833,  the  anniversary  of 
the  battle  of  Bunker  Hill,  the  dock  was  opened 
for  the  reception  of  the  line-of- battle  ship  "  Dela 
ware,"  the  first  liner  built  at  Gosport,  and  the 
first  national  ship  ever  docked  in  a  dry-dock  be 
longing  to  the  United  States. 

The  line-of-battle  ship  "  North  Carolina"  was 
soon  afterward  admitted  to  the  dock. 

Commodore  Warrington,  who  had  assumed 
command  of  the  yard  May  26,  1831,  continued  in 
it  until  the  7th  of  October,  1840.  The  yard  was 
constantly  used  in  the  mean  time  for  fitting  out, 
refitting,  repairing,  and  laying  up  the  ships  and 
vessels  of  the  navy. 

The  sloop  "John  Adams"  was  built  in  1830. 
The  frigate  "  Macedonian"  was  rebuilt  here 
between  the  years  1832  and  1836.  The  survey 
ing-brig  "Pioneer"  was  launched  in  1836.  The 
line-of-battle  ship  "Pennsylvania"  became  the 
receiving-ship  in  1837.  The  sloop  "  Yorktown" 
was  commenced  in  1835  and  launched  in  1839. 

Of  the  old  buildings  that  were  standing  in 
1837,  the  ship-houses,  the  office-buildings  along 
the  north  wall,  the  commandant's  house,  and  a 
portion  of  the  marine  barracks,  were  still  stand 
ing  in  1840 ;  the  rest  had  all  been  removed  or 
rebuilt. 

Commodore  "W.  B.  Shubrick  assumed  com 
mand  of  the  yard  in  October,  1840,  and  retained 
it  until  October,  1843.  A  plan  of  the  yard,  made 
under  his  direction  by  Capt.  Sanger  and  received 
at  the  Bureau  of  Yards  and  Docks  in  November, 
1842,  shows  little  progress  up  to  that  date  be 
yond  what  is  mentioned  above, — the  continued 
appropriation  for  "  gradual  improvements"  hav 
ing  ceased.  A  blacksmith's  shop  and  turning- 
machine  and  a  foundry  and  plumbery  had  been 
added  to  the  steam-engine  house,  and  some  other 
store-houses  had  been  begun. 

The  steamer  "Union"  was  laid  down  at  the 
yard  in  1841  and  launched  in  1842.  The  store- 
ship  "Southampton"  was  commenced  in  1842. 

In  October,  1843,  Commodore  Shubrick  was 
relieved  by  Commodore  Jesse  Wilkinson  as  com 
mandant. 

In  1842  an  appropriation  was  made  by  Con 
gress  for  a  dredging-machine  for  this  }rard,  which 
was  completed  the  following  year,  and  success 
fully  used  for  deepening  the  channel  in  front  of 
the  dry-dock  and  along  the  wharves ;  the  earth 
brought  up  was  used  for  filling  up  where  needed 
in  the  yard.  During  the  year  1843  the  ground 
around  the  dry-dock  was  graded  and  the  pave 
ment  relaid  ;  by  this  the  dock  was  protected  from 
injury  to  which  it  had  been  subject  from  filtra 
tion. 

The  brig  "  Perry"  was  laid  down  in  1843,  and 
some  additional  machinery  was  erected  in  differ 
ent  shops  during  the  same  year.  The  quay-wall 
was  completed  during  that  and  the  following 
years,  i.e.,  1843-44,  as  far  as  ship-house  B. 

The  sloop  "Jamestown"  was  laid  down  in 
1843  and  launched  in  1844.  In  1845  another 
store-house,  No.  16,  was  built.  A  bridge  across 
the  timber-dock  was  completed.  The  dock  itself 
was  still  in  an  unfinished  state,  no  appropria 
tion  having  been  made  for  several  years.  "Work 
was  suspended  on  the  quay-wall  in  1845  for  the 
same  reason.  A  new  building-slip  was  com 
menced  in  1845  under  special  appropriation.  The 


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599 


NAVY-YAKD 


store-ship  "  Southampton"  was  launched  the 
same  year. 

On  the  26th  of  August,  1846,  the  lot  of  ground 
opposite  the  navy-yard,  on  the  Norfolk  side  of 
the  Elizabeth,  and  known  as  Saint  Helena,  was 
purchased  and  added  to  the  yard.  This  ground 
was  needed  for  ordnance  purposes.  Jurisdiction 
over  it  was  ceded  to  the  United  States  by  an 
act  of  the  General  Assembly  of  Virginia,  dated 
March  22,  1847. 

Commodore  Lawrence  Kearny  became  com 
mandant  on  the  1st  of  June,  1847.  Some  prog 
ress  was  made  that  year  upon  the  launching-slip 
previously  spoken  of.  Another  store-house,  No. 
13,  commenced  the  year  before,  was  finished.  The 
frigate  "  St.  Lawrence"  and  the  brig  "  Perry" 
were  launched.  The  former  had  been  on  the 
stocks  for  over  twenty  years.  The  steam-frigate 
"  Powhatan"  was  laid  down. 

January  19,  1848,  Commodore  John  D.  Sloat 
was  ordered  to  relieve  Commodore  Kearny  as 
commandant. 

In  1848  a  small  appropriation  was  made  by 
Congress  for  continuing  the  quay-wall,  and  was 
applied  to  build  a  coffer-dam  for  the  north  wall 
of  the  timber-dock.  Appropriations  were  also 
made  for  a  new  pair  of  masting-shears,  for  addi 
tional  machinery,  for  various  shops,  and  for  im 
provements  at  Helena. 

In  September,  1849,  Fort  Norfolk  and  the 
grounds  about  it  were  turned  over  to  the  navy 
by  the  War  Department  for  the  establishment 
of  a  magazine  for  powder  and  shells.  Work  was 
immediately  commenced  upon  the  shell-house. 
A  building  near  the  site  of  the  present  saw-mill, 
outside  of  the  yard,  when  built,  had  been  used 
as  a  magazine  for  some  years  previously.  Dur 
ing  the  same  year,  building  No.  51  was  erected, 
also  some  brick  stables.  An  engine-house  to  the 
smithery  was  commenced.  A  gun-park,  a  coal- 
house,  and  a  landing-wharf  were  built  at  Saint 
Helena.  Work  upon  the  quay- wall  progressed 
as  far  as  the  appropriation  would  permit. 

Between  the  years  1850  and  1880  great  progress 
was  made  in  improving  the  yard,  under  current 
appropriations,  while  at  the  same  time  great  ac 
tivity  prevailed  in  building,  repairing,  fitting  out, 
and  laying  up  the  ships  and  vessels  of  the  navy. 
The  steam-frigate  "  Powhatan"  was  launched  in 
1850.  Work  upon  the  quay-wall  was  steadily 
continued  from  year  to  year.  The  timber-dock 
was  finished  in  1854,  together  with  the  bridges 
across  it.  A  culvert  was  built  in  1853  to  drain 
the  lands  adjoining  the  yard  and  to  conduct  the 
water  from  them  into  the  dock,  thereby  con 
siderably  freshening  that  in  the  dock.  The  cul 
vert  was  built  of  brick  laid  upon  a  pine-plank 
floor. 

There  being  but  a  limited  supply  of  fresh  water 
at  Gosport,  appropriations  were  made  in  1850  for 
building  cisterns  for  collecting  rain-water;  one 
was  completed  in  1851,  with  a  capacity  of  38,000 
gallons.  Afterward  two  large  reservoirs  were 
built,— one  completed  in  1856,  holding  124,000 
gallons,  with  a  head,  when  full,  14£  feet  above  the 
grade  of  the  yard.  The  other  reservoir  was 
completed  in  1857  ;  its  capacity  is  128,000  gallons. 

Work  upon  the  magazine  and  the  keeper's 
house  at  Fort  Norfolk  was  commenced  in  1851, 
but  not  completed  until  1856.  A  reservoir  was 
built  near  the  magazine  to  contain  90,000  gal 
lons  of  water.  A  sea-wall  and  landing- wharf 


were  also  built,  and  two  old  houses  converted, — 
one  into  a  store-house  and  the  other  into  a  filling- 
house. 

Building  No.  19,  a  rigging-loft,  armory,  and 
offices,  and  the  entrance-gateway,  was  erected  in 
1851-52.  A  building  was  constructed  in  1853 
near  timber-shed  No.  33,  which  was  designed  for 
a  saw-mill  and  burnetizing-house.  It  was  en 
tirely  devoted  to  the  latter  purpose,  however, 
and  in  1856  a  saw-mill  was  erected  at  the  south 
end  of  the  yard,  on  one  of  the  sites  intended 
for  a  dry-dock.  A  culvert  was  constructed  in 

1855  from  the  burnetizing-house  to  the  timber- 
dock. 

Dredging  was  carried  on  from  year  to  year 
during  the  decade,  deepening  the  channel  and 
furnishing  material  for  filling  in  the  low  places 
of  the  yard,  and  the  space  between  the  old 
shore-line  and  the  quay-wall  as  well  as  at  Saint 
Helena.  A  new  dredging-machine  was  built  in 
1854. 

Grading  the  yard  was  also  attended  to  ;  pave 
ments  were  laid  around  the  buildings,  and  brick 
foot-walks  through  the  yard  in  various  direc 
tions  ;  roads  were  macadamized,  and  a  thorough 
system  of  drainage  established,  by  which  the 
sanitary  condition  of  the  yard  was  much  im 
proved. 

Gas  for  lighting  the  yard  and  buildings  was 
introduced  in  1855. 

On  the  removal  of  the  saw-mill  in  1855  and 
1856,  new  machinery  was  added  to  the  machine- 
shop,  and  a  new  foundry  was  erected,  completed 
in  1859,  on  site  41,  designed  in  the  "approved 
plan"  for  an  iron  and  copper  store.  A  boiler- 
shop  was  commenced  to  the  northward  of  the 
machine-shop.  A  new  engine  for  pumping  out 
the  dry-dock  was  completed  and  set  up  in  1856. 
A  large  and  commodious  building  was  erected  in 

1856  as  a  receiving  and  issuing  store  for  the  de 
partment  of  provisions   and  clothing.     It  was 
located  on  the  new-made  ground,  just  south  of 
the  entrance  of  the  timber-dock,  into  which  a  cul 
vert  from  its  cellars  leads.    An  ordnance  building, 
not  on  the  "approved   plan,"  was  commenced 
in  1858  and  completed  in  1859.     Gun  and  shot 
platforms  were  built  at  Saint  Helena,  and  also  at 
the  yard  south  of  the  ship-house  A. 

Two  large  lifting-cranes  were  erected  on  the 
quay-wall  in  1857,  and  a  large  amount  of  ma 
chinery  of  various  sorts  was  added  to  the  different 
shops  through  the  yard.  Alterations,  additions, 
and  improvements  were  made  to  some  of  the 
buildings  under  the  appropriation  for  "repairs 
of  all  kinds."  Bail-tracks  were  laid  down  at 
Saint  Helena,  and  also  at  the  yard ;  in  the  latter 
connecting  the  anchor-racks  near  the  dry-dock, 
the  different  shops  and  store-houses,  with  the 
wharf  near  the  shears. 

Considerable  building,  repairs,  etc.,  of  ships 
was  carried  on  during  the  same  period.  In  1855 
the  magnificent  steam-frigates  "  Boanoke"  and 
"Colorado"  were  laid  down;  these  vessels  were 
finished  and  launched  in  1857.  The  steam-sloops 
"Dakota"  and  "Bichmond"  were  begun  in  1858 
and  launched,  the  former  in  1859,  and  the  latter 
in  1860.  A  purchased  steamer  called  the  "  Dis 
patch"  was  rebuilt  in  1859  under  the  name  of 
"  Pocahontas." 

The  following  were  the  commandants  of  the 
yard  during  this  period,  viz. :  Capt.  Silas  H. 
Stringham  (late  rear-admiral),  from  17th  Feb- 


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•  ruary,  1851,  to  1st  April,  1852 ;  Capt.  Samuel  L. 
Breeze,  from  1st  April,  1852,  to  10th  May,  1855 ; 
Commodore  Isaac  McKeever,  from  10th  May, 
1855,  until  his  death,  which  occurred  on  the  1st 
of  April,  1856 ;  Capt.  Thomas  A.  Dornin  (late 
commodore),  from  6th  May,  1856,  to  30th  April, 
1859;  Capt.  Charles  H.  Bell  (late  rear-admiral), 
from  30th  April,  1859,  to  1st  August,  1860,  when 
he  was  relieved  by  Commodore  Charles  S.  Mc- 
Cauley. 

On  the  1st  of  April,  1861,  there  were,  at  the 
yard  or  in  the  stream,  the  following  ships  and 
vessels  of  war,  viz. : 

Ship-of-the-line  "Pennsylvania,"  120  guns, 
receiving-ship. 

"Ship-of-the-line  "Columbus,"  74  guns,  in 
ordinary. 

Ship-of-the-line  "Delaware,"  74  guns,  in 
ordinary. 

Ship-of-the-line  "  New  York,"  74  guns,  on  the 
stocks. 

Steam-frigate  "  Merrimac,"  40  guns,  under 
repairs. 

Frigate  "  United  States,"  50 guns,  in  ordinary. 

Frigate  "  Columbia,"  50  guns,  in  ordinary. 

Frigate  "  Raritan,"  50  guns,  in  ordinary. 

Sloop  "  Plymouth,"  22  guns,  ready  for  sea. 

Sloop  "  Germantown,"  22  guns,  ready  for  sea. 

Brig  "  Dolphin,"  4  guns,  ready  for  sea. 

In  addition  to  these,  the  frigate  "  Cumberland," 
24,  the  flag-ship  of  Flag-Officer  Pendergrast, 
commanding  the  Home  Squadron,  was  also  lying 
off  the  yard,  fully  manned. 

The  evacuation  of  the  yard  ;  the  destruction  of 
the  government  property ;  the  scuttling  of  the 
"  Germantown,"  "  Plymouth,"  "  Dolphin,"  and 
"  Merrimac"  ;  the  occupation  of  the  yard  by  the 
rebels  ;  the  raising  and  rebuilding  of  the  "  Merri 
mac"  as  an  ironclad  under  the  name  of  "Vir 
ginia,"  though  to  the  public  always  known  by 
her  old  name  ;  the  destruction  by  her  of  the  frig 
ates  "Congress"  and  "Cumberland";  the  op 
portune  arrival  of  the  "Monitor"  under  Lieut. 
Worden  (now  rear-admiral),  by  which  the  "  Mer 
rimac"  was  driven  back  to  Norfolk,  and  after 
ward  held  for  months  blockaded  in  the  Eliza 
beth  ;  and  the  capture  of  Norfolk  by  the  U.  S. 
forces  under  the  immediate  direction  of  President 
Lincoln  in  May,  1862,  are  all  well-known  mat 
ters  of  history. 

The  vessels  of  Admiral  Goldsborough 's  squad 
ron  participated  in  the  attack  on  Norfolk  by 
shelling  the  batteries  at  Sewell's  Point.  The 
ironclads  "  Monitor"  and  "Stevens,"  with  some 
wooden  steamers  to  act  as  rams,  endeavored  to 
draw  out  the  "  Merrimac,"  but  without  success, 
she  declining  to  engage. 

The  city  of  Norfolk  was  surrendered  by  the 
civil  authorities  to  Gen.  Wool  on  the  10th  of 
May,  1862.  Early  on  the  following  morning 
the  "  Merrimac"  was  blown  up  by  her  own 
people  to  avoid  capture  by  Admiral  Goldsbor 
ough 's  squadron.  The  navy-yard  was  fired  and 
abandoned  at  the  same  time. 

Admiral  Goldsborough  immediately  moved  his 
flag-ship  to  Norfolk,  anchoring  off  the  naval  hos 
pital.  By  his  order,  sanctioned  by  the  President, 
the  forts  along  the  shores  of  the  Elizabeth,  and 
as  far  down  as  Sewell's  Point,  and  also  those  for 
eome  distance  up  the  Nansemond,  which  had 
been  erected  by  the  rebels,  were  dismantled  and 
blown  up.  Lieut.  Selfridge  was  charged  with 


the  work  of  destroying  the   former,  and  Lieut. 
John  Watters  the  latter. 

Admiral  Goldsborough  took  possession  of  all 
the  naval  property  in  the  vicinity,  including  the 
yard,  the  magazine,  and  the  naval  hospital.  By 
his  order  a  careful  examination  of  the  yard  was 
made  by  Lieut.  Selfridge,  who,  ujider  date  of 
May  19,  reported  substantially  as  follows  : 

The  only  buildings  uninjured  by  tire  were  5 
brick  dwellings,  the  boiler-shop,  the  foundry,  and 
one  wooden  timber-shed.  He  found  and  col 
lected  about  the  yard  a  quantity  of  chain-cables, 
sheet-  and  bolt-copper,  15  old  ships'  galleys, 
smiths'  tools,  and  detached  pieces  of  machinery  be 
longing  to  the  smithery,  a  quantity  of  cordage,  a. 
diving-bell,  a  large  quantity  of  oak-timber,  some 
pine  planks,  and  50  pieces  of  spar-timber,  150  bar 
rels  of  pitch,  fourteen  32-pounder  guns,  two  100- 
pounder  rifles,  140  old  guns,  worthless,  and  three 
32-pounder  gun-carriages,  a  number  of  water- 
tanks,  great  quantities  of  old  iron  and  of  pig- 
ballast,  a  number  of  iron  plates  punched  for 
bolting,  30  anchors,  and  a  number  of  kedges. 
He  found  some  of  the  machinery  in  the  machine- 
shop  in  good  condition  and  some  injured. 

On  the  20th  of  May,  1862,  Capt.  John  W.  Liv 
ingston  was  ordered  to  the  yard  as  commandant. 
He  at  once  commenced  the  work  of  putting  the 
yard  in  as  good  order  as  its  ruined  state  would 
permit,  and  of  gathering  up  the  public  property, 
a  large  quantity  of  which  was  found  outside 
in  various  places.  Many  articles  were  restored 
by  the  citizens,  or  pointed  out  so  that  they 
could  be  taken  possession  of.  A  considerable 
quantity  of  timber,  3  fire-engines,  and  a  number 
of  guns  were  among  the  things  so  restored.  Two 
diving-bells,  anchors,  shot,  shell  in  boxes,  and 
many  other  articles  were  recovered  from  the 
water,  having  been  thrown  overboard  from  the 
quay  and  the  wharves. 

Repairs  were  commenced  as  soon  as  possible, 
particularly  upon  those  shops  which  were  most 
immediately  needed.  The  machine-shop  was  put 
in  working  order  in  a  very  short  time.  An  ap 
propriation  was  made  to  restore  the  dry-dock, 
which  the  rebels  had  temporarily  disabled  by  de 
stroying  the  gates.  New  gates  were  constructed 
and  the  dock  put  in  working  order  during  that 
year. 

Considerable  appropriations  for  the  fiscal  years 
ending  July,  1865,  1866,  1867,  respectively,  were 
made  by  Congress  for  restoring  the  various  work 
shops,  stores,  wharves,  shears,  cranes,  and  ma 
chinery  in  the  yard.  The  objects  most  needed 
to  make  the  yard  a  repairing  and  refitting  sta 
tion  were  first  attended  to,  in  order  that  the 
immediate  requirements  of  the  service  might 
be  met. 

The  arrangement  of  store-houses  was  systema 
tized,  in  which,  by  the  way,  this  yard  set  the 
example  to  most  of  the  others  in  the  country  ; 
separate  buildings  or  parts  of  buildinirs  were  as 
signed  to  the  different  departments,  whose  heads 
were  made  responsible  each  for  his  own  stores. 
By  this  means  the  public  property  was  much 
better  cared  for  and  preserved  than  under  the 
old  system,  the  accountability  made  much  more 
perfect,  and  the  facility  for  handling  and  issuing 
stores  vastly  increased. 

The  restoration  of  the  yard  has  been  steadily 
progressing  under  the  current  appropriations, 
which,  however,  have  been  very  small  since 


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601 


NAVY- YARD 


1867,  and  only  under  the  head  of  "  repairs  of  all 
kinds." 

The  following  is  a  list  of  the  buildings  which 
have  been  repaired  or  rebuilt,  though  in  some 
instances  the  purposes  to  which  the  buildings 
are  devoted  have  been  changed  from  those  origi 
nally  designed ;  the  new  arrangement  is  here 
given,  viz. : 

No.  9.  Smithery,  etc. 

No.  11.  Construction  store-house. 


No.  13.  Equipment-store. 
No.  14.  Provisioi 


dons  and  clothing-store.  This 
building  was  substituted  in  1870  for  the  victual- 
ing-house,  which  had  been  rebuilt  on  the  new- 
made  ground  just  south  of  the  entrance  to  the 
timber-dock,  but  which  commenced  to  settle  and 
became  in  danger  of  falling  ;  to  prevent  which 
the  building  was  taken  down. 

No.  15.  Steam-engineering  store-house. 

No.  16.  Ordnance  building. 

No.  17.  Yards  and  docks  store-house. 

No.  18.  Ship-carpenters'  shop,  just  north  of 
the  dry-dock. 

No.  19  (one  of  the  entrance-buildings,  so 
called).  Contains  offices,  drafting-rooms,  court- 
martial-room,  cordage-store,  navigation-store, 
and  marine  guard-room. 

No.  57  (the  other  entrance-building).  Rig 
ging-loft  and  sail-loft. 

Nos.  20  to  25,  both  inclusive,  as  marked 
on  the  plan,  have  never  been  built  upon,  and 
some  of  the  numbers  have  been  re-assigned, 
viz.  : 

No.  21.  Saw-mill,  in  the  south  part  of  the 
yard. 

No.  22.  Foundry. 

No.  23.  Boiler-shop. 

No.  28.  Mast-house  and  house-joiners'  shop. 

No.  29.  Boat-builders'  shop,  boat-house,  block- 
makers'  and  ship-joiners'  shops. 

No.  30.  Timber-shed  and  furniture  store-room 
for  the  construction  department. 

No.  31.  Timber-shed,  paint-shop,  and  sail 
store-rooms. 

Nos.  36,  37,  and  38.  Machine-shop.  These  con 
stitute  one  building,  and  have  recently  been  so 
extended  as  to  join  them  with  the  foundry. 

No.  37.  This  number  is  now  given  to  a  small 
building  on  part  of  the  foundation  of  the  former 
ordnance-building,  just  south  of  No.  9;  it  is 
used  as  a  plumbers'  shop. 

The  officers'  quarters  are  now  lettered,  viz. : 
A,  commandant's  ;  B,  executive-officer's ;  C, 
surgeon's  house  ;  and  the  two  houses  on  the  site 
marked  39  are  lettered  D  and  E. 

No.  39.  This  number  is  now  used  to  designate 
a  new  building,  which  has  been  constructed  as  a 
workshop  for  the  department  of  yards  and  docks. 
It  is  built  of  the  materials  of  the  victualing- 
house,  which  was  taken  down  in  1870,  and  is 
located  south  of  No.  12.  In  excavating  for  the 
foundations  of  this  building,  a  number  of  human 
remains  were  found,  to  account  for  which  several 
theories  were  advanced.  By  consulting  a  very 
old  plan  of  the  yard,  which  is  without  date,  but 
which  was  made  about  the  year  1816,  it  is  found 
that  a  burying-place  existed  on  that  spot  at  that 
time  ;  it  was  near  the  bank  of  the  stream  or  creek, 
a  part  of  which  now  forms  the  timber-basin. 
The  remains  are,  therefore,  no  doubt,  those  of 
TJ.  S.  sailors  and  marines. 

In  addition  to  the  buildings  above  mentioned, 


there  are  in  the  yard  stables,  sheds,  tar-,  pitch-, 
lime-,  and  oil-houses,  watch-houses,  offices,  etc., 
in  various  parts  of  the  yard.  The  car-tracks 
have  been  restored,  wharves  repaired,  new  shears 
and  a  large  lifting-crane  have  been  erected.  The 
reservoirs  for  rain-water,  with  their  system  of 
pipes  leading  to  various  parts  of  the  yard,  are  in 
good  condition. 

A  contract  was  entered  into  by  the  govern 
ment  with  companies  of  wreckers,  by  which,  on 
terms  advantageous  to  the  government,  nearly 
all  of  the  hulks  of  the  vessels  destroyed  at  the 
yard,  as  well  as  of  the  "Merrimac,"  have  been 
raised  and  broken  up,  thus  clearing  the  channel. 

Dredging  has  been  carried  on  from  time  to 
time,  and  is  going  on  now,  for  deepening  the 
channel  off  the  yard,  the  design  being  to  gain 
24  feet  of  water  at  least.  The  earth  removed 
is  used  for  filling  in  where  needed  in  the  yard. 

The  following  have  been  the  commandants  of 
the  yard  since  its  repossession  by  the  United 
States,  viz.  : 

Capt.  John  W.  Livingston,  from  Mav  20, 
1862,  to  November  16,  f864  ;  Capt.  John  M. 
Berrien,  from  November  16,  1864,  to  October  7, 
1865;  Commodore  Robert  B.  Hitchcock,  from 
October  31,  1865,  to  August  7,  1866  ;  Rear-Ad 
miral  S.  C.  Rowan,  from  August  7,  1866,  to  July 
23,  1867  ;  Commodore  A.  H.  Kilty,  from  August 
15,  1867,  to  October  1,  1870  ;  Rear-Admiral  C. 
H.  Davis,  from  October  1,  1870,  to  July  1,  1H73  ; 
Commodore  Thomas  H.  Stevens,  from  July  1, 
1873,  to  1876;  Commodore  J.  B.  Creighton, 
1876-79;  Commodore  A.  K.  Hughes,  1879  to 
present  time.  — Edward  P.  Luce,  Caotain  U.S.N. 

Navy-yard,  Pensacola,  Fla.  The  navy-yard 
built  on  Tartar  Point,  Pensacola  Bay,  was  lo 
cated  about  the  year  1825,  and  operations  were 
begun  in  October,  1826,  by  a  party  of  mechanics 
from  Boston,  under  charge  of  Lfeut.  Cunning 
ham,  of  the  navy. 

In  1836  its  importance  had  become  so  far  rec 
ognized  that  Commodores  Charles  Stewart,  A. 
J.  Dallas,  and  William  C.  Bolton  were  appointed 
commissioners  to  make  thorough  examination 
and  report  upon  a  full  and  complete  plan  for  the 
development  of  the  yard  as  a  first-class  station. 
Congress  made  liberal  appropriations  from  year 
to  year,  until  at  the  beginning  of  the  civil  war 
it  had  become  one  of  the  best-equipped  stations 
in  the  country, — having  a  floating  dry-dock  and 
all  appliances  for  the  docking,  repairing,  and 
building  of  our  ships-of-war.  The  sloops  '•  Sem- 
inole"  and  "  Pensacola"  had  been  built,  and 
timber  had  been  stored  for  other  vessels,  when 
the  war  of  the  Rebellion  came  on,  and  the 
yard  was  betrayed  into  the  hands  of  the  rebels 
through  the  treachery  of  Commander  E.  Farrand 
and  Lieut.  Frank  T.  Renshaw,  both  men  of 
Northern  birth,  education,  and  citizenship,  but 
who  had  married  in  the  South.  The  insurgents 
held  the  yard  until  the  autumn  of  1862,  when  the 
momentous  struggle  before  Richmond  compelled 
the  rebel  government  to  concentrate  its  forces, 
and  the  yard  was  evacuated,  together  with  other 
points  on  the  Gulf  and  Atlantic  coasts.  Before  the 
evacuation,  however,  the  yard  was  gutted  of  all 
stores  and  material,  and  the  buildings  were  mostly 
destroyed,  including  the  beautiful  and  commodi 
ous  naval  hospital,  located  a  mile  distant  from 
the  yard.  To  insure  the  more  complete  destruc 
tion  of  the  fine  row  of  officers'  quarters,  loaded 


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shells  were  placed  in  every  fire-place  when  the 
buildings  were  fired. 

Upon  the  reoccupation  Admiral  Farragut 
fitted  up  a  temporary  machine-shop,  and  during 
the  rest  of  the  war  the  yard  was  of  great  service 
as  a  depot  of  repair  and  supplies  for  the  Gulf 
Squadron. 

Since  the  war  the  yard  has  been  gradually  im 
proved  and  rebuilt, — a  sectional  floating  dry- 
dock  of  iron  is  nearly  completed,  and  at  the  last 
session  of  Congress  $150,000  was  appropriated  to 
put  the  yard  in  a  more  perfect  state  of  efficiency. 

Situated  on  the  Gulf,  the  place  is  generally 
healthy,  but  the  dreaded  visitations  of  yellow 
fever  render  the  station  unpopular  with  the 
service,  and  few  officers  care  to  go  there,  unless 
citizens  of  the  South  and  accustomed  to  its 
climate. 

The  first  commandant  was  Commodore  Lewis 
"Warrington,  for  whom  the  principal  village  in 
the  naval  reserve,  comprising  some  1600  acres, 
was  named.  Some  of  his  successors  were  Com 
modores  Woolsey  (father  and  son),  Chauncey, 
Dallas,  Latimer,  Tattnall,  Rousseau,  Stribbling, 
Newton,  Mclntosh,  James  Armstrong,  Smith, 
Green,  Middleton,  and  Cooper,  Capt.  Belknap, 
and  Commanders  J.  F.  Armstrong  and  J.  F. 
McGlensey.— G.  E.  Belknap,  Captain  U.S.N. 

Navy-yard,  Portsmouth,  N.  H. — Among 
the  state  papers  of  New  Hampshire  relating  to 
naval  affairs,  we  find  recorded  the  following  : 


6th  Congress,  > 
2d  Session,      j 


No.  21. 


Naval  Establishment  and  its  expenses. 
Naval  Department,  Jan'y  12th,  1801. 
Ground  purchased  in  Portsmouth  for  a  Navy- Yard. 

HARRISON  GREY  OTIS, 
Chairman  of  Committee  on  Naval  Affairs. 
October  1st,  1800, 

Portsmouth,  N.  H.  For  purchase  of  Land  $5,500 

f  Improvements  26,304 

Fifty-Eight  Acres. 

$31,804 

As  soon  as  the  government  took  possession  of 
the  island  work  commenced  at  once  in  repairing 
a  building  for  the  use  of  the  superintendent  of 
the  yard,  removing  the  material  from  the  adjoin 
ing  island,  building  a  shed  for  timber,  and  a  wet- 
dock  for  seasoning  the  same. 

In  180?  a  house  was  erected  for  a  dwelling, 
barracks  for  marines,  and  a  bell-tower  built. 
An  octagon  fort,  of  earth  and  heavy  timber,  with 
embrasures  for  eight  heavy  guns,  also  platforms 
for  the  same,  was  built  upon  the  hill,  and  a  flag 
staff  erected. 

Nothing  more  was  done  on  the  yard,  except  to 
collect  timber  for  building  purposes,  until  1806, 
when  a  first  lieutenant  of  marines,  Mr.  J.  M. 
Gamble,  with  1  sergeant,  2  corporals,  15  privates, 
and  2  musicians  were  ordered  by  the  Navy  Depart 
ment  to  this  station  as  a  garrison  to  protect  gov 
ernment  property  on  the  island.  A  small  gun 
boat,  called  the  "  Bee,"  was  ordered  for  the  protec 
tion  of  the  harbor,  and  to  act  as  guard-ship.  No 
work  other  than  the  clearing  of  the  island  and 
erection  of  sheds,  smith-shop,  saw-pits,  and  the 
building  of  a  few  small  boats  for  the  use  of  the 
yard,  was  done  until  the  year  1812,  when  the 
government  changed  its  former  policy  respect 
ing  navy-yards,  and  placed  them  under  the  com 
mand  of  a  naval  officer  as  commandant. 

On  the  4th  of  October,  Capt.  Isaac  Hull  took 
command  of  the  navy-yard  as  commandant. 


Sailing-Master  Nathaniel  Stoodley  was  ordered 
to  the  command  of  the  gunboats  at  the  yard. 

In  March,  1814,  the  keel  of  the  74-gun  ship 
"Washington"  was  laid,  two  sheds  having  been 
removed  to  make  room  for  the  ways.  Work 
progressed  upon  this  ship  very  rapidly ;  by  the 
following  September  she  was  well  advanced, 
and  a  house  built  over  her  (now  ship-house  No. 
5) ;  she  was  not  launched  until  January  of  the 
year  following.  During  the  year  that  the 
"  Washington"  was  building,  much  anxiety  was 
felt  lest  the  enemy  should  send  a  party  by  night, 
in  boats,  and  burn  her,  and  precautions  were 
taken  to  prevent  it.  The  "Washington"  was 
launched  in  July,  1815,  peace  with  England  hav 
ing  been  declared  the  February  previous. 

The  launching  of  so  large  a  ship  as  a  74  was 
an  event  of  uncommon  occurrence  in  this  vicin 
ity,  and  thousands  of  persons  were  attracted 
hither  by  it.  On  the  day  of  the  launch  the 
weather  was  fine,  and  the  shores  lined  with  an 
enthusiastic  multitude  ;  as  the  great  mass  began 
to  move  slowly  out  of  the  ship-house  the  cheers 
were  deafening  ;  the  band  played  a  national  air, 
while  the  roar  of  the  cannon  from  the  surround 
ing  forts  added  to  the  din. 

On  the  1st  of  July,  1815,  Capt.  Hull  was  re 
lieved  from  command  of  the  yard  by  Capt. 
Thomas  McDonough.  From  18i5  to  1818  there 
was  no  work  done  on  vessels  at  the  yard,  the 
entire  force  being  employed  in  laying  out  walks 
and  making  preparations  to  erect  buildings. 
Quite  a  number  of  negro  seamen  were  employed 
at  the  yard  in  the  ordinary  force,  but  orders  from 
the  Department  caused  their  discharge,  and  none 
were  allowed  to  be  employed  excepting  as  serv 
ants  to  officers. 

In  February,  1817,  orders  were  received  to 
lengthen  the  "ship-house  (now  No.  5)  12  feet, 
and  to  build  a  ship-of-the-line  to  measure  9  feet 
more  in  length  than  the  "  Washington"  ;  accord 
ingly,  on  the  15th  of  April  the  keel  of  the 
"  Alabama,"  74,  was  laid  in  the  lengthened  ship- 
house. 

In  July,  1818,  Commodore  McDonough  was 
relieved  as  commandant  by  Capt.  Charles  Morris. 
The  first  portion  of  wall  at  this  yard  was  laid 
west  of  the  ship-house,  in  March,  1819,  and  the 
earth  filled  in  the  wall  was  extended  some  500  or 
600  feet  to  the  west.  The  force  on  the  yard  was 
largely  increased,  as  a  new  ship-house  was  build 
ing  to  the  west  of  the  old  one,  and  the  construc 
tion  of  the  "Alabama"  was  being  pushed  for 
ward.  In  1820  the  ship-house  (No.  4)  was  fin 
ished  and  the  "slip"  begun.  Capt.  E.  Watson, 
U.  S.  marine  corps,  received  permission  to  erect 
barracks  for  the  marine-guard  of  the  yard,  using 
an  old  house,  which  is  now  on  the  island,  in  addi 
tion  to  the  small  one  now  occupied  by  them. 
The  work  was  almost  entirely  done  by  the  guard, 
and  the  expense  of  the  new  barracks  was  trifling  ; 
it  stood  where  the  gun-  and  shot-park  now 
stands. 

The  schooner  "Porpoise"  was  begun  in  Sep 
tember,  1820,  and  launched  on  the  26th  day  of 
November  following.  Her  cost  when  ready  for 
sea  was  $25,529;  her  tonnage,  178;  battery,  ten 
6-pounders  and  one  long  18-pounder.  In  1821 
$12,000  were  appropriated  for  improvements  on 
the  yard.  The  store-house  and  offices  was  com 
menced  this  year.  This  building  was  the  first 
brick  one  erected  in  the  yard.  The  keel  of  the 


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"Santee,"  a  44-gun  frigate,  was  laid  in  the  new 
ship-house,  and  the  present  timber-dock  with  its 
sea-wall  was  finished  this  year. 

In  May,  1821,  application  was  made  to  the 
State  of  Maine  "  for  the  cession  of  the  jurisdic 
tion  of  the  island  on  which  the  navy-yard  at 
Portsmouth  is  situated,"  and  in  the  month  fol 
lowing  it  was  granted ;  the  State  reserving  the 
right  to  serve  processes  on  the  yard  and  to  arrest 
criminals. 

Wooden  buildings  for  officers'  quarters  were 
erected  upon  the  site  now  occupied  by  those  ele 
gant  structures  of  brick.  In  May,  1823,  Capt. 
"VVm.  M.  Crane  relieved  Capt.  Morris  as  com 
mandant. 

The  store-house  had  advanced  so  far  towards 
completion  that  the  officers  were  removed  into  it 
on  the  1st  of  January,  1824,  together  with  the 
naval  stores.  The  cost  of  this  building  was 
$4000.  In  1827  the  addition  was  made  to  this 
building  (which  may  be  noticed  by  the  roof  being 
higher),  and  it  is  now  the  stores  of  steam  en 
gineering,  equipment,  navigation,  and  sail-loft, 
the  cost  of  which  was  $15,000.  The  old  wooden 
building  which  had  been  used  for  offices  was  re 
moved  to  the  rear  of  the  marine  barracks,  and 
used  as  a  cook-house  for  the  marines  and  men  of 
the  ordinary.  The  stone  wall  from  the  ship- 
house  (No.  5)  to  the  blacksmith-shop  was  finished 
in  1824 ;  it  was  687  feet  long,  10  feet  high,  and 
2}  feet  wide. 

Nothing  more  was  done  to  improve  the  yard, 
excepting  to  finish  the  mast-  and  spar-house  (now 
No.  7)  until  182G. 

Capt.  Crane  was  relieved  by  Capt.  Charles  G. 
Ridgeley,  in  March,  1825. 

In  the  year  1825  the  bridge  leading  to  Kit- 
tery  was  built,  and  the  commandant  made  propo 
sitions  to  the  owners  of  the  land  adjoining  the 
bridge  to  cut  a  road  leading  to  the  main  highway 
of  Kittery.  The  owners  of  the  land  objected  to 
such  a  road,  although  the  government  offered  to 
purchase  their  land  for  this  purpose.  Finding 
that  nothing  could  be  effected  by  negotiation, 
application  was  made  to  the  selectmen  of  Kittery, 
with  the  assurance  that  the  damages  would  be 
paid  by  the  government.  The  road  was  then  laid 
out  by  them  according  to  the  laws  of  the  State, 
and  became  a  townway.  The  damages  were 
paid  by  the  United  States,  and  communication 
by  road  opened  with  Portsmouth  in  the  summer 
of  this  year. 

In  1826  activity  was  resumed,  and  much  work 
in  the  way  of  improvement  done.  Orders  were 
received  to  select  a  proper  site  for  the  building 
of  suitable  barracks  on  the  island.  All  wooden 
buildings  and  sheds  were  demolished  and  re 
moved,  especially  those  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
ship-houses.  The  upper  story  of  the  mast-house 
was  finished  for  a  rigging-loft,  and  the  black 
smith-shop  enlarged  by  two  additions  being 
built  to  it.  Work  was  being  forwarded  also 
on  the  74-gun  ship  and  the  frigate  in  the  ship- 
houses. 

In  November,  1826,  Capt.  J.  0.  Creighton  re 
lieved  Capt.  Ridgeley  as  commandant.  In  the 
spring  of  1827  the  foundation  of  four  brick 
buildings  for  officers'  quarters  was  commenced, 
and  in  the  autumn  following  they  were  finished. 
In  the  summer  of  the  same  year  a  brick  block 
was  built  for  the  accommodation  of  the  warrant- 
officers,  petty  officers,  and  seamen.  Three  tim 


ber-sheds  were  also  built,  200  feet  long,  65  feet 
wide,  and  15  feet  to  the  eaves ;  the  roofs  were 
slated  and  supported  by  stone  pillars  10  feet 
apart ;  they  are  Nos.  45,  46,  and  48.  The  cost 
of  these  sheds  was  $9250  each.  In  March,  1827, 
the  keel  of  the  sloop-of-war  "  Concord"  was  laid 
at  the  little  slip  where  the  "  Porpoise"  was  built. 
The  leveling  for  the  purpose  of  building  the  bar 
racks  was  completed  and  the  foundation  laid  ;  the 
spot  selected  for  the  barracks  was  the  extreme 
northeast  point  of  the  island.  In  August,  1828, 
Capt.  J.  D.  Henley  relieved  Capt.  Creighton  in 
command. 

On  the  24th  of  September,  1828,  the  sloop- 
of-war  "  Concord"  was  launched.  On  the  21st 
of  November,  1828,  the  yard  was  visited  by  one 
of  the  most  severe  gales  of  wind  ever  known  in 
the  vicinity,  and  great  damage  was  done  to  the 
roofs  of  the  buildings  and  the  timber-dock. 
During  the  years  1829-31  nothing  of  impor 
tance  was  done  in  improving  the  yard,  except 
the  building  of  a  timber-shed  at  a  cost  of  $9500, 
no  appropriations  having  been  made  for  improve 
ments  and  repairs.  In  September,  1832,  Capt. 
Henley  was  detached  from  the  yard,  and  the  9th 
of  October,  Capt.  W.  M.  Crane  was  again  ap 
pointed  commandant. 

The  winter  of  1832-33  was  one  of  unusual  se 
verity,  and  all  work  out-of-doors  was  in  a  great 
measure  suspended  until  the  month  of  April, 
when,  in  compliance  with  orders  received  from 
the  Department,  a  brick  dwelling  was  com 
menced,  adjoining  the  quarters  recently  built. 
It  was  the  original  intention  of  the  Department 
to  build  two  dwellings  in  uniformity  with  those 
already  built,  but  it  was  afterwards  decided  to 
build  a  large  dwelling  for  one  family.  The 
building  (now  Quarters  B)  was  finished  in  De 
cember  of  1833,  and  cost  $15,000. 

In  the  year  1834  orders  were  received  from 
the  Department  to  build  a  third  ship-house  in 
the  yard,  and  after  some  delay  in  selecting  a 
site,  the  present  one  was  chosen,  and  work  was 
begun  at  once  on  the  foundation  and  slip. 

During  this  year  many  improvements  were 
made  in  the  yard,  extensive  repairs  being  made 
to  the  bridge  leading  to  Kittery,  which  had 
fallen  into  decay  during  the  past  nine  years;  the 
timber-dock  was  enlarged  to  accommodate  the 
amount  of  timber  which  was  required  yearly 
for  building  and  repairing  vessels.  The  quar 
ters  were  completed  and  occupied  by  the  officers, 
and  the  old  building,  which  had  been  occupied 
by  the  lieutenant  of  the  yard,  was  fitted  up  as  a 
temporary  hospital  for  the  station. 

In  1815  the  ship-house  had  advanced  so  rap 
idly  towards  completion  that  preparations  were 
made  to  build  a  ship  in  it.  In  1838  this  mag 
nificent  structure  was  entirely  finished,  the  total 
cost  being  $71,000.  The  "  Lexington"  and 
"Congress"  were  both  fitted  for  sea,  and  sailed 
from  the  yard  in  1837. 

The  barracks  of  the  ordinary  were  raised  one 
story  and  made  into  dwellings  for  the  warrant- 
officers,  at  a  cost  of  $4000. 

On  the  14th  of  April,  1838,  Mr.  John  Floyd, 
naval  constructor  of  the  yard,  died,  and  he  was 
succeeded  by  Mr.  Samuel  M.  Pook,  who  re 
ported  in  November  of  the  same  year.  The 
new  ship-house  was  now  finished,  and  a  small 
sloop  was  being  built  therein.  On  the  14th  of 
June,  1839,  the  sloop-of-war  "  Preble"  was 


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launched,  having  been  completed  in  thirteen 
months  from  the  laying  of  the  keel,  and  when 
ready  for  sea  her  cost  was  $112,782.  On  the  2d 
of  June,  1840,  the  sloop  "Preble,"  Commander 
Breese,  sailed  from  this  station,  bound  for  the 
coast  of  Labrador,  and  after  making  six  cruises 
upon  different  stations,  she  was  converted  into  a 
practice-ship  for  midshipmen,  and  afterwards 
sold. 

For  some  time  past  a  wharf  was  being  built 
from  the  old  ship-house  to  the  eastward.  The 
manner  of  building  was  by  cob- work  of  timber 
filled  in  with  stone  as  a  foundation.  On  the  1st 
of  August  the  entire  fabric  gave  away,  and  was 
precipitated  into  the  deep  water. 

About  100  feet  of  sea-wall  was  destroyed  by 
this  accident,  and  the  Department  at  once  de 
cided  that  the  services  of  a  civil  engineer  were 
required  at  the  yard  to  obviate  any  future  acci 
dent  of  this  nature ;  consequently,  Mr.  Calvin 
Brown  was  employed  as  engineer  and  draughts 
man  at  a  pay  of  $3  a  day,  and  from  this  date  the 
services  of  a  civil  engineer  have  never  been  dis 
pensed  with  at  this  yard. 

As  soon  as  the  "  Preble"  sloop-of-war  had 
been  launched  from  the  new  ship-house  prepara 
tions  were  made  to  immediately  build  a  frigate 
of  the  largest  class,  and  in  August,  1839,  the 
keel  of  the  "Congress"  was  laid,  and  on  the 
16th  of  August,  1841,  she  was  launched. 

The  old  "Congress"  was  launched  from  the 
adjoining  island  at  noon,  August  15,  1799.  She 
was  190  feet  long  on  the  spar-deck,  50  feet 
beam,  and  1700  tons  burden.  The  cost  of  the 
old  "  Congress"  was  $197,246,  and  that  of  the 
new  $399,088,  over  twice  the  cost  of  the  former. 
Capt.  Crane  was  relieved  from  the  command 
of  the  yard  in  October,  1840,  by  Capt.  John  D. 
Sloat. 

The  former  practice  of  masting  vessels  by 
erecting  sheers  on  board  being  tedious  and  ex 
pensive,  Capt.  Sloat  received  permission  to  build 
a  pair  of  permanent  sheers,  whichhe  did,  using  the 
lower  masts  of  the  "  Alabama,"  74,  for  that  pur 
pose  ;  when  erected  they  cost  $2240.  The  masts 
of  the  "Congress"  frigate  were  the  first  put  in 
with  the  new  sheers. 

A  diving-bell  was  purchased  for  the  use  of  the 
yard,  and  work  immediately  began  by  removing 
the  debris  of  the  fallen  sea-wall,  under  the  super 
intendence  of  the  civil  engineer  of  the  yard. 

Orders  were  received  to  build  a  first-class 
sloop  at  the  yard,  and  as  soon  as  the  frigate 
"  Congress"  had  been  launched  work  began 
upon  the  "Saratoga,"  and  continued  without 
interruption  until  July,  1842,  when  she  was 
completed,  and  upon  the  26th  of  that  month  was 
launched. 

The  appropriation  for  the  improvement  of  the 
yard  for  the  year  1843  was  $41,000,  which  al 
lowed  some  work  to  be  done  on  the  walls  and 
buildings.  The  sloop-of-war  "  Portsmouth" 
was  built  and  launched  this  year ;  she  was  an 
exact  counterpart  of  the  "Saratoga,"  and  built 
in  the  ship-house  recently  vacated  by  that 
vessel. 

On  the  2d  of  November,  Capt.  Sloat  was  re 
lieved  by  Capt.  George  W.  Storer  as  comman 
dant  of  the  yard. 

The  boat-house  and  landing-stage  was  built  in 
1844,  at  a  cost  of  $1221.50,  and  work  commenced 
in  blasting  away  the  ledge  in  the  middle  of  the 


island;  with  this  exception  no  other  improve 
ments  were  made  on  the  yard  until  1846. 

November,  1846,  Commodore  Daniel  Turner 
relieved  Capt.  Storer  in  command. 

The  attention  of  the  Department  had  been  at 
tracted  to  the  subject  of  a  dry-dock  at  this  yard, 
and  a  board  of  civil  engineers,  under  Mr.  Sanger, 
was  ordered  to  examine  the  island  for  the  pur 
pose  of  locating  the  site.  The  subject  was  dis 
cussed  in  all  its  points,  and  the  board  finally  de 
cided  that  a  floating  dock  would  be  much  cheaper 
and  better  suited  to  the  requirements  of  this  yard 
than  a  stone  dock,  and  reported  its  views  to 
the  bureau.  A  controversy  then  arose  between 
the  two  inventors  of  floating  docks.  Messrs. 
Gilbert  &  Secor,  the  inventors  of  the  floating 
balance-dock,  claimed  for  their  invention  a 
superiority  over  that  of  the  sectional-dock  of 
Messrs.  Moody  &  Dakin  ;  the  bureau  was  much 
embarrassed  by  these  conflicting  claims,  and 
finally  settled  the  controversy  by  building  two 
of  each  at  the  different  yards.  Cisterns  were 
built  in  different  parts  of  the  yard  at  a  cost  of 
$31,528. 

In  May  of  1847  the  keel  of  the  steamer  "  Sar- 
anac"  was  laid  in  the  new  ship-house.  Mr.  Par- 
ris  reported  as  civil  engineer  of  the  yard,  retain 
ing  Mr.  Brown  as  his  assistant.  In  1848  the  work 
of  leveling  was  carried  on  with  vigor.  The  smith- 
ery  was  enlarged  and  rebuilt,  and  the  sea-wall 
finished  to  the  knee-dock.  In  November,  1848, 
the  side-wheel  steam-frigate  "  Saranac,"  the  first 
steamer  built  at  this  yard,  was  launched.  The 
powder-magazine,  which  had  been  commenced 
the  year  previous,  was  finished  in  1849.  Capt. 
Thomas  W.  Wyman  relieved  Commodore  Turner 
as  commandant  on  the  2d  of  November,  1849. 

In  1851  a  contract  was  entered  into  with 
Messrs.  John  S.  Gilbert  and  Zeno  Secor,  of  New 
York,  to  construct,  with  all  the  necessary  ma 
chinery  and  appendages,  a  floating  balance- 
dock  and  railway  to  the  satisfaction  of  the  su 
perintending  engineer.  The  test  was  made  in 
June,  1852,  and  the  works  accepted. 

Mr.  Parris,  the  civil  engineer,  having  died, 
B.  F.  Chandler,  Esq.,  was  appointed  to  fill  the 
vacancy,  and  entered  at  once  upon  his  duties. 
The  site  having  been  selected,  a  coffer-dam  was 
constructed,  within  which  the  excavations  were 
to  be  made  for  the  foundations,  floors,  and  walls 
of  the  dock-basin.  The  whole  was  to  rest  on  a 
foundation  of  piles,  3000  of  which  were  driven 
through  the  earth  to  solid  rock.  They  were  placed 
3  feet  from  centre  to  centre  and  the  interstices 
filled  with  clay ;  they  were  then  cut  off  12  feet 
below  high-water  mark,  capped  with  timber,  and 
the  entire  surface  covered  with  5-inch  plunk. 
Five  courses  of  hammered  granite  in  the  direction 
of  the  length  of  the  dock  were  laid  of  1  foot  rise, 
and  a  bed  of  concrete  6  inches  thick  between  the 
stone  bearings.  The  basin  completed  is  300  feet 
in  length  and  125  feet  in  width,  with  granite  walls 
14  feet  high  of  large  stone,  hammered  beds,  builds, 
joints,  and  face,  and  laid  in  cement;  at  the  outer 
end  of  the  walls  of  the  basin,  and  across  the  bot 
tom  in  the  stone-work,  is  a  groove  cut  2  inches 
wide  and  6  inches  deep  to  receive  the  keel  and 
stems  of  a  boat-gate,  which,  when  in  place,  in 
closes  the  dock  within  the  stone  basin.  The 
dock  was  constructed  on  the  island  opposite  the 
navy-yard,  called  Pierce's  Island,  and  when 
completed  was  floated  across  the  river.  The 


NAVY-YARD 


605 


NAVY-YARD 


length  of  the  floating  dock  is  350  feet ;  breadth 
outside,  135  feet  4  inches,  and  walls  38  feet  high. 
The  walls  or  chambers  on  each  side  are  7  feet  8 
inches  wide,  the  entire  length  of  the  dock.  On 
these  walls  and  amidship  of  the  dock  is  the  ma 
chinery  for  working  it  while  docking  or  undock- 
ing  vessels.  November  1,  1852,  Capt.  Wyman 
was  relieved  by  Capt.  Joseph  Smoot.  During 
this  winter  but  little  was  done  on  the  yard  in 
the  way  of  improvements.  The  new  ship-house 
was  lengthened  50  feet  and  the  keel  of  the  frigate 
"  Franklin"  laid  therein,  the  old  ship  being  un 
der  process  of  demolition.  In  the  month  of  Feb 
ruary,  1855,  the  frigate  "  Santee"  was  launched, 
having  been  in  process  of  construction  since  1820. 
The  keel  of  a  light-ship  was  laid  in  the  ship- 
house  soon  after  the  launching  of  the  "  Santee," 
and  in  the  summer  of  the  same  year  she  was 
launched. 

Commodore  John  T.  Newton  relieved  Capt. 
Smoot  as  commandant  of  the  yard  in  October, 
1855,  and  the  remainder  of  this  year  was  devoted 
to  finishing  up  the  work  already  begun,  and  in 
hurrying  to  completion  the  frigate  "  Franklin," 
now  well  under  way. 

In  April,  1856,  permission  having  been  ob 
tained  from  the  Navy  Department  by  the  in 
habitants  of  Seavey's  Island,  a  bridge  was  built 
from  the  navy-yard  across  the  narrow  stream 
which  separated  it  from  that  island  ;  this  bridge 
was  of  course  to  be  subject  to  the  discipline  of 
the  yard,  but  as  may  be  readily  seen,  was  the  oc 
casion  of  much  annoyance  to  the  yard  authori 
ties,  as  well  as  discomfort  to  the  inhabitants  of 
the  island.  In  order  to  avoid  theft  from  the 
government,  persons  carting  private  material 
through  the  yard  were  compelled  to  submit  their 
loads  to  the  inspection  of  the  watchman  ;  and  at 
night,  even  packages  carried  by  persons  were 
subjected  to  examinations  ;  the  continued  vexa 
tions  attending  this  privilege  of  passing  through 
the  yard  ultimately  led  to  the  purchase  of  the 
adjoining  island  by  the  government. 

In  July  of  1857,  Commodore  J.  T.  Newton, 
while  on  a  leave  of  absence,  was  smitten  with 
paralysis,  and  after  a  few  hours  of  great  suffering 
expired. 

Commander  Charles  ~W.  Pickering,  being 
senior  officer  present,  assumed  the  command  of 
the  station  until  relieved  by  Capt.  John  Pope, 
on  the  llth  of  August.  During  this  year  the 
fine  building  for  offices  and  muster-room  was 
finished  and  occupied,  the  entire  cost  of  which 
was  $28,633.  The  appropriation  made  in  1857 
for  this  yard  was  $104,422,  which  admitted 
of  many  improvements  being  made  that  were 
much  needed.  The  head-house  was  raised  one 
story  and  a  half,  and  fitted  with  machinery ;  the 
magazine  buildings  finished,  a  lodge  built  for 
the^ordinary  men  of  the  yard  at  a  cost  of  $4845, 
and  iron  fences  substituted  for  the  wooden  ones 
around  the  quarters.  The  dry-dock  was  in  use 
the  greater  part  of  the  year,  'the  "  Vandalia," 
"  Constitution,"  and  sloop  "  Falmouth"  having 
received  repairs  upon  it;  and  during  the  year 
following  the  sloops  "  Portsmouth"  and  "James 
town,"  having  arrived  from  a  cruise,  were  both 
docked  and  extensively  repaired. 

On  the  1st  of  October,  1860,  Capt.  John  Pope 
was  relieved  as  commandant  by  Capt.  G.  F. 
Pierson. 

The  very  threatening  aspects  which  the  politi 


cal  affairs  of  the  country  had  assumed,  caused 
the  commandant  to  request  permission  to  fortify 
the  defenses  of  the  harbor  early  in  1861. 

On  the  27th  of  April  the  commandant  of  the 
station  received  orders  to  put  the  yard  on  a  war 
footing;  fortify  the  earth- work  on  Seavey's  Isl 
and  With  8-inch  guns ;  open  a  rendezvous  in 
Portsmouth  for  recruiting  men  both  for  the 
navy  and  marine  corps.  He  was  also  empow 
ered  to  examine  and  appoint  officers,  subject 
to  the  approval  of  the  Department.  The  "  San- 
tee"  and  "Sabine,"  frigates,  "Marion"  and 
"Dale,"  sloops-of-war,  were  fitted  out  and 
sailed  on  a  cruise.  War  was  now  considered  as 
declared  with  the  Southern  States  that  had  se 
ceded.  All  officers  in  command  of  ships  of  war 
were  instructed  to  capture,  sink,  burn,  or  destroy 
vessels  on  the  high  seas  hostile  to  the  U.  S.  gov 
ernment,  or  having  on  board  articles  contraband 
of  war.  The  keels  of  two  steam  sloops-of-war 
were  laid,  the  "  Kearsarge"  and  "  Ossipee." 
The  latter  was  launched  in  November,  and  the 
former  in  December.  The  steam-sloops  "  Se- 
bago,"  "  Mahaska,"  "  Sacramento,"  "  Sonoma," 
and  "  Connemaugh"  were  commenced  in  1861. 
The  two  former  were  finished  during  the  autumn, 
but  the  last  two  not  until  the  spring  of  1862. 
The  yard  was  now  worked  to  its  full  capacity, 
over  2000  men  being  employed.  Additions  were 
made  to  the  ordnance-building,  and  the  inspec 
tion  building  of  provisions  and  clothing  was  also 
built,  at  a  cost  of  $12,586. 

During  the  years  1862-63  the  following  ships 
and  gunboats  were  built,  launched,  and  fitted 
for  sea  at  this  yard:  "  Sebago,"  "Sonoma," 
"Sacramento,"  "Connemaugh,"  "Mahaska," 
"Ossipee,"  and  "Sassacus."  The  "Constel 
lation,"  "  Colorado,"  and  "  Minnesota"  were 
also  repaired  and  fitted  for  sea,  and  work  during 
these  two  years  had  progressed  upon  the  steam- 
frigate  "Franklin"  so  as  to  insure  her  comple 
tion  in  a  short  time  should  she  be  needed.  Sev 
eral  temporary  sheds  were  erected  about  the  yard 
to  accommodate  the  different  departments,  which 
were  now  being  crowded  to  their  utmost  extent 
with  work. 

During  the  year  1863  the  gunboats  "  Patuxet," 
"Nipsic,"and  "Shawmut"  were  built,  launched, 
and  fitted  for  sea;  and  the  frigate  "St.  Law 
rence,"  bark  "  Fernandina,"  and  steam-sloops 
"  Alabama,"  "  Dacotah,"  and  "  Agawam"  were 
repaired  and  fitted  for  sea  in  addition  to  those 
already  mentioned.  On  the  18th  of  November 
the  keel  of  the  ironclad  "  Passaconaway"  was 
laid  in  ship-house  No.  4.  On  the  4th  of  Feb" 
ruary  the  porter's  lodge  took  fire  and  was  en 
tirely  consumed  in  a  short  time,  a  heavy  wind 
blowing  from  the  northwest,  and  the  mercur}r 
being  13  degrees  below  zero  rendered  all  assist 
ance  impossible. 

The  year  1864  opened  gloomily  for  the  coun 
try  ;  the  war  dragged  along,  and  the  yard  still 
continued  to  teem  with  workmen  and  the  wharves 
to  be  crowded  with  vessels.  The  sloop-of-war 
"  Vandalia"  had  been  ordered  to  this  station  for 
a  guard  as  well  as  a  receiving-ship.  On  the  23d 
day  of  January  the  ship-of-the-line  "New  Hamp 
shire'' was  launched  (she  was  the  "Alabama," 
74,  whose  keel  was  laid  on  the  15th  of  April, 
1817),  having  been  upon  the  stocks  47  years. 
She  was  fitted  as  a  store-ship  and  sent  to  Port 
Royal,  S.  C. 


NAVY-YAKD 


606 


NAVY-YAKD 


During  this  year  the  "  Colorado"  was  repaired, 
docked,  and  fitted  for  sea;  2  tugs  built  and 
launched,— the  "  Port  Fire"  and  "  Blue  Light"  ; 
the  ironclad  "  Agamenticus"  launched  and  fitted 
for  sea  ;  "  losco"  taken  into  dock  and  repaired  ; 
"San  Jacinto"  repaired  and  fitted;  the  steam 
sloops-of-war  "  Piscataqua,"  "  Minnetonka," 
and  "Illinois"  built;  the  frigate  "Franklin" 
finished  and  launched,  and  the  sloop  "  Contoo- 
cook"  launched,  also  several  of  the  small  pur 
chased  vessels  were  docked  and  refitted.  The 
boat-  and  carpenter-shop  was  built  this  year  by 
contract,  Messrs.  Clement  &  Cressey  doing  the 
work.  Numbers  of  vessels  were  now  arriving  at 
the  yard  from  Southern  ports,  and  many  cases 
of  yellow  fever  were  discovered,  which  caused 
much  alarm  in  this  vicinity. 

In  July  the  "  De  Soto"  arrived,  and  after  re 
maining  a  short  time  in  the  lower  harbor  steamed 
up  to  the  yard  and  was  put  out  of  commission. 
Immediately  the  fever  broke  out  among  the  work 
men  on  this  ship,  and  in  many  cases  proved 
fatal.  The  sail-loft  was  closed,  the  yard  put  in 
quarantine,  and  the  ship  removed  to  the  lower 
harbor. 

In  October,  Commodore  T.  Bailey  relieved 
Commodore  Peirson  as  commandant  of  the  sta 
tion. 

In  1866  the  adjoining  island  was  purchased  by 
the  government  for  $105,000.  This  island  con 
tains  about  105  acres,  with  an  extensive  water 
front ;  the  stream  separating  the  two  can  be  filled 
in,  and  the  area  thus  added  will  be  sufficient  for 
the  requirements  of  the  navy-yard  for  years  to 
come.  The  wings  of  the  office-building  were 
raised  and  extended,  a  crane  built,  and  a  new 
steam  fire-engine  added  to  the  fire  department 
of  the  yard  this  year.  October,  1867,  Commo 
dore  Joseph  Lanman  relieved  Commodore  Bailey 
as  commandant.  Coal-sheds  were  erected  on 
Seavey's  Island  and  residences  furnished  upon 
that  island  for  the  naval  constructor  and  civil 
engineer  attached  to  the  yard ;  an  iron  building 
erected  for  a  boiler-shop  for  steam-engineering 
department  at  a  cost  of  $15,000.  The  U.  S.  S. 
"  Benicia"  was  finished  and  launched,,  and  the 
steam-sloop  '  Monongahela"  was  taken  upon  the 
railway  to  be  rebuilt,  having  been  thrown  ashore 
by  the  tidal-wave  following  the  great  earthquake 
at  the  island  of  St.  Croix,  West  Indies,  the  year 
previous.  During  the  year  following,  1869,  Com 
modore  J.  A,.  Winslow  relieved  Commodore  Lan 
man. 

The  fire-engine  house  was  also  built  this  year 
at  a  cost  of  $8940,  and  the  wings  which  were 
added  by  Commodore  Howell  several  years  after 
at  an  expense  of  $800,  made  the  entire  structure 
cost  $9400.  In  July,  1870,  Commodore  A.  M. 
Pennock  relieved  Admiral  Winslow  in  command 
of  the  yard.  But  little  improvement  was  made 
to  the  yard  owing  to  the  meagre  appropriations 
for  that  purpose  during  1870,  1871,  and  1872. 
The  "  Narragansett"  was  fitted  out,  work  was 
progressing  on  the  "  Monongahela,"  and  the 
sloop  "Illinois"  was  taken  to  pieces.  On  the 
10th  of  October,  1872,  Commodore  John  C. 
Howell  relieved  Admiral  Pennock. 

The  appropriation  for  this  yard  having  been 
increased,  work  was  at  once  begun  in  the  various 
departments  of  the  yard.  A  chain-shed  was 
built ;  the  floating  dock  extensively  repaired  ;  a 
truss-bridge  built  to  connect  the  yard  with  Sea 


vey's  Island ;  gas-pipes  laid,  gas-works  built, 
and  gas  introduced  for  lighting  the  yard  and 
quarters;  wharf  and  bridge  built  on  Seavey's 
Island;  tool-house  built  and  portico,  etc.,  added 
to  the  commandant's  quarters.  In  addition  to 
these  repairs  and  improvements,  the  beautiful 
waiting-house  at  the  Portsmouth  landing  was 
built  to  take  the  place  of  the  miserable  shed 
which  had  been  in  use  many  years. 

The  "  Monongahela"  was  rebuilt  and  refitted 
and  the  "  Marion"  steam-sloop  launched.  Two 
steam  sloops-of-war  were  begun  in  1873,  and  both 
launched  the  year  following;  the  "  Enterprise" 
being  the  first  of  these  two  sloops  launched.  She 
was  built  by  contract  by  Mr.  J.  Griffiths,  the 
government  furnishing  everything  excepting 
labor.  The  sloop  "  Essex,"  the  other  of  the  two 
sloops  constructed  at  the  yard,  was  built  entirely 
by  the  government.  Much  difficulty  was  expe 
rienced  during  the  summer  of  1874  in  supplying 
the  yard  with  fresh  water,  owing  to  the  dryness 
of  the  season  ;  in  fact,  it  was  the  occasion  of 
much  anxiety,  as  the  various  workshops  in  the 
yard  are  dependent  upon  fresh  water  to  fill  their 
boilers.  The  fact  was  laid  before  the  Depart 
ment,  and  several  propositions  were  made.  One 
was  to  cover  an  artesian  well  on  the  island,  the 
estimated  cost  of  which  did  not  fall  short  of 
$60,000,  owing  to  the  peculiar  formation  of  the 
strata.  By  an  accidental  discovery  of  several 
springs  upon  Seavey's  Island,  it  occurred  to  the 
commandant  that  a  dam  might  be  so  constructed 
as  to  save  the  water  that  escaped  and  form  a 

?ond  in  the  valley,  which  was  already  swampy, 
t  was  done  at  small  cost,  and  in  a  short  time  a 
large  pond  was  formed,  which  is  now  a  never- 
failing  source  of  supply,  being  conducted  by  pipes 
to  a  cistern  in  the  yard.  The  entire  cost  of  this 
work,  including  a  steam-engine  for  pumping  the 
water  into  the  reservoir  for  distribution,  was  less 
than  $500.  This  pond  has  never  failed  to  supply 
the  yard  with  water,  and  in  the  winter  also  with 
a  large  supply  of  heavy  ice,  which  is  stored  for 
the  use  of  the  yard  and  the  sick  at  quarantine: 
several  hundred  tons  of  this  refreshing  commo 
dity  is  thus  saved  every  year. 

Kittery  bridge,  which  for  some  time  had  been 
considered  as  unsafe,  was  extensively  repaired 
and  put  in  complete  condition. 

In  October,  1874,  Commodore  Howell  was  or 
dered  to  Washington  as  chief  of  the  Bureau  of 
Yards  and  Docks,  and  he  was  relieved  by  Com 
modore  Andrew  Bryson,  who  was  succeeded  in 
1876  by  Commodore  Jno.  Guest.  Commodore 
Guest  died  on  January  12,  1879,  while  in  com 
mand  of  the  yard,  and  the  present  commandant, 
Commodore  J.  C.  Beaumont,  was  ordered  to  the 
command. 

Navy-yard,  "Washington,  D.  C.  This  yard 
was  established  in  1800,  the  ground  on  which  it 
stands  having  been  purchased  for  $4000.  It  is 
bounded  by  East  Sixth  and  East  Ninth  Streets, 
M  Street  south,  and  the  East  Branch  of  the  Poto 
mac  Eiver.  This  area  covers  about  20  acres,  and 
is  inclosed  by  a  substantial  brick  wall,  having  the 
principal  entrance  at  the  foot  of  Eighth  Street, 
through  a  handsome  arched  gateway.  The  ex 
tensive  workshops  comprise  foundries,  forges, 
rolling-mill,  and  rnachine-shops.  The  grounds  are 
beautifully  laid  out,  and  the  officers  of  the  yard 
have  commodious  residences  within  the  walls. 
This  yard  is  the  principal  ordnance  depot  of 


NEAP  TIDES 


607 


NEBULAE  HYPOTHESIS 


the  navy,  and  it  contains  a  laboratory,  where 
cartridges,  signal-lights,  etc.,  are  manufactured. 
For  years  the  navy  has  been  supplied  with 
anchors  and  cables  from  this  yard,  and  since  the 
new  rolling-mill  has  been  started  it  turns  out 
all  the  chain  and  most  of  the  round  iron  used 
by  the  navy.  The  first  chain-cable  manufactured 
by  the  navy  was  made  at  this  yard  in  1829,  and 
from  that  date  up  to  August,  1868,  there  had 
been  manufactured  828  cables,  besides  hun 
dreds  of  anchors  and  small  chains.  Very  little 
ship-building  or  repairing  has  been  done  here, 
the  frigate  "Minnesota"  being  the  largest  and 
most  important  vessel  built ;  she  was  launched 
in  1856.  During  the  years  of  the  Kebellion  the 
Washington  Navy- Yard  was  a  scene  of  cease 
less  activity ;  it  was  the  headquarters  of  the 
Potomac  Flotilla,  and  vessels  from  other  sta 
tions  were  frequently  sent  to  this  station  for 
repairs  and  supplies;  the  yard  at  that  time 
proved  of  almost  inestimable  value  to  the  gov 
ernment.  It  has  been  commanded  by  a  long 
line  of  distinguished  officers,  among  whom  may 
be  mentioned  Commodores  Aulick,  Buchanan, 
Stevens,  Radford,  Poor,  Patterson,  and  Febiger, 
and  the  late  Rear-Admiral  Dahlgren  was  for 
many  years  stationed  at  this  yard  as  ordnance- 
officer,  and  at  the  outbreak  of  the  Rebellion  in 
1861,  Capt.  Dahlgren  and  Lieut.  Russell  were 
the  only  officers  then  stationed  here  who  re 
mained  loyal,  all  others  from  the  commandant 
down  resigning  and  joining  the  Confederacy. 
Capt.  Dahlgren  commanded  the  navy-yard  from 
1861  to  1863,  and  again  from  1866  to  1868. 

Neap  Tides  (Sax.  neafte,  scarcity).  The 
smallest  tides  ;  they  take  place  after  the  first  and 
third  quarters  of  the  moon,  when  the  sun  and 
moon  do  not  act  in  the  same  line.  See  TIDE. 

NEAPED,  or  BE-NEAPED.  The  situation  of  a 
ship  left  aground  on  the  spring-tides  so  she  can 
not  be  floated  off  until  the  occurrence  of  the  next 
spring-tides. 

Near.  Near  and  no  nenr  are  terms  sometimes 
used  for  no  higher.  See  HELM. 

Nebular  Hypothesis.  Although  Laplace  is 
generally  considered  the  originator  of  this  hy 
pothesis,  it  is  not  strictly  true.  Kant,  a  few  years 
before,  had  in  point  of  fact  announced  this 
theory,  but  Laplace  was  the  first  to  bring  it  to 
general  notice.  He  supposed  the  atmosphere  of 
the  sun  to  have  filled  the  whole  space  now  occu 
pied  by  the  solar  system,  and  to  have  existed  as 
a  vast  revolving  nebulous  mass,  which,  gradually 
cooling  and  contracting,  threw  off,  in  accordance 
with  mechanical  and  physical  laws,  successive 
rings  of  matter,  from  which,  in  obedience  to  the 
same  laws,  were  produced  the  planets  and  satel 
lites.  He  was  led  to  this  theory  from  the  uni 
formity  of  direction  in  the  movements  of  the 
planets. 

This  hypothesis  has  given  rise  to  much  dis 
cussion.  Many  advocates  of  it  have  contended 
that  it  fully  satisfies  the  present  condition  of 
affairs.  Prof.  Ennis  undertook  to  prove  that 
gravity  and  contraction  acting  on  a  nebulous 
mass  would  cause  a  rotation  about  an  axis,  and 
thus  start  the  mass  in  motion,  so  that  it  would 
necessarily  throw  off  the  planetary  rings.  Others 
have  shown  the  weak  points  in  the  hypothesis  so 
conclusively,  that  a  modification  of  it  is  now 
generally  conceded  necessary  in  order  to  cause  it 
to  be  generally  accepted. 


The  writer  has  advanced  the  idea  that  repulsion 
was  a  force  overlooked  in  this  theory  of  cosmog 
ony.  If  gravity  attracts  masses  to  the  sun,  there 
must  be  another  force,  and  by  analogy  we  would 
expect  it  to  be  differently  developed,  which  ex 
pends  energy  in  repelling  bodies  from  the  sun. 
Gravity  acts  directly  between  the  bodies  attracted 
and  the  sun.  Repulsion  acts  from  the  sun  in 
every  direction,  being  diffused  as  the  light  of  a 
lamp;  it  is  given  off  by  all  bodies,  now  cooling 
and  contracting  in  every  direction,  its  intensity 
being,  like  gravity,  inversely  as  the  square  of  the 
distance.  A  body  is  attracted  to  the  sun  accord 
ing  to  its  weight ;  it  is  repelled  according  to  its 
size.  There  is  nothing  in  this  idea  that  conflicts 
with  Newton's  law  of  universal  gravitation,  for 
the  difference  between  these  two  forces  would 
satisfy  his  law.  Repulsion  and  centrifugal  force 
acting  together  exactly  balance  the  force  of  at 
traction.  Such  a  force  as  this  would  give  per 
manence  to  the  places  and  orbits  of  the  planets  ; 
for,  were  they  disturbed  by  a  comet  or  other 
body,  they  would  naturally  return  to  that  dis 
tance  from  the  sun  where  the  forces  exactly 
counterbalance. 

The  force  of  gravity,  exactly  balanced  by  cen 
trifugal  force,  is  an  unstable  equilibrium  ;  but 
the  supposition  of  a  third  force  makes  a  stable 
equilibrium. 

If  we  suppose  all  other  suns  to  have  a  repulsive 
force,  all  nebulous  matter  would  be  driven  to  the 
confines  of  the  systems  ;  there  it  would  reach  a 
place  of  comparative  rest,  its  attraction  towards 
the  systems  counterbalancing  the  repulsive  force 
of  all  the  repelling  bodies.  This  mass  would 
now  commence  to  contract,  the  power  of  gravity 
as  it  contracts  would  cause  it  to  move  towards 
the  systems ;  as  it  approached  the  heavenly  sys 
tems  the  force  of  repulsion  would  increase  rap 
idly,  and  consequently  the  mass  would  begin  to 
change  its  course,  avoiding  the  centre  of  attrac 
tion  and  repulsion  ;  owing  to  the  resistance  met 
the  centre  of  gravity  would  be  in  advance  of  the 
centre  of  figure,  and  a  motion  of  rotation  must 
necessarily  ensue.  We  now  have  the  nebular 
mass  in  the  condition  required  by  the  hypothesis 
of  Laplace. 

This  force  of  repulsion  would  also  regulate  the 
throwing  off  of  the  planetary  rings.  When  the 
planets  formed  and  moved  in  their  orbits  about 
the  sun,  the  centre  of  weight  would  be  in  ad 
vance  of  the  centre  of  figure,  repulsion  would 
then  cause  a  rotation  on  an  axis  approximately 
perpendicular  to  the  plane  of  their  orbits  and 
from  west  to  east. 

But  repulsion  has  also  an  important  part  to 
act  in  the  gradual  dissipation  of  the  system  back 
to  nebulous  matter  ;  it  is  illogical  to  advocate  any 
explanation  of  the  growth  of  any  system  or  sys 
tems  without  indicating  the  way  for  its  decay 
and  return  to  its  original  condition.  Everything 
we  see  in  nature  follows  the  general  law  of  re 
production,  and  it  is  an  acknowledged  fact  that 
the  same  laws  prevail  in  the  greatest  as  in  the 
least  of  the  processes  of  nature. 

I  take  it  for  granted  that  there  is  a  medium  in 
space  for  the  transmission  of  heat  and  light,  and 
that  it  necessarily  offers  some  resistance,  no  mat 
ter  how  slight,  to  the  heavenly  bodies.  This  re 
sistance  causes  the  greater  part  of  the  atmosphere 
of  a  planet  to  follow  it,  and  thus  causes  the  centre 
of  attraction  to  be  ahead  of  the  centre  of  figure, 


NECESSITY 


608 


NELSON 


the  two  forces  acting  at  these  points  in  different 
directions  causes  diurnal  motion.  The  resistance 
of  the  ether  of  space  would  cause  the  planets  to 
gradually  stop  in  their  orbits  were  it  not  for  the 
slight  increase  of  orbital  motion  caused  by 
diurnal  motion.  This  increase  exactly  counter 
balances  the  retardation  of  orbital  motion  caused 
by  the  ether  of  space. 

Now,  it  is  apparent  that  if  such  is  the  case, 
upon  a  planet  becoming  solidified  in  its  old  age 
its  atmosphere  would  disappear,  and  consequently 
diurnal  rotation  would  cease,  and  orbital  motion 
itself  would  gradually  come  to  an  end.  As  there 
is  no  loss  of  motion  possible,  both  these  motions 
would  be  converted  into  molecular  motion,  and 
disruption  would  occur  just  as  sure  as  it  would 
occur  if  the  earth  were  suddenly  stopped  in  its 
orbital  and  diurnal  motions.  The  various  pieces 
would  follow  erratic  orbits,  and  sooner  or  later 
fall  to  the  sun  only  to  be  repulsed  again,  and 
thus,  by  slow  attrition,  reach  the  nebulous  con 
dition. 

Comets,  meteors,  and  systems  of  meteors  have 
a  tendency  to  fall  to  the  sun,  and  are  repelled 
again,  each  time  suffering  some  dissipation  from 
his  heat.  They  are  thus  gradually  converted 
into  nebulous  gas,  and  driven  to  the  confines  of 
the  systems,  where  they  go  towards  forming  a 
new  system. 

The  sun  would,  according  to  the  same  laws, 
finally  suffer  disruption.  He  would  continue  to 
be  attracted  and  repelled  by  the  united  efforts  of 
all  other  suns,  and  would,  in  time,  suffer  the  fate 
of  his  own  planets.  The  same  matter  would  not 
again,  as  a  whole,  form  a  new  system  any  more 
than  an  old  tree  furnishes  all  the  matter  for  its 
successor. 

The  nebular  hypothesis  has  been  generally  ad 
vocated  by  evolutionists,  who  have  used  it  as  an 
argument  in  opposition  to  the  belief  of  a  miracu 
lous  creation  by  the  Almighty. 

But  it  is  evident  that  if  worlds  and  systems  of 
worlds  come  into  existence  according  to  law,  to 
run  the  natural  course  of  growth  and  decay,  it 
requires  a  law-giver,  just  as^a  miraculous  creation 
requires  a  creator. — R.  M.  G.  Brown,  Lieutenant 
U.S.N. 

Necessity.  If  a  ship  be  compelled  by  neces 
sity  to  change  the  order  of  the  places  to  which 
she  is  insured,  it  is  not  deemed  deviation,  and 
the  underwriters  are  still  liable. 

Necklace.  Formerly,  a  chain  around  the 
lower  mast  to  which  the  futtock-shrouds  were  se 
cured.  Also,  a  strap  around  a  mast,  carrying 
leading-blocks. 

Neckur.  A  Scandinavian  sea-sprite,  whence 
some  derive  our  "  Old  Nick"  in  preference  to  St. 
Nicholas,  the  modern  patron  of  sailors. 

Needle.  The  magnetized  bar  of  steel  in  the 
mariner's  compass  ;  the  form  used  by  the  Chinese 
was  like  a  needle,  being  a  light  thin  wire.  It  is 
now  a  regular  parallelopiped  with  the  narrow 
dimension  placed  vertically.  See  COMPASS,  THE 
MARINER'S. 

Needle-fish.  The  shorter  pipe-fish,  stang,  or 
sting,  Sjignathus  acus. 

Needle-gun  (Germ.  Ziindnadelgeivehr).  A 
breech-loading  fire-arm  having  a  needle  or  pin 
traversing  the  breech-block,  which,  upon  being 
struck  by  tho  hammer,  is  driven  into  the  fulmi 
nate,  igniting  it  and  exploding  the  cartridge. 
The  needle-gun  was  invented  by  Nicholaus 


Dreyse,  and,  until  superseded  by  the  Mauser 
gun,  it  was  the  regulation  weapon  of  the  Ger 
man  infantry.  Its  efficiency  has  been  demon 
strated  in  all  the  German  wars  since  1848.  It 
is  clumsy  and  complicated,  but  excellent  for  pre 
cision  and  rapidity  of  discharge. 

Negligence.  If  an  agent  or  broker  engages  to 
do  an  act  for  another,  and  he  either  wholly  neg 
lects  it,  or  does  it  unskillfully,  an  action  on  the 
case  will  lie  against  him. 

Nelly.  Diomedea  spadicea,  a  sea-bird  of  the 
family  Procellaridce,  which  follows  in  the  wake 
of  a  ship  when  rounding  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope. 

Nelson,  Horatio,  Lord,  was  born  on  the  29th 
of  September,  1758,  at  Burnham  Thorpe,  Nor 
folk.  It  would  be  impossible  to  find  a  name 
in  the  naval  annals  of  the  whole  world  more 
justly  celebrated  for  skill,  valor,  and  success 
than  that  of  the  British  sailor  "Nelson  and 
Bronte."  He  served  a  long  apprenticeship  to  the 
ordinary  duties  of  a  naval  officer  before  he  had 
an  opportunity  of  making  a  reputation.  Begin- 
ing  his  career  in  the  Arctic  Seas,  and  serving 
afterwards  in  the  West  Indies,  the  coast  of  Mex 
ico,  and  of  Canada,  always  commanding  respect 
for  his  steady  perseverance,  his  intelligence,  and 
intrepidity,  he  obtained  a  command  in  January, 
1793,  and  soon  earned  fame  in  independent 
action.  Ordered  to  the  Mediterranean  to  protect 
the  interests  of  Italy  and  England  against  the 
assaults  of  the  French  revolutionists,  he  joined 
the"  CorsicanPaoli,"  and  besieged  Bastia.  Never 
resting  while  an  enemy  was  to  be  met,  he  boarded 
and  captured  several  French  and  Spanish  men- 
of-war.  In  1797  he  was  appointed  to  join  Sir 
John  Jervis  in  the  "  Captain,"  74,  and  on  board 
that  vessel  took  part  in  the  victory  off  Cape  St. 
Vincent,  which  secured  for  Jervis  his  elevation 
to  the  peerage.  The  service  which  Nelson  rend 
ered  in  boarding  two  Spanish  ships  raised  him 
to  the  rank  of  rear-admiral,  added  to  which  were 
the  insignia  of  the  Bath  and  a  gold  medal.  In 
an  operation  against  Santa  Cruz,  Admiral  Sir 
Horatio  Nelson  lost  his  right  arm.  In  1798  he 
was  sent  in  pursuit  of  a  powerful  French  fleet 
then  covering  the  operations  of  a  French  army 
under  Napoleon  in  Egypt.  Finding  the  fleet  at 
anchor  in  Aboukir  Bay,  near  Alexandria,  Sir 
Horatio  immediately  delivered  battle.  A  tre 
mendous  conflict  ensued,  which  terminated  in 
the  complete  annihilation  of  the  French  arma 
ment.  This  action  is  known  in  English  history 
as  the  "  Battle  of  the  Nile." 

Denmark,  Sweden,  and  Russia  having  com 
bined  to  place  limits  to  the  naval  power  of  Eng 
land,  Admiral  Sir  Hyde  Parker  was  dispatched 
to  the  North  Sea  to  crush  the  confederacy. 
Nelson  hoisted  his  flag  in  the  "  Elephant,"  and 
led  the  way  to  the  Baltic.  Meeting  the  combined 
fleet,  the  English  gave  them  battle,  and  the  up 
shot  was  the  complete  destruction  of  the  hostile 
alliance.  For  this  exploit  Nelson  was  raised  to 
the  dignity  of  a  viscount,  and  placed  in  com 
mand  of  the  fleet  in  the  North  Sea.  Campbell, 
the  poet,  has  immortalized  the  "  Battle  of  the 
Baltic." 

Napoleon  Bonaparte,  intending  to  invade  Eng 
land,  had  assembled  a  large  military  force  at 
Boulogne,  and  only  awaited  the  arrival  of  a  pow 
erful  fleet  to  convoy  the  troops  across  the  Chan 
nel.  Aware  of  this  fact,  Lord  Nelson,  with  a 


NEPTUNE 


609 


NEW  OKLEANS 


squadron,  went  in  search  of  the  French  ships  to 
prevent  their  approach  to  Boulogne.  Failing 
to  find  the  fleet  in  the  West  Indies  he  recrossed 
the  Atlantic,  and  came  up  with  the  object  of  his 
search  off  Cape  Trafalgar,  near  the  entrance  to 
the  Strait  of  Gibraltar.  He  patiently  awaited 
them  at  the  mouth  of  Trafalgar  Bay,  and  when 
the  fleet  emerged  from  its  retreat  under  Admiral 
Villeneuve,  he  gave  it  battle  on  the  morning  of 
the  21st  of  October,  1805.  The  two  forces  were 
of  equal  strength,  but  the  form  of  attack  adopted 
by  Nelson  gave  the  British  so  great  an  advantage 
that,  after  a  fight  of  many  hours'  duration,  the 
French  struck  their  colors.  Nelson's  ship  was 
the  "  Victory,"  and  he  stood  on  the  quarter-deck 
during  the  whole  of  the  engagement.  Wearing 
all  his  stars  and  other  decorative  insignia,  he 
was  a  conspicuous  mark  for  the  riflemen,  and  by 
one  of  them  in  the  mizzen-top  of  a  French  man- 
of-war  he  was  shot  dead.  Mourned  by  the  whole 
British  nation  he  was  decreed  a  pompous  funeral, 
and  his  remains  lie  in  the  crypt  of  the  Cathedral 
of  St.  Paul's. 

Neptune.  The  place  of  this  planet  was  com 
puted  by  Le  Verrier  and  Adams  in  1845-46,  from 
the  known  perturbations  of  Uranus.  It  was 
first  seen  at  Berlin,  September  23,  1846,  only 
52'  from  its  place  as  determined  by  Le  Verrier 
from  his  computations.  Mean  distance  from  the 
sun,  2860  millions  of  miles  ;  period  of  revolution, 
165  years ;  diameter,  40,000  miles ;  apparent 
diameter,  3" ;  symbol  W,  a  trident. 

Neptune.    The  god  of  the  sea.    See  SEA-GODS. 

NEPTUNE'S  GOBLETS.  The  large  cup-shaped 
sponges  found  in  the  Eastern  seas, — Raphyrus 
patera. 

NEPTUNE'S  SHEEP.  Waves  breaking  into 
foam,  called  white  horses. 

Nest.     See  CROW'S  NEST. 

Netting.  A  net-work  of  small  lines  used  for 
various  purposes.  See  BOARDING,  HAMMOCK, 
SPLINTER. 

Nettle.  Two  or  three  yarns  laid  up  by  hand  ; 
used  for  hammock-clews  and  neat  seizings.  To 
nettle,  to  provoke. 

Neutral.  A  state  that  takes  no  part  in  a  war 
between  other  states.  See  INTERNATIONAL 
LAW. 

Newark  is  a  port  of  entry  and  city  of  New 
Jersey,  in  Essex  County,  on  the  Passaic  River,  4 
miles  from  Newark  Bay.  Lat.  40°  45'  N.  ;  Ion. 
74°  10'  W.  Pop.  136,983.  It  is  the  largest  city 
in  the  State,  and  its  rapid  growth  is  due  to  its 
extensive  manufactories,  the  principal  of  which 
are  carriages,  beer,  machinery,  castings,  jewelry, 
shoes,  harness,  and  clothing.  The  commerce 'is 
principally  confined  to  the  coast  trade,  which  is 
very  large  and  important. 

New  Bedford,  Mass.,  is  situated  in  Bristol 
County,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Acushnet  River, 
in  lat.  41°  38'  N.,  Ion.  70°  56'  W.  The  river 
forms  a  commodious  harbor,  which  at  Clark's 
Point  is  defended  by  a  strong  fortification  of 
granite.  This  town  has  been  more  largely  en 
gaged  than  any  other  town  in  the  world  in 
the  whale-fisheries,  employing  at  one  time  400 
vessels,  which  has  now  declined  to  a  fleet  of 
125.  Since  the  decline  of  its  whale-fisheries  the 
town  has  become  a  manufacturing  city,  the 
Wamsutta  and  Potemska  cotton-mills,  flouring- 
mills,  and  various  other  manufactories  having 
located  here.  Pop.  about  26,000. 
39 


Newburyport  is  situated  on  the  Merrimac 
River,  3  miles  from  the  ocean,  in  Essex  County, 
Mass.,  in  lat.  42°  48'  32"  N.,  Ion.  70°  52'  47" 
W.  It  contains  a  custom-house,  marine  museum, 
has  extensive  manufactures  of  cotton  goods,  ma 
chinery,  and  boots  and  shoes  ;  ship-building  is 
also  carried  on.  The  harbor  is  safe  and  spacious, 
but  is  obstructed  at  the  entrance  by  a  sand-bar. 
Pop.  13,500. 

Newcastle-upon-Tyne.  A  city  and  port  of 
England,  in  Northumberland  County,  on  the 
left  bank  of  the  Tyne,  8  miles  from  its  mouth. 
The  manufactures  are  very  extensive,  and  within 
the  city  and  its  immediate  vicinity  are  numer 
ous  blast-furnaces,  malleable  and  other  iron 
works.  Iron  goods,  fire-arms,  ordnance,  bronze 
goods,  hardware,  etc.,  are  among  the  principal 
articles  of  manufacture.  There  are  also  exten 
sive  saw-mills  and  ship-building  yards,  at  which 
large  numbers  of  sailing-vessels  and  steamers  are 
constructed.  The  import  and  export  trade  are 
very  important.  Pop.  128,500. 

Newcome.  An  officer  commencing  his  career. 
Any  stranger  or  fresh  hand  newly  arrived. 

Newell.  An  upright  piece  of  timber  which 
receives  the  tenons  of  "the  rails  that  lead  from  the 
breastwork  of  the  gangway  in  old-style  ships. 

New  Haven,  a  port  of  entry  and  the  county- 
seat  of  New  Haven  County,  and  the  largest  city 
in  Connecticut,  is  situated  at  the  head  of  New 
Haven  Bay,  4  miles  from  Long  Island  Sound,  in 
lat.  41°  18'  23"  N.,  Ion.  72°  56'  30"  W.  It  is 
quite  an  extensive  business  centre,  having  a  large 
inland  arid'  coastwise  commerce,  also  a  consider 
able  foreign  trade,  carried  on  both  direct  and 
through  New  York,  the  exports  in  1879  amount 
ing  to  $2,362,885,  comprising  nails,  starch, 
breadstuff's,  and  fire-arms,  and  the  imports,  mostly 
sugar,  molasses,  iron,  steel,  etc.,  amounted  to 
$788,181.  A  vast  quantity  of  fire-arms  and  cart 
ridges  are  manufactured  here  by  the  Winchester 
and  other  arms  companies.  Pop.  63,000. 

New  London,  a  port  of  entry  and  city  of 
New  London  County,  Conn.,  is  situated  on  the 
river  Thames,  3  miles  from  the  ocean,  in  lat. 
41°  22'  N.,  Ion.  72°  9'  W.  The  harbor  is  one 
of  the  best  in  the  United  States,  is  3  miles  long, 
with  30  feet  depth  of  water.  Above  the  city,  on 
the  east  side  of  the  river,  is  the  U.  S.  Navy- 
Yard,  and  below  the  city  are  Forts  Trumbull  and 
Griswold.  The  citizens  own  numerous  vessels 
engaged  in  the  seal,  whale,  and  other  fisheries, 
and  the  city  also  contains  manufactories  of  sew 
ing-silk,  mowing-machines,  cotton-gins,  machin 
ery,  etc.  Pop.  10,000.  See  NAVAL  STATION. 

New  Moon.     See  MOON. 

New  Orleans,    La.,   is   the  commercial  me 
tropolis  of  the  Gulf  States.     It  is  situated  on  the 
Mississippi    River,  about  100    miles    above   its 
delta,  in  lat.  29°  58'  N.,  Ion.  90°  5'  W.     As  a 
port  of  entry  it  includes,  besides  its  own  port 
those  of  Pittsburgh,  Pa.,  Wheeling,  W.   Va. 
Louisville,  Ky.,  Nashville  and  Memphis,  Tenn. 
Cincinnati,  O.,  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  Evansville,  Ind. 
Galena  and  Cairo,  111.,  Omaha,  Neb.,  La  Crosse 
Wis.,   Burlington  and  Dubuque,   Iowa.      New 
Orleans  is  the  great  cotton  market  of  the  coun 
try,  and  it  is  the  grand  centre  of  commerce  of 
the  entire  Mississippi  Valley.     The  value  of  its 
exports   in  1879  amounted   to  $81,105,822,  and 
its  imports,  $8,259,606.     The  jetties  in  the  river 
at  Port  Eads,  below  the  city,  now  give  30  feet  of 


NEWPORT 


610 


NICHOLSON 


water  over  the  bar  at  the  mouth  of  the  river,  and 
the  commerce  is  rapidly  increasing.  Pop. 
207,000. 

Newport,  Christopher,  Captain,  commanding 
an  expedition  authorized  by  James  I.  to  carry 
emigrants  to  Virginia,  sailed  with  3  ships,  of 
not  more  than  100~tons  burden  each,  on  Decem 
ber  19,  1606.  Roanoke  was  the  objective-point, 
but  a  violent  storm  drove  the  expedition  to  the 
north  of  its  destination,  which  was  so  far  for 
tunate  that  it  enabled  Capt.  Newport,  after 
sighting  and  naming  Cape  Henry  and  Cape 
Charles,  to  enter  Chesapeake  Bay.  Thence  he 
entered  the  Powhatan,  to  which  he  gave  the 
name  of  the  James  River.  He  thus  became  a 
discoverer,  by  accident,  of  localities  of  great 
importance  and  interest.  Out  of  this  discovery 
arose  Jamestown,  the  first  city  of  English  origin 
ever  established  in  America. 

Newport,  R.  I.,  is  a  port  of  entry  and  fash- 
icmable  watering-place,  situated  on  Narragansett 
Bay,  in  lat.  41°'  29'  N.,  Ion.  71°  19'  12"  W.  It 
has  a  good  harbor,  deep  enough  to  float  the 
largest  ships,  which  is  defended  by  Fort  Adams, 
a  granite  fortress,  which  mounts  468  guns.  The 
magnificent  steamboats  plying  between  New 
York  and  Fall  River  touch  at  Newport  every 
day.  The  Torpedo  School  of  Instruction  of  the 
U."S.  navy  is  situated  on  Goat  Island,  immedi 
ately  opposite  the  city,  and  about -^  mile  distant. 
The  city  contains  manufactures  of  cotton  goods, 
brass,  copper,  flour,  fish,  oil,  etc.  Its  commerce 
was  ruined  by  the  war  of  independence,  which 
also  nearly  depopulated  the  town,  and  it  has 
never  recovered  its  commercial  importance.  Pop. 
about  15,000. 

News  (Eng.}.  Do  you  hear  the  news?  A 
formula  used  in  turning  up  the  relief  watch. 

New  York,  the  most  populous  and  important 
city  of  the  western  hemisphere,  and  the  commer 
cial  metropolis  of  the  nation,  is  situated  chiefly 
upon  Manhattan  Island,  which  is  13}  miles  long 
on  the  Hudson  River  side  and  8  miles  long  on 
the  East  River  side,  separated  from  the  main 
land  by  the  Harlem  River  and  Spuvten  Duyvil 
Creek.  Lat.  of  city  hall,  40D  42'  43"  N.  ;  Ion. 
74°  0'  3"  W.  The  city  includes  also  the  islands 
in  the  bay  (Ellis,  Bedloe's,  and  Governor's),  and 
Ward's,  Randall's,  and  Black  well's  in  the  East 
River.  The  southern  end  of  the  island  is  occu 
pied  by  vast  wholesale  and  importing  ware 
houses,  the  retail  trade  lying  north  of  Fourteenth 
Street.  The  headquarters  of  the  military  divis 
ion  of  the  Atlantic  are  situated  on  Governor's 
Island,  and  the  other  islands  of  the  bay  and  East 
River  are  nearly  all  occupied  by  fortifications, 
magazines,  etc.  The  entrance  "to  the  harbor, 
called  the  Narrows,  is  defended  by  Fort  Wads- 
worth  on  Staten  Island  and  Fort  Hamilton  on 
Long  Island,  and  in  the  bay  and  East  River  are 
situated  Forts  Columbus,  Wood,  and  Schuyler. 
The  Treasury  Department  reports  show  that  for 
20  years,  from  1859  to  1879,  about  56  per  cent, 
of  all  the  export?,  and  about  65  per  cent,  of  all 
the  imports,  of  the  United  States  were  sent  and 
received  through  the  port  of  New  York ;  73 
per  cent,  of  the  bullion  and  coin  exported  went 
from  New  York,  about  70  per  cent,  of  the 
duties  was  collected  here,  and  more  than  50  per 
cent,  of  the  aggregate  tonnage  of  the  United 
States  was 'registered  in  this  city.  The  tonnage 
of  vessels  registered  in  1879  was  24,155,157 


tons,  the  value  of  imports  for  that  year  was 
$1,718,695,720,  and  the  exports  $1,678,328,316. 
The  domestic  trade  is  also  immense,  largely 
exceeding  the  foreign.  The  manufactures  are 
very  extensive,  comprising  all  varieties  of  tex 
tile  fabrics,  machinery,  musical  instruments, 
ales,  beers,  cordage,  and  sails ;  vessels  and 
steamships  of  all  kinds  are  also  built  and  re 
paired  here;  foundries  and  blast-furnaces  for 
the  manufacture  of  all  kinds  of  castings  and 
machinery  are  principally  located  along  the 
East  and  Hudson  Rivers  and  their  immediate 
vicinity.  Manhattan  Island  was  discovered  in 
1609  by  Henry  Hudson,  an  English  navigator 
employed  by  the  Dutch  East  India  Company. 
Settled  by  the  Dutch  in  1612,  it  surrendered 
to  the  English  in  1664;  it  was  retaken  by  the 
Dutch  in  1673,  and  held  by  them  for  one  year 
only.  In  1783  it  was  evacuated  after  a  long  pos 
session  by  the  British  troops.  Its  population  in 
1790  was  33,131  ;  its  present  population,  by  the 
census  of  1880,  is  1,209,561. 

Nib-block.  A  metal  block  having  a  rigid 
hook  which  causes  the  block  to  stand  square. 

Nichols,  Edward  T.,  Rear-Admiral  U.S.N. 
Born  in  Georgia,  March  1, 1823.  Appointed  from 
Georgia,  December  14,  1836 ;  attached  to  sloop 
"  Levant,"  West  India  Squadron,  1837-40  ; 
Naval  School,  Philadelphia,  1841-42. 

Promoted  to  passed  midshipman,  July  1,  1842  ; 
frigate  "  Columbus,"  Mediterranean  Squadron, 
1842-44;  steamer  "Colonel  Harney,"  Atlantic 
coast,  1845;  frigate  "Columbia,"  Brazil  Squad 
ron,  1845-47  ;  bomb-vessel  "Stromboli,"  Home 
Squadron,  1847-48  ;  frigate  "  Savannah,"  Pacific 
Squadron,  1849-51. 

Commissioned  as  lieutenant,  March  13,  1850  ; 
navy-yard,  Pensacola,  1852-53;  steam-frigate 
"  Saranac,"  Mediterranean  Squadron,  1853-56; 
navy-yard,  Portsmouth,  N.  H.,  1857-58  ;  sloop 
"Jamestown,"  Home  Squadron,  1858-60;  com 
manding  steamer  "  Winona,"  West  Gulf  Block 
ading  Squadron,  1861-62;  bombardment  of  Forts 
Jackson  and  St.  Philip  ;  present  at  and  received 
the  surrender  of  Fort  St.  Philip,  April  28,  1862  ; 
attack  upon  and  passage  of  Vicksburg  batteries, 
June  28,  1862  ;  engagement  with  rebel  ram  "Ar 
kansas"  ;  bombardment  and  passage  of  Vicks 
burg  batteries,  July  15,  1862. 

Commissioned  as  commander,  July  16,  1862  ; 
commanding  steamer  "  Alabama,"  West  India 
Squadron,  1863  ;  commanding  steamer  "  Men- 
dota,"  North  Atlantic  Blockading  Squadron, 
1864-65;  engaged  with  rebel  battery  at  Four- 
Mile  Creek,  James  Kiver,  June  16,  1864  ;  special 
duty,  New  York,  1866-68. 

Commissioned  as  captain,  July  25,  1866  ;  chief 
of  staff,  Asiatic  Squadron,  1870-72. 

Commissioned  as  commodore,  May  24,  1872; 
commandant  navy-yard,  Boston,  1872-76  ;  mem 
ber  of  Board  of  Examiners,  1877. 

Commissioned  as  rear-admiral,  February  25, 
1878;  commanding  South  Atlantic  Station,  1878- 
80  ;  light-house  inspector  since  June  30,  1880. 

Nicholson,  Captain  James,  was  born  in  Ches- 
tertown,  Md.,  in  1737.  He  was  first  appointed 
to  the  "  Virginia,"  28  guns.  She  was  lost  in  the 
Chesapeake  Bay  in  the  year  1778.  An  inquiry 
was  instituted  by  Congress  18th  April,  but  the 
result  attached  no  degree  of  censure  to  Capt. 
Nicholson.  On  the  2d  of  June,  1780,  in  command 
of  the  "Trumbull,"  28  guns,  he  had  an  action 


NICHOLSON 


611 


NITRE 


with  the  "Watt,"  a  letter  of  marque,  supposed 
to  be  fully  a  match  for  one  of  our  heaviest  frig 
ates.  She  was  greatly  superior  in  guns  and  in 
number  of  men  to  the  "  Trumbull."  The  action 
was  within  pistol-shot,  and  being  maintained 
with  great  gallantry  on  both  sides,  it  lasted,  it 
is  said,  nearly  3  hours,  when  Capt.  Nicholson 
having  lost  his  main-  and  mizzen-masts,  and  the 
foremast  being  badly  wounded,  was  reluctantly 
constrained  to  discontinue  the  contest,  an  event 
which  it  is  presumed  was  not  displeasing  to  the 
commander  of  the  "Watt,"  whose  loss  has  been 
stated  at  90  men  killed  and  wounded.  The 
"TrumbulPs"  loss  (29)  in  killed  and  wounded 
was  less  than  one-third  of  that  number.  On  the 
8th  August,  1781,  the  "  Trumbull,"  with  a  very 
reduced  crew,  estimated  at  180  men  only,  sailed 
from  the  Delaware.  She  had  scarcely  cleared  the 
capes  when  3  enemy's  ships  were  descried  in  the 
east.  The  "  TrumbulPs"  fore-topmast  and  main- 
topgallant-mast  having  been  carried  away,  she 
could  steer  only  directly  before  the  wind.  She 
had  not  cleared  away  the  wreck  of  her  fore- 
topmast,  when  one  of  the  ships,  the  British 
frigate  "Iris,"  came  alongside,  the  other  two 
being  in  sight.  An  action  was  commenced  with 
the  "  Iris,"  and  was  continued  for  more  than  an 
hour,  and  rather  to  the  advantage  of  the  "  Trum 
bull,"  when  another  of  the  ships  (a  frigate  also) 
came  up  and  fired  into  her.  A  contest  against 
such  odds  could  not  be  maintained  with  any 
prospect  of  success,  neither  could  Capt.  Nichol 
son  escape,  his  vessel  being  a  perfect  wreck,  not 
having  a  mast  standing.  The  colors  were  there 
fore  struck.  Alexander  Murray,  who  had  re 
cently  been  appointed  a  lieutenant  in  the  navy 
by  Congress,  was  a  volunteer  on  board  the 
"  Trumbull,"  and  displayed  great  gallantry  in 
the  action.  Nicholson  died  in  New  York  City, 
Sept.  2,  1804. 

Nicholson,  J.  W.  A.,  Commodore  U.S.N. 
Born  in  Massachusetts.  Appointed  from  New 
York,  February  10,  1838 ;  attached  to  sloops 
"Natchez"  and  "Warren,"  AVest  India  Squad 
ron,  1838-41  ;  to  "  Brandywine,"  frigate,  Med 
iterranean  Squadron,  1841-42;  special  service, 
1842-43. 

Promoted  to  passed  midshipman,  June  20, 
1844;  steamship  "  Princeton,"  1844-46;  Pacific 
Squadron,  1846-47 ;  store-ship  "  Fredonia," 
1848  ;  frigate  '"  Raritan,"  1849-50  ;  "  Southamp 
ton,"  store-ship,  Pacific,  1851-52. 

Promoted  to  lieutenant,  April  24,  1852  ;  sloop 
"  Vandalia,"  Japanese  Expedition,  under  Com 
modore  Perry,  1853-55  ;  participated  in  all  of 
the,  official  meetings  with  the  Japanese  on  that 
expedition;  stationed  on  shore,  with  a  guard 
from  the  "  Vandalia,"  at  Shanghai,  China,  for 
several  months,  to  protect  the  foreign  settlement, 
while  the  contending  Chinese  were  encamped 
nearby;  navy-yard,  New  York,  1856-57;  sloop 
"  Vincennes,"  African  coast,  1857-60  ;  1861,  at 
tached  to  steamer  "  Pocahontas,"  which  vessel 
started  for  the  relief  of  Fort  Sumter,  but  arrived 
too  late,  as  the  fort  capitulated,  a  short  time  after 
the  arrival  of  the  "Pocahontas,"  on  April  13, 
1861 ;  stationed  in  Potomac  River  until  Octqjber, 
1861  ;  engagement  with  rebel  batteries  at  Acquia 
Creek  ;  in  command  of  steamer  "  Isaac  Smith," 
1861,  and  participated  in  actions  with  rebel  fleet, 
November  5  and  6,  and  battle  of  Port  Royal, 
November  7,  1861;  also  participated  in  the  cap 


ture  of  Jacksonville,  Fernandina,  and  St.  Au 
gustine,  Fla. ;  held  the  towns  of  Jacksonville 
and  St.  Augustine  for  several  months  ;  while  in 
command  of  St.  John's  River,  was  attacked  by 
rebel  infantry,  and  defeated  them  with  consider 
able  loss  ;  engagement  with  rebel  flotilla  in  Sa 
vannah  River,  February,  1862. 

Commissioned  as  commander,  July  16,  1862 ; 
ordnance  duty,  New  York,  1863  ;  South  Atlan 
tic  Blockading  Squadron,  1864  ;  command  of 
monitor  "  Manhattan,"  Western  Gulf  Squadron, 
1864 ;  battle  of  Mobile  Bay  forts,  and  capture 
of  rebel  ram  "  Tennessee,"  August  5,  1864 ; 
bombarding  Fort  Morgan  from  August  9  until 
the  surrender  on  the  21st ;  commanding  the 
steamer  "Mohongo,"  Pacific  Squadron,  1865- 
66 ;  commanding  steamship  "  Wampanoag," 
1867-68. 

Commissioned  as  captain,  July  25,  1866  ;  navy- 
yard,  New  York,  1868-70;  commanding  "Lan 
caster"  (second-rate),  South  Atlantic  Fleet, 
1871-72. 

Commissioned  as  commodore,  November  8, 
1878  ;  member  Board  of  Examiners,  1873-74 ; 
president  Board  of  Examiners,  1875-76 ;  com 
mandant,  navy-yard,  New  York,  1876-80. 

Nidget.  A  coward.  A  term  used  in  old  times 
for  those  who  refused  to  join  the  royal  standard. 

Nigger.     A  hoisting-engine  in  ri'ver  steamers. 

Nigger-head.  An  inferior  quality  of  hard- 
rolled  tobacco. 

Night-cap.  Hot  grog  taken  just  before  turn 
ing  in. 

Night  Order-book.  A  memorandum  in  which 
the  commanding  officer  writes  his  orders  con 
cerning  the  management  of  the  ship  during  the 
night. 

Nilometer.  An  instrument  for  measuring  the 
height  of  the  water  in  the  Nile. 

Nimbus.     The  rain-cloud.     See  CLOUD. 

Nine -pin  Block.  A  swivel -block  shaped 
somewhat  like  a  nine-pin,  and  formerly  used  as 
a  fair-leader  under  the  fife-rail. 

Ning-Po  is  one  of  the  open  ports  of  China, 
situated  on  the  Ning-Po  River,  in  the  province 
of  Che-Kiang,  in  lat.  29°  51'  N.,  Ion  121°  32' 
E.  It  has  a  large  manufacture  of  silks,  cottons, 
woolens,  etc.,  and  many  junks  are  built  here. 
It  exports  large  quantities  of  wood  and  charcoal. 
Pop.  about  200,000. 

Nip.  A  jamming  together  of  two  fields  of 
ice.  A  sharp  turn  in  a  rope.  To  freshen  the 
nip.  See  FRESHEN. 

Nipcheese.  A  sailor's  name  for  the  purser's 
steward. 

Nipper.  A  short  bit  of  soft  rope  used  in  bind 
ing  the  chain  to  the  messenger  in  heaving  up  the 
anchor  ;  it  is  put  on  close  to  the  manger  and  taken 
off  when  it  arrives  near  the  deck  pipe.  With 
chain-cables  and  chain-messengers  iron  nippers 
are  used  ;  they  consist  of  a  hinged  clamp  having 
an  iron  ring,  which  is  slipped  over  the  end  when 
the  nipper  is  put  on  ;  when  the  nipper  is  to  be 
taken  off  the  ring  is  knocked  off  with  a  hammer. 
Nippers  are  now  out  of  date,  the  chain  being 
taken  directly  to  the  capstan. 

NIPPER-MEN.  Fore  and  main  topmen  who 
passed  and  took  the  nippers  in  heaving  up  anchor. 

Nitre,  or  Saltpetre.  The  nitrate  of  potassium 
(KN()3).  It  is  spontaneously  generated  in  the 
soil  and  crystallizes  upon  its  surface  in  several 
parts  of  the  world,  especially  in  India.  It  is  also 


NOAH'S  AKK 


612 


NOZZLE 


produced  artificially  by  imitating  the  conditions 
of  its  natural  production.  The  most  essential  of 
those  conditions  seems  to  be  the  presence  of  de 
caying  organic  matter,  whose  nitrogen  is  oxidized 
by  the  action  of  the  atmosphere  into  nitric  acid, 
which  combines  with  the  bases  (potash  and  lime) 
contained  in  the  soil.  The  method  consists  in 
forming  upon  a  flooring  of  clay  heaps  of  animal 
matters  mingled  with  ashes  and  lime-rubbish,  the 
heaps  being  exposed  to  the  air  but  protected  from 
rain,  and  at  intervals  moistened  with  urine  or 
stable-runnings.  In  these  heaps  nitrate  of  lime 
is  slowly  formed,  which  is  extracted  by  lixivia- 
tion,  and  carbonate  of  potash  added  to  the  solu 
tion,  which,  by  double  decomposition,  gives  rise 
to  the  formation  of  nitrate  of  potash  and  carbon 
ate  of  lime  ;  the  latter  is  precipitated,  the  former 
remains  in  solution,  and  is  obtained  in  crystals 
by  evaporation.  Nitre  crystallizes  in  six-sided 
prisms,  soluble  in  seven  parts  of  cold  water,  and 
in  less  than  its  weight  of  boiling  water.  It  has 
a  cooling  saline  taste,  and  is  anhydrous.  At 
about  660°  it  fuses,  and  at  a  red  heat  is  decom 
posed.  Its  most  important  use  is  in  the  manu 
facture  of  gunpowder,  and  it  is  also  extensively 
employed  in  the  manufacture  of  sulphuric  acid, 
in  the"preparation  of  nitric  acid,  as  an  oxidizing 
agent  in  numerous  chemical  processes,  as  an  in 
gredient  in  fire-works^  and  as  a  medicine. 

Noah's  Ark.  Certain  clouds,  elliptically  parted, 
considered  a  sign  of  fine  weather  after  rain. 

Nock.  The  forward  upper  corner  of  a  trysail 
or  spanker. 

Nocturnal  Arc.  That  part  of  a  circle  which 
is  described  by  a  celestial  object,  between  its 
setting  and  rising. 

Noddy.  The  Sternia  solida,  a  darb  web- footed 
sea-bird,  common  about  the  West  Indies. 

Node.  One  of  the  two  opposite  points  in 
which  the  orbit  of  a  planet  or  comet  cuts  the 
ecliptic,  or  in  which  the  orbit  of  a  satellite  cuts 
that  of  its  primary.  When  the  body  passes  from 
north  to  south  this  point  is  called  the  descending 
node;  the  opposite  point  is  the  ascending  node. 
The  line  joining  the  two  points  is  called  the  line 
of  nodes ;  in  the  case  of  the  moon  it  moves  back 
ward  slowly,  completing  its  revolution  in  18.6 
years. 

Nog.  A  treenail  which  projects  from  the  bot 
tom  of  a  wooden  ship,  while  in  the  course  of  build 
ing,  as  a  stop  to  the  heads  of  the  shores  ;  also,  a 
treenail  driven  through  the  shores  to  secure 
them. 

No  Higher.     See  HELM. 

No-man's  Land.  Any  space,  the  cleaning, 
painting,  etc.,  of  which  are  neglected  because  it 
does  not  fall  exclusively  within  the  limits  of  the 
space  assigned  to  any  man  or  set  of  men. 

Non-combatants.  A  term  applied  to  the  offi 
cers  not  of  the  line,  as  their  duties  do  not  require 
them  actually  to  fight  the  guns  nor  manoeuvre 
the  ship. 

Non-condensing  Engine.  An  engine  in 
"which  the  exhaust  steam  is  not  condensed,  but 
escapes  into  the  atmosphere;  formerly  termed  a 
low-pressure  engine. 

Nonius  Scale.     See  VERNIER. 
No !  No !     The  answer  to  the  night-hail,  by 
which  it  is  known  that  a  midshipman  or  war 
rant-officer  is  in  the  boat  hailed. 

Nook-shotten.  A  Shakspearian  expression 
for  a  coast  indented  with  bays. 


Noon  (Sax.).  According  to  the  time  reckoned 
by,  noon  is  the  instant  the  point  of  definition  is 
on  the  meridian.  When  the  centre  of  the  sun  is 
on  the  meridian,  it  is  apparent  noon  ;  when  the 
mean  sun  is  on  the  meridian,  it  is  mean  noon ; 
when  the  first  point  of  Aries  conies  to  the  me 
ridian,  it  is  sidereal  noon. 
Noose.  A  running  knot. 
Nordenskjold,  Professor.  A  Danish  explorer 
of  the  Arctic  Seas.  Skirting  the  outer  coast  of 
the  Scandinavian  peninsula,  he  passed  to  the 
north  of  Europe  and  Asia,  rounding  the  north 
ernmost  cape  of  the  latter  continent,  and,  after 
a  winter  in  the  ice,  entered  the  Pacific  Ocean. 
Thence  he  sailed  along  the  eastern  and  southern 
coasts  of  Asia  into  the  Persian  Gulf,  passed 
through  the  Red  Sea,  the  Suez  Canal,  and  the 
Mediterranean  into  the  Atlantic.  This  was  ac 
complished  between  1878  and  1880,  and  is  con 
sequently  the  latest  exploration  in  the  northern 
direction. 

Norfolk,  Va.,  a  port  of  entry,  is  situated  in 
Norfolk  County,  on  the  Elizabeth  River,  8  miles 
from  Hampton*  Roads,  in  lat.  36°  51'  N.,  Ion.  76° 
19X  W.  It  is  the  most  populous  city  in  the  State 
except  Richmond,  and  has  a  larger  foreign  com 
merce  than  any  other  city  in  the  State,  and, 
together  with  Portsmouth  (directly  opposite),  is 
the  most  important  naval  station  in  the  United 
States.  The  harbor  is  large,  safe,  and  easily  ac 
cessible,  admitting  vessels  of  the  largest  size  to 
the  wharves.  The  entrance  to  the  harbor  is  de 
fended  by  Forts  Monroe  and  Calhoun.  The  ex 
ports  are  principally  cotton,  oysters,  fruits,  and 
vegetables.  Pop.  about  25,000.  See  NAVY- 
YARD  (GospoRT),  NORFOLK. 

Norland.  Of,  or  belonging  to,  the  north 
land. 

Norma.     See  CONSTELLATION. 
Norman.     A  short,  heavy  iron  pin  inserted  in 
the  bitts  to  prevent  the  cable  from  flying  off  in 
rapid  veering. 

North  ( Ang.-Sax.  nord}.  The  initial  point  of 
the  compass. 

Northern  Diver.  The  Colymbus  glacialis,  a 
large  diving-bird. 

Northern-glance.  The  old  sea-name  of  the 
Aurora  boreatis. 

Northern  Lights.  See  AURORA  BOREALIS. 
Northers.  Those  winds  so  well  known  to  all 
seamen  who  have  frequented  the  West  Indies, 
and  which  are  preceded  by  the  appearance  of  a 
vast  quantity  of  fine  cobwebs  or  gossamer  in  the 
atmosphere,  which  clings  to  all  parts  of  a  ves 
sel's  rigging,  thus  serving  as  a  warning  of  an 
approaching  gale.  Northers  alternate  with  the 
seasons  in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  the  Florida  Chan 
nel,  Jamaica,  Cuba,  etc. 

Northing.  The  distance  in  nautical  miles 
which  a  ship  makes  to  the  northward ;  it  is  the 
difference  of  latitude  in  sailing  north. 

Norway  Skiff.  A  particularly  light  and  buoy 
ant  boat,  which  is  both  swift  and  safe  in  the 
worst  weather. 

Nose.  A  term  often  used  to  denote  the  stem 
of  a  ship. 

Notch-block.     A  name  for  a  snatch-block. 
Nothing  off!     See  HELM. 
Nowel.     The  core  of  a  heavy  casting. 
Nozzle.     A   term  sometimes   applied  to  the 
exhaust-pipe  of  a  steam-engine,  but  more  prop 
erly  to  the  adjustable  end  of  an  exhaust-pipe 


NUDDEE 


613 


OATHS 


when  led  into  the  smoke-pipe  to  utilize  the  ex 
haust  steam  to  increase  draft. 

Nuddee.     A  Hindoostanee  word  for  a  river. 

Nuggar.  A  term  in  the  East  Indies  for  a  fort, 
and  also  for  an  alligator. 

Number.  Ship's  number,  the  number  given 
on  the  paymaster's  book  to  each  person  on 
board ;  it  remains  unchanged  throughout  the 
cruise.  Watch-numbers,  or  hammock-numbers, 
are  changed  as  a  man's  station  is  changed.  In 
the  signal-book  each  vessel  is  denoted  by  a  spe 
cial  number,  which  the  ship  hoists  on  falling  in 
with  another  vessel  in  the  navy.  Your  number 
is  made,  a  phrase  signifying  that  the  person  ad 
dressed  has  been  sent  for.  To  lose  the  number  of 
the  mess,  to  die. 


Numeral.  Numeral  signal,  a  hoist  of  signals, 
expressing  numbers,  and  not  requiring  reference 
to  the  signal-book.  It  is  distinguished  by  the 
numeral  pennant  over  it. 

Nun-buoy.     See  BUOY. 

Nurse,  or  Wet-nurse.  A  name  given  to  an 
experienced  first  lieutenant  sent  in  the  ship  with 
an  incompetent  commanding  officer.  Thanks 
to  our  system  of  promotion  by  seniority,  this 
state  of  affairs  is  never  to  be  met  with  'in  our 
service. 

Nutation.  A  gyratory  motion  of  the  earth's 
axis,  producing  a  periodical  fluctuation  of  the 
apparent  obliquity  of  the  ecliptic,  and  of  the 
velocity  of  the  regression  of  the  equinoctial 
points. 


O. 


O.     In  the  log-book,  o  denotes  overcast. 

Oakum.  Junk  untwisted  and  picked  to 
pieces ;  it  is  used  principally  in  calking  seams. 
White  oakum  is  made  from  untarred  rope. 

OAKUM-BOY.     A  calker's  apprentice. 

Oar.  An  oar  consists  of  the  blade  and  the 
loom.  The  blade  is  the  flat  part  which  is  dipped 
in  the  water  in  rowing  ;  the  loom  is  the  inboard 
part,  the  inner  extremity  of  which  is  called  the 
handle.  To  toss  oars,  to  throw  them  up  perpen 
dicularly.  To  boat  the  oars,  to  lay  them  in  their 
places  in  the  boat.  Oars!  the  order  to  lay  on 
oars.  To  lay  on  oars,  to  cease  pulling  and  keep 
the  oars  parallel  with  the  water.  To  feather  an 
oar,  see  FEATHER.  To  trail  oars,  to  throw  them 
out  of  the  rowlocks  and  permit  them  to  trail 
alongside. 

OAR-LOCK.     A  rowlock  (which  see). 

OAR-PROPELLER.  A  form  of  propeller  which 
is  made  by  machinery  to  imitate  the  action  of  an 
oar  in  sculling. 

Oaths.  An  oath,  in  a  legal  or  judicial  sense, 
is  a  solemn  asseveration,  made  in  the  presence 
of  a  magistrate  or  authorized  officer,  whereby  an 
individual  binds  himself  by  the  highest  obliga 
tion  to  observe  certain  conditions,  or  to  testify  to 
certain  facts  which  he  knows  of  his  own  kno'wl- 
edge.  It  is  usually  accompanied  by  an  appeal 
to  a  Supreme  Being  for  the  truth  and  sincerity 
of  what  is  declared  or  affirmed.  Men  in  military 
and  naval  service  have  from  time  immemorial 
been  accustomed  to  take  oaths  of  fidelity,  which 
among  the  ancients  were  administered  with  much 
greater  solemnity  than  now.  Kennett,  in  his 
"Roman  Antiquities,"  p.  188,  describes  the  im 
pressive  manner  in  which  a  Raman  legion  was 
sworn,  each  man  repeating  the  oath  as  he  passed 
by,  crying,  "  Idem  in  me)1 

The  statutes  of  the  United  States  are  specific 
in  providing  the  text  or  substance  of  all  oaths, 
and  minute  in  prescribing  by  whom  and  at  what 
time  they  are  to  be  administered  ;  and  in  courts- 
martial,  courts  of  inquiry,  etc.,  any  deviation 
from  the  order  laid  down  is  held  to  invalidate 
the  proceedings.  Obviously,  the  least  departure 


from  the  strict  letter  of  the  statute  would  be 
illegal,  hence  great  care  is  enjoined.  The  pecu 
liar  form  or  ceremony  of  administering  an  oath, 
however,  is  subject  to  such  variation  as  circum 
stances  may  render  necessary  in  order  to  affect 
the  conscience  of  him  who  swears.  The  multi 
tude  of  religions,  and  consequent  beliefs  as  to 
what  is  or  is  not  binding,  gives  rise  to  many  forms, 
and  some  exceedingly  strange  ones.  For  in 
stance,  in  California,  in  1870,  one  frequently 
heard  of  Chinese  witnesses  being  sworn  on  the 
body  of  a  recently  killed  chicken,  and  Capt. 
Hughes,  in  his  learned  treatise,  tells  of  their 
being  sworn  in  London  by  breaking  a  saucer  at 
the  moment. 

As  a  general  rule,  in  Christian  countries,  the 
right  hand  is  placed  on  the  Holy  Bible,  or  New 
Testament,  while  the  oath  is  being  read,  and  the 
book  is  afterwards  kissed.  Those  oaths  which  im 
mediately  concern  the  naval  service  are  here  pre 
sented.  They  differ  in  many  respects  and  for 
the  better  from  those  in  use  in  the  army. 

Of  Allegiance  or  Office. — Every  person  elected 
or  appointed  to  any  office  of  honor  or  profit, 
either  in  the  civil,  military,  or  naval  service,  ex 
cepting  the  President,  and  those  who  participated 
in  the'late  Rebellion,  is  required  before  entering 
upon  the  duties  of  such  office,  and  before  being 
entitled  to  any  part  of  the  salary  or  other  emolu 
ments  thereof,  to  take  and  subscribe  to  the  fol 
lowing  (called  the  "ironclad")  oath: 

"  I,  A.  B.,  do  solemnly  swear  (or  affirm)  that 
I  have  never  voluntarily  borne  arms  against  the 
United  States  since  I  have  been  a  citizen  thereof; 
that  I  have  voluntarily  given  no  aid,  counte 
nance,  counsel,  or  encouragement  to  persons 
engaged  in  armed  hostility  thereto ;  that  I  have 
neither  sought,  nor  accepted,  nor  attempted  to 
exercise  the  functions  of  any  office  whatever, 
under  any  authority,  or  pretended  authority,  in 
hostility  to  the  United  States ;  that  I  have  not 
yielded  a  voluntary  support  to  any  pretended 
government,  authority,  power,  or  constitution 
within  the  United  States,  hostile  or  inimical 
thereto.  And  I  do  further  swear  (or  affirm) 


OATHS 


614 


OATHS 


*  that  to  the  best  of  my  knowledge  and  ability  I 
will  support  and  defend  the  Constitution  of  the 
United  States  against  all  enemies,  foreign  and 
domestic ;  that  I  will  bear  true  faith  and  allegi 
ance  to  the  same;  that  I  take  this  obligation 
freely,  without  any  mental  "reservation  or  pur 
pose  of  evasion,  and  that  I  will  well  and  faith 
fully  discharge  the  duties  of  the  office  on  which 
I  am  about  to  enter,  so  help  me  God."  (Revised 
Statutes,  Section  1756.) 

This  oath  maybe  taken  before  any  person  who 
is  authorized  either  by  the  laws  of  the  United 
States,  or  by  the  local  municipal  law,  to  admin 
ister  oaths  in  the  State,  Territory,  or  district 
where  such  oath  may  be  administered,  and  is 
by  law  required  to  be  preserved  among  the  files 
of  the  department  to  which  it  appertains.  A 
less  rigorous  oath  is  provided  for  those  who  were 
engaged  in  the.  Rebellion,  but  are  not  rendered 
ineligible  to  office  by  the  fourteenth  amendment 
to  the  Constitution.  The  original  oath  of  office, 
prescribed  by  act  of  June  1,  1789,  was  a  marvel 
of  brevity.  It  read:  "I,  A.  B.,  do  solemnly 
swear  or  affirm  (as  the  case  may  be)  that  I  will 
support  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States." 

Of  Enlistment. — A  formal  enlistment  in  the 

giblic  service  is  incomplete  without  an  oath, 
y  law  of  July  11,  1798  (remodeled  in  Revised 
Statutes,  Section  1609),  the  officers  and  men  of 
the  marine  corps  were  required  to  take  the  same 
oath  that  was  prescribed  for  the  military  estab 
lishment.  That  oath,  enacted  May  30,  1796,  was 
for  both  officers  and  men,  and  has  come  down  to 
us  very  slightly  changed.  It  is  still  administered 
to  the  enlisted  men,  and  reads  : 

"I,  A.  B.,  do  solemnly  swear  (or  affirm)  that 
I  will  bear  true  faith  and  allegiance  to  the  United 
States  of  America ;  that  I  will  serve  them  hon 
estly  and  faithfully  against  all  their  enemies 
whomsoever;  and  that  I  will  obey  the  orders 
of  the  President  of  the  United  States,  and  the 
orders  of  the  officers  appointed  over  me,  accord 
ing  to  the  Rules  and  Articles  of  War."  (Revised 
Statutes,  Section  1342.)  In  the  enlistment  papers 
of  the  marine  corps  there  is  added  after  articles, 
"  for  the  government  of  the  army  and  navy  of 
the  United  States ;  and,  further,  that  I  am  the 
full  age  of  21."  The  latter  clause  is  intended  to 
guard  against  the  enlistment  of  minors,  but  is 
not  always  successful. 

Army  and  marine  officers  now  take  the  "  iron 
clad  oath,"  and,  in  addition  thereto,  the  former 
are  obliged,  "  before  entering  on  their  duties,"  to 
subscribe  to  the  Rules  and  Articles  of  War. 

Prior  to  June  12,  1858,  civil  magistrates  were 
employed  to  administer  the  oath  of  enlistment  to 
recruits.  In  that  year  it  was  made  lawful  for  a 
commissioned  officer  to  do  it,  "provided  a  civil 
magistrate  could  not  be  obtained."  And  by  act 
of  August  3,  1861,  this  provision  was  removed, 
and  any  commissioned  officer  of  the  army  or 
marine  corps  was  authorized  to  perform  the 
duty. 

Of  a  General  Court-martial. — When  a  general 
court-martial  is  ready  to  be  sworn,  the  president 
of  the  court  first  administers  the  following  oath, 
or  affirmation,  to  the  judge-advocate,  or  person 
officiating  as  such : 

"I,  A.  B.,  do  swear  (or  affirm)  that  I  will 
keep  a  true  record  of  the  evidence  given  to,  and 
the  proceedings  of,  this  court ;  that  I  will  not 
divulge  or  by  any  means  disclose  the  sentence 


of  the  court  until  it  shall  have  been  approved  by 
the  proper  authority  ;  and  that  I  will  not  at  anv 
time  divulge  or  disclose  the  vote  or  opinion  of 
any  particular  member  of  the  court,  unless  re 
quired  so  to  do  before  a  court  of  justice  in  due 
course  of  law." 

The  judge-advocate  then  administers  simul 
taneously  to  all  the  members  of  the  court,  stand 
ing  uncovered  and  ungloved  as  to  their  right 
hands,  which  touch  the  book  (unless  they  elect 
to  affirm),  this  oath  : 

"  I,  A.  B.,  do  solemnly  swear  (or  affirm)  that 
I  will  truly  try,  without  prejudice  or  partiality, 
the  case  now  depending,  according  to  the  evi 
dence  which  shall  come  before  the  court,  the  rules 
for  the  government  of  the  navy,  and  my  own  con 
science  ;  that  I  will  not  by  any  means  divulge  or 
disclose  the  sentence  of  the  court  until  it  shall 
have  been  approved  by  the  proper  authority  ; 
and  that  I  will  not  at  any  time  divulge  or  dis 
close  the  vote  or  opinion  of  any  particular  mem 
ber  of  the  court,  unless  required  so  to  do  before  a 
court  of  justice  in  due  course  of  law."  (Revised 
Statutes,  Section  1624.) 

In  practice,  the  judge-advocate  usually  puts 
the  oath  in  the  plural,  and  says,  "  You,  A.  B., 
C.  D.,"  and  so  on,  reciting  the  name  and  rank 
or  title  of  each.  Every  member  must  be  sworn 
or  affirmed  before  proceeding  to  trial  in  each 
case. 

Of  Witness. — An  oath  in  the  following  form 
must  be  administered  by  the  president,  or  senior 
member,  to  all  witnesses  before  general  or  sum 
mary  courts-martial,  and  courts  of  inquiry,  and 
retiring  boards,  when  deemed  necessary  : 

u  You  do  solemnly  swear  (or  affirm)  that  the 
evidence  you  shall  give  in  the  case  now  before 
this  court  shall  be  the  truth,  the  whole  truth, 
and  nothing  but  the  truth,  and  that  you  will 
state  everything  within  your  knowledge  in  rela 
tion  to  the  charges,  so  help  you  God  (or,  '  this 
you  do  under  the  pains  and  penalties  of  per 
jury')."  . 

Of  Summary  Court-martial. — Before  proceed 
ing  to  trial  the  members  of  a  summary  court- 
martial  shall  take  the  following  oath,  which  shall 
be  administered  by  the  recorder  : 

"  I,  A.  B.,  do  swear  (or  affirm)  that  I  will 
well  and  duly  try,  without  prejudice  or  partial 
ity,  the  case  now  depending,  according  to  the 
evidence  which  shall  be  adduced,  the  laws  for 
the  government  of  the  navy,  and  my  own  con 
science."  After  which  the  recorder  of  the  court 
takes  the  following  oath,  administered  by  the 
senior  member:  u  I,  A.  B.,  do  swear  (or  affirm) 
that  I  will  keep  a  true  record  of  the  evidence 
which  shall  be  given  before  this  court  and  of 
the  proceedings  thereof." 

It  will  be  noticed  that  summary  courts  are  not 
sworn  to  secrecy. 

Of  Court  of  Inquiry. — First,  by  judge-advocate 
to  members  :  "  You  do  swear  (or  affirm )  well  and 
truly  to  examine  and  inquire,  according  to  the 
evidence,  into  the  matter  now  before  you,  with 
out  partiality." 

By  president  to  judge-advocate :  "  You  do 
swear  (or  affirm)  truly  to  record  the  proceedings 
of  this  court,  and  the  evidence  to  be  given  in  the 
case  in  hearing."  (Revised  Statutes,  Section  1624.) 

Of  Clerk  or  Reporter. — No  form  is  fixed  by 
statute,  but  the  following  is  authorized  to  be 
administered  by  the  judge-advocate  : 


OBI 


615 


OCEANS 


"  You,  A.  B.,  swear  (or  affirm)  faithfully  to 
perform  the  duty  of  clerk  or  reporter  in  aiding 
the  judge-advocate  to  take  down  and  record  the 
proceedings  of  the  court,  either  in  short-hand  or 
ordinary  manuscript." 

Of  Interpreter. — No  form  by  statute.  Judge- 
advocate  is  authorized  by  regulations  for  admin 
istration  of  law  and  justice,  U.S.N.,  1870  (same 
as  in  foregoing),  to  use  this  form  : 

"  You,  A.  B.,  swear  faithfully  and  truly  to 
interpret  or  translate  in  all  cases  in  which  you 
shall  be  required  to  do  between  the  United  States 
and  the  accused."  • 

Oaths,  Profane. — Such  punishment  as  a  court- 
martial  may  adjudge,  may  be  inflicted  on  any  per 
son  in  the  navy  "  who  is  guilty  of  profane  swear 
ing." — Henry  C.  Cochrane,  Captain  U.S.M.C. 

Obi.  A  horrible  sorcery  practiced  among  the 
negroes  in  the  West  Indies,  the  threatened  inflic 
tion  of  which  is  sufficient  to  lead  the  denounced 
victim  to  mental  disease,  despondency,  and 
death. 

Object-glass.  The  lens  which  first  receives 
the  rays  of  light. 

Oblimation.  The  deposit  of  mud  and  silt  by 
water. 

Occident.     The  west. 

Occultation  (Lat.  occultatio,  a  hiding).  The 
hiding  of  a  heavenly  body  by  the  intervention 
of  some  other  one  of  the  heavenly  bodies.  The 
commencement  of  the  occultation  is  called  thetm- 
mersion  /  the  termination  of  the  occultation  is 
called  the  emersion.  The  two  most  important 
cases  of  these  phenomena  are  the  lunar  occulta- 
tions  and  the  occupations  of  Jupiter's  satellites. 

Oceans.  By  the  term  ocean  we  mean,  pri 
marily,  the  great  mass  of  water  that  envelopes 
the  globe.  The  same  term  is  specifically  applied 
to  each  of  the  great  divisions  of  that  mass  of 
water,  five  in  number.  These  are  as  follows  : 

1.  Pacific.  This  is  the  largest  of  the  five  great 
oceans.  It  was  first  seen  by  Balboa  in  1518,  and 
by  him  made  known  to  the  Europeans.  Magellan 
was  the  first  to  traverse  it,  in  1525,  and  it  has  since 
been  explored  by  many  navigators.  It  extends 
from  the  Arctic  circle  to  60°  south  latitude.  Its 
width  varies  from  170  miles  at  the  Kamskatka 
Sea  to  10,000  at  the  equator,  and  it  contains  77,- 
000,000  square  miles.  The  Northern  Pacific 
contains  few  islands,  and  the  eastern  part  of  the 
whole  ocean  is  bare  of  them ;  but  the  western 
half,  and  particularly  the  South  Pacific,  is  full 
of  chains  and  groups  of  islands, — volcanic  or 
corallic,  as  well  as  many  large  island  masses. 
Chains  of  islands  and  many  large  seas  separate 
the  Pacific  and  the  Asian  continent ;  but  the 
American  shore  is  steep  and  abrupt,  with  few  in 
denting  bays  and  inlets.  The  steady  and  regu 
lar  currents  and  periodical  winds  favor  naviga 
tion,  and  the  absence  of  rough  waters  and  stormy 
weather  has  given  the  name  of  Pacific  to  the 
ocean.  But  the  islands  in  the  south  render 
navigation  more  dangerous,  interrupt  the  winds 
and  currents,  and  typhoons  and  cyclones  are 
frequent  in  the  western  part  of  the  ocean.  The 
Pacific  has  a  general  wave  motion  from  west  to 
east  at  the  rate  of  28  miles  a  day.  The  northeast 
trades  extend  from  8°  N.  to  31°  N.,  and  the  south 
east  trades  from  9°  N.  to  the  Tropic  of  Cancer.  The 
greatest  ocean  depth  yet  found  was  in  the  Pacific, 
4655  fathoms,  by  Capt.  Belknap,  in  the  U.  S.  S. 
"  Tuscarora."  Little  ice  comes  in  at  the  north, 


but  in  the  south,  owing  to  less  interruption  from 
the  land,  ice-floes  come  farther  north  than  in  the 
Atlantic.  The  whale-fisheries  of  the  Pacific  are 
important,  and  other  fish  abound. 

2.  Atlantic  Ocean.  This  is  the  second  in  size. 
It  washes  the  east  shores  of  America  and  the  west 
coast  of  Europe  and  Africa.  The  Carthaginians 
were  the  first  to  navigate  it,  and  the  Northmen — 
about  A.D.  1000 — the  first  to  cross  it.  It  extends 
from  60°  N.  to  60°  S.  lat.,  and  is  from  930  to 
4850  miles  wide,  comprising  31, 000  square  miles, 
but  it  has  a  more  extended  coast-line  than  all 
the  other  oceans,  on  account  of  its  numerous  in 
lets.  It  is  the  highway  of  ocean  commerce,  and 
possesses  few  dangers  to  navigation,  and  regular 
winds  and  currents.  The  Azores,  Canaries, "Cape 
Verdes,  Bermudas,  Madeiras,  and  a  few  single 
islands  are  found  in  mid-ocean,  and  these  are  out 
of  the  track  of  commerce  to  some  extent.  The 
northeast  trade-winds  extend  from  2°  to  27°  N., 
blowing  so  regularly  and  evenly  that  the  Span 
iards  named  that  part  of  the  sea  "  Golfo  de  las 
Damas," — "  Ladies'  Sea."  The  southeast  trades 
blow  between  1°  N.  and  40°  S.  Beyond  these 
farther  limits  the  variable  winds  blow,  prevail 
ing  from  the  westward ;  the  mighty  Gulf 
Stream  in  the  north  and  the  southern  connecting 
current  in  the  south  favor  an  easterly  voyage. 
The  calmness  of  the  dividing  latitudes  between 
the  northeast  trades  and  the  westerly  winds  is 
implied  in  its  name, — "the  horse  latitudes,"  a 
tradition  existing  that  a  cargo  of  horses  was 
thrown  overboard  in  a  calm  there.  So  the  strong 
westerly  winds  are  typified  in  the  name  "  roaring 
40V  for  those  latitudes.  In  the  calm  latitudes, 
20°  to  30°,  lie  the  masses  of  accumulated  sea 
weed  called  the  "  Mer  Sargasso," — Weedy  Sea. 
Storms  are  frequent  in  the  Northern  Atlantic, 
being  generally  circular  in  character,  and  the 
"pamperos"  of  the  south,  and  the  "white 
squalls"  of  the  African  coast  are  enemies  to  the 
mariner.  The  existence  of  these  regular  winds  and 
currents  has  led  to  a  selection  of  routes  between 
Europe  and  Asia,  and  now  the  steamer  traffic  is 
carried  on  in  regular  steam  lanes.  The  northern 
passage  follows  a  path  between  latitudes  52°  to 
45°  ;  the  middle,  between  latitudes  35°  to  40° ; 
and  the  southern,  between  latitudes  10°  to  25°, — 
the  latter  only  from  Europe  to  America.  The 
Atlantic  varies  in  depth,  but  averages  2000 
fathoms.  On  a  plateau  in  the  North  Atlantic 
are  laid  the  telegraph-cables,  four  in  number. 

3.  Indian  Ocean.     This,  the  third  in  size  of 
the   great  oceans,   extends   from   the    southern 
shores  of  Asia  to  50°  south  latitude,  and  from 
Australia  to  Africa,  containing  21,000,000  square 
miles.    It  contains  several  large  islands,  but  they 
form  slight   impediments   to   navigation.      The 
southeast  trades  exist  from  20°  to  30°  south  lati 
tude,  and  beyond   them  the  regular  monsoons 
blow   from    the   northeast    from    November    to 
March,  and  from  the  southwest  from  April  to 
September.     The  great  masses  of  land  surround 
ing  this  ocean  are  the  modifying  causes  of  these 
winds.  Cyclones  and  typhoons  attend  the  changes 
of  the  monsoons,  and  are  at  times  severe.     High 
seas  and  strong  winds  are  frequent. 

4.  Antarctic  Ocean.   This  name  is  given  to  the 
mass  of  water  about  the  South  Pole.     It  extends 
to  latitude  60°  S.,  and  contains  some  13,000,000 
square  miles.    It  was  long  considered  frozen  and 
impassable  for  ships,  but  Commodore  Wilkes  and 


OCTANS 


616 


OLERON  CODE 


(Sir  James  Boss,  in  1841,  penetrated  into  it, 
'and  discovered  land.  Koss  ascended  to  78°  04', 
the  highest  point  reached.  A  few  islands  exist, 
the  South  Orkneys  and  South  Shetlands  being 
the  largest.  The  winds  are  strong,  and  blow 
in  gales,  often  terrific,  towards  the  equator,  and 
the  seas  are  often  immense.  But  few  vessels 
penetrate  into  these  waters,  and  those  only  on 
fishing  voyages. 

5.  Arctic  Ocean.  The  mass  of  water  about  the 
other  pole  is  called  the  Arctic  Ocean.  North  of 
Europe  it  becomes  the  White  Sea,  and  north  of 
America  the  Frozen  Ocean.  It  is  the  smallest 
ocean,  containing  some  7,000,000  square  miles, 
and  is  partly  filled  by  numerous  islands,  and  the 
peninsula  (or  island)  of  Greenland.  It  has  been 
the  field  of  hardy  exploration  for  centuries,  and 
Capt.  Hall  penetrated  as  far  as  82°  16'  north. 
New  efforts  are  being  made  to  traverse  the  seas 
and  reach  the  pole.  Ice  is  more  abundant  than 
in  the  South  Sea.  Whales,  seals,  and  walrus 
abound,  furnishing  subsistence  to  the  hardy  in 
habitants  of  the  coasts,  and  making  the  fisheries 
important. 

The  principal  phenomena  connected  with  the 
ocean  are  its  winds,  currents,  tides,  its  depth, 
saltness,  temperature,  density,  and  its  animal 
life.  The  currents,  winds,  and  tides  are  treated 
in  separate  articles.  The  depth  of  the  ocean  is 
now  believed  to  average  2000  fathoms,  or  about 
2  miles.  The  greatest  depth  found  is  4655  fathoms, 
and  no  greater  depth  than  5000  fathoms  is  now 
believed  to  exist.  Extensive  plateaus,  mountain 
ranges,  sometimes  cropping  above  the  sea-level, 
and  valleys  exist.  The  temperature  of  the  ocean 
varies  with  the  latitude,  but  the  isothermal  lines 
vary  with  the  currents  that  carry  warm  or  cold 
water  with  them;  70°  to  80°  is  the  tropical  tem 
perature  at  the  surface,  and  50°  to  60°  the  aver 
age.  (See  CURRENTS.)  The  water  of  the  ocean 
holds  in  solution  various  salts,  but  the  propor 
tion  varies  with  the  locality.  Near  rivers  the 
water  is  fresher,  and  in  parts  of  the  ocean  where 
evaporation  is  rapid,  it  is  very  salt.  With  the 
amount  of  salt  varies  the  density  of  the  water. 
With  the  temperature  both  these  vary,  and  ani 
mal  life,  now  found  to  be  everywhere  in  the 
ocean  depths,  also  varies  with  the  temperature, 
as  well  as  with  the  depth,  density,  and  saltness 
of  the  water.  Animal  life  is  far  more  abundant 
than  on  land. — F.  S.  Bassett,  Lieutenant  U.S.N. 

Octans.    See  CONSTELLATION. 

Octant.  A  reflecting  instrument  constructed 
on  the  same  principle  as  a  sextant.  See  SEX 
TANT. 

Odessa,  the  most  important  seaport  and  com 
mercial  city  of  that  part  of  Kussia  bordering 
on  the  Black  Sea,  is  situated  on  the  shore  of 
that  sea,  between  the  mouths  of  the  Dnieper  and 
Dniester,  in  lat.  46°  28'  54"  N.,  Ion.  30°  44' 
30"  E.  Since  1817,  when  Odessa  was  declared 
a  free  port,  it  has  continued  to  make  unexampled 
progress.  The  harbor  affords  good  anchorage 
for  ships,  but  they  are  exposed  to  the  eastern 
and  southeastern  gales.  Both  the  town  and  har 
bor  are  strongly  fortified.  Grain  is  the  leading 
article  of  trade,  which  comprises  tallow,  hides, 
beef,  butter,  iron,  copper,  wool,  etc.  Pop.  190,000. 

Oe.  A  violent  whirlwind  off  the  Ferroe  Isl 
ands. 

Oferlanders.  Small  vessels  on  the  Rhine  and 
the  Meuse. 


Off.  Abreast  of.  The  opposite  of  near;  as,  off 
the  wind.  Standing  off,  sailing  directly  away. 
Standing  off  and  on,  approaching  the  shore  on 
one  tack  and  receding  from  it  on  the  other.  Off 
soundings,  in  water  so  deep  that  bottom  cannot 
be  reached  by  the  ordinary  deep-sea  line.  Off 
the  reel,  see  REEL. 

Officer  of  the  Deck.  The  officer  who  has 
charge,  for  the  time  being,  of  the  management 
of  the  ship.  On  ordinary  occasions,  one  of  the 
watch-officers  performs  this  duty,  but,  at  quar 
ters,  it  is  assumed  by  the  navigator,  and  when 
all  hands  are  called,  by  the  executive-officer. 
The  officer  of  the  deck  represents  the  command 
ing  officer,  and  his  orders  are  obeyed  and  his 
position  respected  accordingly,  though  his  au 
thority  is  subject  to  that  of  the  executive-officer. 
His  duties  are  laid  down  in  the  navy  regulations. 
See  WATCH-OFFICER. 

Officer  of  the  Watch.     See  WATCH-OFFICER. 

Offing.  In  the  offing,  well  to  seaward  ;  beyond 
anchoring-ground.  To  get  a  good  offing,  to  get 
well  clear  of  the  land. 

Off-shore  Wind.  A  wind  blowing  from  the 
land. 

Ogdensburgh  is  a  port  of  entry,  situated  on 
the  St.  Lawrence  River,  in  St.  Lawrence  County, 
N.  Y.,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Oswegatchie,  in  lat. 
44°  41'  N.,  Ion.  75°  31'  W.  The  prosperity  of 
the  place  is  principally  derived  from  trade  and 
extensive  manufactures  of  flour,  machinery, 
leather,  etc.  It  has  an  immense  grain-eleva 
tor,  and  about  10,000,000  bushels  of  grain  pass 
through  each  year  from  the  West  to  the  New 
England  States.  Pop.  11,000. 

Ogee.  A  molding  with  a  concave  and  a  con 
vex  outline  like  the  letter  S. 

Ohm.  The  unit  of  electrical  resistance ;  it  is 
the  resistance  offered  by  a  round  wire  of  pure 
copper,  10'  long  and  .01"  in  diameter,  at  42°  F. 

Oil-butt.     A  name  for  the  black-whale. 

Oiler.     A  can  for  supplying  oil  to  a  journal. 

Ojanco  Snapper.  A  tropical  fish  of  the  Meso- 
prion  family,  frequenting  the  deep-water  banks 
of  the  West  Indies. 

Oke.  A  Levant  weight  of  2|  pounds,  common 
in  Mediterranean  commerce. 

Old  Hand.     A  knowing  and  expert  person. 

Old  Horse.     Tough  salt-beef. 

Old  Ice.  In  polar  parlance,  the  ice  of  pre 
vious  seasons. 

Old  Man.  A  sort  of  chute  used  in  paying  a 
chain-cable  into  a  lighter.  A  common  appella 
tion  for  the  master  of  a  merchantman  and  the 
commanding  officer  of  a  man-of-war.  Old  woman 
is  sometimes  disrespectfully  used  to  indicate  the 
latter  personage. 

Old-stager.  A  person  well  initiated  in  any 
thing. 

OLD-STAQERISM.  An  adherence  to  established 
customs  ;  sea  conservatism. 

Oldster.  The  opposite  of  youngster.  It  is 
somewhat  difficult  to  draw  the  line  between  an 
oldster  and  a  youngster,  each  person  drawing  it 
to  suit  himself. 

Old  Wife.  A  fish  about  2  feet  long,  and  9 
inches  high  in  the  back,  having  a  small  mouth, 
a  large  eye,  a  broad  dorsal  fin,  and  a  blue  body. 
Also,  the  brown  long-tailed  duck  of  Pennant. 

Old  Woman's  Tooth.  A  peculiar  chisel  for 
stub-mortising. 

Oleron    Code.     A    celebrated    collection    of 


OLICK 


617 


ORDNANCE 


maritime  laws,  compiled  and  promulgated  at 
the  island  of  Oleron,  near  the  coast  of  Poitou,  at 
or  about  the  time  of  Richard  I.  This  code  was 
borrowed  from  the  Rhodian  laws  and  the  Conso- 
lato,  with  alterations  and  additions  adapted  to 
the  trade  of  Western  Europe.  It  has  served  as 
the  model  for  nearly  all  subsequent  sea-laws,  and 
has  been  admitted"  as  authority  on  admiralty 
questions  in  the  courts  of  this  country. 

Olick.     The  torsk  or  tusk,  Oadus  callaris. 

Olpis.  A  classic  term  for  one  who,  from  a 
shore  eminence,  watched  the  course  which  shoals 
of  fish  took,  and  communicated  the  result  to  the 
fishers.  See  CONDER. 

Ombre.  A  fish,  more  commonly  called  gray 
ling,  or  umber. 

On.  On  a  bow-line,  or  on  the  wind,  close  to 
the  wind  with  bow-lines  hauled  ;  close-hauled. 
On  board,  within  a  ship.  On  end,  an-end.  On 
is  frequently  and  improperly  used  for  in,  or  on 
board ;  as,  on  a  ship.  On  the  beam,  in  a  direction 
at  a  right  angle  to  the  keel.  On  the  bow  (or 
quarter),  in  a  direction  forming  an  angle  of  less 
than  45°  with  the  head  (or  stern)  of  the  ship. 

One-and-all.  A  mutinous  sea-cry  used  in 
the  Dutch  wars.  Also  a  rallying  call  to  put  the 
whole  collective  force  on  together. 

Onerariae.  Ancient  ships  of  burden,  with 
both  sails  and  oars. 

Onion-fish.  The  Cepola  rubescens,  whose 
body  peels  into  flakes  like  an  onion.  It  is  of  a 
pale  red  color. 

On-shore  Wind.  A  wind  blowing  towards  the 
land. 

Oomiak.  A  light  seal-skin  Greenland  boat, 
generally  worked  in  fine  weather  by  the  women, 
but  in  bad  weather  by  the  men. 

Opah.  A  large  sea-fish  (Lampris  guttatus], 
called  also  king-fish.  Its  back  is  of  a  steel-blue 
color,  its  flanks  of  a  rich  green,  and  its  abdomen 
of  a  rose  color. 

Open.  Exposed  to.  wind  and  sea.  To  open  fire, 
to  commence  firing.  Open  hawse,  see  HAWSE. 
Open  ice,  fragments  of  ice,  between  which  a  ship 
may  be  forced.  Open  order,  see  NAVAL  TACTICS. 

Open-bill  (Anastomus}.  A  genus  of  birds  of 
the  Heron  family  (Ardeidce}.  They  are  remark 
able  for  the  structure  of  the  bill,  the  mandibles 
being  in  contact  only  at  the  base  and  tip,  with  a 
wide  interval  between  their  edges  in  the  middle. 
They  are  natives  of  the  East  Indies  and  of  Africa; 
one  species  is  well  known  in  India  as  the  Cor- 
omandel  Heron.  They  frequent  the  sea-coast 
and  rivers  and  prey  on  fish  and  reptiles. 

Ophiuchus  (Gr.  Ophiouchus,  "The  Serpent- 
bearer").  A  constellation  to  the  north  of  Scor 
pio,  covering  a  space  not  very  well  supplied  with 
bright  stars,  a  Ophiuchi,  Has  Alhague.  (3  Ophiu- 
chi,  Cebalrai. 

Oporto  is  situated  on  the  Douro  Kiver,  2 
miles  from  its  mouth,  in  the  province  of  Douro, 
Portugal,  of  which  empire  it  was  the  capital 
until  1174,  and  it  is  now  the  second  city  in  rank 
and  commercial  importance.  It  has  extensive 
manufactures  of  silk,  woolen,  linen,  and  cot 
ton  goods,  shawls,  leather,  etc.,  ship-building 
yards,  and  iron-foundries.  The  principal  trade 
of  the  city  is  in  port  wine ;  other  exports  are 
bullion,  oil,  sumac,  lemons,  oranges,  wool.  etc. 
Lat.  41°  9'  N. ;  Ion.  8°  37'  W.  Pop.  90,000. 

Opossum-shrimp.  A  crustacean,  so  named 
from  its  young  being  carried  about  in  a  sort  of 


pouch  for  some  little  time  after  being  hatched  ; 
the  Musis  flexuosus  of  naturalists. 

Oppignoration.  The  pawning  of  part  of  the 
cargo  to  get  money  for  the  payment  of  the  duty 
on  the  remainder. 

Opposition.  Two  celestial  bodies  are  in  oppo 
sition  when  their  longitudes  differ  180°,  especially 
when  one  of  the  bodies  is  the  sun. 

Oragious.  An  old  term  for  stormy  or  tempest 
uous  weather. 

Oramby.  A  sort  of  state-barge  in  the  Moluc 
cas  ;  some  of  them  are  rowed  by  40,  80,  or  even, 
it  is  said,  100  paddles  each. 

Orariae.     Ancient  coasting-vessels. 

Orbis.  A  fish  of  a  circular  form  (the  Chceto- 
don  orbis  of  Gmelin)  inhabiting  the  Indian  seas. 
It  is  covered  with  a  firm,  hard  skin,  full  of  small 
prickles,  but  is  destitute  of  scales.  It  is  unfit  for 
food  ;  called  also  orb-fish. 

Orbit.  The  imaginary  line  which  a  heavenly 
body  describes  by  its  proper  motion. 

Ore.  Wrack,  or  sea-weed,  used  as  manure  on 
some  of  the  coasts  of  England. 

Orca.  A  classical  name  for  a  large  voracious 
sea-animal,  probably  a  grampus. 

Order-book.  A  book  kept  for  the  purpose  of 
copying  such  occasional  successive  orders  as  the 
admiral  or  senior  officer  may  find  it  necessary  to 
give. 

Orderly.  A  private  marine  detailed  as  a  mes 
senger  for  the  commanding  officer. 

Order  of  Battle.     See  NAVAL  TACTICS. 

Ordinary.  Vessels  are  in  ordinary  when  they 
are  out  of  commission  and  laid  up. 

Ordinary  Seaman.  A  rating  next  below  that 
of  seaman. 

Ordnance.  Gunpowder  was  not  employed  in 
Europe  to  throw  projectiles  until  near  the  latter 
part  of  the  13th  or  the  beginning  of  the  14th 
century. 

Berthold  Schwartz,  of  Freyburg,  to  whom,  in 
the  old  German  chronicles,  is  attributed  the  in 
vention  of  gunpowder,  but  who  was  rather  the 
disseminator  of  a  knowledge  of  its  ballistic  prop 
erties,  which  he  had  discovered,  was  the  first  to 
employ  it  to  project  masses,  such  as  were  thrown 
by  the  ancient  ballista,  in  mortars  and  bom 
bards. 

The  first  large  bombards  were  short,  resem 
bling  in  form  the  modern  mortar,  and  are  said  to 
have  been  made  of  wood  strengthened  by  iron 
hoops,  or  of  sheet-iron  similarly  reinforced  with 
hoops  sometimes  brazed  together.  The  later  bom 
bards,  of  greater  size  and  strength,  were  formed 
of  bars  of  iron  arranged  like  the  staves  of  a  bar 
rel  and  hooped  with  rings  of  wrought  iron  heated 
and  shrunk  on.  Such  were  the  great  gun  of 
Ghent  and  the  Mons  Meg  of  Scotland.  The 
serpentine,  of  small  calibre  but  of  great  length, 
was  of  similar  construction. 

Among  the  most  remarkable  of  the  ancient 
forms  was  the  stone  mortar,  a  truncated  cone 
within  and  without,  the  smaller  diameter  corre 
sponding  to  the  breech,  which  terminated  in  a1 
conical  screw,  by  which  it  could  be  rigidly  at 
tached  to  a  block  of  wood.  All  were  strength 
ened  by  a  swell  at  the  muzzle  and  breech.  They 
had  neither  trunnions  nor  handles.  In  1427 
the  bombard  was  described  by  Redusius  as  of 
wrought  iron,  and  consisting  of  a  tube  which, 
cylindrical  in  the  rear,  widened  like  a  funnel 
towards  the  mouth. 


ORDNANCE 


618 


ORDNANCE 


The  forward  or  widened  part  was  8  diameters 
of  the  ball  in  length,  the  rear  part  16.  The 
powder  was  placed  in  the  latter,  which  was  closed 
with  a  disk  of  wood,  upon  that,  in  the  large 
part,  the  stone  ball.  The  charge  was  ignited 
through  a  vent  in  the  rear  part. 

In  1428  the  English  employed  15  breech-load 
ing  bombards  at  the  siege  of  Orleans,  arms  of 
the  preceding  century.  They  were  of  lengths 
double  or  triple  their  diameters,  and  half  bedded 
in  a  sort  of  wooden  case,  with  which  they  were 
consolidated  by  bolts  of  iron  resting  on  the  tube, 
and  traversing  rings  nailed  to  the  upper  face  of 
the  wooden  case,  their  ends  keyed.  In  loading, 
the  movable  chamber,  filled  with  powder,  was 
adjusted  to  the  walls  of  the  bore,  a  wad  of  hay 
pushed  down  from  the  muzzle,  and  after  that 
the  ball. 

In  1439  the  two  parts  composing  the  bombard, 
of  iron  or  copper,  were  cast  together  or  reunited 
on  the  same  piece  of  oak.  Towards  the  close  of 
the  13th  century  iron  balls  came  into  use.  In 
1378  they  were  cast  both  solid  and  hollow  at 
Augsburg,  as  were  also  bronze  guns  ;  and  from 
that  time  guns  approached  their  present  forms, 
but  were  at  first  of  such  dimensions  and  weight 
as  to  be  unwieldy. 

The  Turks  had,  in  1453,  guns  cast  by  Hunga 
rian  founders  of  27-inch  calibre,  throwing  stone 
balls  of  from  850  to  1200  pounds,  which  could 
be  fired  only  four  times  in  a  day.  The  heaviest 
required  to  transport  it  200  men  and  70  yoke  of 
oxen.  One  of  them  burst  at  the  siege  of  Con 
stantinople  with  destructive  effect  at  the  first 
discharge. 

Such  are  the  guns — Kemerlicks — seen  by  Yon 
Moltke  in  the  batteries  of  the  Dardanelles  in 
1828,  and  by  him  described  as  gigantic  guns, 
some  28  inches  in  diameter,  into  which  a  man 
might  creep  up  to  the  breech.  They  lie  on  the 
ground  on  sleepers  of  oak,  instead  of  gun-car 
riages,  with  their  butts  against  strong  walls  so 
as  to  prevent  recoil,  as  it  would  be  impossible  to 
run  them  forward  again  in  action:  some  of  them 
throw  stone  balls  of  1570  pounds  weight,  with 
charges  of  more  than  a  hundred-weight. 

Bishop  Pococke  describes  one  of  iron,  "  20  feet 
long,  in  two  parts,  after  the  old  way  of  working 
cannon  of  iron  in  several  pieces.  The  bore  is  2 
feet,  so  that  a  man  may  sit  in  it ;  2£  quintals  of 
powder  are  required  to  load  it,  and  it  carries  a 
ball  of  14  quintals." 

The  first  foundries  in  Germany  were  not  estab 
lished  until  1440.  Up  to  that  period  only  a  few 
cities  and  wealthy  princes  possessed  one  or  two 
large  bombards. 

In  1478,  Louis  XI.  caused  12  guns — the  Twelve 
Peers  of  France — of  45  pounds  calibre  to  be  cast ; 
also  a  large  bombard  which  threw  an  iron  ball 
of  500  pounds  weight,  with  a  charge  of  300 
pounds  of  powder.  By  a  premature  discharge 
of  this  piece  in  the  same  year  14  persons,  among 
them  Jehan  Mangue,  its  maker,  were  instantly 
killed;  15  or  16  wounded,  several  fatally;  and  a 
poulterer,  tending  his  flock  in<a  distant  field,  was 
killed  by  the  ball. 

In  1494,  Charles  VIII.  invaded  Italy.  This 
prince,  with  an  army  of  20,000  men,  had  thirty- 
six  48-pounder  bronze  siege-guns,  8  feet  long, 
weighing  6000  pounds ;  104  field-pieces, — cul- 
verins,  falcons,  and  falconettes,  with  other  guns 
of  less  calibre,  but  of  greater  comparative  length, 


all  on  wheel-carriages  drawn  by  horses.  "  "With 
these  guns  were  made  more  discharges  in  a  few 
hours  than  had  before  been  made  in  several 
days." 

In  the  reign  of  Francis  I.  progress  was  made 
in  the  improvement  of  ordnance.  From  that 
time  efforts  were  made  to  fix  thickness  and  calibre 
of  guns,  to  improve  powder,  to  establish  proper 
charges,  and  to  adopt  improved  processes  in  the 
foundries. 

In  1521,  Charles  V.  caused  experiments  to  be 
made  at  Brussels  to  determine  the  most  advan 
tageous  length  of  guns ;  the  pieces,  48-,  36-,  and 
24-pounders,  were  cast  of  extra  length,  with  five 
muzzle  swells  at  which  they  were  successively 
cut  off.  The  greatest  ranges  were  given  by  18, 
20,  and  22  calibres  respectively ;  a  length  of  18 
calibres  was  adopted  for  all. 

In  1535  he  had  12  guns  of  new  proportions  cast 
at  Malaga, — the  Twelve  Apostles, — 40-pounders. 
These  pieces  long  served  as  models  for  cannon- 
founders  in  Europe.  They  had  a  reinforce  at  the 
chamber  ;  length  of  bore,  18  calibres  ;  length  of 
reinforce,  8  calibres ;  the  thickness  in  ^  of  a 
calibre,  7,  5,  3,  at  the  chamber,  trunnions,  and 
neck ;  weight  of  the  gun,  6300  pounds,  and  of 
the  charge,  20  pounds.  Improvements  continued 
to  be  made  in  France  until  towards  1550,  when 
civil  war  interrupted  progress  until  the  end  of 
that  century. 

In  1547  cast-iron  guns  are  said  to  have  been 
in  general  use  in  England. 

In  1572,  Charles  IX.  suppressed  the  great  va 
riety  of  calibres  then  in  use  under  various  names, 
substituting  seven, — from  the  42-pounder  of  9200 
pounds  weight,  11  feet  long  (double  cannon),  to 
the  2-  and  f-pounders  of  from  200  to  400  pounds 
weight,  6.}  feet  long  (falconet). 

About  "the  middle  of  the  16th  century  many 
guns  exploded  with  fatal  effect,  and  among  other 
causes  assigned  by  Fronsperger,  in  1555,  was  the 
use  of  fine-grained  powder -instead  of  the  large 
common  powder. 

In  1540  large-grain  powder  was  preferred  to 
fine  for  large  calibres. 

In  1546,  according  to  Tartaglia,  cannon-powder 
was  not  grained,  but  musket-powder  was. 

The  compositions  most  used  were — 


For  Large  Calibres. 

Nitre 50 

Sulphur 33.3 

Carbon 10.7 


Medium. 
fiG.7 
20 
13.3 


Small-Arms. 
83.4 
8.3 
8.3 


In  1593,  as  given  by  Vignere,  the  composition 
of  French  war  powder  was  as  follows  : 

For  Cannon.  Arquebuse. 

Nitre 75.G8  71.43 

Sulphur 10.81  14.285 

Carbon 13.51  14.285 

The  cannon-powder  was  in  grains  of  the  size 
of  small  hazel-nuts. 

In  1606,  St.  Julian,  in  his  "Forge  of  Vul 
can,"  published  in  Holland,  says,  u  With  large 
cannon-powder  the  charges  are  one-half,  some 
times  three- fourths,  of  the  weight  of  the  ball. 
But  when  the  use  of  musket-powder  began  the 
charges  were  reduced  to  less  than  half." 

He  thought  that  effort  should  be  limited  to 
improving  the  quality  of  powder  while  preserv 
ing  its  grain,  and  that  the  wad  of  hay  placed  on 
it  should  be  as  large  as  possible. 

From  this  it  appears  that  while  on  the  one 


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619 


ORDNANCE 


hand  it  was  sought  to  reduce  the  initial  pressure 
of  the  gases  in  large  guns  hy  adjustment  of 
proportions  of  the  components  of  powder,  on 
the  other,  the  better  means — air-space  and  large- 
grain  powder — had  at  that  early  day  its  advo 
cates. 

In  Italy,  about  1597,  cannon,  properly  so 
called,  shorter  than  the  culverins,  having  been 
suppressed,  only  culverins  of  14  and  30  pounds 
calibre  were  cast. 

In  the  same  year  Savorgano,  who  had  previ 
ously  cast  for  the  galleys  guns  36  calibres  in 
length,  |  of  a  calibre  thick  at  the  breech,  •in 
vented  a  new  breech-loader,  its  calibre  that  of  the 
sacre, — 12-pounder, — but  having  greater  range 
than  the  petriera  a  braga.  The  piece  was  closed 
from  the  side  of  the  breech  by  a  bronze  wedge 
which  traversed  it.  The  ball  was  attached  to  the 
cartridge.  The  petriera  a  braga  was  invented  by 
Beccalua ;  some.of  12,  others  of  14  pounds  calibre, 
their  weight  62  times  that  of  the  shot.  The 
chamber  movable.  A  thick  wad  was  placed  in 
the  piece,  then  the  ball,  and  after  that  the  charged 
chamber  secured  by  an  iron  wedge  attached  to 
the  carriage,  the  forward  end  of  which  rested 
upon  two  supports. 

In  1605,  Henry  IY.  had  50  pieces— 45-pound- 
ers — all  alike.  Sully,  Grand  Master  of  Ord 
nance,  said  such  a  park  had  never  been  seen 
before.  The  60-pounder  was  suppressed  as  too 
difficult  to  transport,  and  rendering  no  better 
service  than  the  40-pounder.  All  guns  were 
richly  chased.  In  1609,  in  Spain,  the  calibres 
were  reduced  to  four,  40-,  24-,  10-,  and  5-pounders ; 
lengths,  19,  24,  29  calibres ;  ratios  of  weight  of 
gun  to  shot,  180,  235,  380.  Some  time  before 
this  there  had  been  added  to  the  culverins  then, 
in  use  in  these  states  battering  guns  of  the  cali 
bres  96-,  48-,  24-,  12-,  and  6-pounders  •,  lengths,  17, 
18,  20,  24,  29  calibres.  To  these  guns  the  mod 
ern  French  24-  and  12-pounders  owe  their  origin. 

Iron  guns  are  said  to  have  been  cast  at  Erfurt 
in  1377,  in  Silesia  in  1440,  in  England  in  1547, 
in  Hartz  in  1626,  and  in  Prussia  in  1667.  Nearly 
all  the  earlier  writers  considered  cast-iron  guns 
as  less  strong  than  bronze,  but  no  mention  is 
made  of  explosions.  As  the  windage  was  large, 
the  mode  of  charging  such  as  gives  low  press 
ures,  and  the  powder  less  violent,  accidents  were 
probably  rare. 

In  1626,  Gustavus  Adolphus  employed  the  so- 
called  leather  guns,  invented  by  Col.  Wurm- 
brand.  The  cylinder  of  bore,  of  copper,  15  cali 
bres  in  length,  an  eighth  of  a  calibre  in  thick 
ness,  lightly  reinforced  about  the  seat  of  the 
charge  ;  the  vent-tube  of  iron,  screwed  to  the 
cylinder  of  the  bore.  The  bottom  of  the  bore 
was  formed  by  the  face  of  a  bronze  breech  1  cal 
ibre  in  length,  with  a  button,  and  fixed  to  the 
copper  cylinder  by  6  screws.  Strong  rings  of 
iron  added  to  the  solidity  of  the  cylinder  around 
the  charge.  At  the  forward  extremity  the  cop 
per  was  rolled  on  itself  to  form  a  muzzle  swell. 
The  cylinder,  coated  with  several  layers  of  mas 
tic,  was  wrapped  with  rope  and  twine,  giving  a 
thickness  of  1  calibre  to  the  first  reinforce,  and 
f  to  the  chase,  which  served  not  only  to  strengthen 
it,  but  to  secure  the  trunnions.  Over  this  was 
placed  a  coat  of  plaster,  giving  an  even  surface. 
The  whole  was  then  covered  with  leather. 

In  1631  these  guns  were  discarded,  for,  in  con 
sequence  of  the  non-conductivity  of  the  envelop 


ing  material,  they  became  so  hot  at  the  battle  of 
Leipsic  as  to  ignite  their  charges.  The  charge 
being  limited  to  one-quarter  the  weight  of  the 
ball,  their  range  was  short. 

In  1640  large  gun-foundries  were  established 
in  Sweden. 

The  word  "  mortar,"  or  "  mortier,"  appears  to 
have  been  first  applied  to  pieces  employed  by  the 
Turks  at  the  siege  of  Belgrade,  in  1456.  They 
had  also,  at  the  siege  of  Rhodes,  in  1522,  12 
bronze  mortars  throwing  copper  bombs,  consist 
ing  of  two  hemispheres  inclosing  inflammable 
matter  and  small  hollow  balls  which  burst  (gre 
nades).  Mention  is  made  of  bombs  larger  than 
hand-grenades  at  the  bombardment  of  Aries,  in 
1536. 

Bombs  11  and  19  inches  in  diameter,  with 
fuzes  which  screwed  into  the  eye,  were  employed 
at  the  siege  of  Boulogne,  in  1542. 

In  1606,  according  to  St.  Julian,  mortars  were 
of  the  calibres  6,  12,  and  18  inches.  They  had 
trunnions  at  the  middle  of  their  lengths,  without 
rim-bases  or  reinforces ;  the  charge,  1  pound  of 
powder  for  each  30  pounds  of  the  weight  of  the 
bomb.  The  chambers  of  some  were  cylindrical, 
of  others  concave,  spherical,  or  pear-sbaped: 
some  of  the  latter  in  the  12-inch  containing  18 
pounds  of  powder.  The  bombs  of  the  18-inch 
weighed,  empty,  490  pounds  ;  filled,  538  pounds. 

Knowledge  of  the  bomb  and  of  mortar-firing 
was  introduced  from  Holland  into  France  by 
Malthus  in  1634. 

In  1637  fatal  accidents  occurred  in  igniting  the 
fuzes  of  bombs  in  mortars  prior  to  discharge.  In 
1638  it  was  observed  at  Versailles  that  the  fuze 
could  be  ignited  by  the  flame  of  the  charge,  but 
it  was  not  until  1751,  when  Le  Due  had  shown 
by  extended  experiments  the  certainty  of  igni 
tion,  that  the  method  was  changed. 

The  small  mortar  introduced  into  France  by 
Coehorn  in  1679,  and  to  which  his  name  was 
given,  was  invented  by  Holts  in  1668. 

In  1691  the  18-inch  bomb  was  named  by  Louis 
XIV.  "  Comminges,"  after  an  officer  of  remark 
able  girth.  In  1697  they  were  employed  at  the 
siege  of  Ath.  In  1733,  at  the  siege  of  Trarbach. 
In  1745,  producing  little  effect  at  the  siege  of 
Tournay,  and  being  difficult  to  transport,  they 
were  discarded. 

The  partridge  mortar  (mortier  d  grenade]  was 
invented  by  Petri  in  1693.  In  addition  to  the 
ordinary  bomb,  it  projected  13  grenades  from  as 
many  barrels  disposed  circularly  around  an  8- 
inch  mortar,  which  weighed  205  pounds, — the 
total  weight  241  pounds ;  charge  of  the  8-inch, 
£  pound ;  of  the  others,  proportionally  less.  It 
was  introduced  in  France  in  1700. 

Machinery  for  boring  cannon,  invented  in 
Switzerland  by  Lew,  was  introduced  into  France 
by  the  founder  Maritz,  who  cast  the  first  solid 
gun  in  1713.  Until  1721  service  guns  were  cast 
hollow.  In  that  year,  the  brothers  Keller  in 
vented  a  vertical  borer  which  cut  out  the  cylin 
der  of  the  bore  in  a  single  piece. 

In  1744-45,  Maritz  suppressed  hollow  casting 
at  Strasbourg  and  Douai,  establishing  horizontal 
boring  machinery,  and  in  1755,  as  general  in 
spector  of  foundries,  applied  the  same  process  to 
iron  guns,  employing  only  the  softest  iron.  In 
the  same  year  solid  casting  for  bronze  guns  was 
adopted  in  Holland  and  Prussia.  In  hollow 
casting  it  was  difficult,  with  the  imperfect  means 


OKDNANCE 


620 


OKDNANCE 


then  in  use,  to  maintain  the  core  in  position. 
Cavities  formed  in  the  metal  about  it,  and  scoria 
did  not  rise  freely.  Especially  was  this  the  case 
with  the  very  soft  iron  employed  by  Maritz, 
who  obtained  more  nearly  perfect  forms  by  cast 
ing  solid.  The  iron  guns  cast  by  Maritz  were 
deficient  in  strength  ;  many  failed  to  resist  proof, 
and  others  burst  on  board  ship.  In  consequence, 
the  control  of  foundries  of  naval  guns  was  trans 
ferred  to  the  navy  department,  with  some  ad 
vantage  ;  but  in  1779  it  was  found  necessary  to 
increase  the  thickness  of  metal. 

Montalembert,  who  preferred  solid  to  hollow 
casting,  had  pointed  out,  in  1764,  the  inferiority 
of  the  soft,  spongy  iron  employed  by  Maritz, 
and  explaining  the  effect  of  sudden  cooling  in 
rendering  iron" brittle,  indicated  the  course  to  be 
pursued  in  the  construction  of  stronger  guns  of 
harder  and  more  tenacious  iron.  The  views  of 
Montalembert  were  in  advance  of  his  time,  and 
were  neglected. 

In  1732  the  system  of  De  Valliere  was  adopted. 
Guns,  24-, 16-, 12-,  8-,  and4-pounders ;  mortars,  12- 
and  8-inch  ;  stone  mortars  of  15-inch,  and  howit 
zers  of  8-inch ;  the  bottom  of  the  bore  of  guns 
rounded  out  £  calibre ;  small  chambers  at  the 
bottom  of  the  bore  were  retained  only  in  24- 
and  16-pounder  guns. 

The  windage  and  thickness  of  the  metal  were 
proportional  to  the  diameter  of  the  ball ;  thick 
ness  at  breech,  1  diameter ;  at  the  beginning  and 
end  of  the  first  reinforce,  f  £  and  || ;  of  the  sec 
ond  reinforce,  f|  and  £f ;  at  the  commence 
ment  of  the  chase,  ||,  and  at  the  astragal  of  the 
neck,  ||;  and  finally,  |f  at  the  swell  of  the 
muzzle. 

The  dimensions  of  the  moldings  were  ex 
pressed  in  terms  of  the  diameter  of  the  bore 
divided  into  36  parts.  The  length  of  the  cas- 
cabel,  its  neck,  the  bottom  of  the  breech,  and 
the  projection  and  size  of  the  trunnions,  the 
axis  of  which  was  tangent  to  the  lower  surface 
of  the  bore,  were  not  altered.  The  length  of  the 
two  reinforces  and  chase  preserved  their  relation 
to  that  of  the  piece ;  the  sight  and  pointing-but 
ton  were  suppressed.  The  8-inch  mortar  was 
for  short  ranges.  The  12-inch  were  of  three 
kinds,  one  having  cylindrical  chambers  contain 
ing  5£  pounds  powder. 

Two  of  the  new  guns  cast  at  Lyons,  and  proved 
by  De  Valliere,  were  discharged  1500  times  in 
quick  succession,  with  charges  of  one-third  and 
one-half  the  weight  of  the  ball,  without  injury 
to  the  chase  or  bore, — the  vent  of  one  scarcely 
widening  at  all,  that  of  the  other  a  little.  The 
vents  were  in  a  piece  of  pure  copper,  which  was 
placed  in  the  mold  before  casting.  De  Valliere 
designed  the  screw  bouche,  which  was  found  to 
answer  the  purpose,  but  was  not  then  adopted. 
Until  1739  the  charges  of  guns  had  been  two-thirds 
the  weight  of  the  ball.  In  that  year  Belidor  deter 
mined,  by  experiment  at  La  Fere,  that  a  charge 
of  about  one- third  was  sufficient  for  all  calibres. 
The  French  service  charges  were  therefore  re 
duced  to  that  ratio. 

The  first  of  De  Valliere's  howitzers  was'  cast 
at  Douai,  in  1749.  The  bore  3  diameters  in 
length,  the  chamber  cylindrical,  7  inches  long, 
and  3  inches  in  diameter.  The  first  howitzers 
used  in  France  were  taken  from  the  allies  at  the 
battle  of  Nerwinden,  in  1693.  In  1741,  the 
king  of  Prussia  having  introduced  very  light 


iron  guns  into  field  service,  the  French  attached 
to  each  battalion  a  Swedish  4-pounder,  4J  feet 
long,  of  about  600  pounds  weight,  which  could 
be  fired  with  ease  ten  times  in  a  minute. 

But  the  weight  of  the  heavier  guns  of  the 
model  of  1732,  forming  the  heavy  artillery,  pre 
vented  full  ad  vantage  ^being  taken  of  the  light 
ness  of  these  pieces  for  extended  movements. 
Austria  and  other  powers  lightened  their  heavy 
artillery,  and  in  1756  the  French,  as  proposed 
by  De  Broglie,  bored  up  their  12-pounders  and 
8-pounders  to  16-pounders  and  12-pounders.  The 
guns  were  then,  however,  deficient  in  strength 
and  badly  proportioned. 

Experiments  at  Strasbourg,  in  1764,  prepara 
tory  to  the  improvements  proposed  by  Gribeau- 
val,  showed  that  12-,  8-,  and  4-pounders,  reduced 
in  length  to  18  calibres,  the  ratio  of  weight  of 
gun  to  that  of  ball  being  150,  had  the  required 
range  and  sufficient  mass.  It  was  decreed  in 
1769  that  there  should  be  two  classes  of  guns ; 
the  first,  24-,  16-,  12-,  and  8-pounders,  for  the 
attack  and  defense  of  fortresses;  the  second,  of 
12-,  8-,  and  4-pounders,  for  field  service,  a  1- 
pounder  for  light  troops.  The  old  8-inch  mortar, 
a  new  10-inch  with  cylindrical  chamber,  and  the 
stone  mortar  were  retained.  The  8-inch  howitzer 
appropriated  to  siege  purposes,  the  6-inch  to  field 
service.  A  few  slight  alterations  were  made  in 
siege  and  garrison  pieces  of  the  models  of  1732. 
The  length  of  the  second  reinforce  was  increased, 
to  include  the  rim-bases  added  to  the  trunnions  ; 
the  handles  received  a  more  simple  form,  many 
moldings  and  ornaments  were  suppressed,  as  well 
as  the  small  chamber  at  the  bottom  of  the  bore. 
The  sights  and  buttons  were  preserved.  The 
centre  of  gravity  and  the  trunnions  were  thrown 
a  little  more  towards  the  breech. 

Field-pieces  were  18  diameters  of  the  ball  in 
length.  The  diameter  of  the  ball  was  subse 
quently  increased  to  diminish  the  windage.  Siege- 
and  garrison-guns  were  proved  by  4  discharges, 
2  of  one-third  and  2  of  two-thirds  the  weight  of 
the  ball.  All  to  be  cast  solid.  The  stone  mortars 
were  cast  hollow.  Elevating  screws  replaced  the 
quoin.  These  changes  excited  much  discussion, 
but  experiments  at  Douai  in  1772  and  1785  estab 
lished  their  propriety. 

In  1789  the  Gomer  mortar  was  adopted, — 
chamber  a  truncated  cone.  The  trunnions,  their 
axis  intersecting  the  middle  of  the  chamber,  were 
reinforced.  There  were  three  calibres, — 12-inch, 
10-inch,  and  8-inch, — their  profiles  similar. 

The  calibres  of  cast-iron  guns  for  coast  defense 
were  determined  in  1790 :  36-,  24-,  16-,  and  12- 
pounders ;  mortars  12-inch  and  10-inch,  with 
chambers  in  the  form  of  a  truncated  cone,  con 
taining  11  pounds  of  powder. 

Notwithstanding  the  advantages  of  Gribeau- 
val's  system,  it  was  apparent  that  it  could  be  ren 
dered  still  more  simple.  Steps  were  being  taken 
to  perfect  it  when,  in  the  year  XI  (1803),  a  de 
cree  overturning  the  whole  system  of  artillery 
substituted  ill-considered  innovations.  By  this 
decree  all  guns  were  to  be  cast  without  reinforces 
or  moldings,  in  the  form  of  a  truncated  cone  from 
the  breech-ring  to  the  tulip. 

To  avoid  the  complication  arising  from  the 
multiplicity  of  calibres,  in  the  campaigns  of  1808 
and  1814,  guns  of  Gribeauval's  system,  exclu 
sively,  were  supplied  to  the  armies  in  Spain  and 
Portugal,  whilst  the  6-pounder,  adopted  by  the 


ORDNANCE 


621 


ORDNANCE 


decree  of  1803,  was  supplied  to  the  other  armies, 
thus  practically  returning  to  the  system  of  Gri- 
beauval,  which  was  gradually  perfected  in  mat 
ters  of  detail. 

In  1804  there  were  cast  at  Douai  four  11-inch 
bronze  howitzers  (canons-obusiers),  proposed  by 
Col.  Yillantroys,  and  subsequently  two  others 
of  the  same  calibre.  Length  of  bore  8  calibres. 
These  guns  gave  ranges  of  2400  toises  (5117 
yards)  and  upwards.  One  of  similar  character, 
designed  by  Gen.  Ruty,  cast  at  Seville  in  1811, 
gave,  with  charge  of  33  pounds  and  a  bomb  tilled 
with  lead,  weighing  181  pounds,  a  range  of  2790 
toises  (5948  yards).  One  of  iron,  Villantroys's, 
cast  at  Liege  in  1813,  length  of  bore  8  calibres, 
weighing  8491  kilogrammes,  with  a  charge  of 
from  30  to  60  pounds,  and  a  bomb  of  180  pounds, 
sabot  of  13  pounds,  gave  a  range  of  2671  toises 
(5694  yards). 

Bronze  guns  were  in  general  use  in  England 
in  1768,  when  John  Muller  urged,  on  the  ground 
of  lightness  and  economy,  the  substitution  of 
cast-iron  guns,  referring,  in  illustration,  to  the 
armament  of  the  "  Royal  George,"  consisting 
of  100  bronze  guns,  weighing  218.2  tons,  costing 
£28,386.  The  same  number  and  calibre  of  his 
model  would  weigh  127.8  tons,  and  cost  £2044. 

This  and  other  propositions  were  favorabty  re 
ceived,  and  the  expenses  reduced.  When  the 
"  Royal  George"  sank  at  Spithead,  in  1782,  the 
bronze  42-pounders  on  the  lower  deck  had  been 
replaced  by  iron  32-pounders,  but  she  still  had 
bronze  24-poimders  on  main-deck,  quarter-deck, 
and  poop,  and  bronze  30-pounders  on  the  mid 
dle-deck.  The  carronade,  12-pounder  to  68- 
pohnder,  invented  by  Gen.  Melville,  and  first 
cast  at  the  Carron  Works,  of  which  Gascoigne 
was  the  manager,  was  adopted  as  a  navy  guii  in 
June,  1779, — 10  to  each  ship,  from  first-rate  to 
sloop. 

Sir  William  Congreve  is  said  to  have  been 
the  first  to  propose  diminishing  the  quantity  of 
metal  about  the  chase,  and  to  increase  that 
about  the  seat  of  the  charge.  The  profile  of  the 
24-pounder  Congreve  gun  of  41  hundred- weight, 
7  feet  6  inches  long,  is,  from  base-ring  to  muzzle- 
astragal,  nearly  a  straight  line,  interrupted  by 
two  flat  rings,  one  at  the  front  of  the  vent-field, 
the  other  just  forward  of  the  trunnions;  the 
axis  of  the  latter  tangent  to  the  lower  surface 
of  the  bore.  The  angle  of  dispart,  5°  ;  ratio  of 
weight  of  gun  to  shot,  180 ;  length  of  bore  in 
calibres,  14.5;  thickness  at  base-ring,  1.5;  at 
neck  of  chase,  .5. 

In  1814  experiments  of  comparison  were  made 
at  Sutton  Heath  with  the  Congreve  and  Blome- 
field  24-pounder  guns,  the  latter  longer  and 
heavier  than  the  Congreve  gun,  and  an  or 
dinary  long  24-pounder.  In  these  experiments 
the  guns,  being  pointed  by  the  line  of  metal,  the 
extraordinary  dispart  of  the  Congreve  gun  gave 
correspondingly  extraordinary  ranges,  attributed 
at  the  time  to  the  weight  of  metal  at  the  breech 
rather  than  to  its  form.  But,  in  1815,  Olynthus 
Gregory  subjected  three  6-pounders  of  the  new 
models  to  test  with  the  ballistic  pendulum.  The 
initial  velocities  were  greatest  for  the  common, 
and  least  for  the  Congreve  gun.  Comparison 
of  the  Congreve  and  ordinary  long  24-pounder 
was  also  made  with  the  same  result. 

Monk,  in  1838,  and  Millar  subsequently  in  his 
shell-gun,  suppressed  the  ring  immediately  in 


front  of  the  trunnions  of  the  ordinary  gun,  con 
necting  the  second  reinforce  with  the  chase,  and 
the  base-ring  with  the  first  reinforce,  by  concave 
curves. 

Of  Monk's  32-pounders,  4279  were  proved 
without  a  failure.  In  these  guns  was  a  nearer 
approach  to  a  distribution  of  metal  proportional 
to  the  pressure  at  points  along  the  bore  than  had 
before  been  made. 

In  the  guns  modeled  according  to  the  con 
struction  proposed  by  Commodore  Wadsworth, 
of  the  U.  S.  navy,  in  1845,  all  rings,  excepting 
the  muzzle- and  base-rings,  were  suppressed,  and 
the  profile  approaches  that  of  the  Dahlgren  gun, 
in  which  the  lines  are  unbroken. 

French  ship-batteries. — In  1812  the  calibres 
were  36-,  24-,  18-,  and  12-pounder  cannon  and 
carronades.  In  1829  the  30-pounder,  of  various 
weights,  was  adopted  for  all  batteries.  In  1837 
the  80-pounder  Paixhan  gun  was  assigned  a 
place.  The  decree  of  1848  increased  the  number 
of  22-centimetre  shell-guns,  and  that  of  1849  in 
troduced  50-pounder  cannon  as  a  substitute  for 
some  of  the  former ;  it  also  suppressed  the  car 
ronade. 

English  ship-batteries. — Previously  to  the  war 
of  1812  the  long  32-pounder  predominated  as  the 
principal  piece  for  the  heaviest  ships,  and  in  frig 
ates  the  long  1 8-pounder.  In  1839  the  32-pounder, 
six  classes  of  different  weights, was  adopted.  With 
these  were  combined  8-inch  shell-guns  of  65  and 
53  hundred-weight.  In  1848  more  than  8000  new 
and  reamed  32-pounders  were  available  and  about 
1600  shell-guns.  The  10-inch  shell-gun  of  84 
hundred-weight,  and  the  68-pounder  of  95  hun 
dred-weight,  were  adopted  as  pivot-guns. 

United  States  ship-batteries. — The  new  ships 
built  after  the  war  of  1812  were  armed  as  fol 
lows  :  Frigates,  gun-deck,  32-pounders;  spar-deck, 
42-pounders.  Liners,  lower-deck,  42-pounders  ; 
gun-deck,  32-pounders  ;  spar-deck,  42-pounders. 
In  1841  a  few  8-inch  shell-guns  (63  hundred 
weight)  were  introduced.  In  1845  the  32-pounder 
was  adopted  as  unit-calibre, — six  classes, weighing 
severally,  56  hundred-weight,  51  hundred-weight, 
46  hundred-weight,  42  hundred-weight,  32  hun 
dred-weight,  and  27  hundred-weight ;  the  shell- 
guns  of  63  hundred-weight  and  55hundred-weight 
being  almost  identically  the  English  system.  In 
1853  it  was  directed  that  ten  8-inch  shell-guns  of 
63  hundred-weight  should  form  an  entire  division 
on  the  gun-decks  of  liners  and  frigates.  None  on 
the  spar-deck. 

The  columbiad,  a  heavy  gun  combining  the 
qualities  of  the  gun,  howitzer,  and  mortar,  was 
invented  by  Col.  Bomford,  and  used  in  the  war 
of  1812. 

In  July,  1841,  experiments  proposed  by  Col. 
Bomford  to  determine  the  expansive  force  of 
powder  in  a  gun  by  firing  pistol-balls  through 
its  sides,  were  made  at  Watertown  Arsenal.  Lat 
eral  tubes  were  inserted  at  intervals  of  2  cali 
bres.  The  balls  were  fired  vertically  into  a  series 
of  pine  boards  half  an  inch  thick,  and  seven- 
eighths  inch  apart.  The  number  of  boards  pene 
trated  gave  the  force  exerted.  This  method  was 
improved  by  Major  W.  Wade,  the  bullets  being 
discharged  'horizontally  into  a  small  pendulum. 
The  gun  was  bored  through  the  breech  and  fitted 
with  a  movable  plug,  in  order  to  vary  at  will  the 
distance  of  the  fixed  barrels  from  the  bottom  of 
the  bore. 


ORDNANCE 


622 


ORDNANCE 


In  1843  the  results  were  reported  to  Col.  Tal- 
cott. 

Distance  of  Barrel  from  centre  of  Ball,  Relative 

in  calibres.  Velocities. 

In  rear,  1 1.0000 

At  the  centre,  0 9758 

In  front,  1 8149 

2   .      6767 

6135 

5291 

T'.'.'.'."."."'.'.'.'.'.! 4393 

9  3988 

11™.'.'.'. 3667 

15 2858 

In  1844  a  10-inch  columbiad  and  an  8-inch 
columbiad  of  new  model  were  tested.  The  8- 
inch  burst  at  the  729th  fire  ;  the  10-inch  at  the 
600th  fire  with  service  charges. 

In  1840  two  8-inch  columbiads  were  cast  at 
the  Fort  Pitt  Works, — one  solid,  the  other  accord 
ing  to  the  plan  invented  by  Lieut.  Rodman,  on 
a  hollow  core  through  which  a  stream  of  water 
passed  while  the  metal  was  cooling.  The  solid 
cast  burst  at  the  85th,  and  the  hollow  at  the  21st 
fire;  service  charges,  14  pounds. 

In  May,  1850,  Lieut.  John  A.  Dahlgren,  of 
the  navy,  proposed  to  the  Navy  Department  the 
construction  of  a  gun  in  accordance  with  a  de 
sign  which  he  furnished.  In  1852  the  first  gun 
of  this  design  was  constructed  by  the  United 
States.  The  proportions,  in  calibres,  are  as  fol 
lows  : 

Length  of  fort 2.389 

"        junction 2.778 

chase 6.833 

Length  of  bore 12.000 

breech 1.611 

From  face  of  muzzle  to  end  of  breech 13.511 

Diameter  at  commencement  of  fort 3.022 

At  division-line  between  junction  and  chase  2.036 
At  muzzle 1.400 

From  a  point  .35  of  a  calibre  forward  of  the 
fort,  the  profile  of  the  gun,  for  a  distance  of  2.28 
calibres,  corresponds  with  a  line  drawn  with  the 
aid  of  a  draughtsman's  batten  through  the  ex 
tremities  of  ordinates  representing  the  pressures 
determined  by  "Wade  at  corresponding  distances 
in  calibres  from  that  point,  the  maximum  press 
ures  corresponding  to  maximum  thickness.  This 
embraces  the  junction.  Thence,  from  a  point  4.39 
calibres  from  the  bottom  of  the  bore,  the  profile 
approaches  the  axis,  until,  at  the  distance  of  5.61 
calibres,  the  difference  between  it  and  the  press 
ure-curve  is  0.1  calibre  ;  after  which  it  continues 
nearly  parallel  to  the  curve  of  pressures. 

At  the  commencement  of  swell  of  muzzle — 
the  thinnest  part  of  the  gun — the  difference  is 
0.2  calibre. 

It  appears  that  the  Dahlgren  gun  presents  the 
first  practical  application  of  results  obtained  by 
experimental  determinations  of  pressure  at  dif 
ferent  points  along  the  bore,  by  such  methods  as 
were  proposed  by  Col.  Bomford, — that  is,  by  bor 
ing  holes  in  the  walls  of  the  gun,  through  which 
the  pressure  acts  upon  other  bodies,  such  as  pis 
tol-balls,  pistons,  etc. 

This,  with  the  hemispherical  breech  and  sup 
pression  of  all  rings,  gives  the  gun  that  sym 
metrical  appearance  which  is  its  characteristic 
feature. 

The  proving  and  testing  of  the  Dahlgren  shell- 
gun  was  .continued  during  the  years  1852-54. 

The  first  11-inch  shell-gun  was  fired  500  times 
with  shells,  and  655  times  with  shot  weighing 


170  pounds,  without  bursting,  which  occurred  at 
the  1959th  round;  the  service  charge,  15  pounds. 

In  1853  the  endurance  of  navy  guns  of  dif 
ferent  classes  was  tested  at  Old  Point  Comfort  by 
Commander  D.  G.  Farragut.  Two  shell-guns 
exhibited  remarkable  powers  of  resistance.  A 
10-inch  of  88  hundred-weight,  cast  in  1848,  fired 
275  rounds,  1  shell  of  104  pounds,  10  pounds 
powder;  28  rounds,  2  shells  of  103  pounds,  8 
pounds  powder  ;  8  sets  of  firings  of  5  rounds  each, 
with  solid  shot  of  130  pounds  weight,  and  an 
additional  shot  for  each  set  after  the  first ;  the 
last  set  with  8  shot,  charge,  14  pounds  of  powder 
throughout ;  followed  by  62  rounds  with  8  shot 
and  18  pounds  of  powder ;  11  rounds  with  8  shot 
and  20  pounds  of  powder;  a  slight  increase  of 
the  bore  over  the  seat  of  the  shot,  and  the  wear 
of  the  vent  being  the  only  evidence  of  injury. 

The  8-inch  of  55  hundred- weight,  cast  in  1845, 
with  proportional  charges,  gave  equally  favor 
able  results. 

It  appears  from  this  that  the  service  charge  of 
the  10-inch,  10  pounds,  might  have  been  made 
more  nearly  commensurate  with  the  calibre  of 
the  gun. 

In  1851,  to  test  still  further  the  Rodman  plan, 
two  pairs  of  8-inch  and  10-inch  columbiads  were 
cast,  one  of  each  pair  solid,  and  the  other  hollow 
and  cooled  as  before. 

The  8-inch  solid  burst  at  73  fires. 

The  8-inch  hollow  burst  at  1500  fires. 

The  10-inch  solid  burst  at  20  fires. 

The  10-inch  hollow  burst  at  249  fires. 

In  1856  two  10-inch  columbiads,  one  hollow, 
the  other  solid,  were  tested.  The  solid  cast 
burst  at  the  26th  fire,  the  hollow  at  the  31st 
fire. 

In  January,  1857,  Rodman  recommended,  "as 
the  requisite  knowledge  to  manufacture  guns  of 
those  calibres  which  can  be  relied  upon  for  any 
given  number  of  fires  is  not  possessed,  that  the 
casting  of  service  columbiads  be  discontinued  for 
the  present." 

In  1857  three  10-inch  columbiads,  2  solid  and 
1  hollow  cast,  were  tested.  The  2  solid  cast  burst 
at  the  169th  and  399th  fires  respectively.  The 
hollow  cast  was  unbroken  after  1600  rounds. 

In  1858  two  10-inch  columbiads,  one  solid,  the 
other  hollow  cast,  withstood  2396  rounds  each  with 
service  charges  ;  54  rounds  with  charges  of  from 
15  to  18  pounds;  2450  rounds,  exclusive  of  proof 
charges.  Subsequently  they  were  each  fired  1032 
rounds  with  18  pounds  of  powder  and  a  solid 
shot,  making  a  total  of  4082  service  and  2  proof 
charges  for  each  gun.  Neither  gun  broken  ;  the 
solid  most  worn. 

The  guns  of  1857  were  of  the  old  columbiad 
model  modified  to  the  extent  of  the  removal  of 
the  base-ring  and  swell  of  the  muzzle ;  while 
those  of  1858  were  of  a  new  model  without  cham 
bers  or  ratchets  in  the  breech,  and  with  increased 
thickness  of  metal  in  the  breech,  being  over  1£ 
calibres  thick  at  that  part.  The  cascabels,  with 
slender  necks,  dropped  from  the  guns  in  the 
course  of  the  firing.  The  profile  was  unchanged, 
with  the  exception  of  that  due  to  substitution  of 
a  cascabel  for  the  ratchet. 

In  1857-58,  at  Alleghany  Arsenal,  Rodman 
first  applied  the  pressure-gauge  (piston  and  in 
denting  tool)  to  determine  the  prpssure  of  gas 
in  the  bore  of  a  42-pounder,  at  the  bottom  of 
the  bore  and  at  intervals  of  2  calibres.  This 


ORDNANCE 


623 


ORDNANCE 


method  he  had  suggested  to  Major  Wade  as 
early  as  1851. 

In  May,  1860,  was  completed  the  first  15-inch 
gun  cast  and  cooled  upon  the  Rodman  plan.  The 
form  was  determined  on  the  hypothesis  that  "  the 
pressure  is  inversely  as  the  square  root  of  the 
space  behind  the  shot.  The  expression  for  the 
tangential  resistance  which  enters  the  formula 
for  the  bursting  tendency,  was  derived  from  the 
hypothesis  that,  in  this  resistance,  the  strain  de 
veloped  by  the  action  of  a  central  force  in  the 
concentric  elementary  cylinders,  of  which  we 
may  suppose  the  gun  to  consist,  diminishes  as  the 
square  of  the  distance  from  the  axis  increases." 
Experiment  indicated  that  it  would  be  unsafe 
to  assume  the  strain  to  diminish  in  a  less  ratio. 
As  the  compressibility  of  the  metal  prevents 
the  full  development  of  both  the  transverse  and 
tangential  resistance,  only  one-third  of  the  theo 
retical  transverse  resistance  was  used  in  com 
puting  the  exterior  radii  of  the  15-inch  gun. 
The  gun  was  purposely  made  somewhat  heavier 
in  the  chase  than  the  'hypothesis  that  the  press 
ure  is  inversely  as  ^/i,  would  give  it,  with  a 
view  to  the  employment  of  charges  producing 
more  uniform  pressure,  and  consequently  greater 
pressures  in  the  chase  of  the  gun,  for  a  given 
maximum  pressure,  than  is  obtained  by  the  use 
of  ordinary  powder. 

Hodman  recommends  that  the  beginning  of 
the  taper  should  be  about  half  a  calibre  forward 
of  that  part  in  which  occurs  the  most  rapid 
diminution  which  the  law  of  pressure  would  give 
it.  The  exterior  form  and  proportions  of  the 
gun.  as  cast,  are  similar  to  those  of  the  Dahl- 
gren  gun.  The  trials  with  the  gun  were  very 
satisfactory,  and  simultaneously  with  this  result 
was  demonstrated  the  superiority  of  Rodman's 
perforated  cake  and'  very  large-grained  powder 
for  guns  of  great  calibre. 

Rifled  Cannon. — Robins,  whose  "New  Prin 
ciples  of  Gunnery"  was  published  in  1742,  recog 
nized  the  superiority  of  the  rifle  to  the  smooth 
bore,  and  his  prediction  of  advantage  to  the  state 
which  should  first  adopt  it  has  been  verified. 

In  1774,  Dr.  Linn  and  Capt.  Alexander  Blair, 
of  the  69th  Regiment  of  Foot,  invented  a  species 
of  rifled  field-pieces  of  cast  iron,  of  1  or  2  pounds 
calibre,  the  grooves — 6  in  number,  of  semicir 
cular  section,  ^  calibre  in  depth — making  one 
turn  in  the  length  of  the  bore,  22  calibres,  and 
cast  upon  the  core,  were,  at  2  calibres  from  the 
bottom  of  the  bore,  of  full  depth,  diminishing 
and  ending  at  \\  calibres  from  the  bottom. 
Bullets,  of  "lead  with  6  buttons  cast  on  them  to 
fit  the  grooves.  These  rifles  had  telescopic  sights 
with  cross-hairs  and  graduated  sectors,  and  were 
mounted  on  carriages.  It  was  then  asserted  that 
"rifled  ordnance  of  any  calibre  might  be  made 
to  carry  iron  shot  for  battering  or  for  other  pur 
poses,  provided  holes  that  are  a  little  wider  at 
their  bottom  than  at  their  upper  parts  be  cast  in 
a  zone  round  the  ball  for  receiving  afterwards 
leaden  knobs  (studs)  to  fit  the  rifles  of  the 
cannon." 

Under  Napoleon  III.,  and  in  the  light  of  what 
had  been  done  by  Wahrendorf,  Cavalli,  and 
others,  rifled  field-pieces  were  constructed  in 
France  in  1854  which,  with  improvements  sug 
gested  by  experience  in  Algeria  and  Cochin 
China,  were  employed  with  great  effect  in  the 
Italian  campaign  in  1856. 


In  1858  the  light  Armstrong  gun  was  adopted 
for  field  service  in  England.  And  in  1859  the 
Armstrong  system,  breech-loading  and  welded 
coil,  was  completely  adopted  by  the  government 
— 40-,  70-,  and  110-pounders — for  the  navy. 

The  failure  of  these  guns  as  breech-loaders  led 
to  the  substitution  of  muzzle-loaders. 

About  the  same  time  the  Russians  substituted 
Krupp's  breech-loaders  for  his  muzzle-loaders. 

Breech-loaders. — In  the  infancy  of  ordnance 
there  were  many  breech-loading  bombards,  some 
of  large  calibre  ;  but  with  the  increased  tension 
to  which  the  employment  of  iron  projectiles  gave 
rise,  the  mechanical  devices  of  that  day  were  in 
sufficient  to  resist  the  pressure,  or  to  prevent 
leakage  of  the  gas,  and  the  consequent  wear 
ing  away  and  final  yielding  of  the  fermature. 
And  although  in  more  recent  times  attempts 
were  made  to  accomplish  so  desirable  an  im 
provement,  they  met,  as  in  the  case  of  Monta- 
lembert's  wall-piece,  with  but  partial  success. 
It  was  not  until  after  1843  that  the  forms  devised 
by  Wahrendorf  and  Cavalli  were  developed. 
Nor,  until  they  were  united  and  combined  with 
the  Broadwell  gas-check  (the  principle  of  action 
of  which  under  fluid-pressure  had  been  illus 
trated  by  Bramah  in  his  invention, — the  cupped 
leather  collar  of  the  hydraulic  press),  was  it 
known  that  a  properly  constructed  breech-loader 
is  stronger  than  a  muzzle-loader  of  the  same 
calibre  with  a  solid  breech. 

Built-up  Guns. — Since  the  circumferential  ten 
sion  or  hoop-tension  in  a  hollow  cylinder  is  not 
uniformly  distributed  when  the  thickness  is  great 
as  compared  with  the  radius,  constructors  of 
guns  have  endeavored  by  special  dispositions  of 
parts  in  connection  with  different  physical  prop 
erties  of  cast  iron,  wrought  iron,  steel,  etc.,  to 
distribute  the  tension  more  uniformly.  First,  by 
subjecting  the  interior  tube  or  tubes  to  compres 
sion  under  the  permanent  tension  of  encircling 
hoops  shrunk  or  forced  on  by  pressure  ;  or  by 
the  employment  for  the  inner  tubes  of  that  metal 
which  within  its  elastic  limit  stretches  most. 

The  systems  of  "  initial  tension"  and  of  "  vary 
ing  elasticity,"  as  they  are  called,  are  employed 
separately  or  together. 

In  reinforcing  cast-iron  guns  by  rings  shrunk 
upon  them,  Capt.  Blakely  employed  the  system, 
of  initial  tension,  and  in  the  Blakely  gun  com 
bined  with  it  that  of  varying  elasticity  ;  the 
inner  tube  of  low  steel,  the  next  of  high  steel, 
over  which  an  outer  cast-iron  jacket,  to  which 
the  trunnions  were  attached,  was  placed  with 
sufficient  tension  to  make  contact. 

The  Parrott  gun  is,  in  the  words  of  its  in 
ventor,  "  a  hooped  gun  of  the  simplest  kind,  com 
posed  of  one  piece  of  cast  and  one  of  wrought 
iron.  It  has  no  taper,  no  screw,  no  successive 
layers  of  hoops." 

Parrott  guns  of  various  calibres  were  much 
used  during  the  war  1861-65.  The  30-pounder 
and  smaller  calibres  exhibited  remarkable  en 
durance. 

The  100-pounder  was  regarded  with  some  dis 
trust,  several  exploding  during  the  war.  They 
had  good  range,  were  accurate,  and  were  highly 
prized  by  the  Confederates  when  they  chanced 
to  fall  into  their  hands. 

The  Brooke  guns,  rifled,  were  of  cast  iron  re 
inforced,  during  the  first  part  of  the  war,  by  a 
single  series  of  bands,  each  2  by  6  inches,  extending 


OKDNANCE 


624 


ORDNANCE 


*  from  the  breech  to  near  the  trunnions.  Sub^e- 
quently,  the  thickness  of  cast  iron  was  reduced, 
the  cylinder  of  the  gun  extended  to  just  beyond 
the  trunnions,  and  a  second  series  of  bands  was 
shrunk  upon  the  first,  breaking  joints.  The 
trunnions  and  sight-masses  were  united  with  the 
gun  by  curves.  There  were  3  calibres  :  6.4-inch, 
7-inch,  and  8-inch.  The  7-inch  and  8-inch  were 
chambered ;  form,  frustrum  of  cone  with  hemi 
spherical  bottom.  The  bottom  of  the  bore  of  the 
6.4-inch  terminated  in  a  hemisphere.  There 
were  also  three  7-inch  rifles,  of  extra  length,  cast 
without  trunnions,  and  reinforced  by  three  series 
of  6  by  2  inches  wrought-iron  bands.  The  trun 
nions  were  forged  with  their  band  in  one  piece  or 
cast  in  bronze.  The  trunnion-band  was  slipped 
on  loosely,  the  shock  of  recoil  being  transferred 
by  a  heavy  wrought-iron  breech-strap  to  the 
trunnions  and  carriage. 

Several  10-inch  and  11-inch  guns,  cast  with 
trunnions,  but  of  extra  length,  were  reinforced 
by  two  and  three  series  of  bands,  respectively,  in 
rear  of  the  trunnions,  but  were  not  rifled.  Spher 
ical  projectiles  of  steel,  tempered  in  oil,  were 
made  abroad  for  them,  with  which  large  charges 
of  powder  were  to  be  used. 

Repeated  attempts  have  been  made  to  forge 
large  wrought-iron  guns  of  bars,  disks,  or  rings 
welded  into  a  single  piece,  capable  of  withstand 
ing  modern  charges,  but  without  success.  It  is 
impossible  to  detect  faults  of  welding  in  such 
large  masses,  and  no  confidence  can  be  placed  in 
guns  so  made  even  after  proof.  A  heavy  wrought- 
iron  gun,  forged  in  1843,  burst  on  board  the 
U.  S.  S.  "Princeton"  with  fatal  effect. 

Sir  William  Armstrong,  who,  in  1854,  proposed 
to  construct  rifle-cannon  for  the  English  govern 
ment,  succeeded  in  forming  tubes,  or  pipes,  or 
cylinders,  by  coiling  spirally  long  bars  of  iron 
into  tubes,  and  welding  them  upon  the  edges,  as 
is  done  in  gun-barrels.  Of  these  he  composed 
guns  of  great  strength.  Three  such  tubes  united 
by  welding  the  joints  were  sufficient  for  a  25- 
pounder  gun.  The  welded  coils  were  shrunk 
upon  a  steel  tube.  Subsequently,  the  inner  tube 
was  made  of  coiled  iron,  but  experience  demon 
strated  the  superiority  of  steel. 

The  9-inch  12-ton  gun  consists  of  a  solid  ended 
steel  barrel,  a  forged  breech-piece,  a  cascabel,  a 
B  tube,  a  trunnion-ring,  and  7  coils, — 12  separate 
parts.  The  breech-piece,  formed  of  wrought- 
iron  slabs  welded  together,  drawn  out,  bored, 
and  turned,  is  shrunk  upon  the  steel  tube,  tough 
ened  in  oil.  The  cascabel-screw  receives,  in 
conjunction  with  a  shoulder  at  rear  end  of 
breech-piece,  the  endway  pressure  of  the  steel 
tube.  Two  coils  welded  together  form  the  B 
tube.  The  breech-piece  and  B  coils  are  connected 
by  a  hook-joint,  the  rear  end  of  each  being  hol 
lowed  out  to  receive  a  corresponding  annular 
projection  of  the  forward  part  of  the  other. 

The  steel  tube  is  designated  by  the  letter  A ; 
the  successive  series  of  superimposed  coils  by 
the  letters  B,  C,  D,  E.  The  coils  in  each  serie's 
are  numbered  from  the  rear,  forward.  The  B 
tube  is  the  terminal  envelope  of  the  A  tube. 

In  the  100-ton  gun  the  A  tube  is  cpmposed  of 
two  parts  joined  by  a  ring.  The  forged  breech- 
piece  is  replaced  by  a  heavy  coil,  which  forms 
part  of  the  B  tube.  The  trunnions  are  shrunk 
on  the  B  tube ;  the  vent  is  axial. 

The  Frazer  gun  is  a  modification  of  the  Arm 


strong,  consisting  of  a  few  long  double  and  triple 
coils,  instead  of  several  short  single  ones,  and  a 
forged  breech-piece.  The  A  tube  of  the  English 
service  gun — Woolwich  gun — is  bored  out  of  a 
solid  hammered  ingot  of  cast  steel,  and  oil-tem 
pered.  The  B  tube  is  composed  of  two  single 
tapered  coils,  united  by  a  joint,  and  welded  end 
ways.  In  7-  and  8-inch  guns  the  breech-coil  is 
composed  of  a  triple  coil,  in  which  the  middle 
coil  is  reversed,  a  double  coil,  and  a  trunnion- 
ring.  The  forward  end  of  the  triple  coil  is 
turned  down  to  form  a  shoulder  for  the  reception 
of  the  trunnion-ring.  The  double  coil  has  a 
shoulder  at  its  rear  end  to  overlap  the  trunnion- 
ring  which  covers  the  joint.  The  three  parts 
are  then  welded  together.  The  front  of  the 
double  coil  is  recessed  to  overlap  the  B  tube, 
which  is  first  shrunk  on,  then  the  breech-coil. 
The  cascabel  is  screwed  in  and  splined.  The 
9-inch  guns  and  upwards  have  two  double  coils 
on  the  breech  instead  of  one  triple  coil.  The 
higher  calibres  have  an  intermediate  B  coil. 

In  the  80-ton  gun  there  is  a  2  B  coil  between 
the  1  B  coil  and  the  B  tube.  Over  the  rear  end 
of  the  A  tube  is  shrunk  a  breech-piece  made  of 
a  single  bar  12  inches  thick.  The  C  coil  is  a 
double  coil,  and  carries  the  trunnions. 

The  metal  of  the  Whitworth  gun  is  obtained 
by  melting  short  bars  of  Swedish  iron  with  a 
small  quantity  of  carbonaceous  matter  in  cruci 
bles  and  casting  in  round  ingots,  which  are  sub 
jected  to  hydraulic  pressure  while  fluid.  The 
smaller  guns  are  forged  solid  ;  the  large  built  up. 
The  barrel  is  an  ingot  cast  hollow  and  hammered 
on  a  mandrel ;  the  hoops,  also  cast  hollow,  are 
hammered  or  rolled,  annealed  and  screwed  to 
gether  to  form  tubes,  which  are  bored  with  a 
slight  taper,  and  forced  one  over  the  other  by 
hydraulic  pressure.  In  the  larger  guns  the 
breech  is  hooped  with  a  higher  steel  than  the 
barrel.  The  breech-.screw  is  made  with  offsets 
to  screw  into  the  barrel  and  the  two  adjoining 
hoops.  The  bore  is  approximately  a  twisted 
prism  of  hexagonal  base,  the  angles  rounded  off, 
the  middle  part  of  each  face  coincident  with  the 
original  circular  bore.  To  facilitate  loading, 
that  portion  of  each  half-side  of  the  hexagonal 
bore  of  the  gun  on  which  the  right  half-side  of 
the  projectile  bears  as  it  goes  in  is  removed, 
thus  enabling  it  to  enter  with  a  loose  fit.  In 
leaving,  it  bears  on  the  sides  which  have  not 
been  eased  off,  and  the  projectile  issues  with  its 
axis  in  line  with  that  of  the  piece. 

In  the  120-pounder  the  diameter  across  flats  is 
6.4  inches,  across  angles,  7  inches ;  length,  144 
inches  ;  windage  in  going  in,  .06  inch  ;  weight, 
16,660  pounds;  twist,  one  turn  in  130  inches; 
weight  of  charge,  27  pounds ;  projectile,  151 
pounds;  length  of  projectile,  20.5  inches;  burst 
ing  charge  of  shell,  5  pounds.  It  is  very  accu 
rate,  has  great  range  and  penetration. 

The  Lancaster  gun,  patented  in  1850,  of  ellip 
tical  bore  and  increasing  twist,  failed  in  service, 
the  projectiles  exerting  a  wedging  action. 

The  first  Krupp  guns  were  made  of  single  in 
gots  of  cast  steel  forged  under  heavy  hammers, 
but  it  was  found  necessary  to  reinforce  them  by 
hoops  of  steel  shrunk  on  ;  the  6-inch  guns  having 
one  set,  the  8-  and  9-inch  two,  the  11-inch  and 
higher  calibres  three. 

The  tube  is  cylindrical,  eight-tenths  of  a  calibre 
thick  from  a  point  over  the  middle  of  the  charge 


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625 


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to  that  at  which  the  rings  terminate,  thence  to 
the  muzzle  conical,  diminishing  to  £  calibre. 
The  rifling  is  poly-grooved;  the  width  of  grooves 
diminishes  as  they  approach  the  muzzle.  The 
chamber  is  of  larger  diameter  than  the  bore,  its 
axis  above  that  of  the  rifled  part.  The  rear  of 
the  chamber  is  reamed  out  spherically,  and  in 
this  recess  is  fitted  a  Broadwell  ring  whose  ex 
terior  is  also  a  spherical  segment.  A  slot  cut  in 
the  rear  end  of  the  tube  receives  the  breech-block, 
so  guided  that  a  motion  of  translation  in  or  out 
gives  to  the  front  face  of  the  block  a  movement 
forward  or  to  the  rear  parallel  to  itself;  so  that 
the  block  whose  front,  top,  and  bottom  are  plane 
surfaces,  its  rear  rounded  off,  is,  when  screwed 
on,  well  supported  from  behind  by  the  corre 
spondingly  inclined  rear  face  of  the  slot.  The 
motion  of  translation  is  given  to  the  block  by  a 
screw  which  runs  partly  in  a  thread  cut  in  the 
upper  wall  of  the  slot.  The  locking  is  effected 
by  a  screw  working  in  a  nut  having  rings  on  its 
exterior  partially  cut  away,  which  take  in  scores 
cut  in  the  solid  mass  at  the  rear  of  the  slot. 

The  vent  is  through  the  breech-block  in  the 
axis  of  the  bore  terminating  on  the  face-plate. 
Steel  and  chilled  projectiles  are  used ;  those  of 
steel  have  their  points  water- tempered.  They 
were  formerly  coated  with  lead,  but  rotation  is 
now  given  by  a  band  of  copper  which  encircles 
the  projectile  near  its  base,  being  forced  by 
pressure  into  a  groove  undercut  for  its  recep 
tion.  The  band  serves  also  as  a  gas-check.  In 
some  projectiles  there  is  a  second  band  at  the 
forward  part  of  the  cylinder,  which,  without 
entering  the  grooves,  steadies  the  projectile. 
Krupp's  system  is  also  applied  to  rifled  mortars. 

The  Vavasseur  guns,  excepting  the  trunnions, 
are  of  mild  cast  steel. 

Upon  a  tube  tempered  in  oil  is  shrunk  a  jacket 
extending  from  the  breech  to  a  short  distance 
forward  of  the  trunnions  and  the  chase-hoops. 
The  trunnion-band  and  the  forward  and  rear 
hoops,  in  short  lengths  of  from  6  to  8  inches,  are 
shrunk  on.  The  rifling  on  the  rib  system  is  a 
modification  of  that  proposed  by  Lynafl  Thomas. 
The  projectile  has  3  corresponding  grooves.  The 
twist  1  turn  in  30  calibres  for  all  calibres.  A 
breech-plug  screwed  into  the  rear  end  of  the 
jacket  supports  the  tube.  The  vent  is  two-fifths 
of  the  length  of  the  cartridge  from  the  bottom 
of  the  bore. 

In  the  9-inch  gun  two  series  of  hoops  are  shrunk 
upon  the  jacket.  In  the  12-inch  the  hoops  are 
first  shrunk  one  over  the  other,  forming  a  com 
pound  hoop,  which  is  then  shrunk  upon  the  gun. 

Breech-loading  cast-iron  guns,  hooped  with 
steel,  were  introduced  into  the  French  navy 
about  1860.  In  1871  the  system  in  use  was 
adopted :  calibres,  5.46  inches,  7.32  inches,  9.36 
inches,  and  12.48  inches. 

The  guns  of  gray  iron,  2d  fusion,  are  cast 
hollow,  chase  down,  and  cooled  from  within 
first  with  air,  then  water.  A  tube  of  Bessemer 
steel,  forged  and  tempered  in  oil,  has  welded  on 
its  rear  end  a  collar  which  screws  into  the  cast 
iron,  and  inside  of  which  is  the  thread  for  the 
breech-screw.  The  casting  is  shrunk  upon  the 
tube,  which  does  not  extend  the  whole  length  of 
the  bore,  and  there  is  difficulty  in  making  the 
joint  tight.  Hoops  of  mild  steel,  upon  one  of 
which  the  trunnions  are  forged,  are  shrunk  upon 
the  gun.  The  large  calibres  have  two  series  of 
40 


hoops,  breaking  joints.  The  Broadwell  ring  and 
the  slotted  screw-plug  are  employed.  An  annu 
lar  space  about  the  breech-plug  in  rear  of  the 
gas-check,  formed  by  the  suppression  of  both 
threads  of  the  screws  for  a  length  of  about  half  a 
calibre,  which  was  provided  to  receive  residuum, 
has  also  the  important  effect  of  transferring  the 
longitudinal  pressure  to  a  point  somewhat  re 
moved  from  that  part  of  the  gun  which  is  sub 
jected  to  radial  pressures. 

The  screw  is  turned  with  the  aid  of  a  crank, 
and  retained  by  a  catch  when  the  breech  is  closed. 
On  withdrawal  the  plug  slides  on  to  a  covered 
bracket,  hinged  to  the  right  side  of  the  breech, 
on  which  it  is  swung  around,  leaving  the  breech 
clear.  A  bronze  bearer  hinged  to  the  left  side 
of  the  breech  facilitates  loading. 

To  utilize  the  heavy  cast-iron  guns  made  be 
fore  the  development  of  the  power  of  the  rifle, 
several  methods  have  been  proposed  and  success 
fully  applied. 

Parson's  System  of  Conversion. — A  steel  tube 
with  jacket  of  steel  shrunk  on  the  breech  part, 
the  whole  inserted  under  pressure  from  rear  of 
iron  casting.  A  steel  plug  is  screwed  into  the 
steel  jacket  against  the  rear  of  the  tube,  the 
breech  being  closed  by  a  cast-iron  screw-plug. 

Palliser  System. — A  coiled  wrought-iron  tube 
consisting  of  two  thin  bands,  the  outer  shorter 
than  the  inner  one,  upon  breech  end  of  which  it 
is  shrunk.  The  tube  is  closed  by  a  solid  wrought- 
iron  breech-screw.  The  tube  and  the  bore  of 
the  gun  are  slightly  tapered.  The  tube  is  re 
tained  in  place  by  a  screw  locking-ring  at  the 
muzzle,  and  by  a  screw  through  the  cast  iron 
just  forward  of  the  trunnions.  Full  and  concise 
descriptions  of  these  various  systems  of  construc 
tion,  in  connection  with  the  principles  involved, 
are  given  in  Cooke's  "  Naval  Ordnance  and  Gun 
nery,"  a  standard  work. 

Rifle  projectiles,  generally  cylindro-conoidal 
in  form,  designed  to  penetrate  armor,  are  of  tem 
pered  steel,  or  of  cast  iron  with  chilled  heads. 
The  shells  without  fuzes,  the  shock  of  impact 
igniting  the  charge. 

The  different  methods  of  imparting  rotation  to 
the  projectile  may  be  classified  as  follows : 

1st.  By  knobs  (studs)  or  flanges  of  greater  or 
less  leng*th,  of  soft  metal,  rigidly  attached  and 
guided  by  the  riflings,  by  ribs  in  the  bore,  and 
corresponding  grooves  in  the  projectile. 

In  bores  not  of  circular  section,  by  giving  the 
projectile  a  corresponding  cross-section,  as  in  the 
Lancaster  and  Whitworth  systems. 

2d.  By  the  expansion  into  the  grooves  of  a  por 
tion  of  the  projectile,  or  of  an  attached  cup,  ring, 
or  rings  of  copper  or  composition,  by  lateral 
pressure  of  the  gases,  accompanied  in  less  degree 
by  lateral  extension  of  the  mass  under  compres 
sion  between  the  gases  and  rounded  base  of  the 
projectile  ;  or  by  the  compression  of  metal  of  such 
plastic  nature  as  lead,  either  as  a  cylindrical  mass 
attached  to  the  rounded  base  of  the  projectile,  or 
as  a  ring  about  its  middle  part  compressed  be 
tween  a  shoulder  in  front  and  the  forward  part 
of  a  hard  metal  cap  driven  by  the  gases  over  the 
reduced  cylindrical  rear  part  of  the  projectile,  as 
in  the  Hotchkiss  system. 

3d.  By  the  compression  of  enveloping  coats  or 
rings  of  soft  metal,  lead,  copper,  etc.,  larger  than 
the  bore,  through  which  the  projectile  is  forced. 
The  rings  are  sometimes  undercut  to  obtain  radial 


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626 


ORDNANCE 


pressures  and  quick  gas-check  action.     This  sys 
tem  is  employed  only  with  breech-loaders. 

The  knob  of  lead  was  employed  in  England  in 
1774  by  Dr.  Linn  and  Capt.  Blair. 

"Wahrendorf,  before  1843,  applied  lead  coatings 
to  spherical  shot,  and  in  1851  to  cylindro-conic 
projectiles,  the  lead  being  maintained  in  place 
by  grooves  in  the  surface  of  the  projectile  around 
Une  cylinder,  and  others  in  the  direction  of  the 
riflings.  Subsequently  he  substituted  three  rings 
of  Wd;  the  forward  ring  being  generally  torn, 
he  added  a  fourth  of  the  same  diameter  as  the 
bore,  to  insure  coincidence  of  axes. 

Cavalli  employed  iron  projectiles  with  two 
flanges  or  wings  inclined  to  suit  the  grooves,  and 
two  others  at  the  junction  of  the  cylindrical  and 
conical  parts  to  steady  the  projectile  in  the  bore ; 
their  windage  .015  inch. 

Experiments  in  France  and  Belgium  led  to 
increasing  tke  number  of  grooves  and  the  sub 
stitution  of  pairs  of  buttons  for  the  flanges.  In 
1855,  in  England,  Mr.  Bashley  Britten  and  Mr. 
Lynall  Thomas  each  took  out  patents  for  a  coni 
cal  cast-iron  projectile  having  attached  to  it,  in 
the  rear,  a  hollow  belt  of  lead  or  other  soft  metal. 

Mr.  Jeffery  about  the  same  time  produced  a 
projectile  for  cannon  much  on  the  plan  of  a  Minie 
bullet  for  small-arms.  Mr.  Hadden,  from  a  gun 
with  3  circular  grooves,  fired  a  non-expanding 
projectile  cast  with  studs  corresponding  to  the 
grooves.  Gommander  Scott,  of  the  royal  navy, 
recommended  one  with  ribs  or  "  wings,"  with 
long  bearings.  Various  modes  of  rifling  Avere  ex 
hibited.  Various  modifications  of  grooves,  broad 
and  shallow,  angular  and  deep;  and  in  one,  rota 
tion  was  imparted  by  ribs  which  fitted  into  cor 
responding  grooves  in  the  projectile.  Armstrong 
employed  lead  coatings  for  his  breech-loaders. 

In  the  United  States,  Dr.  Reed,  of  Alabama, 
attached  a  cupped  ring  of  wrought  iron  to  the 
rear  part  of  an  elongated  projectile,  the  metal 
cast  upon  it.  Its  diameter  was  the  same  as  that 
qf  the  projectile;  its  exterior  cylindrical.  It 
took  the  grooves,  but  the  cast  iron  of  the  projec 
tile  was  spalled  off  by  the  pressure  of  the  face  of 
the  imbedded  ring.  The  cup  was  then  made 
with  an  entire  bottom,  with  several  holes  bored 
through  it  to  permit  the  passage  of  the  molten 
metal.  The  exterior  opposing  edges  of  the 
wrought  and  cast  iron  were  beveled  off. 

The  cups  were  punched  by  machinery  out  of 
a  piece  of  sfeeet-iron,  and  finally  assumed  the 
form  of  a  thin  conoidal  segment,  with  its  forward 
end  imbedded  in  the  base  of  the  shell  at  some 
distance  from  the  exterior  of  the  cylinder.  This 
obviated  the  necassity  of  beveling  the  rear  edge 
of  the  projectile,  but  the  imbedded  part,  lying  in 
a  plane  of  weakness,  rendered  its  employment 
dangerous  in  large  guns,  although  successfully 
employed  in  small  field-pieces. 

Early  in  the  war  of  1861-65  there  appeared  in 
the  Confederate  States  a  bronze  or  copper  sabot 
in  the  form  of  a  comparatively  thick  spherical 
segment  secured  by  a  central  screw,  and  held 
firmly  by  three  projections  from  the  convex 
face  of  the  plate,  extending  into  holes  in  the  face 
of  the  projectile,  or  by  three  projections  from 
the  projectile  extending  through  the  plate.  The 
pressure  of  the  gases  flattens  the  plate,  increasing 
its  diameter,  and  thus  causing  it  to  take  the 
grooves.  It  was  called  the  "  Tennessee"  sabot, 
the  name  of  its  designer  being  unknown,  and  it 


was  applied  by  army  and  navy  to  projectiles  for 
heavy  guns. 

In  the  latter  part  of  1862,  when,  in  conse 
quence  of  the  dearth  of  steel,  solid  projectiles  for 
navy  rifled  guns  were  forged  of  wrought  iron, 
an  annular  groove  was  turned  in  the  base  of  each, 
forming  a  lip,  which  was  found  to  take  the  groove 
as  does  a  Minie  bullet,  and  to  cut  off  the  escape 
of  gas.  Some  of  the  8-inch  bolts  having  been 
made  of  bars  welded  longitudinally,  it  was 
thought  they  might  split  in  the  bore  of  the  gun. 
To  obviate  this  the  ratchet-sabot  was  devised. 
It  consists  of  a  cupped  bronze  or  copper  plate, 
with  a  thin  cylindrical  lip,  which,  like  that  of 
the  bolt,  takes  the  grooves,  and  cuts  off  the 
escape  of  the  gas.  The  name  "  ratchet-sabot"  sim 
ply  indicates  the  mode  of  attachment.  The  base 
of  the  projectile  is  divided  into  several  equal 
sectors,  usually  seven,  their  surfaces  so  inclined 
to  its  axis  as  to  form  seven  oblique  radial  de 
pressions,  each  bounded  on  the  right  by  a 
shoulder,  increasing  in  depth  with  the  distance 
from  the  axis.  The  shoulder  is  made  slightly 
concave. 

The  sabot  of  corresponding  form,  cast  to  fit, 
and  in  close  contact,  is  secured  by  a  central 
screw,  one  screw  being  sufficient  for  8-inch  pro 
jectiles.  Trial  having  shown  its  superior  effi 
ciency  it  was  adopted  for  all  cast-iron  projectiles 
employed  in  the  Confederate  navy.  The  first 
made  were  heavy,  but  experiment  having  shown 
that  the  weight  could  be  advantageously  reduced, 
they  were  subsequently  made  much  lighter.  De 
scriptions  and  accurate  drawings  of  nearly  all  the 
rifled  projectiles  used  by  the  armies  in  Virginia 
are  given  in  "  Professional  Paper  No.  14,  Corps  of 
Engineers,"  by  Gen.  H.  L.  Abbot,  U.  S.  army. 

By  experiments  made  at  Charleston,  in  Octo 
ber,  1863,  with  a  123-inch  Blakely  rifle,  fired 
with  charges  of  from  30  to  55  pounds  of  powder 
placed  in  front  of  a  chamber  26  inches  long  and 
6.2  inches  in  diameter,  and  by  experiments  made 
at  Augusta  Arsenal,  in  March,  1864,  by  a  board 
of  artillery  officers,  "  the  fact  was  clearly  estab 
lished  that  the  common  opinion  as  to  the  danger 
incurred  on  the  displacement  of  the  projectile 
from  the  charge  is  without  sufficient  foundation  ; 
that  the  maximum  strain  on  the  gun  is  experi 
enced  when  the  projectile  is  closely  rammed 
home  on  the  charge,  the  latter  being  packed  and 
fitting  the  bore  ;  that  as  the  projectile  is  removed 
from  the  charge  towards  the  muzzle  the  strain 
decreases,  and  is  at  its  lowest  point  when  it  is  at 
or  near  the  muzzle  itself." 

This  important  discovery  directed  attention  to 
the  utility  of  the  "  air-space"  as  a  means  of  di 
minishing  initial  pressure  with  increased  charges, 
by  which,  when  applied  in  bores  of  length  suffi 
cient  to  afford  time  for  the  action  of  a  sustained 
impulsive  force,  extraordinary  initial  velocities 
have  been  obtained.  In  recent  experiments  at 
Shoeburyness  (May,  1880)  with  an  8-inch  rifle, 
charge  90  pounds  of  powder,  and  shell  of  184 
pounds,  a  velocity  of  2300  feet  was  given.  With 
a  shell  of  new  form  a  velocity  of  3000  feet  is  said 
to  have  been  obtained.  The  employment  of 
enlarged  chambers  is  now  general. 

Under  the  direction  of  the  Bureau  of  Ordnance, 
100-ponnder  and  60-pounder  Parrott  guns  have 
been  tubed  and  converted  into  6.4-inch  and  5.3- 
inch  breech-loaders  on  the  French  system  ;  11- 
inch  Dahlgren  guns  into  muzzle-loading  rifles, 


OKDNANCE 


627 


ORGANIZATION 


adding  25  per  cent,  to  the  power  of  the  gun  at 
the  muzzle  and  doubling  it  at  1000  yards.  Sim 
ilar  conversions  of  columbiads  have  been  made, 
and  also  applications  of  Krupp's  system  of  ferma- 
ture.  Several  rifles  of  large  calibre,  designed  in 
accordance  with  indications  afforded  by  the  most 
recent  developments  abroad  and  in  this  country, 
are  to  be  constructed. 

In  1880,  Col.  T.  T.  S.  Laidley,  Ordnance 
Department,  U.S.A.,  made  some  experiments 
on  the  resistance  of  cast-iron,  thick,  hollow, 
cylinders,  lined  with  tubes  of  different  thickness 
of  metals,  to  an  interior  pressure.  The  cast  iron 
was  a  cold-blast,  charcoal-iron  having  a  tensile 
strength  of  30,000  pounds  per  square  inch,  and 
great  extensibility.  The  cylinders  were  all  cast 
from  the  same  furnace  of  metal,  and  were  22 
inches  in  length  and  11  inches  in  diameter. 
They  were  bored  out  to  a  diameter  of  3.5,  4.3, 
and  5.1  inches  respectively,  leaving  a  solid  breech 
of  5.5  inches,  except  two  of  the  first  series,  which 
were  bored  through,  and  the  breech  closed  with 
a  screw-plug  5.5  inches  long.  Three  of  the  cyl 
inders  were  lined  with  copper  tubes  0.1  inch 
thick,  two  with  brass  tubes  .5  inch  thick,  and 
three  with  coiled  wrought-iron  (Ulster)  tubes,  .9 
inch  thick,  leaving  the  bores  3.3  inches  in  di 
ameter.  The  bores  were  filled  with  beeswax  to 
a  depth  of  10  inches;  a  copper  ring  similar  to 
the  Broadwell  gas-check  placed  on  the  beeswax, 
and  a  steel  piston  on  top  of  it.  The  base  of  the 
cylinder  rested  against  the  beam  of  the  testing- 
machine,  and  the  piston  was  forced  in  till  the 
cylinders  were  burst.  The  bursting  strains  were 
in  direct  proportion  to  the  area  of  cast  iron  in 
the  longitudinal  section  through  the  axis. 

No.  2  took  a  permanent  enlargement  of  the 
bore  of  0.187  inch,  and  an  increase  of  0.078  inch 
in  the  diameter  of  the  exterior,  without  breaking 
or  showing  any  sign  of  a  crack. 

Dimensions  of  Cylinders  and  Bursting  Strains. 


Lining. 

Thickness  of 
Cast-Iron  Walls. 

Bursting 
Strain. 

Kind  of. 

Thickness. 

Copper  

Inches. 
O.I 
O.I 
01 
0.5 
0.5 
0.9 
0.9 
0.9 

Inches. 
3.746 
3.746 
3.746 
3.343 
3.347 
2.945 
2.945 
2.943 

Pounds. 
792,500 
769,200!= 
737,600 
635,500 
687,900 
660,-200 
735,400 
698,100 

Copper  

Bionze  
Bronze  
Wrought  iron 
Wrought  iron 
Wrought  iron 

While  foreign  states,  recognizing  the  superior 
ity  of  the  rifle,  have  augmented  the  power  of  their 
armaments,  the  United  States  have  deferred  ac 
tion  until  costly  experiments  and  competitive 
trials  abroad  have  developed  all  that  is  necessary 
to  be  known  in  order  to  construct  ordnance  of  a 
permanent  character. 

A  point  has  now  been  reached  from  which  a 
just  departure  may  be  taken,  and  it  only  remains 
for  the  government,  in  making  the  necessary  ap 
propriations,  to  give  the  ordnance  of  this  coun 
try  a  relative  efficiency  not  less  than  it  possessed 
before  the  advent  of  the  breech-loading  rifle. — 
J.  M.  Brooke. 

*  Diameter  of  bore  of  lining,  3.4  inches ;  the  others,  3.3 
inches. 


ORDNANCE-HOY.  A  hulk  expressly  fitted  for 
transporting  ordnance  stores. 

Organization.  The  navy  is  organized  as  a 
department  under  the  Executive  of  the  nation. 
The  President  is  by  the  Constitution  the  com- 
mander-in-chief  of  the  navy.  He  is  represented 
by  a  Secretary,  who  is  an  officer  of  the  Cabinet. 
To  aid  the  Secretary  in  carrying  out  his  duties 
the  business  of  the  Department  is  divided  under 
eight  permanent  bureaus.  Each  bureau  is  pre 
sided  over  by  an  officer  of  the  navy,  who,  if 
below  the  grade  of  commodore,  is  given  that 
grade  or  its  relative  rank  whilst  in  office. 

The  bureaus  are  those  of: 

Ordnance. — Charged  with  the  administration 
of  everything  pertaining  to  the  armament  of 
ships,  including  the  experimental  battery  at 
Annapolis,  torpedo  school  at  Newport,  and  nitre 
beds  at  Maiden.  This  bureau  is  represented  on 
shore,  at  dock-yards  and  manufactories,  by  in 
spectors  and  assistant  inspectors  of  ordnance, 
and  at  sea  by  the  ordnance-officers  and  gunners 
of  ships. 

Equipment  and  Recruiting. — Charged  with  the 
canvas,  rigging,  and  general  equipment  of  ships, 
including  coals  and  wood.  The  enlistment,  ser 
vice,  discharge,  re-enlistment,  burial,  and  organ 
ization  of  the  men,  including  the  apprentice 
system,  and  receiving-ships  or  barracks.  This 
bureau  is  represented  on  shore,  at  dock-yards  by 
the  equipment-officer,  by  the  commanding  and 
executive  officers  of  receiving-ships  or  barracks, 
by  the  officers  detailed  for  recruiting  duty,  and 
by  such  officers  as  may  be  appointed  as  special 
inspectors  of  equipment ;  at  sea  by  the  equip 
ment-officers  of  ships,  the  boatswains  and  sail- 
makers. 

Navigation. — Charged  with  the  administration 
of  everything  pertaining  to  the  navigation  of 
ships,  including  the  Hydrographic  Office,  Signal 
Office,  Naval  Observatory,  Nautical  Almanac 
Office,  and  Office  of  Detail,  from  which  orders 
are  issued  to  officers  for  service  and  in  which  the 
officers'  rolls  are  kept.  At  dock-yards  this  bureau 
is  represented  by  the  navigation-officer,  and  at 
sea  by  the  navigating  officers  of  ships.  Scientific 
expeditions  are  usually  under  its  direction. 

Yards  and  Docks. — Charged  with  the  admin 
istration  of  everything  connected  with  buildings, 
wharves,  docks,  streets,  railways,  and  such  other 
government  property  of  a  permanent  nature  as 
may  be  at  any  of  the  naval  stations.  In  addition 
to  the  foregoing,  this  bureau  is  charged  with  the 
direction  of  the  Naval  Asylum,  and,  at  navy- 
yards,  is  represented  by  the  civil  engineers. 

Medicine  and  Surgery. — Charged  with  the  ad 
ministration  of  everything  connected  with  the 
hygiene  and  surgery  of  the  service,  including 
the  naval  hospitals,  sick  quarters,  and  naval 
laboratory.  This  bureau  is  represented  on  ser 
vice  by  the  officers  of  the  medical  corps.  _ 

Provisions  and  Clothing. — Charged  with  the 
provisioning  and  clothing  of  the  navy.  This 
bureau  is  represented  by  the  officers  of  the  pay 
corps,  who  are  besides  charged  with  the  care  of 
all  funds  which  may  be  placed  in  their  hands  by 
the  Treasury  Department  for  the  use  of  the  navy, 
accounting  for  the  same  to  the  Second  Comp 
troller,  and  Fourth  Auditor  of  that  Department. 

Steam  Engineering. — Charged  with  the  admin 
istration  of  everything  connected  with  the  steam 
machinery  of  ships.  This  bureau  is  represented 


ORGANIZATION 


628 


ORGANIZATION 


on  shore  and  afloat  by  the  officers  of  the  engineer 
corps. 

Construction  and  Repair. — Charged  with  the 
construction  and  repair  of  the  hulls,  decks,  bulk 
heads,  spars,  and  boats  of  vessels.  This  bureau 
is  represented  at  dock-yards  by  naval  construc 
tors,  and  at  sea  by  the  executive-officers  and  car 
penters  of  ships. 

The  office  of  judge-advocate-general  is  to  be 
charged  with  the  administration  of  naval  justice. 
See  JUDGE-ADVOCATE-GENERAL. 

The  Secretary  is  assisted  in  his  legal  decisions 
by  an  officer  detailed  from  the  Attorney-General's 
Office,  and  in  his  pecuniary  ones  by  the  Second 
Comptroller  of  the  Treasury. 

The  shore  stations,  consisting  of  the  navy-yards 
at  Portsmouth,  N.  H.,  Boston,  Mass.,  New  York, 
N.  Y.,  League  Island,  Pa.,  Washington,  D.  C., 
Norfolk,  Va.,  Pensacola,  Fla.,  and  Mare  Island, 
Cal.,  and  the  Naval  Academy  at  Annapolis,  Md., 
are  commanded  by  officers  detailed  as  comman 
dants,  who  are  directly  responsible  to  the  Secre 
tary  of  the  Navy.  All  the  bureaus  are  repre 
sented  at  the  yards  as  has  been  stated.  There 
are  besides  the  naval  stations  at  New  London 
and  Port  Royal. 

The  marine  corps  is  commanded  by  a  colonel 
commandant.  This  officer  commands  the  marines, 
and  has  charge  of  their  detailing  for  sea-service, 
quartering,  commissariat,  clothing,  and  pay,  be 
ing  assisted  by  officers  of  the  corps.  He  has 
entire  control  of  the  marine  barracks  at  Wash 
ington,  D.  C.,  and  controls  those  at  the  naval 
station  under  the  commandants  of  the  yards. 

Many  officers  of  the  navy  are  detailed  for  duty 
under  the  Treasury  Department,  occupying  posi 
tions  in  the  Light-House  and  Coast  Survey  De 
partments. 

The  officers  of  the  navy  are  divided  among 
the  line,  and  the  medical,  pay,  engineer,  and 
construction  corps.  There  are  besides  chaplains, 
professors,  civil  engineers,  and  the  officers  of 
the  marine  corps. 

The  cruising  navy  is  divided  into  five  squad 
rons,  each  commanded  by  a  flag-officer,  who 
hoists  his  flag  on  board  one  of  the  vessels  of  his 
squadron. 

Each  flag-officer  has  certain  officers  detailed 
to  act  as  his  personal  staff,  accompanying  him  in 
case  he  shifts  his  flag.  There  are  two  lieutenants 
who  act  as  flag-lieutenant  and  secretary,  and 
several  lieutenants  and  junior  officers  as  aids; 
the  number  and  rank  depending  on  the  size  of 
the  squadron. 

The  general  staff,  who  also  perform  duty  as 
officers  of  the  flag-ship  in  small  squadrons  in 
peace-time,  are  a  chief-of-staff  (commanding 
officer),  a  fleet-surgeon,  a  fleet-paymaster,  a  fleet- 
engineer,  and  a  fleet  marine  officer.  In  war-time 
the  general  staff  would  always  accompany  the 
flag-officer. 

The  organization  of  a  ship  of  war  is  as  fol 
lows  : 

A  commanding  officer,  who  is  responsible  for 
and  commands  the  ship  and  everything  in  her. 

An  aid  or  executive  to  the  commanding  officer, 
who  assists  him  in  his  duties,  and  takes  special 
charge  of  everything  belonging  to  the  Bureaus 
of  Equipment  and  Recruiting,  and  Construc 
tion. 

A  navigator,  who  assists  the  commanding  offi 
cer  in  navigating  the  ship,  and  takes  special 


charge  of  everything  belonging  to  the  Bureaus 
of  Navigation  and  Ordnance. 

Watch- and  division-officers,  who  carry  on  the 
routine  of  the  ship,  representing  the  command 
ing  officer,  in  turn,  on  the  deck  of  the  ship. 

Officers  of  the  forecastle  and  midshipmen  of 
the  watch,  who  assist  the  watch-officers  in  all 
their  duties. 

Assistant  navigators,  who  assist  the  navigator. 

Aid  to  the  commanding  officer. 

Mates  of  decks,  holds,  and  hull,  who  have 
charge,  under  the  executive-  and  watch-officers, 
of  the  parts  of  the  ship  named. 

A  medical  officer  and  one  or  more  assistants, 
who  attend  to  the  sick  and  wounded. 

An  engineer  and  assistants,  who  have  charge 
of  the  engines  and  boilers. 

A  paymaster,  assisted  by  a  clerk,  who  has 
charge  of  the  clothing  and  provisions  in  store, 
issuing  them  on  requisition.  He  also  pays  the 
officers  and  men,  and  has  charge  of  the  disburse 
ment  of  the  moneys  expended  by  the  representa 
tives  of  the  different  bureaus. 

A  marine  officer,  who  commands  the  marine- 
guard. 

A  chaplain. 

A  gunner,  a  boatswain,  a  sailmaker,  and  a 
carpenter  also  form  part  of  the  complement  of 
large  ships. 

The  organization  of  the  crew  is  based  on  the 
necessities  of  the  ship  when  under  sail  and  steam, 
slightly  modified  in  vessels  of  peculiar  rig  to  suit 
the  requirements  of  the  battery. — Theodore  B. 
M.  Mason,  Lieutenant  U.S.N. 

Organization,  when  referred  to  in  works  on 
seamanship,  relates  to  the  organization  of  a  ship's 
company.  The  duties  of  officers  on  board  ship 
are  clearly  defined  by  regulations.  But  the 
crew,  composed  of  able  seamen,  ordinary  sea 
men,  landsmen,  and  boys,  many  of  them  utter 
strangers  to  one  another  and  to  the  officers,  of 
some  foreigners,  of  merchant-sailors  unaccus 
tomed  to  the  routine  of  a  ship-of-war,  of  others 
again  totally  ignorant  of  a  ship  of  any  kind, 
forms  altogether  a  motley  crowd  which  must 
be  "  sorted  out,"  as  it  were,  and  the  work  of  the 
ship,  as  a  powerful  engine  of  war,  so  distributed 
among  them  that,  each  one  acting  the  part  as 
signed  him,  the  daily  routine  may  be  performed 
efficiently  and  expeditiously.  The  organization 
and  the  routine,  together  with  the  drills  and  ex 
ercises  which  form  their  principal  feature,  all 
have  for  their  ultimate  object  a  state  of  prepara 
tion  for  immediate  battle. 

The  first  step  is  the  selection  of  a  good  corps 
of  petty  officers, — boatswain's  mates,  quarter 
masters,  quarter-gunners,  coxswains,  captains  of 
the  five  "parts  of  the  ship"  (forecastle,  fore-, 
niain-,  and  mizzen-tops,  and  after-guard),  cap 
tain  of  the  holds,  etc.  Next  come  the  able  sea 
men,  who  are  selected  according  to  their  age  and 
build,  for  the  forecastle  and  tops,  the  younger  and 
lighter  being  stationed  aloft.  The  ordinary  sea 
men  are  mostly  stationed  aloft,  while  the  lands 
men  and  boys  are  distributed  nearly  equally 
among  the  different  parts  of  the  ship,  with  the 
exception  of  the  after-guard,  where  the  landsmen 
are  in  excess.  The  petty  officers  being  culled 
out,  we  next  proceed  to  make  out  the  watch-bill, 
which  forms  the  basis  of  the  organization  The 
entire  crew  is  divided  into  two  watches, — star 
board  and  port, — taking  care  in  doing  so  that  the 


ORGANIZATION 


629 


OSCILLATING-PISTON  ENGINE 


intelligence  and  physical  force  shall  be  equally 
distributed  between*  the  two.  Each  member  of 
the  crew  has  his  watch  number,  the  odd  numbers 
belonging  to  the  starboard  watch,  the  even  to  the 
port.  Thus,  beginning  with  the  forward  part  of 
the  ship,  the  captain  of  the  starboard  watch  of 
forecastle  is  No.  1  on  the  watch-bill ;  the  captain 
of  the  port  watch  of  forecastle  No.  2,  and  so  on 
through  the  ship's  company.  Each  watch  is 
divided  into  two  equal  parts,  called  respectively 
first  and  second  parts,  each  part  being  headed  by 
a  captain.  Thus  we  have  the  second  captain  of 
the  starboard  watch  of  forecastle  in  charge  of  the 
second  part  of  starboard  watch  of  forecastle-men, 
and  so  on  for  each  part.  These  subdivisions  are 
called  quarter-watches.  Having  completed  the 
watch-bill,  we  next  fill  out  the  quarter-bill, — i.e., 
station  the  crew  at  the  guns  and  in  the  different 
parts  of  the  ship,  with  a  view  to  battle.  The 
guns'  crews  for  the  odd-numbered  guns  are  se 
lected  from  the  starboard  watch  (referring  to 
ships  carrying  their  batteries  in  broadside) ;  the 
first  part  of  the  gun's  crew,  when  preparing  for 
battle,  casting  loose  and  providing  the  starboard 
gun  of  the  pair,  the  second  part  "the  port.  The 
port  watch  man  the  even-numbered  guns,  the 
first  part  of  each  gun's  crew  casting  loose  and 
providing  the  port  gun  of  the  pair,  the  second 
part  the  starboard.  One-half  of  each  gun's  crew 
are  riflemen,  provided  with  the  most  approved 
pattern  of  rifles,  and  one-half  are  boarders,  pro 
vided  with  cutlasses  and  pistols.  There  are  also 
wreck-clearer s,  who,  when  called  upon,  leave  their 
guns  and  assist  in  the  management  of  the  ship  ; 
and  firemen  and  pumpmen,  whose  duties  are  sug 
gested  by  the  names.  In  addition  to  the  gun 
divisions,  there  are  the  powder  division,  for  sup 
plying  ammunition,  the  navigator's  division 
(under  which  come  the  steering  of  the  ship,  the 
handling  of  sails,  spars,  and  rigging,  the  repair 
ing  of  damages,  etc.),  the  engineer's  division, 
and  the  surgeon's  division.  The  marines  form 
a  division  by  themselves.  The  fire-bill  is  the 
next  consideration,  after  which  bills  for  getting 
under  way,  anchoring,  loosing  and  furling  sail, 
bending  sail,  tacking  and  wearing,  reefing,  up  and 
down  topgallant  and  royal  yards,  mooring  and 
unmooring,  etc.,  to  which  it  has  been  customary 
of  late  to  add  clearing  ship  for  action,  man  over 
board,  abandoning  ship,  cutting-out  expedition, 
and  disembarking  small-arms  men  and  marines. 
For  the  latter  purpose  the  guns'  crews  are  formed 
into  companies,  and  the  latter  into  a  battalion 
when  admissible.  The  station-bills  are  so  ar 
ranged  that  any  given  evolution  or  manoeuvre 
may  be  performed  by  either  watch.  By  the  use 
of  skeleton  station-bills  much  of  the  labor  of 
organization  may  be  accomplished  before  the 
crew  is  received  on  board.  In  addition  to  the 
foregoing,  every  boat  in  the  ship  must  have  its 
own  coxswain  and  crew, — a  crew  being  detailed 
from  each  watch  at  sea  for  the  life-boat, — and 
each  member  of  the  ship's  company  be  assigned 
to  a  mess.  There  are  also  howitzer  crews,  and 
crews  for  Gatling-guns. 

When  it  becomes  a  question  of  organizing  a 
crew  of  700  or  800  men,  all  to  be  kept  within  the 
limits  of  one  ship,  and  all  to  work  together  har 
moniously  and  effectively,  and  to  be  kept  con 
stantly  well  in  hand,  the  labor  calls  forth  the 
very  highest  qualities  an  officer  can  possess.  The 
training  system,  now  happily  inaugurated,  by 


which  American  boys  are  specially  trained  for 
men-of-war's  men,  will,  in  time,  materially 
lighten  the  labors  of  an  executive-officer,  upon 
whom  the  duties  of  organization  chiefly  devolve. 
— S.  B.  Luce,  Captain  U.S.N. 

Organling.     A  kind  of  fish  ;  orgeis. 

Orgeis.  A  certain  fish,  supposed  to  be  so 
called  from  the  Orkneys,  on  the  coast  of  which  it 
is  taken. 

Orion  (the  mythical  lover  of  Diana).  The 
most  brilliant  constellation  of  the  heavens,  fig 
ured  as  a  man  with  club  and  lion's  skin.  The 
stars  a,  ft,  y,  K  are  in  the  form  of  a  great  quad- 
rilateal  ;  a  at  the  northeast  angle  being  in  the 
right  shoulder  of  Orion,  and  the  nearest  tp  the 
Twins  ;  ft  at  the  opposite  angle  in  the  left  foot ;  7 
is  in  the  left  shoulder,  and  K  is  in  the  right  leg. 
In  the  middle  of  the  quadrilateral  are  three  stars 
of  about  the  second  magnitude,  6,  e,  f,  disposed 
in  an  oblique  line ;.  these  form  the  belt  of  Orion, 
from  which  depend  a  luminous  train  of  small 
stars  called  the  sword.  This  constellation  is 
surrounded  by  a  series  of  the  most  conspicuous 
stars  in  the  heavens,  Aldebaran,  Capella,  Castor 
and  Pollux,  Procyon,  Sirius,  and  Canopus.  a 
Orionis,  Betelguese,  or  Betelguex.  ft  Orionis, 
Rigel.  y  Orionis,  Bellatrix. 

Orlop.  The  lowest  deck,  formerly  called 
"over-lop,"  consisting  of  a  platform  laid  over 
the  beams  in  the  hold  of  ships  of  war,  whereon 
the  cables  are  usually  coiled,  and  containing 
a  few  state-rooms  as  well  as  the  chief  store-rooms. 
In  trading-vessels  it  is  often  a  temporary  deck. 

ORLOP-BEAMS.  The  beams  which  support  the 
orlop-deck,  but  are  chiefly  intended  to  fortify  the 
hold. 

Ornaments.  The  carvings  of  the  head,  stern, 
and  quarters  of  the  old  ships. 

Ornithae.  An  ancient  term  for  the  periodical 
winds  by  which  migratory  birds  were  trans 
ported. 

Orrery.  A  machine  which  exhibits  the  motion 
of  the  heavenly  bodies  on  their  orbits. 

Orthographic  Projection.  The  orthographic 
projection  of  the  sphere  is  a  natural  projection 
made  by  straight  lines  at  right  angles  to  the 
primitive  or  plane  of  projection.  The  eye  is 
conceived  to  be  infinitely  distant  from  the  sphere, 
so  that  the  visual  rays  are  parallel  to  one  another, 
and  a  diametral  plane  is  chosen  for  the  primitive. 
See  PROJECTION. 

Osaka,  the  principal  city  in  industry  and  com 
merce  of  Japan,  is  situated  on  the  island  of  Hon 
do.  It  has  a  large  foreign  trade,  and  ships  largo 
amounts  of  tea,  silk,  silk-worms'  eggs,  and  cop 
per.  It  has  a  steam  paper-mill,  arsenals,  ma 
chine-shops,  and  is  a  great  centre  of  native  manu 
factures.  Pop.  282,000. 

Oscillating-cylinder  Engine  (Oscillating-en- 
gine).  One  in  which  the  cylinder  is  supported, 
about  midway,  by  hollow  axles,  called  trun 
nions,  and  on  which  it  oscillates  to  allow  the 
piston-rod,  which  is  connected  directly  to  the 
crank-pin,  to  accommodate  itself  to  the  motion  of 
the  crank,  thus  dispensing  with  the  connecting- 
rod  ;  the  steam  enters  through  one  trunnion  to  the 
steam-chest  and  is  exhausted  through  the  other. 

Oscillating-piston  Engine.  One  in  which 
the  piston,  rectangular  in  form,  oscillates  on  one 
side,  like  a  door  on  a  hinge ;  the  piston-shaft 
which  acts  as  the  hinge,  extends  beyond  the 
steam-chamber,  and  by  means  of  a  reciprocating 


OSCILLATING- VALVE  ENGINE        630 


OX-EYE 


arm  and  connecting-rod  to  the  crank-pin  gives 
motion  to  the  propeller  shaft. 

Oscillating-valve  Engine.  One  the  main 
steam-valves  of  which  are  cylindrical  in  form, 
and  act  by  partial  rotation  within  a  cylindrical 
seat ;  the  valves  are  hollow  and  have  parts  which, 
by  the  oscillating  motion,  are  alternately  opened 
and  closed  to  other  parts  in  the  seat  which  lead 
to  the  steam-cylinder. 

Osmond.     The  old  term  for  pig-iron. 

Osnaburg.  In  commerce,  a  coarse  linen  cloth 
manufactured  in  Scotland,  but  resembling  that 
made  at  Osnaburg,  in  Germany. 

Osprey.     The  fish-hawk,  Pandion  halicetus. 

Os  Sepiae.  The  commercial  term  for  the  sepia, 
or  cuttle-fish  bones. 

Ostend.  A  seaport  town  of  Belgium,  in  West 
Flanders,  on  the  North  Sea,  in  lat.  51°  14'  \" 
N.,  Ion.  2°  55'  5"  E.  It  has  a  large  harbor, 
docks,  piers,  and  basins,  rope- walks,  and  building 
docks,  a  large  trade  in  agricultural  products,  and 
regular  steam  communication  with  London  and 
Dover.  Pop.  17,000. 

Ostracion.  A  genus  of  rough-skinned  fishes 
having  the  body  covered  with  an  armor  of  solid, 
immovable,  long  plates,  the  tail,  fins,  etc.,  pass 
ing,  as  it  were,  through  holes  in  the  coat  of 
mail ;  trunk-fish. 

Oswego  is  situated  on  Lake  Ontario,  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Oswego  River,  in  Oswego  County, 
N.  Y.,  in  lat.  43°  28'  N.,  Ion.  76°  35'  W.  It  is 
the  most  populous  city  on  Lake  Ontario,  except 
Toronto,  Canada.  It  has  a  good  harbor,  shel 
tered  by  long  and  costly  piers,  and  defended  by 
Fort  Ontario.  Great  quantities  of  grain,  lumber, 
etc.,  are  received  here,  part  of  which  is  trans 
shipped  through  the  Oswego  Canal  and  by  the 
various  railroads  centring  here.  The  city  con 
tains  a  great  many  flour-mills,  several  iron-foun 
dries,  machine-shops,  ship-yards,  and  a  large 
corn-starch  manufactory.  Pop.  23,000. 

Otary  (Otaridce).  A  family  of  the  seal  tribe 
(Puocidce),  distinguished  from  the  other  members 
of  the  family  by  a  projecting  auricle  or  auditory 
conch,  and  by  the  four  middle  incisors  having  a 
double  cutting  edge.  The  membrane  which 
unites  the  toes  of  the  hind  feet  is  prolonged  into 
a  flap  beyond  each  toe.  The  fore  legs  are  placed 
farther  back  than  in  the  true  seals,  giving  the 
otaries  the  appearance  of  having  a  longer  neck. 
The  hind  legs  bear  a  closer  resemblance  to  the 
fore  legs  than  in  the  true  seals.  See  SEA-LION. 

Otter-pike.  The  lesser  weever,  Trachinus 
draco  ;  also  called  sea-stranger. 

Ottomites.     An  old  term  for  Turks. 

Out-and-outer.  An  old  phrase  signifying 
thorough  excellence ;  a  man  up  to  his  duty,  and 
able  to  perform  it  in  style. 

Out-board.  Outside  the  ship.  Farther  from 
the  keel. 

Outer-jib.     See  JIB,  OUTER. 

Outfit.  The  stores  and  equipments  with 
which  a  ship  or  boat  is  provided.  The  wearing 
apparel  of  an  individual. 

Outhaul.  A  rope  for  hauling  out  the  clew 
of  a  boom-sail  or  the  tack  of  a  lower  stun 'sail. 

Outlandish.  Foreign  ;  but  means  with  Jack  a 
place  where  he  does  not  feel  at  home,  or  a  lan 
guage  which  he  does  not  understand. 

Outlying.  Beyond  the  coast ;  as,  outlying 
rocks. 

Out-pensioners    (Eng.}.     Those    entitled   to 


pensions  from  Greenwich  Hospital,  but  not  ad 
mitted  to  "  the  house." 

Out-ports.  Those  commercial  harbors  which 
lie  on  the  coast. 

Outregans.  Canals  or  ditches  navigable  by 
boats. 

Outrigger.  A  counterpoising  log  of  wood 
thrust  out  to  windward  from  the  side  of  a  canoe 
to  prevent  capsizing.  Any  spar  thrust  out  to 
give  a  lead  to  a  purchase,  or  to  extend  a  sail. 

Outwards.  A  vessel  is  said  to  be  entered  out 
wards  or  inwards  according  as  she  is  entered  at 
the  custom-house  to  depart  for,  or  as  having 
arrived  from,  a  foreign  port. 

OUTWARD  CHARGES.  Pilotage  and  other  dues 
incurred  from  any  port ;  the  reverse  of  inward 
charges. 

Ouvre  L'CEil.  A  mark  on  French  charts 
over  supposed  dangers. 

Over-anent.     Opposite  to. 

Overbear.  One  ship  overbears  another  if  she 
can  carry  more  sail  in  a  fresh  wind. 

Over-boyed.  Said  of  a  ship  when  the  com 
missioned  officers  are  very  young. 

Overfall.  A  rippling  or  race  in  the  sea,  where, 
by  the  peculiarities  of  the  bottom,  the  water  is 
propelled  with  immense  force,  especially  when  the 
wind  and  tide,  or  current,  set  strongly  together. 
See  RIPS. 

Over-gunned.  Said  of  a  vessel  rendered  in 
efficient  by  carrying  too  many  guns,  or  guns  of 
too  great  weight. 

Overhang.  The  part  of  a  deck  or  bow  which 
projects  over  the  main  body  of  the  vessel. 

Overhaul.  To  examine  ;  to  inspect.  To  gain 
upon  in  a  race  or  chase.  To  separate  the  blocks 
of  a  tackle  by  lighting  the  falls  through. 

Over-heating  Pipe.  A  pipe  used  as  a  super 
heater  for  converting  saturated  steam  into  super 
heated  or  dry  steam. 

Overlay  Days.  Days  for  which  demurrage 
can  be  charged. 

Over-loft.  An  old  term  for  the  upper  deck  of 
a  ship. 

Over-masted.  The  state  of  a  ship  whose 
masts  are  too  high  or  too  heavy  for  her  weight 
to  counterbalance. 

Over-press.  To  carry  too  much  sail  on  a  ship. 

Over-rake.  When  waves  frequently  break  in 
upon  a  vessel  riding  at  anchor  in  a  head-sea, 
they  are  said  to  over-rake  her. 

Over-rigged.  A  ship  with  more  and  heavier 
gear  than  necessary. 

Over-risen.  A  ship  too  high  out  of  the 
water  for  her  length  and  breadth,  so  as  to  make 
a  trouble  of  lee-lurches  and  weather-rolls. 

Over-running.  Applied  to  ice,  when  the 
young  ice  overlaps,  and  is  driven  over. 

Over-sea  Vessels.  Ships  from  beyond  the 
sea,  as  distinguished  from  coasters. 

Overslaugh.  A  bar  in  a  river.  To  bar  the 
promotion  of;  to  ignore  an  officer's  claims  to 
any  particular  duty  or  privilege. 

Over-swack.  An  old  word  signifying  the 
reflux  of  the  waves  by  the  force  of  the  wind. 

Owler.  An  old  term  for  a  smuggler.  A  per 
son  who  keeps  late  hours. 

Oxbows.     Bends  or  reaches  of  a  river. 

Ox-eye.  A  small  cloud,  or  weather-gall,  seen 
on  the  coast  of  Africa,  which  presages  a  severe 
storm.  It  appears  at  first  in  the  form  of  an 
ox-eye,  but  soon  overspreads  the  whole  sky, 

- 


OXYRHINCUS 


631 


PADDLE 


accompanied  by  a  violent  wind,  which  scatters 
chips  in  all  directions,  and  many  are  sunk  down 
right.  Also,  a  water-fowl. 

Oxyrhincus.  A  large  species  of  the  skate 
family. 

Oyster  (Lat.  Ostrea).  This  name  is  generally 
understood  to  signify  the  species  of  Ostracean 
bivalve  called  Ostrea  edulis,  which  is  one  of  a 
numerous  genus  characterized  by  an  inequivalve 
shell,  composed  of  two  irregular  lamellated 
valves,  of  which  the  convex  or  under  one  ad 
heres  to  rocks,  piles,  or  to  the  shell  of  another 
individual  of  the  species.  The  animal  has  neither 
a  byssus  nor  a  foot ;  it  is  the  best  flavored  of  its 


class  and  has,  consequently,  been  always  much 
esteemed.  Vast  beds  of  oysters  are  artificially 
formed  and  attended  to  with  great  care  in  many 
localities.  Oysters  formed  a  great  luxury  among 
the  Komans,  and,  as  is  customary  now,  were 
served  at  the  commencement  of  a  repast.  The 
various  States  of  the  Union  in  the  waters  of 
which  oysters  abound  have  regulated  by  law  the 
time  of  taking  and  exposing  them  for  sale.  The 
trade  in  oysters  has  grown  to  enormous  dimen 
sions  in  the  United  States,  aggregating  many 
millions  of  dollars  in  value  annually. 

Oyster-catcher,  or  Sea-pye.     The  black  and 
white  coast-bird,  Hcematopus  ostralegus. 


P. 


P.    In  the  log-book,  p  denotes  passing  showers. 

Pacific.  The  name  given  by  Magellan,  the 
first  European  who  traversed  it,  to  the  ocean 
which  extends  between  America  on  the  east  and 
Asia  and  Australia  on  the  west,  in  consequence 
of  his  enjoying  fair  weather  on  entering  it, 
having  previously  experienced  tempestuous  gales 
in  the  strait  which  bears  his  name.  The  Pacific 
is  the  greatest  expanse  of  water  on  the  globe. 
See  OCEANS. 

Pacific-iron.  An  iron  at  the  end  of  a  yard; 
over  which  is  shipped  the  boom-iron  for  the 
stun'sail  boom. 

Pack-ice.  A  large  collection  of  broken  floe 
huddled  together,  but  constantly  varying  its  posi 
tion  ;  said  to  be  open  when  the  fragments  do  not 
touch,  and  close  when  the  pieces  are  in  contact. 

Packing.  Metallic  rings,  braided  hemp,  cot 
ton,  or  wire,  and  various  preparations  of  rubber, 
canvas,  asbestos,  plumbago,  etc.,  used  to  make 
steam-  and  water-tight  joints  around  piston-rods, 
valve-stems,  and  between  flanges ;  also  for  slip- 
joints  of  long  pipes. 

PACKING-BOX.  The  chamber  around  a  piston- 
rod,  valve-stem,  etc.,  to  receive  the  packing;  a 
stuffing-box. 

PACKING-RINGS.  Metallic  rings  surrounding 
steam-  or  water-pistons  which  expand  against  the 
side  of  the  cylinder  and  prevent  leakage.  In 
the  ordinary  steam-piston  there  are  three :  two 
narrow  ones  surround  a  third,  equal  in  width  to 
the  other  two.  These  rings  are  turned  up  larger 
in  diameter  than  the  space  they  are  to  occupy, 
and  a  piece  is  cut  from  their  circumference, 
which  permits  them  to  be  sprung  into  place,  and 
their  elasticity,  aided  by  springs,  causes  them  to 
press  tightly  against  the  surface  of  the  cylinder. 

Pad.  A  package  of  some  soft  material  like 
oakum,  or  sail-cloth,  or  both  combined,  and 
used  to  prevent  wear  when  two  bodies  are  chaf 
ing  each  other ;  a  fender  made  of  soft  material. 

Paddle.  A  wooden  implement,  shorter  and 
broader  than  an  oar,  used  in  propelling  a  boat. 
It  is  managed  with  both  hands  without  a  row 
lock,  and  is  held  vertically.  The  float  of  a  pad 
dle-wheel. 

PADDLE-BEAMS.     Two  large  beams  extending 


out  sufficiently  from  the  sides  of  paddle-wheel 
steamers  to  receive  the  spring-beam  ;  a  frame  is 
thus  formed  on  which  to  erect  the  paddle-box. 

PADDLE-BOX.  The  frame  of  wood  which  en 
circles  the  upper  part  of  the  paddle-wheel. 

PADDLE-BOX  BOATS.  Boats  made  to  fit  the 
paddle-box  rim,  stowed  bottom  upwards  on  each 
box. 

PADDLE-WHEEL.  A  wheel  with  paddles  or 
floats  on  the  periphery,  used  for  propelling  ves 
sels.  There  are  two  principal  kinds,  the  radial 
and  the  feathering  wheel.  In  the  former  the 
paddles  are  fixed ;  in  the  latter,  by  a  system  of 
mechanism  they  are  made  to  pass  through  the 
water  in  nearly  a  vertical  position.  The  first  use 
of  steam  in  the  propulsion  of  vessels  of  which  we 
have  knowledge  is  that  said  to  have  been  made 
by  Blaco  de  Garay,  in  1543,  in  a  vessel  of  200 
tons  burden,  in  the  port  of  Barcelona,  Spain.  In 
1588,  Ramelli  designed  a  paddle-wheel,  flat-bot 
tomed  boat,  worked  by  men  turning  a  crank. 
Before  the  year  1700  more  than  a  dozen  patents 
were  taken  out  in  Europe  having  for  their  object 
the  propulsion  of  boats  by  wheels,  including  one 
by  the  Marquis  of  Worcester.  In  1682  a  tow- 
boat  was  used  at  Chatham,  the  wheels  being 
turned  by  horse-power.  In  1729,  Dr.  John 
Allen  obtained  a  patent  in  England  for  propelling 
a  vessel  by  forcing  water  through  the  stern. 

In  1787,  Patrick  Miller,  of  Dalswinton,  Eng 
land,  published  a  pamphlet  describing  a  vessel 
propelled  by  paddle-wheels,  designed  to  be 
worked  by  a  steam-engine.  In  1789,  Miller 
built  a  boat  25  feet  long  by  7  feet  beam,  worked 
by  a  double  engine  having  18-inch  cylinders, 
and  with  it  made  7  miles  an  hour  on  the  Forth 
and  Clyde  Canal.  This  boat  was  engined  by 
Symington. 

In  1784,  James  Ramsay,  an  American,  obtained 
a  patent  for  an  invention  designed  to  work  oars 
by  steam.  Two  years  later  he  had  patented  an 
application  of  steam  to  the  paddle-wheels  of  ves 
sels,  and  in  1787  built  a  vessel  60  feet  long  by  12 
feet  beam,  with  an  engine  having,  a  12-inch  cyl 
inder.  This  vessel  made  a  speed  of  7  miles  an 
hour.  In  1790  he  built  another  boat,  which  made 
regular  passage  on  the  Delaware  River. 


PADDY 


632 


PAMBAN  MANCHE 


In  1797  an  experiment  took  place  near  Liver 
pool  on  oars  worked  by  steam,  the  engine  making 
18  strokes  per  minute. 

In  1801,  Lord  Dundas  employed  Symington  to 
fit  up  a  steamboat  for  the  Forth  and  Clyde  Canal 
Company.  This  boat,  completed  in  March,  1802, 
was  called  the  "Charlotte  Dundas,"  and  made 
the  trip  between  Port  Dundas  and  Glasgow,  a 
distance  of  19£  miles,  in  3}  hours. 

John  C.  Stevens  and  Oliver  Evans  both  ex 
perimented  in  the  same  direction,  but  it  was 
left  for  Kobert  Fulton  to  practically  establish  the 
feasibility  of  steam  navigation.  His  first  attempt 
was  made  in  France,  in  1803,  by  the  aid  of  Mr. 
Robert  R.  Livingston,  but  this  was  not  suc 
cessful. 

In  1807,  Fulton  built  his  first  boat  in  America, 
which  was  launched  on  the  East  River,  at  New 
York,  and  an  English  engine  was  fitted  on 
board.  This  boat,  named  the  "Clermont,"  was 
130  feet  long  by  18  feet  beam,  and  7  feet  depth. 
She  started  on  "her  trial-trip  from  New  York  to 
Clermont,  and  thence  to  Albany,  August  7, 
1807.  The  whole  distance  of  110  miles  was  made 
in  24  hours.  She  created  the  utmost  astonish 
ment  and  even  dismay  along  the  shores  of  the 
Hudson. 

The  first  steamer  to  cross  the  Atlantic  was 
the  "Savannah,"  which  made  the  passage  in 
1819.  Her  paddle-wheels  were  made  to  take  to 
pieces  in  bad  weather. 

Paddy,  or  Padi.  Rice  in  the  husk,  so  called 
by  the  Malays,  from  whose  language  the  word 
has  found  its  way  to  all  the  coasts  of  India. 

PADDY-BOAT.     A  peculiar  Ceylon  boat. 

Paddy's  Hurricane.  Not  wind  enough  to 
float  the  pennant. 

Padrone,  or  Patron.  The  master  of  a  small 
coaster  in  the  Mediterranean. 

Paduan.  A  small  Malay  vessel  armed  with 
two  guns,  one  aft  and  the  other  forward,  for 
piratical  purposes. 

Pahi.  The  large  war-canoe  of  the  Society 
Islands. 

Painter.  A  rope  attached  to  the  bows  of  a 
boat,  used  for  making  her  fast ;  it  is  spliced 
with  a  thimble  to  a  ring-bolt  inside  the  stern. 

Paixhan-gun.  Introduced  by  the  French 
Gen.  Paixhan  about  1830,  for  the  horizontal 
firing  of  heavy  shells,  having  much  greater 
calibre,  but  proportionately  less"  metal,  than  the 
then  current  solid-shot  guns. 

Palaeoniscus.  A  genus  of  ganoid  fishes,  with 
a  fusiform  body,  covered  with  rhomboid  scales, 
a  heterocercal  tail,  and  moderately-sized  fins, 
each  furnished  with  an  anterior  'spine.  The 
single  dorsal  fin  is  opposite  to  the  interval  be 
tween  the  anal  and  ventral  fins.  Twenty-eight 
species  have  been  described  from  the  Carbonifer 
ous  and  Permian  measures. 

Palaver.     Flattery  ;  blarney  ;  idle  talk. 

Palermo,  the  capital  of  Sicily,  has  its  port  on 
the  north  side  of  the  island.  The  town  is  built 
in  the  form  of  an  amphitheatre,  facing  the  sea, 
and  is  surrounded  by  an  old  wall.  Adjoining 
the  water  is  Fort  Castellamare.  The  principal 
buildings  are  the  royal  palace,  the  observatory, 
armory,  mint,  custom-house,  and  public  library. 
The  port  is  inclosed  by  a  mole  1800  feet  in  length, 
terminated  by  a  light-house  and  battery.  A 
second  interior  port  is  reserved  for  the  marine. 
Palermo  is  the  residence  of  the  military  com 


mandant  of  the  island,  and  has  an  arsenal  and 
ship-building  yards.  The  principal  articles  of 
export  are  sumac,  wine,  and  spirits,  fruits, 
sulphur,  skins,  oil,  essences,  etc.  The  fisheries 
of  the  coast  are  also  very  productive.  Lat. 
38°  8'  1"  N.  ;  Ion.  13°  22'  2"  E.  Pop.  230,000. 

Palinums.  The  steersman  of  the  vessel  of 
^Eneas,  drowned,  according  to  Virgil,  off  the 
coast  of  Italy,  and  afterward  met  with  by  the 
Trojan  hero  in  the  shades.  A  promontory  on 
the  coast  received  his  name. 

Pallet.  A  ballast-locker  formerly  used  to  give 
room  in  the  hold  for  other  stowage. 

Palleting.  A  light  platform  above  the  bot 
tom  of  the  magazines  to  keep  the  powder  from 
moisture. 

Palliobranchiates  (Lat.  pallium,  a  mantle, 
and  branchia,  gills).  The  name  of  an  order  of 
acephalous  mollusks,  including  those  in  which 
the  gills  are  situated  on  the  internal  surface  of 
the  lobes  of  the  mantle. 

Palm.  The  triangular  face  of  the  fluke  of  an 
anchor.  Also,  a  shield-thimble  used  in  sewing 
canvas,  rope,  etc.  It  consists  of  a  flat  thimble 
to  receive  the  head  of  the  needle,  and  is  fixed 
upon  a  piece  of  canvas  or  leather  across  the 
palm  of  the  hand,  hence  the  name. 

Palma,  in  Spain,  is  the  capital  of  the  island 
of  Majorca,  and  of  the  province  of  the  Balearic 
Isles,  in  lat.  39°  34'  N.,  Ion.  2°  45'  E.,  and  has 
a  fine  harbor  in  the  Bay  of  Palmas.  Two  light 
houses  stand  at  the  entrance  off  Porti  Pi,  a  nar 
row  road,  where  the  large  vessels  anchor.  Palma 
is  the  port  for  the  whole  island,  and  has  impor 
tant  coastwise,  foreign,  and  colonial  trade.  The 
manufactures  comprise  cotton,  linen,  woolen, 
and  silk  tissues,  etc.  The  city  is  surrounded  by 
a  wall  36  feet  thick,  with  13  bastions  and  8  gates, 
3  fronting  the  sea  and  5  facing  the  land.  Pop. 
54,000. 

Palmer,  James  C.,  Surgeon-General  U.S.N. 
Born  in  Maryland.  Appointed  from  Maryland, 
March  26,  1834  ;  entered  the  service  as  assistant 
surgeon ;  attached  to  frigate  "  Brandywine," 
Pacific  Squadron,  1835;  sloop  "  Vincennes," 
cruise  around  the  world,  1836  ;  rendezvous,  Bal 
timore,  1837;  Exploring  Expedition,  1838-42; 
navy-yard,  Washington,  1842. 

Commissioned  as  surgeon,  October  27,  1841 ; 
sloop  "  St.  Mary's,"  Home  Squadron,  1844-46  ; 
sloop  "Vandalia,"  Pacific  Squadron,  1850-53  ; 
receiving-ship  "Baltimore,"  1853-56;  frigate 
"Niagara,"  Cable  Expedition,  1857;  sloop 
"Macedonian,"  Mediterranean  Squadron,  1858- 
60;  Naval  Academy,  1861-63;  fleet-surgeon, 
flag-ship  "Hartford,"  West  Gulf  Squadron,  1863 
-65  ;  battle  of  Mobile  Bay,  August  5,  1864;  Na 
val  Hospital,  New  York,  1866-69;  special  duty, 
Newport,  R.  I.,  1870-72;  chief  of  Bureau  of 
Medicine  and  Surgery,  1872-73.  Retired  June 
29,  1873. 

Palmipeds  (Lat.  palma,  a  palm,  and  pes,  a 
foot).  The  name  given  by  Cuvier  and  Tem- 
minck  to  an  order  of  birds  corresponding  to  the 
Anseres  of  Linnaeus  and  the  Natatores,  or  swim 
ming-birds,  of  Illiger. 

Pamban  Manche,  or  Snake-boat.  A  canoe 
used  on  the  numerous  rivers  and  back-waters  of 
Cochin  China,  from  30  to  60  feet  long,  and  cut 
out  of  the  solid  tree.  The  largest  are  paddled  by 
about  20  men,  double-banked,  and,  when  pressed, 
they  will  make  as  much  as  12  miles  an  hour. 


PAMPERO 


633 


PARCEL 


Pampero.  A  violent  wind  from  the  south 
west  over  the  immense  plains  or  pampas  of  the 
Rio  de  la  Plata,  where  it  rages  like  a  hurri 
cane. 

Panama  is  situated  on  the  Gulf  of  Panama,  on 
the  south  coast  of  the  isthmus  of  the  same  name, 
and  is  the  capital  of  the  state  of  Panama,  one  of 
the  United  States  of  Colombia  of  South  America. 
The  most  important  part  of  the  town  stands  on  a 
peninsular  tongue  of  land.  The  rise  and  fall  of 
the  tide  at  Panama  is  from  16  to  21  feet,  owing 
to  which  ships  lie  at  anchor  in  the  harbor  at 
some  distance  from  the  shore.  The  harbor  is 
protected  by  numerous  islets,  and  affords  secure 
anchorage.  The  city  has  very  little  trade,  and 
is  only  important  as  a  mail  station  and  the  Pa 
cific  terminus  of  the  Panama  Railroad.  Lat.  83 
67'  13"  N.  ;  Ion.  79°  31'  58"  W.  Pop.  11,500. 

Pancakes.  Thin  rounded  spots  of  floating 
snow-ice,  in  the  Arctic  seas,  and  reckoned  the 
first  indication  of  the  approach  of  winter,  in 
August. 

Pangaia.  A  vessel  of  East  Africa,  with  one 
mat-sail  of  cocoa-nut  leaves,  the  planks  being 
pinned  with  wooden  pins,  and  sewed  with  twine. 

Pannikin.     A  small  tin  pot. 

Pannyar.  Kidnapping  negroes  on  the  coast 
of  Africa. 

Panshway.  A  fast-pulling  passenger-boat 
used  on  the  Hooghly. 

Pantograph.  An  instrument  to  copy  or  re 
duce  drawings. 

Pantometer.  An  instrument  for  taking  angles 
and  elevations,  and  measuring  distances. 

Paper  Boat.  Paper  boats  are  much  used  in 
racing.  They  are  made  by  applying  sheets  of 
manilla,  or  unbleached  linen,  paper  to  a  model 
corresponding  to  the  form  of  the  boat.  The 
whole  is  covered  with  boiled  linseed  oil  and  tur 
pentine,  and  afterward  with  shellac.  The  fram 
ing  is  then  inserted.  The  boats^  are  impervious 
to  water,  and  weigh  about  two-thirds  as  much 
as  a  wooden  boat  of  the  same  dimensions. 

Paper  Nautilus.  A  testaceous  cephalopod, 
so  called  from  the  fragile  nature  of  the  boat- 
like  shell  in  which  it  occasionally  floats  on  the 
still  seas  of  the  warmer  latitudes.  See  ARGO- 
NAUTA. 

Par,  or  Parr.  The  samlet,  brannock,  or 
branling. 

Para,  one  of  the  principal  seaport  cities  of 
Brazil,  is  situated  on  the  Bay  of  Guajara  and 
the  right  bank  of  Para  River.  The  cacao,  caout 
chouc,  isinglass,  rice,  and  drugs  exported  from 
Brazil  are  chiefly  from  Para.  The  trade  is 
mostly  with  London,  Liverpool,  and  North 
American  and  Brazilian  ports.  Lat.  1°  28'  S. ; 
Ion.  48°  30'  5"  W.  Pop.  35,000. 

Parachute.  An  umbrella-like  device  for  pro 
pelling  a  sailing-vessel  in  a  calm.  It  is  put 
overboard  forward,  and,  upon  being  hauled  aft  by 
a  line,  it  expands,  and  the  ship  is  urged  ahead. 
When  the  forward  line  is  hauled  upon  it  con 
tracts,  and  offers  but  little  resistance  to  the  water. 

Parade.     See  KING'S  PARADE. 

Parahiba,  a  city  of  Brazil,  is  situated  on  the 
Parahiba  River,  near  its  mouth  in  the  Atlantic. 
The  lower  part  of  the  town  is  the  commercial 
quarter,  and  one  of  its  chief  edifices  is  a  tine  gov 
ernment  warehouse.  The  principal  buildings 
are  the  governor's  palace,  military  arsenal,  and 
treasury.  The  city  has  a  good  'port,  and  its 


trade  is  chiefly  in  sugar,  cotton,  and  Brazil  wood. 
Pop.  14,000. 

Parallax.  The  apparent  displacement  or  dif 
ference  of  position  of  an  object,  as  seen  from  two 
different  points  of  view. 

PARALLAX,  ANNUAL.  The  greatest  value  of 
the  heliocentric  parallax. 

PARALLAX,  GEOCENTRIC  or  DIURNAL.  The 
direction  in  which  a  heavenly  body  would  be 
seen  if  viewed  from  the  centre  of  the  earth  is 
called  its  true  place ;  the  direction  in  which  it  is 
seen  from  any  point  on  the  surface  is  called  its 
apparent  place.  The  arc  of  the  heavens,  inter 
cepted  between  the  true  and  apparent  places,  is 
called  the  diurnal  or  geocentric  parallax.  It 
varies  with  the  altitude  of  the  'object,  being 
greatest  when  the  altitude  is  0°,  and  zero  when 
the  object  is  in  the  zenith. 

PARALLAX,  HELIOCENTRIC.  The  parallax  of 
a  body  with  reference  to  the  sun  ;  its  measure  is 
the  angle  fprmed  by  lines  from  the  body  to  the 
centre  of  the  earth  and  the  centre  of  the  sun. 

PARALLAX,  HORIZONTAL.  The  particular 
value  of  the  geocentric  parallax  when  the 
heavenly  body  is  in  the  horizon  ;  it  is  the  great 
est  value  of  the  geocentric  parallax.  It  varies 
with  the  latitude  of  the  observer,  being  greatest 
at  the  equator. 

PARALLAX  IN  ALTITUDE.  A  term  used  in 
contradistinction  to  horizontal  parallax,  to  sig 
nify  any  value  of  the  geocentric  parallax  other 
than  that  which  it  has  when  the  altitude  is 
zero. 

Parallel.  See  ALTITUDE,  DECLINATION, 
LATITUDE. 

PARALLEL-MOTION.  A  device  invented  by 
Watt,  for  connecting  a  piston-  or  pump-rod  to 
the  working-beam,  in  such  a  manner  that  the 
former  must  move  in  a  right  line. 

PARALLEL  RULER.  An  instrument  consisting 
of  two  pieces  connected  by  pivoted  cross-pieces,  in 
such  a  manner  that  the  two  pieces  may  be  spread 
apart  and  yet  retain  their  parallelism. 

PARALLEL  SAILING.  When  the  means  of 
determining  the  longitude  were  not  so  reliable 
as  at  the  present  day,  it  was  a  common  practice 
first  to  make  the  parallel  of  the  place,  and  then 
sail  due  east  or  west.  Hence  the  importance 
formerly  attached  to  parallel  sailing.  See 
NAVIGATION. 

Paramaribo,  the  capital  town  of  Dutch 
Guiana,  is  situated  on  the  west  bank  of  the 
Surinam,  5  miles  from  its  mouth  in  the  Atlan 
tic,  in  lat.  5°  49'  N.,  Ion.  55°  22'  W.,  and  has  a 
population  of  22,000,  mostly  blacks.  It  is  the 
centre  of  trade  for  the  colony,  and  has  an  ex 
tensive  trade  by  sea. 

Paranzello.  A  small  Mediterranean  vessel, 
pink-sterned,  with  a  lateen  mainsail  and  mizzen, 
and  a  large  jib. 

Parbuckle.  A  purchase  for  hauling  up  or 
lowering  a  cask,  or  any  cylindrical  object,  where 
there  is  no  crane  or  tackle  ;  the  middle  of  a  rope 
is  passed  round  a  post,  the  two  ends  are  then 
passed  under  the  two  quarters  of  the  cask, 
bringing  the  ends  back  again  over  it,  and  being 
both  hauled  or  slackened  together,  they  either 
raise  or  lower  the  cask,  as  may  be  required. 

Parcel.     To  wind  tarred  canvas  round  a  rope. 

PARCELING.  Narrow  strips  of  old  canvas 
daubed  wfth  tar  and  wound  about  a  rope  like 
a  bandage,  previous  to  its  being  served. 


PARCLOSE 


634 


PARIS 


Parclose.     A  limber-hole. 

Pardoning  Power.  The  President,  as  com- 
mander-in-chief  of  the  army  and  navy,  and  of 
the  militia  when  called  into  service,  possesses  the 
supreme  pardoning  power.  (Constitution  of 
United  States,  Art.  II.)  By  law,  in  certain 
lesser  cases,  this  is  delegated  to  subordinates  in 
the  military  hierarchy,  who  can  virtually  pardon 
by  the  remission  or  mitigation  of  sentences  im 
posed  by  courts  erected  by  their  own  authority 
or  that  of  an  inferior. 

Different  conceptions  of  the  pardoning  power 
of  the  President  prevail,  and  its  exact  capacity 
has  long  been  a  subject  of  dispute.  The  judge- 
advocate  of  the  army  (Holt's  Digest,  3d  ed.,  p. 
260)  always  held  that  the  President  could  not 
treat  as  a  nullity,  or  set  aside,  the  sentence  of 
a  competent  military  court  on  the  ground  that 
the  evidence  was  insufficient,  but  only  on  the 
ground  that  there  had  been  some  "  fatal  defect" 
in  the  proceedings,  making  them  void  ab  initio. 
Further,  that  the  pardoning  power  cannot  reach 
an  executed  sentence  which  has  been  regularly 
imposed  by  a  competent  court,  although  it 
might,  when  executed  only  in  part,  remit  the 
remainder. 

In  strange  contrast  with  this  are  two  notable 
naval  cases.  Capt.  Napoleon  Collins  and  Lieut.- 
Commander  Geo.  M.  Bache,  U.S.N.,  were  tried 
at  New  York,  in  1868,  for  suffering  the  U.  S. 
steamer  "  Sacramento"  to  be  lost  on  the  coast  of 
Coromandel,  and  were  sentenced  to  be  suspended 
from  duty  on  the  retired  pay  of  their  grades  (the 
latter  for  one  year)  and  to  be  publicly  repri 
manded.  The  sentences  were  approved  and 
promulgated  in  General  Orders,  Feb.  10,  1868, 
by  the  Hon.  Gideon  Welles,  Secretary  of  the 
Navy.  Thirteen  months  later,  March  11,  1869, 
the  Hon.  A.  E.  Borie,  Secretary  of  the  Navy  of 
a  succeeding  administration,  issued  General  Or 
der  No.  101,  by  which  he  "removed  the  sen 
tence  of  Capt.  Collins,  and  restored  his  forfeited 
Say  to  him  in  consequence  of  good  conduct 
uring  the  war  of  the  Rebellion,"  and  the  same 
day,  by  General  Order  No.  102,  the  executed 
sentence  of  Lieut-Commander  Bache  was  "  re 
voked  on  the  ground  that  there  is  nothing  in  the 
record  of  the  proceedings  of  the  court-martial  to 
justify  the  sentence.  So  much  of  Lieut.-Com- 
rnander  Bache's  pay  as  was  stopped  by  the  sen 
tence  will  be  restored  to  him." 

It  is  held  to  be  as  impossible  in  law  to  set  aside 
a  valid  consummated  sentence  of  dismissal  as  it 
is  to  recall  or  undo  corporal  punishment  that 
has  been  actually  undergone.  Relief  must  be 
had  in  a  new  appointment  by  authority  of  Con 
gress  ;  hence  dismissed  officers  are  continually 
petitioning  the  National  Legislature  for  restora 
tion.  President  Lincoln  decided,  June  4,  1862, 
that  he  could  "remove  the  disability"  of  dis 
missed  volunteer  officers  commissioned  by  gov 
ernors  of  States.  Though  the  President  has  power 
to  remit  forfeitures  and  fines  fo/bre  they  are  paid, 
he  cannot  authorize  their  return  after  being 
legally  forfeited  without  violating  the  provisions 
of  Art  I.,  Section  9,  of  the  Constitution,  which 
prohibits  the  taking  of  money  from  the  treasury 
except  in  pursuance  of  specific  resolves  of  Con 
gress. 

The  analogy  between  a  sentence  prohibiting 
the  drawing  of  pay  that  would  otherwise  become 
due,  and  the  case  of  a  forfeiture  actually  paid 


into  the  treasury  by  the  party  himself  is  deemed 
to  be  complete.  Ibid.  In  the  case  of  a  soldier 
dishonorably  discharged  by  a  part  of  the  sentence 
of  a  court,  it  was  held  that  a  pardon  granted  sub 
sequently,  while  undergoing  imprisonment,  could 
not  operate  to  entitle  him  to  an  honorable  dis 
charge.  The  statute  of  limitation  as  to  amena 
bility  to  trial  for  crimes  committed  is  three  years 
in  the  navy  (see  Navy  Department,  General 
Order  196),  and  the  expiration  of  this  time,  where 
the  offense  is  known,  without  charges  being  pre 
ferred  meanwhile,  operates  as  a  full  pardon. 
When  the  clemency  of  the  President  is  desired,  it 
is  usually  invoked  by  reference  through  the  Navy 
Department,  by  direct  petition  in'writing,  or 
through  a  friend  or  attorney.  (See  COURTS-MAR 
TIAL.) — Henry  C.  Cochrane,  Captain  U.S.M.C. 

Pargos.  A  fish  resembling  a  large  bream,  from 
which  the  crews  of  Quiros  and  Cook  suffered 
violent  pains  and  bad  effects.  The  porgy  of  Af 
rica  and  the  West  Indies. 

Parhelia,  or  Mock  Suns.  Images  of  the  true 
sun  which  appear  at  the  same  height  above  the 
horizon  as  the  true  sun,  and  are  connected  with 
one  another  by  a  white  horizontal  circle  or  halo, 
of  which  the  pole  is  at  the  zenith,  and  the  ap 
parent  semi-diameter  equal  to  the  sun's  distance 
from  the  zenith.  Those  which  appear  on  the 
same  side  of  this  circle  with  the  true  sun  are 
tinted  with  the  prismatic  colors,  and  sometimes 
a  part  of  the  circle  itself  contiguous  to  them 
appears  colored  ;  but  those  which  appear  on  the 
circumference  opposite  to  the  sun  are  always 
without  color;  whence  it  may  be  conjectured 
that  the  latter,  as  well  as  the  luminous  ring 
itself,  are  produced  by  reflection,  and  the  others 
by  refraction. 

Pariah.  The  low-caste  people  of  Hindostan  ; 
outcasts.  Pariah-dogs,  outcasts  of  no  known 
breed. 

Paris,  The  Declaration  of,  was  adopted  in 
April,  1856,  by  the  plenipotentiaries  of  Great 
Britain,  Austria,  France,  Russia,  Prussia,  Sar 
dinia,  and  Turkey,  assembled  in  Paris,  and  covers 
the  following  points : 

1.  Privateering  is  and  remains  abolished. 

2.  The  neutral  flag  covers  enemy's  goods,  with 
the  exception  of  contraband  of  war. 

3.  Neutral  goods,  with  the  exception  of  con 
traband  of  war,  are  not  liable  to  capture  under 
enemy's  flag. 

4.  Blockades,  in  order  to  be  binding,  must  be 
effective ;  that  is  to  say,  maintained  by  a  force 
sufficient  really  to  prevent  access  to  the  coast  of 
the  enemy. 

And  it  was  agreed  that  the  powers  which 
should  adopt  this  declaration  could  not  there 
after  enter  into  any  arrangement  in  regard  to  the 
application  of  the  right  of  neutrals  in  time  of 
war,  which  did  not  comprise  all  the  four  princi 
ples  of  the  declaration. 

The  French  government  communicated  this 
declaration  to  the  government  of  the  United 
States,  in  order  to  obtain  its  assent  thereto.  But 
the  United  States  refused  to  adopt  the  declara 
tion,  unless  the  first  principle  should  be  amended 
by  adding  thereto  these  words:  "And  that  the 
private  property  of  the  subjects  or  citizens  of  a 
belligerent  on  the  high  seas  shall  be  exempted 
from  seizure  by  public  armed  vessels  of  the  other 
belligerent,  except  it  be  contraband." 

The  U.  S.  government  considered  that  if  the 


PARKER 


635 


PARRY 


first  principles  of  the  declaration  were  adopted 
without  the  proposed  amendr"»ent,  the  states 
which  kept  small  naval  forces  would  be  at  the 
mercy  of  those  which  would  adopt  the  policy  and 
have  the  means  of  keeping  up  large  navies. "  (See 
dispatch  of  Mr.  Marcy  to  the  Count  de  Sartiges 
of  July  28,  1856.)  Not  only  the  United  States, 
but  Spain  and  Mexico  also  refused  their  consent, 
and  so  far  as  these  powers  are  concerned,  priva 
teering — that  is,  the  employment  of  private  cruis 
ers  commissioned  by  the  state — is  still  a  perfectly 
legitimate  mode  of  warfare. 

The  French  Minister  of  Foreign  Affairs  made 
a  report  to  the  Emperor  of  the  French,  that, 
besides  the  states  represented  at  the  Congress  of 
Paris,  the  following  governments  had  declared 
their  intentions  to  adhere  to  the  four  principles 
of  the  declaration :  Baden,  Bavaria,  Belgium, 
Brazil,  Duchy  of  Brunswick,  Chili,  the  Argen 
tine  Confederation,  the  Germanic  Confedera 
tion,  Denmark,  the  Two  Sicilies,  Ecuador,  the 
Roman  States,  Greece,  Gautemala,  Hayti,  Ham 
burg,  Hanover,  the  Two  Hesses,  Lubeck,  Meck- 
lenburg-Strelitz,  Mecklenburg-Schwerin,  Nas 
sau,  Oldenburg,  Parma,  Holland,  Peru,  Portu 
gal,  Saxony,  Saxe-Altenburg,  Saxe-Coburg- 
Gotha,  Saxe-Meiningen,  Saxe- Weimar,  Sweden, 
Switzerland,  Tuscany,  and  Wurtemberg. 

Parker,  Foxhall  A.,  Commodore  U.S.N. 
Born  in  New  York.  Appointed  from  Virginia, 
March  11,  1839;  attached  to  sloop  "Levant," 
West  India  Squadron,  1840 ;  served  in  Florida 
against  the  Indians. 

Promoted  to  passed  midshipman,  June  29, 
1843;  steamer  "Michigan,"  on  the  lakes,  1844- 
45 ;  coast  survey,  1848  ;  Mediterranean  Squad 
ron,  1849-50. 

Commissioned  as  lieutenant,  September  28, 
1850;  steam-frigate  "  Susquehanna,"  East  In 
dia  Squadron,  1851-53 ;  coast  survey,  1854-55 ; 
unemployed,  1856-59;  Pacific  Squadron,  1859- 
61 ;  navy-yard,  Washington,  as  executive-offi 
cer,  1861-62;  doing  duty  with  the  navy  on  the 
Potomac,  and  with  the  army  at  Alexandria  ; 
while  attached  to  the  navy-yard  at  Washington, 
was  ordered,  two  days  after  the  battle  of  Bull 
Run,  to  Fort  Ellsworth,  with  250  seamen  and 
marines,  to  protect  it  from  the  attack  of  Gen. 
Beauregard,  who  was  expected  to  storm  it,  and 
by  his  prompt  and  vigorous  action  contributed 
greatly  to  the  safety  of  Alexandria,  and  to  rally 
ing  the  men  from  their  demoralization  after  the 
defeat  at  Bull  Run. 

Commissioned  as  commander,  July  16,  1862; 
commanding  steam-gunboat  "  Mahaska,"  1863  ; 
in  command  of  the  naval  battery  on  Morris  Isl 
and,  at  the  bombardment  of  Fort  Sumter,  from 
the  17th  to  the  23d  of  August,  1863 ;  engaged 
with  skirmishes  with  batteries  on  Potomac  and 
Rappahannock  Rivers,  and  off  Wilmington, 
N.  C.,  with  rebel  troops  on  shore,  while  com 
manding  the  "  Mahaska,"  in  1863,  and  the  Poto 
mac  Flotilla,  in  1864-65;  on  one  occasion,  at  the 
head  of  a  small  detachment  of  soldiers  and  ma 
rines,  with  2  howitzers  manned  by  seamen,  Com 
mander  Parker  marched  some  distance  into  Vir 
ginia  and  drove  a  force  of  over  100  cavalry  out 
of  Matthew's  Court-House,  which  he  took  pos 
session  of;  Bureau  of  Navigation,  1866. 

Commissioned  as  captain,  July  25,  1866  ;  spe 
cial  duty,  Hartford,  Conn.,  1867-68;  navy-yard, 
Boston,  1869-70;  commanding  frigate  "Frank 


lin,"  European  Squadron,  1870-71  ;  member 
Board  of  Examiners,  1872. 

Commissioned  as  commodore,  November  25, 
1872;  was  chief-of-staff  to  the  North  Atlantic 
Fleet,  1872  ;  ordered  to  special  duty  at  Washing 
ton,  August  7,  1872,  to  draw  up  a  code  of  signals 
for  steam  tactics,  and  chief  signal-officer  of  the 
navy,  1873-76.  In  1863  he  prepared,  by  order  of 
the  Navy  Department,  systems  of  "  Fleet  Tactics 
under  Steam,"  and  "  Squadron  Tactics  under 
Steam"  ;  in  1865,  "  The  Naval  Howitzer  Afloat" ; 
and  in  1866,  "The  Naval  Howitzer  Ashore"; 
all  of  which  works  are  text-books  at  the  Naval 
Academy.  Was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  U.  S. 
Naval  Institute,  organized  October  9,  1873,  at 
Annapolis,  "  for  the  advancement  of  professional 
and  scientific  knowledge  in  the  navy."  In  De 
cember,  1874,  Commodore  Parker  was  appointed 
chief-of-staff  of  the  united  fleets  under  com 
mand  of  Admiral  Case,  which  were  assembled 
for  instruction  in  tactics  in  the  Florida  waters  ; 
commanding  navy-yard,  Boston,  Mass.,  1877-78  ; 
superintendent  Naval  Academy,  1878-79,  Died 
June  10,  1879,  while  in  command  of  the  Acad 
emy. 

Par-line.  A  term  signifying  the  normal  level 
of  a  barometer  at  a  given  station. 

Parole.  A  promise  on  honor  given  by  a  prisoner 
of  war,  when  allowed  to  go  at  large,  that  he  will 
fulfill  the  conditions  specified  in  his  release.  In 
paroling,  documents  are  made  out  in  duplicate, 
and  the  names  and  rank  of  the  persons  paroled 
are  entered  therein.  A  person  who  intention 
ally  misstates  his  rank  forfeits  his  parole  and  is 
liable  to  punishment.  The  agreement  extends 
to  the  existing,  and  not  to  any  future,  war.  No 
one  but  a  commissioned  officer  can  give  a  parole 
for  himself  and  his  command,  and  no  inferior 
officer  can  give  it  without  the  authority  of  the 
senior  officer  present.  Any  officer  or  man  dis 
obeying  this  law  renders  himself  liable  to  be 
punished  as  a  deserter.  The  only  exception  is 
when  a  man  has  suffered  long  confinement  with 
out  the  possibility  of  being  paroled  through  an 
officer.  No  person  can  be  forced  to  give  his 
parole,  and  ill-treatment  or  threats,  in  conse 
quence  of  refusal  to  pledge  a  parole,  are  contrary 
to  the  laws  of  war.  While  the  pledging  of  a 
parole  is  a  voluntary  act  on  the  part  of  the  indi 
vidual,  the  capturing  power  is  not  obliged  to 
grant  it. 

Parol  Evidence.  Evidence  given  by  word  of 
mouth,  in  contradistinction  to  that  furnished  by 
writings. 

Parr.  A  small  species  of  fish  common  where 
salmon  breed,  respecting  which  there  has  been 
much  dispute  whether  it  is  the  young  of  the 
salmon,  or  a  trout  having  the  general  appearance 
of  these. 

Parrel.  A  rope  or  iron  collar  encircling  the 
mast  and  attached  to  the  slings  of  the  yard,  to 
confine  the  yard  to  the  mast,  but  permitting  a 
vertical  movement. 

PARREL-LASHING.  The  lashing  between  the 
two  eyes  of  a  rope  parrel. 

Parrot-fish.  A  fish  of  the  genus  Scarus  in 
habiting  the  tropical  seas,  so  named  from  its  re 
semblance  to  the  parrot  in  the  brilliancy  of  its 
colors  and  the  peculiar  form  of  its  jaws. 

Parrott-gun.  A  rifled  gun  invented  by  R.  G. 
Parrott.  See  ORDNANCE. 

Parry,  Sir  William  Edward,  generally  known 


PARSES 


636 


PATRON 


As  Sir  Edward  Parry,  a  skillful  and  celebrated 
.English  navigator,  was  born  at  Bath,  December 
19,  1790.  Originally  destined  by  his  father  for 
the  medical  profession,  he,  instead,  acted  on  the 
advice  of  a  friend,  and  entered  as  a  first-class  vol 
unteer  on  board  the  "  Ville  de  Paris,"  the  flag 
ship  of  the  Channel  fleet,  in  1803.  On  January 
6,  1810,  he  was  commissioned  as  a  lieutenant, 
and  in  February  of  the  same  year  was  sent  in 
command  of  a  ship  to  the  Arctic  regions  to  pro 
tect  the  British  whale-fisheries.  In' 18 13  he  was 
recalled  and  ordered  to  the  fleet  then  blockading 
the  United  States,  where  he  remained  until  1817. 
In  April,  1818,  he  was  appointed  to  the  com 
mand  of  the  "  Alexander,"  and  accompanied  Sir 
John  Ross  in  search  of  the  northwest  passage ; 
again,  in  May,  1819,  he  was  sent  on  the  same 
kind  of  an  expedition,  and  this  time  immortal 
ized  himself  as  the  greatest  of  all  Arctic  explorers. 
Upon  his  return  he  was  greeted  with  the  utmost 
enthusiasm,  and  was  promoted  to  commander, 
November  4,  1820,  'and  made  a  member  of  the 
Royal  Society.  He  subsequently  made  a  second 
and  a  third  voyage  to  the  same  regions,  but  ef 
fected  nothing  further  of  importance.  He  re 
mained  in  England  until  1827,  when  he  made 
another  voyage  to  the  Arctic  regions  in  the 
"Hecla,"  his  old  ship.  From  1829  to  1834  he 
was  commissioner  to  the  Agricultural  Company 
of  Australia.  In  1834  he  returned  to  England, 
where  he  filled  in  succession  various  government 
offices  until  1848,  when  he  retired.  June  4,  1852, 
he  was  promoted  to  the  rank  of  rear-admiral  of 
the  white,  and  the  following  year  was  appointed 
lieutenant-governor  of  Greenwich  Hospital,  an 
office  which  he  held  till  his  death,  July  7,  1855, 
at  Ems,  in  Germany. 

Parsee  (Pers.  parsi).  The  name  given  by 
English  writers  to  the  Persian  refugees,  driven 
from  their  country  by  the  persecutions  of  the 
Mussulmans,  who  now  inhabit  various  parts  of 
India.  Their  principal  emigration  to  Baroach, 
Surat,  and  the  neighboring  coast  is  supposed  to 
have  taken  place  about  the  end  of  the  8th  cen 
tury.  The  sacred  fire,  the  emblem  of  their  re 
ligion, — called  behrem, — is  believed  by  them  to 
have  been  brought  by  the  first  emigrants  from 
Persia,  and,  after  many  changes  of  place,  is  now 
preserved  at  Odisari  and  Nausari,  near  Surat,  and 
at  Bombay.  In  this  latter  city,  under  the  pro 
tection  of  the  British  government,  they  have 
increased  in  numbers  until  now,  they  form  about 
one-fifth  of  the  entire  population.  They  are 
generally  wealthy,  and  distinguished  for  activity 
and  enterprise  in  the  various  departments  of 
commerce  and  trade.  Their  character  is  vari 
ously  estimated  by  different  observers;  but  all 
agree  in  attributing  to  them  industry  and 
economy,  and  attachment  to  their  religion,  and 
to  those  of  the  higher  class  strong  sentiments  of 
honor  and  honesty. 

Part.  To  break  ;  as,  a  rope  or  chain.  To  part 
company.  See  COMPANY. 

Partners.  Any  plank  which  is  thicker  than 
the  rest  of  the  deck-planking,  for  the  purpose  of 
steadying  or  making  stronger  whatever  passes 
through  the  deck,  as  at  the  pumps,  masts,  bow 
sprit,  etc. 

Partridges.  Large  bombards  formerly  used  for 
siege  purposes.    Grenades  thrown  from  a  mortar. 
Party.     A  gang  of  men  sent  on  a  particular 
duty. 


Pass.  To  pass  a  seizing,  gasket,  earing,  etc., 
to  secure  them  in  the  proper  manner.  To  pass 
the  hail  is  for  the  sentries  or  look-outs  to  utter  in 
succession  the  prescribed  formula  to  show  that 
they  are  awake  and  attentive  to  their  duties.  To 
pass  the  word  for  a  man  is  to  summon  him  by 
name,  the  cry  being  repeated  by  the  boatswain's 
mates  on  all  decks.  To  pass  an  examination,  in 
spection,  etc.,  to  undergo  them  with  a  favorable 
result. 

Passage.  A  journey  by  water  from  one  port 
to  another. 

PASSAGE  MONEY.  The  charge  made  for  the 
conveyance  of  passengers  in  a  packet  or  mer 
chant  vessel. 

Passandeau.  An  ancient  8-pounder  gun  of 
15  feet  length. 

Passaree.  To  passaree  the  foresail,  to  haul 
out  the  clew,  when  before  the  wind  with  lower 
studding-sail  set,  by  a  jigger  on  the  lower  stud 
ding-sail  boom. 

Pass-boat.     A  punt. 

Passport.  A  safe-conduct  granted  by  the  state 
to  a  citizen,  which  gives  him  protection  whilst 
traveling.  An  accurate  description  is  contained 
in  it  for  the  purpose  of  identification.  See  SAFE- 
CONDUCT. 

Passed  Midshipman.     See  MIDSHIPMAN. 

Passe- volant.  A  name  applied  by  the  French 
to  a  wooden  gun  on  board  ship ;  but  it  was 
adopted  by  early  voyagers  as  expressing  a  mova 
ble  piece  of  ordnance. 

Patache.  A  Portuguese  tender  for  carrying 
treasure,  from  200  to  300  tons,  well  armed  and 
swift. 

Patallah.  A  large  and  clumsy  Indian  boat 
for  baggage,  cattle,  etc. 

Patamar.  An  excellent  old  class  of  advice- 
boats  in  India,  especially  on  the  Bombay  coast, 
both  swift  and  roomy.  They  are  grab-built ; 
that  is,  with  a  prow-stern,  about  76  feet  long,  21 
feet  broad,  11  feet  deep,  and  200  tons  burden. 
They  are  navigated  with  much  skill  by  men  of 
the  Mopila  caste  and  other  Mussulmans. 

Patamometer.  An  instrument  for  measuring 
the  force  of  currents. 

Pataxos.  A  small  vessel  formerly  used  by  the 
Spaniards  as  an  advice-boat. 

Patch.  A  piece  of  lead  over  the  water-cap 
of  a  time-fuze,  to  protect  the  quick-match  and 
composition  from  moisture ;  it  is  removed  when 
the  shell  is  entered  in  the  bore. 

Patella.  A  genus  of  gasteropodous  univalve 
mollusks  the  shell  of  which  has  nearly  the  shape 
of  a  shallow,  conical  dish  ;  the  limpet. 

Patent  Block.  A  block  fitted  with  friction- 
rollers. 

Paterero.  A  small  piece  of  ordnance,  now 
obsolete,  working  on  a  swivel  and  fitted  on  the 
rail,  for  clearing  the  enemy's  deck  and  for  firing 
into  boats.  A  kind  of  small  mortar  sometimes 
fired  for  salutes  or  rejoicing,  especially  in  Roman 
Catholic  countries  on  holidays. 

Paternoster-work.  The  framing  of  a  chain- 
pump. 

Path.  The  trajectory  of  a  projectile.  The 
orbit  of  a  heavenly  body. 

Patoo-patoo.      A   formidable    weapon    with 
sharp  edges,  used  by  the  Polynesian  Islanders 
and   New   Zealanders   as  a  sort  of  battle-ax  to 
cleave  the  skulls  of  their  enemies. 
Patron.    See  PADRONE. 


PATTERSON 


637 


PAUNCH-MAT 


Patterson,  Daniel  T.,  Captain  U.S.N.  Born 
in  New  York,  1771 ;  died  at  Washington,  D.  C., 
August  25,  1839.  Midshipman,  August  20, 1800 ; 
attached  to  the  frigate  "Philadelphia,"  Capt. 
Bainbridge,  when  she  ran  upon  a  reef  off  Trip 
oli,  and  was  taken  by  a  flotilla  of  gunboats,  and 
remained  a  prisoner  in  Tripoli  until  1805;  lieu 
tenant,  January  24,  1807  ;  master-commandant, 
July  24,  1813  ;  captain,  February  28,  1815  ;  navy 
commissioner,  1828-32 ;  and  commanded  a  squad 
ron  in  the  Mediterranean  in  1832-35.  In  1832, 
he  commanded  the  U.  S.  naval  forces  at  New 
Orleans,  and  co-operated  so  ably  with  Gen. 
Jackson  in  the  defense  of  that  city  that  he  re 
ceived  the  thanks  of  Congress. 

Patterson,  Thomas  H.,  Rear-Admiral  U.S.N. 
Born  in  Louisiana,  May,  1820.  Appointed  from 
Louisiana,  April  5,  1836,  as  acting  midshipman; 
attached  to  brig  "  Porpoise,"  survey  of  Southern 
harbors,  July  20,  1835,  to  February  14,  1837. 

Promoted  to  midshipman,  March  3,  1847; 
navy-yard,  Washington,  March  9  to  April  20, 
1837  ;  ordered  to  frigate  "  Macedonian,"  Explor 
ing  Expedition,  April  20,  1837;  sloop  "  Fal- 
mouth,"  Pacific  Squadron,  1837-40;  navy-yard, 
Washington,  to  1841 ;  Naval  School,  Philadel 
phia,  1842. 

Promoted  to  passed  midshipman,  July  1,  1842  ; 
Naval  Observatory,  1842-43  ;  attached  to  brig 
"  Lawrence,"  as  acting  master,  West  India 
Squadron,  from  August  31  to  November  1,  1843, 
and  as  acting  lieutenant,  to  April  17,  1844 ;  at 
tached  to  brig  "  Washington,"  coast  survey, 
from  April  17,  1844,  to  October  31,  1848. 

Promoted  to  master,  October  31,  1848. 

Commissioned  as  lieutenant,  June  23,  1849; 
attached  to  sloop  "  Vandalia,"  Pacific  Squadron, 
from  July  11,  1849,  to  October  12,  1852;  special 
duty,  Washington,  D.  C.,  to  December  23, 
1852-54;  sloop  "Jamestown,"  flag-ship,  coast 
of  Africa,  to  June  8,  1857  ;  navy-yard,  Wash 
ington,  D.  C.,  to  October  13,  1857-59;  steam- 
sloop  "Mohican,"  coast  of  Africa,  to  October 
15,  1861 ;  commanding  steam-gunboat  "  Cho- 
cura,"  Hampton  Roads,  York  River  ;  present  at 
the  siege  of  Yorktown,  May  4,  1862  ;  took  part 
in  expedition  and  was  the  leading  gunboat  up 
the  Pamunkey  River  to  the  White  House, — to 
open  the  way,  and  in  support  of  Gen.  McClel- 
lan's  army;  co-operated  with  the  advance  of 
Gen.  Stoneman's  command  at  the  White  House, 
in  checking  the  approach  of  the  enemy  at  that 
point;  from  early  in  June  until  October,  1862, 
senior  officer  of  the  naval  forces  in  the  York  and 
Pamunkey  Rivers,  and  in  constant  co-operation 
with  the  Army  of  the  Potomac. 

Commissioned  as  commander,  July  16,  1862  ; 
commanded  the  steamer  "  James  Adger,"  South 
Atlantic  Blockading  Squadron,  from  November 
18,  1862,  to  June  27,  1865  ;  towed  the  ironclad 
"  Montauk"  to  Beaufort,  N.  C.  ;  thence  to  Port 
Royal,  January  2,  1863  ;  blockade  duty  off  Wil 
mington,  N.  C.,  July  7,  1863  ;  cut  out  the  steamer 
"  Kate"  from  under  the  batteries  at  New  Inlet, 
N.  C.,  July  31,  1863  ;  participated  in  the  attack 
and  capture  of  a  flying  battery,  a  few  miles 
above  Fort  Fisher,  N.  C.,  August  23,  1863; 
chased  ashore  and  captured  the  blockade-runner 
11  Cornubia,"  between  New  Inlet  and  Mason- 
boro'  Inlet,  N.  C.,  November  8,  1863;  chased 
and  captured  the  blockade-runner  "  Robert  E. 
Lee,"  off  Cape  Lookout,  November  9,  1863, — 


both  vessels  loaded  with  arms  and  supplies  for 
the  Confederate  army  ;  captured  schooner  "  Ella," 
off  Masonboro'  Inlet,  N.  C.,  November  26,  1863  ; 
blockade  duty,  South  Atlantic  Blockading  Squad 
ron,  June  14,  1864 ;  senior  officer  of  the  outside 
blockade,  off  Charleston,  S.  C.,  September  15, 
1864;  convoy  duty,  Maraquana  passage,  April 
25,  1865 ;  detached,  waiting  orders,  June  27, 
1865 ;  commanding  the  steam-sloop  "  Brooklyn," 
flag-ship  Brazil  Squadron,  September  19,  1865, 
to  September  16,  1867. 

Commissioned  as  captain,  July  25,  1866  ;  navy- 
yard,  Washington,  D.  C.,  from  December  26, 
1867,  to  June,  1871. 

Commissioned  as  commodore,  November  2, 
1871 ;  special  duty,  Washington,  1871-72;  com 
mandant  navy-yard,  Washington,  1873-76; 
president  Board  of  Examiners,  1876-77. 

Commissioned  as  rear-admiral,  1877;  com 
manding  Asiatic  Station,  1878,  to  October,  1880. 

Pattison,  Thomas,  Commodore  U.S.N.  Born 
in  New  York,  February  8,  1822.  Appointed 
from  New  York,  March  2,  1839;  attached  to 
steam-sloop  "  St.  Louis,"  Pacific  Squadron,  1839- 
42;  receiving-ship,  Boston,  1843  ;  Naval  School, 
Philadelphia,  1845. 

Promoted  to  passed  midshipman,  July  2,  1845 ; 
steamer  "  Princeton,"  1846  ;  during  the  Mexican 
war,  served  in  the  following  ships  as  passed  mid 
shipman  and  sailing-master  :  "  Raritan,"  "  Cum 
berland,"  "  Electra,"  "Scorpion,"  and  gunboat 
"  Reefer"  ;  coast  survey,  1850-51 ;  sloop  "Ports 
mouth,"  Pacific  Squadron,  1852-55. 

Promoted  to  master,  1854. 

Commissioned  as  lieutenant,  September  12, 
1854 ;  receiving-ship,  Boston,  1855-56 ;  navy- 
yard,  Boston,  1857  ;  steam-frigate  "  Mississippi," 
East  India  Squadron,  1857-60;  Naval  Station, 
Sackett's  Harbor,  1860-61;  sloop  "Perry,"  At 
lantic  Squadron,  1861 ;  executive-officer  of  the 
"  Perry"  at  the  time  of  the  capture  of  privateer 
"  Savannah,"  off  Charleston,  June  4, 1861  ;  com 
manding  steamer  "  Philadelphia,"  Potomac  Flo 
tilla,  1861 ;  engagement  with  Acquia  Creek  bat 
teries,  October  1,  1864,  and  engagement  with 
Potomac  River  batteries,  the  latter  part  of  Octo 
ber,  1861. 

Commissioned  as  lieutenant-commander,  July 
16,  1861 ;  commanding  steamer  "  Sumter,"  South 
Atlantic  Blockading  Squadron,  1862;  command 
ing  the  "  Clara  Dolson,"  Mississippi  Squadron, 
1863 ;  commandant  Naval  Station,  Memphis, 
Tenn.,  1863-65. 

Commissioned  as  commander,  March  3,  1865; 
commanding  steamer  "Muscoota,"  Atlantic 
Squadron,  1866-67  ;  navy-yard,  Norfolk,  186.7- 
69. 

Commissioned  as  captain,  June,  1870;  com 
manding  "  Richmond"  (second-rate),  1872;  com 
manding  "  Saranac"  (second-rate),  North  Pacific 
Station,  1872-73;  commanding  receiving-ship 
"  Independence,"  Mare  Island,  1874-77. 

Commissioned  as  commodore,  December  11, 
1877 ;  commanding  Naval  Station,  Port  Royal, 
S.  C.,  1878-80;  commandant  navy-yard,  Wash 
ington,  since  July  10,  1880. 

Paugie.    A  name  for  the  porgy. 

Pauhaugen.  An  Indian  name  for  the  men 
haden.  Written  also  pohagen. 

Paunch-mat.  A  thick,  strong  mat  made  by 
interweaving  strands  of  rope  ;  it  is  used  to  pro 
tect  the  yards  or  the  rigging  from  chafe. 


PAVO 


638 


PAY  COKPS 


Pavo  ( Lot.  " Th e Peacock ").  Anunimportant 
constellation  to  the  south  of  Sagittarius,  lying 
between  the  two  bright  stars  Antares  and  Fo- 
malhaut.  The  northernmost  star  is  a  Pavonis. 

Pawk.     A  young  lobster. 

Pawl.  A  short  bar  which  prevents  the  back 
ward  motion  of  a  capstan  or  windlass. 

PAWL-RIM.  A  cast-iron  rim  having  notches 
in  which  fall  the  lower  ends  of  the  pawls  when 
the  capstan  is  hove  around. 

Pay.  A  familiar  appellation  for  the  paymaster. 
To  cover  with  melted  pitch,  tar,  rosin,  tallow, 
etc. ;  as,  to  pay  a  seam,  to  pay  a  vessel's  bottom, 
etc.  To  pay  out,  to  pass  out  a  rope  or  chain.  To 
pay  off,  to  fall  off  from  the  wind  in  consequence 
of  the  force  exerted  by  the  rudder,  or  the  arrange 
ment  of  the  sails,  or  both.  To  pay  round,  to  turn 
the  ship's  head. 

Pay  Corps  of  the  U.  S.  Navy.  Origin. — The 
pay  corps  of  the  navy  is  the  outgrowth  of  the 
old  system  of  "pursers,"  by  which  name  old 
officers  still  frequently  call  the  paymaster. 

The  pursers  were  civilian  appointments  made 
for  the  cruise  of  a  vessel  only,  and  the  recipients 
of  such  appointments  were  usually  practical  busi 
ness  men,  whose  duties  were  to  provide  provis 
ions,  clothing,  sutler's  goods,  etc.,  for  men,  to 
purchase  all  articles  needed  in  the  various  de 
partments  of  a  ship,  and  to  pay  all  officers  and 
men  attached  thereto,  as  well  as  to  provide  the 
funds  therefor,  their  duties  being  of  such  a 
nature  that  they  were  frequently  styled  the 
ship's  "husband."  They  were  furnished  bills  of 
exchange  and  letters  of  credit,  and  their  com 
pensation  was  a  commission  on  expenditures  ;  so 
large  were  these  commissions  that  some  cruises 
proved  very  profitable  to  the  purser. 

Reorganization. — To  save  such  heavy  commis 
sions  and  systematize  accounts,  as  well  as  to 
render  the  service  more  homogeneous,  Congress 
established  the  corps  of  paymasters.  The  pursers 
were  incorporated  into  the  navy  under  the  new 
cognomen.  Their  duties  remained  the  same  in 
all  essentials,  but  their  relation  to  the  navy 
proper,  compensation,  and  accounting  were 
materially  changed.  Instead  of  civilians  they 
became  officers  ;  in  lieu  of  commissions  they  re 
ceive  fixed  salaries  ;  and  a  Bureau  of  Provisions 
and  Clothing  was  formed  in  the  Navy  Depart 
ment  for  receiving  regular  returns  for  those  arti 
cles,  as  well  as  sutler's  goods,  now  called  "small 
stores. ' '  Abstracts  of  purchases  for  other  Depart 
ments  are  required  to  be  made  to  the  respective 
chiefs  of  bureau  of  those  Departments,  while  ac 
counts  for  pay  and  money  proper  are  rendered  to 
the  Fourth  Auditor  of  the  Treasury.  The  office 
is  for  life,  and  the  results  of  this  reorganization 
are  such  that  the  losses  to  the  government 
from  all  sources,  through  the  administration  of 
the  pay  corps,  are  but  a  small  fraction  of  one 
per  cent,  of  amount  disbursed. 

Organization  of  pay  corps  at  present. — On  the 
first  reorganization  there  were  only  paymasters, 
then  assistants  were  added,  then  passed  assistants; 
the  rank  (a  relative  one)  was  at  first  arbitrarily 
fixed  by  the  Secretary  of  the  Navy,  but  is  now 
fixed  by  law  to  correspond  as  nearly  as  possible 
to  that  of  the  line-officers  entering  service  at 
same  time  with  the  assistant  paymaster.  Thus 
reorganized,  the  pay  corps  of  the  navy  consists 
of  13  pay-directors,  ranking  with  captains ;  13 
pay-inspectors,  ranking  with  commanders;  60 


paymasters,  ranking  with  lieutenant-commanders 
or  lieutenants  ;  30  passed  assistant  paymasters, 
ranking  with  lieutenants  or  masters  ;  and  20  as 
sistant  paymasters,  ranking  Vith  masters  or  en 
signs, — the  alternative  rank  being  decided  by 
length  of  service. 

Conditions  of  appointment  and  promotion. — As 
sistant  paymasters  must  be  21  and  not  over  26 
years  of  age  on  entering  the  service  ;  they  must 
pass  a  physical  and  a  mental  examination  before 
a  medical  board  for  the  first,  and  a  board  of  pay- 
officers  for  the  last,  to  prove  their  fitness ;  they 
are  promoted  as  vacancies  occur,  and  must  pass 
a  similar  examination  to  the  first  on  each  pro 
motion,  with  the  addition  that  they  must  be  able 
to  speak  the  French  and  Spanish  languages  with 
sufficient  fluency  to  do  business  in  them,  and  also 
furnish  to  the  Pay  Board  a  certificate  of  the 
Fourth  Auditor  of  the  Treasury  that  their  ac 
counts  have  been  kept  to  the  satisfaction  of  that 
Department. 

Bonds. — All  pay-officers  on  entering  the  ser 
vice,  on  each  promotion,  and  as  often  as  called 
on  by  the  Secretary  of  the  Navy,  must  furnish 
a  bond  with  two  sureties  or  more,  worth  in  all 
double  the  amount  of  the  bond  ;  the  sufficiency 
of  the  sureties  must  be  certified  to  by  the  judge 
or  attorney  of  a  U.  S.  district  court,  and  be  ap 
proved  by  the  Secretary  of  the  Navy.  The  bond 
of  a  paymaster  is  $25,000,  of  a  passed  assistant, 
$15,000,  and  an  assistant,  $10,000. 

Paymaster-general. — The  chief  of  Bureau  of 
Provisions  and  Clothing,  the  representative  head 
of  the  corps,  is  styled  paymaster-general,  has 
relative  rank  with  commodores,  is  appointed  by 
the  President  from  among  the  senior  paymasters, 
and  on  confirmation  by  the  Senate  is  commis 
sioned  for  four  years.  The  paymaster-general 
has  supervision  over  all  returns  made  to  his 
bureau,  the  records  pertaining  thereto,  the  issu 
ing  of  instructions  to  the  corps,  assignments  to 
duty, — in  fine,  a  general  supervision  over  the 
corps. 

Division  of  duty. — The  service  of  paymasters 
of  all  grades  is  divided  into  two  kinds,  termed 
"shore-"  and  "sea-service,"  consisting  ordinarily 
of  terms  of  three  years  each,  with  "  waiting 
orders"  or  leave  intervening.  "Shore-service" 
consists,  first,  of  duty  at  purchasing  agencies  in 
the  large  cities  for  payment  of  transportation, 
purchases,  and  allotments  ;  secondly,  of  duty  in 
charge  of  provisions,  clothing,  and  small  stores 
at  navy-yards,  receiving  such  stores  from  the 
purchasing  agencies  and  ships  returning  from 
cruises,  and  supplying  ships  fitting  for  a  cruise ; 
thirdly,  of  duty  as  paymasters  of  navy-yards, 
paying  all  workmen,  all  officers  attached  to  the 
yard,  and  a  certain  proportion  of  officers  "on 
leave"  or  "  waiting  orders"  ;  and,  fourthly,  of 
duty  as  paymasters  of  receiving-ships  where  re 
cruits  are  received ;  the  paymaster  being  fur 
nished  by  the  recruiting  officers  with  a  descrip 
tive  list  of  the  recruit,  and  a  transcript  giving 
his  rating,  pay,  term  of  enlistment,  etc.,  a  copy 
of  which  must  accompany  him  on  all  his  trans 
fers.  To  the  purchasing  agencies  pay-directors 
are  usually  assigned  ;  to  the  charge  of  stores,  pay- 
inspectors  ;  and  to  the  payment  of  yards  and  re 
ceiving-ships,  paymasters  ;  as  assistants  to  these, 
passed  assistant  and  assistant  paymasters  are 
sometimes  assigned. 

The  "  sea-service"  consists  of  being  attached 


PAY   CORPS 


639 


PAY  CORPS 


to  a  vessel  in  commission,  which  vessel  is  usually 
on  a  cruise  and  attached  to  a  fleet  or  squadron. 

Fleet-paymaster. — The  senior  paymaster,  at 
tached  generally  to  the  flag-ship,  is  fleet-pay 
master,  and  as  such  makes  all  purchases  and  dis 
tributes  funds  to  the  paymasters  of  other  vessels 
in  company  with  the  flag-ship ;  but  when  sepa 
rated  each  paymaster  acts  independently. 

General  Duties. — The  duty  of  a  paymaster  at 
"sea"  embraces  all  those  of  a  paymaster,  viz.: 
the  purchasing  of  all  supplies,  the  charge  of  all 
stores  in  his  department,  the  payment  of  officers 
and  men,  and  the  providing  of  means  therefor 
by  negotiating  drafts,  for  which  purpose  he  is 
provided  with  blank  bills  of  exchange  and  a 
letter  of  credit. 

Purchases. — All  purchases  are  made  upon 
requisition  by  the  officer  in  charge  of  the  de 
partment  needing  the  articles,  and  before  made 
must  be  submitted  to  and  approved  by  the  com 
manding  officer. 

Responsibility  for  purchases. — The  division  of 
responsibility  is  in  all  cases  as  follows  :  the  com 
manding  officer  is  responsible  for  the  necessity  of 
the  purchase;  the  officer  requiring  the  articles 
for  the  quantity  and  quality,  and  their  care, 
after  receiving  them  ;  and  the  paymaster  for 
their  cc,°t  and  arithmetical  calculations  on  the 
bill. 

Surveys. — In  case  of  loss  of  any  unusual  quan 
tity  of  stores  in  charge  of  paymasters,  such  as 
provisions,  clothing,  and  small  stores,  to  free 
himself  from  loss,  the  paymaster  must  request 
the  commanding  officer  to  appoint  a  "special" 
board  of  survey  to  ascertain  and  report  the  facts 
in  the  case.  For  ordinary  loss  and  waste,  the 
commander  appoints  a  quarterly  board  to  serve 
during  a  quarter,  and  report  the  amount  and 
value  of  all  ordinary  waste  from  deterioration, 
etc. 

Allotments. — In  addition  to  all  the  regular 
duties,  paymasters  on  sea-going  vessels  grant 
allotments  not  exceeding  half-pay — unless  spe 
cially  authorized  by  the  Secretary  of  the  Navy 
— to  all  who  desire  it,  both  officers  and  men,  to 
be  paid  to  whomsoever  they  select  at  home.  The 
allotment  is  paid  by  the  nearest  purchasing  agent 
to  where  the  person  receiving  the  allotment  re 
sides,  and  the  paymaster  of  the  ship  is  respon 
sible  that  it  be  checked  on  the  rolls,  and  notifica 
tion  made  of  discontinuance.  Blanks  are  fur 
nished  on  requisition  at  the  commencement  of  a 
term  of  duty  at  a  purchasing  agency,  navy-yard, 
or  the  commencement  of  a  cruise,  for  pay-rolls, 
bills  for  purchases,  forms  of  returns,  surveys, 
allotments,  etc. ;  "also  stationery.  Returns  must 
be  made  as  follows,  viz.  : 

Returns  and  accounts. — Paymasters  of  "sea 
going"  vessels  must  settle  their  accounts  each 
quarter  as  if  it  were  final,  in  the  mean  time  ren 
dering  a  monthly  summary  statement  of  their 
accounts. 

Their  returns  to  the  Treasury  Department  are 
made  direct,  although  they  must  bear  the  ap 
proval  of  their  immediate  commanding  officer, 
and  the  final  or  quarterly  returns  transmitted  to 
the  treasury  must  consist  of — 

1st.  A  general  pay-roll  embracing  individual 
accounts  of  officers,  men,  and  marines,  with 
credits  for  pay  and  debits  for  money  paid,  money 
value  of  clothing  and  small  stores  furnished,  and 
checkages  of  all  kinds  j  also  showing  the  dates 


of  entry  and  detachment  of  officers,  the  entry, 
discharge,  transfer,  desertion,  death,  and  ex 
piration  of  the  terms  of  enlistment  of  men, 
and  the  vessel  or  station  to  which  officers,  men, 
and  marines  have  been  transferred.  It  must  be 
signed  in  a  receipt  column  by  each  officer,  man, 
and  marine,  and  the  signatures  of  men  and 
marines  must  be  witnessed  in  each  case  by  an 
officer,  and  the  roll  itself  be  approved  by  the 
commanding  officer.. 

2d.  An  account  current  showing  all  his  re 
ceipts  and  expenditures,  and  the  date  of  his  bond, 
vouchers  for  all  purchases,  and  contingent  bills, 
a  complete  money  statement  of  the  value  of  all 
receipts  and  expenditures  of  clothing  and  small 
stores ;  also  a  full  statement  of  all  money  received 
for  provisions  sold. 

3d.  An  account  of  the  sales  of  bills  of  exchange, 
with  the  certificate  of  at  least  two  prominent 
merchants  to  the  current  rate  of  exchange  at 
the  date  of  negotiating  every  bill. 

4th.  All  transfer  accounts  and  rolls  of  officers 
or  men,  whether  to  or  from  the  vessel  (each  officer 
and  man  on  his  transfer  must  be  furnished  with 
a  duplicate  statement  of  his  account,  one  of  which 
the  paymaster  receiving  him  on  his  roll  keeps, 
and  receipts  and  returns  the  other  to  the  pay 
master  who  makes  the  transfer). 

5th.  All  official  papers  necessary  to  substan 
tiate  his  accounts;  and, 

6th.  The  order  of  the  commanding  officer  for 
all  ratings  and  disratings,  etc.,  involving  increase 
or  decrease  of  pay,  and  for  all  additions  to  pay, 
such  as  one-fourth  for  detainment  beyond  date 
of  enlistment,  for  enlistments  under  continuous- 
service  certificates,  for  honorable  discharge 
money,  for  33  cents  per  diem  addition  to  men 
employed  as  firemen  or  coal-heavers,  for  money 
paid  for  transportation  of  officers  or  crew,  and 
for  entering  newly-enlisted  men  on  the  rolls ; 
and  the  funds  appropriated  being  made  by  Con 
gress  under  various  appropriations,  the  expendi 
tures  must  show  under  what  appropriation  they 
are  made. 

The  returns  to  the  paymaster-general  are  made 
through  the  commanding  officer,  and  follow  the 
official  channels.  They  consist  of — 

1st.  A  quarterly  return  of  provisions  and  con 
tingent. 

2d.  A  quarterly  return  of  clothing. 

3d.  A  quarterly  return  of  "small  stores." 

4th.  A  duplicate  copy  of  the  account  cur 
rent,  but  without  vouchers,  and  all  receipts,  in 
voices,  surveys,  etc.,  substantiating  the  above 
returns. 

The  dividing  line  between  the  Treasury  and 
the  Bureau  of  Provisions  and  Clothing  is  thus 
distinctly  drawn,  the  one  dealing  purely  with 
money  values,  and  the  other  with  property.  A 
paymaster  is  allowed  30  days  after  the  expiration 
of  a  quarter  in  which  to  make  up  and  forward 
his  returns,  and  at  expiration  of  tour  of  duty  is 
allowed  30,  40,  50,  or  60  days,  according  to  the 
duty  he  has  been  on. 

In  addition  to  these  returns,  an  abstract  of  pub 
lic  bills  must  be  rendered  at  the  same  time  with 
the  quarterly  returns  to  each  bureau  of  the 
Navy  Department  on  account  of  which  any 
expenditure  has  been  made.  The  paymasters  on 
shore-duty  make  such  portions  of  the  above 
returns  as  apply  to  the  particular  duties  to  which 
they  are  assigned. 


PEA-BALLAST 


640 


PEGASUS 


Times  of  payment  and  issue  of  stores. — Officers 
are  paid  monthly  ;  men  receive  such  portions  as 
the  commanding  officer  directs,  and  are  paid  the 
balance  on  discharge,  and  workmen  at  navy- 
yards,  semi-monthly. 

Men  receive  clothing  on  monthly  division 
requisitions  approved  by  the  commanding  officer, 
and  the  cost  is  charged  against  them  on  their 
accounts. 

Men  receive  small  stores,  including  tobacco, 
soap,  etc.,  on  monthly  mess  requisitions,  also  ap 
proved,  and  value  charged  against  them. 

Officers  can  buy  such  articles  as  they  desire  at 
same  rates. 

Rations  and  commutation. — Provisions  are 
served  out  daily,  each  man  being  entitled  to  one 
ration.  Officers  are  not  entitled  to  rations  unless 
attached  to  a  sea-going  vessel.  See  RATION. 
There  is  a  ration-table,  but  the  ration  consists  in 
substance  of  one  pound  of  meat,  one  of  bread,  one 
of  vegetables,  about  a  quart  of  coffee,  and  minor 
articles,  such  as  butter,  molasses,  sugar,  vinegar, 
pickles,  etc.,  in  proportion.  Meat  may  be  salt  or 
canned  or  fresh,  vegetables  dry  or  fresh,  and 
bread  hard  or  soft,  or  simply  flour,  as  circum 
stances  dictate,  etc.,  under  approval  of  command 
ing  officer.  Canned  tomatoes  and  dried  fruits  are 
also  included. 

Officers  may  commute  their  ration  for  30  cents 
a  day ;  men  are  allowed  to  commute  two  rations 
out  of  a  mess  of  fifteen  at  same  rate  to  purchase 
little  additional  articles  for  their  benefit ;  and 
should  a  man  be  sick,  he  may  be  subsisted  by  the 
medical  department,  and  on  notification  of  that 
fact  the  paymaster  commutes  the  invalid's  ration 
at  same  rate  for  benefit  of  the  medical  department. 

Hospital  fund. — From  the  pay  of  each  officer 
and  man  in  the  service  a  monthly  sum  of  20 
cents  is  deducted  for  the  hospital  fund. 

Accountability  and  percentage  of  loss. — The 
pay-officer  is  held  to  strict  accountability  for 
the  proper  care  of  all  stores  and  money  under 
his  charge,  but  he  is  allowed  7  per  cent,  on  pro 
visions,  2  on  small  stores,  and  1£  on  clothing  for 
necessary  waste  in  issuing.  He  is  also  to  make 
such  other  additional  returns  to  those  above  men 
tioned  as  he  may  be  called  on  to  make  for  the  in 
formation  of  his  superior  officers  in  command. 

Clerical  assistance. — To  enable  him  to  perform 
all  these  duties  a  clerk  is  allowed  to  the  paymas 
ter  of  all  ships  having  a  complement  of  175  per 
sons  or  more,  to  those  at  shore-stations,  in  receiv 
ing-ships,  etc.;  on  board  ship  a  yeoman  to  issue 
clothing,  small  stores,  provisions,  etc.,  is  al 
lowed,  and  at  shore-stations  additional  writers, 
etc.,  according  to  the  requirements  of  the  differ 
ent  offices.  Thus  while  there  are  some  changes 
that  might  be  desirable,  the  organization  and 
accountability  of  the  pay  corps  are- very  nearly 
all  that  could  be  wished.  There  are  many  other 
incidental  duties  in  addition  to  those  mentioned, 
which,  however,  are  so  interwoven  with  other 
departments  as  to  come  more  properlv  under 
other  titles. — C.  D.  Mansfield,  Paymaster  U.S.N. 

Pea-ballast.  A  coarse,  fresh-water  sand  used 
by  ships  in  the  China  trade  for  stowing  tea-chests 
upon. 

Peacock-fish.  A  beautiful  fish  of  the  Medi 
terranean  ( Labrus pavo  of  Linnaeus). 

Pea-crab  (Pinnotheres).  A  genus  of  brachy- 
urous  crustaceans  with  nearly  circular  and  not 
very  hard  carapace.  They  are  of  small  size,  and 


interesting  from  their  living  within  the  mantle- 
lobes  of  lamelli  branchiate  mollusks.  Species  are 
found  in  almost  all  parts  of  the  world. 

Pea-jacket.  A  heavy  coat  worn  by  sea  faring 
men  in  cold  weather ;  it  is  generally  made  of 
pilot-cloth. 

Peak.  The  pee  of  an  anchor.  The  outer  end 
of  a  gaff.  The  upper  after  corner  of  a  four  sided 
fore-and-aft  sail.  The  contracted  part  of  the  hold, 
forward  or  aft.  To  raise  a  gaff  or  lateen-yard  to 
a  sharper  angle  with  the  mast.  To  cant  the  oars 
forward  or  up  See  A-PEAK. 

PEAK-BRAILS.  The  brails  nearest  the  peak  of 
a  gaff-sail. 

PEAK-HALLIARDS.  The  outer  halliards  for 
hoisting  or  lowering  a  gaff. 

Pearl.  A  beautiful  concretion  found  in  the 
interior  of  the  shells  of  many  species  of  mollusks, 
resulting  from  the  deposit  of  nacreous  substance 
round  some  nucleus,  mostly  of  foreign  origin. 
The  Meleagrina  margaritifera,  or  pearl-oyster  of 
the  Indian  seas,  yields  the  most  numerous  and 
finest  specimens. 

Pecten.     A  kind  of  shell-fish. 

Pectinal.  A  fish  whose  bones  resemble  the 
teeth  of  a  comb. 

Pectinibranchiata.  An  order  of  gasteropo- 
dous  mollusks,  having  the  gills  composed  of 
numerous  leaflets  or  fringes,  arranged  like  the 
teeth  of  a  comb,  and  affixed  to  the  internal  sur 
face  of  a  cavity  which  opens  with  a  wide  opening 
above  the  head.  The  sexes  are  distinct.  All 
have  two  tentacles  and  two  eyes — the  eyes  often 
stalked.  The  mouth  is  produced  into  a  probos 
cis,  more  or  less  lengthened.  The  eggs  are  de 
posited  in  a  mass,  with  an  envelope  often  of  very 
remarkable  and  complicated  form,  which  is  pro 
duced  by  coagulation  of  a  viscous  albuminous 
matter  secreted  by  a  peculiar  gland  of  the  female. 
The  order  is  very  numerous,  the  greater  number 
of  gasteropods  being  included  in'it.  Some  have 
a  siphon,  and  some  are  destitute  of  it ;  some 
have  spiral,  and  some  simply  conical  shells. 
Almost  all  are  inhabitants  of  the  sea  or  its  shores, 
a  few  are  found  in  fresh  water.  To  this  order 
belong  Whelks,  Periwinkles,  Cones,  Volutes, 
etc. 

Pectoral  Fins.  The  pair  situated  behind  the 
gills  of  fishes,  corresponding  homologically  to 
the  fore  limbs  of  quadrupeds  and  the  wings  of 
birds. 

Pedro.  An  early  gun  of  large  calibre  for 
throwing  stone  balls. 

Pedro-pee.  To  dance  pedro-pee,  to  walk  a 
seam, — an  old  plan  of  testing  a  sailor's  sobriety. 

Pee.     The  bill  of  an  anchor. 

Peek.     See  PEAK. 

Pegasus  (named  after  a  mythical  winged  horse 
of  the  Greeks).  A  constellation,  the  four  prin 
cipal  stars  of  which,  a,  /3,  y,  <J,  form  a  remarkable 
square  ;  6  Pegasi  is  also  called  a  Andromedce,  and 
the  two  other  stars  of  Andromeda,  ft  and  y,  to 
gether  with  the  adjoining  ft  Persei,  form,  with 
the  square  of  Pegasus,  a  group  very  similar  to, 
though  much  more  extensive  than,  the  Great 
Bear  lying  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  pole.  Cas 
siopeia  lies  about  midway  between  Polaris  and 
Pegasus,  a  Pegasi  is  the  farthest  from  Androm 
eda  and  the  westernmost  of  the  constellation, 
and  ft  is  at  the  northern  angle.  There  are  two 
small  stars,  T}  and  £,  which  are  parallel  to  this  side 
of  the  square  and  serve  to  identify  it.  a  Pegasi, 


PEGASUS 


641 


PENSIONS 


I 


Markab.     ft  Pegasi,  Skeat.     y  Pegasi,  Algenib. 
6  Pegasi,  or  a  Andromeda,  Alpheratz. 

Pegasus.  A  genus  of  fishes  with  large  pec 
toral  fins,  by  means  of  which  they  take  short 
flights  or  leaps  through  the  air. 

Pelagians.     Fishes  of  the  open  sea. 

Pelecanidae.  A  family  of  palmiped  birds  (the 
Totipalmati  of  Cuvier)  characterized  by  a  long, 
straight,  compressed  bill,  broad  at  the  base,  often 
with  a  pouch  beneath  the  lower  mandible  ;  long 
wings,  of  which  the  first  quill  is  the  longest ; 
short  strong  legs,  and  all  the  toes,  including  the 
hind  one,  united  by  a  membrane.  They  are 
generally  excellent  swimmers,  expert  divers, 
and  birds  of  powerful  flight.  Some  of  them 
often  perch  on  trees,  which  few  other  web-footed 
birds  do.  To  this  family  belong  pelicans,  cor 
morants,  frigate-birds,  tropic-birds,  and  darters. 

Pelican.  A  well-known  water-bird.  Also, 
the  old  6-pounder  culverin. 

Pemblico.  A  small  bird  whose  cry  was  deemed 
ominous  at  sea  as  presaging  wind. 

Pemmican.  Condensed  venison,  or  beef,  used 
by  the  hunters  around  Hudson's  Bay,  and  largely 
provided  for  Arctic  voyages,  as  containing  much 
nutriment  in  a  small  compass.  Thin  slices  of 
lean  meat  are  dried  over  the  smoke  of  wood 
fires ;  they  are  then  pounded  and  mixed  with  an 
equal  weight  of  their  own  fat.  It  is  generally 
boiled  and  eaten  hot  where  fire  is  available. 

Penang-lawyer.  A  cane  with  a  very  large 
round  head,  common  in  Penang  and  on  the  Malay 
Peninsula. 

Pencel.     A  small  streamer  or  pennon. 

Penchute.  A  chute  which  conducts  the  water 
from  a  race  to  a  water-wheel. 

Pendant.  A  short  piece  of  rope  having  gen 
erally  a  thimble  or  block  in  one  end  ;  as,  brace- 
pendants,  mast-head  pendants,  reef-pendants,  etc. 
See  PENNANT. 

PENDANT,  IRISH.  The  loose  end  of  a  rope, 
gasket,  etc.,  hanging  about  the  rigging  or  sails. 

PENDANT-TACKLE.  A  heavy  tackle,  the  upper 
block  of  which  is  hooked  into  the  lower  mast 
head  pendant. 

Pendulum.    See  GUN-PENDULUM. 

Penguin  (Aptenodytes],  a  genus  of  birds  of 
the  family  Alcidce,  and  divided  into  several  gen 
era  and  sub-genera^  The  body  is  of  an  elliptical 
form,  the  neck  of  moderate  length,  the  head 
small,  the  bill  moderately  long,  straight,  and 
more  or  less  compressed.  The  tail  is  very  short. 
Some  of  them  have  a  long,  slender,  and  pointed 
bill,  the  upper  mandible  a  little  curved  at  the  tip, 
and  feathered  for  about  a  third  of  its  length. 
Some,  sometimes  called  Gorfews  or  Gorfous 
(Chrysocoma],  have  a  stout  and  pointed  bill,  a 
little  curved  at  the  tip ;  others,  Sphenisques 
(Spheniscus),  have  a  straight  and  compressed 
bill,  irregularly  furrowed  at  the  base.  The 
wings,  too  short  for  flight,  are  covered  with 
short,  stiff,  scale-like  feathers,  and  are  admira 
bly  adapted  for  swimming.  The  legs  are  very 
short,  and  are  placed  far  back,  so  that  on  land 
penguins  rest  on  the  tarsus,  which  is  widened 
like  the  sole  of  the  foot  of  a  quadruped,  and 
stand  perfectly  erect.  Their  bones,  unlike  those 
of  birds  in  general,  are  hard,  compact,  and  heavy, 
and  have  no  air-cavities;  those  of  the  extremities 
contain  an  oily  marrow.  Penguins  are  found 
only  in  the  southern  hemisphere,  and  chiefly  in 
high  southern  latitudes. 
41 


Peninsula.  A  body  of  land  nearly  surrounded 
by  water,  but  joined  to  the  mainland  by  a  nar 
row  neck,  called  an  isthmus. 

Penknife-ice.  A  name  given  by  Parry  to 
ice  the  surface  of  which  is  composed  of  number 
less  irregular  vertical  crystals,  from  5  to  10 
inches  long,  about  half  an  inch  broad,  and  pointed 
at  both  ends.  It  is  supposed  to  be  produced  by 
heavy  drops  of  rain  piercing  their  way  through 
the  ice  rather  than  by  any  peculiar  crystalliza 
tion  while  freezing. 

Pennant.  A  narrow-pennant  is  worn  by  all 
government  vessels  in  commission  and  com 
manded  by  an  officer  below  the  grade  of  com 
modore.  This  pennant  is  not  an  emblem  of 
rank,  but  signifies  that  the  vessel  flying  it  is  of 
a  public  character.  It  is  worn  at  the  main. 

A  broad-pennant  is  the  distinctive  mark  of  a 
commodore ;  it  is  of  blue  bunting,  swallow-tailed, 
contains  one  white  star,  and  is  worn  at  the 
main.  When  two  or  more  commodores  are  in 
company  the  senior  wears  the  blue,  the  next  in 
rank  the  red,  and  the  other  or  others  the  white 
pennant. 

A  senior  officer' s  pennant  is  worn  at  the  mizzen. 
Pennants  are  much  used  in  signaling.  See  SIG 
NALS.  , 

PENNANT-SHIP.  A  vessel  commanded  by  a 
commodore. 

Pennock.  A  little  bridge  thrown  over  a  water 
course. 

Penny-widdie.  A  haddock  dried  without  be 
ing  split. 

Pensacola  is  a  port  of  entry  and  the  capital  of 
Escambia  County,  Fla.  It  is  situated  on  the  west 
shore  of  Pensacola  Bay,  10  miles  from  the  Gulf 
of  Mexico.  The  harbor  has  20  feet  of  water  on 
the  bar,  and  is  one  of  the  safest  in  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico.  At  the  entrance  of  the  harbor  are  situ 
ated  Forts  Pickens  and  McRae,  and  at  Warring- 
ton,  7  miles  to  seaward,  the  U.  S.  navy-yard 
and  Fort  Barrancas  are  situated.  Steamers  ply 
regularly  between  Pensacola,  New  Orleans,  and 
Havana.  See  NAVY- YARD. 

Pensions,  Navy.  Payments  by  the  United 
States  to  persons  disabled  in  the  naval  service,  or 
marine  corps,  and  to  the  dependents  of  persons 
killed,  or  who  have  died  in  consequence  of  in 
juries  received  in  such  service. 

Any  person  disabled  by  wounds  received  or 
disease  contracted  in  the  naval  service,  or  the 
marine  corps,  while  in  the  line  of  duty,  and  who 
has  been  honorably  discharged  ;  and  any  master 
serving  on  a  gunboat,  £>r  any  pilot,  engineer, 
sailor,  or  other  person  not  regularly  mustered, 
serving  on  any  gunboat  or  other  war-vessel  of  the 
United  States,  disabled  by  such  service  from  pro 
curing  subsistence  by  manual  labor,  is  entitled 
to  a  pension.  Any  enlisted  man  who  has  served 
20  years  in  the  navy  or  marine  corps  and  is  dis 
abled  by  age  and  infirmity,  or  any  enlisted  per 
son  who  has  served  10  years  and  is  disabled,  on 
recommendation  of  a  board  of  3  naval  officers 
may  receive  aid  from  the  navy  pension  fund. 
(See  NAVY  PENSION  FUND.)  No  person  is  en 
titled  to  a  navy  pension  for  disabilities  received 
subsequent  to  July  27, 1868,  unless  he  was  at  the 
time  in  the  line  of  duty  and  was  borne  on  the 
books  of  some  vessel  of  the  United  States,  at  sea 
or  in  a  harbor,  actually  in  commission,  or  was  at 
some  naval  station,  or  on  his  way  by  authority 
to  the  United  States,  or  to  some  other  vessel,  or 


PENSIONS 


642 


PERKY 


naval  station,  or  hospital.     Loyalty  is  essential 
in  all  cases. 

The  following  are  the  monthly  rates  of  pen 
sions  for  total  disability :  Lieutenant-colonel  and 
higher  officers  in  the  marine  corps,  captain  and 
officers  of  higher  rank,  commander,  surgeon,  pay 
master,  and  chief  engineer  ranking  with  com 
mander,  lieutenant  commanding  and  master 
commanding,  $30.  Major,  marine  corps,  and 
lieutenant,  'surgeon,  paymaster,  and  chief  en 
gineer  ranking  with  lieutenant  and  passed  assist 
ant  surgeon,  $25.  Captain,  marine  corps,  and 
professor  of  mathematics,  master,  assistant  sur 
geon,  assistant  paymaster,  and  chaplain,  $20. 
First  lieutenant,  marine  corps,  and  acting  assist 
ant  surgeon,  $17.  Second  lieutenant,  marine 
corps,  and  first  assistant  engineer,  ensign,  and 
pilot,  $15.  Cadet  midshipman,  passed  midship 
man,  midshipman,  clerk,  master's  mate,  and 
warrant-officer,  $10.  All  other  persons,  $8. 
After  March  3,  1877,  pensions  of  passed  assistant 
engineers,  assistant  engineers,  and  cadet  en 
gineers  in  the  naval  service  are  the  same  as  pen 
sions  allowed  officers  of  the  line,  with  whom  they 
have  relative  rank.  The  rate  of  pensions  for 
other  than  total  disability  is  governed  by  the  ex 
tent  of  the  disability. 

The  laws  and  regulations  relating  to  the  fol 
lowing  matters  are  the  same  for  navy  as  for 
army  pensions,  viz.  :  the  rate  of  pension  for  per 
manent  specific  disability ;  the  time  when  the 
right  to  a  pension  accrues  ;  the  rights  of  widows, 
children,  and  other  dependents  of  deceased  offi 
cers  and  men  ;  artificial  limbs,  or  money  in  lieu 
thereof;  places  and  times  of  payment  of  pensions; 
and  the  manner  of  applying  for  and  obtaining 
all  benefits  under  the  pension  laws. 

Whenever  any  person  entitled  to  a  navy  pen 
sion  is  admitted  to  a  navy  hospital  or  to  the 
Naval  Asylum,  his  pension  during  his  continu 
ance  in  the  hospital  is  paid  to  the  Secretary  of 
the  Navy  and  returned  to  the  navy  pension  fund. 

PENSION  FUND,  NAVY.  A  fund  derived  from 
the  government's  share  of  money  obtained  from 
the  sale  of  prizes  captured  by  II.  S.  vessels. 
(See  PRIZE-MONEY.)  It  is  provided  by  law 
that  money  so  accruing  shall  be  and  remain 
forever  a  fund  for  the  payment  of  pensions  to 
officers,  seamen,  and  marines  who  may  be  en 
titled  to  receive  the  same ;  and  if  such  fund  be 
insufficient  for  the  purpose,  the  public  faith  is 
pledged  to  make  up  the  deficiency ;  but  if  it 
should  be  more  than  sufficient,  the  surplus  shall 
be  applied  to  the  making  of  further  provision 
for  the  comfort  of  the  disabled  officers,  seamen, 
and  marines.  The  Secretary  of  the  Navy  is 
trustee  of  the  fund,  which  now  amounts  to 
$14,000,000,  and  is  invested  in  government  se 
curities  paying  3  per  cent,  interest. 

Any  enlisted  man  who  has  served  20  years  in 
the  navy  or  marine  corps,  and  is  disabled  by 
age  or  infirmity,  may,  if  he  so  elects,  receive  a 
sum  from  the  pension  fund,  equal  to  one-half 
the  pay  of  his  rating  at  the  time  of  his  discharge, 
to  be  paid  quarterly  by  a  pension  agent.  This  is 
in  lieu  of  being  provided  with  a  "home  in  the 
Naval  Asylum  at  Philadelphia.  Applications 
for  this  pension  must  be  made  to  the  Secretary 
of  the  Navy,  who,  if  satisfied  the  applicant  is 
entitled  thereto,  will  direct  the  Commissioner  of 
Pensions  to  issue  a  certificate. 

Every  disabled  person  who  has  served  10  j-ears 


in  the  navy  or  marine  corps,  and  has  not  been 
discharged  for  misconduct,  may  apply  to  the 
Secretary  of  the  Navy  for  aid  from  the  pension 
fund.  A  board  of  3  officers  will  examine  the 
condition  of  the  applicant,  and  recommend  a 
suitable  amount  for  his  relief,  to  be  paid  quarterly, 
for  a  specified  time.  If  the  Secretary  approve 
the  recommendation,  the  Commissioner  of  Pen 
sions  will  issue  a  certificate  to  the  applicant ;  but 
the  allowance  cannot  exceed  the  rate  of  a  pen 
sion  for  full  disability  corresponding  to  the  grade 
of  the  applicant,  nor,  if  in  addition  to  a  pension 
already  in  the  receipt  of  the  applicant,  exceed 
one-fourth  the  rate  of  such  pension. 

Penumbra.  A  partial  shadow.  The  shadow, 
in  an  eclipse,  from  which  the  light  is  not  wholly 
cut  off  by  the  intervening  body. 

Peotta.  A  craft  of  the  Adriatic,  of  light  bur 
den,  propelled  by  oars  and  canvas. 

Pepper-dulse.  Halymenia  edulis ;  a  pungent 
sea-weed,  which,  as  well  as  H.  palmata,  common 
dulse,  is  eaten  in  Scotland. 

Perca.     A  genus  of  fishes  including  the  perch. 

Perch.  A  pole  stuck  up  on  a  shoal  as  a  bea 
con.  A  spar  erected  on  or  projected  from  a  cliff 
whence  to  watch  fish.  An  acanthopterygious 
fish  of  several  species,  of  the  genus  Perca,  in 
habiting  both  fresh  and  salt  water.  They  have 
powerful  dorsal  fins,  with  strong  and  sharp 
spines.  The  scales  are  moderately  large,  with 
the  posterior  edge  toothed.  The  name  is  also 
applied  to  several  other  species  of  fishes.  The 
common  perch  of  eastern  North  America  is  the 
Labrax  rufus ;  the  yellow  perch,  Perca flavescens. 
The  black  perch  of  the  American  seas  is  the 
Centropristis  nigricans,  called  also  sea-bass.  The 
blue  perch  is  the  Cienolambrus  coeruleus  of  the 
Scomber  family. 

Percussion-fuze.    See  FUZE. 

Perer.     An  old  gun  for  throwing  stone  shot. 

Periagua.     See  PIRAGUA. 

Perigee  (Gr.  peri,  near ;  ge,  the  earth).  The 
point  in  the  moon's  orbit  nearest  the  earth. 

Perihelion  (Gr.  peri,  near ;  helios,  the  sun). 
The  point  in  the  orbit  of  a  planet  or  comet 
nearest  to  the  sun. 

Periko.  An  undecked  boat  of  burden  in 
Bengal. 

Perils  of  the  Sea.  A  term  comprehending  the 
accidents  peculiar  to  ocean  navigation  which  are 
insured  against  in  policies  of  marine  insurance. 
In  England  and  in  this  country  a  specification 
of  the  risks  is  an  essential  part  of  the  contract. 
In  most  of  the  countries  of  Europe,  where  there 
is  no  special  agreement  of  the  parties,  the  perils 
that  the  policy  is  to  cover  are  defined  by  law 

Periodical  Winds.     See  MONSOON. 

Periwinkle.  A  favorite  little  shell-fish,  the 
pin-patch,  or  Turbo  littoreus.  The  win-wincle 
of  the  Anglo-Saxon. 

Perpendicle.  The  plumb-line  of  the  old 
quadrant. 

Perry.     An  old  term  for  a  sudden  squall. 

Perry,  Christopher  Raymond,  Captain  U.S.N. 
Born  in  Rhode  Island,  1760;  died  at  Newport, 
June  8,  1818.  He  served  with  distinction  in  the 
Revolutionary  navy ;  was  in  the  hard-fought 
action  of  the  "  Watt"  and  the  "  Trumbull,"  and 
was  for  some  months  confined  in  the  "  Jersey" 
prison-ship;  post-captain,  January  7,  1798. 
April  3,  1801,  the  navy  was  nearly  disbanded, 
and  Capt.  Perry  was  appointed  collector  of  New- 


PERKY 


643 


PERTH 


port.  His  five  sons  (Oliver  H.,  Raymond  H., 
Matthew  C.,  James  A.,  and  Nathaniel  H.),  all 
officers  of  the  navy,  distinguished  themselves 
during  the  war  of  1812-15.  A  daughter,  Anna 
Maria,  married  Capt.  George  W.,  son  of  Com 
modore  John  Rodgers,  and  died  at  New  London, 
Conn.,  December  7,  1858,  aged  60. 

Perry,  Matthew  Colbreath,  Commodore 
U.S.N.  M.  C.  Perry,  son  of  Capt.  C.  R.  Perry, 
and  brother  of  Oliver  H.  Perry,  U.S.N. ,  was  born 
at  South  Kingston,  R.  I.,  in  1795.  He  entered 
the  navy  as  midshipman  in  1809,  on  the  1st  of 
March.  During  the  war  of  1812  he  served  in 
the  squadrons  of  Commodores  Rodgers  and  De- 
catur.  Promoted  to  lieutenant  on  the  24th  of 
July,  1813.  In  1817-19,  he  was  at  New  York 
Navy- Yard.  In  1820,  in  the  sloop  "Cyane," 
African  coast,  and  the  following  year  also.  In 
1822-23  he  was  in  command  of  the  schooner 
"Shark,"  in  the  West  India  Squadron,  cruising 
against  pirates.  In  1824,  he  was  in  the  receiv 
ing-ship  at  New  York  ;  1825,  went  to  the  Med 
iterranean  as  first  lieutenant  of  the  "  North 
Carolina,"  74,  and  returned  home  in  1827 ; 
from  1828  to  1830,  he  was  at  the  naval  rendez 
vous  at  Charleston;  in  1831-33,  sloop  "Con 
cord"  ;  attached  to  the  navy-yard,  New  York, 
in  1835-37.  Commissioned  as  master-comman 
dant,  March  21,  1826,  and  captain  in  1837;  in 
1838-40,  in  command  of  the  U.  S.  ship  "Fulton," 
in  connection  with  experiments  in  steam  navi 
gation,  and  in  Europe  on  light-house  duty  ;  in 
1841-43,  he  was  at  the  navy-yard,  New  York, 
part  of  the  time  in  command;  in  1844-45  he 
commanded  the  African  Squadron ;  in  1846, 
joined  the  squadron  under  Commodore  Connor 
in  the  steamer  "  Mississippi"  ;  in  1846,  conducted 
the  expedition  against  Tabasco,  in  October,  cap 
turing  several  ships  and  two  towns,  and  after 
wards  against  Laguna  ;  he  was  left  in  command 
March  21,  1847,  and  so  continued  until  the  end 
of  the  Mexican  war,  conducting  all  the  operations 
against  Vera  Cruz,  in  March,  Tuspan,  in  April, 
and  Tabasco,  in  June ;  he  was  on  special  duty 
from  1849  to  1852,  and  in  1853  sailed  in  com 
mand  of  the  East  India  Squadron,  and  during 
the  three  succeeding  years  carried  the  flag  into 
Japanese  waters,  and  successfully  made  with 
them  the  treaty  which  opened  their  ports  to 
American  enterprise.  He  was  on  special  duty 
connected  with  that  expedition  during  the  years 
1856-57,  and  on  waiting  orders  in  1858.  He  died 
on  the  4th  of  March,  1858,  at  New  York,  aged 
63.— .F.  S.  Bassett,  Lieutenant  U.S.N. 

Perry,  Oliver  Hazard,  Commodore  U.S.N. 
Oliver  H.  Perry,  son  of  Capt.  Christopher  R. 
Perry,  was  born  in  Newport,  R.  I.,  in  Au 
gust,  1785.  He  as  a  midshipman  in  his  fath 
er's  vessel,  the  "General  Green,"  received  a 
warrant  April,  1799.  Sailed  in  the  "John  Ad 
ams,"  Capt.  Rodgers,  in  September,  1802,  and 
served  in  her  in  the  war  with  Tripoli,  being  pro 
moted  to  acting  lieutenant  at  17  years  of  age. 
Returning,  he  sailed  again  for  the  Mediterranean 
in  the  "  Constellation,"  Capt.  Campbell,  in  1805, 
and  was  transferred  to  the  "  Nautilus"  as  first 
lieutenant,  and  came  home  in  the  "  Essex." 
Commissioned  a  lieutenant  January,  1807.  Had 
command  of  17  gunboats  in  New  York  harbor 
in  1809.  In  1810  commanded  the  schooner 
"  Revenge,"  in  Commodore  Rodgers's  squadron. 
While  surveying  the  coasts  of  New  England 


he  was  wrecked  on  Watch  Hill  Reef,  Conn., 
January,  1811.  In  consequence,  he  was  court- 
martialed,  but  acquitted  of  the  charges.  In  com 
mand  of  flotilla  at  Newport,  but  was  transferred 
to  the  lakes,  in  1812,  and  promoted  to  master-com 
mandant.  He  led  the  boats  in  Commodore  Chaun- 
cey's  attack  on  Fort  George,  27th  May,  1813.  He 
had  been  assigned  to  the  command  of  the  forces 
on  Lake  Erie,  and  returned  there  after  this  action. 
By  great  exertions  he  assembled  a  fleet,  and  on  the 
10th  of  September,  defeated  the  English  squadron 
of  6  vessels,  in  the  celebrated  battle  of  Lake  Erie, 
off  Put-in-Bay.  His  ship,  the"  Lawrence,"  was 
so  battered  that  he  abandoned  her  during  the 
action,  going  in  a  boat  to  the  "  Niagara."  On 
his  flag  was  inscribed  the  dying  sentence  of  Law 
rence,  "Don't  give  up  the  ship."  He  received 
a  gold  medal  for  this  victory.  He  resigned  the 
command  to  Capt.  Elliott,  November  20;  was 
appointed  a  captain  September  10,  and  given 
command  of  the  "  Java,"  44.  That  vessel  being 
blockaded,  he  was  ordered  to  superintend  the  con 
struction  of  a  squadron  of  gunboats.  Returning 
to  the  "Java,"  he  went  to  Algiers  in  Decatur's 
squadron.  In  1819,  sailed  in  the  "John  Adams" 
to  command  the  Brazil  Station.  Sailed  up  the 
Amazon  River  in  the  schooner  "Nonsuch"  to 
Angostura,  was  attacked  with  the  yellow  fever, 
and  died  August  23,  aged  34  years,  on  his  return 
to  Port  Spain,  Trinidad. — F.  S.  Bassett,  Lieu 
tenant  U.S.N. 

Perseus  (named  after  a  mythical  hero,  the 
slayer  of  Medusa).  A  constellation  lying  be 
tween  Auriga  and  Taurus  on  its  east,  and  Cassi 
opeia  and  Andromeda  on  its  west.  Of  its  two 
principal  stars,  a  lies  nearly  between  Capella  and 
Cassiopeia,  ft  forms  a  triangle  with  Capella  and 
the  Pleiades,  a  Persei,  Mirfak.  (3  Persei^  Al 
gol.  The  latter  star  is  remarkable  for  its  periodic 
changes  of  magnitude. 

Personal  Error,  or  Personal  Equation.  Dif 
ferent  individuals  have  their  peculiarities  which 
materially  affect  the  observations  made  by  them. 
The  organ  of  vision  is  more  refined  and  specially 
educated  in  one  person  than  in  another,  and  the 
forming  a  judgment  of  the  exact  instant  of  a 
phenomenon  is  greatly  influenced  by  the  tem 
perament  of  the  observer.  The  error  arising 
from  this  cause  is  called  the  personal  error,  or, 
with  reference  to  the  consequent  correction  to  be 
made  to  an  observation,  the  personal  equation. 
Even  when  two  images  in  contact  are  at  rest  be 
fore  two  observers,  one  will  decide  that  they  over 
lap,  and  the  other  that  they  are  apart ;  but  especi 
ally  when  the  images  are  in  motion  does  such 
difference  of  opinion  occur.  Anxiety  lest  he 
should  miss  the  observation  may  lead  a  nervous 
observer  to  think  he  sees  the  contact  before  it 
really  takes  place,  while  quickness  of  perception 
may  be  deficient  in  another  observer. 

Personnel.  A  word  adopted  from  the  French, 
and  expressive  of  all  the  officers  and  men,  civil 
and  military,  composing  an  army  or  a  naval  force. 

Persuader.  A  rattan,  colt,  or  rope's  end  in 
the  hands  of  a  boatswain's  mate. 

Perth,  formerly  the  metropolis  of  Scotland,  is 
situated  on  the  right  bank  of  the  river  Tay,  in 
lat.  56°  23'  50"  N.,  Ion.  3°  26'  20"  W.  The 
river  is  navigable  to  the  city  for  vessels  of  con 
siderable  burden.  Ship-bui'lding  is  an  extensive 
interest,  and  the  salmon-fisheries  of  the  Tay  are 
very  valuable.  The  foreign  trade  is  unimportant, 


PERTURBATIONS 


644 


PHELPS 


out  the  coastwise  exports  include,  besides  fish, 
large  quantities  of  potatoes,  corn,  timber,  and 
slates.  Pop.  27,000. 

Perturbations.  Irregularities  or  inequalities 
in  the  motion  of  a  heavenly  body  in  its  orbit. 

Peru,  Navy  of.  The  list  of  vessels  at  present 
comprises  2  single-turreted  monitors,  2  gun- 
vessels,  1  unarmored  corvette,  4  transports,  and 
3  school-ships.  Their  most  formidable  vessel, 
the  "Huascar,"  was  captured  by  the  Chilians, 
October  8,  1879.  The  "Atahualpa"  and  the 
"  Manco  Capac"  (since  sunk  by  the  Chilians  at 
Arica,  June  14,  1880)  were  built  for  the  U.  S. 
navy  in  1866,  at  Cincinnati,  O.,  and  sold  to  Peru 
in  1867. 

The  "Victoria"  and  "  Loa"  are  small  gun- 
vessels,  mounting  2  guns  each.  The  unarmored 
vessels  include  the  wooden  corvette  "  Union"  and 
the  transports  "Chalco,"  "  Limena,"  "  Oroya," 
and  "  Talisman."  The  "  Independencia,"  lost  in 
1879  by  running  on  a  rock  while  in  chase  of  the 
Chilian  gunboat  "Covadonga,"  was  an  iron- 
armored  frigate  of  the  old  type,  built  in  England 
in  1865. 

Petard.  A  bell-shaped  vessel  filled  with  pow 
der,  and  fired  by  a  fuze,  formerly  used  for  break 
ing  down  gates,  barricades,  etc.  Hoist  by  his 
own  petard,  a  phrase  descriptive  of  the  case  of 
one  whose  machination  against  another  has  re 
acted  to  bis  own  injury. 

Pet-cock.  A  tap  or  valve  on  a  pump.  A 
faucet  on  a  cylinder. 

Peter-boat.  A  fishing-boat  of  the  Thames 
and  Medway.  so  named  after  St.  Peter,  as  the 
patron  of  fishermen,  whose  cross-keys  form  part 
of  the  armorial  bearings  of  the  Fishmongers' 
Company  of  London.  These  boats  were  first 
brought  from  Norway  and  the  Baltic.  They 
are  generally  short,  shallow,  and  sharp  at  both 
ends,  with  a  well  for  fish  in  the  centre,  25  feet 
over  all,  and  6  feet  beam  ;  yet  in  such  craft  boys 
were  wont  to  serve  out  seven  years'  apprentice 
ship,  scarcely  ever  going  on  shore. 

Peter's-fish.  A  haddock  ;  so  named  because 
the  spots  on  either  side  are  supposed  to  be  the 
marks  of  St.  Peter's  fingers,  impressed  indelibly 
when  he  caught  that  fish  to  pay  the  tribute. 

Petrel.  The  Cypselli  of  the  ancients,  and 
Mother  Carey's  chicken  of  sailors.  They  collect 
in  numbers  at  the  approach  of  a  gale,  running 
along  the  waves  in  the  wake  of  a  ship,  whence 
the  name  petrel,  in  reference  to  St.  Peter's  at 
tempt  to  walk  on  the  water.  They  are  seen  in 
all  parts  of  the  ocean.  The  largest  of  the  petrels, 
Procellaria  fuliginosa,  is  known  by  seamen  as 
Mother  Carey's  goose. 

Petticoat  Trousers.  A  kind  of  kilt  formerly 
worn  by  seamen  in  general,  but  latterly  princi 
pally  by  fishermen. 

Petty  Average.     See  AVERAGE. 

Petty  Officer.  A  general  term,  corresponding 
to  non-commissioned  officer  in  the  army.  He 
holds  his  position  during  the  pleasure  of  the 
appointing  authority,  which  is  generally  the 
commanding  officer.  The  master-at-arms  is  the 
chief  petty  officer. 

Phalarope  (Phalaropus).  A  genus  of  birds  of 
the  family  Lobipedidce,  having  a  rather  long, 
slender,  weak,  straight  bill,  resembling  that  of 
the  sandpipers,  which,  indeed,  they  "otherwise 
much  resemble,  although  differing  in  their 
aquatic  habits,  the  greater  part  of  their  time  being 


passed  in  swimming  on  the  sea,  where  they  seek 
mollusks  and  other  small  marine  animals  for 
their  food.  The  gray  phalarope  breeds  only  in 
the  Arctic  regions,  but  migrates  southward  on 
the  approach  of  winter.  It  is  a  beautiful  bird, 
and  remarkable  for  the  great  difference  of  its 
summer  and  winter  plumage,  the  prevailing  tint 
in  winter  being  a  delicate  "gray,  whilst  in  sum 
mer  the  upper  parts  exhibit  a  fine  mixture  of 
black,  white,  and  yellow,  and  the  breast  and  under 
parts  are  a  reddish  chestnut.  Its  entire  length 
is  rather  more  than  8  inches.  The  red-necked 
phalarope  breeds  in  some  of  the  northern  Scottish 
islands,  although  it  is  more  common  in  more 
northern  regions.  It  is  rather  smaller  than  the 
gray  phalarope,  between  which  and  it  Cuvier 
makes  a  generic  distinction,  on  account  of  its 
sharper  and  more  slender  bill.  Both  are  very 
fearless  of  man  and  easily  tamed.  Their  flesh  is 
oily  and  unpalatable. 

Pharos.  An  island  near  Alexandria  on  which 
a  light-House  was  erected  ;  hence,  a  name  for  any 
light-house. 

Phaselus.  An  ancient  small  vessel,  equipped 
with  sails  and  oars. 

Phases.  The  different  forms  which  the  illu 
minated  disks  of  the  moon  and  some  planets 
assume  in  consequence  of  their  being  turned  at 
different  angles  to  the  observer. 

Phecda.     The  star  y  Ursce  Majoris. 

Phelps,  Thomas  S.,  Commodore  U.S.N. 
Born  in  Maine.  Appointed  from  Maine,  Janu 
ary  17,  1840;  attached  to  sloop  "  Preble,"  coast 
of  Labrador  and  Bay  of  Fundy,  March  to  De 
cember,  1840  ;  Mediterranean  Squadron,  January, 
1841,  to  September,  1843  ;  sloop  "  Boston,"  Brazil 
Squadron,  October,  1843,  to  February,  1846 ; 
Naval  School,  February  to  July,  1846. 

Promoted  to  passed  midshipman,  July  11, 
1846;  sloop  "  Boston,"  Gulf  Squadron,  October 
5,  1846  ;  wrecked  on  the  island  of  Eleuthera, 
West  Indies,  November  16,  1846 ;  detached  and 
ordered  to  steamer  "  Polk,"  for  war  and  special 
service  ;  in  Mexico,  February  20,  1847  ;  returned 
detached,  and  ordered  to  coast  survey,  May  7, 
1847  ;  attached  to  schooners  "  Nautilus,"  "  J.  T. 
Mason,"  and  steamer  "  Legare,"  until  June, 
1849  ;  razee  "  Independence,"  Mediterranean 
Squadron,  June,  1849,  to  December,  1850;  frig 
ate  "  Constitution,"  same  squadron,  December, 
1850,  to  February,  1851  ;  schooner  "Graham," 
steamers  "Legare"  anJ  "  Hetzel,"  coast  sur 
vey,  May  1,  1851,  to  November,  1852  ;  receiving- 
ship  "Pennsylvania,"  November,  1852,  to  Jan 
uary  1,  1853;  steamer  "Fulton,"  one  month,— 
rejoined  "  Pennsylvania,"  and  attached  until 
December,  1853;  surveyed  Elizabeth  River  and 
Norfolk  Navy- Yard  ;  sloop  "  Decatur,"  Pacific 
Squadron,  December,  1853,  to  April  15,  1857; 
served  throughout  the  Indian  war  in  Washing 
ton  Territory,  1855-56. 

Promoted  to  master,  March  1,  1855. 

Commissioned  as  lieutenant,  September  14, 
1855 ;  battle  of  Seattle,  Washington  Territory, 
January  26,  1856;  ordnance  duty,  Norfolk,' Va., 
May,  1857,  to  September,  1858;  Paraguay  Expe 
dition  and  Brazil  Squadron,  September,  1858,  to 
June,  1859;  steamer  "  Crusader,"  Home  Squad 
ron,  June  16  to  August  24,  1859  ;  commanded 
steamer  "  Vixen,"  coast  survey,  and  on  special 
service,  August,  1859,  to  September,  1861  ;  at 
tached  to  expedition  for  the  relief  of  Fort  Sumter, 


PHILADELPHIA 


645 


PICKERIE 


March,  1861.  "  In  organizing  the  government  for 
war,  it  was  decided  by  the  chiefs  of  departments 
that  one  naval  officer  skilled  in  surveying  should 
be  detached  for  special  service  to  co-operate  with 
army  and  navy,  and  Lieut.  Phelps  was  selected 
by  ballot  for  that  duty."  In  consequence  of  the 
destruction  of  signs,  boats,  buoys,  and  ranges,  and 
the  erection  of  heavy  batteries  by  the  rebels,  the 
Potomac  River  was  rendered  almost  impassable, 
and  at  this  critical  moment  when  the  safety  of 
Washington  was  hazarded,  a  survey  and  chart  of 
the  river  became  imperative.  For  this  .purpose,  6 
steamers  were  placed  at  the  disposal  of  Lieut. 
Phelps.  Selecting  two,  he,  in  June,  successfully 
executed  the  work,  which  fully  answered  the 
requirements  of  the  country.  Transferred  to 
steamer  "  Corwin"  for  secret  service,  September 
24,  1861 ;  examined  five  of  the  inlets  of  North 
Carolina,  and  surveyed  and  buoyed  Hatteras 
Inlet,  for  the  introduction  of  expeditions  into 
the  interior  waters  of  that  State ;  skirmished 
with  rebel  gunboats,  Pamlico  Sound,  November 
9,  1861 ;  engagement  with  rebel  gunboat  "  Cur 
lew,"  Hatteras  Inlet,  November  14,  1861;  re 
ceived  compliments  of  Secretary  of  Navy  ;  secret 
service  in  Virginia  waters,  December,  1861 ;  at 
tached  to  North  Atlantic  Blockading  Squadron, 
March,  1862;  assigned  to  command  of  division  for 
operations  in  rear  of  Gloucester  Point,  Va.,  April 
1,  1862;  York  River,  April  21,  three  engage 
ments  with  Yorktown  and  Gloucester  Point  bat 
teries  ;  skirmish  with  rebels,  Queen's  Point,  Va., 
captured  5,  and  caused  the  destruction  of  2  of  the 
enemy's  vessels  ;  prevented  destruction  of  White 
House  bridge,  May  4,  1862  ;  frequent  skirmishes 
with  main  body  of  rebel  army  retreating  from 
Yorktown,  May  5  and  6  ;  battle  of  West  Point, 
Va.,  ascended  the  Mattapony  River  and  pre 
vented  the  junction  of  a  large  force  of  rebels  with 
main  army,  May  7;  made  reconnoissance  charts 
of  Mattapony  and  Pamunkey  Rivers. 

Commissioned  as  lieutenant-commander,  July 
16,  1862.  In  obedience  to  the  demands  of  Con 
gress  and  an  order  of  the  Navy  Department,  ex 
ecuted  a  close  and  complete  survey  of  the  Poto 
mac  River;  opposed  in  the  work  by  enemy's 
infantry  and  artillery,  July  29,  1862,  to  March 
1,  1863  ;  commanded  steamer  "  Corwin,"  on 
special  service,  from  March,  1863,  to  December, 
1864, — principally  employed  in  making  surveys 
in  anticipation  of  naval  and  military  movements, 
and  in  examining  dangers  in  the  way  of  blockaders 
and  transports;  ironclad  "  Saugus,"  December, 
1864  ;  steam-sloop  "  Juniata,"  January  3,  1865; 
commanded  the  "Juniata"  at  the  capture  of 
Fort  Fisher,  January  15,  1865  ;  South  Atlantic 
Blockading  Squadron,  January  21,  1865;  com 
manded  steamer  "  Lenapee,"  Atlantic  Coast 
Squadron,  March  2,  1865,  to  April  3,  1867. 

Commissioned  as  commander,  August  5, 1865  ; 
Mare  Island  Navy- Yard,  Cal.,  1867-70;  com 
manding  receiving-ship  "  Independence,"  1870- 
71 ;  commanding  steam-sloop  "  Saranac,"  North 
Pacific  Station,  1871-72. 

Commissioned  as  captain,  June  19,  1871 ;  navy- 
yard,  Mare  Island,  Cal.,  1873-77 ;  commanding 
receiving-ship  "  Independence,"  1877-79. 

Commissioned  as  commodore,  January  13, 
1879  ;  waiting  orders,  1880. 

Philadelphia,  the  second  city  of  the  United 
States  and  the  metropolis  of  Pennsylvania,  is 
situated  on  the  Delaware  River,  96  miles  (by 


ship-channel)  from  the  ocean.  The  water  front 
on  the  Delaware  reaches  from  Poquessing  Creek 
to  Bow  Creek,  opposite  Tinicum  Island,  and  is  23 
miles  long.  The  area  of  the  city,  including  Ger- 
mantown,  Chestnut  Hill,  Frankford,  Manayunk, 
and  many  smaller  suburban  towns,  is  129  square 
miles.  The  city  is  divided  into  two  parts  by  the 
Schuylkill  River,  that  part  lying  west  of  the 
river  being  called  West  Philadelphia.  The  prin 
cipal  government  buildings  located  here  are  the 
Naval  Asylum,  naval  hospital,  Frankford  and 
Schuylkill  arsenals,  custom-house  and  sub-treas 
ury,  and  post-office.  The  navy-yard  is  situ 
ated  at  League  Island,  south  of  the  city,  and  at 
the  end  of  Broad  Street,  about  5  miles  from 
Market  Street.  The  city  is  accessible  from  the 
sea  by  the  largest  merchant  steamers,  and  several 
lines  of  steamships  ply  between  Philadelphia 
and  European  ports.  A  number  of  large  rail 
roads  centre  here,  and  the  city  takes  a  high  rank 
as  a  seat  of  foreign,  domestic,  and  coastwise 
trade  ;  coal,  petroleum,  live-stock,  lumber,  grain, 
iron  and  iron  goods,  machinery,  cotton  (raw  and 
manufactured),  and  tobacco  are  the  leading  arti 
cles  of  export.  Girard  Point,  on  the  Schuylkill, 
is  the  grain  and  provision  shipping-point.  Port 
Richmond,  on  the  Delaware,  is  the  coal  port, 
and  Gibson's  Point,  on  the  Schuylkill,  and  Green 
wich  Point,  on  the  Delaware,  have  all  the  neces 
sary  appliances  for  the  shipment  of  both  petro 
leum  and  coal.  The  only  transatlantic  line  of 
steamers  carrying  the  American  flag  plies  be 
tween  Liverpool  and  Philadelphia.  The  manu 
factures  of  this  city  constitute  its  largest  business 
interest.  Some  idea  of  its  vastness  can  be  formed 
from  the  following  figures  :  The  amount  of  capi 
tal  invested  is  $250,000,000 ;  number  of  hands 
employed,  220,000  ;  amount  paid  in  wages,  $88,- 
000,000,  and  the  value  of  a  year's  product,  $500,- 
000,000.  The  textile  interests  employ  more  than 
70,000  persons,  and  produce  more  than  $85,000,- 
000.  The  other  leading  manufactures  are  iron 
and  steel,  machinery,  refined  sugarrhouse-build- 
ing  materials,  boots  and  shoes,  etc.  The  popu 
lation  by  the  census  of  1880  is  847,572. 

Phinak.     A  species  of  trout. 

Phoenix  (named  after  a  mythical  bird  of  the 
Egyptians).  A  constellation  the  principal  star 
of  which,  a  Phoenicia,  is  situated  midway  be 
tween  Fomalhaut  and  Achernar,  nearly  on  the 
line  joining  them. 

Physalia.  A  genus  of  Aealephce.  Under  the 
name  of  Portuguese  man-of-war  this  creature  is 
well  known  to  sailors,  with  whom  it  is  a  common 
trick  to  induce  a  green  hand  to  pick  up  one  of 
them  for  the  fun  of  witnessing  the  promptitude 
with  which  he  lets  go  of  it,  owing  to  a  power  it 
possesses  of  inflicting  a  sting  that  not  only  causes 
severe  local  pain,  but  also  constitutional  irrita 
tion. 

Piaba.  A  small,  fresh-water  fish  of  Brazil, 
about  the  size  of  a  minnow,  much  esteemed  for 
food. 

Piccaroon.  A  swindler  or  thief.  Also,  a  pi 
ratical  vessel. 

Piccary.     Piratical  theft  on  a  small  scale. 

Pickerel.  A  fish  of  the  genus  Esox,  applied 
to  several  species  of  fresh- water  fish  belonging  to 
the  pike  family. 

Pickerie.  An  old  word  for  stealing ;  under 
this  name  the  crime  was  punishable  by  severe 
duckings. 


PICKERING 


646 


PILOT 


Pickering,  Charles  W.,  Commodore  U.S.N. 

B*orn  in  New  Hampshire,  from  which  State  he 
was  appointed  midshipman,  May  22,  1822.  In 
1822-23,  sloop  "  Cyane,"  stationed  on  the  coast 
of  Africa,  lost  by  fever  50  of  her  officers  and 
crew.  On  leave,  1824-26;  Naval  School,  New 
York,  1827;  in  1828,  attached  to  sloop-of-war 
u  Erie,"  West  India  Station  ;  from  the  summer 
of  1831  to  February,  1834,  was  attached  to  the 
sloop-of-war  "Falmouth,"  Pacific  Squadron. 

Promoted  to  passed  midshipman,  June,  1833  ; 
serving  at  navy-yard,  Boston,  during  the  years 
1835-36  ;  from  1837-39,  attached  to  frigate  ''Ful 
ton,"  stationed  on  the  TJ.  S.  coast. 

Commissioned  as  lieutenant,  December  8, 1838; 
from  1840-42,  attached  to  sloop  "Yorktown," 
Pacific  Squadron ;  from  1844-45,  executive-offi 
cer  of  the  sloop  "  Preble,"  West  India  and  Afri 
can  Squadrons;  attached  to  navy-yard,  Ports 
mouth,  N.  H.,  1846-47;  in  '  1848-49,  attached 
to  sloop-of-war  "St.  Mary's,"  Pacific  Squadron  ; 
commanding  the  sloop-of-war  "Warren,"  Pa 
cific  Squadron,  during  the  years  1850-51 ;  in 
1854,  served  as  executive-officer  of  the  sloop 
"  Cyane,"  which  vessel  took  out  the  Darien  Ex 
pedition  under  Lieut.  Strain,  who  lost  7  of  his 
men  by  starvation.  Lieut.  Pickering,  in  his 
search  for  that  party,  was  within  4  hours'  march 
of  the  head- waters  of  the  Chaquenaque,  the  course 
of  which  it  was  his  intention  to  follow,  when  he 
was  apprised  by  Indian  runners  of  the  arrival  of 
Lieut.  Strain  and  party  at  Chapagana,  Pacific 
side.  After  landing  Lieut.  Strain  with  the  re 
mainder  of  his  party  at  New  York,  the  "  Cy 
ane"  was  ordered  to  Greytown,  Nicaragua,  which 
town,  in  pursuance  of  redress,  was  reduced  to 
ashes  after  a  bombardment  of  4  hours  ;  only  one 
house  was  left  standing.  In  1855-57,  attached 
to  navy-yard,  Portsmouth,  N.  H. 

Promoted  to  commander,  September  14,  1855 ; 
in  1859-61,  inspector  of  the  seventh  light-house 
district,  headquarters  at  Key  West. 

Commissioned  as  captain,  July  15,  1862 ;  in 
1862-63,  commanding  steam-sloop  "Kearsarge," 
Mediterranean  and  Western  Islands;  in  1863-64, 
commanding  steam-sloop  "  Housatonic,"  which 
was  blown  up  off  Charleston  on  the  night  of 
February  17,  1865,  by  a  submarine  torpedo.  As 
soon  as  recovered  from  wounds  received  on  board 
the  "  Housatonic,"  took  command  of  the  steamer 
"  Vanderbilt,"  which  vessel  participated  in  the 
capture  of  Fort  Fisher.  Detached  from  "Van 
derbilt"  in  August,  1865,  and  ordered  to  Ports 
mouth  Navy-Yard  ;  detached  from  Portsmouth 
Navy- Yard,  February,  1867,  when  he  was  placed 
upon  the  retired  list  at  his  own  request. 

Commissioned  as  commodore  in  1871. 

Pickle-harin.     A  sea-sprite. 

Pickling.  A  mode  of  salting  naval  timber  in 
dock-yards,  to  insure  its  durability. 

Pictarnie.  A  name  for  the  Sterna  hirundo, 
tern,  or  sea-swallow. 

Pictor.    See  CONSTELLATION. 

Pictou,  Nova  Scotia,  is  situated  at  the  head  of 
Pictou  harbor,  which  opens  into  Northumber 
land  Strait.  The  annual  export  of  coal  from 
this  place  is  very  large,  and  considerable  build 
ing-stone  is  also  shipped  from  here.  The  harbor 
is  one  of  the  finest  on  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence, 
and  the  town  is  very  well  built,  and  contains 
several  tanneries,  saw-mills,  iron-foundries,  card- 
ing-mills,  and  tobacco -factories. 


Piece  of  Eight.  The  early  name  for  the  coin 
of  the  value  of  8  reals,  the  well-known  Spanish 
dollar. 

Pier.  A  mole  or  jetty  extending  out  in  the 
water,  for  the  convenience  of  vessels  receiving 
and  landing  cargo  or  passengers.  A  pillar  sup 
porting  a  bridge. 

Piggin.  A  little  pail  having  a  long  stave  for 
a  handle  ;  used  to  bail  water  out  of  a  boat. 

Pig-tail.  The  common  twisted  tobacco  for 
chewing. 

Pig-yoke.  A  familiar  name  for  a  quadrant  or 
sextant. 

Pike.  A  fish  of  the  genus  Esox,  so  named  from 
its  length  and  shape,  or  from  the  form  of  its  snout. 
It  is  a  fresh-water  fish,  living  in  deep  water. 

Pilchard.  A  fish  of  the  genus  Clupea,  resem 
bling  the  herring,  but  thicker  and  rounder,  hav 
ing  the  under  jaw  shorter,  the  back  more  elevated, 
and  the  belly  not  so  sharp.  These  fishes  are  caught 
on  the  Cornish  coast,  in  England,  about  the  mid 
dle  of  July,  in  immense  numbers,  and  furnish  a 
considerable  article  of  commerce. 

Pile.  A  spar  pointed  at  one  end  and  driven 
into  soil  to  support  a  superstructure. 

PILE-DRIVER.  A  machine  adapted  for  driving 
piles.  Also,  applied  to  a  ship  given  to  pitch 
heavily  in  a  sea-way. 

Pillar  of  the  Hold.  A  main  stanchion  with 
notches  for  descent  and  ascent. 

Pillaw.  A  dish  composed  of  junk,  rice, 
onions,  and  fowls ;  it  figured  at  the  marriage 
feast  of  Commodore  Trunnion.  It  is  derived 
from  the  Levantine  joiWq/'. 

Pillow.  That  part  of  a  pillow-block  or  bear 
ing  which  contains  the  lower  brass  of  a  journal. 
A  block  of  timber  upon  which  the  inner  end  of 
the  bowsprit  was  formerly  supported. 

PILLOW-BLOCK.     See  PLUMBER-BLOCK. 

Pilot.  A  person  specially  deputed  to  conduct 
ships  into  and  out  of  port,  along  the  coast,  and  in 
other  places  where  navigation  is  dangerous.  The 
intricacy  of  almost  all  coast  navigation  renders  it 
impossible  that  any  navigator,  however  skillful, 
can  be  acquainted  with  all  the  waters  to  which 
he  may  have  to  sail  his  ship;  the  risk  of  accident, 
through  ignorance  of  local  danger,  is  avoided  by 
taking  a  pilot.  The  pilot,  to  whom  so  much  is 
intrusted,  must  be  a  person  competent  and  reli 
able,  and  all  maritime  countries  grant  licenses  to 
qualified  seamen  to  act  as  pilots  in  a  certain  dis 
trict.  Pilots  are  associated  in  companies,  the 
profits  being  distributed  according  to  local  regu 
lations.  Pilots  are  sometimes  found  at  a  distance 
of  several  hundred  miles  from  port ;  their  boats 
are  distinguished  by  a  flag,  and  by  a  number 
painted  conspicuously  on  the  sails.  Pilot  regu 
lations  vary  in  different  ports  ;  in  some,  pilotage 
must  be  paid  whether  a  pilot  be  taken  or  not ;  in 
others,  the  employment  of  a  pilot  is  optional  with 
the  master  of  the  vessel.  It  is  the  practice  in  the 
navy  to  employ  a  pilot,  even  when  the  command 
ing  officer  and  navigator  are  familiar  with  the 
local  dangers,  the  object  being  to  assist  the  pilots 
in  maintaining  an  effective  force. 

PILOTAGE.  The  compensation  allowed  to  a 
pilot. 

PILOT-BOAT.  A  handy  sharp-built  boat  used 
by  pilots. 

PILOT-BIRD.  A  bird  of  the  Caribbee  Islands, — 
so  called  because  its  presence  indicates  to  mari 
ners  the  vicinity  of  land. 


PINCH-BAR 


64Y 


PISTON 


Sea-biscuit ;  hard  bread. 

A  heavy  cloth  used  for  pea- 


PlLOT-BREAD. 

PILOT-CLOTH. 
jackets. 

PILOT-FISH.  A  fish  of  the  family  Scomberidce, 
in  shape  very  similar  to  the  mackerel.  It  is 
about  a  foot  in  length,  the  color  being  a  silvery 
grayish  blue,  with  fine  dark  blue  bands  passing 
around  the  body;  its  flesh  is  delicate  and  re 
sembles  the  mackerel  in  flavor.  It  is  supposed 
to  be  the  Pompilius  of  the  ancients,  which  was 
believed  to  point  out  the  desired  course  to  sailors. 
It  is  often  seen  in  company  with  a  shark,  and  is 
therefore  very  commonly  supposed  to  direct  the 
shark  to  its  prey.  Concerning  this  many  stories 
are  told  by  both  navigators  and  naturalists.  On 
the  other  hand,  it  has  been  contended  that  the 
pilot-fish  merely  follows  the  ship  to  feed  on 
whatever  may  be  thrown  overboard  ;  or  that  it 
attends  the  shark  in  order  to  seize  small  morsels 
of  its  large  prey. 

PILOT- WATER.  The  limits  within  which  usage 
or  law  requires  a  ship  to  pay  pilotage. 

Pinch-bar.  A  lever  with  a  fulcrum  close  to 
the  point ;  it  is  used  in  moving  very  heavy 
articles. 

Pinching-pin.  A  pin  used  to  keep  a  slide- 
valve  from  rising  off  its  seat. 

Pinion.  The  smaller  of  two  toothed  wheels 
in  gear,  used  as  a  driver  to  diminish  speed,  and 
as  the  driven  to  increase  speed ;  and  with  a  rack 
to  convert  rotary  motion  into  rectilinear,  or  vice 
versa. 

Pink.  A  ship  with  a  very  narrow  stern,  having 
a  small  square  part  above.  The  shape  is  of  old 
date,  but  continued,  especially  by  the  Danes,  for 
the  advantage  of  the  quarter-guns,  by  the  ship's 
being  contracted  abaft.  Also  one  of  the  many 
names  for  the  minnow, — so  called  from  the  color 
of  its  abdomen  in  summer. 

PINK-STERNED.    Haying  a  very  narrow  stern. 

Pinnace.  Originally  a  small  vessel  propelled 
by  sails  and  oars,  usually  schooner-rigged,  and 
employed  as  a  tender  to  large  vessels.  The 
armed  pinnace  of  the  French  coast  was  of  60  to 
80  tons  burden,  carrying  one  long  24-pounder 
and  100  men.  The  name  is  now  given  to  a 
double-banked  carvel-built  row-boat,  and  is  also 
applied  to  a  person  of  low  habits. 

Pin-rail.  A  timber  bolted  to  the  interior  of 
the  bulwarks  at  a  convenient  distance  from  the 
deck,  and  having  a  number  of  belaying-pins  to 
which  the  running  rigging  is  secured. 

Pintail,  or  Pintail  Duck.  A  duck  about  the 
size  of  the  mallard,  with  a  brown  head  and  taper 
ing  tail.  It  is  found  in  all  polar  regions,  and 
migrates  southward  during  winter. 

Pintle.  A  composition  bolt  having  straps  at 
tached  to  secure  it  to  the  rudder  ;  the  bolt  rests 
in  the  braces  fixed  upon  the  stern-post, 

Pipe.  A  tube  to  convey  steam,  water,  or 
other  fluid.  A  boatswain's  call.  To  wind  a  boat 
swain's  call.  To  pipe  the  eye,  to  weep. 

PIPE-COUPLING.  An  adjustable  joint  for  the 
convenience  of  taking  down  pipe  or  renewing 
portions. 

Pipe -clay.  A  substance  used  for  whitening 
the  belts  of  the  marines.  It  should  be  free  from 
iron. 

Pipe-fish.  A  genus  of  osseous  fishes  of  the 
order  Lophobranchii  and  of  the  family  Syngnath- 
idce.  The  form  is  elongated,  there  is  little  flesh, 
and  the  body  is  almost  covered  with  partially 


ossified  plates.  The  males  have  pouches  in  which 
they  receive  the  eggs  of  their  mate,  and  carry 
them  till  they  are  hatched.  They  are  commonly 
12  to  16  inches  in  length.  The  name  is  some 
times  given  to  t\ie  flute-mouths. 

Piper.  A  half-dried  haddock.  The  shell  Echi 
nus  cidaris.  Also,  the  fish  Trigla  lyra. 

Piracy.     See  INTERNATIONAL  LAW,  8. 

Piragua.     See  PIROGUE. 

Pirate.  One  who  traverses  the  seas  for  the 
purpose  of  robbing ;  a  freebooter.  The  vessel 
of  such  a  rover  is  also  called  a  pirate.  The  pi 
rate  is  the  enemy  of  mankind,  and  is  punishable, 
under  the  law  of  nations  by  any  competent  tri 
bunal  in  any  country  where  he  may  be  found 
or  into  which  he  maybe  brought.  The  armed 
cruisers  of  all  nations  are  bound,  in  the  common 
interest  of  humanity,  to  attack  and  capture  or 
destroy  him.  A  distinction  is  to  be  observed  be 
tween  the  pirate  recognized  as  such  by  the  law 
of  nations  and  one  made  such  by  the  municipal 
law  of  individual  states.  Of  the  former  it  may 
truly  be  said,  "his  hand  is  against  every  man, 
and  every  man's  hand  is  against  him ;"  but  the 
latter  may  be  innocent  of  any  offense  against 
public  law,  and  yet  be  amenable  to  the  pains 
and  penalties  of  piracy  under  the  municipal 
law  of  his  own  country.  See  INTERNATIONAL 
LAW,  8. 

Pirie.     An  old  term  for  a  sudden  gust  of  wind. 

Pirogue,  or  Piragua.  A  canoe  formed  from 
the  trunk  of  a  large  tree,  generally  cedar  or  balsa 
wood.  It  was  the  native  vessel  which  the  Span 
iards  found  in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  and  on  the 
west  coasts  of  South  America ;  called  also  a 
dug-out. 

Piscary.  A  legal  term  for  a  fishery.  Also,  a 
right  of  fishing  in  the  waters  belonging  to  another 
person. 

Pisces.  The  twelfth  sign  of  the  zodiac.  A 
constellation  to  the  eastward  of  Pegasus,  with 
out  any  notable  stars. 

Piscis  Australis  (Lat.  "  The  Southern  Fish"). 
A  constellation  to  the  south  of  Aquarius,  con 
taining  the  brilliant  star  called  Fomalhaut  A 
line  through  3  and  a  Pegasi,  continued  a  little 
more  than  twice  their  distance,  gives  the  position 
of  a  Piscis  Australis,  or  Fomalhaut. 

Piscis  Volans.    See  CONSTELLATION. 

Pistol-proof.  A  term  for  the  point  of  courage 
for  which  a  man  was  elected  captain  by  pirates. 

Piston.  A  cylindrical  piece  of  mechanism 
which  fits  the  cylinder  of  a  steam-engine  or 
pump  and  is  capable  of  reciprocation,  and  in  the 
former  case  is  the  means  of  converting  pressure 
into  rectilinear  motion,  the  action  being  reversed 
in  the  case  of  the  pump  ;  that  is,  in  the  one  case 
the  fluid  gives  motion  to  the  piston,  and  in  the 
other  the  piston  gives  motion  to  the  fluid. 

PISTON-HEAD.  The  body  of  a  piston  on  which 
the  packing-rings  and  springs  rest. 

PISTONT-HEAD  VALVE.  A  valve  in  the  head 
of  a  piston ;  usually  to  admit  steam  to  the  inside 
of  the  piston  to  press  out  the  packing-rings  in 
case  of  steam-packing. 

PISTON-PACKING.  Means  of  preventing  the 
leakage  of  steam,  water,  etc.,  between  the  piston 
and  the  cylinder  in  which  it  works  ;  in  the  steam- 
engine  it  is  usually  composed  of  metallic  rings ; 
in  pumps,  braided  hemp,  cotton,  and  wire  are 
common,  as  well  as  many  patented  kinds. 

PISTON-ROD.     The  rod  connecting  the  piston 


PITCH 


648 


PLACE 


to  the  cross-head,  or,  as  in  the  case  of  the  oscil- 
lating-engine,  to  the  crank-pin. 

PISTON-VALVE.  A  cylindrical  slide-valve  (not 
rotary)  ;  either  a  solid  or  packed  piston  may  be 
used,  and  there  is  usually  one  for  each  end  of  the 
cylinder.  They  act  by  sliding  back  and  forth 
over  the  parts,  admitting  steam  from  between 
them  and  exhausting  beyond  them. 

Pitch.  The  distance  between  the  centres  of 
two  adjacent  threads  of  a  screw,  measured  axially, 
or  the  distance  that  a  screw  will  advance  into  a 
nut  during  one  revolution ;  the  term  applies  to 
the  screw-propeller,  the  propelling  surface  of 
which  is  helicoidal,  being  composed  of  fractions 
of  two  or  more  threads.  The  pitch  of  rivets,  boiler- 
stays,  and  the  teeth  of  wheels  is  the  distance  be 
tween  centres ;  in  the  latter  case  it  includes  a 
tooth  and  a  space. 

Tar  and  coarse  resin  boiled  to  a  fluid  yet  tena 
cious  consistence.  It  is  used  in  a  hot  state  with 
oakum  to  fill  the  chinks  or  intervals  between  the 
planks  of  a  vessel. 

PITCH-BOAT.  A  vessel  fitted  for  boiling  pitch 
in,  which  should  be  veered  astern  of  the  one  be 
ing  calked. 

PITCH-CIRCLE.  The  circle  on  which  the  teeth 
of  a  wheel  are  laid  out,  and  the  rolling  action  of 
which  would  be  equivalent  to  that  of  the  wheel 
itself;  the  angular  velocity  ratio  of  two  wheels 
working  together  is  the  same  as  that  of  their 
pitch-circles  rolling  in  contact. 

PITCH-MOP.  The  implement  with  which  the 
hot  pitch  is  laid  on  to  ship's  sides  and  perpendic 
ular  work. 

PITCH-PINE.  Pinus  resinosa,  commonly  called 
Norway  or  red  pine. 

Pitching.  The  plunging  of  a  ship's  head  in  a 
sea-way  ;  the  vertical  vibration  which  her  length 
makes  about  her  centre  of  gravity, — a  very  strain 
ing  motion. 

Pit-fish.  A  small  fish  found  in  the  Indian 
seas,  which  has  the  power  of  protruding  or  re 
tracting  its  eyes. 

Pit-pan.  A  flat-bottomed,  trough-like  canoe, 
used  in  the  Spanish  Main  and  in  the  West  In 
dies. 

Pit-powder.  Powder  made  with  charcoal 
which  has  been  burned  in  pits,  not  in  cylinders. 

Pivot-bolt.  A  bolt  confining  either  end  of 
the  slide  of  a  pivot-gun  to  the  deck.  One  of  the 
bolts  being  removed,  horizontal  motion  can  be 
given,  the  other  bolt  acting  as  the  axis. 

Pivot-gun.  A  gun  capable  of  being  fired  on 
either  side  of  the  ship,  the  after  part  of  the  slide 
being  confined  to  the  deck  by  a  pivot-bolt. 

Pizarro,  Francisco,  the  conqueror  of  Peru, 
was  an  illegitimate  son  of  Gonzalo  Pizarro,  a  col 
onel  of  infantry.  He  was  born  at  Truxillo,  in 
Estremadura,  Spain,  about  1471.  In  his  youth 
he  was  a  swineherd,  but  abandoning  this  uncon 
genial  occupation,  he  went  to  the  port  of  Seville 
and  there  embarked  to  seek  his  fortune  in  the 
New  "World.  He  was*  in  Hispaniola  in  1510; 
afterwards  joined  Balboa,  and  was  with  him 
when  he  crossed  the  Isthmus  of  Panama.  In 
1515  he  was  principally  engaged  in  traffic  with 
the  natives  on  the  shores  of  the  Pacific  Ocean. 
Hearing  of  the  splendid  achievements  of  Cortez, 
and  rumors  of  the  existence  of  a  very  rich  coun 
try  in  the  south  reaching  him,  he  formed  a  co 
partnership  with  Diego  de  Almagro  and  Her- 
nando  Luque,  and  the  three  fitted  out  a  small 


expedition,  with  Pizarro  in  command.  In  No 
vember,  1524,  he  set  sail,  but  got  no  farther  than 
Quemada  Point.  On  his  second  expedition  he  dis 
covered  Peru,  but  returned  to  Panama  for  vol 
unteers  to  conquer  the  country  ;  failing  to  do  so 
here,  he  returned  in  1528  to' Spain,  and  by  his 
graphic  descriptions  of  the  wealth  of  the  new 
territory  he  secured  from  Charles  V.  the  right  of 
the  discovery  and  conquest  of  Peru,  and  various 
honorable  titles,  such  as  governor  and  captain- 
general  of  Peru.  On  his  side  he  agreed  to  raise 
a  certain  number  of  followers,  and  to  give  to  the 
crown  of  Spain  one-fifth  of  all  treasures  he  should 
obtain.  He  returned  to  Panama,  and  with  a 
small  but  well-equipped  force  of  180  men  he  con 
quered  and  made  the  empire  of  Peru  his  own. 
His  conquest  of  Peru  is  a  drama  in  every  act  of 
which  there  is  bloodshed,  and  the  final  act  (June 
26,  1541),  in  which  he  and  his  group  of  followers 
fell  the  victims  of  a  conspiracy,  shows  the  drama 
to  have  been  consistent  to  the  end. 

Pizarro,  Gonzalo,  like  his  brother,  was  also  il 
legitimate.  He  was  a  soldier  at  an  early  age,  and 
distinguished  himself  by  his  skill  in  martial  exer 
cises  ;  and  when  he  joined  his  brother's  expedi 
tion,  in  1528,  to  Peru,  he  was  considered  the  best 
lance  in  the  troop.  The  territory  of  Quito  was 
assigned  to  him  by  his  brother,  and  he  was  en 
joined  to  explore  the  land  to  the  east.  He  started 
on  his  famous  journey  in  1540,  at  the  head  of 
350  Spaniards  and  a  great  number  of  Indians. 
They  reached  and  crossed  the  Andes,  losing  a 
great  many  lives,  the  cold  rendering  many  of 
them  helpless.  On  the  eastern  side  of  the  Andes 
they  discovered  the  Land  of  Cinnamon.  Hear 
ing  of  a  land  of  gold  10  days  distant,  they  re 
solved  to  go  there.  After  the  greatest  difficulties, 
and  nearly  starving  to  death,  they  reached  the 
Napo.  an  affluent  of  the  Amazon.  Here  Pizarro 
caused  a  rude  bark  to  be  constructed  to  transport 
the  baggage  and  sick  travelers,  and  intrusted 
Francisco  de  Orellana  with  the  command  of  the 
vessel,  and  ordered  him  to  proceed  to  the  conflu 
ence  of  the  Napo  and  Amazon,  where  a  rich  na 
tion  was  supposed  to  live,  and  to  obtain  supplies 
from  them  and  return  to  him.  Orellana  reached 
the  Amazon,  but,  unable  to  obtain  supplies  or 
return  against  the  current,  he  sailed  down  the 
Amazon  to  the  Atlantic,  and,  strange  to  say, 
was  successful  in  reaching  Spain.  Pizarro,  after 
waiting  in  vain  for  the  return  of  the  bark,  re 
turned  to  Quito,  where  he  arrived  in  1542,  after 
an  absence  of  two  years,  the  hero  of  an  expedi 
tion  which  stands  unrivaled  in  the  annals  of 
American  discovery  for  its  dangers  and  suffer 
ings,  and  for  the  heroic  fortitude  with  which 
they  were  endured.  After  the  death  of  Fran 
cisco,  Gonzalo  became  captain-general  of  Peru, 
and  he  was  afterwards  defeated  in  battle  and  ex 
ecuted  by  Pedro  de  la  Gasca,  who  had  been  in 
vested  with  the  powers  of  sovereign  by  the  king 
of  Spain. 

Place.  The  place  of  a  heavenly  body  is  the 
point  on  the  celestial  sphere  to  which  it  is  re 
ferred  by  a  spectator  ;  when  the  spectator  is  sup 
posed  to  be  at  the  centre  of  the  earth,  this  point  is 
called  the  geocentric  place ;  when  at  the  centre  of 
the  sun,  the  heliocentric  place.  The  apparent  place 
is  the  point  to  which  a  heavenly  body  is  referred 
by  a  spectator  on  the  surface  of  the  earth,  viewing 
it  through  the  atmosphere ;  the  true  place  is  the 
point  to  which  it  would  be  referred  by  a  spec- 


PLACES 


649 


PLANETS 


tator  at  the  centre  of  the  earth,  viewing  it  through 
a  uniform  medium.  The  apparent  place  is  de 
termined  by  observation  ;  the  true  place  is  ob 
tained  by  applying  to  the  apparent  place  the  cor 
rections  for  parallax  and  refraction.  These  cor 
rections  are  greatest  when  the  body  is  in  the 
horizon,  and  decrease  as  it  approaches  the  zenith. 

Places  of  Call.  Merchantmen  must  here 
attend  to  two  general  rules  :  if  these  places  of 
call  are  enumerated  in  the  charter-party,  then 
they  must  be  taken  in  the  order  laid  down  ;  but 
if  leave  be  given  to  call  at  all,  or  any,  then  they 
must  be  taken  in  their  geographical  sequence. 

Plaice,  or  Plaise.  A  fish  of  the  genus  Pla- 
tessa  (Pleuronectes  of  Linnaeus),  allied  to  the 
flounder,  and  growing  to  the  size  of  8  or  10 
pounds  or  more. 

Plan.  A  perfect  outline  of  the  ship  to  be 
built.  There  are  three  principal  plans,  viz.,  the 
sheer,  half-breadth,  and  the  body-plan,  besides 
which  there  are  deck-plans,  and  plans  of  such 
details  as  are  necessarily  used  in  the  construc 
tion.  The  sheer-plan  shows  the  sheer  of  the  ship, 
shape  or  outline  of  the  head,  stern,  and  keel  ; 
when  drawn  in  sections,  as  it  usually  is,  it  shows 
the  heights  of  all  the  decks  and  the  general  ar 
rangement  of  all  the  rooms  in  profile  ;  it  also 
shows  the  section-lines,  the  location  and  rake  of 
the  masts  and  bowsprit,  the  location  of  the 
frames,  keelson,  deadwood,  air-ports,  scuppers, 
chain-plates,  etc.  The  rudder  and  propeller  in 
elevation,  and  all  vertical  objects  coming  into 
the  design,  are  shown  in  the  sheer-plan.  The 
half-breadth  plan  shows  the  outline  or  shape  of 
the  rail,  plank-sheer,  water-lines,  diagonal  lines, 
and  ribband-lines  in  half  breadth,  and  the  loca 
tion  of  the  frames  and  section-lines.  The  body- 
plan  shows  the  shapes  of  the  frames  or  the  ver 
tical  sections,  as  well  as  the  cants  ;  and  all  other 
frame-lines  are  drawn  to  their  shape  in  the  body- 
plan  ;  it  has  the  water-lines,  section-lines,  sheer- 
lines,  and  diagonal  lines  drawn  upon  it.  The 
deck-plan  shows  the  general  arrangement  of  the 
hatches,  beams,  knees,  and  houses  to  be  placed 
upon  the  deck  ;  it  gives  the  horizontal  outline. 

Plane  Sailing.  The  method  of  calculating 
the  position  of  a  ship  and  the  course  to  be  steered, 
which  is  founded  on  the  supposition  that  the  sur 
face  of  the  earth  is  a  plane.  The  method  is  sim 
ple  and  easy  when  compared  with  spherical  sail 
ing,  and  the  term  plane  sailing  has  come  to  denote 
anything  that  is  easy  of  accomplishment.  It  is 
frequently  improperly  written  plain  sailing.  See 
NAVIGATION. 

Planets  (Gr.  aster  planetes,  a  wandering  star, 
from  planan,  to  wander).  This  term  originally 
described  all  the  heavenly  bodies  which  were  ob 
served  to  change  their  place  on  the  celestial 
sphere,  in  contradistinction  to  those  whose  posi 
tion  appeared  to  be  fixed.  The  word,  however,  is 
now  technically  restricted  to  indicate  those  mov 

lobe, 


which  revolve  in  orbits  about  the  sun  of  our  sys 
tem.  They  shine  by  the  reflection  of  light  re 
ceived  from  the  sun.  The  principal  planets,  in 
the  order  of  their  distances  from  the  sun,  with 
their  symbols,  are  Mercury  $,  Venus  $  (the 
Earth  9,  ®,  or  $),  Mars  ^,  .  .  .  .  Jupiter  TJ, 
Saturn,  ^  ,  Uranus  \$,  Neptune  tjr.  Besides  these, 
near  to  the  sun  is  a  small  planet  named  Vulcan, 
and  between  Mars  and  Jupiter  is  a  group  of 
minute  planets,  called  the  asteroids,  planetoids, 


or  minor  planets.  The  paths  of  the  principal 
planets  are  in  planes  making  a  small  angle  with 
the  plane  of  the  ecliptic. 

To  the  practical  navigator  the  actual  dimen 
sions  and  movements  of  the  planets  are  not  so 
important  as  the  conspicuous  phenomena  they 
exhibit.  Pour  of  them — Venus,  Mars,  Jupiter, 
and  Saturn — are  remarkably  large  and  brilliant 
bodies,  and  of  great  importance  in  the  problems 
of  navigation ;  another,  Mercury,  is  also  visible 
to  the  naked  eye  as  a  large  star,  but  by  reason 
of  its  propinquity  to  the  sun,  is  seldom  conspicu 
ous  ;  Uranus  is  barely  discernible  without  a  tele 
scope  ;  the  rest  are  never  visible  to  the  naked  eye. 
Observations  of  Venus  and  Jupiter  may  often  be 
obtained  in  the  dajdigbt,  even  when  the  planets 
are  invisible  to  the  naked  eye.  In  such  cases 
their  meridian  altitude  may  sometimes  be  ob 
served  with  advantage.  It  is  first  approximately 
computed, — the  corrections  for  refraction,  dip, 
and  index-error  being  applied  reversely ;  this 
angle  is  then  set  on  the  sextant,  the  inverting 
telescope  being  screwed  close  down  to  the  plane 
of  the  instrument.  The  image  of  the  planet  will 
be  by  this  means  detected  near  the  N.  or  S.  point 
of  the  horizon,  and,  once  found,  its  meridian  alti 
tude  may  be  accurately  observed.  These  two 
planets  are  seen  very  distinctly  during  twilight, 
and  this  is  the  best  time  for  observing  them,  for 
then  the  horizon  is  in  general  clearly  visible  and 
strongly  marked.  The  four  planets,  Venus, 
Mars,  Jupiter,  and  Saturn,  are  used  for  deter 
mining  the  longitude  by  the  method  of  "lunar 
distances."  It  is,  therefore,  important  to  know 
how  to  identify  these  bodies.  They  are  collec 
tively  distinguished  from  the  fixed  stars  by  their 
shining  with  a  steady  light,  instead  of  twinkling. 
By  reason  of  their  proper  motion  they  are  con 
tinually  shifting  their  place,  and  cannot  be  con 
nected  by  imaginary  lines  with  other  heavenly 
bodies,  as  in  the  case  of  the  fixed  stars.  Their 
positions  may  be  found  by  referring  to  the  Nau 
tical  Almanac,  which  gives  their  right  ascen 
sion,  declination,  and  time  of  Greenwich  merid 
ian  passage.  The  appearance  of  the  body  may 
also  help  to  distinguish  it ;  Venus  has  a  bluish 
light,  while  Mars  is  of  a  red  color.  For  further 
information,  see  under  proper  heads. 

PLANETS,  INFERIOR  AND  SUPERIOR.  Those 
planets  whose  orbits  are  within  that  of  the  earth 
are  called  inferior  planets  ;  those  whose  orbits 
are  without,  superior  planets.  The  inferior 
planets  are  Vulcan,  Mercury,  and  Venus;  the 
superior  planets  are  Mars,  the  asteroids,  Jupiter, 
Saturn,  Uranus,  and  Neptune. 

PLANETS,  PRIMARY  AND  SECONDARY.  In  the 
solar  system  there  are  about  20  moons  or  satel 
lites  ;  these  are  sometimes  called  secondary 
planets,  the  bodies  about  which  they  revolve 
being  distinguished  as  primary  planets. 

PLANETS,  INNER  AND  OUTER  GROUP  or.  The 
planets  whose  orbits  are  within  the  asteroids  are 
designated  as  the  inner  group,  the  others  the 
outer  group. 

PLANETS,  MINOR.  As  soon  as  the  planetary 
distances  were  determined,  astronomers  saw  that 
to  the  orbit  of  Mars  distances  increase  in  a  some 
what  regular  order,  and  that  between  Mars  and 
Jupiter  a  wide  gap  destroys  the  symmetry  other 
wise  apparent.  Kepler  suggested  that  a  new 
planet  might  be  found  in  this  space. 

Titius,  "of  Wittenberg,  sought  for  a  simple 


PLANK 


650 


PLYMOUTH 


Aeries  of  numbers  which  should  represent  the 
relative  distances  of  the  planets  from  the  sun. 
After  many  trials  he  took  the  series — 

0,     3,     6,     12,     24,     48,     96,  etc., 

in  which  each  term  after  the  second  is  twice  the 
preceding  term  ;  adding  4  to  each  number  he 
found  numbers  which  indicate  very  nearly  the 
relative  distances,  thus  : 

Mer.    Ven.    Earth.    Mars.     Jup.         Sat. 

4,       7,       10,       16,       28,       52,       100,  etc. 

"When  Herschel  discovered  Uranus,  its  dis 
tance  was  found  to  correspond  to  the  next  num 
ber,  196  ;  but  a  planet  was  still  wanting  whose 
distance  should  answer  to  the  number  28.  The 
series  of  Titius  was  reproduced  by  Bode,  and  was 
long  known  as  Eode's  law. 

By  the  series  the  distance  of  Neptune  should 
correspond  to  the  number  388  ;  it  is  300,  and 
here  the  law  fails.  The  gap  at  28  has  been  filled 
by  the  discovery  of  a  number  of  small  bodies, 
the  largest  of  which  is  but  300  miles  in  diameter. 
The  first  was  discovered  in  1801,  but  they  now 
number  more  than  a  hundred,  and  they  are 
called  asteroids  (star-like),  planetoids  (planet- 
like),  and  minor  planets.  They  are  invisible  to 
the  naked  eye,  and  are  known  to  be  planets  only 
by  their  motion ;  their  orbits  are  very  eccentric, 
much  inclined  to  the  ecliptic,  and  are  included 
in  a  broad  ring  at  a  mean  distance  of  254  mil 
lions  of  miles  from  the  sun.  It  has  been  suggested 
that  they  are  the  fragments  of  a  planet  shattered 
by  an  explosion,  or  broken  in  pieces  by  collision 
with  a  comet.  The  nebular  theory  supposes  that 
the  planets  were  formed  originally  by  the  gather 
ing  of  matter  collected  by  gravitation ;  that 
while  the  matter  in  the  case  of  Mars  and  Jupiter 
concentrated  about  one  nucleus,  that  which 
formed  the  minor  planets  gathered  about  many 
centres,  and  that  these  small  bodies  take  the 
place  of  the  one  large  body  which  might  have 
been  formed  had  all  been  compacted  into  one. 
The  discoverers  of  minor  planets  assigned  to  them 
the  names  of  mythological  goddesses.  They  are 
also  designated  by  numbers  denoting  the  order 
of  their  discovery  ;  thus,  Ceres  is  (1),  Psyche 
(16),  etc. 

Plank.  A  broad  piece  of  timber  from  1J  to  8 
inches  in  thickness.  Toplank  it,  to  sleep  on  the 
bare  deck  ;  to  walk  the  deck. 

PLANKING.  The  planks  used  in  covering  the 
frame  of  a  ship.  The  act  of  covering  the  frame 
of  a  ship  with  plank. 

PLANKING-CLAMP.  An  iron  tool  made  for 
the  purpose  of  drawing  plank  up  to  the  tim 
bers.  It  is  a  thin  bar  of  iron  bent  so  as  to  be 
open  upon  one  side.  On  one  end  of  this  bar  is 
fixed  a  point  or  claw  for  insertion  into  the  tim 
ber,  on  the  other  end  is  a  powerful  screw  having 
a  lever  attached  to  the  outer  end. 

PLANK-SHEER.  The  pieces  of  plank  laid  hori 
zontally  over  the  timber-heads  at  the  top-heights 
for  the  purpose  of  covering  the  top  of  the  sides. 
It  is  sometimes  called  the  covering-boards. 

Plant.  The  machinery,  fixtures,  etc.,  by 
which  a  business  or  manufacture  is  carried  on. 

Planter.  A  large  snag  in  a  river,  the  upper 
end  of  which  is  below  the  surface  of  the  water. 
In  Newfoundland,  a  person  engaged  in  the 
fishery. 


Platanist.  A  fish  of  the  genus  Delphinus  (D. 
Gangeticus  of  Cuvier) ;  a  species  of  dolphin  found 
in  the  Ganges. 

Play.  Scope  ;  swing  ;  freedom  of  movement 
to  a  certain  extent.  To  play,  to  put  in  action. 
In  play,  in  action. 

Playte.     An  old  term  for  a  river-boat. 

Plebe.  A  fourth  classman  at  the  naval  or  mili 
tary  academy. 

Plectognathi.  An  order  of  fishes  having  the 
maxillary  bones  stiffly  adhering  to  the  sides  of 
the  intermaxillaries,  which  alone  form  the  jaws, 
as  the  file-fish.  Written  also  j>lectognaths. 

Pledget.    A  string  of  oakum  used  in  calking. 

Pleiades.  A  noted  cluster  of  stars  in  the  neck 
of  Taurus.  Six  stars  may  be  easily  counted,  and 
some  persons  distinguish  as  many  as  12  or  14. 
The  telescope  shows  about  100.  The  largest  star, 
Alcyone,  is  near  the  ecliptic.  Certain  theorists 
have  supposed  that  the  centre  of  the  universe  is 
in  this  star,  and  that  the  solar  and  stellar  systems 
revolve  about  it.  The  Greeks  called  this  group 
the  Pleiades  (plein,  to  sail),  because  it  was  visi 
ble  during  the  months  when  the  Mediterranean 
was  navigable  without  danger. 

Pleny  Tides.     Full  tides. 

Plesiosaurus  (Gr.  plesios,  near ;  sauros,  a 
lizard).  A  genus  of  fossil  sea-reptiles,  the  re 
mains  of  which  are  found  in  the  Lias,  Oolite, 
and  Cretaceous  measures.  Its  remarkable  char 
acter  may  be  inferred  from  the  description  of  it 
given  by  Buckland,  as  follows  :  "To  the  head 
of  a  lizard  it  united  the  teeth  of  a  crocodile,  a 
neck  of  enormous  length,  resembling  the  body 
of  a  serpent,  a  trunk  and  tail  having  the  propor 
tions  of  an  ordinary  quadruped,  the  ribs  of  a 
chameleon,  and  the  paddles  of  a  whale." 

Plicatiles.  Ancient  vessels  built  of  wood  and 
leather,  which  could  be  taken  to  pieces  and  car 
ried  by  land. 

Plot.  To  delineate,  to  mark  down  ;  as,  to  plot 
a  ship's  position. 

Plucker.  The  fishing  frog,  Lophius  pisca- 
torius. 

Plug.  An  implement  for  stopping  leaky  boiler 
tubes.  The  revolving  part  of  a  gauge-cock.  A 
piece  of  metallic  alloy  which  fuses  at  a  low  tem 
perature,  placed  in  the  bottom  of  a  boiler  to  melt 
and  let  the  water  run  out  in  case  the  boiler  is 
overheated.  Any  conical  piece  of  wood  to  fit  in 
an  orifice.  See  SHOT-PLUG. 

PLUG-HOLE.  A  hole  in  the  bottom  of  a  boat 
for  convenience  in  letting  out  water  ;  the  plug  is 
taken  out  when  the  boat  is  hoisted,  and  put  in 
before  lowering. 

Plug-rod.  A  rod  from  the  beam  of  an  engine 
to  work  the  air-pump,  and  sometimes  communi 
cates  motion  to  the  valve-gear ;  the  term  is  not 
now  in  common  use. 

Plumb.     Vertical ;  perpendicular. 

Plumber-block,  or  Pillow-block.  That  por 
tion  of  the  engine  frame  supporting  the  main- 
journals,  and  containing  the  brasses. 

Plummer-block.    An  adjustable  pillow-block, 

Plunger.  A  long,  solid,  or  hollow  cylinder, 
employed  as  a  piston  in  force-pumps;  its  action 
is  by  displacement  entirely. 

Plunging  Fire.  A  pitching  discharge  of  shot 
from  a  higher  level,  at  such  an  angle  that  the 
shot  do  not  ricochet. 

Ply.     To  work  to  windward  ;  to  beat. 

Plymouth.     A  naval  station  and  seaport  town 


POCHAKD 


651 


POLAE 


of  England,  in  the  county  of  Devon,  between  the 
rivers  Plym  and  Tamar,  at  the  head  of  Plymouth 
Sound.  The  principal  buildings  in  the  town  are 
the  royal  hotel,  royal  union  baths,  custom-house, 
barracks,  hospitals,  etc.  The  structures  con 
nected  with  the  naval  establishments  are  outside 
the  town.  The  principal  dock-yard  is  at  Devon- 
port.  In  it  is  an  observatory.  The  naval  and 
royal  military  hospitals,  the  victualing-yard,  the 
gun-wharf,  and  the  military  prison,  are  all  fine 
stone  edifices.  The  harbor  of  Plymouth  is  double, 
consisting  of  the  mouth  of  the  Tamar  and  the 
estuary  of  the  Plym.  The  parts  of  the  port  ap 
propriated  to  the  mercantile  shipping  are  called 
Sutton  Pool  and  Mill  Bay,  and  in  the  latter  are 
extensive  wet-docks.  The  city  has  a  large  trade, 
and  imports  from  the  West  Indies,  North 
America,  and  the  Baltic.  It  has  also  manufac 
tures  of  glass,  soap,  starch,  etc.,  and  extensive 
fisheries.  Pop.  69,000. 

Pochard  (Fuligula}.  A  genus  of  oceanic 
ducks,  the  species  of  which  are  numerous,  some 
of  them  are  natives  of  the  Arctic  regions  ;  some 
are  found,  at  least  in  winter,  on  the  coasts  of 
Europe,  Asia,  and  North  America,  and  some  in 
the  southern  hemisphere.  The  bill  of  the  pochard 
is  about  equal  in  length  to  the  head,  and  is  broad 
and  flat,  a  little  dilated  toward  the  tip,  the 
lamellae  of  the  upper  mandible  not  projecting  be 
yond  the  margin ;  the  wings  are  short,  and  the 
tail  short  and  rounded.  The  windpipe  of  the 
male  in  all  the  pochards  terminates  in  a  laby 


rinth  composed  partly  of  bone  and  partly  of  mem- 

Th 
pochard. 


brane.     The   canvas-back  duck  is  a  species  of 


Pocket.  A  bight  on  the  coast  in  which  ships 
are  likely  to  be  detained  by  head  winds. 

Pod.     A  company  of  seals  or  sea-elephants. 

Podiceps.  Synonymous  with  grebe  (which 
see). 

Poggie.  The  miller's  thumb,  Coitus  cata- 
phractus. 

Pogonias.     See  DRUM-FISH. 

Pohagen.  A  fish  of  the  herring  kind  ;  called 
also  hard-head. 

Point.  A  low  spit  of  land  projecting  into  the 
sea.  To  point  a  gun,  to  direct  it  at  the  target. 
To  point  a  rope,  to  unlay,  taper,  and  weave  some 
of  the  outside  yarns  of  the  end  of  a  rope, — for  neat 
ness,  to  prevent  fagging  out,  and  for  convenience 
in  reeving  through  a  block.  See  COMPASS,  KEEF- 
POINT. 

Point-blank.  The  term  point-blank  originated 
when  it  was  supposed  that  a  shot  traveled  for  a 
certain  distance  in  a  straight  line.  The  French 
define  the  point-blank  as  the  second  point  at 
which  the  line  of  sight  intersects  the  trajectory  ; 
the  distance  of  this  point  from  the  muzzle  is  the 
point-blank  range.  The  natural  point-blank  cor 
responds  to  the  natural  line  of  sight ;  all  others 
are  artificial  points-blank.  With  us,  as  in  Eng 
land,  the  point-blank  range  is  the  distance  from 
the  muzzle  to  the  point  at  which  the  projectile 
first  strikes  the  horizontal  plane  on  which  the 
trucks  of  the  carriage  rest,  the  gun  being  laid 
level. 

Point  De  Galle  Canoe.  A  canoe  consisting 
of  a  single  stem  of  Dup  wood,  18  to  30  feet  long, 
from  1£  to  2£  feet  broad,  and  from  2  to  3  feet 
deep.  It  is  fitted  with  a  balance-log  at  the  ends 
of  two  bamboo  outriggers,  having  the  mast,  yard, 
and  sail  secured  together,  and  when  sailing  is 


managed  in  a  similar  way  to  the  catamaran. 
They  sail  very  well  in  strong  winds,  and  are  also 
used  by  the  natives  of  the  Eastern  Archipelago, 
especially  at  the  Eeejee  group,  where  they  are 
very  large. 

Pointer-board.  An  old  contrivance  for  train 
ing  a  ship's  guns. 

Pointers.  The  two  stars  a  and  (3  Ursce  Ma- 
joi*is  are  called  the  pointers  because  they  point 
out  Polaris,  which  lies  about  as  far  from  a  as  a 
does  from  77,  the  extreme  star  in  the  tail  of  the 
Great  Bear. 

Polacre.  A  ship  or  brig  of  the  Mediterranean. 
The  masts  are  commonly  formed  of  one  spar  from 
truck  to  heel,  so  that  they  have  neither  tops  nor 
cross-trees ;  neither  have  they  any  foot-ropes  to 
their  upper  yards,  because  the  men  stand  upon 
the  topsail-yards  to  loose  and  furl  the  topgallant- 
sails,  and  upon  the  lower  yards  to  loose,  reef,  or 
furl  the  topsails,  all  the  yards  being  lowered  suf 
ficiently  for  that  purpose.  Written  also  polacca. 

Polar.  Pertaining  to,  surrounding,  or  pro 
ceeding  from,  the  pole. 

POLAR  ANGLE.  On  the  terrestrial  sphere,  the 
angle  at  the  pole  formed  by  two  meridians  ;  on 
the  celestial  sphere,  the  angle  at  the  pole  formed 
by  two  hour-circles. 

POLAR  Axis.  The  axis  of  an  astronomical  in 
strument,  as  an  equatorial,  which  is  parallel  to 
the  axis  of  the  earth. 

POLAR  CIRCLES.  The  two  parallels  of  latitude 
which  are  at  a  distance  of  23°  28'  from  the  poles  ; 
they  separate  the  frigid  from  the  temperate  zones. 
The  northern  is  called  the  arctic,  and  the  south 
ern  the  antarctic  circle. 

POLAR  CO-ORDINATES.     See  CO-ORDINATES. 

POLAR  DISTANCE.  The  angular  distance  from 
the  elevated  pole, — the  complement  of  the  decli 
nation. 

POLAR  EXPLORATION.  The  list  of  explorers  in 
the  Antarctic  regions  may  be  reckoned  up  upon 
the  fingers,  while  Arctic  exploration  has  called 
forth  the  energies  of  stout  hearts  and  active 
minds  for  more  than  a  thousand  years.  After 
the  discovery  of  the  sea-routes  to  the  Pacific  and 
Indian  Oceans,  by  the  way  of  Cape  Horn  and 
the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  there  was  no  practical 
object  to  be  gained  in  pushing  for  the  south  pole, 
while  exploration  in  that  direction  is  attended 
by  greater  difficulties  and  infinitely  greater  dan% 
gers  than  in  the  Boreal  region.  Expeditions  to 
the  south  have  therefore  been  undertaken  purely 
in  the  interests  of  science,  and  not,  as  was  long 
the  case  with  northern  exploration,  in  hopes  of 
finding  a  short  cut  to  the  Indies,  and  to  wealth. 

The  Arctic  regions  were  probably  visited  by 
Norse  walrus-hunters  long  before  the  historical 
period,  but  the  first  record  of  such  visits  dates 
back  to  the  9th  century.  The  voyage  of  Other, 
or  Octher,  around  the. North  Cape,  has  for  ages 
been  celebrated  in  song  and  story.  In  the  10th 
century,  Eric  the  Ked  visited  Southeastern  Green 
land,  and  founded  a  settlement  there.  In  the 
14th  century  two  Italian  navigators  are  supposed 
to  have  penetrated  within  the  Arctic  circle,  and 
Columbus  is  supposed  to  have  visited  the  seas  of 
Iceland  and  Greenland  15  years  before  his  dis 
covery  of  America. 

During  the  16th  century  the  Dutch,  English^ 
and  other  northern  nations  promoted  discovery 
in  the  far  north,  with  a  view  to  a  free  and  speedy 
passage  to  China  and  India.  The  discovery  by 


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652 


POLAK 


•  Columbus  and  succeeding  navigators  of  the  great 
western  continent,  and  the  success  of  Vasco  de 
Gama  in  finding  a  way  to  India  by  the  Cape  of 
Good  Hope,  stimulated  commerce  and  explora 
tion.  The  claim  of  Spain  and  Portugal  to  the 
exclusive  right  of  navigation  and  trade  with  the 
countries  discovered  by  them,  forced  upon  the 
northern  nations  the  importance  of  discovering 
a  northwestern  passage  to  prevent  a  ruinous  de 
cline  of  their  commerce,  and  maritime  suprem 
acy.  Theoretically,  nothing  appeared  more 
likely  than  that  such  a  passage  existed,  and 
Magalhaen's  discovery  of  the  strait  bearing  his 
name  was  adduced  by  many  as  a  reason  why  a 
corresponding  passage  should  exist  at  the  north. 
Cabot  therefore  made  voyages  in  search  of  it,  in 
1495,  1497,  and  in  1502.  Cortoreale  did  the  same 
in  1500,  and  in  1501.  Then  followed  Verazzano, 
Gomez,  Kut,  Cartier,  and  Frobisher, — so  that, 
by  the  year  1578,  the  contour  of  Newfoundland, 
and  of  the  North  American  coast,  up  to  the  Arc 
tic  circle,  became  tolerably  well  known. 

In  1553,  Sir  Hugh  Willoughby  and  Chancellor 
had  also  penetrated  to  the  northeast,  and  had 
reached  Nova  Zembla  ;  Willoughby  and  a  por 
tion  of  his  followers  losing  their  lives  in  the 
undertaking.  Burroughs  tried  to  the  northeast 
in  1556,  and  added  notably  to  the  knowledge  of 
those  regions.  Other  English  explorers  followed 
him  in  the  same  direction.  In  1594  a  Dutch  ex 
pedition,  under  Barentz,  visited  Nova  Zembla 
and  the  Eastern  Arctic,  and  the  same  leader  sailed 
again  in  this  direction  in  1595  and  1597, — the 
leader  in  the  last  voyage  losing  his  life  on  the 
return  from  Nova  Zembla,  where  he  had  lost  his 
vessel  and  had  been  obliged  to  winter.  Some  of 
his  men  reached  home  by  way  of  Lapland,  after 
untold  suffering,  and  the  hut  in  which  the^y  win 
tered  was  found,  intact,  by  some  voyagers  in 
1871. 

The  ill  success  of  the  attempts  to  the  eastward 
finally  drew  the  attention  of  the  English  to  the 
possibility  of  crossing  near  the  pole,  the  idea 
being  suggested  by  the  fact  that  fishermen  and 
whalemen  were  able,  generally,  to  penetrate  the 
mysterious  icy  region  farther  in  that  direction 
than  any  other.  Henry  Hudson  was  sent  by  the 
Muscovy  Company,  in  1607,  with  instructions  to 
follow  this  general  line.  He  reached  81°  N. 
lat.,  to  the  eastward  of  Spitzbergen,  but  was 
then  obliged  to  return.  In  1610  the  same  com 
pany  sent  out  Poole — who  only  succeeded  in 
reaching  77°  N. — to  the  westward  of  Spitzbergen: 
Marmaduke  about  the  same  time  is  said  to  have 
penetrated  north  of  Spitzbergen,  to  82°  N  lat. 
In  1614  and  1615,  Fotherby  made  attempts  in 
the  same  direction,  which  came  to  naught.  From 
this  time,  with  the  exception  of  an  abortive  voy 
age  of  Capt.  Wood,  in  1676,  the  English  appear 
to  have  abandoned  all  attempts  to  reach  the 
north  pole  in  that  direction  for  150  years. 

Interest  in  the  northwest  passage  was  height 
ened  by  failure  to  advance  toward  the  northeast. 
All  the  very  early  explorations  had  been  under 
taken  under  the  belief  that  there  was  a  short 
passage  to  the  northwest,  if  it  could  only  be 
found.  Interest  in  the  northwest  had  been  re 
vived  in  1585,  when  some  London  merchants 
sent  out  John  Davis,  who  followed  the  west 
coast  of  Greenland,  discovered  the  strait  which 
bears  his  mime,  as  well  as  Cumberland  Island,  and, 
in  a  subsequent  expedition,  reached  lat.  72°  N. 


The  Muscovy  Company  also  sent  expeditions 
in  this  direction  in  1602  and  1606,  which  did  not 
succeed  in  reaching  as  high  a  point  as  Davis  had 
done. 

Hudson,  then  in  Dutch  employ,  searched  for 
the  northwest  passage  in  1608.  He  followed  the 
American  coast,  and,  in  the  course  of  his  voy 
age,  discovered  the  great  river  which  bears  his 
name.  Two  years  afterward — this  time  in  the 
English  service — he  discovered  Hudson's  Strait 
and  Hudson's  Bay.  In  the  middle  of  this  great 
sheet  of  water  he  found  his  fate,  being,  in  con 
sequence  of  a  mutiny,  set  adrift  to  perish.  The 
English  continued  to  send  expeditions  to  the 
north  and  northwest.  Sir  Thomas  Button  sailed 
in  1612,  Gibbons  in  1614,  and  Baffin  in  1615. 
Important  discoveries  resulted.  Baffin's  Bay, 
the  strait  between  Cumberland  Island  and  the 
continent,  and  Horn,  Lancaster,  and  Smith 
Sounds  were  all  mapped ;  but,  having  found  no 
passage,  the  English  efforts  in  that  direction  now 
relaxed  for  some  years. 

Denmark,  however,  sent  Jens  Munk  in  1619  ; 
and  in  1631  the  English  renewed  their  attempts, 
which  were  continued  in  1641  and  1646.  These 
made  known  Southampton  Island,  Fox  Channel, 
James  Bay,  Wager  Kiver,  and  Kepulse  Bay. 
The  northern  coast  of  Asia  was  explored  by  the 
Russians,  who  also  discovered  the  Liakhov  Isl 
ands  and  Wrangel's  Land.  By  the  middle  of 
the  16th  century  Russian  navigators,  in  small 
vessels,  were  traversing  the  Arctic,  where  it 
washed  the  shores  of  Siberia,  and  very  numerous 
subsequent  expeditions  have  been  sent  forth  by 
that  nation  in  that  region,  under  Behring, 
Kotzebue,  Liakhov,  Wrangel,  and  other  well- 
known  names  ;  their  efforts  continuing  from  1610 
to  the  present  day.  Our  own  territory  of  Alaska 
and  the  Aleutian  Islands  were  discovered  by 
Behring,  who  was  engaged  for  many  years  in 
northern  exploration,  in  which  he  eventually 
lost  his  life.  Tchirikow  was  also  a  noted  ex 
plorer,  about  1740. 

In  1773  an  English  expedition,  in  the  "  Car 
cass"  and  "Racehorse,"  was  sent  to  Spitzbergen, 
in  which  Nelson  participated,  with  the  rating  of 
coxswain. 

Capt.  Cook,  in  addition  to  his  other  achieve 
ments,  has  also  connected  his  name  indelibly 
with  the  northwest  of  America  and  Behring's 
Strait.  England  renewed  the  search  for  the 
northwest  passage  in  1818,  under  Sir  John  Ross, 
and  continued  it,  under  various  celebrated  men, 
until  its  discovery,  in  1850,  by  Sir  Robert  Mc- 
Clure.  All  these  different  expeditions,  as  well 
as  those  sent  in  search  of  Sir  John  Franklin,  re 
sulted  in  the  discovery  and  naming  of  a  vast 
number  of  geographical  points  between  60°  and 
130°  W.,  and  up  to  77°  N.,  and  in  1833  Sir 
James  Ross  discovered  the  North  Magnetic  Pole. 
The  expeditions  to  the  north  and  northwest,  suc 
ceeding  Sir  John  Franklin's  last  one,  undertaken 
in  1845,  became  so  numerous  that  it  is  only  pos 
sible  here  to  name  a  few  who  have  distinguished 
themselves,  such  as  Sir  James  Ross,  Kellett, 
Collinson,  McClure,  Austin,  Ommancy,  Sher- 
ard,  Osborne,  Sir  John  Ross,  Penny,  Forsyth, 
Snow,  McClintock,  Inglefield,  Belcher,  Young, 
and  other  Englishmen ;  De  Haven,  Kane, 
Hayes,  and  Hall,  Americans ;  while  Koldewey, 
Lamont,  Peyer,  and  Weyprecht  followed  the 
course  to  the  north  of  Spitzbergen  with  great 


POLAE 


653 


POLAR 


success.  To  the  north  of  our  own  continent 
some  gallant  land  travelers  have  ventured,  in 
a  constant  struggle  with 'cold  and  privation  ex 
tending,  in  some  cases,  over  years. 

Sir  John  Franklin  himself,  when  a  lieutenant, 
started  from  York  Factory,  in  1819,  to  proceed 
to  the  Arctic  shore  and  explore  eastward  from 
the  Coppermine  River.  He  was  accompanied  by 
Doctor  (afterwards  Sir  John)  Richardson,  Messrs. 
Hood  and  Back,  midshipmen,  and  a  seaman 
named  Hepburn.  They  were  occupied  about  3 
years,  traveled  5500  miles,  and  failed  to  accom 
plish  very  much,  suifering  such  extremities  of 
cold  and  hunger  that  their  preservation  was  a 
miracle. 

Franklin  made  another  land  journey  in  1825, 
descending  the  Mackenzie  River.  Parry,  in 
1827,  attempted  to  reach  the  pole  to  the  east 
ward  by  sledging  over  the  ice.  He  reached  82° 
45',  but  found  the  ice  setting  to  the  southward 
almost  as  fast  as  he  traveled  to  the  north,  and 
was  obliged  to  return. 

Back,\vho  had  accompanied  Franklin,  and 
Dr.  King  made  an  Arctic  land  journey  in  1833. 
Dease  and  Simpson  journeyed  north  about  the 
same  time,  and  discovered  what  is  now  called 
Victoria  Land,  and  a  sea  clear  of  ice. 

Dr.  John  Rae,  in  1846-47,  proved  the  connec 
tion  of  Boothia  with  the  mainland  of  America, 
and  completed  our  knowledge  of  the  formation 
of  the  land  to  the  eastward.  These  were  all  in 
addition  to  extensive  sledge  journeys  taken  with 
ships  as  a  base.  At  this  writing,  Lieut.  Schwatka, 
of  the  U.  S.  army,  has  just  returned  from  a  mar 
velous  journey  of  3251  miles  in  the  extreme 
north,  during  which  the  party  was  exposed  to  a 
cold  of  — 71°  Fahrenheit  for  many  hours.  They 
were  nearly  a  year  in  accomplishing  their  jour 
ney,  and  started  with  only  one  month's  provis 
ions,  living  off  the  game  killed,  as  the  natives 
did.  His  discoveries  only  confirm  the  sad  fate 
of  the  whole  of  Sir  John  Franklin's  command. 

The  northwest  passage  discovered  by  McClure 
is  between  Bank's  and  Prince  Albert's  Lands, 
through  Prince  of  Wales  Strait,  Melville  Sound, 
Barrow  Strait,  and  Lancaster  Strait  to  Baffin's 
Bay,  and  is  of  no  practical  utility  on  account  of 
its  permanent  obstruction  by  ice.  Since  its  dis 
covery,  Polar  exploration  has  had  for  its  object 
scientific  discoveries  chiefly. 

In  1854  the  exploration  of  Dr.  Kane,  U.  S. 
Navy,  through  Smith  Sound  and  Kennedy  Chan 
nel,  revived  the  belief  in  an  open  Polar  sea, — 
the  Polynia  of  the  Russians,  which  had  been 
advocated  for  two  centuries, — but  this  has  not 
been  confirmed  by  subsequent  explorers,  although 
his  route,  by  Smith  Sound,  is  now  generally  be 
lieved  to  be  the  most  practicable  one  to  the  pole. 

Dr.  Petermann,  the  geographer,  maintained 
that  past  experience  pointed  to  the  belief  that 
the  best  course  to  the  pole  was  that  between 
Greenland  and  Spitzbergen,  or  to  the  eastward 
of  Spitzbergen,  and  his  opinion  influenced  late 
attempts  in  this  direction  by  the  Swedes,  Ger 
mans,  and  Austrians,  and  by  Mr.  Lament,  an 
Englishman.  These  attempts  have  been  abor 
tive,  and  progress  seems  hopeless  in  that  direc 
tion.  Franz  Josef  Land  was  discovered  by  the 
Austrians,  extending  to  82°  N.,  and  the  offi 
cers  of  that  expedition  saw  nothing  to  warrant 
the  belief  in  an  open  Polar  sea.  In  1871  the 
Norwegian  Capt.  Karlsen  sailed  round  Nova 


Zembla  for  the  first  time.  In  1872,  Capt.  Hall, 
of  the  United  States,  by  way  of  Smith  Sound, 
Kennedy  Channel,  and  Robeson  Channel,  reached 
82°  16'  N.  lat.  All  these  late  expeditions  gave 
important  contributions  to  scientific  knowledge. 

Capt.  Nares,  of  the  English  navy,  in  1875, 
reached  by  sledge  journey  the  highest  northern 
point,  Commander  Markham  in  command  of 
the  party.  The  latitude  was  83°  20'  26",  and 
there  was  so  little  evidence  of  open  sea  there  that 
he  called  the  ice  u  paleocrystic." 

In  the  present  year  Nordenskjold,  already 
celebrated  for  exploration  of  the  Kara  Sea,  suc 
ceeded  in  pushing  his  way  along  the  whole  of 
the  northern  coast  of  Siberia,  and  in  coming  out 
safely  into  the  Pacific  Ocean,  a  feat  which  was 
believed  impossible  up  to  that  time. 

Lieut.-Commander  De  Long,  U.  S.  Navy,  in 
command  of  the  "  Jeannette,"  passed  into  the 
Arctic  by  way  of  Behring's  Strait,  in  1879,  and 
has  not  since  been  heard  of.  His  expedition  was 
composed  of  the  best  material,  and  it  is  alto 
gether  likely  that  he  will,  in  due  time,  report 
himself,  with  great  additions  to  our  knowledge 
of  the  northern  regions. 

The  explorers  of  the  Antarctic  region  have 
been  few,  there  having  been  no  practical  object 
to  serve  after  the  discovery  of  the  routes  to  the 
Pacific  and  the  Indian  Ocean,  by  way  of  Cape 
Horn  and  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope. 

The  name  Antarctic  should,  strictly  speaking, 
be  applied  only  to  the  ice-bound  sea  to  the  south 
of  the  Arctic  Circle.  It  is  generally,  however, 
extended  to  include  more  or  less  of  the  cold 
regions  round  the  south  pole,  without  reference 
to  the  Circle.  As  compared  with  the  Arctic, 
little  is  known  of  it.  It  is  clear  that  the  dangers 
to  navigation,  and  the  cold,  greatly  exceed  those 
of  the  north,  and  that  human  beings,  and  most 
terrestrial  animals,  have  more  difficulty  in  sub 
sisting  within  its  limits.  Capt.  Cook,  in  his 
voyages,  entered  the  Antarctic  at  three  points, 
and  was  the  first  to  throw  doubt  upon  the  "  Terra 
Australis  Incognita,"  formerly  laid  down  on  all 
charts.  Cook  attained  71°  10'  S.  on  the  107th 
meridian.  Bellinghausen,  in  1821,  sailed  several 
degrees  within  the  Circle,  and  discovered  Alex 
ander's  Land.  Howell  saw  Trinity  Land  in  the 
same  year.  Palmer,  an  American,  saw  Palmer's 
Land,  to  the  westward  of  Trinity,  in  lat.  62°. 
Weddell,  an  Englishman,  saw  no  new  land,  but 
reached  lat.  74°  15'  S.  In  1831-32,  Biscoe  was 
sent  out  by  Enderby,  of  London,  and  discovered 
Enderby's  Land.  Dumont  d'Urville  and  some 
others  made  some  unimportant  attempts  to  the 
southward  in  1833-38.  In  1840,  Dumont  d'Ur 
ville  (French)  and  Wilkes  (American),  in  com 
mand  of  exploring  expeditions,  discovered  what 
is  probably  a  group  of  islands,  in  61°  S.  and 
160°  E.,  although  both  reported  a  continuous 
coast. 

The  most  important  expedition  to  the  Ant 
arctic  was  made  by  Sir  James  Ross,  in  the 
"  Erebus"  and  "  Terror,"  in  1839-43.  He  pene 
trated  to  78°  II7  S.,  the  highest  ever  attained. 
He  discovered  land  in  70°  41'  S.  and  172°  30'  E. 
He  also  named  several  volcanoes  and  other 
mountains,  and  ascertained  the  position  of  the 
south  magnetic  pole  to  be  75°  5'  S.  lat.  and 
154°  S/  E.  Ion.  It  was  an  extraordinary  voyage, 
and  full  of  perils,  while  the  scientific  results  were 
very  great.  In  1845,  Capt.  Moore  was  sent  by 


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654 


POLES 


the  British  Admiralty  to  observe  magnetic  phe 
nomena  in  a  region  of  the  Antarctic  not  visited 
by  Ross.  He  reached  the  73d  parallel  with 
difficulty. 

The  two  Polar  regions  differ  widely.  The 
Arctic  seas  teem  with  animal  life,  and  land 
animals  are  comparatively  plenty.  There  are 
many  birds,  and  vegetation,  such  as  mosses, 
lichens,  scurvy-grass,  small  shrubs  and  flowers, 
are  found  in  their  appointed  season,  and  in 
varieties  unknown  in  the  Antarctic.  In  the 
latter  region  vegetation  ceases  at  a  comparatively 
early  limit.  Trees  and  shrubs  cease  to  exist  in 
the  so.uth  at  56°.  There  is  plenty  of  animal  life 
in  the  sea,  but  no  quadrupeds  on  the  land. 
Birds,  however,  exist  in  great  numbers,  and  in 
varieties  unknown  in  the  Arctic.  The  Antarctic 
climate  is  more  severe  than  that  of  the  Arctic. 
Researches  show  that  a  luxuriant  tropical  or 
semi-tropical  vegetation  formerly  existed  in  the 
Polar  regions.  Beds  of  coal  have  been  found 
in  the  Arctic  and  in  Kerguelen  Land.  Remains 
of  large  trees  have  also  been  found  underlying 
basalt.  Fossil  remains  of  trees  and  animals, 
which  now  exist  only  in  the  tropics,  have  been 
found  at  Disco,  Smith  Sound,  and  New  Siberia. 

It  is  impossible  here  to  go  into  the  theories 
which  account  for  this. 

The  voyage  of  the  "Eira,"  containing  Mr. 
Leigh  Smith's  Arctic  explorers,  details  of  whose 
observations  in  the  Spitzbergen  seas  were  given 
in  the  daily  papers  in  the  month  of  November, 
1880,  has  been  instrumental  in  elucidating  the 
polynial  character  of  that  part  of  the  Polar  basin 
into  which  the  North  Atlantic  discharges  its 
warm  floods.  The  "  Eira"  left  England  on  June 
22,  and  a  week's  steaming  brought  her  to  Jan 
Mayen  Island,  whence  with  leisurely  movement 
she  advanced  toward  Spitzbergen,  clearing  its 
South  Cape  on  July  30.  Up  to  this  time  nothing 
remarkable  occurred  to  the  explorers,  except  that 
they  found  the  ice  to  the  west  of  Spitzbergen  in 
such  quantities  as  to  preclude  progress  in  that 
direction.  But  pursuing  their  way  to  the  north 
ward  they  reached  Franz  Josef  Land,  discovered 
a  new  and  well-sheltered  harbor,  and  on  their 
final  trip,  August  24,  attained  in  their  yacht  the 
high  latitude  of  80°  20'  N.  in  longitude  about 
40°  E.  Since  1865,  when  Petermann's  researches 
seemed  to  establish  the  extension  of  the  Gulf 
Stream's  thermal  influence  up  to  Spitzbergen, 
the  Arctic  waters  in  its  vicinity  have  been, in 
vested  with  a  peculiar  interest,  as  possibly  offer 
ing  an  advantageous  approach  toward  the  Pole. 
The  polynias  seen  by  so  many  polar  voyagers  be 
tween  Spitzbergen  and  Nova  Zembla  and  the 
readiness  with  which  high  latitude  has  been  fre 
quently  made  in  this  direction,  apparently  con 
firm  the  supposed  Gulf  Stream  or  Atlantic  in 
fluence  between  these  Arctic  islands.  "  Our 
observations,"  says  Payer,  "  proved  the  exist 
ence,  in  the  Eastern  Nova  Zembla  seas,  of  a 
band  of  warm  water  from  86  to  40  feet  deep," 
and  Middendorf  and  Mack  found  evidences  of 
a  warm  water  agency  as  far  east  as  60°  and 
81°  E.  Ion.  North  of  Spitzbergen,  however, 
Parry  found  in  1827,  as  others  more  recently 
have,  that  the  Polar  stream  is  pressing  its  way 
southward.  These  facts  point  to  the  extension 
of  the  Atlantic  drift  movement  far  to  the  east  of 
Nova  Zembla,  and  even  north  of  the  New  Sibe 
rian  Islands,  with  the  consequent  formation  of 


occasional  polynias.  Mr.  Leigh  Smith's  late 
voyage  did  not  extend  so  far  east,  but  so  far  as  it 
did  extend  it  is  confirmatory  of  Petermann's 
general  conclusions  as  to  the  comparative  open 
ness  of  these  waters. 

The  effect  of  a  warm  current  on  the  pack-ice 
of  high  altitudes  by  no  means  insures  a  free  pass 
age  for  a  ship,  and  it  may,  as  Petermann  be 
lieved,  only  make  "a  blind  alley  of_ice."  But 
where  such  a  thermal  agency  is  present  Arctic 
travelers  will  be  encouraged  to  conclude  with 
Lieut.  Payer,  that  "the  hope  of  finding  a  navi 
gable  sea  in  latitudes  not  hitherto  attained  is 
not  yet  extinct."  As  it  is  possible  the  "  Jean- 
nette,"  should  she  have  prosecuted  her  voyage 
to  the  northwest  of  Wrangel  Land,  may  ulti 
mately  enter  the  seas  contiguous  to  Franz  Josef 
Land  and  Spitzbergen,  she  may  supplement  Mr. 
Leigh  Smith's  exploration. 

POLAR  FORCES.  Forces  that  act  in  pairs  with 
opposite  tendencies  or  properties,  as  in  magnet 
ism,  electricity,  etc. 

Polaris,  or  Pole-star.  The  name  of  the  star 
a  Ursce  Minoris,  so  called  from  its  being  the 
bright  star  which  is  nearest  to  the  north  pole  of 
the  heavens.  Its  Arabic  name  is  Ruccabah,  and 
it  is  also  known  as  the  Cynosure  (from  kudn, 
kunos,  a  dog,  and  oura,  the  tail, — the  constella 
tion  of  Ursa  Minor  being  anciently  figured  as  a 
dog).  Polaris  can  readily  be  found  by  the 
"  Pointers"  (3  and  a  Ursse  Majoris,  being  the 
first  bright  star  which  the  line  of  their  direction 
passes,  a  Ursse  Majoris  (Dubhe)  is  at  the  same 
distance  from  the  stars  in  the  extremities  of  the 
two  constellations  the  Great  Bear  and  the  Little 
Bear,  the  former  being  77  Ursse  Majoris,  and  the 
latter  a  Ursa?  Minoris,  or  Polaris.  The  star  a 
Ursae  Minoris  has  not  always  been,  and  will  not 
always  continue  to  be,  the  pole-star.  The  pre 
cession  of  the  equinoxes  may  be  viewed  as  a  very 
slow  motion  of  the  pole  of  the  heavens  among 
the  stars  in  a  small  circle  round  the  pole,  of  the 
ecliptic.  The  effect  of  this  is  an  apparent  ap 
proach  of  some  stars  to  the  pole  and  recess  of 
others.  When  the  earliest  catalogues  were  con 
structed,  the  present  pole-star  was  12°  from  the 
pole ;  it  is  now  less  than  H°,  and  will  approach 
to  within  ^°,  when  it  will  begin  to  recede  and 
give  place  to  others.  Four  thousand  years  ago 
a  Draconis  was  the  pole-star,  and  was  but  10' 
from  the  pole  ;  after  the  lapse  of  12,000  years, 
a  Lyrce,  the  brightest  star  in  the  northern  hemi 
sphere,  will  be  the  pole-star,  approaching  to 
within  about  5°  of  the  pole.  The  present  pole- 
star  is  calculated  to  be  about  292  millions  of  mil 
lions  of  miles  from  the  earth. 

Poldavis,  or  Poldavy.  A  canvas  from  Dant- 
zic,  formerly  much  used.  A  kind  of  sail-cloth 
thus  named  was  also  formerly  manufactured  in 
Lancashire. 

Pole-ax.  A  sort  of  hatchet,  resembling  a 
battle-ax,  which  was  used  on  board  ship  to  cut 
away  the  rigging  of  an  adversary ;  and  also,  in 
boarding  an  enemy  whose  hull  was  more  lofty 
than  that  of  the  boarders,  by  driving  the  points 
of  several  into  her  side,  one  above  another,  and 
thus  forming  a  kind  of  scaling-ladder ;  hence 
were  called  boarding-axes. 

Poles  (Gr.  polos,  a  pivot  on  which  anything 
turns  ;  the  axis  of  the  sphere).  The  points  at  the 
extremities  of  the  axis  of  the  celestial  sphere, 
which  in  the  diurnal  revolution  appear  station- 


POLE-STAR 


655 


POET 


ary,  and  about  which  the  whole  of  the  heavens 
appear  to  turn  as  upon  pivots.  This  is  the  pri 
mary  use  of  the  term.  Hence  it  is  extended  and 
applied  to  extremities  of  the  axis  of  the  earth  ; 
hence,  also,  its  more  purely  geometric  uses.  The 
term  is  still  further  extended  to  physics ;  thus, 
when  it  was  found  that  the  magnet  did  not 
always  point  to  the  north  pole,  but  to  another 
point,  this  point  was  naturally  named  the  mag 
netic  pole.  Also,  the  upper  ends  of  the  upper 
masts  when  they  rise  above  the  eyes  of  the  rig 
ging. 

Pole-star.     See  POLARIS. 

Policy.  The  written  instrument  that  evi 
dences  the  contract  of  insurance.  (See  MARINE 
INSURANCE.)  In  another  sense  it  signifies  a 
course  of  governmental  administration  or  of 
individual  action. 

Poll.     A  fish,  called  also  chub  or  chevin. 

Pollack.  The  Merlangus  pollachius,  a  well- 
known  member  of  the  cod  family. 

Pollard.     The  chub-fish. 

Pollux.    The  star  j3  Geminorum.    See  GEMINI. 

Polyneme.  A  sea-fish  of  the  genus  Polynemus, 
characterized  by  having  the  ventral  fins  abdom 
inal  instead  of  thoracic. 

Pomfret.  A  delicate  sea-fish  taken  in  great 
quantities  in  Bombay  and  Madras. 

Pommelion.  An  old  name  for  the  knob  on 
the  breech  of  a  cannon. 

Ponches.  Small  bulk-heads  made  in  the  hold 
to  stow  corn,  goods,  etc. 

Poncho.  A  blanket  with  a  hole  in  the  centre, 
large  enough  for  the  head  to  pass  through,  worn 
by  natives  of  South  and  Western  America. 

Pond.  A  cant  term  for  the  ocean.  French 
pond,  the  Mediterranean. 

Pontones.  Ancient  square-built  ferry-boats 
for  passing  rivers,  as  described  by  Caesar  and 
Aulus  Gellius. 

Pood.  A  Kussian  commercial  weight,  equal 
to  36  pounds. 

Poop.  A  partial  deck  elevated  above  the  spar- 
deck,  and  extending  from  the  mizzen-mast  aft. 
A  vessel  is  pooped  when,  in  running  before  a 
heavy  sea,  the  waves  break  over  the  taffrail. 

POOP-ROYAL.  A  short  deck  or  platform  for 
merly  placed  over  the  aftrnost  part  of  the  poop 
in  the  largest  of  the  French  and  Spanish  men- 
of-war. 

Poor,  Charles  H.,  Rear-Admiral  U.S.N. 
Charles  H.  Poor  was  born  at  Cambridge,  Mass., 
in  June,  1809.  Appointed  midshipman  from 
Massachusetts,  March  1,  1823  ;  attached  to  sloop- 
of-war  "John  Adams,"  West  India  Squadron, 
1827  ;  frigate  "  Java,"  Mediterranean  Squadron, 
1829. 

Promoted  to  passed  midshipman,  March  29, 
1829,  and  ordered  to  frigate  "  Delaware,"  Medi 
terranean  Squadron,  1830;  sloop-of-war  "  Lex 
ington,"  Brazil  Squadron,  1833,  and  brig 
"  Boxer,"  same  squadron,  1834. 

Commissioned  as  lieutenant,  December  31, 
1833;  rendezvous,  Norfolk,  Va.,  1836;  razee 
"Independence,"  Brazil  Squadron,  1840;  navy- 
yard,  Washington,  1846-48;  inspector,  etc., 
1850-51 ;  frigate  "  St.  Lawrence,"  Pacific  Squad 
ron,  1852-55. 

Commissioned  as  commander,  September  14, 
1855;  navy-yard,  Norfolk,  Va.,  1856-58;  com 
manding  sloop-of-war  "St.  Louis,"  Home  Squad 
ron,  1860-61;  commanded  expedition  of  sailors 


and  marines  to  reinforce  Fort  Pickens,  1861 ; 
frigate  "Roanoke,"  North  Atlantic  Blockading 
Squadron,  1861-62.  Commander  Poor  took  com 
mand  of  steamer  "  Illinois,"  to  act  as  a  ram 
against  the  "Merrimac,"  but  did  not  have  an 
opportunity  to  test  the  power  of  his  vessel. 
Passed  rebel  batteries,  under  fire,  at  Sewell's 
Point,  while  proceeding  from  Hampton  Roads 
towards  Newport  News  in  frigate  "Roanoke," 
to  assist  the  "  Congress"  and  "  Cumberland." 

Commissioned  as  commodore,  January  2, 1863; 
commanding  sloop-of-war  "Saranac,"  Pacific 
Squadron,  1863-66 ;  compelled  the  authorities 
at  Aspinwall  to  release  U.  S.  mail-steamer  de 
tained  to  collect  illegal  dues  (approved  by  Sec 
retary  of  the  Navy) ;  compelled  authorities  at 
Rio  Hacha  to  hoist  and  salute  the  American  flag, 
which  had  been  insulted  (approved  by  Secretary 
of  the  Navy)  ;  commanding  Naval  Station  at 
Mound  City,  111.,  1866-68. 

Commissioned  as  rear-admiral,  September  20, 
1868;  commandant  navy-yard,  Washington, 
1869;  commanding  North  Atlantic  Squadron, 
1869-70 ;  member  Retiring  Board,  1871-72.  Re 
tired  June  9,  1870. 

Poor  John.  Hake-fish  salted  and  dried,  as 
well  as  dried  stock-fish,  and  bad  baccalao^  or  cod, 
equally  cheap  and  coarse. 

Popler.     An  old  name  for  a  sea-gull. 

Poppets.  The  upright  pieces  which  are  fitted 
between  the  ship's  bottom  and  the  bilge-ways  at 
the  extreme  ends  of  the  ship,  to  support  her  in 
launching.  Small  pins  on  the  gunwale  of  a 
boat  to  form  a  rowlock. 

POPPET-RIBBANDS.  Pieces  of  oak  plank  run 
ning  across  the  poppets,  fore-and-aft,  to  which 
they  are  secured. 

POPPET-LASHING.  Chain-cables  passed  around 
the  poppets  and  over  the  poppet-ribbands,  from 
side  to  side,  to  support  the  extremities  of  the  ves 
sel  in  launching. 

Poppet-valve.  A  steam-valve  made  in  the 
form  of  a  frustrum  of  a  cone,  which  acts  by  open 
ing  and  closing  a  conical  port ;  it  receives  its 
motion  from  a  rock-shaft  by  means  of  a  lifting- 
toe,  working  under  a  similar  toe  on  the  valve- 
stem  ;  there  are  two  kinds,  the  single-  and  double- 
poppet  valve ;  the  latter  is  a  balanced  valve. 

Poppling.     Sea-waves  in  irregular  agitation. 

Porbeagle.     A  kind  of  shark. 

Porcupine-fish.  A  fish  of  the  tropical  seas, 
which  is  covered  with  spines  or  prickles  capable 
of  being  erected  by  its  inflating  the  body.  It  is 
the  Diodon  hystrix  of  Bloch. 

Pores.     Minute,  dark  spots  on  the  sun. 

Porgy.  A  salt-water  fish  of  the  gilt-head 
kind,  much  esteemed  for  food.  The  common 
species  in  North  America  is  the  Pagrus  argyrops. 
The  sand-porgee  is  the  Sargus  arenosus. 

Porpoise  (Phoccena).  A  genus  of  cetacea  of 
the  family  Delphinidce,  having  a  form  similar  to 
the  dolphins,  but  the  muzzle  short,  uniformly 
convex,  and  without  a  beak  ;  a  dorsal  fin  ;  the 
teeth  very  numerous,  simple,  and  equal.  The 
grampus  (which  see)  is  generally  referred  to 
this  genus. 

Port.  An  opening  from  the  steam-chest  to 
the  cylinder  of  a  steam-engine  ;  if  for  the  admis 
sion  of  steam,  it  is  termed  the  induction,  or  steam- 
port  ;  if  for  the  exhaust,  it  is  termed  the  eduction, 
or  exhaust-port. 

An  opening  in  the  side  of  a  ship-of-war  through 


POET  AU  PRINCE 


656 


PORTER 


which  a  gun  is  fired.  Cargo-ports  and  lumber- 
ports  are  fitted  in  merchant  ships  for  the  purpose 
of  receiving  and  discharging  cargo  and  lumber. 
A  place  of  resort  for  vessels  for  commercial 
purposes.  (See  HARBOR.)  A  place  more  or  less 
protected  from  the  wind  and  sea,  and  used  as  a 

?lace  of  refuge  for  vessels  in  tempestuous  weather, 
'he  left  side  of  a  vessel, — a  term  which  has  been 
substituted  for  the  old  word  larboard,  as  being 
less  likely  to  be  mistaken  for  starboard. 

PORT-BARS.  Strong  pieces  of  oak  by  which 
the  ports  are  secured  from  flying  open  in  a  gale 
of  wind,  the  bars  resting  against  the  inside  of  the 
ship  ;  the  port  is  first  tightly  closed  by  its  hooks 
and  ring-bolts. 

PORT-CHARGES,  or  HARBOR-DUES.  Charges 
levied  on  vessels  resorting  to  a  port. 

PORT-FLANGE.  A  wooden  batten  coved  out 
and  fitted  on  the  ship's  side,  over  the  ports,  to 
prevent  the  water  from  running  into  the  port. 
A  port-riggle. 

PORT-PENDANTS.  Ropes  spliced  into  rings  on 
the  outside  of  the  port-lids,  and  rove  through 
leaden  pipes  in  the  ship's  sides,  to  work  the  port- 
lids  up  or  down  by  the  tackles. 

PORT-PIECE.     An  ancient  piece  of  ordnance. 

PORT-SASHES.  Half-ports  fitted  with  glass  for 
the  admission  of  light  into  cabins. 

PORT-SILLS.  Pieces  of  oak  dovetailed  into 
the  frame-timbers  to  form  the  upper  and  lower 
part  of  the  ports. 

PORT-STOPPER.  A  heavy  piece  of  iron,  made 
to  swing  round  and  close  the  port  in  a  turret- 
vessel. 

Port  au  Prince,  the  principal  seaport  and 
capital  city  of  Hayti,  is  situated  at  the  head  of 
Gonaives  Bay,  in  lat.  18°  35'  N.,  Ion.  72°  18'  W. 
It  is  partially  fortified.  The  vicinity  is  marshy, 
and  the  climate  unhealthy.  It  is  the  seat  of  the 
greater  part  of  the  foreign  trade  of  the  island, 
the  annual  value  of  the  imports  being  about 
$1,200,000.  Pop.  20,000. 

Porter,  B.  H.,  Lieutenant  U.S.N.  See  PRES 
TON. 

Porter,  David,  Commodore  U.S.N.  Born  in 
Boston,  February  1,  1780  ;  died  in  Pera,  Turkey, 
March  28,  1843.  At  the  age  of  16  he  made  a 
cruise  to  the  West  Indies  in  a  merchant  vessel, 
and  during  the  two  succeeding  years  made  sev 
eral  voyages  in  merchant  ships.  He  was  twice 
impressed  by  British  vessels  of  war,  and  on  each 
occasion  took  the  first  opportunity  to  escape  and 
work  his  passage  home.  In  April,  1798,  he  ob 
tained  a  midshipman's  appointment  in  the  navy. 
Midshipman  Porter  served  in  the  frigate  "  Con 
stellation"  in  her  action  with  the  French  frigate 
"  Insurgente,"  February  9,  1799.  In  October, 
1799,  he  was  promoted  to  the  grade  of  lieuten 
ant,  and  ordered  to  the  West  India  Station  as 
first  lieutenant  of  the  schooner  "Experiment." 
On  the  1st  of  June,  1800,  this  vessel,  with  sev 
eral  sail  of  merchantmen  under  convoy,  lay 
becalmed  in  the  bight  of  Leogane,  in  the 
island  of  San  Domingo.  While  thus  lying,  they 
were  attacked  by  10  piccaroon  barges,'  each  con 
taining  40  men,  with  swivels  mounted  in  the 
bows  and  on  the  quarters.  The  "  Experiment" 
had  been  disguised  to  look  as  much  like  a  mer 
chant  ship  as  possible,  and  the  piccaroons  steered 
for  her  with  the  evident  intention  of  boarding. 
At  tbis  critical  moment  her  commanding  officer 
showed  the  white  feather,  and  was  about  to  sur 


render  to  a  force  he  considered  it  .hopeless  to 
contend  against,  when  Lieut.  Porter,  backed  by 
Lieut.  Blake,  protested  so  vigorously  that  it  was 
determined  to  defend  the  ship  and  convoy  to 
the  last ;  and  after  a  combat  which  continued  for 
7  hours,  the  pirates  having  lost  2  of  their 
barges  sunk  by  the  schooner's  fire,  and  many  of 
their  men  killed  and  wounded,  withdrew  from 
the  fight.  Shortly  after  the  affair  of  Leogane, 
Lieut.  Charles  Stewart  (Old  Ironsides),  was  or 
dered  to  command  the  "  Experiment,"  and  for 
some  months  these  two  officers,  Stewart  and 
Porter,  who  afterwards  became  so  famous,  served 
together  in  the  little  schooner,  and  while  thus 
serving  captured  the  French  schooner-of-war 
"Diane."  In  October,  1803,  Lieut.  Porter  was 
captured  in  the  frigate  "Philadelphia,"  and  re 
mained  a  prisoner  in  Tripoli  until  peace  was  pro 
claimed. 

In  1806  he  was  promoted  to  master-command 
ant,  and  on  the  10th  of  March,  1808,  Commander 
Porter  was  married  to  Miss  Anderson,  of  Chester, 
Pa.  In  1812  he  was  promoted  to  the  grade  of 
captain.  Between  the  years  1809  and  1812, 
Capt.  Porter  was  a  large  portion  of  the  time  on 
special  duty  in  New  Orleans,  and  while  there  he 
made  the  acquaintance  of  the  Farragut  family, 
and  took  under  his  special  protection  young 
David  Farragut,  who  became  in  after-years  the 
most  renowned  of  our  admirals.  At  the  begin 
ning  of  hostilities  in  1812,  Capt.  Porter  sailed 
from  New  York  in  command  of  the  "  Essex," 
32,  and  in  a  short  cruise  captured  several  Brit 
ish  merchantmen  and  transports.  Soon  after 
ward  he  fell  in  with  and  captured  the  British 
corvette  "Alert,"  20.  On  December  11,  near 
the  equator,  he  captured  the  British  government 
packet  "Norton,"  with  $50,000  in  specie  on 
board.  In  January,  1813,  Capt.  Porter  pro 
ceeded  to  the  Pacific  with  the  intention  of  doing 
all  the  damage  he  could  to  the  English  whale- 
fishery  in  that  ocean. 

On  March  25,  he  captured  the  Peruvian  priva 
teer  "  Nereyeda"  of  19  guns,  which  had  taken 
two  American  whalers  and  had  their  crews  on 
board  as  prisoners.  They  were  transferred  to 
the  "  Essex,"  and  the  armament  and  ammuni 
tion  of  the  "  Nereyeda"  thrown  overboard,  when 
she  was  released.  After  this,  Capt.  Porter  cruised 
about  10  months  in  the  Pacific,  capturing  12  Brit 
ish  ships  employed  chiefly  in  the  sperm-whale 
fishery,  and  for  a  time  that  important  British 
interest  in  the  Pacific  was  almost  destroyed. 
The  "  Georgiana,"  captured  whaler,  was  con 
verted  into  a  vessel  of  war  called  the  "  Essex, 
Jr.,"  and  cruised  with  the  "Essex."  On  Feb 
ruary  3,  1814,  the  "Essex"  and  "Essex,  Jr." 
arrived  at  Valparaiso.  On  the  8th,  H.  B.  M. 
frigate  "Phoebe"  and  sloop  "Cherub"  arrived 
and  anchored  near  the  "  Essex,"  and  after  ob 
taining  supplies  cruised  off  Valparaiso  6  weeks. 
On  March  28  the  "  Essex"  made  an  attempt 
to  get  to  sea,  but  in  doubling  a  headland  was 
struck  by  a  squall,  which  carried  away  her 
fore-topmast  and  caused  the  loss  of  several 
of  her  crew.  In  this  crippled  state  the  ship 
anchored  less  than  3  miles  from  the  town,  only 
half  a  mile  from  the  shore,  and  while  within 
neutral  waters  was  attacked  by  the  "  Phoebe" 
and  "Cherub,"  the  first  shot  being  fired  at 
3.54  P.M.  The  "  Phoebe's"  fire  proved  very  de 
structive,  as  she  occupied  a  position  where  her 


PORTER 


657 


PORTER 


long  guns  could  rake  the  "Essex,"  while  that 
vessel  could  hardly  bring  a  gun  to  bear  against 
her,  the  "  Cherub"  meanwhile  pouring  in  a  gall 
ing  fire.  The  latter  vessel,  however,  soon  found 
her  position  such  a  hot  one  that  she  was  driven  to 
leeward,  near  the  "Phoebe,"  where  both  vessels 
kept  up  a  raking  fire  on  the  American  frigate. 
Capt.  Porter  now  got  three  long  12-pounders  out 
of  the  stern  port,  and  these  guns  were  so  well 
worked  that  in  half  an  hour  both  the  attacking 
vessels  hauled  off  to  repair  damages.  The  ene 
my's  vessels  having  finished  repairs,  took  up  their 
position  on  the  starboard  quarter  of  the  "  Essex," 
out  of  reach  of  her  carronades,  and  where  her 
long  guns  could  not  be  brought  to  bear  upon 
them.  Their  fire  was  very  severe,  and  Capt. 
Porter  had  no  alternative  but  to  get  under  way 
and  become  the  assailant.  The  flying-jib  was 
set  and  the  cable  cut,  and  the  "  Essex"  ran  down 
upon  her  assailants,  and  for  a  short  time  suc 
ceeded  in  closing  with  them,  so  as  to  use  her 
carronades  with  such  effect  that  the  "  Cherub" 
was  forced  to  haul  oif,  and  for  a  few  minutes  the 
hope  was  entertained  that  the  enemy  were  so  far 
disabled  as  to  permit  the  "  Essex"  to  escape  ;  but 
the  hope  proved  a  vain  one,  as  the  "Cherub" 
kept  up  a  destructive  fire  with  her  long  guns, 
and  the  "  Phrebe"  chose  the  distance  best  suited 
to  her  long  18's,  where,  out  of  the  range  of  the 
carronades  of  the  "  Essex,"  she  kept  up  a  delib 
erate  and  destructive  fire.  The  action  had  now 
lasted  over  two  hours,  and  the  "  Essex"  lay  like 
a  target,  riddled  by  every  shot  from  the  enemy. 
The  crew  were  completely  exhausted,  and  had 
become  so  weakened  in  numbers  that  they  en 
treated  the  captain  to  surrender  in  order  to  save 
the  lives  of  the  wounded,  and  accordingly,  at  20 
minutes  past  6,  the  order  was  given  to  haul  down 
the  colors.  The  contest  throughout  was  a  most 
unequal  one,  the  enemy  having  the  advantage  in 
every  way.  In  this  action  young  Farragut,  who 
was  serving  on  board  as  a  midshipman,  fought 
most  bravely,  and  was  especially  commended  by 
Capt.  Porter  in  his  official  report. 

The  "Essex,  Jr."  brought  the  survivors  of 
the  action  to  the  United  States,  where  Capt. 
Porter  was  received  with  great  honors.  His 
narrative  of  this  cruise  was  published  in  New 
York  in  1822.  His  son,  Admiral  Porter,  describes 
it  most  vividly  in  his  life  of  Commodore  Porter, 
published  in  Albany  in  1866.  From  April, 
1815,  to  December,  1823,  Capt.  Porter  was  a 
member  of  the  Board  of  Navy  Commissioners, 
which  post  he  resigned  to  take  command  of  the 
expedition  fitting  out  against  pirates  in  the  West 
Indies.  In  October,  1824,  upon  evidence  that  a 
quantity  of  valuable  goods  had  been  stored  by 
pirates  at  Foxardo,  in  the  east  end  of  Porto 
Rico,  Commodore  Porter  dispatched  the  schooner 
"  Beagle"  to  investigate  the  matter,  but  the  offi 
cers  on  landing  were  arrested  and  thrown  into 
prison.  Commodore  Porter  on  hearing  of  this 
outrage  sailed  for  the  island,  landed  a  force 
of  200  men,  and  demanded  an  apology,  which 
was  promptly  given.  The  authorities'at  Wash 
ington  deeming  he  had  exceeded  his  powers 
brought  him  before  a  court-martial,  and  he  was 
sentenced  to  6  months'  suspension.  He  soon  after 
resigned,  and  entered  the  service  of  Mexico  as 
commander-in-chief  of  the  naval  forces,  at  a 
salary  of  $25,000  per  annum.  He  remained 
in  this  service  until  1829,  when  having  been 
42 


treated  most  treacherously  by  the  Mexican  offi 
cials,  and  'betrayed  by  those  he  had  the  most 
reason  to  expect  good  faith  from, — the  very 
officers  he  had  taught  the  rudiments  of  their 
profession  turning  against  him  because  he  was 
a  foreigner, — Commodore  Porter  resigned  his 
position,  returned  to  the  United  States,  and 
was  appointed  by  President  Jackson  consul- 
general  to  the  Barbary  powers,  from  which  post 
he  was  transferred  to  Constantinople  as  resident 
minister  there,  which  office  he  held  when  he 
died.  His  remains  are  interred  in  Woodland 
Cemetery,  West  Philadelphia. 

Porter,  David  Dixon,  Admiral  U.S.N.  Born 
June  8,  1813,  in  Chester,  Pa.  In  1824  he  ac 
companied  his  father,  Commodore  David  Porter, 
in  the  "  John  Adams,"  and  was  with  him  during 
that  memorable  expedition  which  forever  sup 
pressed  piracy  in  the  West  Indies.  The  resig 
nation  of  Commodore  Porter  from  the  U.  S. 
navy  on  account  of  the  failure  of  our  govern 
ment  to  sustain  him  in  his  energetic  measures, 
resulted  in  his  becoming  admiral  of  the  Mexican 
navy  (1826),  that  people  being  then  engaged  in 
their  struggle  for  independence. 

David  D.  Porter  was  appointed  a  midshipman 
in  the  Mexican  service.  He  obtained  service 
afloat  with  his  cousin,  Capt.  D.  H.  Porter,  who 
commanded  a  Mexican  vessel  cruising  against 
Spanish  commerce.  After  a  most  adventurous 
and  successful  cruise,  Capt.  Porter  was  obliged 
to  return  to  the  rendezvous  at  Key  West  on  ac 
count  of  a  mutiny  on  board.  Its  early  discovery 
was  due  to  the  precocity  of  Midshipman  Porter, 
who  had  then  arrived  at  the  age  of  14  years.  In 
the  struggle  with  the  mutineers  Midshipman 
Porter  handed  the  pistols  and  sword  to  Capt. 
Porter,  who  by  his  coolness  and  determination 
soon  disabled  the  ringleaders  and  brought  all  to 
terms.  Of  the  whole  crew,  only  three  remained 
faithful. 

In  order  to  secure  the  prisoners  and  prevent 
them  from  meddling  with  their  irons,  Capt. 
Porter  cut  holes  in  the  poop-deck  so  as  to  allow 
the  feet  of  the  prisoners  to  go  through  into  the 
cabin,  where  they  were  ironed  together.  The 
captain,  assisted  by  Midshipman  Porter  and  three 
men,  succeeded  in  running  the  Spanish  blockade 
and  bringing  the  vessel  and  captured  property 
into  Key^West.  During  the  spring  of  1828,  the 
brig  "Guerrero,"  22  guns,  Capt.  D.  H.  Porter, 
was  fitted  out  to  cruise  against  Spanish  com 
merce.  Midshipman  Porter  was  again  detailed 
to  duty  under  Capt.  Porter.  The  "  Guerrero" 
had  a  fine  crew  of  186  men.  Soon  after  arriving 
on  the  coast  of  Cuba,  Capt.  Porter  attacked  two 
Spanish  brigs  of  superior  force  convoying  a  mer 
chant  fleet.  The  firing  brought  a  Spanish  64-gun 
frigate  to  the  rescue  of  the  convoy,  thus  robbing 
Capt.  Porter  of  the  fruits  of  a  victory  fully 
secured,  and  forcing  him  to  fight  a  vessel  in 
finitely  the  superior  of  the  "Guerrero.'^  After 
a  desperate  resistance  the  brig  was  forced  to  sur 
render.  In  this  action  Capt.  Porter  and  nearly 
half  his  crew  were  killed,  and  nil  the  officers 
were  more  or  less  severely  wounded.  The  sur 
vivors  were  imprisoned  in  the  guard-ship  at 
Havana.  Midshipman  Porter,  after  a  short  im 
prisonment,  was  allowed  to  go  to  Vera  Cruz,  and 
soon  after  (1828)  he  returned  to  the  United 
States.  It  is  a  singular  fact  that  the  nation  is 
indebted  to  Commodore  David  Porter  not  only 


PORTER 


658 


PORTER 


for  his  own  brilliant  career,  but  also  for  the  two 
most  distinguished  naval  officers  of  recent  years, 
as  both  Farragut  and  the  subject  of  this  sketch 
were  brought  up  under  the  personal  care  of  that 
officer,  and  under  his  command  fought  their  first 
battles. 

David  D.  Porter  was  appointed  midshipman 
in  the  U.  S.  navy  February  2,  1829.  He  served 
on  the  European  Station  until  1835. 

Many  amusing  stories  are  told  of  his  career  as 
a  midshipman,  although  the  commodore  of  the 
squadron  and  the  captain  of  his  ship  may  not 
have  fully  appreciated  them. 

In  1836  he  was  promoted  to  passed  midship 
man.  He  served  on  the  coast  survey  until  he 
was  promoted  to  lieutenant,  February,  1841. 
Served  at  sea  and  at  the  Naval  Observatory 
until  1846,  when  he  was  selected  by  the  Secre 
tary  of  State  to  go  on  a  secret  mission  to  Hayti 
to  report  upon  the  condition  of  affairs  ifflhat 
island.  This  he  did  in  a  very  thorough  manner. 

He  served  with  distinction  during  the  entire 
Mexican  war  as  first  lieutenant,  and  afterwards 
as  commanding  officer  of  the  steamer  u  Spitfire." 
He  was  engaged  in  every  action  on  the  coast. 
After  that  war  he  obtained  a  furlough  from  the 
Navy  Department,  and  for  some  years  com 
manded  steamers  on  important  passenger  lines. 
His  vessels  never  met  with  an  accident. 

The  Secretary  of  War  during  Mr.  Buchanan's 
administration  selected  him  for  the  duty  of  im 
porting  camels  into  this  country ;  84  were  brought 
over  in  the  U.  S.  ship  "  Supply."  The  breaking 
out  of  the  war  found  Porter  a  lieutenant  on  shore 
duty.  In  a  little  over  two  years  he  was  a  rear- 
admiral,  commanding  a  squadron.  As  a  lieuten 
ant  commanding  the  "  Powhatan,"  under  con 
fidential  orders  from  President  Lincoln,  he  as 
sisted  in  the  relief  of  Fort  Pickens.  Soon  after 
he  was  made  a  commander.  The  Department 
was  undecided  in  regard  to  the  officer  who  should 
command  the  expedition  against  New  Orleans. 
Some  foolish  doubts  had  been  expressed  as  to 
Farragut's  loyalty.  From  the  "Life  and  Let 
ters"  of  Admiral  Farragut  recently  published, 
we  learn  that  "  Commander  David  D.  Porter, 
who  had  been  taken  into  the  confidence  of  the 
Secretary,  was  sent  as  an  intermediary  to  ascer 
tain  whether  the  proposed  service  would  be  agree 
able.  The  result  was  that  Farragut  was  ordered 
to  report  in  person  at  the  seat  of  government," 
and  soon  after  received  his  preparatory  orders  to 
command  the  Western  Gulf  Blockading  Squad 
ron.  From  the  same  authority  it  appears  that 
the  Secretary  informed  Flag-Officer  Farragut 
that  "  there  will  be  attached  to  your  squadroVi  a 
fleet  of  bomb-vessels  and  armed  steamers  enough 
to  manage  them ;  all  under  command  of  Com 
mander  D.  D.  Porter,  who  will  be  directed  to 
report  to  you."  This  was  the  first  of  the  famous 
mortar  fleet  which  did  such  good  service. 

The  mortar  fleet,  consisting  of  21  mortar- 
schooners,  each  carrying  a  13-inch  mortar,  and 
5  steamers  as  convoys,  reached  the  mouth  of  the 
Mississippi  during  March,  1862.  Soon  after,  4 
of  the  vessels  of  Farragut's  fleet  arrived,  and 
preparations  were  made  Yor  the  attack  on  Forts 
Jackson  and  St.  Philip.  The  vessels  of  the  mor 
tar  fleet  were  towed  to  proper  range  near  the 
forts  on  the  18th  of  April,  and  for  six  days  and 
six  nights  fired  continuously  on  the  rebel  works, 
the  officers  and  men  being  divided  into  three 


watches.  Six  thousand  bombs  were  exploded  in 
the  forts,  and  the  fire  from  them  had  destroyed 
everything  combustible  in  the  works  ;  their  gar 
risons  had  become  so  demoralized  that  in  the 
judgment  of  the  flag-officer  the  passage  of  the 
fleet  was  practicable,  and  it  was  successfully  ac 
complished  during  the  night  and  early  morning 
of  April  24. 

Flag-Officer  Farragut  having  destroyed  the 
enemy's  fleet  of  15  vessels,  proceeded  to  New  Or 
leans,  which  place  he  reached  next  day.  The 
reduction  of  the  forts  was  left  to  Commander 
Porter.  They  surrendered  to  him  on  the  28th 
of  April,  after  one  day's  bombardment.  Com 
mander  Porter  zealously  assisted  Flag-Officer 
Farragut  in  all  his  operations  between  New  Or 
leans  and  Vicksburg,  and  at  the  latter  place 
bombarded  the  forts  very  effectively,  enabling 
the  fleet  to  pass  safely.  Admiral  Farragut,  in 
his  official  report  of  June  30,  1862,  says,  "The 
Mortar  Flotilla  have  never  done  better  service 
than  at  Vicksburg,  notwithstanding  the  imper 
fection  of  their  fuzes.  I  have  no  doubt  that  they 
did  the  forts  on  the  heights  great  damage,  and 
on  the  morning  of  the  attack  did  much  to  dis 
tract  the  fire  from  the  fleet."  In  July,  Porter 
was  ordered  with  most  of  his  mortar  fleet  to  Fort 
ress  Monroe,  but  as  there  was  no  chance  for  im 
mediate  service  at  that  point,  he  gave  up  the 
command  of  the  Mortar  Flotilla,  which  he  had 
made  famous,  and  was  soon  after  ordered  to  the 
command  of  the  Mississippi  Squadron,  .as  acting 
rear-admiral,  September,  1862.  He  improvised 
a  navy-yard  at  Mound  City,  and  the  small 
squadron  of  only  a  dozen  effective  vessels  was 
soon  increased  to  over  120,  fully  manned  and 
officered  by  1300  officers,  only  25  being  regular 
naval  officers.  The  vessels  were  river-boats  con 
verted  into  efficient  war-vessels,  by  covering 
them  with  light  armor  and  putting  heavy  guns 
on  them.  The  officers  were  chiefly  Western 
steamboat-men,  who,  under  Porter's  rigid  dis 
cipline,  soon  became  valuable  and  trustworthy 
officers.  In  January,  1863,  Admiral  Porter's 
fleet,  in  co-operation  with  Sherman's  army,  cap 
tured  Arkansas  Post,  a  very  formidable  fort  on 
the  Arkansas  River,  50  miles  from  its  mouth,  for 
which  Porter  received  a  vote  of  thanks.  Soon 
after  he  ran  past  the  batteries  at  Vicksburg  and 
succeeded  in  capturing  the  rebel  forts  at  Grand 
Gulf.  This  put  him  in  close  communication 
with  Gen.  Grant,  who,  on  the  18th  of  May,  by 
means  of  the  fleet,  put  himself  in  the  rear  of 
Vicksburg,  and  from  that  time  the  energies  of 
the  army  and  navy  were  devoted  to  the  capture 
of  that  stronghold,  which  was  finally  accom 
plished  July  4,  1863.  Porter  received  the  thanks 
of  Congress  and  was  commissioned  a  rear-admi 
ral  from  that  day. 

During  the  remainder  of  1863  the  squadron 
of  Rear- Admiral  Porter  was  busy  keeping  the 
Mississippi  River  open,  and  the  next  spring  he 
went  up  the  Red  River  to  co-operate  with  Gen. 
Banks,  but  the  military  part  of  the  expedition 
failed,  and  the  retreat  of  the  army  left  the  gun 
boats  in  a  bad  way,  being  above  the  rapids  after 
the  fall  of  the  river.  However,  the  energy  of 
Rear- Admiral  Porter,  and  the  skill  of  Lieut.-Col. 
Bailey,  an  old  river  engineer,  saved  the  fleet  by 
building  a  dam  below  the  rapids,  thus  sufficiently 
deepening  the  water  so  as  to  enable  the  gunboats 
to  pass  down  safely.  (11^  7i>l .  ,.,( 


POET-FIEE 


659 


POKTSMOUTH 


Admiral  Porter  now  possessed  the  entire  con 
fidence  of  the  Department  and  of  the  nation,  and 
was  ordered  to  the  command  of  the  North  At 
lantic  Blockading  Squadron,  which  embraced 
within  its  limits  Cape  Pear  River  and  the  port 
of  Wilmington. 

A  fleet  comprising  all  the  available  vessels  at 
the  disposal  of  the  Department  was  assembled 
at  Hampton  Koads.  In  December  it  sailed  for 
Beaufort,  N.  C.  On  December  24,  1864,  Rear- 
Admiral  Porter,  with  a  force  of  35  vessels,  5  of 
which  were  ironclads,  and  a  reserve  force  of  19 
vessels,  commenced  the  bombardment  of  the  forts 
at  the  mouth  of  Cape  Fear  River,  and  silenced 
them  in  an  hour  and  a  quarter. 

General  Butler,  who  commanded  the  military 
forces,  after  a  reconnoissance,  decided  that  Fort 
Fisher  could  not  be  carried  by  assault.  He  there 
fore  returned  with  his  command  to  Hampton 
Roads.  Admiral  Porter,  aware  of  the  necessity 
of  reducing  the  works  and  the  great  importance 
of  closing  the  port  of  Wilmington,  and  confident 
that  with  adequate  military  support  the  fort 
could  be  carried,  earnestly  requested  that  the 
enterprise  should  not  be  abandoned.  A  second 
military  force  was  promptly  detailed,  composed 
of  about  8500  men,  under  command  of  Major- 
Gen.  A.  H.  Terry.  This  force  arrived  off  Fort 
Fisher  on  the  13th  of  January.  Offensive  op 
erations  were  at  once  resumed  by  the  naval 
force,  while  the  troops  landed  and  intrenched 
themselves.  The  bombardment  was  continued 
throughout  the  14th  with  an  increased  number 
of  vessels.  The  15th  was  the  day  decided  upon 
for  the  assault.  During  the  morning  of  that 
day  44  vessels  poured  an  incessant  fire  into  the 
fort.  There  was  besides  a  force  of  14  vessels  in 
reserve.  At  3  P.M.  the  signal  for  the  assault  was 
made.  Desperate  fighting  ensued,  traverse  after 
traverse  was  taken,  and  by  10  P.M.  Fort  Fisher 
was  captured. 

Fourteen  hundred  sailors  and  500  marines  were 
landed  and  participated  in  the  direct  assault. 
Seventy-five  guns,  many  of  them  superb  rifle 
pieces,  and  1900  prisoners  were  the  immediate 
fruits  of  the  victory. 

Rear-Admiral  Porter  received  the  thanks  of 
Congress  for  the  Fort  Fisher  affair,  being  the 
fourth  vote  of  thanks  received  by  him  during 
the  war,  including  the  general  one  for  the  cap 
ture  of  New  Orleans. 

He  was  promoted  to  vice-admiral  in  July, 
1866,  and  was, ordered  as  superintendent  of  the 
Naval  Academy.  His  energy  and  ability  first 
brought  that  institution  into  prominence,  and  so 
changed  its  character  that  it  has  ever  since  been 
considered  the  best  naval  college  in  the  world. 

Upon  the  election  of  Gen.  Grant  to  the  Presi 
dency,  Yice-Admiral  Porter  was  detailed  for 
duty  in  the  Navy  Department  under  Secretary 
Borie.  But  upon  the  withdrawal  of  Mr.  Borie 
from  the  Cabinet,  he,  in  a  short  time,  also  with 
drew  from  the  Department.  In  August,  1870, 
he  was  promoted  to  admiral  of  the  navy,  and 
since  that  time  has  devoted  himself  to  his  duties 
as  senior  officer  of  the  navy. — R.  M.  G.  Brown, 
Lieutenant  U.S.N. 

Port-fire.  A  stick  of  highly  inflammable 
composition,  consisting  of  nitre,  sulphur,  and 
mealed  powder.  It  is  now  used  principally  for 
life-buoy  lights  on  account  of  its  ability  to  resist 
the  action  of  water.  In  early  days  it  was  used 


in  firing  gtms.  It  forms  good  material  for  in 
cendiary  shell. 

Portland,  the  commercial  metropolis  of  Maine, 
is  situated  in  Cumberland  County  (of  which  it 
is  the  county-seat),  on  Casco  Bay,  in  lat.  43° 
39'  27"  N.,  and  Ion.  70°  15'  40"  W.  The  pen 
insula  on  the  west  shore  of  Casco  Bay,  on  which 
the  city  is  located,  is  about  3  miles  in  length,  by 
an  average  breadth  of  three-quarters  of  a  mile. 
The  harbor  is  one  of  the  best  on  the  Atlantic 
coast,  is  well  protected,  of  sufficient  depth  to 
float  the  largest  ships,  and  is  open  all  the  year. 
It  is  defended  by  Forts  Preble,  Scammel,  and 
Gorges.  The  city  has  an  extensive  coastwise  and 
foreign  trade,  the  annual  value  of  the  exports 
being  about  $22,000,000,  and  the  imports 
$20,000,000.  There  are  2  dry-docks  and  other 
facilities  for  repairing  ships,  and  ship-building 
was  for  a  long  time  a  leading  pursuit.  Rail 
road-cars,  locomotives,  marine  and  other  en 
gines'  are  important  articles  of  manufacture. 
Pop.  37,000. 

Port  Royal.    See  NAVAL  STATION. 

Portsmouth,  a  seaport  town  and  the  principal 
naval  station  of  England,  is  situated  on  Port- 
sea  Island,  at  the  entrance  to  its  famous  harbor, 
in  lat.  50°  48'  N.,  and  Ion.  1°  16'  W.  This  town, 
inclosed  as  it  is  by  bastioned  ramparts,  faced  with 
masonry,  surrounded  by  trenches  and  outworks, 
is  the  most  perfect  fortress  in  Great  Britain.  The 
town  of  Portsea  is  separated  from  Portsmouth  by 
a  creek,  and  is  also  inclosed  by  a  line  of  fortifica 
tions.  Within  this  town  is  the  naval  dock-yard, 
containing  basins,  wet-  and  dry-docks,  large 
warehouses,  anchor -forges,  iron-  and  copper- 
mills,  rope-houses,  etc.  In  the  dock-yard  are 
also  the  royal  naval  college,  and  the  residence 
of  the  port-admiral.  Between  the  dock-yard 
and  Portsmouth  is  the  gun-wharf  or  arsenal, 
containing  an  armory,  and  artillery  and  am 
munition  depots.  The  harbor  is  large  enough 
to  hold  the  entire  navy  of  Great  Britain,  al 
though  at  its  entrance  it  is  only  220  yards  wide. 
Pop.  115,000.  See  ESTABLISHMENTS,  NAVAL, 
or  GREAT  BRITAIN. 

Portsmouth,  the  commercial  metropolis  and 
only  seaport  of  the  State  of  New  Hampshire,  is 
situated  on  a  beautiful  peninsula,  formed  by  the 
Piscataqua  River,  and  on  the  right  bank  of  that 
river,  about  3  miles  from  the  ocean.  The  harbor, 
which  lies  between  the  town  and  the  mouth  of 
the  river,  is  capacious,  deep,  easy  of  access,  and 
is  much  frequented  by  vessels  in  bad  weather. 
Sand-bars  or  ice  cannot  form  owing  to  the  rapid 
tides.  The  main  entrance  to  the  harbor,  between 
the  mainland  and  Great  Island,  is  defended  by 
earth-works  on  Gerrish's  Island  and  Jeffrey's 
Point,  and  farther  up  the  harbor  are  two  stone 
forts  (Constitution  and  McClary).  A  U.  S. 
navy-yard  is  located  here,  for  a  full  description 
of  which  see  NAVY- YARD,  PORTSMOUTH,  N.  H. 
The  leading  articles  of  manufacture  are  cotton, 
cloth,  hosiery,  shoes,  etc.  Pop.  10,000. 

Portsmouth,  Norfolk  Co.,  Va.,  is  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  Elizabeth  River,  nearly  opposite 
Norfolk.  The  river,  which  is  about  two-thirds 
of  a  mile  wide,  forms  a  good  harbor,  which 
admits  vessels  of  the  largest  size.  Large  steam 
boats  ply  daily  between  Baltimore  and  Ports 
mouth.  A  naval  hospital  is  located  here,  and 
in  the  adjacent  suburb  of  Gosport  the  navy- 
yard  commonly  known  as  the  Norfolk  Navy- 


PORTUGAL 


660 


POWDER 


Yard  is  situated.     (See  NAVY- YARD  (GOSPOBT), 
NORFOLK,  VA.)     Pop.  11,000. 

Portugal,  Navy  of.  Not  until  Columbus  had 
settled  the  question  of  the  rotundity  of  the  earth 
could  the  Portuguese  mariners  be  induced  to  sail 
as  far  as  the  equinoctial  line.  In  the  few  trips 
made  in  a  southerly  direction  they  had  encoun 
tered  water-spouts,  beheld  a  comet,  and  experi 
enced  a  degree  of  heat  which  alarmed  them  ex 
ceedingly, — the  more  ignorant  and  superstitious 
believing  they  were  approaching  the  region  of 
eternal  flames.  But  the  return  of  the  vessels 
which  had  carried  the  Genoese  explorer  to  San 
Salvador  reassured  the  sailors  of  Lusitania,  and 
raised  the  hopes  of  the  people  that  a  path  might 
be  found  to  India  in  an  easterly  direction.  Then 
it  was  that  John  II.  caused  ships  to  be  con 
structed  for  the  purpose  of  contending  with  the 
winds  and  the  waves  of  the  tropics,  and  Bartolo- 
mew  Diaz  was  selected  to  make  the  first  attempt. 
The  passage  along  the  west  coast  of  Africa  was 
tolerably  smooth,  but  off  the  southernmost  point 
the  opposition  of  the  winds  was  so  great  that  no 
other  name  could  be  found  for  the  locality  than 
Tormentoso.  The  point,  however,  was  settled 
that  Diaz  had  been  sent  to  determine.  He  had 
rounded  the  cape  at  the  southern  extremity  of 
the  African  continent,  and  thus  demonstrated 
that  there  was  a  clear  passage  to  India.  The 
Capo  de  buon  Esperanza  was  the  name  given  to 
the  cape,  and  Diaz  went  back  to  carry  tidings 
of  "golden  times  and  happy  news  of  price." 
Not  an  hour  was  lost  in  taking  advantage  of  the 
discovery.  Vasco  da  Gama  was  appointed  to 
proceed  to  India  with  three  ships  of  200,  120, 
and  100  tons  burden,  and  authority  to  open  a 
traffic  with  the  people  who  had  theretofore  sent 
their  produce  and  manufactures  to  Europe  only 
by  the  Red  Sea  and  Persian  Gulf,  or  to  war 
with  them  if  they  manifested  hostile  inclinations. 
Da  Gama's  voyage  to  the  west  coast  of  India  was  a 
success  in  every  way  ;  but  it  aroused  the  jealousy 
of  Holland  and  England,  and  justified  the  crea 
tion  of  a  small  navy  in  the  event  of  collision  with 
those  powers.  There  is  little  to  chronicle  of  the 
operations  of  the  Portuguese  navy  at  any  time, 
and  its  strength  at  the  present  day  consists  of  1 
armored  ship,  10  screw-corvettes,  9  gunboats,  1 
sailing-frigate,  1  sailing-corvette,  3  transports,  2 
tugs,  and  1  yacht.  The  ironclad  "  Vasco  da 
Gama,"  built  at  the  Thames  Iron  Ship-building 
Yard,  London,  and  launched  in  1876,  is  the 
most  important  vessel  of  this  navy ;  the  length 
of  the  vessel  between  perpendiculars  is  200  feet ; 
breadth,  40  feet ;  depth  of  hold,  25  feet ;  draft 
of  water  forward,  17  feet  6  inches  ;  aft,  19  feet; 
displacement,  2479  tons  ;  thickness  of  iron  on 
the  armored  belt  and  battery,  9  inches ;  thick 
ness  of  teak  backing,  10  inches.  The  motive 
machinery  consists  of  a  pair  of  vertical  com 
pound  engines  for  each  of  the  two  screw-pro 
pellers.  At  their  trial  they  developed  3625  horse 
power,  and  the  ship  realized  a  speed  of  13}  knots 
per  hour.  The  ship  is  fitted  with  a  ram,  and  her 
armament  consists  of  Krupp  breech-loading  rifles, 
—two  of  10}  inches  calibre  and  21  tons  weight, 
one  6  inches  calibre  and  4£  tons  weight,  and  two 
40-pounders.  The  "  Estephania"  is  the  largest 
of  the  corvettes,  but  is  an  old  vessel.  The  only 
modern  corvettes  are  the  "  Rainha  da  Portugal" 
and  the  "  Mindello,"  sister  ships,  170  feet  long, 
36  feet  beam,  having  single  screw-propellers, 


operated  by  compound  engines  of  900  indicated 
horse-power,  and  the  armament  of  each  consists 
of  two  4^-ton  and  six  40-pounder  Armstrong 
guns.  Two  of  the  gunboats, — the  "  Mandove"' 
and  "Bengo," — built  in  1879,  are  each  123  feet 
long,  24  feet  beam,  and  334  tons  displacement, 
and  are  armed  each  with  one  Armstrong  pivot- 
gun  and  two  20-pounders.  The  other  corvettes 
and  gunboats  are  of  old  date.  The  naval  arsenal 
is  located  at  Lisbon,  and  comprises  the  ship 
yard,  the  depots  of  arms  and  provisions,  the 
museum,  and  the  naval  school.  The  personnel 
is  comprised  as  follows  :  1  vice-admiral,  5  rear- 
admirals,  17  captains  of  line-of-battle  ships,  26 
captains  of  frigates,  32  lieutenant-captains,  57 
first-class  lieutenants,  78  second-class  lieuten 
ants,  7  engineers  of  marine  construction,  57  me 
chanicians,  22  surgeons,  38  paymasters,  and  an 
active  force  of  3950  enlisted  men,  including 
marines. 

Portuguese  Man-of-war.  A  beautiful  float 
ing  acalephan  of  the  tropical  seas  ;  the  Fhysalis 
pelagica.  See  PHYSALIA. 

Position.  The  position  of  a  ship  at  sea  is  de 
termined  generally  by  the  intersection  of  two 
right  lines.  These  lines  may  represent  latitude 
and  longitude,  two  lines  of  equal  altitude,  etc. 
When  in  sight  of  land  the  position  is  determined 
by  cross-bearings,  by  one  bearing  and  a  line  of 
equal  altitude,  by  any  line  and  the  depth  of 
water,  etc. 

Post-captain.     See  CAPTAIN. 

Pouches.  Wooden  bulk-heads  across  the  hold 
of  cargo-vessels,  to  prevent  grain  or  light  shingle 
from  shifting. 

Pound.  A  lagoon,  or  space  of  water,  sur 
rounded  by  reefs  and  shoals,  wherein  fish  are 
kept,  as  at  Bermuda. 

Pound-and-pint  Idler  (Eng.}.  A  sobriquet 
applied  to  the  purser. 

Pout.  A  sea-fish  of  the  cod  kind,  about  a  foot 
in  length  ;  called  also  the  whiting.  It  has  the 
power  of  inflating  a  membrane  which  covers  the 
eyes  and  neighboring  parts  of  the  head.  An 
American  fish  of  the  genus  Pimelodus  (P.  cat- 
tus)  ;  catfish  ;  horned  pout ;  bullhead. 

Powder  for  the  naval  service  is  classed  accord 
ing  to  the  size  and  shape  of  the  grain,  and  desig 
nated  as  follows:  hexagonal,  cubical,  mammoth, 
rifle,  cannon,  torpedo,  small-arm,  and  shell  pow 
der.  They  are  all,  as  a  rule,  made  of  the  same 
proportion  of  ingredients, — i.e.,  saltpetre  75,  char 
coal  15,  and  sulphur  10  parts.  Hexagonal  and 
cubical  powder  must  weigh  70  to  75  granules  to 
the  pound  ;  the  other  classes  are  sized  by  means 
of  sieves,  the  holes  in  which  vary  in  diameter 
from  1  to  .02  of  an  inch.  When  powder  is  stored 
on  shore,  it  is  put  up  in  barrels  marked  with 
maker's  name,  date  and  place  of  manufacture, 
initial  velocity,  density,  pressure,  kind,  lot,  and 
class.  When  stowed  on  board  ship,  it  is  put  up 
in  tanks,  marked  the  same  as  the  barrels  from 
which  the  powder  was  taken.  See  GUNPOWDER. 

POWDER-HOY.  An  ordnance-vessel  expressly 
fitted  to  convey  powder ;  it  invariably  carries  a 
red  distinguishing  flag,  and  warns  the  ship  for 
which  the  powder  is  intended  to  put  out  all  fires 
before  she  comes  alongside. 

POWDER-MAGAZINE.     See  MAGAZINE. 

POWDER-MONKEY.  The  boy  who  passed  car 
tridges  to  the  guns. 

POWDER-TANK.     A  rectangular  metallic  case, 


POWELL 


661 


PREBLE 


the  sides  and  bottom  being  of  sheet-copper  (tin- 
coated),  and  the  top  of  composition.  Powder- 
tanks  are  made  of  4  sizes,  though  the  200-pound 
tank  is  regarded  as  the  standard  size  for  service, 
the  others  being  issued  in  special  cases  only.  The 
calibre,  number,  and  weight  of  the  charges  are 
stenciled  upon  the  lid  end,  and  on  the  upper  side 
are  the  marks  corresponding  to  the  marks  on  the 
barrel  from  which  the  powder  was  taken.  In 
order  to  distinguish  more  readily  the  tanks  con 
taining  different  kinds  of  powder,  the  following 
manner  of  painting  the  lids  has  been  adopted: 

Service  charges. — Plain  white,  with  calibre  in 
red. 

Saluting  charges. — Half  red,  half  white. 

Torpedo  charges. — Ked  T  on  a  white  ground. 

Shell  charges. — lied  O  on  a  white  ground. 

Howitzer  charges. — Red  H  on  a  white  ground. 

Rifle  charges. — Red  R  on  a  white  ground. 

Shell-powder. — Red  S  on  a  white  ground. 

POWDER-VESSEL.  A  ship  used  as  a  floating 
magazine. 

Powell,  Levin  M.,  Rear-Admiral  U.S.N. 
Born  in  Virginia.  Appointed  midshipman, 
March  1,  1817;  served  as  midshipman  in  the 
Mediterranean,  China  Seas,  and  in  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico  and  West  Indies  for  the  suppression  of 
piracy. 

Commissioned  as  lieutenant,  April  28,  1826  ; 
served  in  the  Mediterranean,  West  Indies,  and 
Gulf  of  Mexico  ;  before  Charleston  in  the  sloop 
"  Natchez"  during  the  nullification  troubles  ;  on 
coast  of  France  pending  the  demand  for  payment 
of  the  French  indemnity,  1834-35;  in  the  West 
Indies  and  on  the  coast  of  Florida  on  the  outbreak 
of  the  Seminole  war, — commanding  several  ex 
peditions  against  the  hostile  Indians, — in  the  last 
of  these  was  wounded  in  a  fight  with  them  on  the 
head-waters  of  Jupiter  River,  in  January,  1837  ; 
received  the  thanks  of  the  Navy  Department  for 
these  services  in  Florida;  commanded  two  sur 
veying  expeditions  for  the  rectification  of  posi 
tions  and  soundings  of  the  eastern  coast  and 
harbors  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico ;  and  was  com 
missioned  commander,  while  on  this  duty,  June 
24,  1843 ;  appointed  assistant  inspector  of  ord 
nance,  October,  1843,  and  continued  on  ordnance 
duty  until  appointed  to  command  of  sloop  "  John 
Adams,"  which  sailed  for  Brazil,  July,  1849  ; 
served  in  her  on  the  coast  of  South  America  and 
on  the  coast  of  Africa  until  return,  in  December, 
1850;  from  1851  to  1854,  executive-officer  of  the 
navy-yard,  Washington ;  was  in  command  of  the 
flag-ship  "  Potomac,"  cruising  in  North  Atlantic 
and  West  Indies,  to  August,  1856. 

Promoted  to  captain,  September  14,  1855 ;  in 
spector  of  contract  steamers  in  1858,  and  ap 
pointed  captain  of  the  frigate  "  Potomac"  early 
in  1861,  and  sailed  for  Gulf  Squadron,  September 
of  the  same  year ;  was  retired  by  the  act  of 
December,  1861,  and  from  command  of  the 
"Potomac,"  June  30,  1862;  inspector  of  third 
light-house  district  from  November  7,  1862,  to 
October,  1866. 

Commissioned  as  commodore,  July  16,  1862. 

Commissioned  as  rear-admiral,  July  25,  1866, 
and  on  special  service  from  1867  to  1872.  Re 
tired  March  1,  1862. 

Power.  The  amount  of  work  that  can  be  done 
in  a  given  time ;  it  is  the  product  of  force,  motion, 
and  time.  Its  usual  unit  of  measure  is  one  horse 
power,  or  33,000  foot-pounds  per  minute. 


Pozzolana.  Volcanic  ashes,  used  in  cement, 
especially  if  required  under  water. 

Praecursorise.  Ancient  vessels  which  led  or 
preceded  the  fleets. 

Praedatoriae,  or  Praedaticse.  Long,  swift,  light 
ancient  pirates. 

Praesepe.  A  bright  spot  in  Cancer  which  is 
resolved  by  the  telescope  into  a  cluster  of  stars  ; 
it  is  called  also  the  manger,  and  sometimes  the 
beehive. 

Praia.  The  beach  or  strand  on  Portuguese 
coasts. 

Pram,  or  Praam.  A  lighter  used  in  Holland, 
and  the  ports  of  the  Baltic,  for  loading  and  un 
loading  merchant  ships.  Some  were  fitted  by 
the  French  with  heavy  guns,  for  defending  the 
smaller  ports. 

Pratique.  A  Mediterranean  term,  implying 
the  license  to  communicate  with  any  place  after 
having  performed  the  required  quarantine,  or 
upon  the  production  of  a  clean  bill  of  health. 

Prawn.  A  marine  crustacean  larger  than  a 
shrimp,  much  esteemed  as  an  article  of  food. 

Prayer-book.  A  small  hand-stone  used  to 
scrub  in  confined  spaces  where  a  large  holy-stone 
cannot  be  used.  See  HOLY-STONE. 

Preble,  Edward,  Commodore  U.S.N.  Born 
at  Falmouth  Neck,  the  site  of  the  present  city 
of  Portland,  Me.,  August  15,  1761  ;  died  in 
Portland,  August  25,  1807.  He  made  his  first 
cruise  in  a  privateer  in  1777-78,  and  in  1779  en 
tered  the  provincial  marine  of  Massachusetts  as 
a  midshipman.  He  was  serving  on  board  of  the 
"Protector"  at  the  time  of  the  action  between 
that  vessel  and  the  English  privateer  "  General 
Duff,"  and  greatly  distinguished  himself  in  that 
affair. 

Midshipman  Preble  was  shortly  afterward  cap 
tured  and  confined  on  board  the  prison-ship 
"Jersey,"  in  the  harbor  of  New  York.  On 
being  liberated  he  joined  the  Massachusetts  ves- 
sel-of-war  "  Winthrop,"  on  which  he  remained 
until  1782,  winning  new  honors  by  boarding 
with  14  men  an  armed  brig  off  Castine,  and  car 
rying  her  out  under  the  fire  of  an  English  bat 
tery.  After  peace  was  declared  he  entered  the 
merchant  service,  where  he  remained  for  15 
years. 

In  1799  he  was  commissioned  a  lieutenant  in 
the  U.  S.  navy,  and  ordered  to  command  the 
"Pickering,"  one  of  the  squadron  stationed  at 
the  Windward  Islands.  In  June,  1799,  he  was 
commissioned  as  captain  and  given  command  of 
the  "  Essex,"  in  which  he  convoyed  home  from 
Batavia  a  fleet  of  14  vessels. 

In  1803,  Capt.  Preble  was  ordered  to  command 
the  squadron  sent  against  Tripoli,  his  flag-ship 
being  the  "Constitution."  On  his  arrival  at 
Tangiers  in  October,  he  opened  and  successfully 
concluded  negotiations  which  averted  a  war 
with  Morocco.  On  November  12  he  declared  the 
blockade  of  Tripoli.  The  "  Philadelphia,"  38, 
Capt.  Bainbridge,  having  run  upon  the  rocks, 
was  captured  by  the  Tripolitans,  but  was  de 
stroyed  at  her  anchorage  in  the  harbor  by  Lieut. 
Decatur,  on  February  16,  1804.  (See  DECATUR, 
STEPHEN.)  On  August  3,  his  command  then 
consisting  of  15  vessels,  including  8  small  gun 
boats  borrowed  from  the  Neapolitan  government, 
Preble  made  his  first  attack  upon  the  enemy's 
gunboats,  protected  by  batteries  on  shore.  He 
captured  3  of  the  largest  by  boarding,  and  sunk 


PKEBLE 


662 


PKEBLE 


3  others.  On  the  7th  he  made  a  second  attack, 
but  with  less  success,  the  enemy  keeping  close 
within  the  harbor.  One  of  Treble's  gunboats 
was  sunk.  Another  attack  was  made  on  the 
28th,  in  which  one  of  the  Tripolitan  gunboats 
was  sunk  and  several  driven  ashore.  Preble's 
flag-ship  was  closely  engaged  with  the  enemy's 
batteries,  and  for  an  hour  lay  within  musket-shot 
of  the  mole.  On  September  3  the  fourth  attack 
was  made,  during  which  the  "  Constitution"  was 
badly  cut  up,  but  Preble  did  not  withdraw  until 
he  had  inflicted  great  damage  upon  the  enemy's 
batteries. 

The  "  Intrepid,"  a  ketch  .captured  from  the 
enemy,  which  Lieut.  Decatur  had  used  in  de 
stroying  the  "Philadelphia,"  was  converted 
into"  a  fire-ship,  carrying  100  barrels  of  gun 
powder  in  bulk  in  the  hold,  and  on  the  deck  im 
mediately  above  the  powder  were  laid  fifty  13J- 
inch  shells  and  one  hundred  9-inch  shells,  with 
a  large  quantity  of  shot  and  fragments  of  iron  of 
different  sorts.  Capt.  Somers  volunteered  to  take 
command  of  the  "Intrepid,"  and  Lieut.  Wads- 
worth  volunteered  to  serve  with  him.  Commodore 
Preble  personally  superintended  all  the  details 
of  preparing  this  "powder-boat,"  and  the  night 
of  September  4,  that  of  the  day  which  succeeded 
the  attack  last  related,  was  selected  for  the  pur 
pose.  When  all  was  ready  the  "Intrepid"  got 
under  way  and  stood  in  towards  the  western 
passage,  by  which  she  was  to  enter.  The  last 
seen  of  her  she  was  not  a  musket-shot  from 
the  mole,  standing  directly  for  the  harbor,  which 
a  very  few  minutes  afterwards  was  illuminated 
by  a  fierce  light,  followed  by  a  concussion  that 
shook  the  vessels  in  the  offing  from  trucks  to 
keels.  A  shot  from  the  enemy's  batteries  had 
struck  the  kedge,  and  caused  her  premature 
explosion.  None  on  board  of  her  escaped,  and 
with  them  perished  the  boats'  crews  from  the 
"  Constitution"  and  "  Nautilus,"  that  had  been 
towed  in  to  bring  out  the  crew  of  the  kedge 
after  they  had  fired  their  vessels.  The  "In 
trepid"  perished  a  quarter  of  a  mile  from  the 
spot  she  was  intended  to  reach. 

On  the  10th  of  September  Commodore  Barren, 
in  the  "  President,"  arrived  at  Tripoli  and  re 
lieved  Commodore  Preble,  who  soon  afterwards 
sailed  in  the  "John  Adams"  for  home.  On  his 
arrival  he  received  a  gold  medal  and  a  vote  of 
thanks  from  Congress. 

Preble,  George  Henry,  Rear-Admiral  U.S.N. 
Born  in  Portland,  Me.,  and  appointed  a  mid 
shipman  from  that  State,  October  10,  1835 ;  frig 
ate  "  United  States,"  Mediterranean,  May,  1836, 
to  November,  1838;  sloop  "Warren,"  frigate 
"  Macedonian,"  sloop  "  Levant,"  and  sloop 
"  Erie,"  West  Indies,  January,  1839,  until  Sep 
tember,  1840;  Naval  School,  at  Philadelphia, 
January  to  June,  1841,  when  he  was  warranted 
passed  midshipman,  No.  7,  in  a  class  of  24  ;  was 
acting  lieutenant  of  schooner  "  Madison"  and 
brigantine  "Jefferson,"  on  the  Florida  Expedi 
tion,  from  August,  1841,  to  August,  1842;  went 
on  several  canoe  expeditions  into  the  everglades, 
and  returned  with  the  expedition  sick ;  in  re 
ceiving-ship  "  Ohio,"  at  Boston,  from  October, 
1842,  to  May,  1848  ;  acting  master  and  acting 
lieutenant  in  sloop  "  St.  Louis,"  East  Indies, 
and  circumnavigating  the  world,  May,  1843,  to 
September,  1845 ;  had  charge  of  first  American 
armed  force  ever  landed  in  China,  for  the  pro 


tection  of  American  consulate  and  residents  of 
Canton,  June  and  July,  1844  ;  acting  master  and 
executive  of  schooner  "Petrel,"  in  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico,  May,  1846,  to  May,  1847 ;  participated 
in  surrender  of  Alvarado,  Laguna,  Tampico,  and 
Panuco,  and  assisted  at  siege,  etc.,  of  Vera  Cruz  ; 
returned  to  United  States  in  ship-of-the-line 
"  Ohio,"  sick,  May  31. 

Warranted  as  master,  July  15,  1847. 

Commissioned  as  lieutenant,  February  5, 1848  ; 
'returned  to  the  Gulf  in  sloop  "Saratoga,"  Feb 
ruary,  1848,  and  came  home  sick,  March,  1849 ; 
executive-officer  of  steamer  "  Legree,"  coast  sur 
vey,  April,  1849,  to  January,  1851 ;  from  Janu 
ary  to  August,  1851,  in  frigate  "St.  Law 
rence,"  which  conveyed  American  contributors 
to  World's  Fair,  at  London,  and  then  conveyed 
our  minister  to  Lisbon ;  commanding  schooner 
"  Gallatin,"  etc.,  coast  survey,  August,  1851,  to 
December,  1852;  December,  1852,  to  March, 
1853,  attached  to  the  "  Vermont,"  74  ;  on  Japan 
Expedition  and  in  China  waters,  from  April,  1853, 
to  August,  1856,  in  "  Macedonian,"  and  com 
manding  chartered  steamer  "Queen";  assisted 
in  the  surveys  of  Jeddo  and  Hakodadi  Bays  ;  and 
also  surveyed  the  harbor  of  Kealung,  island  of 
Formosa,  his  chart  of  which  is  published  in  the 
official  report  of  the  expedition  ;  was  on  several 
successful  expeditions  against  pirates  in  China, 
and  received  the  thanks  of  Commodore  Abbot 
and  of  the  English  admiral,  Sir  James  Stirling, 
for  the  part  taken  by  him  in  the  one  to  Kulan  ; 
commanded  an  expedition  to  Foo-chow-foo,  in 
the  American  steamer  "  Confucius,"  destroying 
several  pirate  junks;  prepared  sailing  direc 
tions  for  Shanghai,  which  were  published  by 
the  English  and  U.  S.  governments,  and  in  sev 
eral  private  editions ;  was  light-house  inspector 
of  first  district  (coast  of  Maine  and  New  Hamp 
shire)  from  September,  1856,  to  October,  1857; 
at  navy-yard,  Charlestown,  Mass.,  October,  1857, 
to  September,  1859  ;  executive-officer  of  steam- 
sloop  "  Narragansett,"  Pacific  Squadron,  Sep 
tember,  1859,  until  November,  1861,  and  ordered 
home  at  his  own  request  to  serve  on  the  Atlantic 
coast;  in  January,  1862,  took  command  of  the 
steam-gunboat  "Katahdin,"  equipping  at  Bos 
ton,  and,  March  29,  reported  to  Admiral  Farra- 
gut,  West  Gulf  Squadron  ;  passed  the  forts  with 
the  fleet,  April  24,  1862,  engaged  the  enemy's 
fleet,  and  was  at  the  attack  upon  the  lower  de 
fenses  and  at  the  surrender  of  New  Orleans  ;  par 
ticipated  in  all  of  Farragut's  operations  on  the 
river  that  year,  as  far  as  Vicksburg,  assisting  in 
destroying  Grand  Gulf;  August  4,  1862,  was 
transferred  to  the  command  of  the  steam-sloop 
"  Oneida"  ;  while  steaming  up  the  river  above 
New  Orleans,  at  night,  August  8,  the  "  Oneida" 
was  purposely  run  into  by  the  steamboat  "  Lewis 
T.  Whitman,"  and  although  every  effort  was 
made  to  save  her  crew  and  passengers  (70  of 
whom  were  saved),  many  lives  were  lost.  Her 
rebel  captain  was  sent  to  New  Orleans  in  irons, 
and  after  his  release  served  upon  the  steam-tug 
"  Boston,"  and  conveyed  her  to  the  rebels  a-t 
Mobile. 

Commissioned  as  commander,  July  16,  1862 ; 
on  the  blockade  off  Mobile,  August  25  to  Octo 
ber,  1862 ;  on  August  29  he  was  left  senior  offi 
cer  present,  four  vessels  out  of  seven  of  our  usual 
blockading  force  having  left  for  coal  and  repairs  ; 
on  September  4,  about  6  P.M.  a  steamer  flying 


FEEBLE 


663 


PREPARING  FOR  SEA 


English  colors,  and  having  every  appearance  of 
one  of  her  Britannic  majesty's  gunboats,  ap 
proached  the  bar,  and  was  met  by  our  vessels 
under  way  ;  the  "  Oneida"  fired  three  shots  across 
the  stranger's  bow,  the  last  at  her  fore-foot,  with 
out  bringing  her  to  ;  and  then,  within  three  min 
utes  of  the  "first  gun,  fired  a  broadside  into  her, 
and  continued  the  chase,  with  the  other  vessels, 
until  she,  from  her  superior  speed,  was  enabled 
to  run  in  over  the  southeast  shoals  under  cover 
of  Fort  Morgan's  guns.  This  steamer  proved  to 
be  the  rebel  cruiser  "  Oreto,"  afterwards  called 
the  "  Florida."  Her  commander  subsequently 
wrote  as  follows : 

"  I  can  vouch  for  his  (Preble's)  promptness 
and  destructive  energy  on  the  occasion  of  my  en 
tering  Mobile  Bay.  The  superior  speed  of  the 
'  Florida'  alone  saved  her  from  destruction, 
though  not  from  a  frightful  mauling.  We  were 
torn  to  pieces, — one  man's  head  taken  off,  and 
11  wounded  ;  boats,  standing-  and  running-rig 
ging  shot  away,  also  foregaff.  Four  shells  struck 
our  hull,  and  had  the  one  (11-inch)  that  grazed 
our  boiler  and  entered  the  berth-deck  (killing  one 
and  wounding  two)  exploded,  every  man  belong 
ing  to  the  steamer  would  have  been  killed,  as  I  had 
only  the  officers  on  deck,  Until  about  to  cross  the 
bar,  when  I  made  some  sail,  and  one  man  was 
wounded  in  the  rigging  ;  we  had  about  1400 
shrapnel-shot  (balls)  in  our  hull,  and  our  masts 
were  pitted  like  a  case  of  smallpox.  The  dam 
age  done  her  was  so  great  that  we  did  not  get  to 
sea  again  for  over  three  months.'' 

For  not  preventing  the  "  Oreto's"  running  the 
blockade,  Commander  Preble  was  summarily  dis 
missed  from  the  naval  service,  by  order  of  Sep 
tember  20,  1862,  but  was  nominated  to  the  Sen 
ate  by  the  President,  and  on  recommendation  of 
the  Naval  Committee  was,  on  February  21,  1863, 
confirmed  and  restored  to  his  proper  rank  and 
position  as  a  commander,  the  injustice  of  his 
summary  dismissal  being  generally  admitted. 
April  9,  1863,  agreeably  to  orders  from  the  Navy 
Department,  proceeded  via  England  to  Lisbon, 
and  June  3  took  command  of  the  sailing-sloop 
"St.  Louis"  at  the  latter  port,  and  ordered  to 
cruise  for  rebel  corsairs  between  Lisbon,  the 
Azores,  Canary  Islands,  and  Gibraltar.  Though 
requesting  more  active  duty,  and  command  of  a 
steamer  on  the  coast,  he  was  in  command  of  the 
"St.  Louis,"  cruising  within  those  limits,  until 
ordered  to  Port  Royal,  S.  C.,  September  3,  1864, 
once  falling  in  with  his  old  foe,  the  "  Florida,"  at 
Madeira,  and  preventing  her  from  getting  a  full 
supply  of  coal,  but  not  able  to  prevent  her  from 
running  out  in  a  calm.  He  gave  chase  as  soon 
as  he  got  wind,  but  of  course  did  not  catch  her. 

Reported  to  the  admiral  November  2,  1864 ; 
took  charge  of  the  coal  depot,  and  blockaded  in 
the  North  Edisto  until  November  24,  when  he 
was  ordered  to  command  the  fleet  brigade  then 
organized  by  Admiral  Dahlgren  at  Port  Royal, 
to  co-operate  with  an  army  force  designed 
to  assist  Gen.  Sherman's  approach  to  the  coast ; 
this  brigade,  consisting  of  naval  artillery,  sailor 
infantry,  and  a  marine  battalion,  493  all  told, 
joined  an  army  force  under  Gen.  J.  P.  Hatch 
at  Boyd's  Neck,  and  on  November  30,  1864, 
engaged  in  the  severe  battle  of  Honey  Hill ;  it 
also  took  part  in  the  actions  of  the  6th,  7th,  and 
9th  of  December  on  De  Vaux's  Neck,  and  was 
daily  under  fire  until  withdrawn  on  December 


28  ;  the  general  orders  and  written  commenda 
tions  of  Rear-Admiral  Dahlgren  and  Gens.  Fos 
ter,  Hatch,  and  Porter,  were  gratifying  to  all 
connected  with  the  brigade  (see  Secretary  of 
Navy's  Report,  1865);  April  4,  transferred  to  the 
command  of  the  steamer  "  State  of  Georgia,"  and 
proceeded  to  Aspinwall  to  look  after  American 
interests;  his  vessel  and  the  "  Huntsville"  res 
cued  600  or  700  passengers  from  the  wrecked 
steamship  "Golden  Rule,"  near  Aspinwall ;  in 
acknowledgment  of  this  service  he  received  the 
thanks  of  the  rescued  people,  transmitted  through 
the  Navy  Department;  the  "State  of  Georgia" 
returned  to  New  York,  and  went  out  of  commis 
sion  September  11,  1865.  At  Boston  Navy- Yard 
as  general  inspector  of  supplies,  from  October  14, 
1865,  to  July  5,  1867,  and  continued  as  equip 
ment-officer  until  July,  1868;  chief-of-staff, 
North  Pacific  Squadron,  from  August,  1868, 
until  December  19 ;  commanding  the  flag-ship 
"Pensacola,"  1868-70. 

Commissioned  as  captain,  March  16,  1867,  to 
take  rank  from  January  29,  1867  ;  commanding 
naval  rendezvous,  Boston,  1871-72. 

Commissioned  as  commodore,  November  2, 
1871  ;  commanding  navy-yard,  Philadelphia, 
1873-75;  special  duty,  1876. 

Commissioned  as  rear-admiral,  September  30, 
1876  ;  commanding  South  Pacific  Station,  1877- 
78.  Retired  February  25,  1878. 

Precession  of  the  Equinoxes.  The  equinoctial 
points  have  a  backward  movement  along  the 
ecliptic  of  about  60X/  annually,  caused  by  the 
unequal  attraction  of  the  sun  and  moon  on  the 
equatorial  belt.  The  number  of  seconds  in  the  zo 
diac  divided  by  the  annual  motion  of  the  equinox 
gives  the  time  in  which  it  will  make  the  entire 
circuit  of  the  ecliptic ;  it  is  about  25,870  years. 
From  a  similar  computation  it  is  supposed  that 
the  zodiac  was  divided  into  signs  about  2500  B.C. 
See  EQUINOXES,  ZODIAC. 

Preparing  for  Sea.  The  performance  of  certain 
duties  previous  to  leaving  port,  by  which  the 
vessel  will  be  rendered  efficient,  and  additional 
security  given  to  the  equipment  and  outfit. 

These  duties  are  connected  with  all  of  the 
different  departments  of  the  vessel.  The  prep 
arations  to  be  made  may  vary  under  different 
circumstances,  but  the  following  requirements 
should  be  generally  observed. 

Provisions  in  sufficient  quantity  should  be  on 
board  and  properly  stowed.  Fill  water-tanks 
and  casks  with  fresh  water,  unless  that  is  to  be 
done  by  distillation  after  leaving  port.  If  a 
steam-vessel,  have  a  sufficient  supply  of  coal  on 
board,  have  fires  ready  for  lighting,  and  hoist 
the  smoke-stack. 

The  battery  must  be  secured  for  sea  with  extra 
tackles  and  lashings,  the  muzzle-bags  put  on  and 
the  ports  closed.  Bend  sails  and  all  sail-gear, 
take  off  sail-covers,  and  have  everything  in  read 
iness  for  making  or  shortening  sail. 

Put  on  chafing-gear.  Cross  light  yards,  or 
place  them  in  the  rigging  ready  for  sending  aloft. 
Send  up  rolling  and  pendent  tackles,  if  required, 
and  have  storm-sails  and  their  gear  easy  of  access. 
Hoist  all  boats  and  secure  them.  Life-boats  must 
be  kept  in  readiness  for  lowering  at  a  moment's 
notice. 

Take  in  accommodation-ladders.  Secure  lower 
booms  alongside,  unhooking  the  topping-lifts 
and  stopping  them  on  the  fore-yard.  Top  the 


PRESS-GANG- 


664 


PRICE 


'  spanker-boom  up  clear  of  the  crotch,  and  see  that 
the  life-buoys  are  in  order. 

Hand  lead-lines  must  be  placed  in  the  chains, 
and  the  deep-sea  lead  and  line  should  be  ready 
for  use.  Log-lines  and  time-glasses  should  be 
measured  and  compared  to  insure  their  correct 
ness,  and  the  wheel-ropes  and  tiller  examined, 
that  they  may  be  in  working  order. 

Loose  articles  on  all  the  decks  should  be 
securely  lashed.  Close  lower-deck  air-ports,  and, 
previous  to  getting  under  way,  take  the  vessel's 
draft. 

Preparations  must  also  be  made  for  getting 
under  way.  Reeve  the  cat-  and  fish-falls,  bring 
the  chain  to,  and  rig  the  capstan. 

In  all  ports  where  quarantine  regulations  are 
enforced,  care  must  be  taken  to  have  a  bill  of 
health,  certified  by  the  proper  authority. — E.  T. 
Strong,  Lieutenant  U.S.N. 

Press-gang  (Eng.).  A  party  of  seamen  who 
(under  the  command  of  a  lieutenant)  were  for 
merly  empowered,  in  time  of  war,  to  take  sea 
faring  men — on  shore  or  afloat — and  compel  them 
to  serve  on  board  men-of-war.  Those  who  were 
thus  taken  were  called  pressed  men.  See  IM 
PRESSMENT. 

Press  of  Sail.  As  much  sail  as  the  state  of 
the  wind  and  sea  will  permit  a  ship  to  carry. 

Pressure-gauge.  An  apparatus  to  indicate 
the  pressure  of  fluids ;  there  are  many  different 
kinds,  and  they  may  be  divided  into  two  prin 
cipal  classes :  first,  those  which  act  by  the  effect 
of  pressure  (either  direct,  or  transmitted  by  pis 
tons,  or  elastic  diaphragms)  on  a  column  of  mer 
cury  ;  and,  second,  those  which  depend  for  their 
action  upon  the  elasticity  of  metals,  in  which 
the  pressure  acts  against  a  corrugated  plate, 
within  a  corrugated  box,  in  resisting  a  spiral 
spring,  or  in  tending  to  straighten  a  bent  tube, 
the  cross-section  of  which  is  usually  elliptical, 
but  may  be  any  form  except  circular. 

Preston,  Samuel  N.,  and  Porter,  Benjamin 
H.,  Lieutenants  U.S.N.  Samuel  N.  Preston 
was  appointed  to  the  Naval  Academy  from  the 
State  of  Illinois  in  October,  1858.  Being  a  dil 
igent  student,  he  always  stood  foremost"  in  his 
studies,  and,  graduating  first  in  his  class,  he 
was  on  the  9th  of  May,  1861,  detached  and  as 
signed  to  duty  on  board  of  the  U.  S.  S.  "  Wa- 
bash,"  in  the  South  Atlantic  Blockading  Squad 
ron,  being  on  the  1st  of  August,  1862,  promoted 
to  the  grade  of  lieutenant,  and  ordered  to  duty 
as  flag-lieutenant  on  the  staff"  of  Rear- Admiral 
Dahlgren. 

He  participated  with  distinction  in  the  com 
bined  army  and  navy  attacks  on  Fort  Wagner, 
July  10  and  11,  1863,  being  complimented  highly 
by  the  admiral  for  his  gallant  conduct. 

He  commanded  the  third  division  of  the  as- 
saulting-party  in  the  attempt  on  Fort  Sumter, 
September  8,  1863,  which  was  repulsed  with 
great  slaughter,  and  he,  with  many  other  offi 
cers, — among  them  his  friend  Benjamin  H. 
Porter, — was  taken  prisoner  and  afterwards  con 
fined  in  Libby  Prison,  where  he  remained  until 
exchanged,  in  the  fall  of  1864. 

Benjamin  H.  Porter  was  appointed  to  the 
Naval  Academy  from  the  State  of  New  York 
on  November  29,  1859,  and  remained  a  student 
there  until  November  8,  1862,  when  he  was 
commissioned  ensign  and  ordered  to  duty  in  the 
South  Atlantic  Blockading  Squadron,  serving  in 


turn  with  great  credit  on  board  of  the  U.  S.  S. 
" Ellis,"  "  Canandaigua,"  and  "New  Ironsides," 
displaying  on  numerous  occasions  such  energy, 
courage,  and  ability  in  the  discharge  of  his  du 
ties  as  to  win  the  admiration  of  his  commanding 
officers  and  compliments  from  the  admiral  in  his 
communications  to  the  Department. 

In  the  attack  on  Fort  Sumter  on  the  8th  of 
September,  1863,  he  was  among  those  who  were 
taken  prisoners,  remaining  in  Libby  Prison  until 
released  and  exchanged,  in  the  fall  of  1864. 

Both  of  these  gallant  young  officers,  as  soon 
as  they  were  free,  applied  for  immediate  active 
duty,  and  in  December,  1864,  were  assigned  to 
duty  under  Rear- Admiral  David  D.  Porter ; 
Lieut.  Preston  being  made  his  flag-lieutenant, 
and  Lieut.  Porter  being  given  the  command  of 
the  flag-ship  "  Malvern."  They  were  present 
in  the  bombardments  of  Fort  Fisher  on  the  24th 
and  25th  of  December,  1864,  and  in  the  land  at 
tack  on  that  fort  made  by  the  sailors  from  the 
fleet  both  were  assigned  to  dut}'  of  great  respon 
sibility,  and  fell  nobly  at  the  head  of  their  men 
in  the  gallant  discharge  of  that  duty. 

Side  by  side  these  young  officers  went  through 
their  careers.  Together  they  were  students  at 
the  Naval  Academy ;  they  served  in  the  same 
squadron,  were  fellow-prisoners  amid  the  hor 
rors  of  Libby  Prison,  and  together  they  fell  glo 
riously  at  Fort  Fisher, — fine  types  of  able,  zeal 
ous,  and  brave  officers. 

A  fitting  tribute  was  paid  them  by  Fleet-Capt. 
K.  R.  Breese,  who,  in  reporting  their  loss,  says : 

"  Preston,  after  accomplishing  most  splendidly 
the  work  assigned  him  by  you,  which  was  both 
dangerous  and  laborious,  under  constant  fire, 
came  to  me  as  my  aid  for  orders,  showing  no 
flagging  of  spirit  or  body,  and  returning  from 
the  rear,  whither  he  had  been  sent,  fell  among 
the  foremost  at  the  front,  as  he  had  lived,  the 
embodiment  of  a  United  States  naval  officer. 
Porter,  conspicuous  by  his  figure  and  uniform, 
as  well  as  by  his  great  gallantry,  claimed  the 
right  to  lead  the  headmost  column  with  the 
'Malvern's'  men  he  had  taken  with  him,  car 
rying  your  flag,  fell  at  its  very  head. 

"  Two  more  noble  spirits  the  world  never  saw, 
nor  had  the  navy  two  more  intrepid  men.  Young, 
talented,  and  handsome,  the  bravest  of  the  brave, 
pure  in  their  lives,  surely  their  names  deserve 
something  more  than  a  passing  mention,  and 
all  worthy  to  be  handed  down  to  posterity  with 
the  greatest  and  best  of  naval  heroes." — F.  P.  B. 
Sands. 

Preventer.  A  term  applied  to  ropes,  etc., 
when  used  as  additional  securities  to  aid  other 
ropes  in  supporting  spars,  etc.,  during  a  strong 
gale  ;  as  preventer-backstays,  braces,  etc. 

PREVENTER-BOLTS.  Bolts  passing  through 
the  lower  end  of  the  preventer-plates. 

PREVENTER-PLATES.  Short  plates  of  iron 
bolted  to  the  lower  part  of  the  chain-plates  to 
help  take  the  strain. 

Price,  Cicero,  Commodore  U.S.N.  Born  in 
Kentucky.  Appointed  midshipman  from  that 
State,  February  1,  1826;  frigate  "  Macedonian," 
Brazil,  1826-28;  sloops  "Erie"  and  "Shark," 
West  Indies,  1829-31. 

Promoted  to  passed  midshipman,  April  28, 
1832;  brig  "Boxer,"  1834-37,  and  "North 
Carolina,"  1837-38,  Pacific  Squadron. 

Commissioned    as    lieutenant,    September    6, 


PRICKER 


665 


PRIVATEER 


1837;  steamer  "Fulton,"  Atlantic  coast,  1840; 
in  "Delaware,"  74,  Brazil  and  Mediterranean, 
1841-43  and  part  of  1844  ;  receiving-ship  at  New 
York,  1845;  sloop  "Marion,"  coast  of  Africa, 
1848;  sloop  "Marion,"  Mediterranean,  1848- 
49 ;  navy-yard,  Memphis,  1850 ;  Pacific  Squad 
ron,  1851;  ordnance  duty,  1853;  receiving-ship 
at  Norfolk,  1854. 

Commissioned  as  commander,  September  14, 
1855;  first  lieutenant  of  sloop  "Constellation," 
Mediterranean,  1855-56  ;  commanding  "  Hunts- 
ville,"  1861. 

Commissioned  as  captain,  July  16,  1862;  com 
manding  sloop  "Jamestown,"  East  Indies,  1862 
-65. 

Commissioned  as  commodore,  September  28, 
1866.  Total  sea  service,  21  years  and  1  month  ; 
shore  or  other  duty,  6  years  and  1  month.  Re 
tired  December  2,  1867. 

Pricker.  A  small  fid  or  marling-spike  for 
making  and  stretching  the  holes  for  points  and 
robans  in  sails. 

Pricking  a  Sail.  Middle-stitching  the  seams 
of  old  sails,  or  of  storm-sails. 

Pride  of  the  Morning.  A  misty  dew  at  sun 
rise  ;  a  light  shower ;  the  end  of  the  land  breeze 
followed  by  a  dead  calm  in  the  tropics. 

Primary  Planet.     See  PLANET. 

Prime.  To  carry  water  with  the  steam  from 
the  boiler  to  the  cylinder  of  a  steam-engine; 
caused  by  insufficient  steam  room  in  the  boiler, 
resulting  in  the  pressure  being  reduced  below 
that  due  to  the  temperature,  by  dirty  feed- water, 
and  by  running  from  salt  water  into  fresh,  which 
boils  at  a  lower  temperature. 

To  get  a  gun  ready  for  firing  by  pricking  the 
cartridge  and  inserting  the  primer.  In  firing 
salutes,  the  vent  is  sometimes  partly  filled  with 
loose  powder  to  insure  instantaneous  ignition. 
To  prime  a  fire-ship,  to  lay  the  train  to  set  it  011 
fire. 

PRIMER.  Percussion-  and  friction-primers  are 
generally  in  use,  though  electric  primers  maybe 
used  in  special  cases.  The  percussion-primer 
consists  of  a  quill  tube  filled  with  grained  pow 
der,  and  surmounted  by  a  wafer-head  containing 
a  detonating  composition  of  fulminating  mercury 
and  mealed  powder.  The  lower  end  of  the  tube 
is  closed  by  dipping  it  in  black  varnish,  and  the 
whole  is  coated  with  shellac.  The  friction-primer 
is  a  brass  tube  1.5  inches  in  length* and  .19  inch 
in  diameter,  filled  with  fine-grained  powder,  and 
having  near  the  head  a  small  spur  .44  inch  long 
and  .15  inch  in  diameter.  In  this  spur  is  a  brass 
wire,  the  inner  end  being  flattened  and  having 
serrated  edges.  The  composition  in  the  spur  is 
composed  of  two  parts  of  sulphuret  of  antimony 
and  one  part  of  chlorate  of  potassa.  The  outer 
end  of  the  wire  is  formed  into  a  loop,  into  which 
the  lock-string  hooks.  A  longer  tube  is  fur 
nished  for  firing  guns  with  very  thick  walls. 
The  quill  friction-primer  consists*  of  two  quills, 
one  within  the  other,  the  lower  end  being  filled 
with  fine-grained  powder,  and  the  upper  with  a 
sensitive  composition  composed  of  55  parts  of 
antimony  trisulphide,  37  parts  of  potassium 
chlorate,  5  parts  of  flowers  of  sulphur,  and  3 
parts  of  gum  arabic.  In  the  composition  are 
imbedded  wires,  which,  upon  being  hauled  out, 
cause  the  ignition.  Electric  primers  are  some 
times  used  in  firing  salutes,  and  may  be  used  in 
firing  in  a  seaway,  the  rolling  of  the  ship  closing 


the  circuit  when  the  deck  forms  a  certain  angle 
with  the  horizon.  This  automatic  firing  is,  as 
yet,  but  a  matter  of  experiment. 

PRIMING-WIRE.  A  wire  used  in  pricking  the 
cartridge  when  it  is  home. 

Prime  Vertical.  That  vertical  circle  which 
passes  through  the  east  and  west  points  of  the 
horizon.  Its  poles  are  therefore  the  north  and 
south  points,  and  its  plane  is  perpendicular  not 
only  to  that  of  the  horizon,  but  also  to  that  of 
the  meridian. 

Primitive  Plane  (Lat.  primitivus,  the  first  of  a 
system).  In  projections  the  primitive  plane  is 
that  on  which  the  surface  to  be  represented  is 
delineated. 

Prise.  To  raise,  or  slue,  weighty  bodies  by 
means  of  a  lever-purchase  or  power. 

Prismatic  Compass.  A  compass  so  fitted 
that,  when  a  bearing  is  observed  with  it,  the 
graduation  of  the  card  is  read  off  by  reflection 
from  the  interior  surface  of  a  prism.  This  prism 
is  a  solid  piece  of  glass,  whose  sides  are  parallel 
ograms  and  ends  triangles. 

Prisoner  at  Large.  A  prisoner  not  in  irons 
or  in  confinement. 

Prisoner  of  War.  Such  captured  enemy  as 
is  protected  by  the  state,  or  one  in  whom  the 
captor  claims  a  right  of  property  and  ransom. 
Before  the  16th  century  they  were  treated  as 
pirates.  See  PAROLE. 

Prison-ship.  One  fitted  up  for  receiving  and 
detaining  prisoners  of  war. 

Pritch.  A  dentated  weapon  for  striking  and 
holding  eels 

Privateer.  A  private  armed  vessel,  commis 
sioned  by  the  government  in  time  of  war,  to 
prey  upon  the  commerce  of  the  enemy. 

In  ancient  Rome,  in  the  time  of  Cato  and 
Cicero,  it  was  held  that  no  one  but  a  regularly 
enrolled  soldier  could  lawfully  kill  an  enemy; 
but  later,  the  law  of  Solon,  by  which  individuals 
were  permitted  to  associate  themselves  for  the 
purpose  of  plundering  enemies,  was  adopted  by 
the  Romans,  and  has  been  in  effect  transmitted  to 
our  times.  No  commission  for  such  a  purpose 
was  necessary  until  the  15th  century,  nor  did  the 
practice  of  granting  commissions  to  privateers 
become  general  till  the  war  between  Spain  and 
the  revolted  Netherlands,  at  the  end  of  the  16th 
century.  The  question  whether  a  commission 
is  necessary  to  give  to  private  armed  cruisers, 
in  time  of  war,  the  character  and  immunities 
of  lawful  combatants  has  been  much  discussed, 
and  in  the  United  States  the  doctrine  of  the  law 
of  nations  is  considered  to  be,  "  that  private  citi 
zens  cannot  acquire  a  title  to  hostile  property, 
unless  seized  under  a  commission,  but  they  may 
still  seize  hostile  property  in  their  own  defense. 
If  they  depredate  upon  the  enemy  without  a  com- 
missio'n  they  act  upon  their  peril,  and  are  liable 
to  be  punished  by  their  own  sovereign  ;  but  the 
enemy  is  not  warranted  to  consider  them  as  crim 
inals,  and,  as  respects  the  enemy,  they  violate  no 
rights  by  capture."  It  may  be  said,  however, 
that  the  present  state  of  sentiment  among  enlight 
ened  nations  would  render  the  practical  applica 
tion  of  this  doctrine  highly  dangerous,  and  that 
hostilities  on  the  part  of  a  cruiser  without  com 
mission  would  doubtless  expose  the  offending 
party  to  the  most  rigorous  treatment.  At  the 
Congress  of  Paris  (1856)  the  plenipotentiaries 
of  Great  Britain,  Austria,  France,  Russia,  Prus- 


PRIVATE  SIGNAL 


666 


PROJECTILES 


sia,  Sardinia,  and  Turkey  united  in  a  declaration 
that  "  privateering  is  and  remains  abolished." 
The  United  States,  however,  has  never  assented 
to  this  declaration,  and  as  to  it,  therefore,  priva 
teering  remains  legitimate.  See  INTERNATIONAL 
LAW,  10 ;  PARIS,  DECLARATION  OF. 

PRIVATEERSMAN.  One  of  the  crew  of  a  priva 
teer. 

Private  Signal.  A  signal  intelligible  only  to 
those  having  the  key. 

Prize.  A  captured  vessel  or  other  property 
taken  in  naval  warfare.  The  right  to  all  cap 
tures  vests  primarily  in  the  sovereign,  and  no 
individual  can  have  any  interest  in  a  capture 
by  a  public  or  private  vessel  except  what  he  re 
ceives  under  the  grant  of  the  state.  See  INTER 
NATIONAL  LAW,  11. 

PRIZE-COURT.  The  court  whose  jurisdiction 
includes  the  adjudication  and  disposition  of 
prizes.  See  INTERNATIONAL  LAW,  12. 

PRIZE-GOODS.  Those  taken  upon  the  high  seas 
—jure  belli— from  the  enemy. 

PRIZE-LIST.  A  return  of  all  the  persons  on 
board,  whether  belonging  to  the  ship  or  super 
numeraries,  at  the  time  a  capture  is  made  ;  those 
who  may  be  absent  on  duty  are  included. 

PRIZE-MASTER.  The  officer  to  whom  a  prize  is 
given  in  charge  to  carry  her  into  port. 

PRIZE-MONEY.  Proceeds  of  the  sale  of  cap 
tures  made  as  prize  by  authority  of  the  United 
States.  Vessels  and  their  cargoes  captured  as 
prize  must  be  sent  into  port  for  an  adjudication 
in  a  prize-court  in  the  manner  prescribed  by  law. 
If  condemned,  the  property  is  sold  by  the  U.  S. 
marshal,  and  the  proceeds,  when  the  capture  was 
by  a  vessel  or  vessels  of  the  navy,  disposed  of 
according  to  the  decree  of  the  court.  If  the 
prize  was  of  equal  or  superior  force  to  the  vessel 
or  vessels  making  the  capture,  the  whole  of  the 
net  proceeds  will  be  decreed  to  the  captors  ;  and 
when  of  inferior  force,  one-half  will  be  decreed 
to  the  United  States  and  the  other  half  to  the 
captors.  The  prize-money  adjudged  to  captors 
is  distributed  in  the  following  proportions  : 

First.  To  the  commander  of  a  fleet  or  squad 
ron,  one-twentieth  part  of  all  prize-money 
awarded  to  any  vessel  or  vessels  under  his  im 
mediate  command. 

Second.  To  the  commander  of  a  division  of  a 
fleet  or  squadron,  on  duty  under  the  orders  of 
thecommander-in-chief  of  such  .fleet  or  squadron, 
a  sum  equal  to  one-fiftieth  of  any  prize-money 
awarded  to  a  vessel  of  the  division  under  his 
command,  to  be  paid  from  the  moiety  due  the 
United  States,  if  there  be  such  moiety ;  if  not, 
from  the  amount  awarded  to  the  captors.  This 
fiftieth  part  is  not  awarded  in  addition  to  the 
share  he  would  be  entitled  to  as  commander  of  a 
single  ship  making  a  capture,  and  he  may  elect 
which  he  will  receive. 

Third.  To  the  fleet-captain,  one-hundredth  part 
of  all  prize-money  awarded  to  any  vessel  of  the 
fleet  in  which  he  is  serving,  except  where  the 
capture  is  made  by  the  vessel  on  board  of  which 
he  is  serving,  in  which  case  he  will  share,  in 
proportion  to  his  pay,  'with  the  other  officers  and 
men  on  board  such  vessel. 

Fourth.  To  the  commander  of  a  single  vessel, 
one-tenth  of  all  the  prize-money  awarded  to  the 
vessel,  if  such  vessel  at  the  time  of  the  capture 
was  under  the  command  of  the  commanding 
officer  of  a  fleet  or  a  division,  and  three-twentieths 


if  his  vessel  was  acting  independently  of  such 
superior  officer. 

Fifth.  After  the  foregoing  deductions,  the 
residue  is  distributed  among  all  others  doing 
duty  on  board,  and  borne  upon  the  books  of  the 
ship,  including  the  fleet-captain,  in  proportion 
to  their  respective  rates  of  pay. 

All  vessels  of  the  navy  within  signal-distance 
of  the  vessel  making  the  capture,  and  in  such 
condition  as  to  be  able  to  render  effective  aid  if 
required,  will  share  in  the  prize.  Any  person 
temporarily  absent  from  his  vessel  may  share  in 
captures  made  during  his  absence.  The  prize- 
court  determines  what  vessels  shall  share  in  a 
prize,  and  also  whether  the  prize  was  of  superior, 
equal,  or  inferior  force  to  the  vessel  or  vessels  of 
the  captors.  The  Secretary  of  the  Navy  deter 
mines  what  persons  are  entitled  to  share  in  the 
prize-money  awarded  a  vessel,  and  transmits 
their  names  to  the  Fourth  Auditor,  who  ascer 
tains,  according  to  the  above  rules  of  distribution, 
the  correct  amount  of  each  person's  share.  On 
application  the  Auditor  will  issue  a  certificate 
payable  to  the  person  entitled,  provided  Congress 
has  authorized  the  payment  by  an  appropriation. 
See  BOUNTY  FOR  DESTRUCTION  OF  ENEMY'S 
VESSELS. 

The  share  of  prize-money  awarded  to  the 
United  States  is  set  apart  forever  as  a  fund  for 
the  payment  of  pensions  to  naval  officers,  seamen, 
and  marines  entitled  to  pensions ;  and,  if  more 
than  sufficient  for  that  purpose,  the  surplus  is 
applied  to  the  making  provision  for  the  comfort 
of  disabled  officers,  seamen,  and  marines.  The 
Secretary  of  the  Navy  is  trustee  of  the  naval 
pension  fund,  and  the  fund  is  invested  in  securi 
ties  of  the  United  States  bearing  3  per  cent,  in 
terest.  See  NAVY  PENSION  FUND. 

Privateers,  and  vessels  not  in  the  navy,  but 
controlled  by  other  executive  departments  of  the 
government,  do  not  come  within  the  above  pro 
visions,  but  are  entitled  to  prize-money  under 
laws  relating  especially  to  themselves. 
•  Proa.  See  FLYING  PROA. 

Probation.     The  novitiate  period  of  cadets. 

Procyon  (Gr.  pro/cuon ;  from  pro,  before  ; 
kudn,  a  dog,  so  called  from  its  rising  before 
Sirius).  The  proper  name  for  the  bright  star 
a  Canis  Minoris.  It  makes  an  equilateral  triangle 
with  Sirius  and  Betelguese.  See  CANIS  MINOR. 

Professors  of  Mathematics.  These  officers 
were  first  appointed  in  the  U.  S.  navy  in  1831, 
for  the  purpose  of  instructing  midshipmen  on 
board  ship,  but  such  instruction  has  been  found 
unprofitable,  and  latterly  no  professors  of  mathe 
matics  have  been  employed  at  sea.  A  limited 
number  have  been  continued  on  the  list  at  the 
Naval  Academy  and  Naval  Observatory.  The 
first  to  receive  the  appointment  was  Prof.  Elisha 
Fitch,  September  25,  1831,  who  died  October  15, 
1839.  At  the  present  time  there  are  12  professors 
of  mathematics  in  the  navy  on  the  active  list,  3 
having  the  relative  rank  of  captain,  4  that  of 
commander,  5  of  lieutenant,  and  on  the  retired 
list  1  with  rank  of  commodore,  3  of  captain,  and 
2  of  commander. 

Projectiles.  A  projectile  is  properly,  from  its 
derivation,  anything  that  is  thrown  forward,  and 
may  therefore  not  only  refer  to  missiles  to  be 
employed  against  an  enemy,  but,  as  well,  to 
signals  of  danger  in  peace  times,  or  to  the  means 
employed  to  carry  a  line  to  the  crew  of  a  stranded 


PROJECTILES 


667 


PROJECTILES 


or  sinking  ship.  In  this  article  it  will  be  treated 
in  its  former  significance. 

The  first  projectiles  used  were  stones  thrown 
from  slings  (afterwards  lead  bullets  were  pro 
jected  in  the  same  way),  arrows  from  the  long 
bow,  and  darts  and  javelins  thrown  by  hand.  In 
the  sieges  of  walled  towns,  in  very  early  days, 
ballistge  and  catapults  were  used  as  a  species  of 
heavy  ordnance,  the  former  to  hurl  large  stones, 
and  the  latter,  wooden  beams  shod  with  iron  and 
often  covered  with  inflammable  material  pre 
viously  ignited.  But  the  projectile,  as  it  is  un 
derstood  in  modern  times,  came  in  with  the  use 
of  gunpowder  in  warfare,  and  developed  with 
the  improvements  in  weapons  using  it.  While 
lead  answered  all  the  purposes  in  small-arms,  it 
was  found  too  soft  for  battering  with  larger  guns, 
and  stone  shot  being  not  only  too  light  for  good 
flight,  but  also  deficient  in  tenacity,  early  gave 
way  to  iron,  which  excelled  in  these  qualities. 
Iron  projectiles  came  into  general  use  in  Eu 
rope  by  the  close  of  the  14th  century,  and  by 
the  middle  of  the  succeeding  century,  grenades 
and  explosive  shells  were  introduced.  The  first 
ones  are  said  to  have  been  made  of  alloys  of  lead 
and  tin  and  of  bronze,  but  later  they  gave  way 
to  cast  iron,  and  in  many  cases  were  of  extraor 
dinary  size,  reaching  in  Germany  and  Italy, 
towards  the  close  of  the  17th  century,  to  1100 
and  1300  pounds  weight.  These  shell  were  pro 
jected  from  mortars,  and  it  was  not  until  early 
in  this  century  that  shell-guns  came  into  use, 
first  in  this  country  and  afterwards  in  Europe. 
From  this  time  up  to  the  advent  of  rifle-guns, 
projectiles  for  heavy  ordnance  were  not  materi 
ally  changed,  except  that  they  grew  in  size  with 
the  increasing  calibre  of  the  guns,  were  cast 
more  carefully  and  by  better  methods,  and  the 
effect  of  the  shell  was  heightened  by  improve 
ments  in  the  fuzes. 

In  smooth-bore  guns,  besides  solid  shot  and 
shell,  several  other  projectiles  are  used,  such  as 
"case-shot,"  which  comprise  "grape"  for  spread 
ing  a  large  number  of  balls  at  short  range, 
"  canister"  for  longer  distances,  and  "  shrapnel," 
which  are  thin  shell  containing  small  balls,  and 
with  a  bursting  charge  just  sufficient  to  rupture 
the  shell.  Other  types  of  projectiles  for  smooth 
bore  guns  are  now  obsolete  in  our  service,  such 
as  chain-  and  bar-shot  for  cutting  an  enemy's 
spars,  sails;  and  rigging,  and  hot  shot  and  car 
casses  for  setting  him  on  fire,  although  the  latter 
might  be  used  with  good  effect  on  shore,  and 
several  European  governments  retain  them,  as 
well  as  "ground"  and  "parachute  light-balls," 
to  light  up  an  enemy's  works  at  night,  and 
"  smoke-balls"  to  appeal  to  his  nose.  Many  of 
these  projectiles  had  prototypes  in  the  hot  clay, 
hot  iron,  Greek  fire,  and  stink-pots  of  the  an 
cients. 

The  first  rifled  motion  was  given  to  spherical 
lead  bullets  fired  from  small-arms  about  the  close 
of  the  15th  century,  but  the  practice  seems  to 
have  soon  fallen  into  disuse,  to  obtain  again 
nearly  200  years  afterwards,  and  we  have  records 
of  the  good  effects  produced  by  the  rifle  in  our 
Revolution.  Several  improvements  in  rifling 
and  loading  were  introduced  early  in  this  cen 
tury,  and  finally  led  up  to  the  elongated  bullet 
having  a  conical  head,  the  rammer-head  being 
recessed  to  prevent  flattening  out  the  point  in 
loading.  The  Minie  bullet  was  introduced  in 


1847.  This  is  a  cylindrical  body  with  a  conical 
head,  and  at  the  base  is  an  iron  thimble  which, 
driving  in  at  discharge,  wedges  the  lead  out  into 
the  grooves  of  the  rifle.  But  it  was  soon  dis 
covered  that  a  concave  surface  at  the  rear  face 
of  the  bullet  did  quite  as  well  as  the  thimble, 
which  in  some  cases  was  driven  through  the 
bullet.  The  present  service  bullet  has  a  concave 
base,  and  3  grooves  in  a  transverse  plane  at  the 
forward  end  of  the  cylinder.  They  are  made  of 
an  alloy  of  16  parts  lead  to  1  of  tin,  are  punched 
out  in  steel  dies,  and  for  the  .45  calibre  are  of  the 
following  dimensions,  in  inches  :  Total  length, 
1.11;  diameter  of  cylindrical  part,  .458;  maxi 
mum  diameter  of  conical  part,  .445 ;  depth  of 
grooves,  .03;  width  of  grooves,  .125;  width  of 
lands,  .083 ;  weight  in  grains,  405.  Experi 
ments  have  lately  been  made  with  a  bullet  of 
500  grains,  using  the  same  charge  of  powder  (70 
grains);  and  while  the  initial  velocity  has  been 
less,  the  range  has  been  increased,  with  a  flatter 
flight  during  the  falling  part  of  the  trajectory. 

The  rifling  of  heavy  ordnance  is  of  very  recent 
date,  for  although  Benjamin  Robins,  as  early  as 
1742,  foresaw  its  advantages  and  those  of  the 
elongated  projectile,  and  while  there  are  crude 
specimens  preserved  in  the  museums  of  some 
European  countries,  .which  date  back  still  farther, 
it  was  not  until  1854,  before  Sebastopol,  and 
again  in  1859,  in  the  Italian  campaign,  that 
rifled  cannon  were  employed  with  good  effect. 
The  war  of  secession  soon  following,  and  the  use 
of  armor  for  the  protection  of  fighting  ships, 
stimulated  invention  in  ordnance  to  a  great  de 
gree,  and  rang  the  death-knell  of  smooth-bore 
guns  and  spherical  projectiles.  Notwithstanding 
the  immense  amount  of  thought  and  study  that 
has  been  expended  on  the  subject  of  rifled  guns 
and  their  projectiles,  the  question  is  far  from 
being  settled,  and  of  the  many  systems  pro 
posed  and  in  use,  each  has  its  warm  advocates. 
The  flight  of  an  elongated  projectile  depends 
primarily  upon  its  taking  the  rifled  motion,  and 
the  steadiness  with  which  it  retains  it  about  ita 
longer  axis.  The  devices  for  rotating  the  pro 
jectile  are  many,  and  their  success  depends  mainly 
on  the  strength  of  the  gun,  the  strength  of  the 
projectile,  and  the  action  of  the  powder-gases. 
A  comparatively  weak  gun,  with  a  good  system 
of  rifling  and  of  projectiles,  will  stand  where  a 
much  stronger.gun  may  be  burst  by  undue  strains 
put  upon  it  by  a  bad  system.  The  devices  now 
used  for  securing  the  rifled  motion  may  be  classed 
under  three  heads,  viz.,  studded  or  flanged,  forced 
or  lead-coated,  and  expanding.  Studded  projec 
tiles  have  buttons  or  flanges  which  follow  corre 
sponding  grooves  in  the  gun,  as  in  the  Woolwich 
and  Armstrong  muzzle-loaders.  Forced  pro 
jectiles  are  used  in  breech-loaders  only,  and  are 
coated  with  lead  or  other  soft  substance  to  a  size 
larger  than  the  bore  of  the  gun.  Examples  are 
shell  and  shrapnel  for  the  3-inch  breech-loading 
navy  howitzer,  and  projectiles  for  Krupp  and 
Armstrong  breech-loaders.  Expanding  projectiles 
are  those  where  the  action  of  the  powder-gases 
expand  into  the  grooves  of  the  gun  a  soft  rear 
band,  as  in  the  Parrott,  Butler,  Stafford,  and 
Blakely  systems,  or  a  lead  zone  is  forced  out  by  a 
cap-wedge  driven  up  from  the  rear,  as  in  the 
Hotchkiss,  or  a  papier-mache  base  is  driven  up 
on  the  shot,  as  in  the  Schenkl. 

The  object  to  be  attained  is,  with  the  least 


PROJECTION 


668 


PROPORTIONAL  PARTS 


strain  on  the  gun,  to  get  a  steady,  uniform  motion 
without  balloting  or  wedging  in  the  bore,  no 
stripping,  uniformity  of  range  and  velocities,  and 
a  steady  flight.  Besides  these  qualities  a  shell 
should  have  large  capacity  for  a  bursting  charge, 
and  all  projectiles  should  be  free  from  liability  to 
injury  in  ordinary  handling  or  transportation. 
Precautions  should  be  taken  in  cleaning,  filling, 
and  fuzing  shell  to  prevent  premature  explosions. 
*  Shell  are  generally  made  of  cast  iron  and  fuzed 
at  the  point.  Battering  shell  are  cast  with  a 
chilled  head  and  not  fuzed,  while  the  walls  are 
much  thicker,  the  bursting  of  the  shell  being 
effected  by  the  heat  generated  by  impact  against 
armor.  Steel  projectiles  are  now  being  made 
abroad,  and  used  against  armor  shields  with  ex 
cellent  results.  At  the  recent  Meppen  experi 
ments  they  excelled  all  others. 

During  the  war  many  kinds  of  shell  of  each 
system  were  used,  including  not  only  inventions 
of  our  own  citizens,  but  some  purchased  from 
other  countries.  The  greatest  number  of  shell 
used  on  the  Northern  side  were  Parrott,  Hotch- 
kiss,  and  Schenkl.  That  our  ordnance  officers, 
after  much  experience,  should  have  adopted  the 
expanding  system  with  base  rotation  in  all  muz 
zle-loading  guns  argues  strongly  in  its  favor.  Our 
breech-loaders  are  few,  but  in  the  navy,  Parrott 
shell  are  used  in  them,  with  the  exception  of  the 
3-ineh  breech-loading  howitzer,  and  in  recent 
firing  with  the  9-inch  breech-loading  rifle,  Butler 
shell  were  used. — H.  W.  Lyon,  Lieutenant 
U.8.N. 

Projection  (Lat.  projectio,  a  throwing  out  or 
stretching  forth).  A  delineation  of  a  proposed 
figure  on  a  given  surface,  formed  by  means  of 
lines  drawn  according  to  some  definite  laws. 
The  projection  of  a  surface  is  generally  conceived 
as  made  by  straight  lines,  and  on  a  plane.  This 
plane  is  called  the  primitive  plane.  A  distinction 
is  also  drawn  between  natural  and  artificial  pro 
jections.  A  natural  projection  of  a  surface  on 
a  given  plane  is  such  a  delineation  of  it  as  would 
be  formed  by  drawing  straight  lines  from  the  eye 
in  a  definite  position  through  every  point  of  the 
surface  to  meet  the  plane,  the  original  and  the 
representation  producing  the  same  effect  on  the 
organ  of  vision.  An  artificial  projection  is  a  de 
lineation  of  the  surface  on  a  plane  traced  accord 
ing  to  fixed  laws,  not  being  a  perspective  repre 
sentation. 

PROJECTIONS  OF  THE  SPHERE.  Delineations 
of  the  surface  of  the  sphere  on  a  plane  made  ac 
cording  to  definite  laws,  and  furnishing  the 
means  of  constructing  maps  and  charts.  Projec 
tions  of  the  sphere  are  either  natural  or  artificial. 
Natural  projections  of  the  sphere  are  delineations 
of  the  surface  on  a  plane,  defined  in  position,  rep 
resenting  the  sphere  as  it  appears  to  the  eye  situ 
ated  at  a  given  point.  According  to  the  relative 
positions  of  the  sphere,  the  eye,  and  the  primitive 
or  plane  of  projection,  there  are  different  methods 
of  natural  projection,  the  three  most  important 
of  which  are  the  orthographic,  stereoqraphic,  and 
central  or  gnomonic.  In  the  orthographic  the 
eye  is  indefinitely  distant  from  the  sphere,  so 
that  the  visual  rays  are  parallel  to  one  another, 
and  the  primitive  is  perpendicular  to  their  direc 
tion  ;  in  the  stereographic  the  eye  is  situated  at 
the  surface  of  the  sphere,  and  the  primitive  passes 
through  the  centre  so  as  to  have  the  eye  in  its 
pole  ;  in  the  central  or  gnomonic  the  eye  is  at  the 


centre  of  the  sphere,  and  the  primitive  is  a  tan 
gent  plane.  Projections  of  the  sphere,  on  which 
soever  of  the  above  methods  they  are  made,  are 
further  named  equatorial,  meridional,  or  hori 
zontal,  according  as  the  primitive  coincides  with 
or  is  parallel  to  the  equator,  the  meridian,  or  the 
horizon.  All  perspective  representations  of  the 
sphere  distort  those  parts  which  are  not  projected 
near  the  centre  of  the  primitive.  Thus,  in  a  map 
on  the  orthographic  projection,  countries  at  a  dis 
tance  from  the  centre  of  the  primitive  are  unduly 
contracted,  while  the  reverse  is  the  case  in  maps 
on  the  central  projection.  In  maps  or  charts 
of  small  portions  of  the  earth's  surface  this  is  of 
little  consequence,  as  the  middle  of  the  map  may 
be  always  taken  for  the  centre  of  the  primitive; 
but  for  extensive  tracts  the  distortion  near  the 
edge  of  the  map  is  considerable,  and  constitutes 
an  objection.  Artificial  projections  of  the  sphere 
are  delineations  of  the  surface  on  a  plane  traced 
according  to  fixed  laws,  not  being  perspective 
representations.  Mercator's  chart,  which  is  that 
of  the  greatest  importance  to  the  navigator,  is  an 
artificial  projection.  Here  the  meridians  are  par 
allel  straight  lines  equidistant  from  each  other, 
the  parallels  of  latitude  are  perpendicular  to  the 
meridians  at  such  distance  from  each  other,  in 
creasing  from  the  equator,  that  the  measures  of 
a  degree  of  longitude  and  latitude  at  any  point 
of  the  projection  shall  have  the  same  ratio  as 
exists  between  their  measures  on  the  surface  of 
the  sphere  at  the  corresponding  point.  This  pro 
jection  gives  a  true  representation  as  to  form  of 
every  particular  small  tract,  but  varies  greatly 
in  point  of  scale  in  its  different  regions,  the  polar 
portions  in  particular  being  extravagantly  en 
larged,  and  the  whole  map  even  of  a  single 
hemisphere  not  being  comprisable  within  any 
finite  limits.  See  CHART. 

Promiscui  Usus.  A  law-term  for  those  arti 
cles  which  are  equally  applicable  to  peace  or  war. 
Promontory.  A  high  point  of  land  or  rock 
projecting  into  a  sea  or  lake,  tapering  into  a 
neck  inland,  and  the  extremity  of  which,  toward 
the  water,  is  called  a  cape,  or  headland,  as  Gi 
braltar,  Ceuta,  Actium,  etc. 

Promotion.  Promotions  are  made  by  seniority 
only,  except  in  cases  of  extraordinary  heroism. 
When  an  officer  arrives  at  the  head  of  his  grade 
he  must  undergo  examinations  in  regard  to  his 
physical  and  professional  qualifications,  and  his 
record  is  consulted  in  respect  of  his  moral  char 
acter.  See  EXAMINATION,  BOARD  OF. 

Promovent  (Eng.).  The  plaintiff  in  the  in 
stance-court  of  the  admiralty. 

Proof.  The  trial  of  arms,  ammunition,  etc., 
before  being  received  for  service. 

Propeller.  An  instrument  for  propelling  ves 
sels.  There  are  two  principal  kinds,  the  paddle- 
wheel  and  screw-propeller.  The  paddle-wheel 
may  be  worked  by  either  horizontal  or  vertical 
shafts,  and  the  paddles  are  either  fixed  or  feath 
ering.  The  action  of  the  screw-propeller  is  that 
of  a  two  or  more  threaded  screw  working  in  a 
nut,  the  water  acting  as  the  nut ;  but  being  a 
moving  medium,  the"  full  benefit  of  the  pitch  is 
not  obtained.  See  PADDLE-WHEEL,  SCREW- 
PROPELLER. 

Proper  Motion.     See  MOTION,  PROPER. 
Proportional  Parts,  Table  of.     An  auxiliary 
table  to  facilitate  the  process  of  interpolation  in 
the  use  of  logarithms. 


PKOSPECT-GLASS 


669 


PURGING-COCK 


Prospect-glass.  An  old  term  for  a  spy 
glass. 

Protractor.  An  instrument  for  laying  off 
angles  in  plotting. 

Providence,  R.  I.,  the  second  city  in  pop 
ulation,  wealth,  and  importance  of  the  New 
England  States,  is  situated  around  a  little  lake 
called  the  "  Cove,"  into  which  two  small  rivers, 
the  Woonasquatucket  and  Moshasstick,  empty, 
and  on  Narragansett  Bay,  at  the  head  of  navi 
gation.  The  Providence  Iliver,  which  flows 
out  of  the  "Cove,"  is  on  the  southeastern  side 
of  the  city,  and  the  Seekonk  forms  its  eastern 
boundary.  Providence  was  at  one  time  the  seat 
of  a  considerable  foreign  and  domestic  com 
merce,  but  of  late  years  the  foreign  trade  has 
considerably  diminished,  balanced,  however,  by 
an  increase  of  the  domestic  trade.  This  city  is 
one  of  the  great  manufacturing  centres  of  the 
country.  The  most  important  establishments 
are  those  of  the  Gorharn  Company,  manufac 
turers  of  solid  silverware,  the  Providence  Tool 
Company,  Providence  Steam-Engine  Company, 
Barstow  Stove  Company,  Allen  Fire  Supply 
Company,  Fletcher  Manufacturing  Company, 
Corliss  Steam-Engine  Works,  and  many  others, 
the  total  value  of  the  manufactures  according  to 
the  State  census  for  1875  being  $52,000,000. 
Pop.  104,000. 

Proviso.  A  stern-fast,  or  hawser,  carried  to 
the  shore  to  steady  by.  A  ship  with  one  anchor 
down  and  a  shore-fast  is  moored  a  proviso. 

Provost-marshal.  This  term  is  applied  in 
the  navy  to  an  officer  who  is  charged  with  the 
safe-keeping  of  a  prisoner  while  undergoing  trial 
by  court-martial.  He  does  not  arrest  him,  or 
execute  the  sentence  of  the  court,  as  in  armies, 
but  receives  him  from  the  officer  in  whose  cus 
tody  he  may  be  held,  and  is  responsible  for  him 
in  transit,  and  while  before  the  court,  and  for 
his  return  when  his  presence  is  no  longer  re 
quired.  The  president  of  a  general  court-martial 
is  authorized  to  order  an  officer  of  the  navy  not 
above  the  grade  of  lieutenant,  or  an  officer  of 
the  marine  corps  not  above  the  grade  of  captain, 
to  serve  as  provost-marshal  of  the  court.  In 
addition  to  the  above,  it  is  his  duty  to  serve 
notices  to  the  witnesses,  execute  any  process  of 
the  court,  and  attend  generally  as  the  police- 
officer  of  the  court.  He  is  not  sworn,  and  re 
ceives  no  additional  compensation.  In  the  case 
of  a  trial  of  an  appointed  or  enlisted  man,  the 
person  to  act  as  provost-marshal  may,  if  the 
president  of  the  court  thinks  proper,  be  a  petty 
officer  of  the  navy,  or  a  non-commissioned  officer 
of  marines.  It  has  not  been  the  practice  in  the 
U.  S.  army  for  a  provost-marshal  to  attend  upon 
a  military  court. — H.  C.  Cochrane,  Captain 
U.S.M.C. 

Pucka,  A  word  in  frequent  use  among  the 
English  in  the  East  Indies,  signifying  sterling, 
of  good  quality. 

Pucker.  A  wrinkled  seam  in  sail-making ; 
also,  anything  in  a  state  of  confusion. 

Puddening,  or  Pudding.  A  thick  pad  of 
yarns,  matting,  oakum,  etc.,  tapering  from  the 
middle  toward  the  ends  ;  used  for  fenders  on  the 
bow  of  a  boat.  A  covering  of  parceling  and  soft 
rope  over  the  ring  of  the  anchor  when  rope  ca 
bles  are  used. 

Pudding-fish.  A  fish  of  the  genus  Sparus  (S. 
radiatus). 


Puff.     A  sudden  gust  of  wind. 

Puffer.  A  fish  of  the  genus  Diodon ;  globe- 
fish.  See  GLOBE-FISH. 

Puffin.  The  Fratercula  arctica,  a  sea-bird 
with  a  singular  bill,  formerly  supposed  to  be  a 
bird  in  appearance  but  a  fish  in  substance,  in 
consequence  of  which  notion  the  pope  permitted 
its  being  eaten  in  Lent. 

Pulas.     An  excellent  twine,  made  by  the  Ma- 
lays  from  the  kaluwi,  a  species  of  nettle. 
'Pull.     To  row. 

PULL-AWAY  BOYS.  A  name  given  on  the  west 
coast  of  Africa  to  the  native  Kroomen,  who  are 
engaged  by  the  shipping  to  row  boats  and  do 
other  work  not  suited  to  Europeans  in  that  cli 
mate. 

Pull  Foot.     To  hasten  ;  to  run. 

Pulo.  The  Malay  word  for  island,  and  fre 
quently  met  with  in  the  islands  of  the  Eastern 
seas. 

Pulwar.  A  commodious  kind  of  passage-boat 
on  the  Ganges. 

Pump.  A  hydraulic  machine  for  raising 
liquids.  A  machine  for  exhausting  a  gas  from, 
or  forcing  a  gas  into,  a  close  vessel.  To  pump 
ship,  to  pump  the  water  out  the  bilge.  A  pump 
sucks  when  the  water  being  exhausted,  nothing 
but  air  comes  up. 

PUMP-BRAKE.  A  lever  by  which  a  pump  is 
worked. 

PUMP-DALE.  A  trough  to  carry  off  water 
from  a  pump ;  a  hose  is  now  used  for  this  pur 
pose. 

PUMP-GEAR.  The  apparatus  belonging  to  a 
pump. 

PUMP-WELL.  An  inclosure  around  the  bot 
tom  of  the  pumps  to  protect  them  from  injury, 
and  to  give  a  ready  admittance  to  the  water, 
as  well  as  to  permit  an  examination  into  the 
condition  of  the  pumps ;  it  usually  contains  a 
strainer. 

Punch.  An  iron  implement  for  backing  out 
a  bolt,  or  for  making  apertures  in  metal. 

Punishment.  No  punishment  can  be  legally 
inflicted  except  by  the  commanding  officer,  or 
by  the  sentence  of  a  summary  or  general  court- 
martial. 

Commanding  officers  are  authorized  to  inflict 
the  punishments  of  extra  duties,  deprivation  of 
liberty,  reduction  of  rating,  and  confinement 
with  or  without  irons,  either  on  full  or  reduced 
rations.  The  confinement  must  not  exceed  ten 
days.  Flogging,  gagging,  and  confinement  in 
coal-bunker  or  sweat-box  are  forbidden,  and  no 
punishment  not  specially  authorized  by  the  regu 
lations  is  tolerated.  See  COURT-MARTIAL. 

Punk.  The  interior  of  an  excrescence  on  the 
oak-tree;  used  as  tinder,  and  better  known  as 
touch-wood. 

Punt.  An  Anglo-Saxon  term  still  in  use  for 
a  flat-bottomed  boat,  used  by  fishermen,  or  for 
ballast  lumps,  etc. 

Puoys.   Spiked  poles  used  in  propelling  barges. 

Puppet-valve.     See  POPPET-VALVE. 

Purchase.  Any  mechanical  advantage  which 
increases  the  force  applied.  See  TACKLES. 

PURCHASE-BLOCKS.  All  blocks  virtually  de 
serve  this  name,  but  it  is  distinctively  given  to 
those  used  in  moving  heavy  weights. 

PURCHASE-FALLS.  The  rope  rove  through  pur 
chase-blocks. 

Purging-cock.     A  cock  or  valve  in  the  lowest 


PUKEE 


670 


PYKOXYLIN 


part  of  a  steam-boiler  for  the  purpose  of  draining 
the  boiler. 

Purre.  A  name  for  the  dunlin  (Tringa  al- 
pina}. 

Purse-crab  (Birgus).  A  genus  of  Crustacea 
of  the  order  Decapoda  and  suborder  Anomoura. 
It  is  allied  to  the  Hermit  Crab  (which  see),  but 
has  the  abdomen  or  tail  shorter  and  almost  or 
bicular,  its  under  surface  soft  and  membranous, 
its  upper  surface  covered  with  strong  plates, 
overlapping,  as  in  lobsters.  The  first  pair  of 
legs  have  large  and  powerful  pincers,  the  pair 
nearest  the  abdomen  are  very  small,  but  terminate 
in  rudimentary  pincers ;  the  pair  next  to  them 
are  larger  with  small  pincers ;  the  second  and 
third  pairs  of  legs  are  terminated  by  a  single  nail. 

Purse-net.  A  peculiar  landing-net  in  fishing. 
It  is  used  in  the  seine  and  trawl  to  bewilder  the 
fish,  and  prevent  their  swimming  out  when  fairly 
inside. 

Purser.  Falconer,  in  his  Marine  Dictionary, 
says,  "  A  purser  is  an  officer  appointed  by  the 
Lords  of  the  Admiralty  to  take  charge  of  the 
provisions  of  a  ship  of  war,  and  to  see  that  they 
are  carefully  distributed  to  the  officers  and  crew 
according  to  the  instructions  which  he  has  re 
ceived  from  the  Commissioners  of  the  Navy  for 
that  purpose." 

Totten  defines  a  purser  in  the  U.  S.  navy  as 
"  a  commissioned  officer  who  has  charge  of  the 
provisions,  clothing,  etc.,  and  of  the  public  mon 
eys  on  board  ship." 

Sir  Wm.  Monson,  about  1600,  says,  "  The 
purser  is  in  the  nature  of  a  cape-merchant  in  a 
ship  of  merchandise,  that  keeps  an  account  of  all 
things  brought  into  the  ship  ;  he  ought  to  be  an 
able  clerk."  "  Likewise  if,  during  the  voyage, 
any  of  the  men  happen  to  die  or  run  away,  or 
for  good  cause  be  discharged  by  the  captain's 
order,  to  enter  likewise  the  particular  day  of  the 
month  agairtst  each  of  their  names  in  a  margent 
of  the  books,"  etc. 

The  title  was  derived  from  bursar,  the  old 
name  for  a  treasurer  or  cash-keeper ;  hence  dis- 
burser,  one  who  pays  out  money.  The  term  burse 
magister  existed  in  the  English  merchant  ma 
rine  in  the  time  of  Henry  VI.  The  title  re 
mained  in  the  U.  S.  navy  from  its  organization 
until  1860.  By  a  general  order  (1847),  legalized 
by  act  of  Congress,  1854,  pursers  of  more  than 
12  years  were  to  rank  with  commanders,  and  of 
less  than  12  years  with  lieutenants,  and  to  take 
rank  with  surgeons  according  to  date  of  com 
mission.  In  1860  it  was  enacted  "  that  pursers 
in  the  navy  of  the  Unjted  States  shall  be  here 
after  styled  'paymasters.'  "  Why  the  old  time- 
honored  title  was  discontinued  for  a  longer  one, 
expressive  of  only  a  portion  of  this  officer's 
duties,  it  is  difficult  to  imagine.  See  PAY  CORPS. 

PURSER'S  DIP.     The  smallest  dip-candle. 


PURSER'S  GRINS.     Sneers. 

PURSER'S  NAME.     An  assumed  name. 

PURSER'S  POUND  (Eng.}.  The  weight  for 
merly  used  in  the  navy,  by  which  the  purser  re 
tained  an  eighth  for  waste,  and  the  men  received 
only  seven-eighths  of  what' was  supplied  by  gov 
ernment.  One  of  the  complaints  of  the  mutiny 
was,  having  the  purser's  instead  of  an  honest 
pound.  This  allowance  was  reduced  to  one- 
tenth. 

PURSER'S  SHIRT.  Like  a  purser's  shirt  on  a 
hand-spike,  a  comparison  for  clothes  fitting 
loosely. 

Purviance,  Hugh  Y.,  Commodore  U.S.N. 
Born  in  Maryland.  Appointed  from  Maryland, 
November  3^  1818;  frigate  "Congress,"  1819- 
21,  and  "Franklin,"  74,  1821-24,  Pacific  Squad 
ron  ;  "North  Carolina,"  74,  Mediterranean 
Squadron,  1824-27. 

Commissioned  as  lieutenant,  March  3,  1827 ; 
sloop  "Falmouth,"  West  India  Squadron,  1828- 
30;  sloop  "Peacock,"  East  India  Squadron, 
1833-34;  rendezvous,  Baltimore,  1836-37 ;  Brazil 
Squadron,  1837-38,  commanding  brig  "Dol 
phin"  and  sloop  "  Fairfield"  ;  relieved  an  Amer 
ican  schooner  from  the  French  blockade  at  Sa- 
lado,  Kiver  Platte  ;  rendezvous,  Baltimore,  1839- 
40;  "  Brandywine,"  Mediterranean  Squadron, 
1841-42;  rendezvous,  Baltimore,  1843;  com 
manding  brig  "  Pioneer,"  coast  of  Africa,  1843  ; 
frigate  "  Constitution,"  Mexican  blockade,  1846. 

Commissioned  as  commander,  March  7,  1849 ; 
receiving-ship  "  Consort,"  Baltimore,  1850-51  ; 
commanding  sloop  "Marion,"  coast  of  Africa, 
1852-55. 

Commissioned  as  captain,  January  28,  1856  ; 
commanded  frigate  "  St.  Lawrence"  on  the  block 
ade  off  Charleston  and  Southern  coast,  1861 ;  sunk 
the  Confederate  privateer  "  Petrel"  off  Charles 
ton  when  just  12  hours  out;  captured  several 
prizes  ;  participated  in  the  fight  of  the  "  Merri- 
mac,"  gunboats,  and  batteries  off  Se well's  Point, 
Hampton  Koads. 

Commissioned  as  commodore,  July  16,  1862  ; 
light-house  inspector,  1863-65.  Eeceived  a  vote 
of  thanks  of  Maryland  Legislature.  Ketired 
December  21,  1861. 

Push.  To  crowd  all  sail.  To  run  the  engines 
to  their  utmost  capacity. 

Put.  To  put  back,  to  return  to  the  point  of 
departure.  To  put  about,  to  go  on  the  other  tack. 
To  put  to  sea,  to  quit  a  port  or  roadstead  and  go 
to  sea. 

Pyrosomidse.  A  family  of  tunicated  marine 
mollusks.  They  swim  freely,  many  individuals 
being  usually  combined  into  a  nearly  cylindrical 
mass  by  means  of  their  elastic  integument,  or 
tunic.  They  abound  in  warm  seas,  and  are 
brightly  luminous. 

Pyroxylin.     See  EXPLOSIVES. 


Q 


671 


QUARANTINE 


Q. 


Q.    In  the  log-book,  q  denotes  squalls. 

Quade.  An  old  word  for  baffling  ;  as,  a  quade 
wind. 

Quadrant.  A  quadrant  (Lat.  guadrans,  a 
fourth  part)  is  a  reflecting  astronomical  instru 
ment  on  the  same  principle  as  the  sextant  (see 
SEXTANT),  but  with  a  shorter  arc,  so  that  angles 
up  to  90°  only  can  be  measured.  If  named  on 
the  same  principle  as  the  sextant  it  would  be 
called  an  octant  (Lat.  octans,  one-eighth),  and 
this  name  has  been  given  to  the  metal-framed 
quadrants  made  of  late  years.  Quadrants  have 
generally  a  wooden  frame  with  an  inlaid  ivory 
arc,  and  were  formerly  made  much  larger  than 
at  present.  The  arc  is  generally  divided  to  half- 
minutes  only.  See  GUNNER'S  QUADRANT. 

Quadrature.  The  moon  is  in  quadrature  when 
she  is  90°  from  the  sun. 

Quagmire.  A  marsh  in  which  the  water  re 
mains  stagnant. 

Quaker.     A  false  or  wooden  gun. 

Quamash,  or  Biscuit-root.  A  plant  of  the 
natural  order  Liliacece.  The  roasted  bulbs  are 
used  as  an  article  of  food. 

Quamino.     A  negro. 

Quarantine  (Ital.  quarantina;  L.  Lat.  quaren- 
tena;  Fr.  quarantaine ;  Span,  cuarantena).  The 
Cyclopaedia  of  Commerce  defines  quarantine  to 
be  the  "  interdiction  of  communication  to  which 
a  ship  is  subject  for  a  definite  period,  for  fear  of 
her  bringing  infectious  diseases." 

Webster  defines  the  word  as  follows:  "1.  A 
space  of  40  days.  2.  Specifically,  the  term, 
originally  of  40  days,  but  now  of  undetermined 
length,  during  which  a  ship,  arriving  in  port, 
and  suspected  of  being  infected  with  a  malignant, 
contagious  disease,  is  obliged  to  forbear  all  inter 
course  with  the  shore  ;  hence,  restraint  or  inhi 
bition  of  intercourse  to  which  a  ship  is  subjected, 
on  the  presumption  that  she  may  be  infected.  3 
(law).  The  period  of  40  days,  during  which  the 
widow  has  the  privilege  of  remaining  in  the 
mansion-house  of  which  her  husband  died 
seized."  "  Quarantine  (verb).  To  prohibit  from 
intercourse  with  the  shore  ;  to  compel  to  remain 
at  a  distance,  as  a  ship  from  shore  when  suspected 
of  having  contagious  disease." 

Falconer,  in  his  dictionary,  says,  "  Quarantine, 
the  state  of  the  persons  who  are  restrained  within 
the  limits  of  a  ship  or  lazaretto,  or  otherwise  pre 
vented  from  having  a  free  communication  with 
the  inhabitants  of  any  country  till  the  expiration 
of  an  appointed  time,  during  which  they  are  re 
peatedly  examined  in  regard  to  their  health.  It 
is  chiefly  intended  to  prevent  the  importation  of 
the  plague." 

The  term  quarantine  is  now  employed  not  only 
for  the  detention  of  persons,  effects,  and  mer 
chandise  coming  by  sea,  but  also  for  such  deten 
tion  at  international  or  state  lines,  or  at  a  cordon 
arbitrarily  drawn  within  a  state.  There  is  also  a 


quarantine  of  observation  imposed  upon  vessels 
that  have,  for  any  cause,  communicated  at  sea 
with  another  from  an  infected  port,  or  have 
been  boarded  by  men-of-war  of  a  hostile  nation. 

The  original  period  of  40  days,  or  6  weeks, 
imposed  in  early  times,  is  supposed  by  some  to 
have  had  a  connection  with  the  penitential  period 
of  lent ;  by  others,  that  it  was  presumed  that  6 
weeks  was  the  term  or  limitation  in  which  any 
infectious  disorder  must  certainly  show  itself. 
However  this  may  be,  the  term  is,  and  has  long 
been  established,  in  the  senses  given  above,  in 
the  language  of  every  sea-faring  or  mercantile 
nation. 

In  some  countries  vessels  from  the  Levant,  Bar- 
bary  States,  Havana,  or  Vera  Cruz,  have  always 
to  undergo  some  days'  quarantine  of  observation, 
even  when  coming  with  clean  bill  of  health. 
But  modern  experience  has  shown  that  some  of 
the  pestilential  maladies,  so  called,  are  not  con 
tagious  ;  and  quarantine  of  persons  has  a  con 
stant  tendency  to  become  less  severe,  in  northern 
climates  especially  ;  and  a  mere  routine  prohibi 
tion,  like  that  just  referred  to,  must  eventually 
give  way  to  more  reasonable,  liberal,  and  well- 
founded  ipethods. 

In  1852  a  sanitary  convention  was  held,  most 
of  the  European  states  sending  delegates,  which 
body  recognized  the  right  of  any  country  or 
countries  to  isolate  another  which  was  infected 
with  plague,  yellow  fever,  or  cholera,  either  by 
sanitary  cordon  or  by  subjection  to  quarantine. 
By  agreement  two  kinds  of  bills  of  health  were 
recognized :  one  attesting  the  presence  of  disease 
in  the  country  whence  the  vessel  sailed,  and  the 
other  attesting  the  absence  of  the  malady.  But 
vessels  in  bad  sanitary  condition,  even  if  bearing 
the  first-mentioned  bill  of  health,  were  to  be  de 
tained  for  purification  whenever  the  authorities 
of  the  port  at  which  she  arrived  deemed  it  neces 
sary.  The  minimum  of  detention  was  agreed 
upon  as  follows  :  for  vessels  from  countries  sus 
pected  of  plague,  10  full  days  ;  3  to  6  days  for 
yellow  fever,  and  3  to  5  days  for  cholera.  These 
terms  are  practically  often  exceeded,  at  the  dis 
cretion  of  the  health  officers,  especially  in  south 
ern  Europe.  By  the  convention,  merchandise 
was  divided  into  3  classes :  1st.  That  which  is 
always  quarantined  and  purified.  2d.  That  sub 
ject  to  detention  and  purification  after  examina 
tion  and  decision  by  experts.  3d.  Those  articles 
always  exempt.  Ships  were  to  pay  a  health  due 
according  to  tonnage  ;  and,  while  in  quarantine, 
to  pay  a  fixed  daily  rate,  as  must,  also,  persons 
placed  in  quarantine.  Merchandise  placed  on 
shore  at  a  lazaretto  was  to  pay  a  special  tax,  by 
weight  or  valuation. 

England  refused  to  agree  to  this  convention, 
and  took  the  responsibility  of  practically  doing 
away  with  quarantine  in  her  ports  for  plague, 
yellow  fever,  and  cholera,  except  under  unusual 


QUARANTINE 


672 


QUAKANTINE 


'circumstances,  when  the  power  to  enact  quaran 
tine  lies  in  the  crown,  by  an  order  in  council. 
The  orders  in  council  in  regard  to  yellow  fever 
were  revoked  in  1869. 

Although  this  is  done  there  with  impunity,  at 
least  as  to  the  two  first  diseases,  the  wisdom  of 
spasmodic  action  in  regard  to  cholera  may  well 
be  doubted.  It  would"  be  impossible  for  coun 
tries  situated  in  a  lower  latitude  to  follow  her 
example.  Nowhere,  however,  is  quarantine  more 
strictly  enforced  than  in  the  British  ports  of 
Gibraltar  and  Malta ;  and  the  reason  is  that  any 
attempt  of  the  English  government  to  alter  the 
quarantine  regulations  of  the  Mediterranean  col 
onies,  without  the  sanction  of  the  neighboring 
countries,  would  produce  greater  inconvenience 
than  that  arising  from  the  present  system.  The 
pratique  granted  in  those  colonies  would  not 
then  be  recognized  in  the  neighboring  countries, 
and  all  vessels  from  Malta  or  Gibraltar  would  be 
subjected  by  them  to  a  quarantine  of  observation. 

In  torrid  countries,  where  yellow  fever  and 
cholera  are  endemic,  quarantine  is,  of  course,  of 
little  use,  while  in  lat.  50°  N.  there  is  no  fear 
of  yellow  fever.  Large  discretion  must,  how 
ever,  in  all  cases  and  in  all  countries,  be  invested 
in  the  officers  of  health. 

»  In  1865  another  sanitary  convention  met  at 
Constantinople,  principally  to  deliberate  in  re 
gard  to  cholera.  This  body  again  fully  recog 
nized  the  necessity  of  restrictive  measures,  while 
the  importance  of  striking  at  the  sources  of  epi 
demics  in  the  places  of  their  origin  was  duly  set 
forth. 

The  importance  of  quarantine  has  been  recog 
nized  from  the  earliest  periods,  although  for  ages 
it  only  consisted  in  the  isolation  of  lepers.  In 
the  Middle  Ages  it  was  chiefly  enforced  against 
the  plague,  which  had  been  the  scourge  of  the 
Old  World  for  so  many  centuries.  We  learn 
from  history  that  the  plague  once  prevailed  at 
Athens,  more  or  less  severely,  for  50  years. 
Hippocrates  and  Thucydides  give  accounts  of 
it  as  far  back  as  330  B.C.  The  disease  raged 
throughout  the  Roman  empire  from  250  to  265 
of  our  era,  and  for  some  time  5000  persons  died 
in  Rome  every  day.  When  the  plague  appeared 
in  Alexandria,  A.D.  542,  more  than  half  the  pop 
ulation  was  carried  off.  More  modern  instances 
of  its  dreadful  ravages  in  Europe,  Asia,  and  Af 
rica  are  quite  familiar,  and  it  still  prevails  almost 
every  year  at  Bagdad,  and  other  places  upon 
the  Tigris  and  Euphrates. 

In  later  days,  in  addition  to  plague,  yellow 
fever,  cholera,  and  typhus  have  been  the  dis 
eases  principally  combated  by  quarantine,  and 
for  this  purpose  lazarettoes  have  been  long  in  use. 
Lazaretto  is  derived  from  Lazarus,  the  patron 
saint  of  lepers.  It  may  be  defined  as  an  iso 
lated  establishment,  generally  walled,  on  or 
near  a  port,  built  and  arranged  to  receive  the 
sick  and  those  suspected  of  contagion,  as  well  as 
merchandise.  Lazarettoes  are  most  common  on 
the  routes  of  commerce  and  travel  on  the  shores 
of  the  Mediterranean.  They  often  have  exten 
sive  courts  and  gardens  for  air  and  exercise  for 
those  detained  there,  as  well  as  appliances  for 
disinfecting  men,  their  clothing,  and  goods. 
The  lazarettoes  of  Genoa,  Leghorn,  and  Mar 
seilles  are  so  large  and  well  arranged  that  ships 
need  not  necessarily  be  detained  there,  but  may 
unload  their  cargoes  in  bond.  Important  papers, 


and  money  or  letters  necessary  to  be  transmitted 
through  quarantine,  are  still,  in  many  cases, 
punctured,  fumigated,  or  even  immersed  in 
weak  acids  before  being  allowed  to  circulate. 

Although  lazarettoes  are  of  considerable  an 
tiquity,  they  were  not  established  until,  in  the 
Middle  Ages,  the  plague  had  repeatedly  swept 
the  great  ^commercial  cities  of  the  Mediterra 
nean,  whence  it  spread  to  those  of  the  interior 
with  deplorable  results,  more  than  decimating 
many  of  them.  At  last  the  idea  of  protection 
was  forced  upon  them,  and  Venice,  as  the  queen 
of  commerce,  naturally  took  the  lead.  It  has 
been  said  by  some  writers  that  there  are  traces  in 
her  records  of  some  attempt  at  health  regulations 
about  1130,  and  she  certainly  set  the  example  of 
strict  inspection  of  arriving  vessels  in  1318,  while 
in  1403  the  practice  of  isolation  was  introduced, 
the  island  of  St.  Mary  of  Nazareth  being  set  apart 
for  that  purpose.  Inspection  of  vessels  was  prac 
ticed  at  Reggio,  in  the  Straits  of  Messina,  almost 
at  the  same  time  as  at  Venice.  Some  accounts, 
indeed,  state  that  Reggio  preceded  her.  Count 
Barnabo,  finding  that  those  who  avoided  the 
sick  generally  escaped  the  plague,  established  a 
rough  kind  of  quarantine,  which  consisted  in 
placing  those  sick  of  the  disease,  found  in  vessels 
passing  through  the  straits,  in  an  open  field,  to 
die  or  to  recover,  and  the  persons  engaged  in 
handling  the  patients  were  excluded  from  com 
munication  with  the  population.  In  Florence 
the  state  took  precautions  against  the  spread  of 
epidemics  as  early  as  1348.  In  1453  there  was  a 
lazaretto  in  Sardinia.  In  1448  Venice  had  al 
ready  a  digest  of  quarantine  laws,  and  in  1485 
a  regular  health  commission  was  established  and 
the  purification  of  cargoes  begun. 

The  action  of  Venice,  the  centre  of  commerce, 
went  far  towards  preventing  the  wholesale  mor, 
tality  which  threatened  to  depopulate  much  of 
Europe,  as  the  pest,  once  introduced,  was  fos, 
tered  by  the  filthy  and  unwholesome  mode  oi 
living  then  prevalent  among  all  classes. 

Genoa,  always  a  rival  of  Venice,  speedily  fol 
lowed  her  example  as  to  quarantine,  while  ai 
Marseilles,  the  third  great  commercial  city  oj 
the  Mediterranean,  the  first  measures  in  this  di 
rection  date  from  the  plague  of  1476. 

These  well-intended  efforts  were  not  alwayu 
successful,  for,  in  Marseilles,  in  1656,  it  was  nou 
possible  to  bury  the  dead  from  plague,  and  they 
were  obliged  to  be  burnt,  as  has  often  happened 
elsewhere  in  sweeping  epidemics.  Marseilles, 
indeed,  suffered  from  no  less  than  14  visitations 
of  plague  between  1505  and  1650.  From  the 
latter  year,  when  more  thorough  precautions 
were  taken,  and  a  new  lazaretto  constructed,  to 
1720,  she  escaped  entirely  ;  and  it  has  never  again 
reached  the  city,  although  it  has  prevailed  in  the 
lazaretto  twenty  times,  the  last  occasion  being  in 
the  year  1825. 

The  annoying  precautions  necessary,  and  the 
time  consumed  by  quarantine,  have  always  varied 
with  the  locality,  and  the  port  from  which  the 
suspected  or  infected  vessel  came ;  and  the  se 
verity  of  the  rules,  and  the  stringency  with 
which  they  were  insisted  upon  and  carried  out, 
have  always  excited  the  complaint  of  merchants 
and  travelers.  But  as  education  and  general 
intelligence  extend,  there  is  less  and  less  dispo 
sition  to  question  rules  which  commend  them 
selves  to  every  reasoning  mind  ;  and  business  in- 


QUARANTINE 


673 


QUARANTINE 


terests  and  sanitary  requirements  are  now  much 
more  in  accord.  In  all  places  it  is  a  high  mis 
demeanor  to  evade  or  break  quarantine,  and 
there  appears  less  disposition  to  do  this  at  the 
present  day  than  formerly  existed.  McCulloch, 
in  his  Dictionary  of  Commerce,  says,  "  In  some 
cases,  perhaps,  quarantine  regulations  have  been 
carried  to  a  needless  extent;  but  they  have  more 
frequently,  we  believe,  been  improperly  relaxed." 

As  an  instance  of  protection  afforded  by  quar 
antine  we  may  adduce  the  terrible  scourge  of 
yellow  fever  in  Barcelona,  in  1821,  which  was 
transmitted  by  sea,  thence  reached  Marseilles, 
but  was  excluded  from  that  city  by  rigorous 
quarantine.  The  instances  of  a  like  nature  in 
our  own  country,  both  North  and  South,  are  too 
numerous  to  mention,  especially  in  the  epidemics 
of  yellow  fever  in  recent  times. 

Sanitary  cordons,  connected  with  the  stamping 
out  of  foci  of  disease,  have  recently  been  emi 
nently  successful  in  preventing  the  spread  of 
plague  in  Southern  Russia,  and  of  yellow  fever 
in  our  Southwestern  States. 

A  ship  sailing  from  a  port  to  one  in  another 
country  is  furnished  by  the  consul  of  the  country 
to  which  she  belongs,  or  by  the  local  authorities, 
with  a  bill  of  health,  which  shows  the  sanitary 
condition  of  the  place  of  departure.  If  good, 
it  is  called  a  clean  bill  of  health ;  and  if,  on  the 
contrary,  epidemic  or  contagious  disease  prevails, 
it  is  called  a  foul  one.  A  bill  from  a  suspected 
port  is  sometimes  called  a  touched  one. 

The  nature  of  the  bill  of  health,  and  the  dec 
laration  of  the  master  of  the  vessel,  regulate  the 
length  of  quarantine,  if  any  is  required.  It  is 
not  obligatory  upon  a  master  to  take  a  bill  of 
health,  but  the  absence  of  one  renders  the  vessel 
a  suspected  one  in  her  port  of  arrival. 

Pilots  are  everywhere  required  to  make  inquiry 
in  regard  to  the  port  of  departure  and  state  of 
health  of  vessels  which  they  may  board,  and  are 
required  to  anchor  them  in  proper  place,  accord 
ingly,  under  heavy  penalties.  Fine  and  im 
prisonment  are  the  usual  penalties  for  gross  in 
vasion  of  quarantine  law;  and  in  France,  under 
certain  circumstances,  the  punishment  may  be 
death. 

In  the  case  of  a  man-of-war  sailing  from  a 
port,  the  bill  of  health  is  usually  furnished  gratis 
by  the  authorities ;  and  the  declaration  of  the 
corf  mander  and  of  the  medical  officer  is  usually 
received  as  regards  the  state  of  health  upon 
arrival. 

Much  the  same  precautions  are  taken  with 
regard  to  the  cattle  plague  as  with  merchandise 
and  passengers,  except  that,  in  many  instances, 
the  animals  are' required  to  be  killed  at  once,  and 
always  are  sacrificed  when  symptoms  of  disease 
are  shown. 

In  this  country  all  vessels  arriving  from  for 
eign  ports,  at  any  season  of  the  year,  must  be 
boarded  and  examined  by  the  officers  of  health, 
and  coasting  vessels  come  under  the  same  cate 
gory,  according  to  the  season  of  the  year  and  the 
geographical  position  of  the  ports  from  which 
they  come. 

When  a  vessel  and  her  passengers  have  leave  to 
communicate  freely  with  the  shore,  either  di 
rectly  upon  arrival,  or  after  having  gone  through 
a  term  of  quarantine,  she  is  said  to  have  received 
pratique.  This  is  derived  from  the  Italian  pra- 
tica.  In  the  case  of  infected  or  suspected  vessels, 
43 


the  crew  and  passengers,  and  their  effects,  are 
purified  in  the  lazaretto  or  on  board,  and  the  hold 
of  the  vessel  herself,  and  all  cargoes  of  cotton, 
hemp,  rags,  paper,  hides,  skins,  feathers,  hair, 
and  wool,  are  especially  the  objects  of  disinfec 
tion,  while  metals,  lumber,  sugar,  live-stock,  and 
other  cargoes  are  treated  as  the  discretion  of  the 
health  officers  may  direct.  In  the  Mediterranean 
all  live  animals,  except  horses,  are  supposed  to 
be  ready  conveyors  of  plague,  and  cats  more  so 
than  any  others,  as  in  Eastern  countries  they 
form  part  of  households,  which  dogs  do  not. 

On  this  continent  the  first  quarantine  law  was 
enacted  in  the  Province  of  Pennsylvania,  in  ref 
erence  to  yellow  fever,  in  the  year  1700.  The 
quarantine  station,  still  bearing  the  name  of 
"  Lazaretto,"  exists  in  the  place  in  which  it  was 
originally  established,  a  few  miles  below  Phila 
delphia,  and  depuration  of  passengers  and  car 
goes  is  still  performed  there. 

The  present  condition  of  quarantine  in  the 
different  States  of  the  Union  leaves  much  to  be 
desired,  as  the  States  have  different  and  some 
times  conflicting  laws.  All  provide  some  sort  of 
quarantine  for  contagious  and  infectious  diseases, 
but  the  practice  in  carrying  out  the  necessary 
precautions  is  not  uniform,  and  in  many  cases 
inefficient. 

In  1804,  Mr.  Jefferson  protested  against  the 
passage  of  a  general  law  regulating  quarantine, 
as  an  interference  with  States'  rights  ;  and  each 
State  has  continued  to  have  its  own  code,  some 
very  good,  and  others  harassing  and  contradic 
tory.  A  national  quarantine  law  was  proposed 
in  1872,  but  only. passed  one  house  of  Congress. 
There  is  no  doubt,  however,  that  the  passage  of 
such  an  act  is  only  a  question  of  time. 

The  National  Board  of  Health  is  now  doing 
excellent  service,  not  only  in  practical  work,  but 
in  educating  the  people  to  a  proper  appreciation 
of  the  necessity  of  a  general  quarantine  law. 
The  following  is  the  act  of  Congress  establishing 
the  National  Board : 

u  AN  ACT  to  prevent  the  introduction  of  infectious 
or  contagious  diseases  into  the  United  States, 
and  to  establish  a  National  Board  of  Health. 
1 '  Be  it  enacted  by  the  Senate  and  House  of  Rep 
resentatives  of  the  United  States  of  America,  in 
Congress  assembled,  That  there  shall  be  estab 
lished  a  National  Board  of  Health  to  consist  of 
seven  members,  to  be  appointed  by  the  President, 
by  and  with  the  advice  and  consent  of  the  Senate, 
not  more  than  one  of  whom  shall  be  appointed 
from  any  one  State,  whose  compensation,  during 
the  time  when  actually  engaged  in  the  perform 
ance  of  their  duties  under  this  act,  shall  be  ten 
dollars  per  diem  each  and  reasonable  expenses, 
and  of  one  medical  officer  of  the  army,  one 
medical  officer  of  the  navy,  one  medical  officer 
of  the  Marine  Hospital  Service,  and  one  officer 
from  the  Department  of  Justice,  to  be  detailed  by 
the  Secretaries  of  the  several  Departments  and 
the  Attorney-General  respectively,  and  the  officers 
so  detailed  shall  receive  no  compensation.  Said 
board  shall  meet  in  Washington  within  thirty 
days  after  the  passage  of  this  act,  and  in  Wash 
ington  or  elsewhere  from  time  to  time  upon 
notice  from  the  president  of  the  board,  who  is  to 
be  chosen  by  the  members  thereof,  or  upon  its 
own  adjournments,  and  shall  frame  all  rules  and 
regulations  authorized  or  required  by  this  act, 


QUARANTINE 


674 


QUAKTEE 


and  shall  make  or  cause  to  be  made  such  special 
examinations  and  investigations  at  any  place  or 
places  within  the  United  States,  or  at  foreign 
ports,  as  they  may  deem  best  to  aid  in  the 
execution  of  this  act  and  the  promotion  of  its 
objects. 

"  SEC.  2.  The  duties  of  the  National  Board  of 
Health  shall  be  to  obtain  information  upon  all 
matters  affecting  the  public  health,  to  advise  the 
several  Departments  of  the  government,  the 
executives  of  the  several  States,  and  the  commis 
sioners  of  the  District  of  Columbia  on  all  ques 
tions  submitted  by  them,  or  whenever,  in  the 
opinion  of  the  board,  such  advice  may  tend  to 
the  preservation  and  improvement  of  the  public 
health. 

"  SEC.  3.  That  the  Board  of  Health,  with  the 
assistance  of  the  Academy  of  Science,  which  is 
hereby  requested  and  directed  to  co-operate  with 
them  for  that  purpose,  shall  report  to  Congress 
at  its  next  session  a  full  statement  of  its  trans 
actions,  together  with  a  plan  for  a  national  pub 
lic  health  organization,  which  plan  shall  be  pre 
pared  after  consultation  with  the  principal  sani 
tary  organizations  and  the  sanitarians  of  the 
several  States  of  the  United  States,  special  at 
tention  being  given  to  the  subject  of  quarantine, 
both  maritime  and  inland,  and  especially  as  to 
regulations  which  should  be  established  between 
State  or  local  systems  of  quarantine  and  a  na 
tional  quarantine  system. 

"SEC.  4.  The  sum  of  $50,000,  or  so  much 
thereof  as  may  be  necessary,  is  hereby  appropri 
ated  to  pay  the  salaries  and  expenses  of  said 
Board  and  carry  out  the  purposes  of  this  act. 

"  Approved  March  3,  1879." 

This  act  was  supplemented  by  another,  ap 
proved  June  2,  1879,  entitled  "  An  act  to  pre 
vent  the  introduction  of  contagious  or  infectious 
diseases  into  the  United  States." 

This  act  provides  for  the  co-operation  of  the 
National  board  with  the  State  boards  ;  and  where 
there  are  no  local  boards,  or  their  regulations  and 
means  of  prevention  are  not  sufficient,  as  is  often 
the  case,  they  are  to  be  assisted  by  proper  per 
sons,  to  be  detailed  by  the  President ;  and  if 
they  shall  fail  or  refuse  to  enforce  proper  rules 
and  regulations,  the  President  may  detail  proper 
persons  to  do  so. 

Rules  and  regulations  shall  be  made  by  the 
National  board  by  which  information  can  be  ob 
tained  of  the  sanitary  condition  of  foreign  ports 
from  which  contagious  or  infectious  diseases  are 
or  may  be  imported  into  the  United  States.  Con 
suls  are  obliged  to  make  constant  sanitary  reports 
of  the  condition  of  such  ports  ;  and  medical  offi 
cers  may  be  detailed  for  residence  at  such  ports, 
for  the  purpose  of  giving  advice  and  assistance, 
and  for  seeing  that  vessels  sailing  for  the  United 
States  are  put  in  good  sanitary  condition.  Do 
mestic  reports  are  also  obtained  from  all  parts  of 
the  country,  by  which  any  tendency  to  the  de 
velopment  of  epidemics  is  at  once  detected.  The 
sum  of  $500,000  provided  by  this  act  is  to  be  dis 
bursed  under  the  direction  of  the  Secretary  of 
the  Treasury,  upon  estimates  made  by  the  board, 
and  the  appropriation  is  considered  "continuous. 
Local  sanitation,  except  in  rare  cases  (where  dis 
infectants  and  money  to  pay  sanitary  inspectors 
and  police  have  been  provided),  is  not  one  of  the 
duties  of  the  board,  as  no  attainable  appropria 


tion  would  be  sufficient  to  serve  such  a  pur 
pose. 

This  law  was  hardly  promulgated  when  the 
board  found  itself  confronted  by  an  alarming 
outbreak  of  yellow  fever  in  Memphis,  as  well  as 
the  occurrence  of  some  threatening  cases  in  New 
Orleans.  The  disease  also  appeared  in  some  other 
localities,  and  the  highest  legal  authorities  recog 
nized  the  obvious  duty  of  the  board  to  be  the  as 
sistance  of  the  local  authorities  in  the  stricken 
communities  in  their  efforts  to  stamp  out  the  dis 
ease  and  prevent  its  spread  to  other  States.  By 
the  measures  recommended  by  the  board,  and  the 
pecuniary  aid  extended  to  enable  the  authorities 
to  carry  out  the  recommendations,  the  spread  of 
the  disease  was  actually  restrained  within  nar 
row  limits.  Measures  were  also  advised  as  to 
precautionary  work  during  the  succeeding  win 
ter,  which  proved  so  successful  that  a  very  hot 
summer  has  just  passed  without  the  occurrence 
of  a  single  case  of  yellow  fever  in  Memphis.  This 
result  is  most  encouraging.  Space  does  not  per 
mit  a  reference  to  other  functions  of  the  National 
Board  of  Health  ;  but  we  may  say  that  the  con 
stant  reports  of  experts  received  by  it,  with  the 
publication  of  essays  on  drainage,  ventilation, 
and  cognate  subjects,  as  well  as  the  collection  of 
statistics  on  a  grand  scale,  have  laid  the  founda 
tion  for  a  wise  and  scientific  treatment  of  the 
whole  subject  of  quarantine  and  national  hy 
giene. 

Another  international  conference  upon  quar 
antine  is  to  be  held  at  Washington  in  January, 
1881.—  E.  Shippen. 

QUARANTINE-FLAG.  A  yellow  flag  hoisted  in 
a  conspicuous  place  to  indicate  the  presence  of 
contagious  disease.  It  is  hoisted  at  the  fore  of 
vessels  undergoing  quarantine,  and  is  familiarly 
termed  yellow-jack. 

Quarry.  The  prey  taken  by  whalers, — a  term 
borrowed  from  falconers. 

Quarter.  The  part  of  a  yard  just  outside  the 
slings.  The  upper  part  of  the  topsides  at  the 
after  end  of  a  ship.  On  the  quarter,  the  position 
of  an  object  45°  abaft  the  beam. 

QUARTER-BADGE.  An  artificial  gallery;  a 
carved  ornament  near  the  stern  of  those  vessels 
which  have  no  quarter-galleries. 

QUARTER-BLOCKS.  Blocks  under  the  quarters 
of  the  yards,  to  act  as  leaders  for  the  sheets  and 
clewlines. 

QUARTER-BOAT.  Any  boat  is  thus  designated 
which  is  hung  to  davits  over  the  ship's  quarter  ; 
it  is  used  as  a  life-boat. 

QUARTER- DAVITS.  Pieces  of  iron  or  timber 
with  sheaves  or  blocks  at  their  outer  ends,  pro 
jecting  from  a  vessel's  quarters,  to  hoist  boats  up 
to. 

QUARTER-DECK.  The  upper  deck  abaft  the 
mainmast.  Naval  etiquette  requires  all  persons 
to  salute  on  coming  on  the  quarter-deck,  and  to 
conduct  themselves  in  a  decorous  manner  while 
thereon.  The  starboard  side  in  port  and  the 
weather  side  at  sea  are  reserved  for  the  use  of 
the  commanding  and  executive-officers,  and  the 
officer  of  the  deck. 

QUARTER-DECKERS.  Officers  more  conspicuous 
for  their  observance  of  etiquette  than  for  their 
knowledge  of  the  requirements  of  their  profes 
sion. 

QUARTER-DECKISH.     Punctilious ;  severe. 

QUARTER-FAST.     See  FAST. 


QUARTEK-GALLEY 


675 


QUOTA-MEN 


QUARTER-GALLERIES.  Projections  from  the 
quarters  which  are  intended  to  ornament  and 
make  a  finish  to  the  quarters,  as  well  as  to  be 
useful ;  they  are  only  fitted  on  vessels  of  war. 

QUARTERING.  Wind  blowing  from  a  point 
about  45°  abaft  the  beam. 

QUARTER-TACKLE.  A  tackle  hooked  to  the 
quarter  of  one  of  the  lower  yards,  and  used  with 
the  yard-tackle  in  hoisting  heavy  articles  out  or 
in.  It  has  been  superseded  by  the  stay-tackle. 

Quarter-galley.     A  Barbary  cruiser. 

§uarter-gunner.     See  GUNNER. 
uarter-hung.     A  gun  is  quarter-hung  when 
the  axis  of  the  trunnions  is  below  the  axis  of  the 
bore. 

Quarterly  Returns.  Returns  of  stores  on  hand 
at  the  end  of  the  quarter,  with  the  receipts  and 
expenditures  during  the  quarter. 

QUARTER-MASTER.  A  petty  officer  who  assists 
the  navigator  in  the  minor  details  of  his  various 
duties.  "The  quarter-masters  have  charge  of  the 
log,  leads,  lights,  colors,  signal-apparatus,  com 
passes,  helm,  etc.,  and  in  action  are  stationed  at 
the  conn,  helm,  and  relieving-tackles,  attend  to 
making  and  reading  signals,  and  when  on  sound 
ings  heave  the  lead.  They  keep  regular  watch 
from  the  beginning  of  a  cruise  till  a  ship  goes 
out  of  commission.  They  are  always  selected 
from  the  most  experienced  and  reliable  seamen. 

Quarters.  The  stations  of  officers  and  men  at 
the  guns  for  battle,  for  exercise,  or  for  inspection. 
The  stations  for  battle  or  for  exercise,  as  though 
engaged  in  battle,  are  distinguished  as  general 
quarters.  The  apartment  allotted  to  a  person  or 
mess. 

QUARTER-BILL.  A  bill  giving  the  stations  of 
officers  and  men  in  actions. 

Quarter- watch.  A  division  of  one- fourth  part 
of  the  ship's  company.  In  the  days  when  a  ship 
carried  a  large  number  of  men,  a  quarter-watch 
was  sufficient  to  handle  her  in  pleasant  weather. 

Quashee.  The  familiar  designation  of  a  West 
India  negro. 

Quator  Maria.  The  four  seas  which  surround 
Great  Britain  ;  the  British  Seas. 

Quay.  An  artificial  bank  or  wharf,  at  the  side 
of  a  harbor  or  stream,  at  which  vessels  receive  and 
discharge  cargo. 

QUAYAGE.     Wharfage. 

QUAY-BERTH.  A  loading  or  discharging  berth 
for  a  ship  in  a  public  dock. 

Quebec,  the  second  city  of  Canada,  is  situated 
on  the  left  bank  of  the  St.  Lawrence  River 
(which  is  here  joined  by  the  St.  Charles),  in  lat. 
46°  49'  6"  N.,  and  Ion.  71°  13'  45"  W.  Ship 
building  is  the  principal  industry.  There  are 
also  manufactures  of  iron  castings,  machinery, 
cutlery,  nails,  leather,  musical  instruments,  rope, 
etc.  The  principal  export  is  lumber,  furnished 


principally  by  the  forests  on  the  Ottawa  and  St. 
Maurice  Rivers,  and  down  these  rivers  it  is 
rafted  to  the  St.  Lawrence,  and  the  rafts  some 
times  extend  for  6  miles  along  this  river  at 
Quebec.  Pop.  55,000. 

Quebranta  Huesos  (%).  Literally,  bone- 
breaker.  A  name  for  the  great  petrel,  Procellaria 
gigantea. 

Queche.     A  small  Portuguese  smack. 

Queen's  Parade  (Eng.}.     The  quarter-deck. 

Queenstown,  Cork  County,  Ireland,  is  situated 
on  the  south  side  of  Great  Island,  in  Cork  harbor. 
It  is  well  protected  by  batteries,  and  on  the  islands 
opposite  are  additional  fortifications,  magazines, 
etc.  American  steamers  bound  for  Liverpool 
usually  call  at  Queenstown.  Pop.  11,000. 

Queriman.  A  mullet  of  Guiana,  found  in  tur 
bid  waters. 

Querquedule.  A  light  vessel ;  a  boat.  Also, 
a  sea-fish. 

Quicken.  In  ship-building,  to  give  anything 
a  greater  curve. 

Quick  Firing.     See  FIRING. 

Quick-match.     See  MATCH. 

Quick-saver.  A  span  formerly  used  to  pre 
vent  the  courses  from  bellying  too  much  when 
off  the  wind. 

Quick-work.  All  that  part  of  a  ship  which  is 
under  water  when  she  is  laden  ;  it  is  also  applied 
to  that  part  of  the  inner  upper- works  of  a  ship 
above  the  covering-board.  Also,  the  short  planks 
worked  inside  between  the  ports.  In  ship-build 
ing  the  term  strictly  applies  to  that  part  of  a 
vessel's  side  which  is  above  the  chain-wales  and 
decks,  as  well  as  to  the  strakes  which  shut  in  be 
tween  the  spirketings  and  clamps.  In  general 
parlance  quick- work  is  synonymous  with  spirket- 
ing. 

Quietus.     A  severe  blow  ;  a  settler. 

Quill-tube.     See  PRIMER. 

Quilting.  A  kind  of  coating  formed  of  sennit, 
strands  of  rope,  etc.,  outside  any  vessel  containing 
water.  Also,  the  giving  a  man  a  beating  with  a 
rope's  end. 

Quink.  A  name  for  the  golden-eyed  duck, 
Anas  clangula. 

Quinquereme.  An  ancient  vessel  with  5 
banks  of  oars.  According  to  Polybius  a  quin- 
quereme  carried  300  seamen  and  120  soldiers. 
See  TRIREME. 

Quod.     Durance ;  prison. 

Quoin.  A  wedge-shaped  wooden  implement. 
Before  the  introduction  of  elevating  screws, 
quoins  were  used  in  elevating  guns.  Chocking- 
quoins  are  used  under  the  trucks  of  a  gun-car 
riage  to  prevent  its  running  out  or  in. 

Quota-men  (Eng.}.  Men  raised  for  the  navy 
at  great  expense  by  Pitt's  quota-bill,  in  1795. 
They  received  bounties  of  from  $100  to  $300. 


R 


676 


RACING 


R 


R.  Abbreviation  for  are  in  the  U.  S.  General 
Service  Signal  Code.  On  the  ship's  books,  E 
denotes  run  when  placed  against  the  name  of  a 
deserter.  In  the  log-book  r  denotes  rainy, 

Rabanet,  or  Rabinet.  A  small,  slender  piece 
of  ordnance,  formerly  used  for  ships'  barricades. 
It  had  a  1-inch  bore,  and  carried  about  a  £-pound 
ball. 

Rabatment.  The  drawing  of  the  real  shape 
of  the  molding  of  the  pieces  in  the  frames  in  any 
required  position. 

Rabatt,  Morocco,  is  situated  on  the  south  side 
of  the  Boo  Regreb  River,  at  its  mouth,  imme 
diately  opposite  Sale.  It  has  strong  walls  and 
batteries,  a  citadel  and  barracks.  It  has  manu 
factures  of  pottery  and  carpets,  an  export  trade 
in  wool  and  corn,  and  considerable  traffic.  It 
was  formerly  the  centre  of  the  European  trade 
with  Morocco.  Pop.  27,000. 

Rabbet.  A  groove  in  a  piece  of  timber,  cut 
for  the  purpose  of  receiving  another  piece.  On 
the  stem,  stern-post,  and  keel  of  wooden  ships 
it  is  cut  to  receive  the  planking. 

Race.  When  the  tidal-wave  passing  along 
the  coast  is  arrested  in  its  course,  the  water, 
under  certain  conditions,  attains  a  height  which 
causes  it  to  flow  off  obliquely ;  such  a  current  is 
called  a  race.  The  canal  by  which  water  is  con 
ducted  to  and  from  a  water-wheel. 

Race-horse.  A  duck  of  the  South  Seas,  thus 
named,  says  Cook,  for  u  the  great  swiftness  with 
which  they  run  on  the  water." 

Racine  is  situated  on  the  west  shore  of  Lake 
Michigan,  at  the  mouth  of  Root  River,  in  Racine 
County,  Wis.,  and  is  the  second  city  in  the  State 
in  commerce  and  population.  It  has  large  grain- 
elevators,  threshing-machine  works,  woolen- 
mills,  wagon-factories,  fanning-mill  factories, 
wire-works,  machine-shops,  etc.  Owing  to  its 
extensive  manufacturing  enterprises,  Racine  re 
quires  great  shipping  facilities,  and  these  are 
supplied  by  three  lines  of  railways.  On  the  lake 
the  West  \Shore  Steamboat  Line  makes  daily 
trips  to  Chicago,  and  the  lower  lake  propellers 
make  regular  stops  at  this  port.  There  are  in 
addition  to  these  quite  a  number  of  sailing-ves 
sels  owned  here.  Pop.  18,000. 

Racing.  A  term  applied  when  a  marine  en 
gine  suddenly  acquires  an  abnormally  high  or 
irregular  speed,  caused  by  the  propeller  being 
partially  emerged  from  the  water  by  the  action 
of  a  heavy  sea. 

Racing,  Laws  of  Boat-  (Adopted  by  the  Na 
tional  Association  of  Amateur  Oarsmen). 

1.  All  boat-races  shall  be  started  in  the  follow 
ing  manner:  The  starter,  on  being  satisfied  that 
the  competitors  are  ready,  shall  give  the  signal 
to  start. 

2.  If  the  starter  considers  the  start  false,  he 
shall  at  once  recall  the  boats  to  their  stations, 
and  any  boat  refusing  to  start  again  shall  be  dis 
qualified. 


3.  Any  boat  not  at  its  post  at  the  time  speci 
fied  shall  be  liable  to  be  disqualified  by  the  um 
pire. 

4.  The  umpire  may  act  as  starter  as  he  thinks 
fit ;  where  he  does  not  so  act,  the  starter  shall  be 
subject  to  the  control  of  the  umpire. 

5.  Each  boat  shall  keep  its  own  water  through 
out  the  race,  and  any  boat  departing  from  its  own 
water  will  do  so  at  its  peril. 

6.  A  boat's  own  water  is  its  straight  course, 
parallel  with  those  of  the  other  competing  boats, 
from  the  station  assigned  to  it  at  the  starting  to 
the  finish. 

7.  The  umpire  shall  be  sole  judge  of  a  boat's 
own  water  and  proper  course  during  the  race. 

8.  No  fouling  whatever  shall  be  allowed  ;  the 
boat  committing  a  foul  shall  be  disqualified. 

9.  It  shall  be  considered  a  foul  when,  after  the 
race  has  commenced,  any  competitor,  by  his  oar, 
boat,  or  person,  comes  in  contact  with  the  oar, 
boat,  or  person  of  another  competitor,  unless,  in 
the  opinion  of  the  umpire,  such  contact  is  so 
slight  as  not  to  influence  the  race. 

10.  The  umpire  may,  during  a  race,  caution 
any  competitor,  when  in  danger  of  committing 
a  foul. 

11.  The  umpire,  when  appealed  to,  shall  de 
cide  all  questions  as  to  a  foul. 

.12.  A  claim  of  foul  must  be  made  to  the  judge 
or  the  umpire  by  the  competitor  himself  before 
getting  out  of  his  boat. 

13.  In  case  of  a  foul,  the  umpire  shall  have 
the  power — a.  To  place  the  boats    (except   the 
boat  committing  the  foul,  which  is  disqualified) 
in  the  order  in  which  they  come  in.    b.  To  order 
the  boats  engaged  in  the  race,  other  than  the 
boat  committing  the  foul,  to  row  over  again  on 
the   same   or   another  day.     c.    To   restart   the 
qualified  boats  from  the  place  where  the  foul  was 
committed. 

14.  Every  boat  shall  abide  by  its  accidents. 

15.  No  boat  shall  be  allowed  to  accompany  a 
competitor  for  the  purpose  of  directing  his  course 
or  affording  him  other  assistance.     The  boat  re 
ceiving  such  direction  or  assistance  shall  be  dis 
qualified  at  the  discretion  of  the  umpire. 

16.  The  jurisdiction  of  the    umpire    extends 
over  the  race  and  all  matters  connected  with  i«t, 
from  the  time  the  race  is  specified  to  start  until 
its  final  termination,  and  his  decision  in  all  cases 
shall  be  final  and  without  appeal. 

17.  Any  competitor  refusing  to  abide  by  the 
decision,  or  to  follow  the  directions  of  the  um 
pire,  shall  be  disqualified. 

18.  Boats  shall  be  started  by  their  sterns,  and 
shall  have  completed  their  course  when  the  bows 
reach  the  finish. 

19.  In  turning  races,   each  competitor  shall 
have  a  separate   turning-stake,   and  shall  turn 
from  port  to  starboard.  Any  competitor  may  turn 
any  stake  other  than  his  own,  but  does  so  at  his 
peril. 


RACK 


677 


RALEIGH 


20.  The  umpire,  if  he  thinks  proper,  may  re 
serve  his  decision,  provided  that  in  every  case 
such  decision  be  given  on  the  day  of  the  race. 

Rack.  To  bind  two  parts  of  a  rope  or  tackle 
together  with  spun-yarn,  marline,  etc.  An  iron 
support  for  shot  at  the  waterways  and  around  the 
hatches.  A  receptacle  for  the  hauling  part  of 
the  topsail  halliards.  The  upper  stratum  of 
clouds.  Rack  of  the  weather,  the  direction  in 
which  the  upper  stratum  of  clouds  is  passing. 

RACK-BAR.  A  billet  of  wood  used  for  twisting 
the  bight  of  a  swifter  round,  in  order  to  bind  a 
raft  firmly  together. 

RACKING.  Spun-yarn  or  other  stuff  used  to 
rack  two  parts  of  a  rope  together. 

RACKING-TURNS.  Turns  taken  alternately 
over  and  under  the  parts  of  a  rope  to  be  bound 
together. 

RACK-RIDER.  The  name  of  the  samlet  in  north 
ern  fisheries,  so  called  because  it  generally  ap 
pears  in  bad  weather. 

Rack  and  Pinion.  An  arrangement  of  toothed 
gearing  by  which  motion  is  converted  from  ro 
tative  to  rectilinear,  or  from  rectilinear  to  rota 
tive.  The  rack  consists  of  a  straight  bar  pro 
vided  with  projections  or  teeth ;  the  pinion  is  a 
revolving  piece  having  teeth  to  match  those  of 
the  rack,  and  both  parts  are  provided  with  suit 
able  bearings  or  supports.  If  the  pinion  is  fixed 
in  position,  the  rack  will  slide  in  direction  of  its 
length  ;  and  if  the  rack  is  fixed,  the  centre  of 
the  pinion  will  move  parallel  to  its  face.  The 
velocity-ratio  between  rectilinear  and  rotative 
motion  depends  upon  the  ratio  between  the  ra 
dius  of  the  pitch-line  of  the  pinion  and  that  of 
the  circumference  through  which  the  rotative 
motion  acts. 

Rack-block.  A  range  of  sheaves. cut  in  one 
piece  of  wood. 

Raddle.  To  interlace ;  as  in  making  boats' 
gripes  and  flat  gaskets. 

Radford,  William,  Rear-Admiral  U.S.N. 
William  Radford  was  born  in  Virginia.  He  was 
appointed  from  the  State  of  Missouri,  March 
1,  1825;  attached  to  Mediterranean  Squadron, 
1827-28;  and  to  sloop-of-war  "Erie,"  West 
India  Squadron,  1830-31. 

Promoted  to  passed  midshipman,  June  4, 1831 ; 
attached  to  sloop-of-war  "John  Adams,"  Medi 
terranean  Squadron,  1835. 

Promoted  to  lieutenant,  February  9,  1837  ; 
attached  to  sloop-of-war  "  Warren,"  Pacific 
Squadron,  1845-47. 

Lieut.  Radford  commanded  the  party  that  cut 
out  the  "  Malokadel,"  a  Mexican  vessel  of  war, 
at  Mazatlan,  west  coast  of  Mexico ;  attached  to 
store-ship  "Lexington,"  1852-53. 

Promoted  to  commander,  September  14,  1855; 
commanding  sloop-of-war  "Dacotah,"  East  In 
dia  Squadron,  1860-61. 

Commissioned  as  captain  in  1862 ;  command 
ing  sloop-of-war  "  Cumberland"  in  1861,  and  was 
on  court-martial  duty  at  Old  Point  when  that 
ship  was  attacked  by  the  ram  "Merrimac," 
which  had  steamed  down  from  Norfolk.  Com 
mander  Radford  made  strenuous  exertions  to 
reach  his  ship  before  the  fight  was  over,  but 
arrived  at  Newport  News  just  as  the  "  Cumber 
land"  was  sinking. 

Promoted  to  commodore,  April  24,  1863  ;  com 
manded  frigate  "New  Ironsides,"  an  ironclad 
division  of  Porter's  squadron,  at  the  two  attacks 


upon  Fort  Fisher,  in  December,  1864,  and  Jan 
uary,  1865 ;  commandant  at  Washington  Navy- 
Yard,  1866-68. 

Commissioned  as  rear-admiral  in  1868 ;  com 
manding  European  Squadron  in  1869-70  ;  special 
duty,  Washington,  1871-72.  Retired  March  1, 
1870. 

Radiant.  The  point  whence  numbers  of 
shooting-stars  seem  to  diverge  in  star-showers. 

Radius-bar,  or  Radius-rod.  A  bar  or  rod  re 
strained  to  a  fixed  centre  at  one  end,  and  guiding 
a  movable  body,  in  an  arc,  at  the  other ;  as,  in 
Watts 's  parallel-motion. 

Radus.  A  name  for  the  constellation  Erida- 
nus. 

Raft.  A  number  of  logs,  planks,  etc.,  firmly 
bound  together.  See  LIFE-RAFTS. 

RAFT-DOG.  A  flat  piece  of  iron,  each  end  of 
which  is  bent  at  right  angles  and  pointed. 

RAFT-PORT.  A  port  cut  in  a  vessel,  forward 
or  aft,  near  the  water-line,  for  convenience  in 
loading  or  unloading  timber  ;  a  timber-port. 

Rag-bolt.  A  bolt  having  its  surface  rough 
ened  by  raising  sharp  prominences  by  cuts  of  a 
chisel,  so  that  it  may  not  be  easily  withdrawn 
from  the  wood  into  which  it  is  driven. 

Rail.  The  upper  part  of  the  bulwarks.  Rods 
and  stanchions  across  the  ship  at  the  break  of  the 
poop  or  forecastle.  Rails  of  the  head,  curved 
pieces  of  timber  extending  from  the  bows  on  each 
side  to  the  continuation  of  the  ship's  stem,  to 
support  the  knee  of  the  head. 

Rain-cloud.     See  CLOUD. 

Rains.  Belts  or  zones  of  calms,  where  heavy 
rain  prevails ;  they  exist  between  the  northeast 
and  southeast  trade-winds,  changing  their  lati 
tude  several  degrees,  depending  on  the  sun's  dec 
lination.  In  India  "the  rains"  come  in  with 
the  southwest  monsoon. 

Raise.  To  increase  the  apparent  elevation  of 
an  object  by  approaching  it.  A  vessel  is  raised 
upon  when  she  is  heightened  in  her  upper  works. 
To  raise  the  wind,  to  procure  funds.  To  raise  a 
mouse,  to  make  a  mouse  on  a  stay.  (See  MOUSE.) 
The  prize-fighters  have  adopted  this  expression, 
and  mean  by  it  to  raise  a  lump  on  the  face  of  the 
opponent. 

RAISE-NET.  A  kind  of  staked  net,  so  called 
from  rising  and  falling  with  the  tide. 

Rake.  The  overhang  of  the  stern,  stem,  or 
masts  of  a  ship  beyond  a  perpendicular  with  the 
keel.  To  fire  at  a  ship  from  such  a  position, 
ahead  or  astern,  that  the  projectiles  range  fore 
and  aft  the  ship,  sweeping  the  decks. 

RAKING-FIRE.     See  FIRE. 

RAKISH.  Having  a  saucy  appearance  indi 
cative  of  speed  and  dash. 

Raleigh,  Sir  Walter,  was  born  in  1552,  at 
Hayes,  County  of  Devonshire,  England.  In 
1568  he  was  sent  to  Oxford  as  a  commoner  of 
Oriel  College,  but  only  remained  there  one  year, 
going  to  France  as  a  volunteer  in  an  expedition 
in  aid  of  the  Huguenots.  Some  years  later  we 
find  him  serving  in  the  Low  Countries  with  the 
English  force  sent  by  Queen  Elizabeth  to  assist 
the  Dutch  in  their  struggle  against  the  Spaniards. 
Participating  in  the  desire  of  his  half-brother, 
Sir  Humphrey  Gilbert,  to  establish  a  colony  on 
the  eastern  coast  of  America,  this  remarkable 
man  accompanied  the  unfortunate  expedition  in 
1579,  but  happily  escaped  Gilbert's  fate  and  re 
turned  home.  Fired  with  the  idea  of  creating  a 


KAM 


678 


KANSOM 


great  colonial  empire  which  should  make  Eng 
land  the  equal  of  Spain,  Walter  Kaleigh  obtained 
a  patent  from  Queen  Elizabeth  for  the  discovery 
and  settlement  of  parts  of  the  great  transat 
lantic  shore,  and  on  the  strength  of  this  power 
he  dispatched  2  vessels  under  Amades  and 
Barlow,  to  proceed  to  the  coast  of  Florida.  The 
result  was  the  possession  and  occupation  of  the 
territory  called,  in  compliment  to  the  maiden 
queen,  Virginia.  This  occurred  in  1585-86.  Ten 
years  later  Kaleigh  obtained  the  means  of  pro 
ceeding  to  what  he  believed  to  be  a  land  of  gold,— 
El  Dorado,  in  fanciful  phrase, — but  in  reality  the 
shore  of  the  northeastern  part  of  South  America. 
He  reached  Guiana,  and  proclaimed  it  the  prop 
erty  of  England.  Leaving  his  ships  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Orinoco,  he  sailed  400  miles  up  the  river, 
and  succeeded  in  gaining  the  good  will  of  the 
Indians.  But  beyond  the  honor  of  the  geo 
graphical  discovery  Ealeigh  reaped  no  advantage 
from  his  voyage  to  Guiana,  nor  was  the  queen  or 
her  successor,  James  I.,  disposed  to  ratify  the  en 
terprise  by  formally  colonizing  Guiana.  On  his 
return  home  he  fell  into  disfavor  with  James  I., 
and  for  an  imputed  offense  suffered  12  years' 
imprisonment  in  the  Tower  of  London.  After 
his  release  the  king,  to  gratify  his  own  cupidity, 
sanctioned  a  second  voyage  to  Guiana.  Its  un 
productiveness  revived  the  animosity  which  had 
contributed  to  his  long  imprisonment,  and  being 
put  upon  his  trial  on  new  charges,  he  was  sen 
tenced  to  be  beheaded,  and  on  the  morning  of 
the  29th  of  October,  1618,  in  the  66th  year  of 
his  age,  he  was  executed. 

Ram.  A  long  spar,  iron-hooped  at  the  end, 
used  for  driving  out  blocks  from  beneath  a  ves 
sel's  keel,  and  for  driving  planks  an-end  while 
only  wedged  to  the  ship's  side.  To  ram,  to  force 
home  the  charge  of  a  gun.  To  run  bows-on  into 
another  vessel.  See  MARINE  KAMS. 

HAMMER.  A  staff  with  a  cylindrical  head, 
used  in  loading  to  press  home  the  charge  of  a 
gun. 

Rambade.  The  elevated  platform  built  across 
the  prow  of  a  galley,  for  boarding,  etc. 

Ram-block.     An  old  name  for  a  dead-eye. 

Ramed.  Said  of  a  ship  upon  the  stocks  when 
the  frames,  stem,  and  stern-post  are  adjusted 
from  the  use  of  the  rarn-line. 

Ram-head.  An  old  name  for  a  halliard- 
block. 

Ram-line.  A  small  line  which  was  used  in 
old  times  for  the  purpose  of  determining  the 
centre-line  of  a  ship,  and  also  for  running  sheer- 
lines  when  long  battens  were  not  attainable. 

Ramper-eel.  A  name  of  the  lamprey,  Petro- 
myzon  marinus. 

Ram-reel.     Synonymous  with  stag-dance. 

Ramsgate,  Kent  County,  England,  is  situated 
on  the  east  coast  of  the  Isle  of  Thanet.  Its  arti 
ficial  haven,  formed  by  two  stone  piers  project 
ing  from  1500  to  2000  feet  into  the  sea,  incloses 
an  inner  basin,  and  is  bordered  by  wet-  and  dry- 
docks.  It  is  a  member  of  the  Cinque  Port  of 
Sandwich,  and  has  quite  a  coasting-trade,  fish 
eries,  and  imports  of  provisions  from  the  Neth 
erlands  and  France.  Pop.  14,700. 

Ran.     Yarns  coiled  on  a  spun-yarn  winch. 

Ranee.  The  strut  or  support  of  a  Congreve- 
rocket. 

Randan.  A  mode  of  rowing  with  alternate 
long  and  short  oars. 


Random  Shot,  or  Random  Range.  A  shot 
made  when  the  muzzle  is  highly  elevated  ;  the 
utmost  range  may  be  at  an  angle  of  45°,  which  is 
supposed  to  be  about  ten  times  as  great  as  the 
point-blank,  but  improved  gunnery  has  now  put 
the  term  out  of  use. 

Range.  The  straight  line  joining  two  promi 
nent  objects.  The  distance  from  the  muzzle  of  a 
gun  to  the  point  at  which  the  projectile  first 
strikes.  (See  POINT-BLANK.)  To  range,  to  sail 
parallel  with  and  near  to  ;  as,  to  range  the  coast, 
to  range  alongside,  etc.  Range  of  cable,  a  certain 
quantity  of  slack  cable  hauled  up  out  of  the 
locker  and  ranged  along  the  deck,  to  decrease 
the  strain  brought  on  the  cable  and  bitts  when 
the  anchor  is  let  go. 

Range-heads.     The  windlass-bitts. 

Rangoon,  the  capital  of  British  Burmah  and 
of  Rangoon  district,  India,  is  situated  on  the 
east  arm  of  the  Irrawaddy,  in  lat.  16°46/N., 
Ion.  96°  17'  E.  It  has  a  great  trade  in  rice,  cot 
ton,  petroleum,  and  teak  timber.  It  is  accessi 
ble  to  large  ships,  and  also  has  an  immense  river 
traffic.  Pop.  99,000. 

Rank.  A  step  or  degree  in  a  graduated  scale 
of  authority.  In  this  sense  it  is  synonymous  with 
grade,  but  the  conventional  use  of  the  two  words 
rank  and  grade  among  naval  and  military  men 
implies  a  distinction  between  them  which  is  illus 
trated  by  saying  that  while  there  may  be  several 
individuals  of  the  same  grade,  there  can  be  but 
one  of  a  given  rank.  In  this  narrow  and  con 
ventional  sense,  therefore,  rank  may  be  defined 
as  the  expression  of  relative  authorit}'  between 
individuals  of  the  same  grade.  As  an  example 
of  what  is  meant  by  this,  the  Navy  Register 
contains  the  names  of  50  officers  in  the  grade  of 
captain,  but  of  all  this  number  no  two  are  of  the 
same  ran k. 

Actual  rank  is  that  held  by  an  officer  in  his 
own  corps.  Relative  rank  is  that  given  by  law 
to  officers  acting  as  chiefs  of  bureaus,  in  cases 
where  their  actual  rank  is  lower  than  that  fixed 
by  law  as  appropriate  to  the  position,  and  to  all 
staff  officers,  in  order  to  assimilate  their  respect 
ive  grades  to  those  grades  of  the  line  which  are 
deemed  equivalent  in  dignity  and  importance. 
Relative  rank,  as  between  officers  of  the  army 
and  navy,  is  established  by  law,  and  is  sometimes 
called  assimilated  rank. 

Brevet  rank  does  not  exist  in  the  navy,  but  in 
the  army  means  rank  in  the  army  at  large,  and 
is  conferred  for  gallant  actions  or  meritorious 
services. 

In  another  sense  rank  means  a  line  or  row  of 
soldiers  reckoning  from  side  to  side ;  the  ranks, 
the  body  of  common  soldiers  ;  rank  and  file,  the 
general  mass  of  enlisted  men,  privates  and  non 
commissioned  officers,  excepting  the  non-com 
missioned  staff.  To  rank,  or  to  take  rank  of,  is 
to  be  entitled  to,  or  to  have,  precedence  in  mat 
ters  involving  the  exercise  of  authority,  or  on 
occasions  of  ceremony. 

RANK,  INSIGNIA  OF.  Distinguishing  marks 
established  by  law  to  be  worn  by  officers  of  the 
army  and  navy,  to  indicate  the  grade  of  the 
wearer.  In  the  navy  the  grade  of  officers  is  in 
dicated  by  devices  in  the  epaulet,  shoulder-knot 
or  strap,  and  by  stripes  of  gold  lace  on  the  cuffs 
of  the  coat.  See  UNIFORM. 

Ransom.  To  redeem  from  captivity,  punish 
ment,  or  forfeit  by  paying  an  equivalent ;  to  buy 


HANSOM 


RATLINES 


out  of  servitude  or  penalty ;  to  rescue ;  to  de 
liver  ;  as,  to  ransom  prisoners  from  an  enemy. 
Ransom  bill,  a  war  contract,  protected  by  good 
faith  and  the  law  of  nations,  by  which  the  cap 
tor  permits  the  original  owner  of  captured  prop 
erty  to  redeem  it. 

Ransom,  George  M.,  Commodore  U.S.N. 
Appointed  from  Ohio,  July  25,  1839. 

Promoted  to  passed  midshipman,  July  2,  1845; 
master,  June  28,  1853;  lieutenant,  February  21, 
1854;  lieutenant-commander,  July  16,  1862; 
commander,  January  2,  1863 ;  captain,  March  2, 
1870  ;  commodore,  March  28,  1877. 

Served  as  midshipman  in  the  "  Marion,"  coast 
of  Brazil,  1839-42;  and  in  the  "Erie,"  Pacific 
Squadron,  1843-44;  Naval  School,  Philadelphia, 
1845. 

As  passed  midshipman  at  the  Naval  Observa 
tory,  Washington,  1845-46 ;  seven  months  in 
the  war  on  the  coast  of  Mexico,  1847 ;  Naval 
Observatory,  1847-48;  in  the  "Portsmouth," 
coast  of  Africa,  1848-50:  in  the  "Relief," 
1851-52. 

As  master  in  the  "Michigan,"  on  the  lakes, 
1853-55. 

As  lieutenant  in  the  "Perry,"  "Dolphin," 
and  "Jamestown,"  coast  of  Africa,  1855-57; 
ordnance  duty  at  Boston,  1857-59  ;  in  the  "  Nar- 
ragansett"  and  "  Saranac,"  1860-61,  on  the  Pa 
cific  Station. 

As  lieutenant-commander,  commanded  the 
"Kineo,"  of  Farragut's  fleet,  in  the  Missis 
sippi  River,  1862-63. 

As  commander,  commanded  the  "  Mercedita," 
on  special  service  in  the  West  Indies,  from  April 
to  August  24,  1863;  the  "Grand  Gulf,"  North 
Atlantic  Blockade,  1863-64;  the  "Muscoota," 
1863, .having  a  general  supervision,  by  appoint 
ment,  of  blockading  vessels  in  the  East  Gulf 
Squadron  ;  the  "  Algonquin,"  from  January  18  to 
March  21,  1866,  in  a  trial  with.the  "  Winooski" 
in  Long  Island  Sound ;  at  League  Island,  Pa., 
as  executive,  1867-69. 

As  captain,  commanded  the  ironclad  "  Ter 
ror,"  North  Atlantic  Fleet,  1870;  at  the  New 
York  Navy-Yard  as  executive,  1871-73;  com 
manded  the  frigate  "  Colorado,"  North  Atlantic 
Fleet,  1873-75;  and  the  frigate  "Franklin," 
from  December  9,  1876,  to  March  2,  1877,  on 
special  service. 

As  commodore,  commanded  the  Naval  Station 
at  Port  Royal,  S.  C.,  from  June  3,  1878,  to  Jan 
uary  14,  1879,  and  since  then  in  command  of  the 
navy-yard  and  station  at  Boston,  Mass. 

Rape-oil.  A  thick  yellow  oil  expressed  from 
rape-seed,  used  in  lamps  and  light-houses. 

Raper.     An  old  term  for  a  rope-maker. 

Rap-full.  A  term  applied  to  the  sails  of  a 
ship  close-hauled,  when  every  cloth  draws. 

Rapparee.  A  smuggler,  or  one  who  lives  on 
forced  hospitality. 

Ras  Algethi.     The  star  a  Herculis. 

Ras  Alhague.  The  star  a  Ophiuchi,  nearly 
on  the  line  from  Antares  to  Vega,  and  12°  north 
of  the  equinoctial. 

Rasee.     See  RAZEE. 

Rasing-iron.  An  implement  used  in  clearing 
a  seam  of  pitch  and  oakum. 

Rasp.  A  species  of  file  on  which  the  cutting 
prominences  are  distinct,  being  raised  by  punch 
ing  with  a  point  instead  of  cutting  with'a  chisel. 

Ratcher.    An  old  term  for  a  rock. 


Ratchet.  A  bar,  or  a  revolving  cylinder  or 
disk,  having  angular  teeth  or  notches  cut  upon 
its  surface  or  edge,  into  which  a  pawl  or  catch 
drops,  to  prevent  backward  motion  of  a  resist 
ance  to  be  overcome,  during  a  temporary  cessa 
tion  of  the  moving  force ;  also,  an  arrangement 
by  which  a  rectilinear  or  rotative  motion  in  one 
direction  is,  by  means  of  a  pawl  attached  to  an 
oscillating  lever  or  handle,  communicated  to  a 
sliding  bar  or  rotating  disk. 

RATCHET  DRILL-BRACE.  A  drill-brace  by 
which  a  drill  is  rotated  by  means  of  a  ratchet, 
consisting  mainly  of  an  oscillating  handle  or 
lever  provided  with  a  spring  pawl  acting  upon  a 
notched  ring  or  disk  fitted  to  the  drill-socket. 
The  drill  is  "  fed"  to  its  work  by  means  of  a 
screw  in  the  end  of  the  socket  bearing  against  an 
adjustable  standard. 

RACHET-SABOT.     See  ORDNANCE. 

Rate.  The  class  to  which  a  man-of-war  be 
longs  by  reason  of  her  tonnage  and  armament. 
(See  CLASSIFICATION.)  In  all  navies  the  rates 
change  as  improvements  are  made  in  ordnance 
and  construction.  Thus,  in  the  British  navy,  at 
one  time,  the  first-rates  comprehended  all  ships 
of  110  guns  and  upwards  ;  they  had  42-pounders 
on  the  lower  deck,  the  calibre  diminishing  on 
the  upper  decks,  to  6-pounders  on  the  quarter 
deck  and  forecastle ;  they  carried  from  750  to 
900  men.  Second-rates  mounted  90  to  110  guns. 
Third-rates,  80  to  90.  Fourth-rates,  60  to  80,— 
comprehended  under  the  general  term  "  frigates" 
and  never  appearing  in  the  line  of  battle.  Fifth- 
rates  mounted  from  32  to  60  guns.  Sixth-rates 
embraced  all  vessels  carrying  fewer  than  32  guns. 
Since  the  introduction  of  massive  ordnance  a 
first-rate  may  carry  but  1  or  2  guns. 

Rate  is  also  the  daily  variation  of  a  time-piece. 
To  rate,  to  ascertain  the  rate  of  a  time-piece. 
(See  CHRONOMETER.)  Also,  to  appoint  a  sailor 
to  a  higher  grade.  See  RATING. 

RATED  SHIP.     In  former  times,  a  post-ship. 

RATING,  or  RATE.  The  position  held  by  a 
man  before  the  mast.  When  a  man  is  rated  by 
the  commanding  officer,  he  may  be  disrated  by 
the  same  authority ;  otherwise,  it  requires  the 
sentence  of  a  court-martial. 

Ration.  The  daily  allowance  of  food  to  an 
officer,  seaman,  or  marine.  Its  component  parts 
are  established  by  law,  but  may  be  varied  by  the 
Secretary  of  the  Navy,  or,  when  necessary,  by 
the  senior  officer  present  in  command  ;  the  latter 
may  also,  in  case  of  necessity,  diminish  the 
allowance,  but  in  such  case  payment  must  be 
made  to  the  persons  whose  allowance  is  dimin 
ished  according  to  the  scale  of  prices  established 
at  the  time  of  such  diminution.  Officers  are 
'  entitled  to  one  ration,  or  to  commutation  there 
for,  while  at  sea  or  attached  to  a  sea-going  ves 
sel.  The  commutation  price  of  the  navy  ration 
is  fixed  by  law  at  30  cents.  Rations  are  allowed 
to  midshipmen  on  the  active  list  whether  on  sea- 
duty  or  not.  Officers  on  the  retired  list  are  not 
entitled  to  rations.  See  PAY  CORPS. 

Rational  Horizon.     See  HORIZON. 

Ratlines.  Small  lines  traversing  the  shrouds 
parallel  with  the  water.  They  are  from  14  to  16 
inches  apart,  and  serve  the  purpose  of  a  ladder. 
Every  fifth  ratline  extends  to  the  swifter,  and  is 
called  a  sheer-ratline. 

RATLINE-STUFF.  Small  stuff  having  from  12 
to  24 — generally  18— threads. 


RAT'S-TAIL 


680 


RECRUITING 


Rat's-tail.  The  tapering  end  of  a  rope.  Also, 
the  round  tapered  file  used  for  enlarging  holes  in 
metal. 

Rattan  (Malay,  rotan).  The  stem  of  a  cane, 
of  the  genus  Calamus,  used  for  wicker-work, 
seats  of  chairs,  etc.  In  the  Eastern  seas  they 
constitute  the  chief  cables,  even  to  42  inches  cir 
cumference,  infinitely  stronger  than  hemp,  light, 
and  not  easily  chafed  by  rocks  ;  very  useful  also 
to  seamen  for  brooms,  hoops,  hanks  for  sail,  etc. 

Rattle  Down.  To  hitch  and  seize  the  ratlines 
in  their  proper  places. 

Rave-hook.  A  hook  iron  implement  used  in 
cutting  the  butts  of  planking  to  afford  sufficient 
opening  for  calking. 

Raven's-duck.  A  fine  quality  of  canvas  for 
sails. 

Ray.  A  flat  rhomboidal  fish  with  a  rough 
skin ;  genus  Raia. 

Raze.  To  mark  timber  from  a  mold  with  a 
razing-knife.  To  cut  down. 

Razee.  A  vessel  reduced  by  a  deck  ;  as,  a 
line-of-battle  ship  converted  into  a  frigate.  To 
razee,  to  cut  down. 

Razor-back.  The  fin-whale  (Balcenoptera], 
so  called  from  its  prominent  dorsal  fin.  It  usually 
attains  the  length  of  70  feet. 

Razor-bill.  A  sea-fowl  allied  to  the  auks, 
Alca  torda. 

Razor-fish.  A  small  fish  of  the  Mediter 
ranean, — Coryphcena  novacula, — prized  for  the 
table.  The  razor-shell.  See  SOLEN. 

Reach.  A  straight  part  between  the  curves 
in  a  stream.  To  head-reach,  to  forge  ahead  in 
stays. 

Read,  George  Campbell,  Rear-Admiral 
U.S.N.  Born  in  Ireland  ;  died  at  Philadelphia, 
August  22,  1862.  Midshipman,  April  2,  1804; 
lieutenant,  April  25,  1810 ;  commander,  April 
27,  1816  ;  captain,  March  3,  1825;  rear-admiral, 
July  31,  1862.  After  the  action  between  the 
IT.  S.  frigate  "  Constitution"  and  the  British 
frigate  "Guerriere,"  August  19,  1812,  in  which 
his  gallantry  was  conspicuous,  he  was  selected 
to  receive  the  sword  of  Capt.  Dacres.  October  25, 
1812,  he  was  present  in  the  action  between  the 
"United  States"  and  "Macedonian."  At  the 
time  of  his  death  he  was  governor  of  the  Phila 
delphia  Naval  Asylum.  He  was  a  gallant  and 
courteous  officer,  and  of  a  commanding  persona"! 
appearance. 

Ream.  To  enlarge  a  cylindrical  cavity ;  as,  to 
ream  out  the  bore  of  a  gun.  To  shift  the  posi 
tion  of  a  vessel  in  fishing. 

Rear.     The  farthest  aft ;  as,  a  rear  squadron. 

Rear-Admiral.     See  ADMIRAL. 

Rearing.  Tumbling  home, — applied  to  a  ship's 
upper  works. 

Reasty.     Rancid  or  rusty  pork  or  butter,  etc. 

Reaumur's  Thermometer.  A  thermometer 
named  after  its  inventor.  The  freezing-point  of 
water  is  marked  0°,  and  the  boiling-point  80°. 

Reballing.  The  catching  of  eels  with  earth 
worms  attached  to  a  ball  of  lead  suspended  by  a 
string  from  a  pole. 

Rebate.     See  RABBET. 

Receiver.  In  the  compound  steam-engine, 
a  chamber  which  receives  the  .steam  expelled 
from  the  high-pressure  cylinder  and  delivers  it 
to  the  low-pressure  cylinder.  While  the  steam 
is  retained  in  the  receiver  it  is  superheated  bv 
means  of  steam-jackets  or  other  apparatus. 


Receiving-ship.  A  ship  stationed  permanently 
in  a  harbor  for  the  purpose  of  recruiting  seamen 
and  holding  them  in  readiness  for  a  cruiser. 

Recife,  also  called  Pernambuco,  a  city  of 
Brazil,  on  the  Atlantic,  in  lat.  8°  3'  6"  N.,  Ion. 
34°  51X  7"  W.  It  is  divided  into  three  distinct 
quarters,  viz. :  San  Pedro,  Goncalves,  Sao  Sacra 
mento,  and  Boa  Vista.  It  is  the  landing-place 
of  a  telegraph  cable  to  Lisbon,  and  is  also  a 
railway  terminus.  The  port  is  defended  by 
4  forts,  and  the  harbor  is  protected  by  a  large 
reef  of  rocks,  and  is  accessible  to  vessels  draw 
ing  not  over  12  feet  of  water.  It  has  a  consider 
able  trade  with  European  ports,  and  the  principal 
exports  are  cotton,  sugar,  and  dye-wood.  Pop. 
117,000. 

Reckoning.  The  ship's  position  as  determined 
by  observations  and  calculations.  A  vessel  is 
out  of  her  reckoning  when  her  true  position  dif 
fers  materially  from  the  one  in  which  she  was 
calculated  to  be.  See  DEAD-RECKONING. 

Recruiting  for  the  Marine  Corps.  Men  to  en 
list  in  the  marines  must  be  able-bodied,  unmar 
ried,  and  between  the  ages  of  21  and  35  years. 
They  must  be  not  less  than  5  feet  6  inches  in 
height,  of  good  character,  and  not  addicted  to  the 
use  of  liquor.  They  must  be  able  to  read  and 
write  English  properly  as  well  as  speak  it ;  and 
no  minors  are  wanted  at  all.  Marines  who  have 
become  infirm  after  20  years'  service,  or  who 
have  been  discharged  for  wounds  received  or 
sickness  brought  on  in  the  service,  are  entitled 
to  the  benefits  of  the  U.  S.  Naval  Asylum  at 
Philadelphia,  Pa.  The  would-be  recruit  is  re 
quired  to  swear  that  he  is  qualified  in  all  respects, 
and  it  is  impressed  upon  him  that  if  he  swears 
falsely  he  commits  perjury,  a  crime  punishable 
with  8  years'  solitary  confinement  and  $500  fine. 
The  medical  examination  is  as  prescribed  by  the 
army  and  navy  regulations.  Particular  atten 
tion  is  paid  to  the  danger  of  color-blindness.  It 
is  most  difficult  to  obtain  the  kind  of  men  wanted, 
and  the  rejections  average  9  to  10.  When  a 
man  applies  to  enlist,  the  recruiting-officer's  first 
care  is  to  see  that  he  has  not  been  entrapped,  or 
induced  by  false  representation  to  enter  the  ser 
vice.  He  personally  explains  the  exact  nature 
of  the  service,  the  length  of  the  time,  the  pay, 
clothing,  rations,  and  other  allowances  to  which 
each  soldier  is  entitled.  It  is  incumbent  upon 
him  to  be  present  at  the  examination  of  the  re 
cruit  by  the  medical  officer.  Recruits  are  for 
warded,  under  charge  of  a  non-commissioned 
officer,  from  the  rendezvous  to  the  marine  bar 
racks  designated  by  the  colonel  commandant. 

The  examination  of  privates  for  advancement 
to  corporals  consists  of  questions  in  reading, 
writing,  and  the  simple  rules  of  arithmetic,  as 
to  his  knowledge  of  the  duties  of  corporals  and 
of  the  school  of  the  soldier  and  company.  The 
examinations  for  corporals  to  be  sergeants  is  the 
same,  with  the  addition  that  it  is  required  the 
man  shall  have  a  knowledge  of  keeping  the  ne 
cessary  accounts,  making  out  muster-rolls,  in 
struction  for  skirmishers,  and  the  duties  of  a 
sergeant. 

The  following  tables  show  respectively  the 
strength  of  the  marine  corps  at  different  periods 
of  its  history ;  the  pay  of  non-commissioned  of 
ficers,  musicians,  and  privates  ;  and  the  allowance 
of  clothing  to  a  marine  during  each  year  of  his 
term  of  enlistment : 


EED 


681 


REEF 


The  strength  of  the  marine  corps,  under  the  act 
of  July  11,  1798,  establishing  and  organizing 
a  corps  of  marines,  was 

Under  the  act  of  1799 

Under  the  act  of  March  3,  1809 

Under  the  act  of  April  16, 1814 

Under  the  act  of  March  3, 1817.  (Peace  estab 
lishment.) 

Under  the  act  of  June  30, 1834 

Under  the  act  of  March  3, 1847 

Under  the  act  of  July  25, 1861 


30 


720 
890 
1484 
2180 

750 
1000 
2000 
2500 


The  grade  of  brigadier-general  was  established  March  2, 1867,  and  abolished  6th  June,  1874. 
Pay-Table  of  Non-commissioned  Officers,  Musicians,  and  Privates  of  the  U.  S.  Marine  Corps. 


GRADES. 

First  Period  of 
5  Years'  Ser 
vice. 

Second   Period 
of  5  Years. 

Third     Period 
of  5  Years. 

Fourth  Period 
of  5  Years. 

Fifth      Period 
of  5  Years. 

Per  month. 
$-23 
23 
22 
22 
17 
15 
13 
13 
79 
38 
24 
21 

Per  mcnlh. 
$27 
27 
26 
26 
21 
19 
17 
17 
81 
40 
26 
23 

Per  month. 
$28 
28 
27 
27 
22 
20 
18 
18 
82 
41 
27 
24 

Per  month. 
$29 
29 
28 
28 
23 
21 
19 
19 
83 
42 
28 
25 

Per  month. 
«30 
30 
29 
29 
24 
22 
20 
20 
84 
43 
29 
26 

Drummers  and  lifers   

Privates           ...                         . 

Leader  of  the  band  

Musician  first-class  

Musician  third-class  

All  enlisted  men,  except  musicians  of  the  band,  serving  on  a  first  period  of  5  years'  service,  are  entitled  to  $1  per  month 
for  the  3d  year,  $2  per  month  for  the  4th  year,  and  $3  per  month  for  the  5th  year's  service,  in  addition  to  the  sums  given  in  the 
first  column  above,  which  additional  amounts  are  retained  until  expiration  of  service,  and  paid  only  upon  final  settlement  and 
honorable  discharge. 

One  dollar  per  month  is  retained  from  all  enlisted  men  (except  the  marine  band)  serving  under  a  re-enlistment.  This 
retained  pay  is  not  included  in  the  above  table,  and  is  to  be  credited  and  paid  only  upon  final  settlement  and  honorable  discharge 
from  service. 

ALLOWANCE    OF   CLOTHING. 

Recapitulation  (for  regular  issues  only}. 


CLOTHING. 

1 

i 

's 

Pompons. 

Caps. 

Coats. 

i 

c 
.2 

-M" 

1 
s> 

I 

Overcoats.  | 

Field-music. 

Gloves  (pairs).  | 

Trousers. 

Shirts. 

Drawers. 

Socks  (pairs). 

Shoes  (pairs). 
Arctic  Shoes  (pairs). 

1 
p 

I 

1 

73 

a> 
1 

1 
w 

O 

1 

0 

1 

1 
"3 

Boys' 
Jackets. 

j 

1 

1 
5 

1 

1 
1 

1 

First  year  

I 

1 

1 

1 
1 

1 

2 

2 

2 
1 

1 

I 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

4 
4 
4 
4 

2 

1 
2 
1 

3 
1 

2 
1 

2 
2 
2 

2 

3 
2 

2 
8 

2 
2 
2 

2 
2 
2 
2 

to  co  co  cow 
:  i  i  :"M 

fc   Third  year  
£   Fourth  year  

... 

1 

1 

1 

... 

oil 

1 

1 

1 

1 
1 

... 

1 

1 

1 

3  Fifth  year  

1 

1 

0 

0 

1 

1 

1 

Total  

1 

2 

3 

4 

1 

10 

7 

2 

3 

2 

5 

1 

2 

2 

3 

20 

8 

8 

10 

11 

10 

10 

15  1 

Redd.  The  spawn  of  fish.  Also,  the  burrow 
scooped  out  by  salmon  in  which  to  deposit  their 
ova. 

Red-eye.  A  fish  of  the  carp  family  (Leucis- 
cus  erythrophthalmus],  so  named  from  the  color 
of  the  iris  ;  called  also  rudd. 

Red-hot  Shot.  Shot  made  red  hot  in  a  fur 
nace  and  used,  before  the  introduction  of  shell, 
for  incendiary  purposes. 

Red  Pine  (Pinus  rubra}.     The  red  spruce. 

Red-short  Iron.  Iron  brittle  when  heated, 
and  difficult  to  weld. 


Reduce.     To  degrade  to  a  lower  rating. 

Reef.  That  portion  of  a  sail  by  which  it  is 
decreased  or  increased  according  to  the  force  of 
the  wind.  Square-sails  are  reefed  on  the  head  ; 
fore-and-aft  sails  are  reefed  on  the  foot ;  a  lower 
studding  is  sometimes  so  fitted  as  to  be  reefed 
diagonally.  Close  reef,  the  last  reef  that  can  be 
put  in.  Monkey-reefed,  the  situation  of  sail  with 
the  yard  on  the  cap  and  the  reef-tackles  hauled 
out.  See  BALANCE-REEF. 

REEF-BAND.  A  strip  of  canvas  stitched  across 
the  sail  to  support  the  strain  of  the  reef-points. 


EEEL 


682 


REGISTERS 


REEF-CRINGLE.  A  cringle  on  the  leech  of  a 
sail,  through  which  the  reef-earing  reeves.  See 
CRINGLE. 

KEEF-EARING.  A  small  line  used  in  reefing 
to  haul  up  and  secure  the  reef-cringle  to  the 
yard. 

REEFER.     A  familiar  term  for  a  midshipman. 

REEF-KNOT.  A  square  knot ;  a  knot  used  in 
tying  reef-points, — the  end  parts  come  out  par 
allel  with  the  standing  parts,  and  the  knot  does 
not  jam. 

REEF-PENDANT.  A  pendant  hooked  to  a  crin 
gle  on  the  leech  of  a  course.  In  reefing,  the 
clew-jigger  is  hooked  into  the  thimble  in  the 
opposite  end.  See  REEF-TACKLE. 

REEF-POINTS.  Short  lengths  of  line  fitted 
to  the  reef-band  at  equal  distances  from  each 
other,  and  used  to  secure  the  reef-band  to  the 
yard.  They  are  fitted  in  a  variety  of  ways. 
Beckets  are  generally  preferred  for  the  first  reefs 
of  a  topsail. 

REEF-TACKLE.  A  tackle  shackled  ;  a  cringle 
on  the  leech  of  a  sail  below  the  reef-bands  ;  the 
upper  block  is  secured  at  the  extremity  of  the 
yard-arm,  the  fall  leading  to  the  deck.  When 
the  tackle  is  hauled  on,  the  upper  part  of  the 
leech  is  slacked  so  that  the  men  can  haul  the 
reef-cringle  up  to  the  yard. 

BEEF-TACKLE  CRINGLE.  A  cringle  below  the 
lowest  reef-band,  to  which  the  reef-tackle  is 
shackled.  See  CRINGLE, 

Reel.  A  frame  turning  on  its  axis,  upon 
which  lines,  hawsers,  hose,  etc.,  are  wound. 

Reem.  To  open  the  seams  of  a  vessel  by 
means  of  a  reeming-iron. 

Reeming.  A  term  used  by  calkers  for  open 
ing  the  seams  of  the  plank  with  reeming-irons, 
that  the  oakum  may  be  more  readily  admitted. 
This  may  be  a  corruption  of  rimer,  for  opening 
circular  holes  in  metal. 

REEMING-BEETLE.  A  heavy  mallet  hooped 
with  iron,  and  used  by  calkers  in  striking  a 
reeming-iron. 

REEMING-IRON.  A  peculiar-shaped  iron  used 
by  calkers  to  open  the  seams  of  wooden  ships 
previous  to  calking. 

Reeve.  To  pass,  as  a  rope,  through  any 
aperture. 

REEVING-LINE  BEND.  A  bend  used  for  unit 
ing  ropes  or  small  hawsers ;  each  end  is  half- 
hitched  over  and  stopped  along  the  opposite  part. 

Reflecting  Circle.  An  astronomical  instru 
ment,  the  same  in  principle  as  the  sextant,  but 
the  limb  forms  a  complete  circle. 

Reflux.     The  running  out  of  the  tide. 

Reformades  (Eng.).  The  sons  of  the  nobility 
and  gentry  who  served  in  the  navy  under  letters 
from  Charles  II.,  and  were  allowed  table-money 
and  other  encouragements  to  raise  the  character 
of  the  service. 

Refraction.  The  change  of  direction  suffered 
by  a  ray  of  light  in  passing  from  one  medium  to 
another  of  different  density.  The  incident  and 
refracted  rays  lie  in  the  same  plane  with  the 
perpendicular  to  the  surface  at  the  point  of  in 
cidence  and  on  both  sides  of  it.  The  sine  of  the 
angle  of  incidence  bears  to  the  sine  of  the  angle 
of  refraction  a  ratio  dependent  only  on  the  nature 
of  the  media,  and  on  the  nature  of  the  light. 

REFRACTION,  ASTRONOMICAL.  The  change 
in  direction  experienced  by  a  ray  of  light  from  a 
heavenly  body  in  passing  through  the  earth's 


atmosphere.  The  term  refraction  is  also  applied 
to  the  correction  to  be  applied  to  an  altitude  to 
reduce  it  to  what  it  would  be  if  the  body  were 
viewed  through  a  medium  of  uniform  density ; 
and  is,  of  all  astronomical  corrections,  the  most 
difficult  to  determine  with  accuracy.  The  ef 
fect  of  refraction  is  to  cause  the  heavenly  bodies 
to  appear  higher  than  they  actually  are.  The 
refracting  power  of  the  atmosphere  varies  with 
its  density,  which  is  affected  by  its  temperature 
and  its  moisture.  In  the  zenith  there  is  no  re 
fraction ;  near  the  zenith  it  is  nearly  propor 
tional  to  the  tangent  of  the  apparent  zenith  dis 
tance, — the  law,  however,  becomes  complicated 
as  we  approach  the  horizon,  where  the  refrac 
tion  is  greatest.  At  the  horizon  the  refraction 
amounts  to  33/,  which  is  rather  more  than  the  ap 
parent  diameter  of  the  sun  or  moon,  so  that  when 
the  lower  limbs  of  those  bodies  are  in  the  horizon, 
the  bodies  themselves  are  actually  below  it.  The 
tables  of  refraction  are  constructed  on  the  suppo 
sition  that  the  barometer  stands  at  30  inches,  and 
the  temperature  is  50°  F.,  the  corrections  for 
other  heights  of  thermometer  and  barometer 
being  given  in  auxiliary  tables. 

REFRACTION,  TERRESTRIAL.  The  change  in 
position  of  a  terrestrial  object,  due  to  the  differ 
ence  in  density  of  different  portions  of  the  at 
mosphere.  It  is  subject  to  great  irregularity, 
and  the  amount  varies  £  to  ^  of  the  intercepted 
arc.  The  effect  on  the  sea-horizon  is  of  impor 
tance  to  the  navigator.  See  DIP. 

Refusal  of  a  Pile.  Its  stoppage  or  obstruc 
tion,  when  it  cannot  be  driven  farther  in. 

Regatta.  A  rowing-match  formerly  peculiar 
to  the  republic  of  Venice;  but  the  term  is  now 
applied  to  yacht  and  boat  races  in  general. 

Register.  The  enrollment  of  a  ship  at  the 
custom-house,  which  confers  peculiar  privileges 
upon  national-built  ships.  Registry  is  the  evi 
dence  of  such  enrollment,  and  is  the  security  of 
the  ship's  title. 

Register,  or  Counter.  In  the  steam-engine, 
an  instrument  for  recording  the  number  of  revo 
lutions  made  by  the  shaft.  It  consists  essentially 
of  a  case  containing  a  number,  usually  six,  of 
suitably  supported  rings  or  disks,  the  periphery 
of  each  of  which  is  marked  with  numbers  from 
zero  to  9,  inclusive.  The  rings  or  disks  are  cov 
ered  by  a  plate  having  openings  to  expose  one 
figure  of  each,  all  the  displayed  figures  appearing 
in  a  horizontal  row.  The' first  ring  is,  by  me 
chanism,  attached  to  any  convenient  part  of  the 
running-gear  of  the  engine,  moved  through  the 
space  of  one  figure,  or  one-tenth  of  a  revolution, 
at  each  revolution  of  the  shaft,  counting  units ; 
at  the  completion  of  each  of  its  revolutions  it 
turns  the  adjacent  ring  through  the  space  of  one 
figure  counting  tens;  the  second  wheel  moves 
the  third  in  the  same  manner,  counting  hun 
dreds ;  and  so  on  to  the  last  ring,  when,  if  six 
rings  are  used,  the  highest  number  registered 
will  be  one  less  than  a  million,  or,  supposing  the 
instrument  to  start  from  zero,  one  million  revo 
lutions  will  have  been  made  when  all  six  rings 
simultaneously  return  to  zero.  The  reading  of 
the  register,  or  <(  counter,"  is  recorded  in  the 
steam-log  at  the  end  of  every  hour. 

Registers,  United  States  Navy.  Prior  to 
1814  no  official  annual  navy  register  was  issued 
from  the  Navy  Department.  Between  1798  and 
1814  several  lists  of  officers  in  the  service  were 


REGISTERS 


683 


REGISTERS 


published,  containing  the  names  of  the  officers 
in  service  at  the  date  of  their  publication.  The 
oldest  separate  publication  of  a  navy  list  is  a 
small  12mo  of  32  pages,  entitled : 

"  An  Original  and  Correct  List  of  the  United 
States  Navy,  containing  a  list  of  the  ships  in  com 
mission  and  their  respective  force  ;  a  list  of  offi 
cers  and  their  rank,  as  well  those  belonging  to 
the  navy  as  the  marine  corps;  and  a  digest 
of  the  principal  laws  relating  to  the  navy,  etc., 
etc.,  etc.  By  Charles  W.  Goldsborough.  City 
of  Washington,  November,  1800.  Copyright 
secured  according  to  law." 

This  register  contains  a  list  of  the  captures  of 
.^French  armed  vessels  by  the  ships  of  war  of  the 
United  States  during  the  quasi-war  with  France, 
amounting  to  72 ;  and  it  appears  by  it  that  the 
personnel  of  the  navy  then  comprised  26  cap 
tains,  9  master-commandants,  109  lieutenants,  7 
commanders  of  galleys,  35  surgeons.  28  surgeon's 
mates,  22  sailing-masters,  26  pursers,  359  mid 
shipmen,  1  lieutenant-colonel  commandant  of 
marines,  4  captains,  18  first  lieutenants,  18  sec 
ond  lieutenants  of  marines,  16  navy  agents,  and 
2  navy  constructors.  In  1875  fifty  copies  were 
reprinted  at  my  request  by  the  chief  of  the  Bu 
reau  of  Construction  in  an  octavo  pamphlet  of 
12  pages. 

The  American  State  Papers,  volume  on  Naval 
Affairs,  contains  a  list  of  the  officers  in  1806, 
differing  somewhat  from  the  register  for  1805-6, 
— published  in  the  Philadelphia  "  Gentlemen's 
Annual  Pocket  Remembrancer"  for  the  year 
1806,  which  was  reprinted  with  my  annotations 
in  1875, — also  a  list  of  the  officers  of  the  navy 
and  marine  corps,  February  3,  1812,  with  a  state 
ment  of  their  rate  of  pay  and  rations  allowed  ;  a 
list  for  February  21,  1814,  giving  the  date  of 
appointment  or  commission  of  the  officers,  and 
a  list  of  the  vessels  of  the  navy,  with  their 
rates,  stations,  and  by  whom  commanded  on  the 
4th  of  March,  1814 ;  also  another  list  for  1814, 
probably  at  the  close  of  the  year,  which,  in  ad 
dition  to  the  names,  gives  the  rate  of  pay  and 
the  employment  of  each  officer.  The  next  list 
in  the  volume  is  the  first  of  the  series  of  navy 
registers,  which  has  been  continued  annually 
ever  since  in  compliance  with  a  resolution  of  the 
Senate  of  the  United  States,  passed  December 
13,  1815. 

The  volume  also  contains  annual  lists  of  the 
officers  and  .their  stations  from  1818  to  1825,  in 
clusive. 

In  1813  there  was  published  in  Boston,  in  a 
12mo  pamphlet  of  105  pages,  "  A  Complete  List 
of  the  American  Navy,  showing  the  name,  num 
ber  of  guns,  commanders'  names,  and  stations  of 
each  vessel,  with  the  names  of  all  the  officers  in 
the  service  for  October,  1813,  and  Steele's  list  of 
the  navy  of  Great  Britain  for  July,  1813.  Bos 
ton.  Published  by  Russell,  Cutter  &  Co.,  and 
Joshua  Belcher,  1813." 

The  preface  informs  us  of  the  design  and  scope 
of  the  publication  : 

"In  preparing  the  following  pages  for  the 
press  great  pains  have  been  taken  to  present  to 
the  public  a  more  correct  list  of  the  American 
navy  than  has  ever  been  published.  Such  a  list, 
it  is  believed,  is  now  completed,  and  the  compiler 
is  much  indebted  to  the  politeness  of  several  gen 
tlemen  of  the  navy  for  the  corrections  which 
could  not  otherwise* be  obtained. 


"  The  latest  Steele's  list  to  be  procured  is  so  fac 
republished  as  to  convey  all  the  information  re 
specting  the  British  navy  which  possesses  an  in 
terest  for  the  general  news  reader. 

"  It  is  intended  to  publish  every  three  months 
a  corrected  edition  of  these  lists  if  the  sale  of  the 
present  promises  encouragement  to  the  under 
taking. 

u  The  deep  and  general  interest  which  has 
been  excited  in  the  public  mind  by  the  valorous 
achievements  of  our  naval  heroes  induces  a  be 
lief  that  the  permanent  establishment  of  a 
complete  list  of  the  American  navy  must  re 
ceive  adequate  patronage.  Boston,  September 
30,  1813." 

The  anticipations  of  the  publishers  do  not  seem 
to  have  been  realized,  as  no  further  lists  appear 
to  have  been  issued  by  them,  and  the  Senate 
resolution  of  1815  soon  after  rendered  the  print 
ing  of  a  register  by  private  parties  unnecessary. 
In  addition  to  a  list  of  the  officers  and  ships  of 
the  United  States  navy  and  ships  of  the  royal 
navy,  the  book  contains  an  account  of  all  the 
British  vessels  of  war  taken  or  destroyed  in  1812 
and  1813  up  to  the  date  of  its  publication  ;  also 
an  obituary  of  officers  who  had  deceased  during 
the  war. 

A  register  for  1815  was  published  in  the  u  Na 
val  Monument,"  a  history  of  the  naval  events 
of  the  war  of  1812-14,  published  in  Boston  in 
1816,  and  another  for  the  same  year  in  the  An- 
alectic  Magazine. 

Registers  for  1835  and  1836  were  printed  in 
the  United  States  Naval  Magazine,  published 
under  the  auspices  of  the  Naval  Lyceum  at  the 
Brooklyn  Navy- Yard. 

In  1835,  Benjamin  Romans  published  a  navy 
register,  corrected  to  July  1,  which  was  to  be, 
but  never  was,  continued  annually.  In  1843  and 
1844,  the  same  person  published  several  quarterly 
registers,  which  were  discontinued  for  want  of 
patronage. 

In  1848,  Messrs.  Mechlin  &  Winder  compiled 
and  published  a  General  Register  from  1798  to 
1847,  inclusive,  the  title  of  which  was  : 

"  A  General  Register  of  the  Navy  and  Marine 
Corps  of  the  United  States  alphabetically  ar 
ranged,  containing  the  names  of  all  officers  of 
the  navy  and  marine  corps,  military  and  civil, 
commissioned  and  warrant,  who  have  entered  the 
service  since  the  establishment  of  the  Navy  De 
partment  in  1798;  showing  the  dates  of  their 
original  rank  and  entry,  the  dates  of  their  pro 
motions  to  higher  grades,  and  in  what  manner 
and  when  they  left  the  service,  if  not  still  in  it. 
To  which  is  appended  the  Constitution  of  the 
United  States,  and  a  revised  edition  of  all  the 
laws  in  relation  to  the  navy  and  marine  corps, 
with  reference  to  the  'Statutes  at  Large,'  with 
an  index.  Compiled  from  the  official  records  of 
the  Navy  Department,  by  authority  of  the  Hon. 
John  T.  Mason,  Secretary  of  the  Navy,  by 
Mechlin  &  Winder,  attorneys  and  agents,  office 
opposite  War  and  Navy  Departments,  Washing 
ton  City.  Washington,  C.  Alexander,  printer, 
1848." 

Many  persons  are  not  aware  of  the  data,  essen 
tial  to  the  biographer  and  genealogist,  which  are 
contained  in  the  United  States  Navy  and  Naval 
Academy  registers.  I  will  therefore  note  what 
may  be  found  in  them.  Every  Congressional 
district  of  the  United  States  is  entitled  to  be 


EEGISTERS 


684 


EEID 


represented  by  one  cadet  at  the  Naval  Academy. 
Whenever  a  cadet  dies,  resigns,  is  dismissed,  or 
graduates  from  the  Academy,  the  vacancy  is  im 
mediately  filled  by  the  member  of  the  House,  or 
Senator  then  in  office,  appointing  a  successor. 
The  President  of  the  United  States  also  has  the 
appointment  of  ten  cadets  at  large,  who  are  usu 
ally  the  sons  of  naval  or  military  officers,  or  of 
his  personal  friends.  Thus  the  Naval  Academy 
has  at  all  times  a  representative  from  each  Con- 

§ressional  and  Senatorial  district  of  the  United 
tates,  plus  10  appointed  "at  large"  by  the 
President. 

No  candidate  is  admitted,  however,  into  the 
Naval  Academy  as  a  cadet  midshipman  until  he 
has  passed  a  satisfactory  examination  before  the 
"  Academical  Board,"  and  is,  in  the  opinion  of  a 
medical  board  comprised  of  three  medical  officers 
of  the  U.  S.  navy,  found  in  all  respects  physically 
sound,  well  formed,  and  of  a  robust  constitution 
qualified  to  endure  the  arduous  labors  of  an  officer 
of  the  navy.  All  candidates  are  required  to  cer 
tify  on  honor  their  precise  age,  and  none  are  ex 
amined  who  are  under  14  or  over  18,  the  pre 
scribed  limits  as  to  age. 

The  candidate  having  passed  the  preliminary 
examinations,  his  height,  weight,  and  lifting 
power  are  taken,  and  recorded  in  a  register  kept 
by  the  surgeon  of  the  Academy.  A  like  entry 
is  recorded  beneath  it  when  he  leaves  the  institu 
tion.  A  comparison  of  the  two  records  shows  his 
physical  development  while  an  under-graduate. 

Immediately  upon  the  cadet's  admfssion,  his 
name  is  enrolled  upon  the  Academy  register, 
with  the  name  of  the  State  from  which  he  is  ap 
pointed,  the  date  of  his  admission  to  the  Acad 
emy,  and  his  age  at  admission  in  years  and 
months,  and  this  is  printed  in  the  first  Academy 
register  issued  after  his  appointment.  This  infor 
mation  is  continued  for  each  academic  year  until 
he  graduates,  and  there  is  added  to  it,  in  succeed 
ing  registers,  his  standing  in  his  class  each  year, 
his  order  of  merit  in  each  of  his  studies  and 
practical  exercises,  the  sum  of  the  demerits  he  has 
received  during  the  year,  and  the  total  amount 
of  his  sea-service  in  practice-ships.  There  is  also 
an  account  opened  with  each  cadet  in  a  large 
day-book,  in  which  is  recorded  in  full  the  nature 
of  his  offenses  against  good  order  and  discipline, 
and  the  penalty  exacted.  When  a  cadet  passes  a 
whole  month  without  receiving  any  demerit,  15 
demerits  are  deducted  from  the  number  pre 
viously  charged  against  him.  If  he  receives  300 
demerits  he  loses  his  position  in  the  Academy. 
After  graduation,  a  general  merit-roll  of  the 
graduating  class  is  made,  to  show  the  sum  of  the 
merits  of  each  cadet  in  his  several  studies  and 
exercises,  together  with  his  standing  in  the  class 
at  graduation,  and  this  is  printed  in  the  Academy 
register. 

The  annual  navy  register  also  contains  the 
names  of  the  cadet  midshipmen  at  the  Naval 
Academy,  alphabetically  arranged  in  their  classes, 
with  the  name  of  the  States  of  their  birth,  the 
States  from  which  appointed,  the  States  of  which 
a  resident,  and  the  date  of  their  entering  the 
Academy. 

After  graduation,  the  midshipman's  name  is 
entered  on  the  navy  register  in  his  order  of  rank  ; 
and  while  the  information  previously  given  con 
cerning  him  as  a  cadet  on  the  navy  register  is 
continued,  there  is  added  the  date  of 'his  gradua 


tion,  his  present  duty,  station  or  residence,  his 
total  sea-service  (in  years  and  months),  total 
shore  or  other  duty,  how  long  employed,  how 
long  in  the  service,  and  the  date  of  the  expira 
tion  of  his  last  cruise  at  sea. 

On  being  promoted  to  the  next  higher  grade, 
the  date  of  graduation  is  omitted,  and  instead  is 
shown  the  date  of  his  present  commission,  and 
in  another  column  his  sea-service  under  present 
commission,  and  these  columns  are  continued 
through  all  subsequent  promotions.  Thus,  by 
an  examination  of  successive  registers,  the  date 
of  each  promotion  and  the  amount  of  sea-service 
under  it  can  be  ascertained. 

The  same  or  similar  information  is  given  re-* 
specting  the  medical,  pay,  engineer,  and  other 
staff-officers  not  graduates  of  the  Naval  Academy. 

The  navy  register  also  contains  a  list  of  the 
deaths,  resignations,  or  dismissals  during  the  pre 
ceding  year,  with  the  date  of  their  occurrence, 
and  in  case  of  death,  the  place  of  death ;  also  a 
list  of  all  the  retired  and  reserved  officers,  and  a 
table  exhibiting  the  pay  of  all  officers  of  the 
navy  and  marine  corps,  whether  at  sea,  on  shore- 
duty,  on  leave,  on  waiting  orders,  or  retired. 

The  total  amount  of  the  pay  and  mileage 
actually  received  by  each  and  every  officer  of 
the  navy  and  marine  corps  is  presented  to  Con 
gress  under  a  general  law,  and  has  been  usually, 
if  not  always,  annually  printed  in  a  separate 
document. 

In  addition  to  the  annual  register,  which  is 
brought  up  to  the  1st  of  January  and  is  usually 
issued  about  the  1st  of  March,  since  1866  there 
has  been  a  register  issued  in  July,  giving  the 
name  and  rank  of  every  officer  in  the  naval 
service,  the  State  of  which  he  is  a  resident,  the 
date  of  his  present  leave  or  order,  and  present 
duty,  station,  or  residence.  With  regard  to  offi 
cers  on  the  retired  list,  it  gives  the  law  under 
which  each  officer  was  retired,  his  name  and 
rank,  the  State  of  which  he  was  a  resident  when 
appointed,  the  date  of  his  retirement,  his  rank* 
when  retired,  by  which  his  pay  on  the  retired 
list  is  regulated,  and  his  present  place  of  residence 
or  address. 

Annual  official  navy  registers  have  been  pub 
lished  since  1815,  in  compliance  with  a  resolution 
of  the  U.  S.  Senate  of  December  13,  1815;  the 
Naval  Academy  registers  since  1858. — George  H. 
Preble,  Rear-Admiral  U.S.N. 

Register-ship.  A  Spanish  plate-ship  or  gal 
leon. 

Regular.  The  regular  army  or  navy,  in  the 
United  States,  is  that  portion  of  the  land  or  sea 
forces  which  is  permanently  maintained  in  the 
service  of  the  Union,  as  contradistinguished  from 
that  which  is  called  into  service  temporarily  in 
time  of  war. 

Regulator.  A  valve,  with  necessary  attach 
ments,  for  instantaneously  controlling  the  quan 
tity  of  steam  admitted  to  an  engine  either  by 
hand  or  by  means  of  an  automatic  governor. 
When  operated  by  hand  it  is  commonly  called  a 
throttle-valve. 

Regulus.  The  star  a  Leonis.  The  word  is  a 
translation  of  the  Greek  name  basiliskos,  little 
king.  In  the  constellation  Leo  six  stars  form 
the  rude  outline  of  a  sickle,  Regulus  being  at  the 
end  of  the  handle.  See  LEO. 

Reid,  Samuel  Chester,  Sailing-Master  U.S.N. 
Born  in  Norwich,  Conn.,  August  25,  1783;  died 


REIGNING 


685 


KESERVE 


in  New  York  City,  January  28,  1861.  He  went 
to  sea  at  11 ;  was  captured  by  a  French  privateer, 
and  was  6  months  a  prisoner  at  Basseterre.  He 
served  as  acting  midshipman  in  the  "  Balti 
more,"  in  Commodore  Truxtun's  West  India 
Squadron,  and  during  the  war  of  1812  com 
manded  the  privateer  brig  "  Gen.  Armstrong," 
with  which  he  fought  one  of  the  most  remarkable 
naval  battles  on  record,  at  Fayal,  September  26 
and  27,  1814.  Her  force  was  7  guns  and  90  men. 
She  was  attacked  by  the  boats  of  the  "  Plan- 
tagenet,"  74,  "Rota,"  44,  and  "Carnation," 
18.  Reid  succeeded  in  thorough^  disabling  and 
defeating  the  enemy,  and  scuttled  his  own  ves 
sel  to  prevent  her  capture.  The  British  lost  120 
killed  and  130  wounded.  The  Americans  had 
2  killed  and  7  wounded.  The  attack  upon  the 
"Armstrong,"  in  a  neutral  port,  led  to  a  pro 
tracted  diplomatic  correspondence,  but  the  arbi 
tration  of  Louis  Napoleon  decided  the  case 
against  the  Americans.  Capt.  Reid  was  ap 
pointed  a  sailing-master  in  the  navy,  and  held 
the  office  till  his  death. 

Reigning  Winds.     The  prevailing  winds. 

Reinforce.  An  additional  thickness  given  to 
an  object  to  enable  it  to  withstand  strain  or  press 
ure  brought  upon  a  certain  point.  The  part  of 
a  gun  having  the  thickest  walls  ;  it  extends  from 
the  base-line  to  the  chase. 

Relief-valve.  A  valve  confined  to  its  seat  by 
adjustable  weights  or  springs,  so  regulated  that 
it  will  open  under  any  suddenly  accumulated 
pressure ;  as,  cylinder  relief-valves  or  snifting- 
valves,  which  release  water  of  condensation,  or 
that  due  to  priming  of  boilers,  from  a  steam- 
cylinder  when  obstructing  the  motion  of  the 
piston.  Such  valves  are  usually  operated  by  hand. 

Relieving-tackles.  Tackles  hooked  to  the 
tiller  to  steer  the  ship  in  case  of  accident  to  the 
wheel  or  wheel-ropes,  and  also  to  assist  in  steer 
ing  in  heavy  weather. 

Remark-book.  A  book  containing  the  navi 
gator's  memoranda  of  hydrographical  informa 
tion. 

Remey,  William  B.,  Judge-Advocate-Gen 
eral.  Born  in  Iowa.  Commissioned  as  second 
lieutenant,  marine  corps,  Nov.  25,  1861 ;  frigate 
''  Sabine,"  S.  A.  Blockading  Squadron,  1861-63  ; 
marine  barracks,  Norfolk,  1863-64. 

Commissioned  first  lieutenant,  February  17, 
1864;  receiving-ship  at  New  York,  1864-65; 
steamer  "  Yanderbilt,"  special  service,  1865,  and 
Pacific  Squadron,  1866-67  ;  receiving-ship  "New 
Hampshire,"  Norfolk,  1867-68;  marine  bar 
racks,  Philadelphia,  1868-69  ;>  Jan.  13,  1870, 
reported  at  headquarters  marine  corps,  as  in 
structor  in  army  code  of  signals ;  July  2,  1870, 
appointed  judge-advocate  of  the  marine  corps, 
and  served  as  such  until  1873. 

Commissioned  captain,  June  21,  1872;  "  Colo 
rado,"  North  Atlantic  Station,  1873-74;  judge- 
advocate,  marine  corps,  1874-75 ;  fleet  marine 
officer,  South  Pacific  Station,  1875-76,  and  of 
South  Atlantic  Station,  1876-77;  acting  adju 
tant  marine  corps,  October  to  December,  1877 ; 
marine  barracks,  Norfolk,  Dec.  1877,  to  May, 
1878  ;  member  Board  of  Inspection,  May  to  July, 
1878  ;  acting  judge-advocate-general,  Navy  De 
partment,  July,  1878,  to  June,  1880. 

Commissioned  judge-advocate-general  of  the 
navy,  with  the  rank  of  colonel  in  the  marine 
corps,  for  the  term  of  4  years  from  June  9,  1880. 


Render.  To  pass  freely,  as  a  rope  through  a 
block. 

Rendezvous.  The  port  or  place  of  destina 
tion  where  the  several  ships  of  a  fleet  are  ap 
pointed  to  join  company. 

Rends.  Large  shakes  or  splits  in  timber  and 
plank. 

Repeat.  To  repeat  a  signal,  to  duplicate  a 
signal  intended  for  a  third  ship,  that  it  may  be 
more  easily  read. 

Repeater.  One  of  three  pennants  which  indi 
cate,  respectively,  that  the  first,  second,  or  third 
flag  in  a  hoist  of  signals  is  duplicated. 

Repeating  Circle.  An  astronomical  circle 
which  repeats  the  measurement  of  an  angle  with 
out  multiplying  the  single  reading  of  the  in 
strument,  thus  theoretically  reducing  the  error 
of  imperfect  graduation. 

Representation.  A  collateral  statement  of 
such  facts  not  inserted  in  the  policy  of  insurance 
as  may  give  the  underwriters  a  just  estimate  of 
the  risk  of  the  adventure. 

Reprisal.  A  mode  of  redress  granted  by  the 
sovereign  to  one  or  more  subjects  for  some  spe 
cific  injuries ;  the  grant  is  by  commission  or 
letter  of  marque. 

Requisition.  An  official  demand  for  stores,  etc. 

Rescue.  A  rescue  effected  by  the  crew  when 
the  captors  are  in  lawful  possession  is  unlaw 
ful,  and  is  a  resistance  within  the  penalty  of 
confiscation. 

Reserve,  Royal  Naval.  The  naval  reserve  of 
Great  Britain  is  divided  into  three  classes,  and 
consists,  by  the  last  returns,  of  a  total  of  17,067 
men.  Of  these,  11,930  belong  to  the  first  class. 
The  rules  for  enrollment  are  as  follows  :  The  ap- 
licant  must  be  of  good  character  and  health  ; 
must  not  be  above  30  years  of  age,  excepting  in 
the  case  of  the  men  of  the  royal  navy,  who,  if 
they  are  able  seamen,  may  be  received  up  to  the 
age  of  35.  For  the  first  class,  the  applicant  must 
have  had  at  least  5  years'  sea-service  within  the 
preceding  10  years,  and  at  least  one  of  these 
years  as  able  seaman.  He  must  show  that  he 
has  been  to  sea  within  4  months  of  the  time  of 
his  application,  and  must  declare  his  intention 
of  following  the  sea  5  years  longer.  If  he  can 
not  prove  his  application,  he  must  satisfy  aboard 
of  two  naval  officers  of  his  fitness. 

An  applicant  for  the  second  class  must  show  3 
years'  sea-service,  and  of  this  time  at  least  6 
months  as  ordinary  seaman.  Men  in  the  coast 
ing  trade,  or  those  who  are  making  short  voyages, 
are  preferred  for  the  second  class. 

The  third  class  is  made  up  of  boys  who  have 
been  trained  in  the  mercantile  training-ship,  the 
sum  of  £3  being  granted  by  the  government  to 
the  management  of  a  training-ship  for  each  boy 
supplied.  He  must  have  been  2  years  under 
training  in  a  ship,  subject  to  inspection  by  the 
Admiralty  and  Board  of  Trade.  He  must  also 
be  under  engagement  to  serve  in  a  ship  at  sea. 
He  must  be  16  years  of  age,  not  less  than  5  feet 
1  inch  in  height,  30  inches  round  the  chest, 
robust,  and  intelligent ;  must  be  able  to  read  and 
write,  and  must  show  satisfactory  proficiency  in 
the  usual  drills  on  board  men-of-war,  and  in  ele 
mentary  seamanship,  and  must  produce  a  certifi 
cate  of  good  character  from  the  captain  of  his 
training-ship.  They  will  be,  on  attaining  19 
years  of  age,  provided  they  have  served  6  months 
at  sea,  eligible  for  the  second  class,  and  higher  if 


RESPONDENTIA 


686 


RETIREMENT 


qualified.  These  regulations  do  not  apply  to 
boys  from  reformatory  ships,  who  are  riot  re 
ceived. 

The  enrollment  is  for  5  years,  and  4  enroll 
ments  must  be  served  in  order  to  get  a  pension. 
No  pension  is  allowed  to  any  one  who  does  not 
pass  from  the  second  into  the  first  class  ;  but  half 
the  time  passed  in  the  second  class  is  allowed  to 
count  for  pension  in  case  the  individual  passes 
into  the  first  class. 

The  yearly  drill  is  for  28  days.  This  may  be 
taken,  except  in  the  first  year,  in  periods  of  7 
days  each.  There  are  9  drill-ships  stationed  at 
as  many  ports,  and  a  number  of  shore  batteries, 
where  the  men  assemble  for  drill.  Nothing  is 
taught  here  but  the  usual  arm-drills  of  the  ser 
vice,  no  seamanship  exercises  taking  place. 
While  assembled  for  drill,  the  men  are  rated  and 
paid  as  seamen  and  ordinary  seamen  of  the  navy, 
and  have  their  traveling  expenses  paid  to  and 
fro.  They  are  required  to  appear  in  a  uniform 
cap  and  dark  blue  clothing. 

Any  man  desiring  to  make  a  voyage  of  longer 
duration  than  6  months  must  get  leave  to  do 
so,  this  leave  never  extending  beyond  a  year  ; 
nor  can  a  man  leave  the  country  until  he  has 
made  his  year's  drill.  Among  the  men  of  the 
reserve  are  47  masters  of  vessels,  518  mates,  and 
3815  petty  officers  in  the  merchant  service. 

The  retainer  for  men  of  the  first  class  is  £6 
annually  ;  for  men  of  the  second  class,  £2  10s. 

The  reserves  can  only  be  called  out  by  royal 
proclamation.  Their  period  of  service,  under 
such  proclamation,  is  for  3  years,  unless  war  is 
declared,  in  which  case  they  may  be  held  2  years 
longer. 

The  master  of  a  merchant  vessel  who  belongs 
to  the  naval  reserve  may  fly  the  blue  ensign,  if 
he  is  provided  with  an  admiralty  warrant,  and 
if  10  at  least  of  his  crew  are  men  of  the  reserve. 

The  estimates  for  the  reserves  for  the  year 
1880-81  are  £213,883,  of  which  amount  the  an 
nual  retainer  amounts  to  £7900 ;  drill-pay  and 
lodging  allowance  to  £37,000 ;  erection  and  re 
pair  of  batteries  for  drill,  £7000 ;  sea-pay  of 
officers  and  crews  of  the  naval  reserve  drill-ships, 
£24,552. 

Great  efforts  are  made  to  attract  the  fisher 
man  class  to  this  force,  as  these  men  and  those 
serving  in  coasting  vessels  are  always  at  hand, 
and  can  attain  their  yearly  drills  with  less  diffi 
culty  than  can  those  making  long  voyages. — F. 
E.  Chadwick,  Lieutenant- Commander  U.S.N. 

Respondentia.  A  bond  which  is  a  loan  on 
the  pledge  of  the  cargo,  generally  a  personal 
obligation  of  the  borrower,  and  not  a  specific 
lien  on  the  goods  unless  stipulated.  It  amounts 
at  most  to  an  equitable  lien  on  the  salvage  in 
case  of  loss.  See  BOTTOMRY. 

Ret.  To  soak  in  water,  as  in  seasoning  tim 
ber,  hemp,  etc. 

Retard  or  Age  of  the  Tide.  The  interval 
between  the  transit  of  the  moon  and  the  making 
of  the  tide.  See  TIDE. 

Reticule.  The  system  of  cross-wires  in  the 
focus  of  an  astronomical  instrument. 

Reticulum.    See  CONSTELLATION. 

Retirement.  The  legally  established  process 
by  which  an  officer  worn  by  long  service,  super 
annuated,  or  disabled  by  wounds  or  disease,  is 
honorably  withdrawn  from  active  service.  The 
whole  number  of  officers  thus  withdrawn  is 


termed  the  retired  list.  Retirement  is  either 
voluntary  or  compulsory.  Voluntary  retire 
ment  takes  place  in  the  case  of  an  officer  who 
has  been  40  years  in  the  service  of  the  United 
States,  and  who  makes  application  to  be  retired, 
except  he  be  either  a  lieutenant-commander,  lieu 
tenant,  master,  ensign,  midshipman,  passed  as 
sistant  surgeon,  passed  assistant  paymaster,  first 
assistant  engineer,  assistant  surgeon,  assistant 
paymaster,  or  second  assistant  surgeon,  in  which 
grades  an  officer  can  be  retired  only  on  account 
of  physical  or  mental  disability. 

Retirement  is  compulsory  in  the  case  of  an 
officer,  below  the  rank  of  vice-admiral,  who  has 
attained  the  age  of  62  years,  unless  he  be  of  one 
of  the  grades  last  above  mentioned,  or,  being  not 
below  the  grade  of  commander,  shall  have  re 
ceived,  during  the  war  for  the  suppression  of  the 
Rebellion,  the  thanks  of  Congress  for  distin 
guished  service  ;  in  which  latter  case  he  cannot 
be  retired,  except  on  his  own  application  or  for 
disability,  until  he  shall  have  been  55  years  in 
the  service.  The  other  cases  in  which  retire 
ment  is  compulsory  are  where  an  officer  having 
been  examined  for  promotion  shall  not  have  been 
recommended  therefor ;  and  where  an  officer  is 
found  by  a  retiring  board  to  be  incapacitated  for 
active  service,  said  incapacity  being  the  result 
of  an  incident  of  the  service.  If,  however,  the 
board  find  that  the  incapacity  be  not  the  result 
of  any  incident  of  the  service,  the  officer  is  re 
tired  on  furlough  pay,  or  wholly  retired,  as  the 
President  shall'  determine.  Officers  wholly  re 
tired  receive  one  year's  pay  and  are  dropped. 

Retired  officers  are  borne  upon  the  N^ivy  Reg 
ister  in  their  respective  grades,  are  entitled  to 
wear  the  uniform,  and  are  subject  to  the  rules 
and  articles  for  the  government  of  the  navj^,  and 
to  trial  by  general  court-martial.  They  are  with 
drawn  from  command,  and  cannot  be  employed 
on  any  active  duty  except  in  time  of  war,  when 
the  President,  by  and  with  the  advice  and  con 
sent  of  the  Senate,  may  detail  them  for  the  com 
mand  of  squadrons  and  single  ships,  when  he  be 
lieves  that  the  good  of  the  service  requires  that 
they  shall  be  so  placed  in  command.  In  making 
such  details  the  President  may  select  any  officer 
not  below  the  grade  of  commander  and  assign 
him  to  the  command  of  a  squadron,  with  the 
rank  and  title  of  "  flag-officer,"  and  the  officer  so 
assigned  shall  have  the  same  authority  and  re 
ceive  the  same  obedience  from  the  commanders 
of  ships  in  his  squadron  holding  commissions  of 
an  older  date  than  his  that  he  would  be  entitled 
to  receive  if  his  commission  were  the  oldest. 
Retired  officers  so  detailed  may  be  restored  to 
the  active  list,  if  upon  the  recommendation  of 
the  President  they  shall  receive  a  vote  of  thanks 
of  Congress  for  distinguished  service,  but  not 
otherwise. 

Officers  on  the  retired  list  are  entitled  to  pro 
motion  as  their  several  dates  on  the  active  list 
are  promoted.  In  the  case  of  rear-admirals, 
however,  the  number  of  that  grade  by  promotion 
on  the  retired  list  is  limited  to  nine  (except  that 
the  Secretary  of  the  Navy  may  promote  to  the 
grade  of  rear-admiral  on  that  list,  in  addition  to 
the  number  mentioned,  commodores  who  have 
commanded  squadrons  by  order  of  the  Secretary 
of  the  Navy,  or  have  performed  other  highly 
meritorious  service,  or  who,  being  at  the  outbreak 
of  the  war  of  the  Rebellion  citizens  of  any  State 


KETKACTOK 


687 


KEYENUE 


which  engaged  in  such  Rebellion,  adhered  to  the 
flag  of  the  United  States),  and  there  can  be 
no  promotion  to  rear-admiral  on  the  retired 
list  while  there  shall  be  in  that  grade  the  full 
number  allowed  by  law.  Officers  promoted  on 
the  retired  list  receive  no  increase  of  pay  in  con- 
Sequence  of  such  promotion.  See  EXAMINA 
TION  OF  OFFICERS  FOR  PROMOTION  AND  KE- 
TIREMENT,  BOARD  OF. 

Retractor.  A  device  for  withdrawing  the  cart 
ridge-case  from  breech-loading  arms. 

Retractus  Aquae.  An  old  law-term  for  the 
ebb  or  return  of  tide. 

Retreat.  A  call  of  the  bugle  or  beat  of  a 
drum  to  announce  the  termination  of  a  drill. 

Retrograde  Motion.  The  general  motion  of 
all  the  planets  among  the  stars  is  eastward  or 
direct.  When  they  come  into  the  quarter  of  the 
sky  which  is  opposite  the  sun,  their  motion  is 
westward,  or  retrograde. 

Returns.  Reports  and  statements  made  peri 
odically. 

Return-salute.     See  SALUTES. 

Revenue  Marine  Service.  The  first  step 
in  this  country  toward  an  organized  force  for 
the  protection  of  the  revenues  from  duties  on 
imports  was  made  under  an  Act  of  Congress, 
approved  August  4,  1790,  which  provided  for 
building  and  equipping  10  revenue-cutters, 
each  to  be  officered  and  manned  by  one  master 
and  not  more  than  three  mates,  who  should  be 
appointed  by  the  President,  and  be  deemed 
officers  of  the  customs. 

The  objects  for  which  the  re  venue -cutters 
were  thus  authorized  were  specifically  set  forth 
in  a  communication  to  Congress  from  Alex 
ander  Hamilton,  Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  and 
were  understood  to  be  mainly  for  the  enforce 
ment  of  the  customs  laws  throughout  the  whole 
extent  of  the  sea-board%  Two  of  the  cutters 
were  intended  for  the  coasts,  bays,  and  harbors 
of  New  Hampshire  and  Massachusetts ;  one  for 
Long  Island  Sound  ;  one  for  the  bay  of  New 
York ;  one  for  Delaware  Bay ;  two  for  the 
Chesapeake;  and  one  each  for  the  coasts  and 
harbors  of  North  Carolina,  South  Carolina,  and 
Georgia.  Hamilton  said,  "  Boats  of  from  36 
to  40  feet  keel  will  answer  this  purpose.,  each 
having  1  captain,  1  lieutenant,  and  6  mariners, 
and  armed  with  swivels  ;"  and  after  estimating 
the  first  cost  of  one  of  these  vessels  completely 
equipped  at  $1000,  he  continued  :  "  The  utility  of 
an  establishment  of  this  kind  must  depend  on 
the  exertion,  vigilance,  and  fidelity  of  those  to 
whom  the  charge  of  the  boats  shall  be  confided. 
If  they  are  not  respectable  characters  they  will 
rather  serve  to  screen  than  to  detect  fraud.  To 
procure  such  a  liberal  compensation  should  be 
given.  He  suggested  giving  the  officers  military 
or  naval  rank,^"  which,"  he  added,  "  will  not 
only  induce  fit  men  to  engage,  but  attach  them 
to  their  duties  by  a  nicer  sense  of  honor.*'  Im 
mediately  after  the  passage  of  the  act,  letters 
were  addressed  to  the  collectors  of  customs,  at 
Boston,  New  York,  Philadelphia,  and  Balti 
more,  authorizing  the  construction  and  equip 
ment  of  such  cutters  as  were  considered  suitable 
for  the  service  in  their  respective  districts.  The 
records  of  the  Treasury  Department  contain  con 
siderable  correspondence  on  the  subject  of  the 
proposed  establishment,  and  perhaps  many  ob 
stacles  occasioned  delay,  for  the  first  list  of  cut- 


Cutter. 

Coast  on 
which 
stationed. 

Master. 

Rig. 

Guns. 

Scammel  
Massachusetts.. 
Argus  

N.  Hampshire 
Massachusetts 
Connecticut... 
New  York  
Pennsylvania 
Maryland.  ..... 
Virginia  
N.  Carolina.... 

Hopeley  Yeaton.... 
J.  Foster  Williams 
Jonathan  Maltbie. 
Patrick  Dennis  
Jas.  Montgomery.. 
David  Porter  
Richard  Taylor.... 
Wm.  Cook  

Schr. 
Brig. 
Schr. 

Sloop 
Schr. 

14 

« 

10 
14 
12 

Vigilant  
Gen.  Greene.... 
Active  

Virginia  
Diligence  

ters  found  is  dated  February  19,  1793,  and  shows 
that  on  October  1,  1792,  but  8  of  these  vessels 
were  in  commission,  as  follows : 


Two  others  are  mentioned  as  being  in  course  of 
construction  for  the  coasts  of  South  Carolina 
and  Georgia.  They  were  probably  the  "South 
Carolina"  and  the  "Pickering,"  subsequently 
mentioned  with  others  in  the  above  list  as  co 
operating  with  the  navy. 

On  March  2,  1793,  an  act  was  passed  author 
izing  an  increase  in  the  number  of  mariners,  and 
a  slight  increase  of  pay  for  officers  and  men,  the 
pay  having  been  fixed  by  the  original  act,  for 
captain,  at  $30  per  month,  and  mates,  or  lieu 
tenants,  at  $20,  $16,  and  $14,  respectively,  besides 
which  each  officer  was  entitled  to  the  allowances 
of  an  officer  of  the  army  of  corresponding  grade, 
while  the  men  received  each  $8  per  month  and 
subsistence.  This  pay  was  further  increased  by 
act  of  May  6,  1796,  which  also  gave  to  revenue- 
cutter  officers  half  of  the  amounts  of  fines,  pen 
alties,  and  forfeitures  collected  upon  information 
furnished  by  them. 

June  14,  1797,  an  act  was  approved  which  au 
thorized  the  President,  if  circumstances  should 
thereafter  arise  which,  in  his  opinion,  might  ren 
der  it  expedient,  to  increase  the  strength  of  the 
several  revenue-cutters,  so  that  the  number  of 
men  employed  should  not  exceed  30  marines  and 
seamen  to  each  cutter,  "  and  cause  said  revenue- 
cutters  to  be  employed  to  defend  the  sea-coast, 
and  to  repel  any  hostility  to  their  vessels  and 
commerce  within  their  jurisdiction,  having  due 
regard  to  the  duty  of  said  cutters  in  the  protec 
tion  of  the  revenue."  It  was  also  provided  that 
the  act  should  continue  in  force  for  the  term  of 
1  year,  "  and  from  thence  to  the  end  of  the  next 
session  of  Congress,  and  no  longer." 

The  increase  of  men  and  addition  to  the  pow 
ers  and  duties  of  the  cutters  by  this  act  were 
doubtless  in  view  of  threatened  hostilities  with 
France. 

In  October  of  1798,  the  President,  "with  a 
view  of  producing  a  concert  of  action  of  the 
naval  forces  of  the  United  States,"  placed  the 
armed  revenue-cutters  at  the  disposition  of  the 
Secretary  of  the  Navy.  The  revenue  vessels 
selected  for  this  purpose  were  the  "  Pickering," 
"  Eagle,"  "  Scammel,"  "  Governor  Jay,"  "  Vir 
ginia","  "Diligence,"  "South  Carolina,"  and 
"  Gen.  Greene""  They  were  employed  in  cruis 
ing  among  the  West  Indies,  or  between  the 
islands  and  the  United  States,  under  command 
of  officers  of  the  navy  who  had  but  recently  been 
appointed  from  the  merchant  service,  and  in  a 
few  instances  from  the  revenue-cutters.  About 
the  close  of  the  year  1798,  4  of  these  vessels 
were  permanently  attached  to  the  navy,  and  the 


EEVENUE 


688 


EEVENUE 


others  returned  to  the  Treasury  Department  or 
revenue  service. 

On  March  2,  1799,  an  act  of  Congress  was 
approved  which  was  entitled  "  An  act  to  regulate 
collection  of  duties  on  imports  and  tonnage." 
It  embraced  many  of  the  provisions  of  previous 
acts,  with  numerous  new  features  which  the 
growth  of  the  nation  and  experience  demanded. 
Six  sections  of  this  act  relate  to  revenue-cutters, 
and  are  briefly  as  follows:  The  President  was 
empowered,  "  for  the  better  securing  the  collec 
tion  of  duties  imposed  on  goods,  wares,  and  mer 
chandise  imported  into  the  United  States,  and  on 
the  tonnage  of  ships  or  vessels,  to  cause  to  be 
built  and  equipped  so  many  revenue-cutters,  not 
exceeding  10,  as  may  be  necessary  to  be  employed 
for  the  protection  of  the  revenue,  the  expense 
whereof  to  be  paid  out  of  the  product  of  said 
duties."  For  each  of  said  cutters  there  was  to 
be  1  captain,  and  not  more  than  3  lieutenants, — 
first,  second,  and  third, — and  not  more  than  70 
men,  including  non-commissioned  officers,  gun 
ners,  and  mariners.  The  cutters  were  to  co 
operate  with  the  navy  whenever  the  President 
should  so  direct.  The  officers  were  to  be  ap 
pointed  by  the  President,  and  be  deemed  officers 
of  the  customs,  and,  as  such,  subject  to  the  di 
rection  of  such  collectors  of  customs,  or  other 
officers  thereof,  as  from  time  to  time  might  be 
designated  for  the  purpose ;  and  they  were  em 
powered,  authorized,  required,  and  directed  to  go 
on  board  all  ships  or  vessels  arriving  within  the 
United  States,  or  within  4  leagues  of  the  coast 
thereof,  if  bound  for  the  United  States,  and  to 
search  and  examine  the  same,  and  every  part 
thereof;  and  to  demand,  receive,  and  certify  the 
manifests  required  by  law,  and  to  affix  and  put 
proper  fastenings  on  the  hold,  hatches,  and  other 
communications  with  the  hold  of  any  ship  or 
vessel,  and  to  remain  on  board  the  said  ships  or 
vessels  until  they  arrive  at  the  port  or  place  of 
their  destination. 

The  commanders  of  revenue-cutters  were  also 
required  to  make  weekly  returns  to  the  collectors 
of  the  transactions  of  their  commands,  with 
minute  details  of  all  vessels  boarded  and  ex 
amined,  and  all  services  performed.  Such  other 
duties  as  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  might 
from  time  to  time  enjoin  or  direct  for  the  col 
lection  or  security  of  the  revenue  were  also  to 
be  executed  by  these  vessels.  New  cutters  were 
provided  for  in  lieu  of  those  unfit  for  service, 
which  were  to  be  sold.  A  distinctive  ensign  and 
pennant  for  the  cutters  was  also  provided  for,  to 
be  prescribed  by  the  President ;  and  in  case  any 
vessel  liable  to  examination  or  seizure  failed  to 
bring  to,  on  being  required,  or  chased  by  a  cutter 
displaying  the  ensign  and  pennant,  it  was  made 
lawful  for  the  commanding  officer  to  fire  at,  or 
into,  such  vessel  after  having  fired  a  gun  as  a 
signal,  and  he,  or  his  subordinate,  to  be  indem 
nified  from  any  penalties  or  action  for  damages 
for  so  doing  ;  and  if  any  person  should  be  killed 
or  wounded  by  such  firing,  and  if  the  command 
ing  officer,  or  other  person  acting  under  his 
direction,  should  be  prosecuted  or  arrested  there 
for,  he  was  to  be  forthwith  admitted  to  bail.  A 
penalty  of  $100  was  prescribed  against  the  master 
of  any  vessel,  not  in  the  service  of  the  revenue, 
who  should  carry  or  hoist  the  ensign  prescribed 
for  the  cutters. 

Another  act  of  same  date  prescribed  the  com 


pensation  for  the  commissioned  officers,  and  the 
rate  of  wages  arid  rations  for  non-commissioned 
officers,  gunners,  and  mariners.  The  terms  of 
this  act,  so  far  as  they  apply  to  the  powers  and 
duties  of  officers,  have  not  been  changed  by  sub 
sequent  legislation. 

The  number  of  cutters  employed  from  1793 
up  to  1820  cannot  be  accurately  stated,  as  the 
necessary  information  is  not  at  present  accessible. 
During  that  period  there  were  frequent  disturb 
ances  in  the  foreign  relations  of  the  country, 
which,  on  account  of  the  limited  number  of 
naval  vessels,  often  compelled  the  government 
to  divert  the  cutters  from  their  regular  duties  in 
anticipation  of  hostilities,  or  to  engage  in  actual 
war. 

The  causes  that  led  to  the  reduction  of  the 
navy  in  1801,  to  wit:  the  cessation  of  hostilities 
with  France,  and  the  necessity  for  retrenchment 
in  the  expenses  of  the  government,  operated  in 
like  manner  to  reduce  the  number  of  revenue- 
cutters.  The  size  of  the  vessels,  also,  which  in 
some  instances  had  reached  nearly  200  tons,  was 
now  limited  to  130  tons.  In  1809,  however,  the 
number  of  cutters  was  increased,  probably  on 
account  of  the  famous  embargo  act  of  1807, 
which  was  repealed  in  1809,  except  so  far  as 
related  to  Great  Britain  and  France  and  their 
dependencies. 

In  the  war  of  1812  the  cutters  were  usefully 
employed  as  dispatch-vessels,  and  for  coast  de 
fense,  duties  for  which  their  light  draft  and 
good  sailing  qualities  well  fitted  them,  and  on 
several  occasions  they  encountered  the  enemy's 
vessels  and  boat  expeditions  with  creditable 
results. 

The  scope  of  this  article  does  not  admit  of  the 
details  of  particular  incidents,  or  the  achieve 
ments  of  individuals,  but  there  was  one  affair  in 
which  a  cutter  was  captured  after  a  gallant  de 
fense  that  deserves  mention  on  account  of  the 
unusual  compliment  paid  to  her  commander  by 
his  captor.  On  the  night  of  June  12,  1813,  the 
revenue-cutter  "Surveyor,"  Capt.  S.  Travis,  on 
the  Chesapeake  station,  was  captured  by  the 
barges  of  the  British  frigate  "  Narcissus."  The 
enemy  was  discovered  by  the  cutter  when  about 
150  yards  distant ;  as  the  latter's  guns  could  not 
be  brought  to  bear,  each  of  her  crew  was  fur 
nished  with  two  muskets,  and  their  fire  was  held 
until  the  British  were  within  pistol-shot.  The 
engagement  was  sharp,  but  the  enemy  carried 
the  vessel  by  boarding,  losing  3  men  killed  and 
a  number  wounded.  Capt.  Travis  and  his  crew, 
15  in  number,  were  taken  on  board  the  "  Junon," 
and  the  next  day  the  senior  officer  of  the  "  Nar 
cissus"  returned  the  captain  his  sword  with  the 
following  letter : 

"  His  MAJESTY'S  SHIP  '  NARCISSUS,' 
"  June  13, 1813." 

"  SIR, — Your  gallant  and  desperate  attempt  to 
defend  your  vessel  against  more  than  double 
your  number,  on  the  night  of  the  12th  inst,  ex 
cited  such  admiration  on  the  part  of  your  oppo 
nents  as  I  have  seldom  witnessed,  and  induced 
me  to  return  you  the  sword  you  had  so  nobly 
used,  in  testimony  of  mine.  Our  poor  fellows 
have  severely  suffered,  occasioned  chiefly,  if  not 
solely,  by  the  precautions  you  had  taken  to  pre 
vent  surprise;  in  short,  I  am  at  a  loss  which  to 
admire  most,  the  previous  engagement  on  board 


REVENUE 


689 


REVENUE 


the   'Surveyor,'   or  the  determined  manner  by 
which  her  deck  was  disputed,  inch  by  inch. 
"  I  am  sir,  with  much  respect, 

"JOHN  CRERIE. 
"Capt.  S.  TRAVIS,  U.  S.  cutter  'Surveyor.'  " 

In  addition  to  the  active  services  of  the  cut 
ters  in  connection  with  the  war,  they  found  busy 
employment  in  the  suppression  of  smuggling  and 
piracy,  which  had  become  quite  common  pur 
suits  of  the  many  adventurers  attracted  to  Ameri 
can  waters  by  the  unsettled  condition  of  the 
country. 

Prom  1820  to  1830  no  greater  number  than  10 
cutters  were  employed  in  any  one  year,  and  the 
lists  of  officers  during  that  period  contain  the 
names  of  a  few  who  also  belonged  to  the  navy. 
It  appears  that  in  1821  several  officers  of  the 
navy,  mostly  midshipmen,  obtained  furloughs 
for  one  year,  with  permission  to  accept  temporary 
appointments  in  the  revenue-cutter  service,  and 
this  practice  continued  until  the  spring  of  1832, 
when  it  ceased  under  the  terms  of  a  circular 
issued  by  Louis  McLane,  Secretary  of  the  Treas 
ury,  dated  January  17,  1832,  in  which  it  was 
stated  that  experience  having  shown  that  the 
employment  of  officers  of  the  navy  in  revenue 
vessels  was  liable  to  objection,  it  was  deemed 
proper  to  discontinue  the  practice  and  keep  the 
two  services  distinct  and  separate.  Officers  of 
the  navy  then  employed  in  the  revenue-cutter 
service  were  informed  that  their  commissions  as 
revenue-cutter  officers  would  be  revoked  on  the 
30th  of  April  following,  and  for  the  greater  effi 
ciency  of  the  cutter  service,  it  was  determined 
that  promotions  would  thereafter  be  made  from 
among  the  officers  of  that  service,  having  due 
regard  to  fitness  as  well  as  seniority.  The  most 
of  the  navy  officers  then  attached  to  the  cutters 
returned  to  their  own  service,  while  others,  about 
a  dozen,  resigned  from  the  navy  and  retained 
their  commissions  in  the  revenue-cutter  service. 

At  this  period  there  was  a  gradual  extension 
of  the  service,  and  in  1833,  21  cutters  are  found 
in  commission,  fully  officered.  They  were  gener 
ally  schooners,  many  carrying  fore-topsails,  and 
guarded  the  Atlantic,  Gulf,  and  Lake  coasts. 
During  the  nullification  times  of  1832-33,  several 
of  the  cutters  were  stationed  at  and  off  Charles 
ton,  S.  C.,  to  enforce  the  customs  laws.  Four 
at  least  were  there  in  the  latter  part  of  1832,  and, 
joined  by  two  or  three  others  during  the  winter, 
remained  until  the  spring,  when  the  troubles 
ended  and  the  revenue  vessels  returned  to  their 
respective  stations  along  the  coast.  About  this 
time  too  (1833),  certain  of  the  vessels  were  en 
gaged  in  cruising  on  the  coast,  under  special 
orders,  during  the  winter  months  to  aid  and 
assist  distressed  vessels,  a  duty  with  which  they 
were  familiar,  incidentally  with  former  cruises 
in  their  regular  line  of  service.  This  duty  after 
wards  became  imperative  and  annually  recur 
ring,  under  the  act  of  December  22,  1837,  by 
which  the  President  is  authorized  to  cause  any 
suitable  number  of  public  vessels  adapted  to  the 
purpose  to  cruise  upon  the  coast  in  the  severe 
portion  of  the  season,  "  and  to  afford  such  aid  to 
distressed  navigators  as  their  circumstances  may 
require."  After  the  passage  of  the  act,  a  frigate, 
a  sloop-of-war,  and  3  brigs  of  the  navy  were 
ordered  on  that  service  with  8  of  the  cutters. 
The  naval  vessels  proved  to  be  too  large  and  un- 
44 


wieldy  for  the  coast  service,  and  were  withdrawq 
at  an  early  day.  From  this  time  the  protection 
of  commerce  in  this  regard  devolved  upon  the 
revenue  vessels,  which  have  been  employed  undei 
the  act  during  every  winter  up  to  the  present 
time,  with  such  satisfactory  results  as  to  earn  for 
the  service  generally  a  deserved  popularity,  es 
pecially  with  all  persons  connected  with  the 
maritime  interests  of  the  country. 

Early  in  1836,  several  cutters  were  ordered  to 
Florida  to  co-operate  with  the  army  and  navy 
against  the  Seminoles,  and  at  one  period  during 
that  war  there  were  6  cutters  employed,  carry 
ing  dispatches,  transporting  troops  and  supplies, 
and  in  cruising  along  the  coast  and  among  the 
keys,  affording  protection  to  the  settlers  from 
hostile  Indians. 

Among  other  duties  performed  by  the  cutters 
from  their  first  establishment,  was  the  inspection 
and  supply  of  light-houses  and  buoys  under  the 
direction  of  collectors  of  customs.  In  1845  the 
light-houses  were  placed  in  charge  of  the  Revenue 
Marine  Bureau,  and  the  cutters  were  more  ac 
tively  employed  than  formerly  on  light-house 
duty.  This  continued  until  the  establishment 
of  the  present  Light-House  Board  in  1852,  when 
the  improved  character  of  that  service  required 
vessels  especially  adapted  for  its  work. 

Steamers  were  first  introduced  into  the  reve 
nue-cutter  service  in  1845,  when  4  were  put 
in  commission,  and  4  others  in  course  of  con 
struction.  These  steamers  were  built  of  iron, 
and  being  almost  the  first  vessels  constructed 
of  that  material  in  this  country,  were  compara 
tively  experimental,  and  afterwards  proved  to 
be  unsuitable  for  the  service.  In  the  following 
year,  however,  two  of  them,  the  "  McLane"  and 
the  "  Legare,"  with  the  sail  ing-cutters  "  Ewing," 
"  Forward,"  and  "  Woodbury,"  performed  effi 
cient  service  in  co-operation  with  the  army  and 
navy  on  the  coast  of  Mexico.  The  "  McLane"  and 
the  "  Forward"  participated  in  the  naval  attack 
on  Tabasco  in  October,  1846,  and  subsequently 
in  the  attack  on  Alvarado.  They  were  also 
engaged  in  blockading  the  Mexican  Gulf  ports, 
and  in  conveying  dispatches,  and  for  their  ser 
vices  generally  their  officers  were  highly  com 
mended  by  the  commanders-in-chief  of  the  LT.  S. 
military  and  naval  forces  engaged  in  the  war 
with  Mexico. 

After  the  close  of  the  war  these  steamers  were 
laid  up.  A  few  were  afterwards  transferred  to 
the  coast  survey,  and  the  rest  otherwise  disposed 
of,  so  that  in  1849  the  name  of  but  one  was  re 
tained  on  the  list  of  cutters.  This  was  the  "  Polk," 
from  which  the  machinery  was  removed  and  the 
vessel  rigged  as  a  bark  for  the  Pacific  coast, 
where  the  new  brig  "Laurence"  had  already 
been  sent.  In  that  year  there  were  but  11  cut 
ters  in  active  service,  an  ill-advised  economy 
having  reduced  their  number  instead  of  other 
wise  retrenching  the  expenses  caused  by  the  in 
troduction  of  costly  and  unsuitable  steamers,  and 
correcting  the  evils  that  always  spring  up  during 
a  period  of  war.  In  a  short  time,  however,  the 
bad  results  of  this  reduction  being  shown  in  the 
growth  of  smuggling  and  other  violations  of  law, 
an  increase  of  the  service  was  found  necessary, 
and  in  1852,  6  new  vessels  were  authorized.  In 
1855,  4  new  cutters  were  added  by  an  act  which 
also  provided  that  no  person  shall  be  appointed 
captain,  first,  second,,  or  third  lieutenant  who 


EEVENUE 


690 


KEVENUE 


does  not  adduce  competent  proof  of  proficiency 
and  skill  in  seamanship  and  navigation. 

In  the  following  year  6  cutters  were  provided 
for  the  lakes,  and  the  next  year  a  side-wheel 
steamer  was  authorized.  This  steamer  was  after 
wards  known  as  the  u  Harriet  Lane,"  and  had  a 
somewhat  notable  career.  She  was  ordered  by 
the  President  to  co-operate  in  the  naval  expedi 
tion  to  Paraguay,  and  rendered  valuable  services. 
In  the  beginning  of  the  Kebellion  she  was  under 
fire  at  the  attack  upon  Fort  Hatteras,  and  during  a 
reconnoissance  of  the  rebel  batteries  near  Norfolk, 
and  was  subsequently  transferred  to  the  navy. 

During  the  Rebellion  the  service  was  consid 
erably  increased.  Several  vacancies  occurred  by 
the  resignation  of  officers  of  Southern  birth.  To 
fill  these,  and  supply  the  additional  vessels  with 
officers,  many  appointments  were  made  from  the 
merchant  service,  which  was  also  largely  drawn 
upon  for  the  volunteer  navy,  and  several  came 
into  the  revenue  marine  who  had  previously  had 
but  little  sea  experience.  Examining  boards  to 
determine  the  professional  qualifications  of  the 
candidates  were  then  held,  as  now,  but  the 
urgency  of  the  demand  for  officers  compelled 
the  exercise  of  leniency  in  the  examinations. 
The  cutters  were  variously  employed  during  the 
war,  some  as  dispatch-vessels,  others  in  convoy 
ing  transports  or  cruising  after  privateers.  The 
steamer  "  Naugatuck"  took  part  in  the  naval  at 
tack  on  Fort  Darling,  and  the  revenue-steamer 
"  Reliance,"  while  pursuing  blockade-runners  on 
the  Maryland  shores,  was  fired  into  by  some  land 
forces  of  the  enemy,  and  her  commanding  officer, 
Capt.  Thomas  Dungan,  was  killed. 

The  same  injurious  effects  which  had  resulted 
from  the  participation  of  the  revenue  vessels  in 
former  wars  were  apparent  throughout  the  ser 
vice  with  the  return  of  peace. 

In  1871,  a  much-needed  reorganization  was 
effected  under  the  then  Secretary  of  the  Treas 
ury,  Hon.  George  S.  Boutwell.  All  officers  were 
subjected  to  a  rigid  examination  as  to  their  pro 
fessional  qualifications,  and  those  found  incom 
petent  were  removed.  The  vacancies  thus  caused 
were  filled  by  others  who  had  successfully  passed 
competitive  examinations.  The  old  and  unsuit 
able  vessels  were  sold,  or  altered  and  repaired, 
and  new  vessels  specially  designed  for  the  ser 
vice  were  built.  The  imperfect  system  under 
which  the  service  had  been  managed  gave  place 
to  a  carefully-devised  plan,  which  exacted  a  strict 
accountability  from  all  officers  in  charge  of  pub 
lic  property,  and  instituted  many  wholesome  re 
forms  in  the  expenditure  of  the  appropriations 
for  the  service.  The  establishment  of  regular 
boards  of  examination  and  the  introduction  of 
the  competitive  system  in  the  promotions  to 
higher  grades  stimulated  the  officers  generally 
to  industrious  application  in  the  studies  neces 
sary  for  their  improvement.  The  result  of  this 
reorganization  was  soon  manifested  in  the  in 
creased  efficiency  of  the  whole  service  and  the 
reduction  in  its  annual  expenses. 

In  1876,  an  act  of  Congress  was  passed  which 
provides  as  follows:  "That  hereafter,  upon  the 
occurring  of  a  vacancy  in  the  grade  of  third 
lieutenant  in  the  Revenue  Marine  Service,  the 
Secretary  of  the  Treasury  may  appoint  a  cadet 
not  less  than  18  nor  more  than  25  years  of  age, 
with  rank  next  below  that  of  third  lieutenant, 
whose  pay  shall  be  three- fourths  that  of  a  third 


lieutenant,  and  who  shall  not  be  appointed  to  a 
higher  grade  until  he  shall  have  served  a  satis 
factory  probationary  term  of  two  years  and 
passed  the  examination  required  by  the  regu 
lations  of  said  service."  Under  this  act  boards 
of  examination  are  held  for  candidates  for  ad 
mission  to  the  grade  of  cadet.  The  scope  of  the 
examination,  while  searching  in  its  character, 
covers  only  the  ordinary  English  branches,  but 
the  competitive  system  being  adhered  to,  the  ap 
pointments  are  not  controlled  by  political  or  per 
sonal  favoritism. 

The  cadets  are  first  sent  on  a  practice-cruise 
at  sea  in  a  revenue-cutter  detailed  for  the  purpose, 
and  are  carefully  trained  in  practical  navigation 
and  seamanship.  During  the  winter  they  are 
instructed  in  mathematics  and  such  other  studies 
as  will  best  fit  them  for  the  proper  performance 
of  their  duties  as  officers.  A  second  cruise  at 
sea  is  followed  by  another  winter  of  study  and 
training  on  shipboard,  when,  after  examination, 
they  are,  if  found  competent,  appointed  third 
lieutenants  in  the  service. 

By  an  act  of  Congress,  the  Secretary  of  the 
Treasury  has  power  to  designate  other  necessary 
duties  for  the  cutters  than  those  previously  men 
tioned  under  the  act  of  March  2,  1799.  These 
have  come  to  be  various,  the  cutters  having  been 
sent  on  many  special  cruises  in  search  of  missing 
vessels,  or  in  the  enforcement  of  the  neutrality 
laws  by  preventing  armed  expeditions  against 
neighboring  and  friendly  governments.  The 
suppression  of  mutiny  on  board  vessels  arriving 
at  or  sailing  from  our  ports  is  a  frequent  service 
performed  by  the  cutters.  Since  the  acquisition 
of  Alaska,  its  shores  and  the  neighboring  islands 
have  been  visited  annually  by  one  or  more  of 
the  revenue  vessels  on  the  Pacific  coast ;  and 
since  the  withdrawal  of  the  U.  S.  troops  from 
the  Territory,  the  cutters  have  afforded  the  prin 
cipal  means  for  enforcing  the  law  and  protecting 
the  people  in  that  remote  country.  At  this 
writing  (June,  1880)  the  revenue-steamer  "  Cor- 
win"  is  on  her  way  to  the  Aleutian  Islands,  with 
instructions  to  extend  her  cruise  into  the  Arctic 
Ocean,  in  search  of  two  missing  whalers  ;  also  to 
bring  back  tidings,  if  possible,  of  the  Arctic 
exploring  steamer  "  Jeannette." 

Under  an  act  passed  June  18,  1878,  officers  of 
the  revenue  marine  are  detailed  as  inspectors  and 
assistant  inspectors  of  life:saving  stations,  and 
act  as  such  under  the  direction  of  the  general 
superintendent  of  that  service.  For  this  duty 
they  are  well  fitted  by  their  familiarity  with  the 
coast,  as  well  as  from  the  long  association  of  the 
two  services,  which  dates  back  to  the  first  estab 
lishment  of  the  life-saving  stations,  in  1848. 
"While  thus  employed,  however,  the  officers  do 
not  neglect  their  regular  duties  in  the  protection 
of  the  revenues,  and,  .with  two  or  three  excep 
tions,  remain  in  command,  or  are  attached  to 
revenue  vessels. 

A  fair  estimate  of  the  usefulness  of  the  revenue 
cutters  may  be  drawn  from  the  following  state 
ment,  which  embraces  a  period  of  nine  fiscal 
years,  or  from  June  30,  1871,  to  June  30,  1879, 
viz. : 

Number  of  vessels  boarded  and  examined 218,479 

"  "        seized  or  reported  for  violation  of 

law 14,192 

"        in  distress  assisted 1,578 

"        miles  sailed  and  steamed 1,600,(>79 

"        lives  saved 555 


REVENUE 


691 


REYNOLDS 


These  figures  are  obtained  from  the  reports  of 
the  vessels,  made  on  a  form  in  use  only  since 
1871.  If  it  were  practicable  to  examine  all  the 
log-books  or  reports  of  the  cutters  since  the  first 
establishment  of  the  service,  quite  as  satisfactory 
figures  would  no  doubt  be  shown. 

The  records  of  the  Treasury  Department  do 
not  furnish  a  complete  statement  of  the  total 
value  of  the  services  rendered  by  the  cutters  to 
the  commerce  of  the  country,  but  from  the  re 
ports  made  during  the  last  3  years,  it  is  certain 
that  property  consisting  of  vessels  and  cargoes, 
imperiled  by  the  sea,  of  the  value  of  $9,148,- 
435.80,  has  been  assisted  and  saved  by  the  reve 
nue-cutters,  or  about  five  times  the  total  cost  to 
the  United  States  of  the  whole  fleet  of  revenue- 
cutters,  and  it  will  be  apparent  that  the  aggre 
gate  would  be  enormous  could  it  be  ascertained 
for  the  period  since  the  organization  of  the 
service. 

There  are  at  present  employed  in  the  revenue 
marine  23  propellers,  8  side-wheel  steamers,  1 
bark,  1  schooner,  and  4  sloops.  These  vessels 
are  stationed  in  the  principal  ports  on  the  At 
lantic  and  Pacific  coasts,  and  in  four  of  the 
Great  Lakes,  and  their  cruising-grounds  cover 
the  whole  coast  of  the  United  States. 

Their  armament  is  from  1  to  4  light  guns,  and 
sufficient  small-arms,  according  to  the  size  of  the 
vessel  and  the  probable  necessities  of  the  station 
to  which  they  are  assigned. 

The  officers  consist  of  34  captains,  34  first  lieu 
tenants,  34  second  lieutenants,  34  third  lieuten 
ants  and  cadets,  23  chief  engineers,  18  first 
assistant  engineers,  and  27  second  assistant  en 
gineers. 

By  act  of  February  4,  1863,  captains  in  the 
revenue  marine  rank  with  and  next  after  lieu 
tenants  commanding  in  the  navy. 

First  lieutenants  with  and  next  after  lieuten 
ants. 

Second  lieutenants  with  and  next  after  masters. 

Third  lieutenants  with  and  next  after  ensigns. 

The  present  duty  pay  of  officers  under  act  of 
February  28,  1867,  is  as  follows  : 

Captains $2500  per  annum  and  1  navy  ration. 

First  lieutenants 1800 

Second         "       1500 

Third  "       1200 

Chief  engineer 1800 

First  asst.  engineer....l500 
Second  "  "  ....1200 
Cadet 900 

The  wages  of  petty  officers  and  crews  are  regu 
lated  by  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  from  time 
to  time,  in  accordance  with  the  port  wages  for 
merchant  seamen  in  the  place  where  the  cutter 
may  be  stationed.  The  number  of  petty  officers 
and  seamen  for  each  vessel  is  also  regulated  in 
like  manner  according  to  the  size  of  the  cutter 
and  the  necessities  of  her  station,  rarely  exceed 
ing  30,  all  told,  for  a  first-class  vessel. 

The  whole  service  is  under  the  direction  of  the 
Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  and  its  affairs  are  con 
ducted  by  a  division  of  his  office,  in  charge  of  a 
chief  termed  Chief  of  Revenue  Marine,  whose 
responsible  duties  demand  from  him  good  execu 
tive  ability,  legal  and  scholarly  attainments,  and 
good  business  capacity,  while  he  can  avail  him 
self  of  professional  advice  from  any  one  of  the 
several  competent  officers  of  the  service  in  regard 
to  all  nautical  matters  appertaining  to  the  vessels 
or  the  personnel  of  the  service. 


The  general  discipline  throughout  the  service 
is  similar  to  that  of  the  navy. 

The  revenue  marine  holds  a  well-earned  and' 
deserved  popularity,  and  is  generally  recognized 
as  a  branch  of  the  public  service  which  increases 
the  receipts  of  the  Treasury,  and  saves  to  the 
commerce  of  the  country  each  year  many  times 
more  than  the  annual  expenses  for  its  mainte 
nance. — J.  H.  Mei'ryman,  Captain  U.S.R.M. 

REVENUE-CUTTER.  Originally,  a  sharp-built, 
single-masted,  fast-sailing  vessel,  armed  for  the 
purpose  of  preventing  smuggling,  and  enforcing 
the  custom-house  regulations.  The  name  is  now- 
applied  to  the  small  steamers  of  the  revenue 
service. 

Re  verse- valve.  A  small  conical-faced  valve 
attached  to  a  steam-boiler  and  so  arranged  as  to 
open  inward  and  admit  air  when  the  atmospheric 
pressure  exceeds  that  of  the  steam  or  vapor 
within,  thus  preventing  external  pressure  for 
which  the  boiler  is  not  braced.  A  partial  vacuum 
in  a  boiler  may  occur  when  steam  of  atmos 
pheric  pressure  is  no  longer  formed  by  the  fires, 
and  when,  with  dead  or  hauled  fires,  it  is  per 
mitted  to  condense  while  the  safety-valve  and 
other  atmospheric  communications  are  closed. 

Reversing-gear.  The  mechanism  attached 
to  the  valve-gear  of  a  steam-engine  by  which  the 
motion  of  the  engine  is  reversed.  In  heavy 
machinery  it  is  actuated  by  a  steam-cylinder  con 
trolled  by  a  screw  or  hydraulic  apparatus. 

Reversing-lever.  A  lever  or  bar  by  which 
the  motion  of  a  machine  is  reversed  in  direction ; 
as,  the  reversing  lever  of  a  locomotive-engine, 
which  throws  either  the  go-ahead  or  backing  ec 
centrics  of  the  valve-gear  into  action,  causing 
the  engine  to  move  forward  or  backward. 

Revolution.  The  time  occupied  by  a  planet 
in  passing  once  around  the  sun  is  the  time  of  its 
sidereal  revolution  ;  as  it  cannot  be  observed  from 
the  earth  on  account  of  the  earth's  motion,  its 
length  can  only  be  computed.  A  synodic  revo 
lution  is  completed  when  the  planet,  the  earth, 
and  the  sun  come  again  into  the  same  relative 
positions,  as,  into  conjunction,  or  opposition. 

Reynolds,  William,  Rear-Admiral  U.S.N. 
Appointed  acting  midshipman,  from  Lancaster, 
Pa.,  November  17,  1831 ;  first  cruise,  schooner 
"Boxer,"  sloop-of-war  "Peacock,"  coast  of 
Africa,  Brazil,  East  Indies,  1831-34;  frigate 
"Potomac,"  "Delaware,"  74,  Mediterranean, 
1834-36;  Naval  School,  Norfolk,  1836-37. 

Promoted  to  passed  midshipman,  June,  1837  ; 
"  Pennsylvania,"  120,  Philadelphia  to  Norfolk, 
1837-38;  Depot  of  Charts,  Washington,  1838; 
Exploring  Expedition,  1838-42. 

Commissioned  as  lieutenant,  September,  1841 ; 
frigate  "  Cumberland,"  Mediterranean,  1843-44  ; 
corvette  "Plymouth,"  Mediterranean,  1845; 
steamer  "Alfeghany,"  "Pittsburgh,"  Missis 
sippi  River,  Gulf  of  Mexico,  Brazil.  Mediter 
ranean,  1846-49;  Bureau  of  Construction,  1850; 
invalided,  1850;  command  of  store-ship  "  Fre- 
donia,"  Valparaiso,  1855;  retired,  1855;  naval 
storekeeper,  Honolulu,  1857-61 ;  under  surgical 
treatment,  1861-62. 

Commissioned  as  commander,  reserved  list, 
1862;  command  of  "Vermont,"  Port  Royal, 
November,  1862;  of  "New  Hampshire,"  and 
naval  depot.  Port  Royal,  1863-65;  restored  to 
active  list,  February,  1866  ;  command  of  "  Lack- 
awsnna,"  North  Pacific,  1866-69. 


EHE 


692 


RIBBAND 


Commissioned  as  captain,  July,  1866. 

Commissioned  as  commodore,  June,  1870; 
Chief  of  Bureau  of  Equipment,  July,  1870-75. 

Commissioned  as  rear-admiral,  December, 
1873;  command  of  Asiatic  Station,  flag-ship 
"Tennessee,"  April,  1875-77;  invalided,  Au 
gust,  1877  ;  retired,  December,  1877  ;  died,  No 
vember  5,  1879. 

Rhe.  A  very  old  word  signifying  an  overflow 
of  water. 

Rhind,  Alexander  Golden,  Commodore 
U.S.N.  Born  in  New  York.  Appointed  from 
Alabama,  September  3, 1838  ;  attached  to  line-of- 
battle  ship  "  Ohio"  and  sloop  "  Cyane,"  Medi 
terranean,  1839-41 ;  sloop  "Warren,'- West  In 
dies,  1842-43;  frigate  "Macedonian,"  coast  of 
Africa,  1843-44 ;  Naval  School,  Philadelphia, 
1844-45. 

Promoted  to  passed  midshipman,  July  2,  1845; 
brig  "Washington,"  coast  survey,  1845-46; 
Home  Squadron,  coast  of  Mexico,  until  end 
of  the  war  ;  present  at  Alvarado  and  Tabasco  ; 
steamer  "  Water- Witch,"  Home  Squadron,  1848; 
coast  survey,  schooner  "E wing,"  to  California, 
1849-50  ;  sloop  "  St.  Mary's,"  East  Indies,  1850- 
61 ;  coast  survey,  1851-54. 

Promoted  to  master,  April  30,  1853.    * 

Commissioned  as  lieutenant,  February  17, 
1854;  sloop  "John  Adams,"  Pacific  Squadron, 
1855;  sloop  "Constellation,"  coast  of  Africa, 
1859-61  ;  commanding  steam-gunboat  "  Cru 
sader,"  South  Atlantic  Blockading  Squadron, 
1862 ;  participated  in  various  small  affairs  at 
North  Edisto;  shore  fight  at  Seabrook's  planta 
tion,  S.  C.,  the  crew  of  the  "  Crusader"  defeat 
ing  a  rebel  mounted  force  ;  capture  and  destruc 
tion  of  rebel  works  commanding  South  Edisto, 
Dawho  and  Pon-Pon  Kivers,  for  which  he  re 
ceived  the  thanks  of  the  Department. 

Commissioned  as  lieutenant-commander,  July 
16,  1862;  commanding  steamer  "  Seneca,"  South 
Atlantic  Blockading  Squadron,  1862;  command 
ing  ironclad  steamer  "  Keokuk,"  South  Atlantic 
Blockading  Squadron,  1862-63;  commanding 
her  in  the  attack  on  defenses  of  Charleston, 
April  17,  1863.  In  this  engagement  the  "  Keo 
kuk"  was  struck  90  times  in  30  minutes  ;  19  shots 
pierced  her  through,  at  and  just  below  the  water- 
line.  Finding  it  impossible  to  keep  his  vessel 
afloat  under  such  an  extraordinary  fire,  Com 
mander  Khind  withdrew  from  action.  Being  in 
smooth  water  he  managed  to  keep  her  afloat  dur 
ing  the  night,  although  the  water  was  pouring 
into  her  in  many  places  ;  but  at  7.30  A.M.  on  the 
following  morning  she  went  down ;  the  officers 
and  crew  were  saved,  but  lost  all  their  effects. 

Commissioned  as  commander,  January  2, 1863; 
commanded  steamer  "  Paul  Jones,"  South  At 
lantic  Blockading  Squadron,  1863,  and  took  part 
in  various  engagements  with  Fort  Wagner  and 
other  defenses  of  Charleston  ;  commanded  steam- 
frigate  "Wabash,"  flag-ship  South  Atlantic 
Blockading  Squadron,  1863  ;  commanding  steam- 
gunboat  "  Agawam,"  North  Atlantic  Blockad 
ing  Squadron,  1864-65,  and  on  duty  in  James 
River  from  May  to  October,  1864.  Engagement 
with  rebel  batteries  at  Deep  Bottom,  August  13, 
1864.  Rear-Admiral  Lee,  in  his  report  of  this 
aifair,  thus  speaks  of  Commander  Rhind:  "I 
take  great  pleasure  in  calling  the  attention  of 
the  Department  to  the  gallantry  and  endurance 
displayed  by  Commander  Khind  of  the  '  Aga 


wam,'  and  the  officers  and  men  under  his  com 
mand,  in  the  engagement  with  three  rebel  bat 
teries,  August  13,  1864,  reported  to  the  Depart 
ment  by  Capt.  Smith,  divisional  commander  on 
the  James  River."  Commander  Rhind  received 
thanks  of  the  Department  in  letter  dated  Sep 
tember  7,  1864.  In  December,  1864,  Commander 
Rhind  was  detailed  by  Admiral  Porter  to  com 
mand  the  powder-boat  "  Louisiana,"  and  on  the 
night  of  the  23d  that  vessel  was  exploded  within 
250  yards  of  Fort  Fisher,  the  officers  and  men 
being  taken  off  by  the  steamer  "Wilderness." 
Rear-Admiral  Porter,  in  his  official  report  to  the 
Navy  Department,  says,  "  In  conclusion,  allow 
me  to  draw  your  attention  to  Commander  Rhind 
and  Lieut.  Preston.  They  engaged  in  the  most 
perilous  adventure  that  was,  perhaps,  ever  un 
dertaken.  As  an  incentive  to  others  I  beg  leave 
to  recommend  them  for  promotion."  Command 
ing  receiving-ship  "  Vermont,"  New  York, 
1866-67 ;  commanding  naval  rendezvous,  New 
York,  1868  ;  navy-yard,  New  York,  1869-70. 

Commissioned  as  captain,  1870  ;  commanding 
"  Congress"  (second-rate),  European  Station, 
1872-73  ;  light-house  inspector,  1876-78. 

Commissioned  as  commodore,  September  30, 
1876 ;  special  duty,  1879  ;  president  Board  of 
Inspection,  1880. 

Rhodes  is  the  capital  of  the  island  of  Rhodes, 
in  Asiatic  Turkey,  and  is  situated  at  the  northeast 
extremity  of  the  island,  in  lat.  36°  26'  9"  N., 
Ion.  28°  13'  E.  It  is  inclosed  by  walls,  and  on 
the  land  side  is  strengthened  by  ravelins  and  a 
moat.  On  the  northeast  side  two  piers  projecting 
form  a  harbor,  and  on  the  north  side  is  another 
port.  Outside  of  the  walls,  on  the  north,  are  the 
pasha's  palace  and  the  dock-yard.  It  exports  red 
leather  and  shoes,  which  form  its  principal  man 
ufacturing  industry.  Pop.  20,000. 

Rhodian  Laws.  A  maritime  code,  asserted, 
but  without  sufficient  proof,  to  be  the  basis  of 
the  Roman  sea-laws.  The  code  published  by 
Leunclavius  and  others,  as  a  body  of  Rhodian 
laws,  is  a  mere  forgery  of  modern  times. 

Rhodings.  The  brass  cleats  on  which  the  axles 
of  the  pumps  work. 

Rhumb.  The  intersection  of  a  vertical  circle 
with  the  horizon  ;  a  rhumb-line. 

RHUMB-LINE.  A  line  which  cuts  the  meridians 
at  a  constant  angle  ;  the  loxodromic  curve  ;  the 
equiangular  spiral. 

RHUMB  SAILING.  In  rhumb  sailing,  the  ship 
sails  on  the  rhumb-line  joining  the  place  of  de 
parture  and  place  of  destination.  It  is  the  ordi 
nary  mode  adopted  when  out  of  sight  of  land,  as 
the  compass  points  it  out,  and  on  Mercator's 
chart  it  appears  as  a  straight  line. 

Rhydal.  A  ford  or  channel  joining  lakes  or 
broad  waters. 

Rib.  A  figurative  term  for  one  of  the  frames 
of  a  ship,  arising  from  the  comparison  of  a  ship 
stripped  of  her  planking  to  the  human  skeleton. 
A  projection  formed  upon  a  metal  casting  for  the 
purpose  of  securing  strength.  Ribs  and  trucks, 
fragments. 

Ribadoquin.  A  powerful  cross-bow  for  throw 
ing  long  darts.  Also,  an  old  piece  of  ordnance 
throwing  a  ball  of  one  or  two  pounds. 

Ribband.  A  long  piece  of  oak  or  pine  from 
4  to  6  inches  square,  used  to  keep  the  frames  in 
position,  after  they  have  been  regulated. 

RIBBAND-LINE.     The  same  as  a  diagonal  line 


RIBBING-NAIL 


693 


RING 


in  the  body  plan,  the  difference  in  their  applica 
tion  being  that  the  ribband-line  is  taken  off  by 
the  use  ofhorizontal  lines  square  from  the  centre 
line  at  the  intersection  of  the  frame-line  with  the 
diagonal  line ;  while  the  diagonal  line  is  taken 
off  in  a  diagonal  direction,  before  the  line  is  ap 
plied  to  the  half-breadth  to  obtain  its  shape.  The 
diagonal  lines  cannot  be  used  to  prove  the  cant- 
lines  or  frames,  while  the  ribband-lines  can  be  so 
used. 

RIBBAND-SHORE.  A  shore  placed  against  the 
ribband  upon  the  frames  in  order  to  keep  the 
body  in  shape. 

Ribbing-nail.  A  nail  with  a  large  round 
head  to  be  driven  through  a  ring. 

Ribbon-fish  (Tcenioidce,  from  tcenia,  a  tape 
worm).  A  family  of  acanthopterous  fishes,  so 
called  on  account  of  their  compressed  and  elon 
gated  form.  They  are  of  very  delicate  structure, 
in  consequence  of  which  it  is  difficult  to  obtain 
perfect  specimens.  They  have  a  silvery  skin,  a 
long  dorsal  fin  often  uniting  with  the  tail-fin,  a 
small  mouth,  and  a  protractile  snout.  They  are 
widely  distributed,  but,  being  deep-sea  fishes,  are 
nowhere  found  in  abundance. 

Ribbons.  Narrow-painted  streaks  on  a  ship's 
side.  The  tatters  of  a  sail  blown  away. 

Richmond,  the  capital  of  Virginia,  and  a  port 
of  entry,  is  situated  on  the  north  bank  of  the 
James  River,  at  the  head  of  tide- water,  in  lat.  37° 
32/  17"  N.,  Ion.  77°  27'  28"  W.  There  are 
regular  lines  of  steamers  to  New  York,  Philadel 
phia,  and  Baltimore,  and  it  has  admirable  rail 
road  facilities.  Vessels  drawing  16  feet  of  water 
can  come  to  Rocketts,  at  the  lower  end  of  the  city ; 
the  dockage  capacity  is  large.  The  James  River 
and  Kanawha  Canal  extends  from  Richmond  to 
Buchanan,  a  distance  of  210  miles.  There  are 
623  manufacturing  establishments  in  the  city, 
embracing  43  plug-  and  smoking-tobacco  fac 
tories,  40  cigar-factories,  flour-  and  paper-mills, 
etc.  Pop.  75,000. 

Rickers.  Lengths  of  stout  poles  cut  up  for 
the  purpose  of  stowing  flax,  hemp,  and  the  like. 
Spars  supplied  for  boats'  masts  and  yards,  boat- 
hook  staves,  etc. 

Ricochet.     See  FIRE. 

Riddle.     A  kind  of  weir. 

Ride.  To  lie  at  anchor ;  to  be  supported  on  the 
water.  A  rope  rides  when  the  part  on  which 
the  strain  is  brought  lies  over  and  jams  the  other 
parts.  To  ride  down,  to  force  anything,  as  a 
yard,  or  bunt  of  a  sail,  down  to  its  proper  place 
oy  throwing  the  weight  upon  it. 

RIDING-BITTS.  The  bitts  to  which  the  cables 
are  secured. 

Riders.  Interior  ribs,  to  strengthen  and  bind 
the  parts  of  a  ship  together  ;  they  are  fayed  upon 
the  inside  planking  and  bolted  through  all,  and 
are  placed  where  they  are  most  needed,  either  at 
the  bow  or  the  stern  of  the  ship.  Also,  the  upper 
tiers  of  casks. 

Ridge-rope.  The  centre-rope  of  an  awning. 
The  rope  to  which  the  edges  of  an  awning  are 
hauled  out. 

Rifle.     See  ORDNANCE. 

Rig.  The  disposition  of  the  masts  and  yards, 
the  cut  of  the  sails,  and  manner  in  which  spars, 
sails,  and  rigging  are  fitted.  To  fit  the  shrouds, 
stays,  braces,  etc.,  to  their  respective  masts, 
yards,  etc.  To  cod;  to  play  a  sportive  trick  upon. 
To  rig  out  (or  in),  to  run  a  boom  out  (or  in). 


RIGGERS.  Men  employed  in  navy-yards  to  fit 
the  rigging  of  all  ships  before  being  put  in  com 
mission. 

RIGGING.  A  general  name  for  all  ropes  or 
chains  employed  to  support  and  work  masts, 
yards,  sails,  etc.  Standing  rigging,  rigging  set 
up  permanently,  as  stays,  backstays,  bobstays, 
shrouds,  etc.  Running  rigging,  the  ropes  which 
are  hauled  upon  from  time  to  time,  in  order  to 
adjust  the  yards,  sails,  etc. 

RIGGING-LOFT.  A  large  room  where  rigging 
is  stretched,  cut,  served,  etc.,  in  readiness  to  be 
sent  to  ships. 

RIGGING-MAT.  A  heavy  mat  seized  upon  the 
standing  rigging  to  prevent  its  being  chafed. 

RIGGING-SCREW.  A  machine  employed  to 
force  the  two  parts  of  a  stiff  rope  together  in  order 
that  a  seizing  may  be  put  on ;  as,  in  turning  in 
dead-eyes,  forming  the  eyes  of  shrouds,  etc. 

RIGGING-STOPPER.     See  STOPPER. 

Riga,  a  commercial  port  of  Russia,  is  situated 
on  the  Diina,  in  lat.  56°  57'  N.,  and  Ion.  24°  6'  30" 
E.  Along  the  river  on  both  sides  are  spacious 
quays.  The  inner  harbor  does  not  admit  vessels 
drawing  more  than  15  feet  of  water ;  large  ships 
load  and  unload  outside  of  the  bar  at  the  mouth 
of  the  River,  where  is  the  custom-house.  Grain, 
flax  and  flaxseed,  hemp,  wool,  hides,  tallow,  tim 
ber,  and  spars  are  the  chief  exports.  Pop.  99,000. 

Rigel.     The  star  0  Orionis. 

Right.  Directly  ;  as,  right  ahead,  right  abeam, 
etc.  A  ship  is  said  to  right  when  she  returns  to 
a  perpendicular  position  after  having  been  listed 
over  by  the  force  of  the  wind.  To  right  the 
helm,  to  put  it  amidships. 

Right  Ascension  (Lat.  rectus,  right,  straight ; 
ascensio,  rising).  The  right  ascension  of  a  heav 
enly  body  is  the  arc  of  the  equinoctial  intercepted 
between  the  first  point  of  Aries  and  the  circle  of 
declination  passing  through  the  centre  of  the 
body.  It  is  reckoned  from  the  first  point  of 
Aries  eastward,  from  0°  to  360°,  or  from  0  to 
24h.  Right  ascension  and  declination  are  the 
equinoctial  co-ordinates  for  determining  positions 
on  the  celestial  sphere. 

RIGHT  ASCENSION,  CIRCLES  or.     See  CIRCLE. 

Right-handed  Rope.  Rope  laid  up  with  the 
sun.  See  ROPE. 

Right  Sailing.  Running  a  course  on  one  of 
the  four  cardinal  points,  so  as  to  alter  only  a 
ship's  latitude,  or  longitude. 

Right  Whale.     See  WHALE. 

Rill.  A  very  small  run  of  fresh  water,  less 
than  a  rivulet. 

Rimbase.  The  short  cylinder  at  the  junction 
of  the  trunnion  with  the  gun. 

Rime.     Hoar-frost ;  condensed  vapor. 

Ring.  Anything  in  the  form  of  a  circle.  An 
old  brass  instrument  for  measuring  altitudes  of 
heavenly  bodies,  having  an  aperture  in  one  side, 
through  which  a  ray  entering  indicated  the  alti 
tude  on  the  graduated  surface  opposite.  See 
SATURN,  ANCHOR. 

RING-BOLT.  A  bolt  with  an  eye  in  one  end  in 
which  a  ring  is  fitted  for  convenience  in  hooking 
tackles. 

RING-DOGS.  Iron  implements  used  in  haul 
ing  timber.  They  are  formed  by  putting  a  ring 
through  the  eyes  of  two  common  dogs. 

RING-ROPE.  A  rope  used,  in  bending  a  chain, 
to  haul  the  end  of  the  chain  up  to  the  ring  of  the 
anchor. 


KING-TAIL 


694 


RIVERS 


KING-STOPPER.     See  STOPPER. 

Ring-tail.  A  sail  set,  like  a  stun'sail,  beyond 
the  leech  of  a  sail  spread  by  a  gaff  and  boom. 

KING-TAIL  BOOM.  A  boom  extending  beyond 
the  spanker-boom  or  main-boom,  to  spread  a 
ring-tail. 

Rio  de  Janeiro,  the  largest  and  most  important 
city  of  South  America  and  the  capital  of  Brazil, 
is  situated  on  the  west  side  of  the  Bay  of  Kio 
de  Janeiro,  in  lat.  22°  64'  V  S.,  Ion.  43° 
9'  W.  Its  port,  which  is  large  and  deep,  is  de 
fended  by  a  castle.  The  principal  edifices  are 
the  palace,  the  naval  and  military  arsenal,  and 
public  hospital.  Its  imports  comprise  the  prod 
uct  of  every  country.  Its  chief  exports  are 
cotton,  sugar,  coffee,  rum,  gold,  diamonds, 
topazes,  amethysts,  and  aquamarine.  The  bay 
is  17  miles  long  and  11  miles  wide,  and  forms 
one  of  the  finest  harbors  in  the  world.  Pop. 
275,000. 

Rip.  A  pannier  or  basket  used  for  carrying 
fish.  See  TIDE-RIP. 

KIPPERS.  Men  from  the  sea-shore,  who  sell 
fish  to  the  inland  towns  and  villages. 

Riparia.  A  law-term  for  the  water  running 
between  the  banks  of  a  river. 

Ripary.     Inhabiting  the  sea-shore. 

Ripping-iron.  A  calker's  tool  for  tearing 
oakum  out  of  a  seam,  or  stripping  copper  or 
sheathing  from  a  ship's  bottom. 

Ripple.  The  small  waves  raised  on  the  sur 
face  of  the  water  by  the  passage  of  a  light  breeze. 

KIPPLE-MARKS.  The  ripply  appearance  left  at 
low- water  on  the  flat  part  of  a  sandy  beach.  • 

Risberm.  Fascines  placed  to  oppose  the  vio 
lence  of  the  surf. 

Rising.  A  term  derived  from  the  shape  of  a 
ship's  bottom  in  general,  which  gradually  nar 
rows  or  becomes  sharper  toward  the  stem  and 
stern-post.  On  this  account  it  is  that  the  floor 
of  a  ship  toward  the  extremities  is  raised  or 
lifted  from  a  level  line,  otherwise  the  shape  of 
the  timbers  would  be  so  very  acute  as  not  to  be 
procurable  in  wood,  or  the  timber  would  be  so 
grain-cut  as  not  to  be  of  sufficient  strength. 
Also,  the  narrow  strake  just  below  the  thwarts 
of  a  boat. 

RISING-FLOOR.  The  floor-timbers  forward  and 
aft,  on  account  of  the  narrowing  of  the  ship's 
body,  are  gradually  lifted  or  raised  upon  the 
dead-wood  or  rising- wood,  and  are  known  as 
rising- floors.  They  are  difficult  to  obtain  in 
wood  from  their  acute-angled  shape. 

RISING-LINE.  An  elliptical  line  drawn  upon 
the  sheer-plan  to  determine  the  sweep  of  the 
floor-heads  throughout  the  ship's  length. 

RISING-SQUARE.  A  square  used  in  the  mold- 
.ing  of  the  ship's  frame,  upon  which  is  marked 
the  rising  of  each  floor  at  a  sirmark,  as  well  as 
the  half-breadth  at  the  same  point  to  which 
spots  the  molds  are  applied  for  the  molding  of 
the  floors. 

RISING-WOOD,  or  DEADWOOD.  The  wood 
placed  upon  the  top  of  the  keel  at  the  ends  of 
the  ship  upon  which  the  cants  are  secured,  where 
there  is  so  much  rise  to  the  floors  that  it  is  diffi 
cult  to  obtain  timbers  to  cross  the  keel.  The 
rising-wood  is  introduced  in  order  to  lessen  the 
expense,  and  also  to  continue  the  framing  of  the 
ship  to  the  stem  and  stern-post.  As  the  ship 
becomes  sharper  more  rising -wood  becomes 
necessary. 


Risks.  The  casualties  against  which  insur 
ances  are  made  on  ships  and  cargoes. 

Rittoch.  A  name  for  the  tern,  Sterna  hirnudo. 

Rive.     The  sea-shore. 

River-risk.  A  policy  of  insurance  from  the 
docks  to  the  sea. 

Rivers.  A  river  is  a  natural  stream  of  water 
flowing  through  the  land.  Small  rivers  are 
called  creeks,  and  still  smaller  streams  are  named 
brooks,  rills,  and  rivulets.  The  ground  through 
which  a  river  flows  is  its  bed ;  the  deepest  part 
the  channel,  and  the  country  drained  by  it  is  its 
basin.  Rivers  have  their  origin  in  lakes,  from 
natural  springs,  and  in  mountains,  some  from  the 
melting  snows,  others  issuing  from  glaciers. 
Such  beginnings  are  sources,  or  heads.  Rivers 
empty  into  the  ocean,  or  into  one  of  its  arms,  or 
they  stop  in  some  inland  lake,  flow  into  some 
other  river,  or  are  lost  in  desert  sands  or  arid 
wastes.  The  final  termination  of  a  river  is  its 
mouth,  and  when  there  are  more  than  one,  it  is 
called  a  delta.  Rivers  are  oceanic;  that  is,  their 
waters  reach  the  ocean  ;  or  they  are  continental ; 
that  is,  they  are  lost  in  some  lake,  desert,  or 
waste.  Most  of  the  larger  rivers  are  oceanic, 
but  many  continental  rivers  of  considerable  size 
exist.  A  river  flowing  into  another  is  a  tribu 
tary,  or  branch,  and  rivers  are  affluents  of  the 
bodies  into  which  they  empty  their  waters.  Con 
fluent  streams  are  those  flowing  into  the  same 
waters. 

Some  continental  rivers  become  oceanic  after 
great  rains,  as  the  Mareb,  in  Abyssinia.  When 
a  river  falls  over  a  gradual  descent,  such  a  place 
is  called  the  rapids,  and  when  the  fall  is  sudden, 
it  becomes  a  cataract  or  fall.  Many  such  de 
scents  occur  and 'interrupt  navigation,  more  or 
less,  according  to  their  character.  The  greatest 
falls  are  those  of  the  St.  Lawrence,  at  Niagara, 
the  stream,  800  feet  wide,  here  falling  over  a 
precipice  165  feet  high,  and  gradually  wearing  a 
bed  200  feet  deep.  The  highest  fall  is  found  in 
the  Himalaya  Mountains.  Such  rapids  and  falls 
(and  shoals  and  rocks)  often  interrupt  naviga 
tion  in  rivers  of  considerable  size.  Rivers  are 
usually  fresh,  but  such  as  have  a  tidal  flow  are 
salt  as  far  as  the  tide  reaches.  The  tidal-wave, 
when  it  meets  the  current  of  rivers,  sometimes 
carries  a  wave  called  a  bore  to  some  distance  above 
its  mouth.  The  principal  one  is  in  the  Amazon. 
Many  rivers  flow  underground  during  a  part  of 
their  course,  and  some  are  suddenly  lost  in  the 
ground.  Sometimes  rivers  lose  a  part  of  their 
waters  through  narrow  connecting  channels, 
known  as  bayous  in  Louisiana,  and  as  shats  in 
Persia.  Many  rivers  periodically  overflow  their 
banks,  as  the  Ganges,  Indus,  and  Nile. 

The  following  table  exhibits  the  lengths  of  the 
chief  rivers : 

Rivers  of  the  World. 
Name. 


Name.  Miles. 

Amazon 4700 

Mississippi 3200 

Mississippi  and  Missouri.  4500 

Yangtze-Kiang 3300 

Nile 3200 

Hoang-Ho 3200 

Obi 3000 

Irtish 2000 

Yenesei 2600 

Tnngouska 2300 

Missouri 2200 

Burramapootra 2200 

Volga 2200 

Arkansas 2150 


Miles. 

Red 2000 

Parana 2000 

St.  Lawrence 2000 

St.  Lawrence  proper 600 

Niger 2000 

Euphrates 1600 

Danube 1800 

Apurrimas 1800 

Ganges 1800 

Rio  Grande 1700 

Indus 1700 

Orinoco 1600 

Platte 1600 

Columbia 1500 


KIVEKS 


695 


ROCHESTER 


Name.  Miles. 

Dnieper 1300 

Paraguay 1200 

Yellowstone 1100 

Kansas 1100 

Mackenzie 1100 

Blue  Nile 1000 

Ohio 10UO 

Dwina 1000 

Don 1000 

Senegal 1000 

Magdalena 1000 

Snake , 1000 

Gara 1000 

Tigris 10(10 

Jumna 900 

Tennessee 900 

Cauca 800 


Name.  Miles. 

Rhine 800 

Peace 8<X) 

Elbe 700 

Alabama 600 

Appalachicola 600 

Tagus 600 

Oder 600 

Cumberland 600 

Susquehanna 500 

Savannah 500 

Rhine 500 

Illinois 500 

Po 450 

Seine 400 

Connecticut 400 

Garonne,  Delaware,  and 

St.  John,  each 350 


A  few  of  these  rivers  merit  an  especial  men 
tion.  The  Amazon,  also  called  the  Maranon,  and, 
from  its  discoverer,  the  Orellana,  is  formed  by 
the  union  of  the  Tunguragua  and  Ucayale, — the 
former  rising  in  a  lake  in  Peru,  the  latter  formed 
by  the  Apurimac  and  Payo.  It  has  many 
islands,  some  of  them  10  miles  in  circumference, 
is  navigable  for  2000  miles,  and  its  mouth  is  180 
miles  wide.  The  tides  extend  400  miles,  and 
the  bore  is  10  to  15  feet  high.  Besides  the 
branches  mentioned,  the  Napo,  Yapara,  Negro, 
Yutay,  Madeira,  and  Xingu,  are  the  chief  ones. 
The  Madeira  is  1800  miles  long.  The  basin 
drained  by  the  Amazon  embraces  2,400,000 
square  miles.  Its  head-waters  connect  with 
those  of  the  Orinoco.  It  was  discovered  by 
Vincent  Yanez  Pinzon  in  1500,  and  Orellana,  in 
1539,  traced  its  course.  It  was  thoroughly 
described  and  explored  by  Condamine  in  1743, 
and  by  Humboldt,  Lieut.  Herndon,  and  lately 
by  Commander  Selfridge,  in  the  "  Enterprise." 

The  Mississippi  rises  in  a  small  lake  (Itasca) 
in  Minnesota,  although  a  dozen  other  lakes 
might  as  easily  be  named  as  its  source,  and  flows 
nearly  in  a  straight  line  south  to  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico,  pouring  its  waters  out  through  five 
mouths,  called  here  passes.  It  has  scores  of 
tributaries,  four  of  them  at  least  being  large 
rivers,  and  a  dozen  others  of  some  size. 

The  Yangtze-Kiang  and  the  Hoang-Ho  are 
both  large  rivers  of  China.  They  rise  nearly 
together  in  the  table-lands  of  Chinese  Thibet, 
the  former  flowing  southeast,  the  latter  north 
east,  until  they  are  1000  miles  apart,  when  they 
turn  towards  each  other,  and  finally  empty  their 
waters  into  the  Yellow  Sea,  100  miles  apart. 
The  alluvium  brought  down  by  these  rivers 
gives  the  name  to  the  Sen  and  Yellow  Rivers, 
and  has  sensibly  decreased  the  depth  of  the  for 
mer.  The  Yangtze-Kiang  receives  the  several 
names  of  Minachoo,  Ya  Loong,  Tachoong,  Kin 
Sha,  and  Ta  Kiang,  in  portions  of  its  course. 
It  has  7  large  tributaries,  and  is  navigable  for 
1000  miles. 

The  Obi,  Yenesei,  and  Lena  are  mighty 
streams,  rising  in  the  centre  of  Asia,  and  flowing 
in  a  northerly  direction  into  the  Arctic  Ocean. 
Each  has  numerous  tributaries,  and  together 
they  water  and  drain  the  vast  steppes  of  Siberia. 
Although  deep  and  wide,  these  rivers  are  navi 
gable  only  a  small  portion  of  the  year  because 
of  the  ice*.  Each  drains  1,000,000  square  miles 
of  territory. 

The  other  large  rivers  of  Asia,  the  Ganges, 
Indus,  Burramapootra,  and  Euphrates,  flow 
through  low  and  marshy  districts,  and  at  certain 
seasons  overflow  their  banks,  rendering  the  lands 
fertile. 


The  Nile  is  one  of  the  most  remarkable  river? 
of  the  world.  Its  source,  but  recently  ascer 
tained,  is  in  the  Lakes  Albert  and  Victoria  Ny- 
anza,  in  the  interior  of  Africa.  It  flows  nearly 
north  to  the  Mediterranean,  pouring  its  water 
through  five  mouths, — the  original  delta.  It 
receives  one  large  tributary,  the  Blue  Nile,  and 
several  smaller  ones,  but  for  the  last  1300  miles 
receives  none, — a  solitary  instance  of  such  a  lack. 
It  periodically  overflows  its  banks,  not  only 
watering  an  arid  valley,  but  fertilizing  it  by  the 
quantities  of  mud  there  deposited.  In  its  course 
it  traverses  the  ancient  countries  of  Egypt  and 
Nubia,  where  still  exist  gigantic  remains  of  the 
first  civilization  of  the  globe. 

The  Volga  is  the  largest  river  of  Europe.  It 
rises  nearly  in  the  centre  of  Russia,  and  empties 
into  the  Caspian  Sea.  During  the  lower  part 
of  its  course  it  has  many  bayous  or  canals.  The 
Danube  is  next,  and  the  Dnieper,  Dwina,  Don, 
and  Rhine  are  not  far  behind  it  in  size  and  im 
portance. 

Arabia  and  the  Great  Sahara  Desert  of  Africa 
are  most  destitute  of  rivers,  and  the  whole  west 
ern  coast  of  South  America  is  without  rivers  of 
any  size,  none  of  them  being  navigable. — F.  S. 
Bassett,  Lieutenant  U.S.N. 

Rivet.  The  roe  of  a  fish.  A  pin  or  bolt  of 
metal  for  confining  pieces  of  material  together ; 
the  ends  are  enlarged  in  diameter  and  formed 
into  heads,  projecting  over  and  clasping  the 
outer  surfaces  of  the  united  pieces  by  battering 
or  longitudinal  compression. 

Roach.  The  curvature  of  the  foot  of  a  sail ; 
the  object  is  to  keep  the  foot  from  chafing.  A 
gregarious  fresh-water  fish  of  the  carp  family 
(Leuciscns  rutilus).  It  is  of  a  silver-white  color, 
with  a  greenish  back,  having  the  dorsal  fin  oppo 
site  the  ventral.  It  is  about  a  foot  in  length. 

Road,  or  Roadstead.  An  off-shore  anchor 
age,  affording  less  protection  to  vessels  than  a 
harbor. 

ROADER,  or  ROADSTER.  A  term  applied  to  a 
clumsy  vessel  which  works  its  way  from  port  to 
port  by  means  of  the  tides,  anchoring  when  wind 
and  tide  are  unfavorable. 

Roast  Beef  Dress  (Eng.).  Full  uniform ; 
probably  from  its  resemblance  to  that  of  the 
royal  beef-eaters. 

Roast  Beef  of  Old  England.  A  popular  air 
by  which  officers  are  summoned  to  the  dinner- 
table. 

Robans.  Short  bits  of  spun-yarn,  foxes,  etc., 
for  securing  the  head  of.  a  sail  to  the  jack-stay 
on  the  yard. 

Rochester,  a  port  of  entry  in  Monroe  County, 
N.  Y.,  is  situated  on  both  sides  of  the  Genesee 
River,  in  lat.  43°  8'  17"  N.,  Ion.  77°  51'  W.  The 
city  is  connected  by  a  net-work  of  railways  with 
every  city  of  importance  in  this  country  and 
Canada,  and  it  has  also  two  important  channels 
of  trade  in  the  Erie  and  Genesee  Valley  Canals. 
The  foreign  commerce,  chiefly  carried  on  by  the 
lakes,  although  some  of  it  comes  by  way  of  New 
York,  is  quite  large,  and  its  domestic  trade  is 
much  larger.  It  is  one  of  the  greatest  flour-pro 
ducing  cities  in  the  world,  and  also  has  extensive 
manufactories  of  other  kinds.  The  largest  car 
riage-factory  in -the  United  States  is  located 
here.  There  are  16  flour-mills,  grinding  each 
year  an  average  of  3,000,000  bushels  of  wheat. 
Pop.  82,000. 


ROCK 


696 


RODGERS 


Rock.  Half-tide  rock,  a  rock  awash  at  half- 
tide. 

Rock-cod.  A  species  of  cod  found  on  a  rocky 
bottom. 

Rocket-boat.  A  flat-bottomed  boat  fitted 
with  rocket-frames  to  fire  Congreve  rockets  from 
in  naval  bombardment. 

Rock-fish.  A  salt-water  fish,  a  species  of 
goby,  Gobius  niger. 

Rock-hind.  A  large  fish  of  tropical  regions, 
Serranus  catus. 

Rockling.  A  fish  of  the  genus  Motella  (M.  vul- 
garis),  belonging  to  the  cod  family;  whistle-fish. 

Rock-scorpion.  A  name  applied  to  persons 
born  at  Gibraltar. 

Rock-shaft.  In  mechanism,  a  shaft  which 
oscillates  about  its  axis ;  as,  in  transmitting  the 
reciprocating  motion  from  the  eccentrics  to  the 
valves  of  a  steam-engine. 

Rodding-time.   The  season  for  fish  spawning. 

Rodgers,  C.  R.  P.,  Rear-Admiral  U.S.N. 
Born  November  14,  1819,  in  Brooklyn,  N.  Y. 
Appointed  midshipman  from  Connecticut,  Octo 
ber  5,  1833;  attached  to  frigate  "  Brandywine" 
and  sloop  "Vincennes,"  Pacific  Station,  1834- 
36  ;  navy-yard,  New  York,  1837  ;  sloop  "  Fair- 
field"  and  brig  "Dolphin,"  Brazil  Squadron, 
1837-39. 

Promoted  to  passed  midshipman,  July  8,  1839 ; 
schooner  "  Flirt,"  coast  of  Florida,  1839-40;  and 
in  command  of  schooner  "Phoenix,"  1841-42, 
being  actively  employed  in  the  Seminole  war 
during  those  three  years;  sloop  "Saratoga," 
coast  of  the  United  States,  1842-43. 

Commissioned  as  lieutenant,  September  4, 
1844 ;  served  in  Mediterranean  Squadron  in 
frigate  "Cumberland,"  1843-45,  and  in  store- 
ship  "Lexington."  1845;  coast  survey,  1846; 
frigate  "Potomac"  and  sloop  "Albany,"  block 
ading  Mexican  coast,  1847 ;  present  and  in  the 
trenches  at  the  reduction  of  Vera  Cruz  and  at 
the  capture  of  Tabasco  and  Tuspan :  coast  sur 
vey,  1848-49;  frigate  "Congress,"  Brazil  Squad 
ron,  1850-51;  frigate  "Constitution,"  coast  of 
Africa,  1852-55 ;  coast  survey,  commanding 
steamer  "  Bibb"  and  schooner  "  Gallatin," 
1856-57;  steam-frigate  "Wabash,"  Mediterra 
nean  Squadron,  1858-59;  commandant  of  mid 
shipmen  at  Naval  Academy,  1860-61. 

Commissioned  as  commander,  October  15, 1861 ; 
served  in  steam-frigate  "  Wabash"  as  captain  and 
fleet-captain,  1861-63,  commanding  that  ship  at 
the  battle  of  Port  Royal,  November,  1861,  and 
the  naval  force  in  the  trenches  at  the  reduction 
of  Fort  Pulaski,  January  27,  1862.  While  in 
the  "Wabash,"  much  employed  on  detached 
service,  in  command  of  a  division  of  gunboats 
in  retaking  the  coast  and  inlets  of  Georgia  and 
Florida,  and  South  Carolina  south  of  Port  Royal ; 
fleet-captain  in  the  "  New  Ironsides"  in  the  at 
tack  on  Charleston,  April  7,  1863.  Rear-Admi- 
ral  Dupont  in  his  official  report  of  that  engage 
ment  says,  "  On  this,  as  on  all  other  occasions,  I 
had  invaluable  assistance  from  the  fleet-captain, 
C.  R.  P.  Rodgers,  who  was  with  me  in  the  pilot 
house  directing  the  movements  of  the  squadron. 
For  now  over  eighteen  months  in  this  war  this 
officer  has  been  afloat  with  me,  and  in  my  opin 
ion  no  language  could  overstate  his  services  to 
his  country,  to  this  fleet,  and  to  myself  as  its 
commander-in-chief."  Commanded  steam-sloop 
"  Iroquois,"  1863-65,  on  special  service. 


Commissioned  as  captain,  July  25, 1866 ;  navy- 
yard,  Norfolk,  1865-67;  commanded  steam-frig 
ate  "  Franklin,"  Mediterranean  Squadron,  1868- 
70. 

Commissioned  as  commodore,  August  28, 1870; 
special  service  in  Europe,  1871 ;  chief  of  Bureau 
of  Yards  and  Docks,  October,  1871-74. 

Commissioned  as  rear-admiral,  June  14,  1874 ; 
superintendent  Naval  Academy,  1874-78 ;  com 
manding  Pacific  Station,  1878-80. 

Rodgers,  John,  Commodore  U.S.N.  Born 
in  Hartford  County,  Md.,  1771;  died  at  Phila 
delphia,  August  1,  1838.  Entering  the  navy  as 
a  lieutenant,  March  9,  1798,  he  was  the  execu 
tive-officer  of  the  frigate  "Constellation,"  Com 
modore  Truxtun,  when  she  captured  the  French 
frigate  "  L'Insurgente"  off  Nevis,  February  9, 
1799,  and  took  possession  of  the  prize.  Made 
a  captain  March  5,  1799,  he  cruised  in  the 
"  Maryland,"  20,  upon  the  West  India  Station  ; 
in  1802  he  commanded  the  "John  Adams,"  28, 
with  which  and  the  "Enterprise,"  12,  he  suc 
cessfully  attacked,  in  June,  1803,  a  Tripolitan 
cruiser  of  22  guns,  and  several' gunboats  at  an 
chor  near  Tripoli ;  in  1804  he  commanded  the 
"  Congress,"  38,  in  the  squadron  employed 
against  Tripoli  under  Commodore  Barren,  whom, 
in  1805,  he  succeeded  in  the  command.  After 
the  peace  with  Tripoli,  he  proceeded  with  his 
squadron  to  Tunis,  where  he  engaged  in  nego 
tiations  which  resulted  in  the  establishment  of 
friendly  relations.  In  the  spring  of  1811,  in  the 
"  President,"  44,  off  Annapolis,  he  heard  that  a 
seaman  had  been  impressed  off  Sandy  Hook  by 
an  English  frigate;  sailing  for  that  point  with 
out  delay,  May  16  he  hailed,  about  8J  P.M.,  a 
vessel  of  war,  but  received  no  answer.  After 
a  little  delay,  the  stranger  hailed,  and  imme 
diately  fired  a  shot  that  entered  the  "  Presi 
dent's"  mainmast.  After  a  short  engagement, 
in  which  his  opponent  was  much  crippled,  he 
ceased  firing,  and  on  the  following  morning 
boarded,  discovering  her  to  be  H.B.M.  ship 
"  Little  Belt,"  22  guns,  Capt.  Bingham.  The  ac 
counts  given  by  the  two  commanders  of  this  affair 
differed  materially,  particularly  as  to  the  firing 
of  the  first  gun  ;  and  it  widened  the  breach  which 
already  existed  between  the  two  nations.  June 
21,  1812,  receiving  official  intelligence  of  the 
declaration  of  war  against  Great  Britain,  Com 
modore  Rodgers  sailed  from  New  York  in  com 
mand  of  a  squadron  ;  June  23,  while  chasing  the 
British  frigate  "  Belvidere,"  during  a  running 
fight,  a  gun  burst,  killing  and  wounding  16, 
Commodore  Rodgers  being  among  the  latter ;  in 
a  subsequent  cruise  he  took  the  British  packet 
"  Swallow,"  with  a  large  amount  of  specie,  and 
the  schooner  "  Highflyer"  ;  appointed  June  14  to 
the  new  frigate  "  Guerriere,"  he  rendered  im 
portant  service  in  the  defense  of  Baltimore;  from 
April,  1815,  to  December,  1824,  he  served  as 
president  of  the  Board  of  Navy  Commissioners ; 
Acting  Secretary  of  the  Navy,  September  to  De 
cember,  1823  ;  and  in  1824-27  in  command  of  the 
Mediterranean  Squadron.  On  his  return  he  was 
again  on  the  Board  of  Navy  Commissioners, 
which  position  he  relinquished'in  1837. 

Rodgers,  John,  Rear-Admiral  U.S.N.  Born 
in  Maryland,  and  appointed  midshipman  from 
District  of  Columbia,  April  18,  1828.  Attached 
to  frigate  "Constellation,"  Mediterranean  Squad 
ron,  1829-32;  Naval  School,  Norfolk,  1833-34. 


RODGERS 


697 


RODNEY 


Promoted  to  passed  midshipman,  June  14, 1834  ; 
on  leave,  1835;  brig  "Dolphin,"  Brazil  Squad 
ron,  1838-38;  special  service,  1839. 

Commissioned  as  lieutenant,  January  22, 1840  ; 
brig  "  Boxer,"  Home  Squadron,  1841-43;  special 
service,  1844-45;  sloop  "Marion,"  Mediterra 
nean  Squadron, 1846-47 ;  coast  survey,  1848-52 ; 
commanding  steamer  "  John  Hancock"  and  Sur 
veying  and  Exploring  Expeditions  to  North  Pa 
cific  and  China  Seas,  1853-56. 

Commissioned  as  commander,  September  14, 
1855  ;  special  duty,  Washington,  D.  C.,  1857-59  ; 
waiting  orders,  1860. 

In  1861,  Commander  Rodgers  was  ordered  to 
special  duty  in  the  West,  superintending  the 
construction  of  the  Benton  class  of  ironclads. 
In  1862  he  was  assigned  to  the  command  of  the 
ironclad  steamer  "Galena,"  and  ordered  to  the 
North  Atlantic  Blockading  Squadron.  On  May 
10,  1862,  Commander  Rodgers  left  Hampton 
Roads  in  command  of  an  expedition  of  gun 
boats,  with  orders  to  enter  the  James  River, 
and,  if  possible,  to  ascend  the  river  to  Rich 
mond.  After  two  engagements  with  rebel  bat 
teries,  which  were  in  each  instance  silenced,  the 
fleet  reached  Fort  Darling,  a  casemated  battery 
erected  on  the  crest  of  a  hill,  which,  together 
with  sunken  vessels,  effectually  obstructed  the 
channel. 

On  the  morning  of  May  15,  Commander  Rod 
gers  anchored  the  "  Galena"  in  front  of  and  at  a 
distance  of  500  yards  from  the  rebel  fort.  The 
"Aroostook"  and  "Port  Royal,"  wooden  gun 
boats,  were  stationed  800  yards  below  the  flag 
ship.  At  8  A.M.  the  vessels  opened  fire  on  Fort 
Darling,  and  from  that  time  until  12  M.  kept  up 
a  vigorous  bombardment.  At  12.10  P.M.,  Com 
mander  Rodgers  having  expended  every  shot  and 
shell  in  the  magazine  and  shell-room  of  the  "  Ga 
lena,"  made  signal  to  withdraw  from  action,  the 
vessels  retiring  in  good  order,  and  giving  the 
rebels  a  parting  shot  as  they  steamed  down  the 
river.  The  monitor  being  unable  to  give  suffi 
cient  elevation  to  her  guns,  and  the  "  Nauga- 
tuck,"  better  known  as  the  Stevens  battery, 
having  burst  her  rifle-gun  at  the  first  fire,  were 
rendered  useless  so  far  as  the  fort  was  concerned, 
although  both  vessels  did  good  service  during  the 
action  by  stationing  their  crews  as  sharpshooters 
and  picking  off  the  rebel  riflemen  who  greatly 
annoyed  the  crews  of  the  wooden  vessels. 

The  armor  of  the  "  Galena"  did  not  prove  of 
any  service  to  her.  She  was  hit  129  times,  losing 
in  killed  and  wounded  two-thirds  of  her  crew. 
The  "Aroostook"  and  "Port  Royal"  suffered 
to  a  less  extent. 

Commissioned  as  captain,  July  16,  1862. 

In  1863,  Capt.  Rodgers  was  ordered  to  the 
command  of  the  monitor  "  Weehawken,"  and 
sailed  from  New  York  in  that  vessel  for  the 
South  Atlantic  Blockading  Squadron.  On  his 
way  South,  and  while  off  the  Delaware  Break 
water,  he  encountered  a  heavy  gale.  He  was 
urged  to  run  in  and  remain  until  the  storm 
abated.  This  he  declined  to  do,  saying  he 
wished  to  test  the  sea-going  qualities  of  the 
monitors.  The  "Weehawken"  rode  out  the 
gale  and  reached  Port  Royal  in  safety. 

On  June  17,  1863,  in  Warsaw  Sound,  Ga., 
Capt.  Rodgers,  in  the  "  Weehawken,"  encoun 
tered  the  powerful  rebel  ironclad  "Atlanta,"  a 
vessel  of  much  greater  tonnage  than  the  "  Wee 


hawken."  So  confident  were  the  rebels  of  a 
speedy  victory,  that  the  "  Atlanta"  was  ac 
companied  from  Savannah  to  the  scene  of  action 
by  boats  freighted  with  gay  parties  eager  to  wit 
ness  the  triumph  of  their  vessel.  Five  shots  were 
fired  by  the  "Weehawken."  The  fight  lasted 
but  15  minutes,  at  the  end  of  which  time  the 
"  Atlanta"  surrendered.  An  important  feature 
of  this  conflict  was  the  final  settlement  of  the 
dispute  as  to  the  value  of  the  new  15-inch  gun, 
which  fully  proved  its  merit. 

Commissioned  as  commodore,  June  17,  1863 ; 
commanding  ironclad  "Dictator,"  special  ser 
vice,  1864-65 ;  commanded  monitor  "  Monad- 
nock,"  1866-67;  and  in  that  vessel  made  the 
passage  around  the  Horn  to  San  Francisco.  Com 
modore  Rodgers  touched  at  Valparaiso,  and  wit 
nessed  the  bombardment  of  that  place  by  the 
Spanish  fleet. 

Commanding  navy-yard,  Boston,  1867-69. 
Commissioned  as  rear-admiral,  December  31, 
1869;  commanding  Asiatic  Fleet,  1870-72;  com 
mandant  Mare  Island  N*avy-Yard,  1873-77  ;  su 
perintendent  Naval  Observatory  since  May  1, 
1877. 

Rodman  Gun.  See  ORDNANCE. 
Rodney,  George  Brydges,  Lord,  was  the  son 
of  Capt.  Rodney,  who  having  won  the  favor 
of  George  I.  as  the  commander  of  the  royal 
yachts,  the  king  gave  his  son  a  "  letter  of  serv 
ice,"  and  at  the  early  age  of  12  he  went  to  sea. 
In  1739  he  was  promoted  to  lieutenant;  post- 
captain  in  1742,  and  commander  of  the  New 
foundland  Station,  with  the  rank  of  commodore, 
in  1748.  In  1752  he  returned  home,  and  was 
elected  a  member  of  Parliament.  He  after 
wards  commanded  the  "  Fouguex,"  the  "  Prince 
George,"  and  the  "  Dublin"  men-of-war.  In 
1759  he  was  promoted  to  rear-admiral.  In  July 
of  that  year  he  bombarded  Havre  for  3  days, 
destroying  the  town  and  fortifications.  In  1761 
he  took  Martinique,  Grenada,  and  Santa  Lucia. 
In  1762  he  became  vice-admiral,  and  in  1764  was 
made  a  baronet.  In  1779  Spain  and  France 
joined  in  war  against  England.  The  siege  of 
Gibraltar  was  undertaken,  and  Rodney  was 
ordered  to  the  West  India  Station  with  22  sail 
of  the  line  and  8  frigates,  and  was  also  ordered 
to  relieve  Gibraltar  en  route.  After  capturing  7 
Spanish  ships  of  war  he  fell  in,  January  16,  1780, 
with  Admiral  Langura  off  Cape  St.  Vincent.  Of 
the  Spanish  fleet  5  were  captured  and  2  destroyed. 
After  this  action  he  sailed  for  the  station  of  his 
command,  and  on  the  17th  of  April  he  defeated, 
near  Martinique,  the  French  fleet  under  the 
Count  de  Guichen.  After  this  Rodney  took 
Eustatia  from  the  Dutch,  with  250  ships  and 
other  booty.  Demerara  and  Essequibo  next  sur 
rendered.  On  April  12,  1782,  together  with 
Hood  and  Drake,  he  encountered  the  French 
fleet  under  De  Grasse  off  Dominica.  Each  fleet 
consisted  of  30  ships  of  the  line.  The  fight 
lasted  12  hours,  when  De  Grasse  retired  totally 
defeated.  The  English  loss  was  7  ships  and  2 
frigates,  and  600  men,  while  the  French  casual 
ties  were  3000  killed.  6000  wounded,  and  a  train 
of  artillery  besides  their  ships.  Count  De  Grasse 
was  himself  taken  prisoner.  For  this  great 
victory,  which  saved  Jamaica,  ruined  the  naval 
power  of  Spain  and  France,  and  gave  the  finish 
ing  blow  to  the  war,  Rodney  was  "elevated  to  the 
peerage  as  Baron  Rodney,  and  received  a  pension 


ROGER 


698 


RONCKENDORFF 


*of  £2000 'per  annum  for  himself  and  his  succes 
sors.  He  lived  in  retirement  the  rest  of  his  life, 
and  died  May  21,  1792. 

Roger.     The  black  flag  hoisted  by  pirates. 

Roger's  Blast.  A  sudden  and  local  motion 
of  the  air  resembling  a  whirlwind. 

Rogue's  March.  The  tune  appropriated  to 
drumming  a  bad  character  out  of  a  ship  or  out 
of  a  regiment. 

Rogue's  Yarn.  A  yarn  which  differs  from 
the  other  yarns  in  a  rope.  It  is  twisted  the  con 
trary  way,  or  is  different  in  color  or  material. 
The  object  is  to  detect  the  theft  of  government 
rope. 

Roll.  The  oscillating  movement  of  a  ship 
caused  by  the  seas  striking  on  her  side.  Under 
the  same  circumstances  of  wind  and  sea  the  roll 
depends  on  the  position  of  the  centre  of  gravity, 
the  construction  of  the  ship,  and  the  amount  and 
kind  of  sail  carried.  If  the  centre  of  gravity  is 
too  low,  the  roll  is  short  and  jerky,  and  there  is 
danger  of  carrying  away  the  masts  ;  if  too  high, 
there  is  danger  of  capsizing ;  if  in  the  proper 
place,  the  roll  is  long  and  deep,  but  easy,  the 
ship  coming  to  her  bearings  gradually. 

ROLLING-CHOCKS.  The  jaw-pieces  fitted  to  a 
yard. 

ROLLING-ROPE.  A  rope  used  on  a  light-  yard 
to  support  it  in  heavy  rolling.  See  ROLLING- 
TACKLE. 

ROLLING-TACKLE.  A  tackle  from  the  quarter 
of  a  lower  or  topsail  yard  to  the  mast,  to  steady 
the  yards  in  heavy  rolling.  It  is  also  used  on 
the  opposite  quarter  of  the  yard  in  taking  in  a 
heavy  weight,  to  take  up  a  portion  of  the  thrust 
ing  strain.  With  jaws  or  patent  trusses  rolling- 
tackles  are  seldom  used. 

Roller.  A  heavy  oceanic  swell  setting  in 
upon  the  coast.  In  mechanism,  a  piece  having 
a  circular  transverse  section,  placed  between  a 
moving  and  a  fixed  body  to  avoid  sliding  contact 
and  its  consequent  friction.  It  may  have  the 
form  of  either  a  c}7linder,  cone,  or  sphere.  Cyl 
indrical  rollers  are  used  for  motion  in  a  plane 
perpendicular  to  their  axes  ;  and  conical  or  spher 
ical  rollers  for  angular  motions,  as  in  receiving 
the  axial  thrust  of  a  shaft. 

ROLLING-SWELL.  That  heaving  of  the  sea 
where  the  waves  are  very  distant,  forming  deep 
troughs  between. 

Roman  Cement.  A  cement  which  hardens 
under  water ;  used  for  piers,  docks,  etc. 

Rombowline.     See  RUMBOWLINE. 

Ronckendorff,  William,  Commodore  U.S.N. 
Born  in  Pennsylvania.  Appointed  from  Penn 
sylvania,  February  17,  1832;  attached  to  the 
schooner  "  Experiment,"  on  the  coast,  and  trans 
ferred  to  the  schooner  "  Porpoise,"  West  India 
Squadron,  1832-33;  frigate  "  Constitution"  and 
sloop  "  John  Adams,"  Mediterranean  Squadron, 
1835-37. 

Promoted  to  passed  midshipman,  June  23, 
1838;  brig  "Consort,"  coast  survey,  1839-41; 
sloop  "  Preble,"  Mediterranean  Squadron,  1842- 
43. 

Commissioned  as  lieutenant,  June  18,  1843 ; 
frigate  "  Congress,"  Brazil  Squadron,  1843-45; 
1845,  bearer  of  dispatches,  by  the  way  of  the 
Isthmus  of  Panama,  to  the  commander-in-chief 
of  the  Pacific  Squadron,  and  served  in  that 
squadron  during  the  Mexican  war,  returning  to 
New  York  from  that  station  in  the  frigate  "  Sa 


vannah,"  September,  1847;  sloop "  Portsmouth," 
coast  of  Africa,  1849-51  ;  receiving-ship,  New 
York,  1852;  frigate  "Cumberland,"  Mediter 
ranean  Squadron,  1852-55 ;  navy-yard,  Phila 
delphia,  1855-58  ;  commanding  steamer  "  M.  W. 
Chapin,"  Brazil  Squadron  and  Paraguay  Expe 
dition,  1859;  attached  to  coast  survey,  1860. 

Commissioned  as  commander,  June  29,  1861  ; 
on  February  28,  1861,  Commander  Ronckendorff 
was  ordered  to  take  command  of  the  steamer 
"  Water- Witch,"  and  proceeded  to  the  Gulf 
Squadron,  on  special  service,  until  October  12, 

1861,  at  which  date  he  was  detached  and  ordered 
to  proceed  North   as  bearer   of  important  dis 
patches  to  the  Hon.  Secretary  of  the  Navy,  from 
Flag-Officer  McKean ;    December  27,1861,  or 
dered  to  the  steam-sloop  "  San  Jacinto,"  and  on 
March  4,  1862,  ordered  to  proceed  with  that  ves 
sel  in  search  of  the  ship-of-the-line  "  Vermont," 
supposed  to  be  on  George's  Shoals  ;  March  8,  re 
turned  to  Boston  Navy- Yard,  and  on  the  follow 
ing  day  ordered  to  proceed  to  Hampton  Roads 
with  the  "  San  Jacinto,"  with  greatest  dispatch, 
and  report  to  the  senior  officer  present,  to  watch 
and  attack,  if  necessary,  the  Confederate  steamer 
"  Merrimac"  ;  May  15,  1862,  participated  in  the 
attack  on  the  fortifications  on  SewelPs  Point ; 
May  18, 1862,  proceeded  to  Norfolk  with  the  "San 
Jacinto";  May  23,  1862,  sailed  from  Hampton 
Roads  to  Key  West  with  Flag-Officer  Lardner 
onboard;  August  1,  1862,  returned  North  with 
the  "San  Jacinto,"  by  order  of  flag-officer, — 
having  yellow  fever  on  board ;  September  29, 

1862,  ordered  to  join  the  North  Atlantic  Squad 
ron  with  the  "  San  Jacinto,"  and  to  proceed  off 
Wilmington,   N.    C., — blockading;    October   9, 
1862,  ordered  to  return  from  Wilmington  with 
the  "  San  Jacinto"  to  Hampton  Roads ;  October 
26,  1862,  ordered  to  proceed  in  the  "  San  Jacinto" 
to  Bermuda,  and  cruise  among  the  West  India 
Islands  in  search  of  the  rebel   steamer  "  Ala 
bama"  ;  May  26,  1863,  detached  from  the  "  Sun 
Jacinto,"  and  reported  for  the  command  of  the 
steam-sloop  u  Ticonderoga"  ;  May  28,  1863,  or 
dered  to  the  West  Indies,  in  the  "  Ticonderoga," 
as  flag-ship  of  that  squadron,  under  Rear-Ad- 
mirarLardner,  to  look  after  the  rebel  cruisers ; 
September  28,  1863,  ordered  to  Philadelphia  in 
the  "  Ticonderoga"  for  repairs  ;  October  16,  1863, 
detached  from  the  "  Ticonderoga"  and  ordered 
to  the  command  of  the  frigate  "  Powhatan,"  and 
to  proceed  to  the  West  Indies  as  flag-ship  of  that 
squadron  ;  October  14,  1864,  detached  from  the 
command  of  the  "  Powhatan," — she  having  re 
turned  home  ;  October  18,  1864,  ordered  to  report 
to  Rear-Admiral  Gregory,  at  New  York,  for  spe 
cial  duty;  was  ordered  West  on  a  court  of  in 
quiry,  held  at  Erie,  Chicago,  Cincinnati,  Louis 
ville,  Ky.,  and  then  returned  to  Philadelphia; 
February  15,  1865,  ordered  to  command  the  iron 
clad  "  Monadnock,"  up  the  James  River, — was 
there  until  the  evacuation  of  Richmond, — came 
down  the  river  and  anchored  off  Fortress  Mon 
roe  to  look  out  for  the  "  Stonewall"  ;  in  May, 
sailed  in  the  "  Monadnock,"  in  a  squadron  com 
manded    by   Admiral    Godon,    to    Havana,   in 
search  of  the  "  Stonewall"  ;  July  9,  1865,  trans 
ferred  from  the  ironclad  "  Monadnock"  to  the 
ironclad  "Tonawanda,"  and,  after  a  short  cruise 
in  her,  was  detached,  she  being  laid  up,  and  or 
dered  to  command  the  receiving-ship  at  Phila 
delphia,  January  1,  1866  ;  Commander  Roncken- 


EOOD-GOOSE 


699 


HOPE 


dorff  was  actively  employed  during  the  whole 
period  of  the  Rebellion  ;  in  charge  of  ironclads, 
New  Orleans,  1871-72. 

Commissioned  as  commodore,  1873.  Retired 
November  9,  1874. 

Rood-goose.     A  name  for  the  brent-goose. 

Rooke,  Sir  George,  a  distinguished  British 
admiral,  was  born  in  1650,  near  Canterbury. 
At  the  age  of  30  he  was  a  post-captain,  and  in 
1089  was  promoted  to  rear-admiral.  He  was  en 
gaged  in  the  action  off  Beachy  Head,  between 
the  Earl  of  Torrington  and  the  French  Admiral 
De  Tourville,  and  in  1692  he  took  part  in  the 
memorable  battle  of  La  Hogue.  On  this  occa 
sion,  for  his  dashing  and  brilliant  services,  he  re 
ceived  the  rank  of  vice-admiral  of  the  red,  the 
honor  of  knighthood,  and  a  pension  of  .£1000 
per  year.  His  next  service  of  importance  was 
the  destruction  of  a  Spanish  plate  fleet  in  the 
port  of  Vigo ;  and  in  July,  1704,  in  conjunction 
with  Sir  Cloudesley  Shovel,  he  captured  Gibral 
tar.  On  August  9  of  the  same  year  he  fought 
off  Malaga  a  vastly  superior  French  fleet  under 
the  Comte  de  Toulouse,  and  although  the  English 
fleet  won  the  battle,  the  victory  was  a  barren  one, 
as  the  French  fleet  escaped.  Upon  Sir  George's 
return  he  was  received  with  marked  distinction 
by  Queen  Anne  ;  but  the  government  being  hos 
tile  to  him,  he  resigned  his  positions,  and  until 
his  death  on  the  24th  of  January,  1709,  he  lived 
in  retirement  on  the  family  property  in  Kent. 

Rooke,  or  Rouke.     A  mist,  dampness,  or  fog. 

Room,  Roomer,  or  Going  Room.  An  old 
term  for  going  large.  To  go  room,  to  bear  up. 

Room  and  Space.  The  space  occupied  by 
each  frame  of  the  ship,  or  the  distance  of  the 
frames  from  centre  to  centre. 

Roost.  A  phrase  applied  to  races  of  strong 
and  furious  tides  which  set  in  between  the  Ork 
ney  and  Shetland  Islands,  as  those  of  Sumburgh 
and  the  start. 

Rope.  "  A  large  stout  twisted  cord  of  not 
less,  usually,  than  an  inch  in  circumference.  It 
differs  from  cord,  line,  and  string  only  in  its 
size."  (Webster.) 

The  different  kinds  of  rope  are  designated  by 
the  material  of  which  they  are  made,  by  the  pe 
culiarities  of  their  manufacture,  by  their  sizes, 
number  of  strands  of  which  they  are  composed, 
and  by  the  various  uses  to  which  they  may  be 
adapted. 

Plain-laid  rope  is  made  by  laying  three  strands 
together  right-handed,  or  from  left  to  right. 

Cable-  or  hawser-laid  rope  consists  of  9  strands, 
and  is  made  by  laying  3  plain-laid  ropes  together 
left-handed,  or  from  right  to  left. 

Cable-laid  stay  consists  of  12  strands  or  4  plain- 
laid  ropes,  closed  as  above,  to  form  a  single  rope. 

Shroud-laid  rope  is  made  by  laying  4  strands 
together  right-handed,  and  takes  its  name  from 
the  use  to  which  it  is  generally  applied.  It  is 
usually  made  with  a  heart  to  fill  up  the  space 
in  the  centre  of  the  strands,  which  assists  in 
keeping  them  in  place  when  subjected  to  a  heavy 
strain. 

Back-handed  rope  is  made  by  twisting  each 
strand  right-handed,  or  in  the  same  direction  as 
the  yarns,  and  laying  the  strands  together  left- 
handed. 

The  materials  from  which  rope  is  principally 
manufactured  are  hemp,  or  the  fibre  of  the  cul 
tivated  hemp  plant,  abaca,  or  manilla,  which,  is 


the  fibre  obtained  from  a  species  of  banana  found 
in  large  quantities  in  the  Philippine  Islands, 
hide,  and  wire. 

In  some  localities,  rope  of  an  inferior  quality 
is  made  from  cotton,  coir,  or  the  fibre  obtained 
from  the  cocoa-nut  palm,  and  jute,  which  resem 
bles  hemp,  but  has  less  strength  and  durability. 

The  hemp  used  for  rope  in  the  United  States 
is  principally  of  native  growth  or  imported  from 
Russia.  An  article  of  superior  value  is  produced 
in  Italy,  but  it  is  less  used  for  the  manufacture 
of  cordage  than  for  other  purposes.  The  quality 
of  the  fibre  varies  considerably  with  the  climate 
and  soil  in  which  it  is  raised,  experiments  show 
ing  that  the  average  breaking  strain  of  rope- 
yarns  No.  20  for  a  strand  of  3-inch  rope,  made 
from  the  different  kinds  of  hemp,  are  as  follows: 
Italian,  157  pounds;  Russian,  153  pounds; 
American,  141.5  pounds. 

The  fibre  is  prepared  for  use  by  a  process  called 
retting  or  rotting,  which  consists  in  placing  the 
stalks  in  water  until  fermentation  takes  place. 
By  this  means  the  glutinous  matter  which  binds 
the  fibre  to  the  woody  portion  of  the  stalk  is  set 
free.  The  same  result  is  sometimes  obtained  by 
exposing  the  stalks  to  dew  and  rain,  and  the 
process  is  then  called  dew-rotting,  but  a  longer 
time  is  required  than  by  the  former  method. 

The  stalks,  having  been  rotted  and  dried,  un 
dergo  the  process  of  breaking,  by  which  they  are 
cracked  by  repeated  blows,  and  the  brittle, 
woody  portion  separated  from  the  fibre,  which 
falls  away  when  beaten  with  a  broad  wooden 
blade  in  the  process  of  scutching. 

The  hemp  is  further  prepared  for  spinning  by 
the  operation  of  hackling,  which  consists  of 
drawing  a  bunch  of  the  fibre  through  a  set  of 
long,  sharp  steel  points  placed  in  an  upright 
position,  for  the  purpose  of  straightening  it  and 
removing  the  tow,  or  shorter  fibre  of  less  value, 
and  dust.  The  tow  which  is  thus  separated  is 
sometimes -used  in  the  manufacture  of  inferior 
qualities  of  rope. 

Hackling  is  also  done  by  means  of  a  machine 
consisting  of  a  revolving  drum  armed  upon  its 
surface  with  steel  points,  which,  gradually  in 
creasing  in  length,  separate  the  tow  from  the 
more  valuable  fibre. 

The  hackled  hemp  is  then  passed  through  the 
spreader,  by  which  it  is  again  combed  and 
straightened  by  the  teeth  attached  to  the  endless 
chain  of  hackle-bars,  and  leaves  this  machine  in 
a  loose  strand  of  fibre  called  a  roping  or  sliver. 
Several  of  these  ropings  are  then  subjected  to 
a  similar  operation  in  a  machine  called  the 
drawing-frame,  by  which  they  are  formed  into 
a  smoother  and  more  regular  roping  of  the  size 
required  for  spinning  the  yarn.  The  ropings, 
which  coil  themselves  into  'large  tin  boxes  or 
cylinders  as  they  come  from  the  drawing-frames, 
are  then  taken  to  the  jennies  for  spinning. 

The  spinning-jenny  consists  of  an  iron  frame 
of  rectangular  shape,  about  12  feet  long  and  4 
feet  high,  and  varying  in  width  from  2  to  3  feet. 
The  roping  is  drawn  from  its  box,  which  is 
placed  at  the  end  of  the  jenny,  by  an  endless 
chain  of  gill-bars,  and  carried  to  the  mouth-piece, 
a  flat  metallic  plate  placed  in  an  upright  position. 

Connected  with  the  mouth-piece  is  an  attach 
ment  for  regulating,  automatically,  the  speed  of 
the  gill-bars  according  to  the  size  of  the  roping, 
so  as  to  make  a  yarn  of  uniform  size.  The  rop- 


EOPE 


TOO 


ROPE 


ing  next  passes  between  two  calender  rollers, 
tongued  and  grooved,  and  lastly  through  the 
flyer,  by  which  it  is  twisted,  and  is  wound  upon 
the  bobbin  placed  between  the  arms  of  the  flyer. 

The  yarns  next  undergo  the  process  of  tarring 
by  placing  a  number  of  the  bobbins  in  frames  at 
one  end  of  the  tarring-room,  and  leading  the 
yarns  through  a  guide-plate  into  a  large  trough 
filled  with  tar  heated  to  a  temperature  of  about 
200°  F.  The  yarns,  after  leaving  the  tar,  pass 
through  holes  in  another  plate,  by  which  the  tar 
is  scraped  off,  and  from  thence  between  nipper- 
rollers,  which  presses  them  dry,  and  are  wound 
upon  bobbins  at  the  other  end  of  the  tarring- 
room  ready  for  the  final  processes  of  the  rope- 
walk. 

The  bobbins  are  again  placed  in  upright  frames 
at  the  end  of  the  rope-walk,  the  ends  of  as  many 
yarns  as  are  required  to  form  the  strand  are 
passed  through  the  register-tube  into  which  they 
fit  closely,  and  are  fastened  to  one  of  the  hooks 
on  the  face  of  the  hauling-down  machine.  This 
machine  runs  upon  a  track  the  length  of  the 
rope-walk.  The  same  band  by  which  it  is  pro 
pelled  carries  the  machinery  for  turning  the 
hooks  to  which  the  strands  are  attached,  and  the 
machine,  traveling  away  from  the  bobbins,  draws 
the  yarns  through  the  register-tube  and  twists 
them  into  strands. 

The  laying  of  the  strands  is  performed  by  two 
machines  called  the  upper  and  lower  layers,  the 
former  traveling  on  a  track  as  required,  and  the 
latter  being  stationary.  Each  strand  is  attached 
to  a  separate  hook  on  the  lower  layer,  and  all  of 
the  strands  for  the  same  rope  are  fastened  to  the 
same  spindle  on  the  upper  layer,  each  strand  be 
ing  twisted  while  the  rope  is  laid  by  the  upper 
layer.  A  wooden  frame  called  the  top-sled 
travels  on  tracks  overhead,  and  supports  a  coni 
cal  instrument  called  a  top,  which  is  placed  be 
tween  the  strands  at  the  point  of  meeting,  and 
serves  to  keep  them  in  place  by  laying  them  in 
the  grooves  on  its  surface,  as  well  as  to  regulate 
the  hardness  of  the  lay.  Its  progress,  caused  by 
the  pressure  of  the  strands  in  laying,  is  retarded 
by  means  of  stoppers  or  tails,  which  are  passed 
around  the  rope  between  the  top  and  upper 
layer. 

The  estimated  loss  in  the  strength  of  the  fibre 
in  spinning,  twisting,  and  laying  is  25  per  cent., 
while  33  per  cent,  of  the  length  is  lost  in  the 
same  operation. 

Ropes  of  the  smaller  sizes  are  also  made  by 
the  use  of  the  "  Woodward  laying  machine," 
which  both  twists  the  strands  and  lays  the  rope. 

Small-stuff,  such  as  marline,  houseline,  spun- 
yarn,  etc.,  is  generally  made  from  American 
hemp  by  the  process  of  hand-spinning. 

The  manufacture  of  rope  from  abaca,  or  ma- 
nilla,  differs  only  in  the  preparation  of  the  fibre 
before  it  is  spun.  Rotting  is  not  required  as  in 
the  preparation  of  hemp  fibre,  but  the  leaf-stalks 
having  been  torn  into  strips,  the  fibre  is  separated 
from  the  pulp.  The  coarser  qualities  of  the 
fibre,  which  are  best  fitted  for  rope,  are  taken 
from  the  outside  layer  of  the  stalk. 

Before  passing  through  the  spreader  the  manilla 
fibre  is  oiled,  but  no  tar  is  used  except  in  the 
making  of  large  cables,  when  the  outside  yarns 
of  each  strand  are  sometimes  tarred. 

Hides  are  prepared  while  in  a  green  state,  by 
being  cut  into  strips  of  regular  width  on  a  re 


volving  table,  and  the  strips  are  then  formed 
into  strands  and  laid  into  rope  by  the  processes 
already  described. 

Wire  rope  is  used  to  a  great  extent  both  on 
shore  and  on  shipboard,  where  strength  and 
durability  are  required,  rather  than  flexibility. 
It  is  made  from  steel  or  iron  wire.  Plain  steel 
wire  is  about  56  per  cent,  stronger  than  plain 
iron  wire,  and  65  per  cent,  stronger  than  an 
nealed  iron  wire.  The  process  of  annealing  ren 
ders  the  wire  less  brittle  and  better  suited  for 
some  purposes  on  shipboard.  Both  steel  and 
iron  wire  may  be  galvanized,  and  this  process 
does  not  detract  from  its  strength.  Small  sizes 
of  rope  made  from  copper  wire  are  used  for 
lightning-conductors. 

All  machinery  for  the  manufacture  of  wire 
rope  is  of  the  same  general  construction,  but  the 
machines  are  lighter  or  heavier,  according  to  the 
size  of  the  rope  required.  They  consist  of  two 
parallel  iron  rings  several  feet  apart,  through  the 
centres  of  which  passes  an  upright  shaft,  con 
nected  at  their  peripheries  by  several  movable 
iron  frames,  which  hold  the  wire  bobbins,  the 
whole  resembling  a  frame-work  of  cylindrical 
shape  placed  in  an  upright  position.  The  bob 
bin-frames  are  connected  with  the  central  shaft 
by  gearing  in  such  a  manner  that  while  the 
cylinder  revolves  about  the  shaft,  carrying  the 
bobbins  with  it,  a  reverse  motion  is  given  to  the 
bobbin-frames,  which  prevents  the  twisting  and 
consequent  injury  to  the  wire.  The  wires  meet 
above  the  cylinder,  and  form  the  strand  by  being 
twisted  about  a  heart  of  small  hemp  line,  which 
passes  over  a  pulley  down  to  the  reel  upon  which 
it  is  wound.  The  process  of  laying  the  rope  is 
the  same  as  that  of  forming  the  strand. 

The  following  rules  for  finding  the  breaking 
strain  of  rope  manufactured  at  the  navy-yard, 
Boston,  has  been  furnished  by  Mr  M.  H.  Web 
ber,  superintendent  of  the  rope-walk  : 

Untarred  hemp  rope,  square  of  circumference  in   inches  X 

1371.4  =  strength  in  pounds. 
Tarred  hemp  rope,   square  of   circumference    in  inches  X 

1044.9  =  strength  in  pounds. 
Manilla  hemp  rope,  square  of  circumference    in  inches  X 

783.7  =  strength  in  pounds. 
Steel  wire  rope,  weight  in  pounds   per  fathom  X  7°98  = 

strength  in  pounds. 
Charcoal  wire  rope,  weight  in  pounds  per  fathom  X  4480  •== 

strength  in  pounds. 

— E.  T  Strong,  Lieutenant  U.S.N. 

ROPE-WALK.  A  long  building  or  room  where 
rope  is  manufactured.  It  is  so  called  from  the 
walking  back  and  forth  of  the  workmen  in  the 
operation  of  hand-spinning. 

It  is  distinguished  from  manufactories  called 
"cordage  works,"  in  which  a  different  kind  of 
machinery  is  used,  and  which  do  not  require 
buildings  of  great  length. 

Connected  with  the  rope-walk  are  rooms  or 
buildings  where  the  fibre  in  bales  is  received  and 
hackled,  where  the  fibre  is  made  into  roping?,  and 
where  the  ropings  are  spun  into  yarns.  There 
are  also  rooms  for  oiling,  tarring,  hand-spinning, 
etc. 

Upon  the  floor  of  the  rope- walk  are  placed  the 
tracks  for  the  machines  used  in  twisting  the 
strands  and  laying  the  rope.  String-posts  are 
placed  at  intervals  near  the  tracks,  from  each  of 
which  a  wooden  arm  extends  several  feet  in 
length,  and  upon  which  the  strands  are  placed 
after  being  completed.  The  strands  are  kept  in 


EOKQUAL 


•701 


BOUGH  LOG 


place  by  means  of  wooden  pegs  inserted  in  the 
upper  surface  of  the  arms. — E.  T.  Strong,  Lieu 
tenant  U.S.N. 

ROPE'S-END.  The  end  of  a  rope.  To  rope's- 
end,  to  administer  a  drubbing  with  the  end  of  a 
rope. 

Rorqual,  or  Furrowed  Whale.  A  name  of 
Scandinavian  origin  applied  to  the  finback 
whales,  distinguished  from  the  right-whales  by 
the  small  size  of  their  heads,  shortness  of  their 
whalebone,  the  presence  of  a  dorsal  tin,  and  of  a 
series  of  conspicuous  longitudinal  folds  or  fur 
rows  in  the  skin  of  the  throat  and  chest. 

Rose.  An  attachment  to  a  pipe,  spout,  or 
hose-nozzle,  by  which  a  stream  of  water  is  scat 
tered  into  drops  or  spray  by  passing  through  a 
perforated  plate  or  cap. 

Rose-lashing,  or  Rose-seizing.  A  lashing 
or  seizing  in  which  the  parts  are  passed  alter 
nately  over  and  under,  the  end  being  expended 
around  the  crossing. 

Rosina.  A  Tuscan  gold  coin,  value  about 
$4.10. 

Ross,  Sir  James  Clark,  was  born  in  London 
in  1800.  He  entered  the  navy  in  1812,  and  served 
under  his  uncle  (Sir  John)  in  the  Baltic,  the 
White  Sea,  the  coast  of  Scotland,  and  in  all  the 
expeditions  for  the  discovery  of  the  northwest 
passage.  It  was  while  on  his  second  Arctic 
voyage  that  he  discovered,  in  1831,  the  north 
magnetic  pole,  and  on  his  return  he  was  re 
warded  with  a  post-captaincy.  In  1836  he  crossed 
the  Atlantic  to  relieve  the  frozen  whalers  in 
Baffin's  Bay,  and  in  1839  he  was  placed  in  com 
mand  of  the  Antarctic  Expedition,  and  ap 
proached  within  160  miles  of  the  south  magnetic 
pole.  In  1843  he  received  the  honor  of  knight 
hood.  In  1848  he  made  a  voyage  to  Baffin's 
Bay  in  search  of  Sir  John  Franklin,  but  with 
out  success.  He  received  a  number  of  medals, 
and  was  made  a  D.C.L.  of  Oxford.  He  died  in 
1862. 

Ross,  Sir  John,  C.B.,  was  born  June  24,  1777, 
at  Balsarrock,  Wigtonshire.  He  entered  the 
navy  in  1787;  was  promoted  to  lieutenant  in 
1802,  commander  in  1809,  and  post-captain  in 
1818.  While  a  lieutenant  he  was  wounded  in 
cutting  out  a  Spanish  vessel  from  under  the  bat 
teries  of  Bilboa,  in  1808.  His  more  important 
services  were  rendered  in  the  Arctic  regions  in 
1818,  with  Sir  W.  G.  Parry.  In  May,  1829,  he 
was  employed  on  a  fresh  expedition  fitted  out  by 
Sir  Felix  Booth,  and  on  this  expedition  he  dis 
covered  the  peninsula  of  Boothia  Felix,  and 
upon  his  return  he  received  the  honor  of  knight 
hood,  and  was  made  C.B.  In  1838  he  was  ap 
pointed  British  consul  at  Stockholm,  where  he 
remained  some  vears.  He  became  a  rear-admiral 
in  1851,  and  died  August  30,  1856. 

Rostock,  a  city  of  Germany,  in  Mecklenburg- 
Schwerin,  on  the  Warnow,  9  miles  from  its 
mouth  in  the  Baltic,  in  lat.  54°  &  N.,  Ion.  10° 
14'E.  It  has  numerous  manufactories  of  woolen 
cloth,  soap,  and  chiccory,  extensive  breweries, 
distilleries,  and  sugar-refineries.  Its  trade  is 
extensive;  the  exports  consist  principally  of 
superior  red  wheat,  barley,  pease,  rape-seed,  oats, 
wool,  horses,  cattle,  and  provisions,  and  the  im 
ports  are  colonial  produce,  wines,  and  manu 
factured  goods.  Vessels  drawing  more  than  9 
feet  of  water  unload  at  Warnemiinde,  its  out- 
port.  Pop.  35,000. 


Rostral- crown.  The  naval  crown  anciently 
awarded  to  the  individual  who  first  boarded  an 
enemy's  ship. 

Rostrum.     The  prow  of  a  galley. 

Rotary  Blower,  or  Fan.  A  machine  in  which 
a  current  or  blast  of  air  is  induced  by  the  motion 
of  vanes,  blades,  or  fans  inclosed  in  a  suitable 
case  provided  with  supply  and  discharge  open 
ings,  and  secured  by  radial  arms  to  a  revolving 
shaft  so  as  to  present  their  broadsides  in  the  di 
rection  of  their  motion.  In  the  ordinary  fan- 
blower,  the  action  depends  upon  the  centrifugal 
force  of  the  air  induced  by  rapid  revolution  ;  and 
in  some  devices,  the  vanes  or  plates  act  as  pis 
tons  passing  round  a  segment  of  an  annular 
space  between  two  cylinders. 

Rotary  Pump.  A  pump  by  which  water  is 
thrown  by  the  action  of  a  rectangular  piston 
rotating  round  a  cylinder  on  an  axis  parallel  to 
one  of  its  sides  and*  to  the  axis  of  the  cylinder, 
though  not  coincident  therewith.  There  are 
numerous  varieties. 

Centrifugal  pumps,  by  which  water  is  thrown 
by  the  centrifugal  action  of  rapidly  revolving 
vanes,  are  sometimes  called  rotary  pumps. 

Rotary  Steam-engine.  A  steam-engine  in 
which  the  steam  acts  upon  a  rectangular  piston 
rotating  round  a  cylinder  on  an  axis  parallel  to 
one  of  its  sides  and  to  the  axis  of  the  cylinder, 
though  not  coincident  therewith.  This  form  of 
engine,  of  which  there  are  many  varieties,  is  not 
in  general  use,  owing  principally  to  the  imprac 
ticability  of  making  the  piston  and  valves  steam- 
tight. 

Rotary  Valve.  A  valve  which,  in  rotating 
about  its  axis,  alternately  opens  and  closes  pas 
sages  or  parts  for  the  admission  or  ejection  of 
steam  or  other  fluid  to  or  from  a  cylinder  or  other 
vessel. 

Rotten  Row.  A  row  of  old  vessels  in  ordi 
nary. 

Rotterdam,  in  South  Holland,  in  the  Nether 
lands,  is  situated  at  the  confluence  of  the  Kotte 
with  the  Maas,  in  lat.  51°  55'  3"  N.,  Ion.  4°  29' 
§>"  E.  This  city  is  more  favorably  situated  for 
trade  than  Amsterdam ;  its  canals  admit  the 
largest  vessels.  Its  commerce  has  increased 
rapidly,  and  it  now  exports  to  the  West  Indies 
provisions,  wines,  and  manufactured  goods ;  to 
England  and  Scotland  cheese,  butter,  flax, 
fruits,  sheep,  and  cattle,  and  it  has  also  a  con 
siderable  trade  with  America,  France,  Spain, 
Portugal,  and  the  northern  countries  of  Europe. 
Besides  its  extensive  commerce  it  has  many  dis 
tilleries,  breweries,  dye-works,  refineries,  and 
ship-building  yards  Pop.  125,000. 

Rouen,  the  capital  of  the  department  of  Seine- 
Inferieure,  France,  is  located  on  the  right  bank 
of  the  Seine,  in  lat.  49°  26'  N.,  Ion.  1°  6'  E. 
The  staple  manufactures  are  cottons  in  a  great 
variety  of  forms.  It  is  also  famous  for  its' con 
fectionery.  There  are  also  tanneries,  sugar-re 
fineries,  copper-  and  iron-foundries,  forges  and 
rolling-mills.  Situated  as  it  is  on  a  navigable 
river,  accessible  by  large  vessels,  it  has  a  consid 
erable  trade  in  grain,  flour,  wine,  brandy,  salt, 
oil,  wool,  and  the  various  articles  of  its  manu 
facture.  Pop.  105,000. 

Rough-knots,  or  Rough  Nauts.  Unsophisti 
cated  seamen. 

Rough  Log.  The  book  in  which  the  journal 
of  the  ship  is  originally  written.  A  smooth  copy, 


BOUGH-SPARS 


702 


ROUTINE 


signed  by  the  watch-officers,  is  inspected  by  the 
commanding  officer,  and  forwarded  to  the  Navy 
Department.  See  LOG-BOOK. 

Rough-spars.  Cut  timber  before  being  worked 
into  masts,  etc. 

Round.  The  rung  or  step  of  a  Jacob's  lad 
der.  A  round  of  ammunition,  a  charge  for  each 
fire-arm  or  piece  of  ordnance.  To  round  a  point, 
to  sail  round  it ;  to  double  it.  To  round  to,  to 
haul  by  the  wind  when  sailing  large.  To  round 
in,  to  haul  in  on  a  weather  brace.  To  round 
up,  to  haul  in  on  a  fall  so  as  to  bring  the  two 
blocks  together,  the  movable  block  being  dis 
connected  from  the  weight.  To  round  down,  to 
overhaul  a  tackle  to  permit  the  lower  block  to 
descend. 

Round  and  Grape.  A  term  used  when  a  gun 
is  charged  with  a  solid  shot  and  grape-shot  or 
canister.  It  was  used  in  former  times  at  close 
quarters. 

Round  Dozen.     A  term  for  thirteen  lashes. 

Roundhouse.  A  name  given,  in  large  mer 
chantmen,  to  a  square  cabin  built  on  the  after 
part  of  the  quarter-deck.  In  men-of-war  the 
roundhouse  is  the  place  set  apart  for  the  con 
venience  of  the  officers. 

Rounding.  Strands  wrapped  around  a  rope  to 
prevent  chafe. 

Roundly.     Quickly. 

Round-ribbed.  A  vessel  of  burden  with  very 
little  run  and  a  flattish  bottom,  the  ribs  some 
times  almost  joining  the  keel  horizontally. 

Round  Robin,  A  paper  signed  with  the 
names  arranged  in  a  circle,  so  that  it  is  impos 
sible  to  tell  who  signed  it  first.  The  object  is  to 
prevent  the  singling  out  and  punishing  of  the 
first  signer. 

Round  Seam.  A  seam  in  which  the  edges 
are  sewed  together  without  lapping. 

Round  Seizing.     See  SEIZING. 

Round  Shot.     Spherical  solid  shot. 

Round  Splice.    A  long  splice  skillfully  made. 

Round  the  Fleet.  A  ^diabolical  punishment, 
by  which  a  man,  lashed  to  a  frame  in  a  boat, 
was  towed  alongside  of  every  ship  in  a  fleet,  to 
receive  a  certain  number  of  lashes  by  sentence 
of  court-martial. 

Round-top.  A  name  which  has  obtained  for 
modern  tops,  from  the  shape  of  the  ancient  ones. 
See  TOP. 

Round  Turn.  A  turn  with  a  rope  entirely 
around  a  spar  or  belaying-pin.  To  bring  up  with 
a  round  turn,  to  stop  suddenly  and  effectually. 
See  HAWSE. 

Rouse.  To  haul  with  great  force.  Rouse  and 
bitt!  turn  out !  get  out  of  bed  ! 

Routine  of  Duty  in  a  Man-of-war.  In  carry 
ing  on  the  duties  of  a  man-of-war  a  systematic 
routine  is  adopted.  This  varies  whether  at  peace 
or  in  war,  in  port  or  at  sea,  in  warm  or  in  cold 
climates  ;  whether  the  ship  is  a  cruiser,  a  survey 
ing-ship,  a  receiving-ship,  a  training-ship,  a  prac 
tice-ship,  a  flag-ship,  or  a  gunnery-ship,  an  ar 
mored  or  an  unarmored  vessel ;  but  the  same 
general  ideas  govern  the  routine  in  all  these 
cases.  The  principal  written  routines  are  for 
harbor-  or  sea-duty,  and  being  prepared  by  the 
executive-officer  and  sanctioned  by  the  captain, 
are  promulgated  to  the  crew,  and  carried  out  by 
the  watch-  and  junior  officers.  Routines  are  also 
prepared  for  the  engine-room,  and  the  duty  in 
the  paymaster's  and  surgeon's  department  is 


carried  on  in  a  systematic  way,  although  no 
written  routines  exist.  Routines  are  arranged 
with  reference  to  the  quarter,  month,  week,  day, 
or  watch.  The  quarterly  routine  prescribes  the 
arranging  and  forwarding  the  reports  required 
from  all  officers  in  command  or  in  charge  of  de 
partments,  and  an  inspection  by  the  commander- 
in-chief  and  staff  of  all  vessels  in  the  fleet.  Chains 
and  anchors  are  carefully  overhauled  once  a 
quarter,  and  target  practice  with  great  guns  and 
with  small-arms,  at  the  most  convenient  times, 
is  usual.  The  monthly  routine  prescribes  the 
reports  required,  and  on  the  first  Sunday  the 
crew  are  mustered  and  the  "Articles  of  War" 
are  read  to  them  ;  on  the  first  Monday  ham 
mocks  are  scrubbed,  on  the  second,  bedding, 
on  the  third,  hammocks,  and  on  the  fourth, 
bedding.  Once  a  month  hammocks  are  triced 
up  in  the  rigging,  opened  out,  and  bedding 
thoroughly  aired.  Every  alternate  Saturday  it 
is  usual  to  scrub  wind-sails,  and  every  alternate. 
Wednesday,  hose-reels,  boat-covers,  gangway- 
screens,  etc.  On  the  last  day  of  the  month  offi 
cers  of  divisions  inspect  the  clothing  and  outfit 
of  each  man  and  make  requisitions  for  defi 
ciencies  therein,  and  soon  after  the  first  of  the 
month  the  paymaster  issues  to  the  crew  the  ar 
ticles  required".  Money  in  small  amounts  is  paid 
to  the  men  each  month,  and  mess-stores  issued 
twice  in  a  month.  The  weekly  routine  is  subject 
to  greater  variations.  On  Sundays  only  necessary 
cleaning  is  done.  After  quarters  and  inspection 
of  the  crew,  divine  service  is  read.  On  Mondays, 
Tuesdays,  Wednesdays,  Thursdays,  and  Fridays 
clothes  are  scrubbed  at  sea,  and  on  Mondays, 
Wednesdays,  and  Fridays  in  port.  Decks  are 
scrubbed  on  these  days ;  with  sand  on  Wednes 
days,  only.  On  Saturdays,  decks  are  thoroughly 
"holystoned"  with  sand,  guns  run  in,  all  wood 
work  scrubbed,  and  the  ship  thoroughly  cleaned 
inside  and  out.  Sometimes  particular  parts  of 
the  uniform  are  scrubbed  on  each  day,  but  this 
is  not  usual.  With  the  weekly  routine  is  con 
nected  the  drill  routine,  prescribing  the  mode 
of  canning  on  the  drills.  On  Mondays,  general 
quarters  as  for  action  and  drills  thereon,  and  on 
Fridays,  a  fire-alarm  and  drills  connected  with 
it,  are  usual.  On  Tuesdays,  Wednesdays,  and 
Thursdays  the  various  divisions  of  men  alter 
nate  in  exercises  at  the  guns,  at  small-arms,  with 
singlesticks,  pistols,  howitzers,  or  Gatlings.  Once 
a  week  battalion  drill  is  usual,  and  the  squadron 
of  boats  also  goes  out. 

The  daily  routine  is  carried  out  by  watches. 
The  men  are  roused  by  "reveille"  in  port,  the 
"  idlers"  at  sea  at  early  daylight,  and  the  watch 
at  sea  at  7  A.M.  The  "morning"  watch  is  con 
sumed  by  the  scrubbing  of  clothes  and  decks,  and 
at  sea,  getting  sails  in  order,  etc.  Sometimes 
an  early  breakfast  is  given,  sometimes  at  8  in 
port,  allowing  three-quarters  of  an  hour.  At 
sea,  one  watch  goes  to  breakfast  at  7.30,  and  the 
other  at  8.  At  8  "colors"  are  hoisted,  and  in 
port  sails  are  loosed  to  dry  or  light  yards  sent 
up.  The  forenoon  watch  lasts  until  12.  Break 
fast  over  at  8.30,  bright  metal-work  is  cleaned, 
and  at  9  "sick  call"  is  beaten  for  the  invalids 
to  assemble  in  the  hospital.  At  9.30  the  drum 
beats  to  "quarters"  for  inspection,  and  drills 
follow.  After  thejT  are  over,  the  mechanics  and 
laboring-parties  go  to  work.  At  sea,  the  navi 
gator  is  sent  for  at  11.30,  and  the  sun  announces 


EOVE 


ROWAN 


to  him  noon  and  the  latitude.  In  port,  sails 
when  loosed  are  often  furled  at  11.30,  or  wash- 
clothes  sent  below.  Dinner  comes  in  all  cases 
at  12,  and  one  hour  is  allowed  to  all  in  port, 
half  an  hour  to  each  watch  at  sea.  Sometimes,  in 
the  afternoon,  a  drill  with  sails,  boats,  or  mus 
kets  follows,  and  work  is  resumed.  At  4,  4.30, 
or  5,  half  an  hour  is  given  to  supper.  Afterwards 
evening  quarters  for  muster  comes,  and  at  dusk 
hammocks  are  given  out.  Fires  are  put  out  at 
8,  and  "tattoo"  beaten  at  9.  There  is  no  rou 
tine  for  the  night  watches. — F.  S.  Bassett,  Lieu 
tenant  U.S.N. 

Rove.  A  small  copper  ring  or  washer  over 
which  the  end  of  a  nail  is  clinched. 

Rovens.  A  corruption  of  rope-bands.  Also, 
the  ravelings  of  canvas  or  bunting. 

Rover.  A  pirate  or  freebooter.  (See  PIRATE.) 
Also,  a  kind  of  piratical  galley  of  the  Barbary 
States. 

Roving  Commission.  An  authority  granted 
to  an  officer  in  command  of  a  vessel  to  cruise 
wherever  he  may  see  fit. 

Row.  To  propel  a  vessel  by  oars  or  sweeps. 
To  row  dry,  to  so  manage  the  oars  as  not  to 
splash  water  into  the  stern-sheets  of  the  boat.  A 
dry  row  is  a  punishment  administered  for  some 
offense  connected  with  boats  or  rowing.  The  of 
fender  is  sent  into  a  boat  at  the  davits  and  re 
quired  to  go  through  the  motions  of  rowing, 
much  to  his  own  discomfiture  and  to  the  amuse 
ment  of  the  ship's  company.  To  row  in  the  same 
boat,  to  hold  similar  opinions ;  to  indulge  in 
similar  practices. 

Several  styles  of  rowing  are  to  be  met  with  in 
different  parts  of  the  world.  We  give  a  long 
full  stroke  with  a  quick  return,  depressing  the 
loom  just  sufficient  to  clear  the  water  on  the  re 
turn  ;  the  English  generally  feather  high,  throw 
ing  the  blade  above  the  horizontal ;  but  the 
most  peculiar  style  is  that  known  as  the  Dago 
stroke,  in  which  the  oarsmen  take  a  long  stroke, 
and  then  wait  for  the  headway  to  cease  before 
giving  another  ;  it  is  supposed,  by  the  people  who 
are  addicted  to  it,  to  border  on  the  majestic.  The 
breo.st-stroke  is  affected  in  single-banked  boats; 
the  oarsmen  push  the  loom  of  the  oar  well  for 
ward  beyond  their  bodies, — the  worst  possible 
application  of  force.  Feathering  is  inclining  the 
upper  edge  of  the  blade  forward,  after  the  stroke 
is  finished,  in  order  that  it  may  be  released 
readily  from  the  water,  and  also  to  present  a 
small  resistance  to  the  air  on  the  return.  If  the 
oar  is  not  feathered  the  blade  is  apt  to  be  swept 
aft  and  the  loom  jammed  in  the  rowlock,  before 
it  can  be  raised  clear  of  the  water  ;  this  is  termed 
catching  a  crab. 

ROWLOCK.  An  aperture  cut  in,  or  a  swivel 
crutch  fitted  on,  the  gunwale  of  a  boat,  to  act  as 
a  fulcrum  for  an  oar  in  rowing. 

ROW-PORTS.  Certain  scuttles  or  square  holes, 
formerly  cut  through  the  sides  of  the  smaller 
vessels  of  war,  near  the  surface  of  the  water,  for 
the  purpose  of  rowing  them  along  in  a  calm  or 
light  wind,  by  heavy  sweeps,  each  worked  by 
several  men. 

Rowan,  S.  C.,  Vice- Admiral  U.S.N.  Through 
the  influence  of  the  Hon.  William  McLean,  of 
Ohio,  the  brother  of  that  distinguished  states 
man  and  jurist,  the  Hon.  John  McLean,  an  ap 
pointment  as  midshipman  in  the  navy  was 
secured  for  young  Rowan.  Before  entering  upon 


this  careen — a  fpareer  entirely  congenial  to  his 
nature  and  tastes— he  passed  some  time  at  Oxford 
College,  Ohio,  devoting  his  time  and  attention 
to  such  studies  as  would  be  most  useful  in  pre 
paring  himself  for  the  profession  he  was  about  to 
embark  in.  Shortly  after  receiving  his  appoint 
ment,  in  1826,  he  was  ordered  to  the  sloop-of-war 
"  Vincennes,"  attached  to  the  Pacific  Squadron, 
on  board  of  which  ship,  and  on  that  station,  he 
served  a  full  cruise.  In  1831  he  was  attached  to 
the  schooner  "  Enterprise." 

Promoted  to  a  passed  midshipman,  April  28, 
1832,  he  was  ordered  to  the  sloop-of-war  "  Van- 
dalia,"  and  remained  two  years  on  board  that 
vessel  in  the  West  Indies.  In  1837  he  was  or 
dered  to  the  store-ship  "Relief,"  and  in  the 
same  year  commissioned  as  a  lieutenant.  In 
1840  he  was  engaged  on  coast  survey  duty,  and 
in  1843  was  serving  on  board  the  line-of-battle 
ship  "Delaware,"  on  the  Brazilian  Station. 
In  1846-48  he  was  the  executive-officer  of 
the  sloop-of-war  "  Cyane,"  attached  to  the  Pa 
cific  Squadron,  and  took  an  active  part  in  the 
war  then  waging  with  Mexico.*  As  the  execu 
tive  of  that  vessel  he  succeeded  in  impressing 
upon  the  personnel  of  the  ship  his  own  individu 
ality,  and  no  vessel  in  that  squadron  was  more 
conspicuous  for  discipline,  drill,  efficiency,  and 
service.  Always  in  readiness,  she  was  actively 
and  constantly  engaged,  and  her  opportune 
arrival  at  San  Jose,  Cal.,  saved  that  stubborn 
fighter  and  brave  gentleman,  the  noble  Hey  wood, 
and  his  gallant  party  from  annihilation  or  cap 
ture.  While  attached  to  this  vessel  Lieut.  Rowan 
commanded  the  naval  battalion  under  Commo 
dore  Stockton  in  its  various  operations  against 
the  enemy,  and  at  the  battle  of  Mesa  was  con 
spicuous  for  cool  judgment,  courage,  and  dis 
tinguished  service.  The  results  of  this  battle 
were  the  occupation  of  Los  Angeles,  the  capital 
of  the  country,  and  the  surrender  of  California  by 
the  Mexican  governor,  Don  Andreas  Pico,  to  the 
authorities  of  the  United  States.  After  the  occu 
pation  of  Mazatlan  by  the  naval  forces,  Lieut. 
Rowan  commanded  a  landing-party  that  marched 
some  distance  into  the  country  and  made  a  suc 
cessful  night  attack  upon  the  enemy,  driving 
them  with  loss  from  their  position  ;  he  was  also 
engaged  while  attached  to  the  "  Cyane"  in  the 
bombardment  of  Guaymas.  During  the  years 
1850-63  and  1858-61,  Lieut.  Rowan  devoted 
himself  to  ordnance  duty  in  acquiring  a  thorough 
knowledge  of  that  important  branch  of  the  ser 
vice,  and  thus  preparing  himself  in  this  respect 
for  the  high  command  and  heavy  responsibilities 
which  were  so  soon  to  devolve  upon  him. 

In  September,  1855,  he  was  promoted  to  a  com 
mander,  and  ordered  to  the  command  of  the 
store-ship  "Relief."  The  breaking  out  of  the 
Rebellion  found  him  in  command  of  the  steam 
sloop-of-war  "  Pawnee."  Almost  without  warn 
ing  this  terrible  civil  war,  with  all  its  attendant 


*  Upon  the  arrival  of  Commodore  Sloat  in  Monterey,  Cal., 
the  policy  of  the  government  in  the  recently  inaugurated  war 
with  Mexico  had  not  been  announced  to  that  officer,  and  he 
was  left  to  his  own  judgment  to  determine  the  question.  For 
tunately  he  was  sin-rounded  by  officers  of  the  stamp  of  Rowan 
and  the  present  Medical  Director  Charles  D.  Maxwell,  than 
whom  no  officers  were  more  zealous  in  advocating  the  imme 
diate  occupation  of  California,  and  the  hoisting  of  our  flag 
upon  its  soil.  To  the  navy  alone  the  Republic  Is  indebted  for 
the  acquisition  of  this  splendid  territory  with  all  its  untold 
wealth. 


ROWAN 


704 


ROWAN 


consequences,  shook  the  land  from  it»  centre  to 
its  remotest  boundaries.  Commander  Rowan 
had  married,  in  Norfolk,  Va.,  the  daughter  of 
Dr.  Starke.  an  eminent  citizen  of  that  city,  and 
there  resided ;  it  was  the  home  of  his  adoption 
and  of  his  affections  ;  there  were  the  friends  of 
many  years,  the  attachments  of  a  life.  Those 
who  know  the  high-strung  character  of  this 
people  know  with  what  an  earnest  purpose  they 
entered  into  the  strife,  and  how  quick  they  sprang 
to  action.  No  time  was  given  and  none  re 
quired  by  Rowan  to  determine  what  course  he 
would  take.  Abandoning  home  and  friends  and 
all  that  made  life  attractive,  his  course  was  at 
once  determined,  and  in  the  cause  of  the  Union 
and  in  defense  of  the  flag  he  drew  his  sword  with  an 
unfaltering  spirit  and  determined  heart.  Would 
that  the  high  and  lofty  motives  actuating  this 
gentleman  had  entered  into  the  souls  of  those 
who  went  astray  after  false  doctrines  and  heresies, 
and  so  preserved  them  also  to  the  navy  and  the 
service  of  the  country  to  receive  its  highest 
honors !  The  government,  knowing  the  lofty 
character  and  reputation  of  Rowan,  had  no  mis 
givings  as  to  his  loyalty,  and  he  was  continued  in 
command  of  the  "Pawnee."  In  this  vessel  he 
engaged,  shortly  after  the  breaking  out  of  hos 
tilities,  the  enemy's  batteries  at  Acquia  Creek,  on 
the  Potomac.  This  was  the  first  naval  engage 
ment  of  the  war.  Later,  in  the  "Pawnee,"  he 
participated  in  the  attack  on  and  in  the  capture 
of  the  forts  and  garrison  at  Hatteras  Inlet,  the 
first  important  naval  success  of  the  war,  in  the 
honors  of  which  Commander  Rowan  fully  shared. 
The  joint  expedition  of  the  army  and  navy  for 
operations  in  the  waters  of  North  Carolina,  to 
which  Rowan  had  been  ordered  as  second  in 
command,  and  which  sailed  from  Hampton  Roads 
in  January,  1862,  was  about  to  open  a  suitable 
field  for  the  display  and  employment  of  the  high 
qualities  and  professional  attainments  he  pos 
sessed.  The  naval  force,  which  consisted  of 
17  light-draft  vessels,  arrived  at  Hatteras  Inlet 
January  13,  1862,  but  the  army  was  not  fully 
prepared  for  active  co-operation  until  three 
weeks  later.  On  the  morning  of  February  5  the 
combined  expedition  proceeded  toward  Roanoke 
Island.  The  naval  vessels,  placed  by  Admiral 
Goldsborough  under  the  immediate  command  of 
Commander  Rowan,  were  formed  in  three  sepa 
rate  columns,  commanded  respectively  by  Lieuts. 
Reed  Werden,  Alexander  Murray,  and  H.  K. 
Davenport.  The  enemy  had  formed  an  exten 
sive  obstruction  of  a  double  row  of  piles  and 
sunken  vessels,  stretching  across  the  sound  be 
tween  the  batteries  on  Park  and  Wier  Points, 
and  behind  this  their  vessels,  8  in  number,  were 
drawn  up.  By.  half-past  ten  on  the  morning 
of  February  7  the  engagement  commenced.  By 
noon  the  action  became  general,  and  was  con 
tinued  so  hotly  that  a^  two  o'clock  the  bat 
tered  barracks  behind  the  fort  were  burning 
furiously,  and  at  half-past  four  the  batteries,  for 
the  most  part,  ceased  for  a  while  to  reply  to  the 
firing  of  the  fleet, — 5  of  the  enemy's  steamers, 
apparently  injured,  retired  behind  the  point, 
and  the  first  landing  of  troops  took  place.  The 
landing  was  effected  in  light-draft  steamers  and 
boats  at  Ashby's  harbor,  a  large  body  of  the 
enemy  guarding  the  shore  being  soon  cleared 
away  by  some  shrapnel  from  the  guns  of  Rowan's 
flag-ship.  By  midnight  10,000  troops  had  been 


landed,  when  they  were  joined  by  a  battery  of 
six  howitzers  from  the  naval  force.  At  nine 
o'clock  the  next  morning  a  continuous  tiring  in 
the  interior  announced  that  the  army  was  hotly 
engaged  about  midway  between  the  landing  and 
Park  Point,  and  the  vessels  moved  up  to  re-engage 
the  forts.  When  Burnside  approached  the  rear 
of  the  batteries  the  vessels  ceased  firing,  and  pro 
ceeded  to  clear  a  passage-way  through  the  ob 
structions.  By  4  P.M.  this  was'accomplished,  and 
when  the  vessels  burst  through  the  obstructions 
the  American  flag  was  unfurled  over  the  battery 
on  Park  Point.  A  few  minutes  afterward  the 
enemy  fired  the  works  on  Red  Stone  Point,  to 
gether  with  a  steamer  which  had  taken  refuge 
under  its  guns,  and  thus  ended  the  eventful 
struggle  of  two  days,  which  secured  complete 
possession  of  Roanoke  Island.  Retreating  from 
Roanoke  Island,  the  enemy's  fleet  fled  up  the 
sound  and  into  Pasquotank  River  toward  Eliza 
beth  City,  Commander  Rowan  pursuing  them 
with  a  flotilla  of  14  vessels,  and  anchoring  for 
the  night  a  few  miles  from  Fort  Cobb.  On  the 
morning  of  the  10th  they  were  discovered  drawn 
up  behind  the  battery,  which  mounted  four  heavy 
guns,  and  supported  by  a  schooner — the  "  Black 
Warrior" — moored  to  the  opposite  bank,  and 
carrying  two  heavy  32-pounders.  When  within 
long  range  fire  was  opened  from  the  battery, 
schooner,  and  steamers,  but  the  vessels  moved  on 
silently  and  steadily,  shot  and  shell  falling  thick 
and  fast  among  them.  When  within  three-quar 
ters  of  a  mile  of  the  battery  Commander  Rowan 
gave  the  signal  for  a  dash  at  the  enemy  ;  fire  was 
opened  with  telling  effect,  and  the  vessels  pushed 
to  their  utmost  speed.  The  enemy  was  com 
pletely  demoralized  by  the  bold  and  wholly  un 
expected  mode  of  attack.  The  "  Black  War 
rior"  was  set  on  fire  by  her  officers  and  destroyed, 
the  fort  abandoned,  and  the  entire  fieet  captured 
or  destroyed.  Passing  up  the  river,  the  flotilla 
took  possession  of  Elizabeth  City,  which  the 
enemy  had  attempted  to  fire  before  hastily  leav 
ing,  and  Lieut.  Murray  was  dispatched  with  a 
small  force  to  Edenton,  which  he  quietly  took 
possession  of  on  the  12th,  and  was  then  sent  to 
obstruct  the  Chesapeake  and  Albemarle  Canal, 
a  duty  which  he  thoroughly  accomplished.  At 
the  same  time  Commander  Rowan  made  a  recon- 
noissance  of  the  Chowan  River  as  far  as  Winton, 
where  a  sharp  engagement  took  place  on  the  19th  ; 
the  town  was  the  following  morning  occupied 
by  the  troops  under  Col.  Hawkins,  who  entered  the 
place  and  destroyed  the  military  stores  and  quar 
ters  found  there.  A  combined  expedition  of  the 
army  and  navy,  under  Gen.  Burnside  and  Com 
mander  Rowan,  left  Hatteras  Inlet  on  the  morn 
ing  of  March  12  for  an  attack  upon  Newbern, 
N.  C.  The  fleet,  numbering  14  vessels,  besides 
the  transports,  entered  the  Neuse  River  in  the 
afternoon,  and  at  nightfall  anchored  in  three 
columns  off  Slocum's  Creek,  the  point  selected 
for  the  debarkation  of  the  troops,  about  15  miles 
from  Newborn.  Early  the  following  morning 
the  gunboats  were  deployed  on  either  side  of  the 
mouth  of  the  creek,  and  opened  with  grape  and 
canister  upon  the  landing-place,  while  the  troops 
started  from  the  transports, — the  fire  ceasing  as 
soon  as  the  first  brigade  had  landed.  At  the 
same  time  six  naval  howitzers,  under  command 
of  Lieut.  R.  S.  McCook,  were  sent  ashore  to  assist 
in  the  attack  upon  the  enemy's  works.  As  soon  as 


ROWAN 


705 


ROWAN 


the  troops  had  landed,  the  flag-ship  "  Delaware," 
Lieut.-Commander  S.  P.  Quackenbush,  with 
another  vessel,  proceeded  on  a  reconnoissance  up 
the  river,  when  fire  was  opened  from  Fort  Dixie 
upon  them,  and  a  spirited  engagement  was  kept 
up  until  dark,  when  all  the  vessels  anchored  for 
the  night  in  a  position  to  support  the  troops.  At 
daylight  on  the  morning  of  the  14th,  Gen.  Burn- 
side  engaged  the  enemy  in  force,  and  Commander 
Eowan  advanced  steadily  up  the  river  with  his 
fleet.  The  passage  of  the  river  was  obstructed 
by  a  formidable  line  of  piles  and  torpedoes,  and 
defended  by  six  well-constructed  forts,  at  dis 
tances  of  half  a  mile  to  a  mile  and  a  half  from 
each  other,  mounting  some  32  heavy  guns ;  but 
under  pressure  of  the  combined  attacks  the 
enemy  abandoned  their  defenses  in  succession, — 
the  navy  and  army  contesting  the  honor  of  rais 
ing  the  American  flag  on  their  ramparts, — so  that 
at  noon  the  fleet  arrived  before  the  deserted  town 
of  Newbern.  A  large  quantity  of  public  stores 
fell  into  the  hands  of  the  navy  and  were  turned 
over  to  the  troops,  who  arrived  and  took  posses 
sion  of  the  town  at  2  P.M.  After  the  fall  of 
Newbern,  Lieut.  Commanding  Murray  was  dis 
patched  with  a  naval  column  to  take  possession 
of  Washington,  N.  C.  On  April  1,  Commander 
Rowan  dispatched  to  New  York  and  Philadel 
phia  9  vessels  freighted  with  naval  stores,  some 
of  the  fruits  of  the  capture  of  Newbern.  Fort 
Macon  was  the  next  object  which  engaged  the 
attention  of  the  army  and  navy.  On  the  morn 
ing  of  April  25,  Commander  Samuel  Lockwood, 
the  senior  oificer  off  Beaufort,  opened  on  the  fort 
in  conjunction  with  the  batteries  on  shore,  and  ' 
continued  the  fire  for  some -time,  until  he  was 
obliged  to  withdraw  on  account  of  the  heavy  sea. 
Toward  evening  a  flag  of  truce  appeared  on  the 
fort,  and  the  next  morning  the  old  flag  reappeared 
over  its  ramparts.  Entering  the  fort,  Commander 
Rowan  had  an  interview  with  Gen.  Burnside, 
with  whom  he  signed  the  terms  of  capitulation 
on  the  part  of  the  United  States.  Commander 
Rowan,  at  the  same  time,  finding  that  the  army 
had  failed  to  accomplish  the  object  for  which  it 
was  landed  at  Elizabeth  City,  and  had  returned 
without  destroying  the  canals,  determined  to 
undertake  the  work  with  the  navy.  Lieut. 
Hurser,  with  3  gunboats  and  2  schooners,  with 
the  needed  means  and  appliances,  was  dispatched 
upon  this  duty,  and  fully  accomplished  the  ob 
ject,  inflicting  in  two  days  an  amount  of  damage 
Ahat  it  would  require  months  to  repair. 

In  reviewing  this  brilliant  series  of  successes 
and  victories,  of  paramount  value  to  the  Union 
cause,  we  cannot  fail  to  recognize  the  fine  skill, 
untiring  energy,  cool  and  tempered  judgment, 
quick  perception  and  dash  of  Rowan,  which 
fully  establish  his  claims  to  rank  with  the  lead 
ing  naval  commanders  of  the  day.  No  grass 
grew  under  his  keel ;  no  victory  was  gained  until 
all  its  fruits  were  fully  garnered.  Like  the  waves 
of  the  sea,  success  followed  success,  and  while 
there  was  work  to  be  done  he  rested  not,  nor 
allowed  others  to  rest.  This  was  war  never 
better  illustrated.  Unlike  some  intrusted  with 
high  commands,  who  failed  to  follow  up  the 
result  of  a  victory,  he  pursued  with  untiring 
energy  and  determined  will  the  demoralized  foe. 
Quick  to  perceive  and  prompt  to  act,  his  com 
mand  of  the  naval  forces  in  the  sounds  of  North 
Carolina  resulted  in  the  complete  restoration 
45 


of  the  authority  of  the  government  over  those 
waters. 

Commander  Rowan  was  promoted  to  a  cap% 
tain  July  16,  1862,  and  as  a  reward  for  these 
brilliant  services  and  for  his  distinguished  gal 
lantry  was  advanced  a  grade  and  promoted  to 
a  commodore,  to  take  rank  from  the  same  date. 
In  1863,  Commodore  Rowan  was  ordered  to  the 
command  of  the  armored  frigate  "New  Iron 
sides,"  then  in  Charleston  harbor  operating 
against  the  enemy,  and  probably  at  the  time, 
handled  and  fought  intelligently,  the  most  for 
midable  vessel  afloat.  While  upon  this  duty  it 
was  the  good  fortune  of  the  writer  of  this  article, 
in  command  of  a  monitor,  to  be  a  daily  witnes 
to  the  fine  handling  of  this  formidable  vessel  and 
the  splendid  work  she  accomplished ;  to  be  thrown 
into  daily  intercourse  with  her  distinguished 
commander ;  to  see  him  upon  this  arduous  ser 
vice,  in  fire  and  out  of  fire,  always  the  same  wise, 
cool,  capable,  self-reliant,  considerate  leader  and 
officer.  While  the  ship  in  the  hands  of  the  un 
initiated  would  have  proven  powerless  and  ob 
stinate,  under  his  guidance  she-  was  always  re 
liable,  acting  as  though  she  possessed  a  soul 
responsive  to  his  own,  and  dutifully  and  obedi 
ently  following  his  will.  Nothing  finer  nor 
grander  than  to  see  this  noble  ship  as  she  moves 
to  challenge  and  engage  the  formidable  forts 
and  batteries  lining  the  harbor  at  Charleston. 
Presently,  as  she  comes  within  range,  forts  and 
batteries  upon  all  sides  open  upon  her  a  furious 
shower  of  shot  and  shell,  and  no  response. 
Grand,  gloomy,  and  defiant,  heeding  nothing 
but  the  will  of  her  master,  she  moves  on  through 
the  storm  of  battle  until  approaching  the  desired 
position ;  then  Rowan  turns  to  his  famous  exec 
utive,  "Try  the  range,  Belknap,"  and  the  flash 
and  report  of  a  single  gun  follow.  Still,  like 
an  avenging  angel,  the  ship  moves  on  till  an 
other  shot  follows,  and  then  a  broadside  of  11- 
inch  guns  with  blast  of  fire  and  sound  of  many 
thunders  breaks  the  silence  of  the  ship,  and  she 
is  alive  with  flame  and  fur}*, — great  guns  topple 
over,  the  crests  of  the  enemy's  works  go  down  like 
grass  before  the  scythe  of  the  mower,  and  silence 
again  ensues,  to  be  followed  by  successive  broad 
sides,  until  the  enemy  no  longer  replies.  So 
day  after  day  and  month  after  month,  while  the 
monitors,  with  their  deliberate  fire  of  the  heaviest 
guns,  attack  the  defenses  of  the  enemy,  and  hour 
after  hour  the  battle  rages  unabated,  when  the 
mighty  man-of-war  moves  majestically  into  posi 
tion  and  opens  upon  them,  the  enemy  soon  flee 
to  their  bomb-proofs  for  shelter,  and  their  guns 
are  silent.  And  yet  so  paradoxical  are  the  con 
ditions  of  naval  warfare,  a  single  shot  from  one 
of  the  heavy  guns  of  the  tiny  monitors  and  the 
proud  career  of  this  formidable  vessel  would 
have  been  speedily  brought  to  a  close.  In  this 
severe,  exacting,  and  arduous  service  Commo 
dore  Rowan  passed  many  months  in  command 
of  the  "  New  Ironsides,"  engaged  in  almost  daily 
conflict  with  the  enemy,  and  upon  each  and  every 
occasion  increased  his  bravely-earned  reputation. 
No  one  can  appreciate  but  those  who  have  shared 
in  the  dangers,  trials,  and  privations  the  char 
acter  of  this  service,  with  its  days  of  toil  and  ex 
posure,  and  its  nights  of  unrest  and  battle,  where 
exhausted  nature  only  found  repose  mid  the  din 
and  sound  of  the  conflict.  In  the  spring  of  1864, 
the  services  of  the  "  New  Ironsides"  being  no 


ROWLE 


706 


RUDDER 


fonger  required  before  Charleston,  the  ship  was 
ordered  North,  and  Commodore  Rowan  was 
shortly  after  relieved  of  the  command. 

In  July,  1866,  he  was,  by  selection,  promoted 
to  a  rear-admiral,  and  ordered  to  the  command 
of  the  Norfolk  Navy- Yard,  where  he  remained 
two  vears.  During  the  years  1868-69  he  com 
manded  with  ability  the  Asiatic  Squadron. 
While  absent  upon  this  duty  from  the  United 
States  he  was,  upon  the  death  of  Farragut  and 
the  promotion  of  Porter,  selected  by  Gen.  Grant 
as  the  vice-admiral  of  the  navy,  in  recognition 
of  the  conspicuous  and  valuable  service  he  had 
rendered  to  the  republic.  It  was  the  pleasant 
duty  of  the  writer  to  be  the  first  to  announce  to 
Vice-Admiral  Rowan  his  promotion,  on  his  re 
turn  to  the  United  States,  and  the  first  to  salute 
the  flag  of  the  newly-promoted  vice-admiral. 
Several  years  subsequently,  Vice- Admiral  Rowan 
was  in  command  of  the  naval  station  at  New 
York,  and  at  present  is  employed  as  president 
of  the  Board  of  Examiners.  Admiral  Rowan 
has  but  one  descendant,  Lieut.  Hamilton  Rowan, 
of  the  U.  S.  army,  now  stationed  at  Fort  Mc- 
Henry,  near  Baltimore,  a  young  oflicer  of  excel 
lent  promise  and  reputation. — T.  H.  Stevens, 
Rear-Admiral  U.S.N. 

Rowle.  A  light  crane,  formerly  much  used 
in  clearing  boats  and  holds. 

Royal.  The  sail  next  above  the  topgallant- 
sail.  It  is  the  uppermost  sail  ordinarily  carried ; 
those  sails  sometimes  set  above  the  royals  are 
known  as  sky-sails,  moon-sails,  moon-rakers, 
star-gazers,  etc.,  and  are  comprehended  under 
the  general  term  kites.  Royals  are  carried  only 
in  light  breezes,  not  only  because  the  sails  are 
small  and  their  masts  badly  supported,  but  be 
cause  they  act  with  a  long  leverage  and  tend  to 
bury  the  ship  and  retard  her  progress.  For  the 
gear  of  a  royal,  see  under  proper  heads. 

ROYAL-MAST.     See  MASTS. 

Royal  Fish  (Eng.}.  "Whales,  porpoises,  stur 
geons,  etc.,  which,  when  driven  on  shore,  become 
droits  of  admiralty. 

Royal  Marines  (Eng.}.  See  MARINE  CORPS, 
FOREIGN. 

Royal  Merchant.  A  title  of  the  Mediterranean 
traders  of  the  13th  century,  when  the  Venetians 
were  masters  of  the  sea. 

Royal  Mortar.  An  old  brass  mortar  of  5.j 
inches  diameter  of  bore,  and  150  pounds  weight, 
throwing  a  24-pounder  shell  up  to  600  yards, — 
convenient  for  advanced  trenches  and  boat-work. 

Royals  (Eng.}.  A  familiar  appellation  for 
the  marines  since  the  mutiny  of  1797,  when  they 
were  so  distinguished  for  the  loyalty  and  steadi 
ness  they  displayed.  Also  called  royal  jollys. 

Roynes.  An  archaic  term  for  streams,  cur 
rents,  or  other  usual  passages  of  rivers  and  run 
ning  waters. 

Rubber.  A  small  instrument  used  to  rub  or 
flatten  down  the  seams  of  a  sail,  in  sail-making. 

Rubble-work.  A  mass  of  masonry,  formed 
of  irregular  stones  and  pebbles  imbedded  in 
mortar.  It  is  used  in  the  interior  of  docks, 
piers,  and  other  erections,  and  is  opposed  to 
ashlar-work. 

Rudd.  A  fresh-water  European  fish  of  the  carp 
family ;  Leuciscus  erythrophthalmus ;  red-eye. 
It  is  about  the  size  and  shape  of  the  roach,  with 
which  it  is  often  confounded,  but  it  has  the  dorsal 
fin  farther  back,  a  stouter  body,  and  red  irides. 


Rudder.  That  part  of  the  helm  of  a  vessel 
which  is  attached  to  the  stern-post,  and  by  whose 
movements  the  vessel  is  steered. 

The  rudder,  being  turned  out  of  the  line  of 
the  keel,  is  acted  upon  by  the  water  as  the  vessel 
passes  through  it,  and  causes  the  vessel  to  turn 
about  her  centre  of  gravity,  the  bow  moving  in 
the  direction  in  which  the  rudder  is  turned,  while 
the  stern  moves  in  the  opposite  direction. 

The  greater  the  angle  which  the  rudder  makes 
with  the -plane  of  the  ke.el,  the  more  it  acts  as  a 
drag  and  impedes  the  speed  of  the  vessel.  For 
this  reason  it  should  be  turned  only  so  much  as 
is  necessary  to  steer  the  vessel,  and  in  this  the 
skill  of  the  helmsman  is  shown.  The  arc  in 
which  the  rudder  can  turn  is  seldom  more  than 
45°  on  each  side  of  the  plane  of  the  keel,  and 
even  this  amount  is  not  required  to  turn  a  vessel 
in  the  shortest  time.  The  force  that  the  water 
exerts  upon  the  rudder  varies  as  the  square  of 
the  vessel's  speed,  and  it  is  by  this  force  that  the 
vessel  is  turned.  The  proper  amount  of  helm 
angle  varies  in  vessels  of  different  models,  and 
can  best  be  ascertained  by  actual  experiment. 

Rudders  are  constructed  of  wood  or  iron  ac 
cording  to  the  material  of  which  the  vessel  is 
built.  A  wooden  rudder  is  composed  of  several 
pieces  of  timber  coaked  and  bolted  together. 
The  upper  part,  called  the  rudder-head,  is  of 
cylindrical  shape,  and  passes  through  the  rudder- 
port  in  the  counter  to  a  height  above  the  deck 
suflicient  to  connect  the  tiller  or  gear  by  which 
the  rudder  is  turned.  The  piece  of  timber  of 
which  the  head  is  composed  extends  the  length 
'of  the  rudder  and  is  called  the  main-piece.  On 
the  forward  and  after  sides  of  the  main-piece 
additional  timbers  are  secured,  forming,  from 
the  lower  part  of  the  head  (called  the  shoulder) 
to  the  lowest  part  of  the  rudder  (called  the 
heel),  a  flat  structure,  the  after  edge  of  which 
is  usually  of  a  convex  shape,  while  the  forward 
edge  is  straight  and  in  line  with  the  stern-post 
of  the  vessel.  The  rudder  is  hung  to  the  stern- 
post  by  the  pintles,  which  are  fixed  to  the  for 
ward  edge  and  set  into  the  gudgeons  or  braces 
on  the  stern-post  These  constitute  the  hinges 
by  which  the  rudder  is  supported  and  upon 
which  it  turns. 

The  forward  edge  of  the  rudder  and  the  after 
edge  of  the  stern-post  are  beveled  to  allow 
the  required  helm  angle,  and  upon  the  lower 
part  or  heel  a  piece  is  fastened,  called  the  sole- 
piece,  which,  like  the  false  keel,  may  become 
easily  detached  if  the  vessel  takes  the  ground. 
To  prevent  the  rudder  from  unshipping,  a 
wooden  block,  called  a  wood-lock,  is  placed  in 
the  aperture  under  the  upper  pintle.  All  of 
the  pintles  and  braces  and  the  centre  of  the 
rudder-head  are  in  the  axis  of  motion  of  the 
rudder.  The  rudder  is  turned  on  the  deck  of 
the  vessel  by  means  of  a  horizontal  bar,  called 
the  tiller,  placed  in  a  socket  in  the  rudder-head. 
Greater  power  is  obtained  in  large  vessels  by 
using  a  wheel  which  is  connected  with  the  tiller 
by  means  of  ropes,  called  wheel-ropes,  or  by 
other  mechanical  contrivances.  Wooden  rudders 
are  sheathed  with  copper  or  yellow  metal  to  the 
same  height  that  it  is  placed  upon  the  bottom 
and  sides  of  the  vessel  to  which  they  belong. 

An  iron  or  steel  rudder  is  of  the  same  gen 
eral  shape  as  the  wooden  rudder.  It  consists 
of  a  frame  covered  on  both  sides  with  metallic 


KUFFLE 


707 


RUSSIAN  NAVY 


plates,  which  are  riveted  through  the  frame- work 
to  each  other,  and  is  hung  to  the  stern-post  or 
rudder-post  by  pintles  and  gudgeons  as  already 
described 

In  order  to  give  greater  breadth  to  the  rudders 
of  screw-steamers  of  great  length  and  compara 
tively  small  depth,  without  an  increase  of  strain 
upon  the  rudder-head,  the  equipoise  rudder  has 
been  devised.  It  is  convex  on  both  forward  and 
after  edges,  and,  instead  of  being  supported  by 
pintles  and  braces,  it  rests  upon  a  projection  from 
the  keel  called  the  skeg.  The  axis  of  motion 
passes  through  the  centre  of  the  rudder-head  and 
the  centre  of  the  socket  of  the  skeg  in  which  the 
heel  rests.  About  two-thirds  of  the  surface  of 
the  rudder  is  abaft  the  axis  of  motion,  and  one- 
third  forward. 

The  breadth  of  a  rudder  depends,  in  some 
measure,  upon  the  comparative  dimensions  of  the 
vessel,  her  model,  etc.  A  short,  full  vessel  re 
quires  a  rudder  of  greater  breadth  than  a  long, 
sharp  one  ;  while  a  vessel  of  comparatively  light 
draft  of  water  requires  a  broad  rudder.  The 
proportions  in  which  they  are  usually  made  are 
1  foot  in  breadth  to  every  100  feet  in  length  of 
the  vessel  and  1  foot  additional. 

A  jury-rudder  is  made  to  replace  one  that  has 
been  injured  and  rendered  unserviceable.  It  is 
made  from  such  material  at  hand  as  may  be  best 
suited  to  the  purpose, — as  spare  spars,  plank, 
etc. 

A  vessel  may  be  temporarily  steered  by  a 
hawser  veered  out  over  the  stern,  and  moved  to 
ward  one  quarter  or  the  other,  as  required,  by 
means  of  tackles. — E.  T.  Strong,  Lieutenant 
U.S.N. 

RUDDER-BAND.  An  iron  band  placed  around 
the  head  of  a  wooden  rudder. 

RUDDER-BRACES.  The  composition  hinges  on 
which  a  rudder  turns. 

RUDDER-CASE.  The  casing  placed  around  the 
head  of  a  rudder.  It  is  also  termed  the  well. 

RUDDER-CHAIN..  One  of  the  chains  by  which 
the  rudder  is  secured  to  the  quarters  of  the  ship 
in  the  event  of  its  being  unshipped  by  accident. 

RUDDER-CHOCK.     See  CHOCK. 

RUDDER-COAT.  An  outside  covering  made  of 
canvas,  formerly  used  to  prevent  the  water  com 
ing  into  the  rudder  casing  and  thence  into  the 
ship  ;  there  are  better  plans  in  use  nowadaj^s. 

RUDDER-HORN.  A  kind  of  iron  crutch  bolted 
to  the  back  of  the  rudder,  for  attaching  the  rud 
der-chains  to  in  case  of  necessity. 

RUDDER-IRONS.  The  pintles,  gudgeons,  and 
braces  of  the  rudder  are  frequently  so  called, 
though  they  are  usually  of  copper. 

RUDDER-PENDANT.  A  continuation  of  the 
rudder-chains  in  wire  rope  ;  it  usually  leads  up 
to  each  quarter,  so  as  to  be  easily  reached  from 
the  quarter-deck. 

RUDDER-PERCH.  A  small  fish  with  the  upper 
part  of  the  body  brown,  varied  with  large  round 
spots  of  yellow,  the  belly  and  sides  streaked  with 
lines  of  white  and  yellow.  This  fish  is  said  to 
follow  the  rudders  of  ships  in  the  warm  parts  of 
the  Atlantic. 

RUDDER-PORT.  The  round  port  made  in  the 
stern  of  the  ship  in  which  the  rudder  ships. 

RUDDER-STOCK.     The  main  piece  of  a  rudder. 

Ruffle.  A  low  vibrating  sound  of  the  drum, 
continuous  like  the  roll,  but  not  so  loud;  it  is 
used  in  complimenting  officers  of  rank. 


Rule-staff.  A  lath  about  4  inches  in  breadth, 
used  for  laying  off  curves  in  ship-building. 

Rumbelow.  A  very  favorite  burden  to  an  old 
sea-song,  of  which  vestiges  still  remain. 

Rumbo.     Rope  stolen  from  a  dock-yard. 

Rumbowline.  Condemned  rope.  Inferior 
rope  used  for  securing  new  coils. 

Run.  To  desert.  To  scud.  The  distance  sailed 
by  a  ship.  The  after  part  of  the  body  of  a  ship, — 
it  is  clean  or  full  as  it  is  sharp  or  otherwise.  To 
let  go  by  the  run,  to  let  go  altogether.  To  run 
down  a  coast,  to  sail  parallel  with  and  near  to 
the  coast.  To  run  down  a  vessel,  to  run  into  her 
bows-on.  To  run  down  a  port,  to  sail  into  the 
latitude  of  a  port  and  then  run  for  it  on  its  paral 
lel, — a  method  practiced  in  the  early  days  of 
navigation,  before  chronometers  came  into  gen 
eral  use. 

RUN,  CORRECTION  FOR.  In  "double  alti 
tudes,"  the  correction  for  the  distance  passed 
over  in  the  interval  between  the  taking  of  the 
observations,  to  reduce  one  altitude  to  what  it 
would  have  been  if  taken  at  the  place  of  the 
second  observation. 

RUN-MONEY.  The  money  paid  as  a  reward  for 
apprehending  a  deserter  or  straggler.  It  is 
checked  against  the  accounts  of  the  person  appre 
hended. 

RUNNING-DOWN  CLAUSE.  A  special  admis 
sion  into  policies  of  marine  insurance,  to  include 
the  risk  of  loss  or  damage  in  consequence  of  the 
collision  of  the  ship  insured  with  other  vessels. 

Rundle.  That  part  of  a  capstan  round  which 
the  messenger  is  wound,  including  the  drum 
head.  See  WHELPS. 

Rune.     A  water-course. 

Rung.     The  round  of  a  Jacob's  ladder. 

Rung-head.  A  name  sometimes  given  by 
shipwrights  to  the  upper  end  of  a  floor-timber ; 
it  is  more  properly  called  a  floor-head. 

Runner.  A  single  rope  rove  through  a  mov 
able  block,  having  an  eye  or  thimble  in  the  end, 
to  which  a  tackle  is  hooked.  A  ship  which  risks 
every  impediment  as  to  privateers  or  blockade, 
to  get  a  profitable  market.  Runners  of  foreign 
goods,  organized  smugglers. 

Running  Agreement  (Eng.\  In  the  case  of 
foreign-going  ships  making  voyages  averaging 
less  than  6  months  in  duration,  running  agree 
ments  can  legally  be  made  with  the  crew  to  ex 
tend  over  two  or  more  voyages. 

Running-block.  The  movable  block  of  a 
purchase. 

Running-bowline.  A  bowline  made  over  the 
standing  part  of  the  same  rope.  • 

Running-bowsprit,  or  Running-in  Bowsprit. 
A  bowsprit  in  small  craft  which  is  rigged  in 
when  the  sail  is  taken  in.  It  is  sometimes  so 
fitted  as  to  be  rigged  in  partially  when  the  sail  is 
reefed. 

Rupee.     An  East  Indian  coin.     See  MONEY. 

Russian  Navy.  To  Peter  the  Great,  who 
reigned  between  1672  and  1725,  belongs  the 
honor  of  creating  a  regular  navy  in  Russia.  The 
country  was  still  in  a  state  of  semi-barbarism, 
and  Peter  saw  that  to  enable  it  to  cope  with 
other  European  nations  an  effective  maritime 
force  was  an  essential  element  of  strength  and 
an  instrument  of  civilization.  As  there  was  no 
one  in  his  territories  of  the  requisite  intelligence 
and  practical  knowledge  of  seamanship  to  enable 
him  to  carry  out  his  projects,  Peter  overcame  a 


RUSSIAN   NAVY 


708 


RUSSIAN   NAVY 


constitutional  apathy  to  the  sea  and  made  several 
voyages  in  trading-vessels  that  he  might  acquire 
an  insight  into  navigation.  Acting  upon  the 
wholesome  doctrine  of  never  leaving  to  others 
that  which  can  be  accomplished  by  oneself,  Peter 
remained  for  some  time  at  Archangel  watching 
the  progress  of  ship-building.  But  the  crude 
nature  of  the  operations  not  satisfying  him,  he 
went  to  Holland,  where  he  labored  as  a  common 
artisan  in  the  dock-yards,  and  compelled  his 
suite  to  follow  his  example.  "  Ships,  colonies, 
and  commerce"  were  the  great  objects  of  his  stu 
pendous  labors.  By  the  year  1721  something 
like  a  Russian  navy  was  established,  and  Peter 
had  the  satisfaction,  before  his  death,  of  achiev 
ing  a  victory  over  the  Swedes  in  his  Finland  op 
erations.  Some  advantages  were  likewise  gained 
over  the  Turks  in  the  Black  Sea  toward  the 
close  of  the  eighteenth  century.  Not,  however, 
until  A.D.  1803  were  Russian  ships  of  war  much 
employed,  and  in  that  year  their  mission  was 
peaceful.  Two  vessels  were  equipped  for  a  voy 
age  round  the  world. 

The  ambitious  schemes  and  political  complica 
tions  of  Napoleon  Bonaparte  compelled  Russia 
to  give  her  attention  to  her  army,  and  full  em 
ployment  was  found  for  it  on  land.  Some  years, 
therefore,  elapsed  before  the  efficiency  of  the 
navy  could  be  tested,  and  in  that  time  all  the 
operations  of  the  department  were  limited  to 
wars  with  the  Turks.  But  when  the  Emperor 
Nicholas  came  to  the  throne,  in  succession  to 
Alexander,  a  lively  movement  was  made  toward 
the  improvement  of  the  maritime  power  of  Rus 
sia.  The  Emperor  Nicholas  saw,  what  had  long 
been  manifest  to  the  rest  of  the  world,  that, 
though  the  Baltic  and  the  Black  Sea  afforded 
fine  scope  for  nautical  experiments  and  the  con 
struction  of  ships  of  war,  those  seas  had  each 
but  one  narrow  outlet  to  the  North  Sea  and  the 
Mediterranean,  and  that,  therefore,  when  en 
gaged  in  hostilities  with  any  other  power,  they 
might  easily  be  blockaded,  neutralizing  the  best 
efforts  of  the  navy.  Nothing  but  superior  force 
could  clear  the  passages  for  Russian  commerce,  or 
for  a  fair  fight  on  the  enemy's  ground.  Accord 
ingly,  Nicholas  invited  men  of  science  and 
skilled  artisans  to  accept  employment  at  the 
dock-yards,  which  were  established  at  Cron- 
stadt,  Nicolaief,  and  Sebastopol.  He  further 
founded  colleges  for  the  education  of  naval 
cadets  and  schools  for  the  instruction  of  work- 
ingmen,  and  raised  a  battalion  of  pilots  capable 
of  navigating  the  seas  of  the  whole  world.  So 
rapid,  under  the  emperor's  auspices,  was  the 
progress  of  improvement  and  natural  strength, 
that,  by  the  year  1838,  the  Baltic  force  of  Russia 
comprehended  4  three-deckers,  carrying  110  guns 
each,  7  carrying  84  guns,  19  armed  with  74  guns, 
making  30  heavy  line-of-battle  ships,  and  21 
frigates  of  different  sizes,  the  whole  fleet  being 
manned  by  30,000  good  sailors.  In  the  Black 
Sea  and  in  the  Caspian  there  were  16  heavy  ships 
of  war,  besides  a  large  number  of  frigates  and 
sloops.  In  this  condition  the  Russian  navy 
continued  until  1854,  when  the  junction  of  Eng 
land,  France,  and  Sardinia,  in  espousal  of  the 
cause  of  Turkey,  then  at  war  with  Russia,  led  to 
hostilities  in  the  Baltic  and  the  Black  Sea,  caus 
ing  serious  damage  to  the  marine  force  of  Rus 
sia.  Since  the  termination  of  the  war  of  1856 
Russia  has  busily  recuperated  her  naval  force, 


and  at  the  beginning  of  1879  it  consisted  of  30 
armored  ships"  and  199  other  vessels,  includ 
ing  all  classes  and  descriptions,  carrying  alto 
gether  561  guns,  and  having  engines  aggregat 
ing  188,120"  horse-power.  The  fleet,  although 
numerous,  is  not  powerful.  The  "Peter  the 
Great"  and  "  Knuz  Minin"  are  the  only  two  ves 
sels  on  the  list  of  sea-going  armored  ships  which 
are  up  to  the  modern  standard.  For  coast  defense 
Russia  has  a  considerable  fleet,  of  which  the  two 
circular  vessels,  the  "Novgorod"  and  "Vice- 
Admiral  Popoff,"  are  the  most  formidable.  The 
next  in  power  are  10  monitors  of  early  date, 
on  Ericsson's  plans,  similar  to  our  harbor  and 
river  monitors,  drawing  nearly  12  feet  of  water, 
and  armored  on  the  sides  with  5-inch  plates  on 
a  backing  of  nearly  3  feet.  The  two  guns  in  the 
single  turret  are  9-inch  rifles  or  15-inch  smooth 
bores  of  old  pattern.  There  are,  however,  two 
other  monitors  of  later  date  and  somewhat 
greater  power,  built  in  Russia  in  1868.  These 
are  the  "  Tcharogeika"  and  "  Rousalka."  The 
side-armor  is  5  inches  thick,  and  on  the  turrets 
6  inches.  They  carry  four  11-inch  rifles  in  two 
turrets.  The  speed  of  all  these  monitors  is  given 
at  from  6  to  8£  knots.  The  chief  characteristic  of 
the  two  circular  ironclads  is  that  they  are  purely 
and  simply  sea-citadels  propelled  by  steam,  and 
without  any  attempt  to  make  them  conform 
to  the  shape  of  an  ordinary  ship.  The  regular 
cruising  fleet  may  be  divided  into  two  branches, 
the  American-built  cruisers  and  the  Russian- 
built  cruisers.  Two  of  the  American  vessels,  the 
"Europe"  and  "  Asia,"  were  built  by  Messrs. 
Wm.  Cramp  &  Sons,  who  also  constructed  from 
designs  prepared  by  the  Russian  Admiralty  a 
fourth  vessel,  the  "Zabiaca."  The  "Africa" 
was  built  by  Messrs.  John  Roach  &  Son,  but  all 
of  them  were  converted  into  war-vessels  at  the 
yard  of  the  Messrs.  Cramp,  of  Philadelphia. 
The  principal  advantages  possessed  by  these 
cruisers  are  light  draft  of  water,  high  speed, 
and  considerable  sail  area.  The  Russian-built 
cruisers  have  all  been  built  at  St.  Petersburg 
since  1875,  and  were  all  designed  by  Capt.  Sub- 
botin,  the  Russian  naval  architect.  The  navy  is 
represented  in  the  Council  of  State  by  the  ad 
miral-general,  a  prince  of  the  blood,  who  is 
commander-in-chief  of  the  naval  force.  The 
head  of  the  central  administration  is  a  minister 
chosen  from  the  list  of  vice-admirals.  There  are 
six  sections  or  departments  of  control :  1st.  The 
Chancellery,  having  charge  of  the  expenditure 
of  the  budget.  2d.  The  Department  of  the  Per 
sonnel.  3d.  The  Hydrographic  Department. 
4th.  The  Technical  Committee,  divided  into 
three  sections, — construction  of  vessels,  construc 
tion  of  machinery,  and  construction  of  ord 
nance.  5th.  The  Supreme  Naval  Tribunal.  6th. 
The  Direction  of  the  Health  Service.  The  per 
sonnel  is  classified  as  follows  : 

Executive-Officers  :  General  admiral,  1 ;  ad 
mirals,  15 ;  vice-admirals,  36  ;  rear-admirals,  32  ; 
captains,  first  class,  223;  captains,  second  class, 
89;  lieutenant-captains,  317;  lieutenants,  324; 
midshipmen,  195.  Total,  1232. 

Officers  of  Naval  Artillery :  Lieutenant-gen 
erals,  2  ;  major-generals,  2  ;  colonels,  13  ;  lieuten 
ant-colonels,  9  ;  captains,  21 ;  staff-captains,  38  ; 
lieutenants,  20;  sub-lieutenants,  42;  ensigns,  47; 
cadets,  12.  Total,  206. 

Engineers  of  Naval   Constructions  and   Ma- 


RUTTER 


709 


RUYTER 


chinery :  General,  1 ;  lieutenant-generals,  3  ; 
major-generals,  4 ;  colonels,  7  ;  lieutenant-col 
onels,  4 ;  captains,  17 ;  staff-captains,  22  ;  lieu 
tenants,  31 ;  sub-lieutenants,  33  ;  ensigns,  17  ; 
cadets,  6.  Total,  145. 

Engineer  Mechanicians  :  Major-generals,  2  ; 
colonels,  8  ;  lieutenant-colonels,  11;  captains,  49; 
staff-captains,  62 ;  lieutenants,  99  ;  sub-lieuten 
ants,  164  ;  ensigns,  140  ;  cadets,  13.  Total,  548. 

Hydrographic  Engineers  :  Lieutenant-gen 
erals,  2;  major-generals,  18;  colonels,  18;  lieu 
tenant-colonels,  32  ;  majors,  9  ;  captains,  43  ; 
staff-captains,  53;  lieutenants,  61 ;  sub-lieuten 
ants,  61  ;  ensigns,  24.  Total,  321. 

Medical  corps  of  all  classes,  209. 

Marine  Officers  :  Lieutenant-generals,  3  ; 
major-generals,  3  ;  colonels,  11;  lieutenant-col 
onels,  36;  captains,  74;  staff-captains,  119; 
lieutenants,  94;  sub-lieutenants,  96;  ensigns, 
60;  cadets,  25.  Total,  521. 

Total  officers,  3182  ;  seamen  and  marines, 
38,986.  Grand  total,  42,168 

The  cost  of  maintaining  the  Russian  navy,  ac 
cording  to  the  official  estimates  of  the  Minister 
of  Marine  for  1879,  was  $19,421,276.70.  There 
are  two  docK-yards  for  the  navy  at  St.  Peters 
burg.  The  armaments  are  supplied  at  Cron- 
stadt,  and  the  principal  engineering  establish 
ment  is  at  Kolpino,  on  the  Eshorra  River; 
there  is  also  a  government  manufactory  of  steel, 
known  as  the  Aboukoffsky  Steel- Works,  located 
at  Alexandrovsky. 

Rutter,  or  Routier.  An  old  word  for  a  track- 
chart  ;  it  was  also  applied  to  the  log-book. 

Ruyter,  Michel  Adriaanzoon  Van,  the  justly 
celebrated  Dutch  admiral,  was  born  at  Flushing 
in  March,  1607,  and  died  of  wounds  received  in 
battle  on  April  29,  1676.  The  word  Ruyter  sig 
nifies,  in  Dutch,  a  cavalier,  but  in  this  case  im 
plies  no  very  long  descent,  as  it  is  said  that  the 
name  was  given  to  his  grandfather  on  account 
of  some  feat  of  daring  on  horseback.  The  whole 
story  is  doubtful.  The  future  admiral  early 
made  himself  known  among  his  youthful  play 
mates  in  Flushing  for  his  venturous  intrepidity. 
When  a  mere  child  he  climbed,  by  means  of  the 
scaffold  with  which  workmen  were  executing  re 
pairs,  to  the  top  of  the  highest  steeple  in  his  native 
town,  and  seated  himself  upon  the  pinnacle.  The 
workmen,  not  knowing  that  he  was  there,  took 
away  the  scaffold  and  ladders ;  but  young  Ruyter, 
undismayed,  managed  to  kick  holes  in  the  tiles, 
and  to  make  his  own  way  safely  down  to  the 
earth  again. 

His  family  was  poor,  and  he  was  early  appren 
ticed  to  a  rope-maker ;  but  by  dint  of  insisting 
upon  going  to  sea  his  indentures  were  canceled, 
and  he  attained  his  desires  by  being  entered  as  a 
"boy"  in  1618.  Four  years  after  that  he  had 
the  rating  of  gunner,  and  as  such  did  good  ser 
vice  during  the  siege  of  Bergen-op-Zoom  by  the 
Spaniards. 

Soon  after  he  was  made  boatswain  of  a  man- 
of-war,  when,  in  a  fight  with  a  Spanish  vessel  of 
about  equal  force,  he  led  the  boarders,  and  was 
severely  wounded  in  the  head.  The  Spaniards 
had  the  best  of  it  on  this  occasion,  and  carried 
the  Dutch  off  prisoners.  Ruyter  managed  soon 
to  escape  from  his  Spanish  prison,  however,  and 
begged  his  way  across  the  whole  of  France, 
reaching  Flushing  in  a  dreadful  state  from 
hunger  and  exposure.  After  his  recovery  from 


these  hardships  he  became  an  officer  of  a  mer 
chant  vessel  for  a  time,  but  soon  returned  to  the 
national  marine,  being  placed  in  command  of  a 
vessel  fitted  out  for  the  purpose  of  convoying 
merchantmen  on  distant  voyages.  Holland  was 
then  in  the  height  of  her  naval  power  and  suc 
cessful  commerce,  which  extended  to  every  sea. 

Ruyter  made  several  voyages  abroad,  to  Green 
land,  Brazil,  the  West  Indies,  and  elsewhere,  in 
creasing  in  experience,  and  always  paying  great 
attention  to  the  study  of  the  sciences  of  war  and 
navigation. 

In  1641,  the  Portuguese  having  thrown  off  the 
Spanish  yoke,  and  the  Low  Countries  having 
also  revolted,  it  was  natural  that  the  latter 
should  send  a  fleet  to  the  assistance  of  the  former. 
Ruyter  served  in  this  fleet, — at  first  in  command 
of  a  line-of-battle  ship  and  then  as  rear-admiral. 

Upon  his  return  he  took  command  of  a  heavily- 
armed  merchant  vessel  on  a  venture  to  America. 
On  the  voyage  he  was  attacked  by  a  Spanish 
man-of-war,  when  Ruyter  not  only  successfully 
defended  himself  but  sunk  the  Spaniard.  He 
was  by  this  time  well  known,  having  managed 
to  make  his  name  respected  and  feared  through 
out  maritime  Europe.  In  1652,  after  his  private 
voyage  to  America,  Ruyter  was  placed  in  com 
mand  of  a  fleet,  with  which  he  engaged  that  of 
the  English  Admiral  Askew.  Ruyter  undoubt 
edly  had  much  the  best  of  the  action. 

In  1654  he  was  in  command  of  a  fleet  which 
was  ordered  to  reconquer  the  Dutch  possessions 
on  the  coast  of  Africa,  which  had  been  seized 
upon  by  the  English.  Upon  this  occasion  he 
made  a  very  important  and  successful  cruise  full 
of  very  interesting  incident,  and  reflecting  great 
credit  upon  the  Dutch  navy  and  upon  himself. 
Upon  his  return  the  States-General  made  him 
vice-admiral  of  Holland, — the  highest  rank  to 
which  a  seaman  could  then  attain,  as  the  title 
of  admiral  was  inseparable  from  that  of  stadt- 
holder  of  the  United  Provinces. 

Ruyter  was  at  this  time  47  years  of  age,  and 
did  not  fail  to  prove  himself  worthy  of  the  high 
position  given  him.  But  he  was,  about  this 
period,  called  upon  to  undergo  great  trouble,  on 
account  of  his  outspoken  sympathy  with  the 
brothers  De  Witt, — patriotic  men,  who  died  vic 
tims  of  calumny  and  popular  fury.  Admiral 
De  Ruyter  was,  after  their  butchery,  accused  by 
the  enemies  which  every  man  of  great  force  of 
character  must  have  of  complicity  with  the  De 
Witts. 

While  he  was  defending  his  country,  in  com 
mand  of  the  fleet,  a  dangerous  mob  was  threaten 
ing  his  house  and  his  family.  The  latter  were 
rescued,  not  without  difficulty,  and  placed  under 
the  special  protection  of  the  government.  Ruy 
ter  himself  received  many  anonymous  threats  of 
violence  and  assassination,  to  which  he  paid  no 
attention,  and,  pursuing  the  even  tenor  of  his 
duty,  outlived  this  temporary  and  unmerited 
unpopularity. 

In  1673  the  Low  Countries  were  attacked — by 
land  and  sea — by  a  combination  of  the  most  pow 
erful  nations  of  Europe,  and  their  very  existence 
hung  in  the  balance.  Their  action  in  this  emer 
gency  is  a  model  for  any  people,  for  they  resolved 
to  purchase  their  liberty,  not  only  by  desperate 
fighting,  but  by  every  sacrifice  of  wealth  and 
comfort.  Ruyter  was  charged  with  the  defense 
of  the  coast  against  the  combined  fleets  of  France 


RUYTER 


710 


SACKAMENTO 


and  England,  and  in  doing  this  he  fought  many 
general  and  more  partial  actions,  winning,  even 
from  his  opponents,  the  greatest  admiration  for 
his  abilities  and  dauntless  courage. 

Count  d'Estrees,  the  French  admiral,  wrote  to 
Louis  XIV.  that  "he  would  give  his  life  for 
Ruyter's  glory."  This  is  rather  stilted  talk,  but 
serves  to  show  how  the  Dutch  admiral's  conduct 
was  considered  by  his  enemies. 

When  peace  came  at  last  Euyter  was  past 
middle  age,  and,  tired  of  the  sea  and  of  battles, 
wished  to  spend  the  remainder  of  his  life  with 
his  family.  Unfortunately  for  his  design,  in 
1675  the  United  Provinces,  now  at  peace  with 
Spain,  and  favorably  disposed  towards  that  power, 
were  requested  to  send  a  fleet  to  aid  them  against 
the  French  in  the  operations  about  Sicily,  result 
ing  from  the  revolt  in  that  island  against  Charles 
II.  As  soon  as  they  determined  to  send  a  force, 
the  Dutch  government  insisted  that  Ruyter 
should  command  it ;  a  commission  which  he  ac 
cepted  with  great  reluctance.  Upon  reaching 
the  Mediterranean  he  had  to  meet  Duquesne,  the 
commander  of  the  French  fleet, — a  man  who, 
like  Ruyter,  had  risen  from  very  modest  begin 
nings.  They  had  one  preliminary  and  partial 
engagement,  without  definite  result.  But,  on 
April  22,  1676,  the  two  fleets  met  near  Syracuse, 
and  a  desperate  general  engagement  ensued. 
There  was  great  slaughter,  and  Ruyter  was 
dreadfully  wounded  in  both  legs,  while,  in  fall 
ing,  he  seriously  injured  himself  again.  In 
spite  of  this  he  refused  to  be  taken  below,  and, 
lying  upon  a  mattress,  continued  to  give  orders, 
conducting  the  retreat  which  he  was  forced  to 


make  in  good  order.  A  few  days  afterward  he 
died  of  his  wounds.  His  remains  were  taken  to 
Holland,  and  there  given  a  magnificent  funeral. 

All  historians  unite  in  giving  Ruyter  the  high 
est  position,  not  only  as  regards  courage  and 
professional  ability,  but  moral  worth.  The  great 
powers  of  his  day  held  him  in  high  esteem,  and, 
after  the  battle  in  which  he  received  his  death- 
wounds,  the  king  of  Spain  sent  for  him  and  his 
posterity  the  title  of  duke,  with  a  considerable 
pension  to  support  it.  It  was  too  late  to  benefit 
Ruyter,  and  his  sons  were  too  proud  of  their 
father's  name  to  change  it  for  a  foreign  one,  even 
with  an  exalted  title.  So  they  refused  it,  as  Ad 
miral  De  Ruyter  himself  would  probably  have 
done.  The  king  of  Denmark  and  Louis  XIV. 
both  caused  Ruyter's  portrait  to  be  painted  and 
placed  among  those  of  their  own  general  officers  ; 
and  when  the  king  of  France  heard  of  the  ad 
miral's  death  he  exclaimed,  "  He  was  a  redoubt- 
a'ble  enemy  ;  but  we  are  forced  to  deplore  his 
loss,  for  the  man  was  an  honor  to  humanity." 
Such  pretty  speeches  are  often  put  into  the 
mouth  of  Louis  by  his  historiographers  ;  but  it 
is  at  least  possible  that  he  made  this  one,  for  he 
is  known  to  have  had  a  great  admiration  for 
Ruyter.  The  portrait  of  the  admiral,  by  Jor- 
daens,  shows  an  immense  person,  with  a  head 
large  in  proportion, — a  little  sunk  between  the 
shoulders ;  long  hair,  parted  in  the  middle  and 
falling  on  each  shoulder ;  large,  well-opened 
eyes  ;  a  Flemish  nose,  somewhat  retroussee,  and 
with  wide  nostrils  ;  a  double  chin,  and  a  long, 
fiercely-twirled  moustache. — E.  Shippen. 

Ryd'e.    A  small  stream. 


S. 


S.  An  iron  hook,  bent  to  that  shape;  also 
called  a  pot-hook.  In  the  log-book,  s  indicates 
snow. 

Sabander  (for  Shah-bander).  The  governor 
of  a  maritime  district  in  Syria. 

Sabine.  A  small  fish,  which  is  sometimes 
preserved  in  oil  for  food. 

Sabot.  A  disk  of  wood  or  metal  fastened  to 
the  base  of  a  spherical  projectile  to  keep  it  in  the 
proper  position  while  loading.  All  spherical 
shell  and  shrapnel  in  the  navy  have  sabots,  fas 
tened  to  them  by  4  straps  of  tinned  iron,  and 
further  secured  by  a  seizing  at  the  base. 

Saccade.  The  flap  of  a  sail  in  calms  and  light 
winds. 

Saccoleva.  A  Levantine  vessel  with  one 
lateen-sail.  A  Greek  vessel  of  100  tons,  with  a 
foremast  raking  very  much  forward,  having  a 
square  topsail  and  topgallant-sail,  a  sprit  fore 
sail,  and  two  small  masts  abaft,  with  lateen  yards 
and  sails. 

Saccopharynx.  A  genus  of  eels  which  have 
the  power  of  distending  the  thorax  like  a  sack. 

Sackett's  Harbor,  Jefferson  County,  N.  Y.,  is 
pleasantly  situated  at  the  mouth  of  Black  River, 
on  Lake  Ontario.  It  has  a  good  and  safe  har 


bor,  easy  of  access,  and  was  formerly  an  impor 
tant  naval  station,  and  there  is  now  one  wooden 
sailing-vessel  (the  "  New  Orleans")  belonging  to 
the  navy  on  the  stocks  at  this  place.  It  has 
greatly  declined  in  the  last  20  years,  although  it 
is  becoming  a  popular  summer  resort  on  account 
of  its  fine  scenery.  Madison  Barracks,  garrisoned 
by  a  battery  of  artillery,  are  located  here. 

Sacks  of  Coal.  The  Magellanic  clouds,  patches 
of  blue  in  the  southern  sky,  near  the  pole. 

Sacramento,  the  capital  of  California,  and 
the  second  city  in  size  and  importance,  is  situ 
ated  on  the  Sacramento  River,  at  the  mouth  of 
the  American  River,  120  miles  by  water  from 
San  Francisco.  Lat.  38°  34'  N. ;  Ion.  121°  26'  W. 
As  a  centre  of  commerce  it  possesses  great  ad 
vantages,  as  it  is  accessible  at  all  times  of  the 
year  for  steamers  and  sailing-vessels,  while  both 
the  Sacramento  and  its  important  affluent,  the 
Feather  River,  are  navigable  for  small  steamers 
far  above,  into  the  interior  of  the  country,  and 
this  city  is  therefore  the  entrepdt  for  supplying 
the  great  mining  regions  of  the  north.  It  has 
also  an  extensive  trade  with  the  great  central 
valley  of  the  State.  A  large  number  of  mills 
and  manufactories  of  all  kinds  are  located  here, 


SADALMELIK 


Til 


SAILS 


the  machine-shops  of  the  Central  Pacific  Kail- 
road  alone  employing  over  1000  men.  Regular 
lines  of  steamers  ply  daily  between  here  and  San 
Francisco.  Pop.  20,000. 

Sadalmelik.     The  star  a  Aquarii. 

Sadalsund.     The  star  /3  Aquarii. 

Saddle.  A  notched  piece  of  wood,  to  sup 
port  a  spar.  The  bowsprit-saddle  receives  the 
heel  of  the  jib-boom.  A  wooden  saddle-crutch 
sometimes  receives  the  weight  of  the  spanker- 
boom  when  not  in  use.  An  angular  bar  of 
iron  on  the  inside  of  the  bracket  of  a  monitor- 
carriage. 

Safe  -  conduct.  A  passport.  A  privilege 
granted  in  war  exempting  the  party  receiving 
it  from  the  effects  of  the  war  during  the  time 
and  to  the  extent  prescribed  in  the  permission. 
It  may  be  granted  either  by  the  sovereign  au 
thority  in  a  state  or  by  subordinates  in  com 
mand,  who  are  invested  with  the  power  by 
express  commission  or  as  an  incident  to  their 
official  trust.  The  grantor  is  morally  bound  to 
enforce  the  privilege  against  his  own  subjects  or 
forces,  and  to  make  good  any  damages  resulting 
to  the  holder  by  its  violation.  What  is  known 
in  the  army  as  a  "safe-guard"  is  analogous  to  a 
safe-conduct,  and  its  violation  by  any  person 
belonging  to  the  armies  of  the  United  States  in 
foreign  ports,  or  in  the  United  States  during 
rebellion,  is  by  the  57th  of  the  "Articles  of 
"War"  made  punishable  by  death. 

Safety-keel  (Eng.}.  A  form  of  keel  designed 
by  Oliver  Lang,  giving  greater  security, 

Safety-pin.  A  pin  used  sometimes  to  secure 
the  head  of  the  capstan-bar.  A  pin  used  in  a 
boat-lowering  apparatus  to  prevent  the  acci 
dental  detachment  of  the  boat.  A  pin  inserted 
in  the  tube  of  Singer's  torpedo  to  prevent  pre 
mature  explosion. 

Safety-plug.  A  leaden  plug  inserted  in  the 
inner  end  of  a  navy  time-fuze  to  guard  against 
accidental  ignition.  A  plug  of  cement  or  papier- 
mache,  used  in  torpedoes  to  prevent  explosion 
during  transport.  In  mechanism,  a  plug  in 
serted  in  the  shell  of  a  steam-boiler  or  other 
vessel  containing  fluid  under  pressure,  so  fitted 
or  made  of  such  material  as  to  be  forced  out  or 
melted  when  the  pressure  or  temperature  is  ex 
cessive.  See  FUSIBLE  PLUG. 

Safety-valve.  A  valve  attached  to  a  steam- 
boiler,  which,  by  automatic  action,  opens  and 
permits  the  escape  of  steam  when  the  pressure 
exceeds  a  stated  amount.  The  valve  is  confined 
to  its  seat  by  a  weight  or  spring  adjustable  to 
any  given  pressure,  and  is  generally  provided 
with  mechanism  for  opening  it  at  will  by  hand. 
In  the  most  common  form  the  valve  is  controlled 
by  a  weighted  lever.  A  lock  safety-valve  is  one 
so  inclosed  that,  after  having  been  adjusted  by 
an  inspector,  it  cannot  be  controlled  by  the  per 
son  managing  the  boiler.  The  area  of  opening 
of  the  valve  should  be  sufficient  to  permit  all 
the  steam  that  can  be  generated  by  the  boiler  to 
escape  at  a  pressure  a  little  above  that  of  the  at 
mosphere.  There  are  many  forms  of  safety- 
valves,  the  principal  object  aimed  at  in  all  being 
to  secure  certain  and  prompt  action. 

Sag.  To  settle  down,  or  yield  to  weight  or 
pressure.  To  sag  to  leeward,  to  shift  greatly  to 
leeward  by  force  of  wind,  sea,  or  current. 

Sagitta.     See  CONSTELLATION. 

Sagittarius,    Constellation    of    (Lat.    "  The 


Archer").  The  ninth  constellation  of  the  zo 
diac,  lying  between  Scorpio  and  Capricornus. 
It  contains  no  star  above  the  third  magnitude. 

Sagittarius,  Sign  of.  The  ninth  division  of 
the  ecliptic,  including  from  240°  to  270°  of  longi 
tude.  Owing  to  the  precession  of  the  equinoxes, 
the  constellation  Sagittarius  no  longer  occupies 
the  sign  of  this  name,  the  constellation  Scorpio 
having  taken  its  place.  The  sun  is  in  Sagit 
tarius  from  about  November  23  to  about  Decem 
ber  22.  Symbol  t. 

Saic.  A  kind  of  ketch,  with  very  long  masts, 
used  in  the  Levant.  Sometimes  it  has  but  one 
mast,  sometimes  two,  and  a  bowsprit.  No  top 
gallant-sails  are  used. 

Saidak.    See  URSA  MAJOR. 

Saigon,  the  capital  of  French  Cochin  China, 
is  situated  on  the  Saigon  River,  35  miles  from 
the  China  Sea,  in  lat.  10°  47'  N.,  Ion.  106°  45' 
E.  It  consists  of  three  towns,  Pingeh,  on  the 
west  side  of  the  river,  the  commercial  town,  and 
the  native  quarter.  The  citadel,  fortified  in 
European  fashion,  contains  barracks,  officers' 
quarters,  and  the  governor's  residence.  The 
city  has  a  navy-yard,  arsenal,  floating  docks, 
with  piers  and  basins  for  shipping.  It  has  quite 
a  foreign  trade,  chiefly  with  Siam  and  China. 
Pop.  90,000. 

Sailor.  A  generic  term,  synonymous  with 
mariner,  used  to  designate  all  sea-faring  men. 
Not  all  sailors  are  seamen. 

SAILOR'S  HOME.  An  institution  for  the  main 
tenance  and  support  of  aged  and  infirm  seamen. 
A  Sailors'  Home  was  instituted  at  Quincy,  Mass., 
in  1866.  The  Sailors'  Home  on  Staten  Island,  in 
New  York  Bay,  is  an  excellent  institution  of 
many  years'  standing,  and  there  are  other  insti 
tutions  of  the  kind  on  the  coast  and  on  the  lakes. 
Government  sailors  are  given  a  home  at  the 
Naval  Asylum. 

Sails.  The  canvas,  cloth,  or  other  fabric  at 
tached  to  the  yards,  gaffs,  stays,  etc.,  of  a  vessel, 
which,  when  extended,  are  acted  upon  by  the 
force  of  the  wind. 

The  material  in  general  use  is  canvas  or  duck, 
made  of  cotton,  hemp,  or  flax.  The  coarser  and 
heavier  qualities  of  canvas  are  used  in  the  large 
sails,  where  great  strength  is  required,  while  the 
light  sails,  which  are  intended  for  use  only  with 
moderate  winds,  are  made  of  the  finer  qualities. 

The  breadths  of  canvas,  cut  at  the  required 
length,  are  sewed  with  a  flat,  double  seam,  using 
for  the  purpose  flax  or  cotton  twine,  according  to 
the  material  of  which  the  canvas  is  composed. 
The  edges  of  the  sail  are  finished  with  a  broad 
hem  called  the  tabling,  and  to  this  is  sewed  the 
bolt-rope  or  roping,  by  which  the  sail  is  strength 
ened  and  rendered  capable  of  withstanding  the 
heavy  strain  which  is  required.  A  draft  of  the 
sail  should  first  be  made,  showing  the  number  of 
cloths  and  the  dimensions  of  each. 

When  there  is  sufficient  space,  as  on  the  floor 
of  a  sail-loft,  the  measurements  of  the  half-plan 
of  the  sail  may  be  laid  down,  and  the  cloths  cut 
and  placed  in  the  position  where  they  are  to  be 
sewed. 

Sails  should  be  made  to  set  as  flat  as  possible, 
to  enable  a  vessel  to  sail  near  the  wind  when 
close-hauled,  and  in  order  that  the  wind  may 
have  greater  effect  upon  them.  The  set  of  a  sail 
depends  in  a  great  degree  upon  the  manner  of 
roping,  for  if  the  canvas  is  too  slack  the  sail 


SAILS 


712 


SAILS 


will  extend  like  a  bag,  and  much  of  the  effect  of 
the  wind  will  thereby  be  lost. 

Sails  may  be  divided  into  two  general  classes, 
square  and  fore-and-aft.  The  former  are  quadri 
lateral,  but  not  necessarily  rectangular.  They 
are  always  fastened  or  bent  to  the  yards,  and  as 
the  yards  decrease  in  size  the  higher  their  posi 
tion  above  the  deck,  each  sail  is  shorter  on  the 
upper  edge  than  on  the  lower.  The  principal 
square-sails  are  called  the  courses,  topsails,  top 
gallant-sails,  and  royals.  On  merchant  vessels 
a  sky-sail  is  sometimes  carried  above  the  royal. 
They  are  also  named  from  the  mast  to  which 
they  belong,  as  the  fore-course,  or  foresail,  the 
maintop-sail,  the  mizzen  topgallant-sail,  the  fore- 
royal  ,  etc.  The  upper  and  lower  edges  are  called 
the  head  and  foot,  and  the  two  sides  are  called 
the  leeches.  The  ropes  which  are  sewed  upon 
these  different  parts  are  also  named  head-rope, 
foot-rope,  and  leech-ropes. 

The  sails  are  bent  to  the  yards  by  means  of 
rope-yarns  or  spun-yarn  passed  through  eyelet- 
holes  made  in  each  seam  at  the  head  of  the  sail, 
and  secured  to  a  jack-stay  on  the  yard.  At  each 
upper  corner  a  strand  is  worked  through  two 
eyelet-holes,  around  the  roping,  forming  loops 
called  the  head-cringles,  through  which  small 
ropes  or  lashings,  called  head-earlngs,  are  passed, 
and  by  which  they  are  secured  to  the  yard.  The 
lower  corners  are  called  clews,  and  in  the  larger 
sails  they  are  fitted  with  clew-irons,  to  which 
the  tacks,  sheets,  and  clew-lines  are  hooked. 

Reef-bands  are  strips  of  canvas  sewed  across 
the  sail  parallel  to  the  head.  Eyelet-holes  are 
made  through  the  reef-bands  at  every  seam  in 
which  short  pieces  of  rope,  called  reef-points,  are 
fastened,  and  serve  to  secure  the  reef-band  to  the 
yard  when  the  sail  is  reduced  in  size  by  reefing. 
The  reefs  are  called,  commencing  at  the  head  of 
the  sail,  single  reef,  double  reef,  third  reef,  and 
close  reef.  At  each  end  of  the  reef-bands,  crin 
gles  are  made,  inside  of  which  composition  or 
iron  rings  (called  thimbles)  are  placed. 

Reef-earings  are  used  in  securing  these  cringles 
to  the  yards  when  the  sail  is  reefed. 

A  variety  of  ropes  and  tackles  are  used  in 
handling  sails,  such  as  halliards,  by  which  they 
are  hoisted ;  sheets,  by  which  the  clews  are  ex 
tended  to  the  extremities  of  the  yard  next  below ; 
clew-lines  and  clew-jiggers,  bunt-lines,  bunt-jig- 
gers,  and  leech-lines,  which  are  used  in  pulling 
the  different  parts  of  the  sail  up  to  the  yard  upon 
which  it  is  bent ;  bow-lines,  which  steady  the 
leeches  when  sailing  close  to  the  wind  ;  braces,  by 
which  the  yards  are  moved  and  placed  in  such 
positions  that  the  wind  may  have  the  greatest 
effect  upon  the  sails,  and  reef -tackles,  which  assist 
in  reefing  the  sail. 

Topgallant-sails  are  seldom  made  to  be  reefed, 
but  they  have  bunt-lines  and  leech-lines,  while 
royals,  being  still  smaller,  require  only  clew-lines 
with  which  to  take  in  the  sail. 

Studding-sails  are  set  outside  of  the  leeches  of 
the  fore-  and  main-topsails,  topgallant-sails,  and 
royals,  and  of  the  foresail.  They  are  all  quad 
rilateral  in  shape  except  the  lower  studding-sail, 
which  is  sometimes  triangular.  They  are  hoisted 
to  the  end  of  the  yards,  and  the  lower  part  is 
extended  by  means  of  a  boom  secured  on  the 
yard  below.  They  are  set  and  taken  in  by  the 
halliards,  tack,  sheet,  and  down-haul.  Stud 
ding-sails  are  named  from  the  masts  by  which 


they  are  supported,  as  fore- topmast  studding- 
sail,  main-topgallant  studding-sail,  etc.  They 
are  used  only  with  a  fair  wind  and  in  moderate 
weather. 

Fore-and-aft  sails  are  those  which  are  bent  to 
the  gaffs  or  masts,  or  are  hoisted  upon  the  stays. 
All  square-rigged  vessels  carry  fore-and-aft  sail. 
In  a  ship  or  bark,  the  sails  which  are  bent  to  the 
gaffs  at  the  foremast  and  mainmast  are  called 
trysails  or  spencers,  and  that  at  the  mizzen-mast 
is  called  the  spanker.  The  trysails  are  taken  in 
by  means  of  brails,  by  which  the  sails  are  gath 
ered  in  to  the  gaffs  and  masts,  the  gaffs  being 
stationary.  The  spanker  may  be  fitted  in  the 
same  manner,  as  is  usual  in  men-of-war,  or  it 
may  be  set  and  taken  in  by  hoisting  and  lower 
ing  the  gaff. 

All  jibs  and  stay-sails  are  bent  to  wooden  or 
iron  rings  called  hanks,  which  pass  freely  on  the 
stays.  They  are  hoisted  by  the  halliards,  hauled 
down  by  the  down-hauls,  and  trimmed  or  flattened 
by  the  sheets.  The  jibs,  fore-topmast  stay-sail, 
and  fore-stay-sail  are  set  upon  the  stays  which 
support  the  foremast,  and  are  called  the  head 
sails.  They  are  triangular  in  shape,  but  those 
stay-sails  which  are  set  between  the  masts  are  usu 
ally  quadrilateral,  and  are  named  from  the  stays 
upon  which  they  belong,  as  main-topmast  stay 
sail,  mizzen-topgallant  stay-sail,  etc. 

The  lower  forward  corner  of  all  fore-and-aft 
sails  is  called  the  tack,  and  the  same  term  is  ap 
plied  to  the  lower  outer  corner  of  a  studding-sail, 
and  the  weather  lower  corner  of  a  course.  The 
edge  of  a  stay-sail  which  lies  along  the  stay  is 
called  the  luffo?  stay.  That  nearest  the  stern  is 
called  the  leech,  and  the  lower  edge  is  called  the 
foot. 

The  lower  sails  of  fore-and-aft  rigged  vessels 
are  named  from  the  mast  upon  which  they  are 
set.  A  gaff-topsail  is  nearly  triangular  in  shape, 
and  is  set  between  the  topmast  and  the  gaff. 

The  depth  of  a  course,  or  the  distance  from  the 
head  to  the  foot,  is  called  the  drop.  The  .same 
dimension  of  any  other  square-sail  is  called  the 
hoist,  while  the  width  or  distance  between  the 
leeches  is  referred  to  the  number  of  cloths  or 
breadths  of  canvas  which  it  contains. 

Various  improvements  have  been  made  in 
square-sails  by  which  they  may  be  handled  with 
greater  ease  with  a  small  number  of  men,  but  the 
only  one  which  is  in  general  use  in  merchant 
ships  is  called  the  "double  topsail-yard  rig." 
By  dividing  the  topsail  into  two  sails,  each  of 
which  can  be  set  or  taken  in  independently  of 
the  other,  the  work  of  handling  a  topsail  is 
greatly  reduced,  while  the  same  sail-surface  can 
be  extended,  as  in  a  topsail  with  a  single  yard. 

Boat's  sails  are  of  different  descriptions,  and 
vary  with  the  class  of  boat  or  the  purposes  for 
which  it  is  to  be  used.  Pleasure-boats  are  rigged 
with  fore-and-aft  sails  either  on  one  or  two  masts. 
The  sails  are  usually  of  large  size  compared  with 
the  dimensions  of  the  boat,  for  the  purpose  of 
obtaining  greater  speed. 

The  different  classes  of  boats  in  the  navy  are 
of  a  uniform  rig. 

Sailing  launches  are  sloop-rigged,  having  one 
mast,  upon  which  are  set  a  jib  and  mainsail. 

Barges  and  first  and  second  cutters  are  rigged 
with  two  sliding-gunter  masts,  upon  which  are 
set  two  triangular  sails,  called  the  foresail  and 
mainsail,  and  a  jib. 


SAILS 


713 


SAILS 


A  sliding-gunter  mast  consists  of  two  sections, 
nearly  equal  in  length,  called  the  lower-mast  and 
topmast.  The  latter  slides  upon  the  former,  and 
is  held  in  position  by  means  of  two  iron  rings  or 
bands  secured  to  the  topmast  near  its  lower  end. 
The  sail  is  permanently  bent  to  the  topmast,  but 
laced  to  the  lower  mast  in  order  that  it  may  not 
prevent  the  topmast  from  being  lowered  quickly. 
The  sail  is  set  by  hoisting  the  topmast  to  its 
place. 

Third  and  fourth  cutters  have  two  masts  carry 
ing  sprit-sails  and  a  jib.  The  sprit-sail  is  so 
called  from  the  sprit  or  light  spar  that  is  used  to 
raise  and  keep  in  position  the  peak  of  the  sail. 
The  upper  end  of  the  sprit  is  placed  in  a  grom- 
met  or  loop  at  the  peak,  while  the  lower  end 
rests  in  another  grommet  on  the  lower  part  of 
the  mast. 

Whale-boats  are  rigged  in  the  same  manner 
with  the  exception  of  the  jib. 

Gigs  are  furnished  with  one  mast,  which  car 
ries  a  sprit-sail,  and  a  stay-sail  which  extends 
from  the  head  of  the  mast  to  the  stem  of  the  boat. 
Dingeys  have  one  sprit-sail. — E.  T.  Strong,  Lieu 
tenant  U.S.N. 

SAIL-BURTON.  A  long  double  purchase,  used 
for  hoisting  sails  aloft,  composed  of  a  fiddle- 
block,  a  single-block,  and  a  leader  made  fast  at 
the  latter,  so  that  the  fall  acts  as  a  guy  to  direct 
the  ascent  of  the  sail. 

SAIL-CLOTH.  Duck  or  other  canvas  used  for 
making  sails,  awnings,  etc.  Hemp,  cotton,  and 
linen  cloth  are  used  in  the  navy. 

SAIL-COVER.  A  canvas  cover  placed  over  a  sail 
when  furled,  to  protect  it. 

SAIL-HO  !  A  cry  given  by  the  look-out,  or  any 
one,  discovering  a  sail  at  sea.  Sailors  jocularly 
use  the  term  when  they  wish  to  give  comrades 
warning  of  the  vicinity  of  an  officer. 

SAIL-HOOK.  A  small  hook  with  a  swivel  at 
tached,  to  hold  sail-cloth  while  it  is  being  sewed. 

SAILING  DIRECTIONS.  Books  containing  local 
information  respecting  various  seas  and  coasts 
useful  for  the  purposes  of  navigation.  The  chief 
topics  are,  an  account  of  the  winds,  currents, 
tides,  with  directions  how  to  take  advantage  of 
these  in  making  certain  passages ;  notices  of 
dangers,  such  as  rocks  and  shoals,  with  directions 
how  to  avoid  them  ;  descriptions  of  anchorages 
and  ports,  with  the  appearance  and  bearings  of 
landmarks  for  making  them ;  the  particulars  re 
specting  the  light-houses  on  the  coast;  memoranda 
of  watering-places,  etc. 

SAILING-ICE.  Loose  floating  ice  separated  by 
appreciable  intervals. 

SAILING-MASTER  was  the  title  of  a  warranted 
officer  in  the  U.  S.  navy  as  early  as  1798.  In 
that  year  John  Fisher  was  appointed  on  the  12th 
of  May,  and  nine  others  during  the  year.  In 
the  first  printed  regulations  for  the  U.  S.  navy, 
"  issued  by  command  of  the  President  of  the 
United  States  of  America,"  January  25,  1802, 
among  the  duties  assigned  to  the  sailing-master 
are  "  to  inspect  the  provisions  and  stores,"  "  to 
take  care  of  the  ballast,"  "  to  give  directions  for 
stowing  the  hold  and  spirit-room,  trimming  the 
ship,  and  preservation  of  the  provisions,"  "  to 
take  special  care  of  the  rigging,"  "to  navigate 
the  ship  and  see  that  the  log  and  log-book  are 
duly  kept,"  etc.,  etc.,— all  of  which  duties  now 
devolve  upon  the  navigator,  or  officer  next  in 
rank  to  the  executive.  In  1813  there  were  162 


sailing-masters  in  the  navy,  one  of  whom  was 
George  Farragut,  the  father  of  the  late  admiral. 
In  1839  the  title  was  changed  to  master,  at 
which  time  there  were  27  in  the  service,  11  of 
whom  were  in  service  in  1813.  "  Masters  in  the 
line  of  promotion,"  taken  from  the  seniors  of 
the  grade  of  passed  midshipmen  to  fill  the  death 
vacancies  in  the  old-time  masters,  were  first  in 
troduced  into  the  service  in  1846.  Six  were  ap 
pointed  the  first  year.  In  1861  there  were  36 
of  this  grade  on  the  active  and  1  on  the  re 
served  list.  In  1862,  on  the  reorganization  of 
the  navy,  by  promotion  and  otherwise,  they  were 
all  merged  in  the  grades,  and  the  present  rank 
of  master,  a  commissioned  officer  intermediate 
between  the  lieutenants  and  ensigns,  was  created, 
whose  duties  are  simply  those  of  a  watch-officer. 
There  still  linger  on  the  retired  list  4  of  the 
old-time  warranted  masters  not  jn  the  line  of 
promotion. 

SAILING,  ORDER  OF.  The  disposition  of  a 
fleet  under  sail.  It  was  customarily  in  three 
lines,  although  two  were  sometimes  used.  There 
were  three  orders  of  sailing,  and  an  order  of 
convoy  and  of  retreat. 

SAILING-ORDERS.  Orders  to  sail  in  the  per 
formance  of  some  duty. 

SAILINGS.  The  different  methods  of  determin 
ing  a  ship's  track,  of  representing  it  on  a  chart, 
and  of  solving  problems  connected  with  it.  See 
NAVIGATION. 

SAILING-TRIM.  With  weights  and  hull  well 
disposed,  a  ship  is  in  good  sailing-trim,  the  term 
having  reference  to  her  fitness  to  perform  her 
best  sailing. 

SAIL-LOFT.  A  loft  or  room  in  navy-yards  or 
shore  establishments  where  sails  are  cut  and 
made. 

SAIL-LOOSERS.  Those  men  detailed  to  go 
aloft  at  the  times  indicated,  to  loose  the  sails. 

SAILMAKER.  The  person  employed  in  a 
navy-yard  to  superintend  all  cutting,  fitting,  and 
other  work  on  sails.  A  warrant-officer  in  the 
navy,  charged  with  the  same  duties  on  board 
ship,  receiving  from  $700  to  $1800  a  year  as  pay. 

SAILMAKERS'  BENCH.  A  wooden  bench  used 
by  sailmakers  in  sewing  canvas. 

SAILMAKERS'  GANG.  The  gang  of  men  work 
ing  on  sail,  etc.,  either  on  board  ship  or  in  a 
navy-yard. 

SAILMAKERS'  MARLINE-SPIKE.  A  slender 
iron  marline-spike,  with  a  wooden  handle,  used 
on  bolt-rope  work  by  sailmakers. 

SAILMAKERS'  MATE.  A  petty  officer  of  a 
man-of-war,  working  at  sail-making  under  the 
directions  of  the  sailmaker,  and  having  the  care 
of  the  sails  and  sail-rooms.  His  pay  is  $26.50 
per  month. 

SAILMAKERS'  PRICKER.  A  small  iron  awl, 
used  by  sailmakers  to  punch  holes  in  canvas  ; 
also  called  a  stabber. 

SAILMAKERS'  SPLICE.  A  neat  tapering  splice, 
used  by  sailmakers  in  uniting  two  ropes  of  dif 
ferent  sizes. 

SAIL-MAKING.  The  art  of  cutting,  sewing, 
and  fitting  sails,  awnings,  and  other  canvas  struc 
tures  or  appendages  to  a  ship. 

SAIL-NEEDLES.  Large  steel  needles  used  in 
sewing  canvas,  half  their  length  round  in  sec 
tion,  the  other  half  pyramidal.  There  are  sev 
eral  kinds,  increasing  in  size  and  strength  as 
follows:  1,  flat-seam  needles;  2,  tabling  needles; 


SAINT 


SALEM 


85  large  sail  needles  ;  4,  repair  needles  ;  5,  head- 
rope  needles;  6,  small  bolt-rope  needles;  7, 
medium  bolt-rope  needles ;  8,  large  bolt-rope 
needles ;  9,  small  marline  needles ;  10,  large 
marline  needles. 

SAIL-NETTING.  A  rope  netting  or  a  canvas 
receptacle  for  a  stay-sail,  as  the  fore- topmast  stay 
sail  netting,  etc. 

SAIL-ROOM.  A  room  below  the  berth-deck  of 
a  rnan-of-war,  where  sails  and  other  canvas  struc 
tures  are  kept.  There  are  more  than  one  on 
large  ships. 

SAIL-TACKLE.     See  SAIL-BURTON. 

SAIL-TRIMMER.  One  of  each  gun's  crew,  de 
tailed  to  go  on  deck  to  trim  sails  during  action 
upon  call. 

SAIL-TWINE.  Twine  used  in  sewing  sails  and 
canvas  in  general.  Two  sizes  are  used,  five 
fold  and  four-fold,  according  to  the  texture  of 
the  canvas. 

Saint  Cuthbert's  Duck.  The  eider-duck,  or 
Anas  mollissima. 

Saint  Helier's  is  situated  on  the  east  side  of 
St.  Aubin's  Bay,  on  the  south  coast  of  the  Isle 
of  Jersey,  of  which  it  is  the  capital.  Lat.  49° 
11'  3"  N. ;  Ion.  2°  6'  W.  It  is  located  between 
two  rocky  heights,  on  the  eastern  one  of  which 
is  the  citadel,  Fort  Regent,  overlooking  the  inner 
harbor.  The  town  is  the  residence  of  many 
retired  ofiicers  of  the  British  army  and  navy. 
It  has  an  active  trade,  and  is  the  seat  of  the  rep 
resentative  parliament  of  Jersey.  Pop.  31,000. 

Saint  John,  the  commercial  metropolis  of  New 
Brunswick,  is  beautifully  situated  at  the  mouth 
of  the  St.  John  River,  on  a  rocky  peninsula  pro 
jecting  into  the  harbor.  Lat.  45°  14'  6'  N. ;  Ion. 
66°  3'  30"  W.  The  harbor  is  safe,  capacious, 
and  never  obstructed  by  ice.  The  entrance  is  pro 
tected  by  Partridge's  Island,  on  which  are  situ 
ated  a  quarantine  hospital  and  light-house.  On 
the  east  side  of  the  channel  a  breakwater  mod 
erates  the  force  of  the  waves,  caused  by  southerly 
gales.  This  city  is  the  entrepot  for  a  wide  ex 
tent  of  country,  and  its  situation  on  a  large  river 
with  a  good  harbor,  with  railways  running  from 
it  in  all  directions,  and  having  extensive  mari 
time  and  manufacturing  interests,  indicates  its 
great  commercial  importance.  It  also  has  large 
interests  in  the  fisheries.  Pop.  29,000. 

Saint  John's,  the  capital  of  Newfoundland,  is 
situated  near  the  extremity  of  the  easternmost 
peninsula  of  the  island,  in  lat.  47°  33'  6"  N., 
Ion.  52°  3'  W.  The  harbor,  an  exceedingly 
good  one,  is  inclosed  by  two  mountains,  between 
the  eastern  points  of  which  the  entrance  called 
the  "  Narrows"  is  located.  This  entrance  is  well 
defended  by  fortifications.  It  has  12  fathoms  of 
water,  but  only  one  vessel  can  pass  at  a  time.  In 
the  harbor  proper  there  is  ample  room  for  ship 
ping,  with  good  anchorage.  Pop.  23,000. 

Saint  Malo,  in  the  department  of  Ille-et-Vi- 
laine,  France,  is  situated  on  the  English  Channel, 
at  the  mouth  of  the  river  Ranee.  The  town  is 
built  upon  a  peninsula,  connected  by  a  causeway 
with  the  mainland,  and  is  defended  by  strong 
bastioned  walls  and  a  castle.  Among  the  chief 
buildings  are  the  chamber  of  commerce,  naval 
arsenal,  and  school  of  navigation.  The  harbor 
is  secure  and  commodious,  dry  at  low-water,  but 
40  feet  deep  in  spring  tides.  There  is  also  a  large 
floating  dock.  It  has  extensive  rope-walks,  man 
ufactures  of  fishing-nets  and  hooks,  and  marine 


fittings,  an  active  provision  trade  with  the  colo 
nies,  a  brisk  coasting  trade,  and  many  vessels 
engaged  in  the  fisheries.  Pop.  11,000. 

Saint  Paul  de  Loanda,  the  capital  of  the 
Portuguese  province  of  Angola,  in  West  Africa, 
in  lat.  8°  487  V  S.,  Ion.  13°  13'  E.,  is  situated  on 
a  large  and  secure  harbor,  sheltered  by  the  island 
of  Loanda,  and  defended  to  the  seaward  by  three 
forts.  Its  market  is  well  supplied,  and  it  "has  an 
export  trade  in  ivory,  hides,  coffee,  and  palm  oil. 
It  was  once  the  seat  of  an  extensive  slave-trade. 
Pop.  20,000. 

Saint  Petersburg,  the  modern  capital  of  the 
Russian  Empire,  is  situated  on  both  sides  of  the 
Neva,  at  its  entrance  into  the  Gulf  of  Finland, 
in  lat.  59°  56'  N.,  Ion.  30°  18'  E.  The  city  is 
chiefly  located  on  the  south  bank  of  the  Neva, 
and  partly  on  islands  in  the  river.  Owing  to  the 
flat,  marshy  soil  upon  which  it  is  situated  the 
city  is  badly  drained,  and  is  also  subject  to  de 
structive  inundations,  during  one  of  which,  in 
1824,  15,000  lives  were  lost.  The  river  is  open 
to  navigation  about  220  days  in  the  year,  it  being 
frozen  over  the  remainder  of  the  time.  The  city 
contains  many  scientific  schools  and  academies, 
an  imperial  library  containing  450,000  volumes, 
an  astronomical  and  meteorological  observatory, 
naval  hospital,  school  of  mines,  the  imperial 
academy,  and  imperial  geographical  society^ 
Manufactures  of  all  kinds  are  carried  on,  and  it 
has  imperial  gunpowder,  tapestry,  and  porcelain 
factories,  extensive  cannon-foundries,  and  glass 
works.  It  has  steam-packet  communication  with 
all  the  principal  ports  of  Europe.  The  channel 
at  the  mouth  of  the  river  is  impeded  by  sand 
and  difficult  of  access,  the  ship-canal  to  deep 
water  being  not  yet  completed.  It  has  two  dock 
yards,  and  many  of  the  vessels  of  the  Russian 
navy  are  built  here.  Pop.  670,000. 

-Saint  Sebastian,  situated  on  a  small  peninsula 
in  the  Bay  of  Biscay,  in  the  province  of  Gui- 
puzcoa,  Spain,  is  a  fortified  city,  inclosed  by 
walls,  and  defended  by  the  citadel  of  Mota,  on 
the  adjacent  height,  Mount  Urgull.  Its  harbor, 
protected  by  a  mole,  is  small,  but  the  city  has  a 
large  import  trade,  and  an  export  trade  in  corn, 
etc.  Lat.  43°  19'  2"  N. ;  Ion.  2°  0'  5"  W, 
Pop.  10,000. 

Saint  Servan,  France,  is  in  the  department  of 
Ille-et-Vilaine,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Ranee, 
at  its  mouth  in  the  English  Channel.  It  has  two 
harbors,  one  for  frigates  and  the  other  for  com 
merce,  separated  from  each  other  by  the  rock  and 
castle  of  Solidor,  besides  which  another  fort  de 
fends  Saint-Servan.  It  has  ship-building  docks 
and  an  active  trade.  Pop.  10,000. 

Saint  Swithin's  Day.  An  old  superstition 
was,  that  if  it  rained  on  this  day,  the  6th  of 
July,  it  would  rain  every  day  during  the  next 
forty. 

Saker.  An  old  gun,  called  in  European  lan 
guages  sacre,  8  to  9  feet  long,  and  5  to  12  pounds 
calibre. 

Salamander.  A  heated  iron,  formerly  used 
in  firing  guns,  especially  in  saluting.  A  lacing 
of  rawhide  to  confine  the  luff  of  a  sail  to  its  stay. 

Salem,  Mass.,  in  the  county  of  Essex,  is 
pleasantly  situated  on  a  peninsula  formed  by  two 
inlets  of  the  sea,  called  North  and  South  Rivers. 
It  has  a  good  harbor,  defended  by  Fort  Picker 
ing.  The  town  had  formerly  an  extensive  trade 
with  India,  China,  Africa,  and  South  America ; 


SALE   OF   EFFE 


CT$ 


715 


SALUTES 


but  at  present  the  foreign  trade  is  smull ,  although 
the  coasting  trade  is  extensive,  the  reception  of 
coal  for  distribution  and  the  shipment  of  ice  be 
ing  the  leading  interest.  Quite  a  number  of 
manufactories,  principally  cotton  goods,  boots, 
and  cordage,  are  located  here.  Pop.  26,000. 

Sale  of  Effects.  When  a  sailor  dies  or  deserts, 
his  effects  are  sold  by  auction  to  the  highest  bid 
der. 

Salerno,  a  city  and  seaport  of  Italy,  capital 
of  the  province  of  Salerno,  is  situated  at  the 
northern  extremity  of  the  gulf  of  the  same  name, 
inlat.  40°  40'  N.,  Ion.  14°  46'  E.  The  port  is 
well  sheltered,  but  is  very  shallow.  Pop.  28,000. 

Salinas,  or  Salines.  Natural  or  artificial 
ponds  for  salt- making  purposes. 

Salinometer.  A  salt-gauge,  used  to  ascertain 
the  density  of  sea-water  in  the  boilers,  acting  by 
specific  gravity.  A  receptacle  for  holding  it  and 
the  hot  water  is  called  the  salinometer-pot,  and 
is  sometimes  affixed  to  the  boiler- front. 

Sally.  To  make  a  sudden  rush  in  a  body 
from  one  part  of  the  ship  to  another.  It  becomes 
useful  when  a  ship  is  aground  forward  or  aft. 
A  sally  would  also  be  made  to  clear  a  certain 
part  of  the  deck  of  boarders  lodged  there. 

SALLY-PORT.  A  large  port  on  either  quarter 
of  a  fire-ship,  serving  as  a  means  of  escape  to  the 
crew  after  the  train  is  fired.  The  entering  or 
gangway  port  of  a  three-decker,  or  of  a  large 
modern  ironclad. 

Salmagundi.  A  sea-dish,  made  of  slices  of 
dried  fish  mixed  with  onions. 

Salmon.  A  fish  of  a  yellowish-red  color,  of 
the  genus  Salmo ;  it  is  found  in  all  the  northern 
climates  of  America,  Europe,  and  Asia.  It  as 
cends  the  river  for  spawning  in  spring,  and 
penetrates  to  their  head-streams.  It  is  a  remark- 
'ably  strong  fish,  and  will  even  leap  over  con 
siderable  falls  which  lie  in  the  way  of  its  progress. 
It  has  been  known  to  grow  to  the  weight  of  75 
pounds ;  more  frequently  it  is  from  15  to  25 
pounds.  It  furnishes  a  delicious  dish  for  the 
table,  and  is  an  article  of  commerce. 

SALMONET.    A  salmon  of  small  size  ;  a  samlet. 

SALMON-LADDER.  A  short  trough  placed  in 
a  water-fall,  with  passages  cut  for  fish  to  pass 
through. 

SALMONOID.  Belonging  to  the  family  of  which 
the  salmon  is  the  type. 

SALMON-PEEL.     A  young  salmon. 

SALMON-TROUT.  A  small  species  of  Salmo,  re 
sembling  the  common  salmon  in  color ;  called 
also  the  sea-trout. 

Salonica,  in  Roumelia,  European  Turkey,  is 
the  capital  of  a  sanjak,  at  the  northeast  extremity 
of  the  Gulf  of  Salonica.  Lat.  40°  38'  8"  N.  ; 
Ion.  22°  67'  22"  E.  The  bazaars  are  extensive 
and  well  supplied,  and  the  city  has  some  flour 
ishing  silk-drawing  factories.  It  is  the  seat  of 
extensive  trade.  The  exports  consist  of  wheat, 
barley,  maize,  timber,  sponges,  wine,  raw  silk, 
etc.  Pop.  80,000. 

Saloon.  The  main  cabin  of  a  steamer  or  pas 
senger  ship.  Passengers  there  berthed  are  called 
saloon-passengers. 

SALOON-DECK.  The  deck  on  which  the  saloon 
of  a  steamer  is  situated. 

Salt.  A  salt,  or  an  old  salt,  is  an  old  sailor 
whose  life  has  been  spent  at  sea. 

Salt-box  (Eng.].  A  case  in  which  a  temporary 
supply  of  cartridges  for  great  guns  is  kept  on  deck. 


Salt-eel.     A  rope's  end  for  delinquents. 

Salt-horse,  or  Salt-junk.  Navy  salt-beef;  a 
part  of  the  ration. 

Salt-marsh.  A  marsh  subject  to  the  overflow 
of  salt  water. 

Salt-water  Jack.  A  sailor  who  navigates  the 
ocean,  ^contradistinction  to  &  fresh-water  Jack. 

Salute.  To  honor  a  superior  by  raising  the 
cap,  presenting  arms,  dipping  colors,  manning 
the  yards,  or  firing  a  certain  number  of  guns. 
In  the  navy,  all  persons  salute  superiors  by 
raising  the  cap.  All  sentries  salute  officers  below 
the  rank  of  lieutenant-commander  by  raising  the 
hand  to  the  rifle  at  a  carry  ;  all  of  and  above  that 
grade,  by  presenting  arms.  The  ensign  is  dipped 
in  compliment  to  foreign  men-of-war  or  forts,  in 
reply  to  a  similar  salute.  Boats  salute  according 
to  the  rank  of  those  meeting  in  them,  by  lying 
on  their  oars,  tossing,  or  trailing  them,  or  by 
letting  fly  the  sheets  under  sail,  or  merely  by 
raising  the  cap,  sitting  or  standing  according  to 
circumstances. 

Officers  on  leaving  or  entering  a  ship  are  at 
tended  by  a  boatswain  or  his  mate,  and  from  2 
to  8  boys  holding  the  entering  ropes  or  standing 
inside  the  gangway.  An  admiral,  commodore, 
or  captain  is  received  with  a  guard  of  marines, 
and  drums  are  rolled  in  his  honor  under  certain 
circumstances.  All  persons  salute  the  quarter 
deck  on  approaching  it,  by  raising  the  cap. 

Guns  are  fired  when  officers  of  and  above  the 
grade  of  commodore  visit  a  ship,  on  occasions  of 
ceremony,  on  national  or  other  holidays,  to  for 
eign  ships  or  ports,  or  on  the  visit  of  high  civil 
or  diplomatic  functionaries.  No  more  than  21 
guns  are  ever  fired,  and  they  vary  from  that 
number  to  5,  always  being  of  an  odd  number. 
This  latter  custom  is  very  ancient,  an  even  num 
ber  being  considered  unlucky.  Salutes  are  an 
swered  gun  for  gun,  or  according  to  the  rank  of 
the  officer  saluting ;  and  the  flag  of  the  rank  or 
of  the  nation  saluted  is  hoisted  when  the  salute  is 
fired,  and  in  case  of  personal  salutes,  the  jib  is 
hoisted  with  the  first  gun,  and  hauled  down  with 
the  last.  Ships  carrying  less  than  14  guns  do  not 
salute. 

Salutes.  The  theory  of  firing  a  salute  is  that 
it  leaves  the  guns  harmless  and  at  the  mercy  of 
the  other  party,  and  this  is  so  true  that  firing 
salutes  with  blank  cartridge  is  a  modern  inven 
tion,  occasioned,  however,  by  the  fact  that  a 
complimentary  cannon-ball  once  proved  fatal  to 
the  personage  whom  it  was  meant  to  honor. 
"When  an  officer  salutes  he  points  his  drawn 
sword  to  the  ground,  and  the  salute  of  troops  is 
still  designated  "presenting  arms,"— that  is,  pre 
senting  them  to  be  taken. 

In  early  times  the  salutes  were  an  exchange  of 
a  few  guns,  as  is  the  practice  in  China  to-day, 
where  the  usual  salute  is  the  sensible  one  of 
3  guns  only.  Edward  Skippen,  a  traveler  of 
the  17th  century,  writing  in  1664,  says,  "One 
afternoon  while  we  were  at  Messina,  came 
into  port  two  Malta  gallies  hung  full  of  colors, 
flags,  banners,  etc.,  upon  the  masts,  sails,  etc., 
which  made  a  very  fair  show,  which  gallies  re 
ceived  pratique  and  then  they  gave  4  guns, 
answered  by  Castle  Salvador  with  3.  Then 
gave  the  viceroy  4,  who  answered  also  with 
3.  At  last  the  gallies  of  Sicily  were  saluted 
with  4,  who  returned  their  welcome  with  3 
shot." 


SALUTES 


T16 


SALUTES 


•  Sir  William  Monson.  in  his  "  Naval  Tracts," 
written  some  time  prior  to  1600,  and  the  ear 
liest  writer  on  the  subject  of  naval  salutes,  says 
at  the  beginning,  "  I  am  sorry  I  have  occa 
sion  to  complain  of  the  lavish  and  wasteful 
expense  of  powder  in  saluting  ships  under  a 
friendly  pretence  of  meeting  at  sea,  m«re  prac 
tised  of  late  by  our  nation  than  any  other."  "A 
castle  and  the  Governor  of  it  is  in  the  nature  of 
a  Gentleman  that  will  entertain  his  Friend  at  his 
house  and  give  him  a  hearty  welcome,  and  be 
cause  the  castle  cannot  perform  it  in  words,  he 
makes  his  ordnance  speak  it  for  him  with  such  a 
number  of  pieces  as  he  thinks  fit;  after  which 
proportion  an  Admiral  is  to  answer  by  way  of 
thanks,  but  to  exceed  the  number  of  the  castle's 
salutation,  because  an  Admiral's  ship  commonly 
carries  three  times  more  pieces  than  the  castle 
has.  This  is  to  be  referred  to  the  will  of  the 
commander  on  either  side.  If  an  Admiral  be 
accompanied  by  hisVice- Admiral,  Bear-  Admiral, 
and  the  rest  of  his  Fleet,  there  needs  no  other 
salutation  from  the  castle,  for  the  Lord- Admiral's 
welcome  includes  all  the  rest  of  his  friends  and 
fleet ;  but  notwithstanding  a  Vice- Admiral  must 
salute  a  castle  with  two  pieces  less  than  an  Admi 
ral,  and  the  Rear- Admiral  with  two  less  than  he, 
and  this  is  as  much  to  honor  the  Admiral  as  the 
castle ;  but  it  must  be  considered  that  these  three 
only  that  carry  the  flags  of  command  and  rule 
over  the  squadrons,  and  no  other  ship  is  to  shoot, 
unless  by  directions  of  the  Admiral,  for  their 
shooting  will  be  taken  as  too  great  a  familiarity 
with  him. 

11  When  an  Admiral  shall  depart  from  under  the 
command  of  a  castle,  in  sign  of  his  loving  accept 
ance  for  his  entertainment  both  he  and  his  two 
other  flags  are  to  give  the  same  salutation  that 
the  castle  gave  him  at  his  entrance,  and  with  the 
same  number  of  form  as  aforesaid. 

"  If  a  fleet  pass  within  sight  of  a  castle,  and  not 
within  command  of  his  ordnance  to  reach  him, 
the  castle  is  not  bound  to  salute,  only  to  afford  a 
welcome  and  a  visit  by  a  gentleman  of  quality. 
If  a  Governor  fail  to  perform  any  compliment 
that  is  meet,  he  must  amend  it  upon  the  Admiral's 
landing,  making  his  ordnance  roar  aloud  his  wel 
come  ;  but  the  ship  is  not  to  answer,  because  it  is 
done  to  the  person  of  the  Admiral,  who  is  bound 
to  requite  the  same  upon  the  Governor's  visiting 
him  on  board  his  ship,  and  his  departure  from 
thence." 

It  is  curious  to  see  how  these  regulations  re 
garding  salutes  have  been  continued  for  near 
300  years.  Monson  continues  : 

"  The  saluting  of  ships  by  one  another  at  sea  is 
both  ancient  and  decent,  though  in  this  latter 
time  much  abused  ;  for  whereas  3,  5,  or  7  pieces 
may  have  been  the  ordinary  use  for  an  Admiral, 
and  never  to  exceed  thatt  proportion,  and  an 
Admiral  not  to  answer  with  above  one  or  three, 
now  they  strive  to  exceed  that  number,  thinking 
that  many  pieces  add  honor  to  the  salutation ; 
but  the  owners  of  merchant  ships  would  be  glad 
den  it  might  be  done  with  less  cost  and  more 
courtesy  in  another  kind.  But  tho'  the  Ad 
miral  cannot  restrain  this  compliment  in  the 
ship  that  salutes,  yet  he  may  command  his  gun 
ner  not  to  return  above  one  or  three  pieces, 
according  to  the  old  manner. 

"And  for  such  ships  as  are  of  his  own  fleet  he 
may  prohibit  the  saluting  of  one  another,  but 


upon  the  occasions  following,  viz.,  in  bringing 
good  and  fortunate  news  against  an  enemy  after 
an  escape  of  a  desperate  danger,  and  then  not  to 
an  exceed  three  or  five,  and  to  be  answered  at 
the  discretion  of  the  Admiral. 

"The  excessive  banqueting  on  board  is  a  great 
consuming  of  powder,  for  as  men's  brains  are 
heated  with  wine,  so  they  heat  their  ordnance 
with  ostentation  and  professed  kindness  at  that 
instant,  and  many  times  not  without  danger  ; 
and  therefore,  to  take  away  the  cause,  a  captain 
should  have  directions  from  under  the  hand  of  a 
General  to  forbid  shooting,  which  would  be  a 
good  excuse  and  give  his  guests  satisfaction,  un 
less,  it  be  done  in  the  manner  following  as  I  have 
devised. 

"  The  vain  drinking  of  Healths  is  another  means 
to  waste  powder,  which  a  General  must  likewise 
forbid,  except  it  be  the  health  of  a  free  Prince,  or 
men  of  that  rank  and  condition,  and  then  not  to 
exceed  one  piece  when  the  health  shall  be  begun. 
The  King's,  the  Queen's,  or  their  issues,  is  ex 
empted  from  this  strictness. 

"  Upon  some  occasion  an  Admiral  may  com 
mand  his  whole  fleet  to  fire  their  guns,  as  namely, 
when  a  foreign  Prince,  Governors  of  countries, 
Ambassadors  of  great  Potentates,  and  men  of 
Great  Blood  and  Quality,  shall,  be  either  trans 
ported,  or  make  a  visit  on  board  the  Admiral  to 
behold  the  stateliness  of  his  fleet,  it  were  neces 
sary  they  were  as  well  resolved  of  their  force, 
as  the  report  they  would  make  of  their  wel 
come  ;  and  in  that  case  every  ship  of  the  Fleet 
is  to  shoot  their  whole  number  of  pieces  distinctly 
and  orderly  (as  thus) :  An  Admiral  and  his 
squadron  first  to  begin  ;  the  Vice- Admiral  to  fol 
low  his  example,  and  so  the  Rear-Admiral  to  do 
the  like,  but  with  this  caution,  that  no  small 
ship  or  pinnace  do  mingle  themselves  with  great 
ships,  but  to  second  one  another  according  to 
their  Ranks  and  greatness. 

"To  come  now  to  my  proposition  how  things 
should  be  carried,  it  is  thus  :  That  upon  drinking 
of  healths,  or  leaves  taken  on  board  ships,  in 
stead  of  the  excessive  charge  of  burning  powder 
out  of  great  ordnance,  it  may  be  done  with  mus 
kets  ;  for  a  man's  welcome  consists  not  so  much 
in  the  difference  betwixt  a  cannon  and  a  lesser 
piece,  but  in  the  loving  heart  of  him  who  in 
vites  ;  both  the  one  and  the  other  are  consumed 
in  the  twinkling  of  an  eye,  and  the  report  of  a 
Faulconet,  when  there  is  no  greater  piece,  is  all 
one  to  the  hearer  as  if  it  were  a  cannon  or  faulcon. 

"Therefore,  to  accommodate  this  difference, 
and  to  bring  it  to  a  certain  custom  in  the  King's 
ships  hereafter,  I  wish  that  instead  of  the  charge 
able  waste  of  powder  that  is  now  in  use,  by 
shooting  out  of  great  ordnance,  to  have  a  num 
ber  of  musketery  placed,  and  decently  armed 
and  apparelled  soldier-like,  upon  the  upper  deck, 
that  when  there  shall  be  occasion  to  drink  healths, 
or  to  take  their  leave  at  departure,  they  fire  their 
muskets  at  a  mark,  made  like  the  shape  of  a 
man,  put  into  a  barrel,  off  at  sea  within  point- 
blank,  where  the  soldiers  shall  take  their  aim 
duly.  This  will  be  an  act  of  more  pleasure  and 
delight  to  the  beholders  than  the  other,  where 
nothing  is  expected  but  the  falling  of  a  bullet  hav 
ing  no  object  to  shoot  at;  the  eye,  the  ear,  and 
sense,  are  all  in  action  and  employed  together,  and 
many  other  benefits  arise  by  it ;  for  the  soldier 
will  by  this  practise  be  made  a  perfect  shotsman 


SALVAGE 


SANDS 


against  he  shall  encounter  the  enemy,  and  with  so 
small  a  cost  and  charge  that  a  cartridge  of  a  can 
non  will  entertain  persons  of  good  rank,  and  give 
them  as  great  satisfaction  with  these  few  muskets 
as  the  number  of  cannon  will  do ;  for  the  ear  is 
only  pleased  with  the  report  a  cannon  makes, 
which  lasts  no  longer  than  a  flash  of  powder ;  no 
Gunner  is  made  more  perfect  in  his -art,  for  he 
shoots  at  random  in  the  air  without  level." 

Not  a  bad  idea  this  of  the  ancient  marine,  to 
combine  usefulness  with  the  observance  of  eti 
quette,  which  may  not  be  amiss  for  modern 
sailors  to  profit  by. 

In  1688,  Sir  Cloudesley  Shovel,  writing  from 
on  board  the  "James  Galley"  to  Sir  Martin 
Wescomb,  says,  "  I  shall  ever  be  carefull  in 
keeping  especially  my  Royal  orders,  which  posi 
tively  command  me  to  salute  neither  garrison 
nor  flagge  of  any  forrainer,  except  I  am  certaine 
to  receave  gunne  for  gunne." 

Salvage.  An  allowance  made  for  goods  saved 
at  sea.  The  party  saving  such  goods  has  a  lien 
on  them,  and  a  reasonable  satisfaction  is  made  for 
such  services.  Salvage  is  a  comparatively  recent 
institution,  unknown  to  the  ancients,  and  first 
established  by  the  laws  of  Wisby,  Oleron,  etc., 
in  the  13th  century.  Salvage  is  not  allowed  to 
a  government  vessel.  The  rate  of  salvage  varies 
with  the  danger  incurred,  the  labor  and  peril  of 
saving  the  goods,  etc.  From  one-tenth  to  one- 
half  the  value  of  the  property  has  been  allowed. 
The  crew  of  a  ship  and  the  passengers  are  entitled 
to  no  salvage  for  saving  her.  Salvage  is  usually 
provided  for  by  insurance,  and  the  salvage  is  paid 
by  the  company,  except  in  case  of  high  charges. 

SALVAGE  Loss.  The  amount  that  the  under 
writers  pay  on  property  lost  at  sea. 

SALVAGER.  A  wrecker  who  receives  salvage 
for  goods  reclaimed  from  wrecks. 

SALVOR.  The  claimant  for  salvage-money  for 
goods  saved  from  wreck. 

Salvo.  A  simultaneous  discharge  of  several 
pieces. 

Samakeen.     A  Turkish  coasting-trader. 

Samarang,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Samarang 
River,  on  the  north  coast  of  Java,  in  lat.  6°  57A 
S.,  Ion.  110°  27'  E.,  is  a  well-built  city  of 
60,000  population.  It  has  a  large  church,  mili 
tary  school,  hospital,  and  an  extensive  trade. 
Its  harbor  is  not  good,  and  the  town  is  unhealthy, 
and  owes  its  importance  to  the  adjacent  country, 
which  yields  large  quantities  of  coffee,  pepper, 
rice,  and  tobacco.  It  is  the  residence  of  the 
Dutch  governor,  and  the  seat  of  one  of  three 
principal  law  courts  of  Java. 

Sambucco.  An  Arab  pinnace,  used  on  the 
east  coast  of  Africa. 

Sampan.  A  Chinese  boat,  12  to  15  feet  long, 
with  a  house  on  it,  used  in  the  interior  waters  of 
China.  All  small  boats  are  now  called  sampans 
by  foreigners. 

Samphire.  A  sea  plant,  antiscorbutic,  the 
Crithmiim  maritimum. 

Samshoo.  A  spirituous  liquor,  distilled  in 
China  from  the  yeasty  fluid  in  which  boiled  rice 
has  fermented  under  pressure. 

Samson-post.  A  strong  post,  extending  from 
the  deck-beam  to  the  keelson  of  a  merchant  ship, 
having  steps  cut  in  it,  by  means  of  which  the 
hold  is  entered.  A  large  stanchion  placed  di 
agonally  on  each  side  and  against  the  deck- 
beam,  its  lower  end  being  tenoned  and  made  to 


ship  and  unship.  It  was  formerly  used  to  bring 
the  fish-tackle  to,  when  fishing  the  anchor;  a 
single  block  was  lashed  near  its  middle  to  form  a 
lead  for  the  tackle-fall. 

Sandal.  A  long,  narrow  boat  of  15  to  50  tons, 
open,  and  fitted  with  two  masts,  used  on  the  Bar- 
bary  coast. 

Sand-eel.  A  small  eel-like  fish  (Ammodytes 
tobianus  and  A.  lancea).  It  buries  itself  in  the 
moist  sand  after  the  retiring  of  the  tide,  and  is 
often  dug  out  for  bait  and  for  food.  A.  lancea  is 
the  more  common,  and  is  known  as  the  launce,  or 
sand-launce. 

Sand-flea,  or  Sand-hopper.  A  small  amphi- 
pod  crustacean,  found  on  sandy  shores,  jumping 
like  a  flea. 

San  Diego,  a  port  of  entry  in  San  Diego 
County,  Cal.,  on  a  beautiful  bay  of  the  Pacific 
Ocean^  15  miles  from  the  Mexican  frontier,  in 
lat.  32°  41'  N.,  has  a  good  harbor  formed  by  San 
Diego  Bay.  There  is  a  depth  of  22  feet  of  water 
on  the  bar  at  low-tide.  Hides,  whale  oil,  and 
wool  are  the  principal  articles  of  export,  and  it 
has  quite  a  considerable  trade.  This  city  will 
probably  be  the  terminus  of  the  Southern  Pacific 
Railroad. 

Sand-launce.  An  eel-like  fish,  the  Ammo 
dytes  tobianus,  which  buries  itself  in  the  sand. 

Sand-piper.  A  wading-bird  of  the  Totanus 
and  Tringa  genera. 

Sand-pride.  A  very  small  species  of  lamprey, 
rarely  exceeding  3  inches  in  length,  found  in  the 
rivers  of  England  and  Scotland ;  called  also 
sand-prey. 

Sands,  Benjamin  F.,  Rear-Admiral  U.S.N. 
Born  in  Maryland.  Appointed  midshipman 
from  Kentucky,  April  1,  1828;  attached  to  sloop 
"  Vandalia,"  Brazil  Squadron,  1830-32;  in  sloop 
"  St.  Louis,"  West  India  Squadron,  1833-34. 

Warranted  as  passed  midshipman,  June  14, 
1834  ;  on  the  coast  survey,  1836-41. 

Commissioned  as  lieutenant,  March  16,  1840  ; 
in  the  frigate  "  Columbus,"  Mediterranean 
Squadron,  1842-44 ;  on  special  duty  in  1845  ;  at 
Naval  Observatory,  1846 ;  Home  Squadron, 
1847  ;  passage  up  Tabasco  River,  and  at  Tabasco, 
June  15,  1847  ;  in  sloop  u  Yorktown,"  and  com 
manding  brig  "  Porpoise,"  coast  of  Africa, 
1848-50 ;  on  coast  survey,  1851-55. 

Commissioned  as  commander,  September  14, 
1855  ;  continued  on  coast  survey,  1855-58  ;  in 
Bureau  of  Construction,  1859-60*;  commanding 
coast  survey  steamer  "Active,"  1861-62. 

Commissioned  as  captain,  July  16,  1862  ;  com 
manding  steam-sloop  "  Dacotah,"  North  Atlan 
tic  Blockading  Squadron,  in  1863  ;  in  engage 
ment  at  Fort  Caswell,  February  23,  1863  ;  com 
manding  steamer  "  Fort  Jackson,"  North  Atlan 
tic  Blockading  Squadron,  1864-65, — present  at 
both  attacks  upon  Fort  Fisher ;  on  blockade  of 
Wilmington,  most  of  the  time,  senior  officer 
commanding  that  division,  from  November, 
1862,  to  February,  1865 ;  commanding  division 
on  blockade  of  coast  of  Texas,  from  February  to 
June,  1865.  The  surrender  of  the  rebel  trans- 
'Mississippi  forces  to  Gen.  Canby,  U.S.A.,  was 
signed  by  Gen.  E.  Kirby  Smith  and  Major- 
Gen.  J.  Bankhead  Magruder,  June  2,  1865,  and 
formal  possession  taken  of  Galveston  by  Capt. 
Sands,  commanding  division  off  coast  of  Texas, 
by  hoisting  our  flag  over  the  last  foothold  of 
rebellion. 


SAND-SHOT 


718 


SAN  FRANCISCO 


Commissioned  as  commodore,  July  25,  1866  ; 
at  navy-yard,  Boston,  1865-66  ;  superintendent 
Naval  Observatory,  Washington,  1867-73. 

Commissioned  as  rear-admiral,  April  27,  1871. 
Eetired  February  11,  1874. 

Sand-shot.  Shot  of  coarser  kind,  cast  in  sand- 
molds. 

Sands,  Joshua  R.,  Rear-Admiral  U.S.N. 
Entered  the  navy  as  acting  midshipman,  Sep 
tember,  1812,  and  was  at  once  employed  under 
Commodore  Chauncey  on  Lake  Ontario.  On  the 
5th  of  November  was  put  under  fire  of  the  enemy 
in  an  attack  of  the  "  Royal  George,"  which  ship 
was  compelled  to  retire  from  the  fire  of  the 
American  squadron  to  Kingston,  where,  pro 
tected  from  the  batteries  on  shore,  no  further 
efforts  were  made  to  capture  her.  April,  1813, 
he  joined  sloop-of-war  "  Madison,"  and  was 
present  at  the  capture  of  Little  York  (now 
Toronto)  ;  carried  orders  during  the  greater  part 
of  the  attack,  from  the  commodore  to  the  differ 
ent  vessels  of  the  squadron,  while  engaged  with 
the  forts  and  batteries,  until  the  enemy  surren 
dered.  May,  same  year,  was  engaged  with  the 
enemy  at  the  capture  of  Fort  George,  Upper 
Canada ;  then  served  on  board  the  sloop-of-war 
"Pike"  ;  engaged  several  times  the  British  squad 
ron  under  Sir  James  Yeo ;  26  men  killed  on 
board  the  "Pike"  in  one  of  them;  served  on 
shore  in  a  battery  on  opening  campaign,  1814; 
was  ordered  to  join  frigate  "Superior,"  and  served 
on  board  until  peace  was  proclaimed  in  1815; 
then  ordered  to  the  "Washington,"  74  guns, 
bound  to  Mediterranean  ;  served  in  her  until 
1818,  when  promoted  to  a  lieutenant ;  in  1819, 
was  ordered  to  sloop-of-war  "Hornet,"  coast  of 
Africa  and  West  Indies  ;  in  1821,  ordered  to  the 
"Franklin,"  74  guns,  Commodore  Stewart,  em 
ployed  on  the  Pacific  until  1824 ;  1828,  ordered 
to  sloop-of-war  "  Vandalia,"  serving  on  the  coast 
of  Brazil ;  1830,  returned  to  the  United  States, 
and  was  variously  employed  on  shore-duty,  re 
cruiting,  etc. 

1840,  promoted  to  the  rank  of  commander ; 
1841,  attached  to  the  New  York  Navy- Yard 
until  1843,  then  ordered  to  command  the"  "  Fal- 
mouth,"  and  served  in  her  in  the  years  1843-45, 
in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  and  West  Indies ;  1846, 
was  ordered  to  command  the  steamer  "  Vixen" ; 
served  in  her  in  the  capture  of  Alvarado,  Ta 
basco,  and  Lagona,  of  which  was  made  governor, 
and  remained  until  withdrawn  to  take  part  in  the 
attack  of  Vera  Cruz ;  engaged  with  the  castles 
from  Point  Horwas  until  ammunition  was  ex 
pended  ;  having  been  supplied  by  the  commodore, 
put  out  in  front  of  enemy's  batteries  and  castles 
in  company  with  steamer  "Spitfire"  and  4  gun 
boats,  and  remained  under  fire  of  the  castle  until 
ordered  to  retire  by  Commodore  Perry;  com 
manded  the  steamer  "Vixen"  at  the  capture  of 
Tampico  and  Tuspan  •  1847,  was  intrusted  with 
the  flags,  trophies,  and  brass  cannon  taken  from 
the  castles,  and  sent  home  with  dispatches  with 
complimentary  letter  to  the  Department;  re 
turned  to  the  United  States  in  the  sloop-of-war 
"St.  Mary's,"  in  1848;  1848,  was  ordered  to 
command  the  "  North  Carolina,"  and  remained 
in  her  two  years  ;  1851,  ordered  to  command  the 
frigate  "  St.  Lawrence,"  sailed  in  her  to  World's 
Fair  in  England,  subsequently  visited  Portugal, 
and  returned  to  the  United  States  same  year  •  in 
1853  was  ordered  to  command  the  "Allegheny" 


for  Japan, — she  proved  to  be  a  failure,  and  was 
never  after  employed  ;  1856,  ordered  to  command 
frigate  "  Susquehanna,"  visited  Central  America, 
Mediterranean,  and  England;  was  engaged  in 
her  laying  the  cable  in  1857  ;  rejoined  the  Med 
iterranean  Squadron,  and  was  again  ordered  to 
Central  America,  where  having  laid  for  some 
months  in  the  Nicaraguan  River,  captured  part 
of  the  filibusters  and  their  steamer,  which  was 
left  by  Commodore  Paulding,  to  whom  they  were 
sent,  and  then  forwarded  to  New  Orleans  ;  while 
in  the  river,  was  visited  with  the  yellow  fever, 
and  was  compelled,  for  the  want  of  medicines, 
to  sail  for  Port  Royal,  Jamaica,  where,  after 
arrival,  landed  83  patients,  and  after  taking  in 
coal,  some  30  more  were  landed  and  left  in  the 
hospital  ;  the  ship  now  being  entirely  demoral 
ized  as  a  man-of-war,  it  was  determined  to  re 
turn  to  the  United  States,  and  landed  at  New 
York  in  1858  ;  1859,  ordered  to  command  the 
U.  S.  Squadron  (flag-ship  "  Congress")  on  the 
coast  of  Brazil,  and  remained  until  the  breaking 
out  of  the  Rebellion  in  the  United  States  in 
1861.  Retired  December  21,  1861. 

1862,  was  commissioned  a  commodore,  and 
was  engaged  until  1866  on  light-house  duty  on 
the  Lakes  Erie  and  Ontario,  and  St.  Lawrence 
River,  in  which  year  was  commissioned  a  rear- 
admiral  ;  1869,  was  appointed  port-admiral,  at 
Norfolk,  Va.,  where  he  was  stationed  until  1872. 

Sand-smelt.  A  small  fish  of  the  mullet 
family,  and  of  the  genus  Atherina  (A. presbyter). 

Sand-star.  A  star-fish  of  the  Ophiura  genus, 
with  long,  slender  arms. 

Sand-strake.     The  garboard  strake. 

Sandusky  is  a  port  of  entry  and  the  capital 
of  Erie  County,  O.,  and  is  pleasantly  situated  on 
the  south  shore  of  Sandusky  Bay,  in  lat.  41° 
27'  N.,  and  Ion.  82°  45'  W.  In  all  seasons  of 
the  year  except  winter  the  wharves  are  thronged 
with  steamboats  and  other  vessels  loading  and 
unloading  their  cargoes.  The  harbor  is  a.  very 
fine  one,  and  the  city  has  an  extensive  trade. 
Its  chief  articles  of  export  are  cured  fish,  wool, 
wheat,  flour,  grapes,  apples,  and  wine.  Pop. 
14,000. 

Sand-warpt.  Left  on  a  sand-bank  by  the 
ebbing  tide. 

Sandwich,  one  of  the  Cinque  Ports  of  England, 
County  of  Kent,  on  the  south  bank  of  the  Stour, 
2  miles  from  its  mouth,  in  the  Pegwell  Bay. 
The  town  was  formerly  the  seaport  of  London, 
but  at  present  it  has  little  trade,  the  chief  ex 
ports  being  agricultural  produce,  wool,  malt, 
bark,  etc.,  and  the  principal  import  coal.  Pop. 
4000. 

San  Francisco,  the  commercial  metropolis  of 
California  and  most  populous  city  on  the  Pacific 
coast,  is  situated  on  the  west  shore  of  the  mag 
nificent  bay  of  the  same  name,  about  6  miles 
from  the  ocean,  in  lat.  37°  47'  35"  N.,  Ion.  122° 
24'  15"  W.  The  city  was  originally  built 
around  a  semicircular  bay,  having  Rincon  Point 
on  the  south  and  Clark's  Point  on  the  north, 
these  two  points  being  about  a  mile  apart;  all  the 
space  between  is  now  filled  up,  the  warehouses 
and  wharves  being  supported  by  piles  driven 
into  the  water.  The  whole  business  part  of  San 
Francisco  is  toward  the  city  front.  The  most 
remarkable  buildings  are  the  new  city  hall,  the 
custom-house,  the  grand  opera-house,  mer 
chants'  exchange,  the  Palace  Hotel,  Occidental 


SANGAKEE 


719 


SARTOKI 


Hotel,  Lick  House,  the  mint,  and  the  Bank  of 
California.  This  city  possesses  the  only  large, 
deep,  and  secure  harbor  on  the  Pacific  coast  be 
tween  Victoria  and  Mazatlan,  except  that  of 
San  Diego,  and  owing  to  this  and  its  facilities 
for  communication  with  the  interior,  it  enjoys  a 
monopoly  of  the  commerce  of  the  Pacific  slope. 
About  50  ocean-steamers  run  in  regular  lines 
between  this  port  and  China,  Australia,  Japan, 
Panama,  Mexico,  Puget  Sound,  and  Victoria. 
The  harbor  has  an  entrance  35  feet  deep  at  low- 
tide,  and  is  connected  with  the  ocean  by  a  strait 
called  the  Golden  Gate.  The  chief  articles  of 
export  are  the  precious  metals,  wheat,  flour, 
wine,  quicksilver,  wool,  barley,  lumber,  and 
hides.  The  total  value  of  the  yearly  exports  is 
about  $75,000,000.  The  number  of  sea-going 
vessels  that  arrive  each  year  at  this  port  is  about 
4500,  measuring  nearly  2,000,000  tons.  The 
city  has  manufactures  of  silk  goods,  cigars,  fur 
niture,  boots,  shoes,  carriages,  glass,  candles, 
iron-castings,  woolen  goods,  etc.  At  Hunter's 
Point,  4^  miles  from  the  city  hall,  is  a  dry-dock 
hewn  out  of  the  solid  rock,  and  said  to  be  one 
of  the  best  in  the  world.  The  entrance  of  the 
harbor  is  defended  by  Fort  Point,  and  there  is 
also  another  fort  on  Alcatraz  Island,  2  miles 
north  of  the  city.  Population,  according  to  the 
census  of  1880,  227,350. 

Sangaree.  A  West  India  punch,  blood-red 
in  color. 

San  Juan  de  Puerto  Rico,  the  principal  city 
and  seaport  of  the  island  of  Porto  Rico,  is  situ 
ated  off  a  small  island  on  its  north  coast,  in  lat. 
18°  29'  N.,  Ion.  66°  V  2"  W.  It  is  fortified  and 
walled,  and  is  one  of  the  most  healthful  towns  in 
the  West  Indies.  The  harbor  is  defended  by  forts 
and  very  safe.  Pop.  27,000. 

San  Miguel,  a  harbor  of  the  United  States  of 
Colombia,  is  an  inlet  in  the  Gulf  of  San  Miguel, 
having  an  entrance  6  miles  wide,  and  extending 
about  8  miles  inland,  with  soundings  in  from  8 
to  15  fathoms.  It  communicates  at  its  inner 
part  with  Darien  Harbor  through  two  passages. 
Darien  Harbor  has  a  depth  of  from  9  to  14 
fathoms  at  low-water,  is  about  16  miles  long  by 
6  miles  broad,  and  completely  sheltered.  These 
two  harbors  have  been  pointed  out  as  furnishing 
an  eligible  termination  to  a  tidal  interoceanic 
canal  between  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific. 

Santa  Cruz  de  Teneriffe  is  the  capital  of,  and 
chief  commercial  port  of,  the  Canary  Islands. 
Lat.  28°  28'  12"  N. ;  Ion.  16°  14'  48"  W.  The 
harbor  is  very  secure,  with  a  capacity  for  10  or 
12  vessels  of  war.  It  has  a  mole  of  modern 
construction,  which  reaches  far  out  into  the  sea. 
The  coast  is  commanded  by  forts  and  various 
redoubts.  Wine,  brandy,  almonds,  and  cochi 
neal  are  exported.  The  chief  industry  of  the 
place  is  building  fishing-boats  and  loading  and 
unloading  vessels.  Pop.  15,000. 

Santander,  capital  of  the  province  of  Santan- 
der,  Spain,  in  lat.  43°  28'  N.,  Ion.  3°  41'  W.,  is 
situated  on  a  headland  on  the  Bay  of  Biscay. 
It  has  a  large  and  secure  harbor,  with  good 
anchorage  and  shelter,  and  a  mole  and  docks, 
and  it  is  the  terminus  of  a  railway  to  Madrid. 
It  is  a  busy  and  thriving  place,  and  has  a  cigar- 
manufactory,  a  foundry,  brewery,  cooperages, 
fish-curing  establishments  and  tanneries,  and 
various  other  industries.  Pop.  31,000. 

Santiago  de  Cuba,  the  second  city  in  rank  and 


population  of  the  island  of  Cuba,  on  the  river 
Santiago,  6  miles  from  its  mouth,  in  lat.  19°  55' 
9"  N.',  and  Ion.  75°  50'  W.,  is  a  well-built  city, 
with  wide  streets;  but,  being  hemmed  in  by 
mountains,  it  is  unhealthy.  Its  harbor,  4  miles 
long,  is  well  sheltered,  defended  by  several  forts, 
and  deep  enough  for  large  ships.  In  commercial 
importance  it  ranks  next  to  Havana  and  Ma- 
tanssas.  Pop.  45,000. 

Saraband.  A  forecastle  dance,  imported  from 
African  Moors. 

Sardan,  or  Sardel.     A  sardine. 

Sardine.  A  Mediterranean  fish  of  the  herring 
family  (Engraulus  meletta],  about  the  size  of 
the  anchovy  ;  often  prepared  or  put  up  with  olive 
oil  as  a  delicacy.  A  nickname  for  a  worthless 
fellow. 

SAKDINI^RE.  A  small  boat,  having  two  lug- 
sails,  used  in  the  sardine-fisheries. 

Sargasso  Sea.  From  the  Spanish  sargazo, 
sea-weed.  There  are  two  spaces  of  ocean  com 
monly  known  to  navigators  as  Sargasso  Seas. 
That  in  the  North  Atlantic,  which  is  in  places  so 
densely  covered  with  sea-weed  as  to  actually  im 
pede  the  progress  of  ships,  may  be  roughly  de 
fined  as  lying  between  the  20th  and  70th  me 
ridians,  and  extending  from  3  to  5  degrees  on 
each  side  of  the  tropic. 

The  Sargasso  Sea  of  the  Pacific  extends  from 
about  140°  to  175°  W.,  and  from  the  tropic  to  40° 
N.  Similar  collections  exist  in  the  South  Pacific 
and  Southern  Indian  Oceans,  but  are  of  less 
importance  to  navigators,  consisting  principally 
of  the  giant  kelp  (Macrocystis  pirifera}. 

The  pelagic  weed  called  gulf-weed — Fucus  na- 
tans,  or  Sargassum  baccifernum — forms  the  bulk 
of  the  Atlantic  "Sargasso  Sea,"  together  with 
another  variety,  almost  as  plenty,  called  Fucus 
vesiculosus.  These  are  both  of  a  uniform  brown 
when  preserved,  but  when  fresh  their  color  is  of 
a  bright  yellow,  or  chrome,  contrasting  beauti 
fully  with  the  intensely  blue  clear  water  in  which 
they  float,  for  they  occupy  the  deepest  portion  of 
the  Atlantic.  These  weeds  all  live  attached  to 
rocks,  in  certain  places,  as  well  as  free,  but  are 
said  only  to  produce  spores  when  attached. 

The  'pelagic  varieties  multiply  by  simple 
growth  and  subdivision,  favored  by  the  placid 
seas  in  which  they  float. 

The  Sargasso  Sea  has  a  fauna  of  its  own,  being 
inhabited  by  small  fish  of  the  angler  family 
(Antennarius] ,  which  makes  of  the  weed  a  glob 
ular  nest,  as  large  as  a  Dutch  cheese,  glued  to 
gether  by  a  gelatinous  secretion  of  the  fish  itself, 
in  which  is  contained  the  spawn.  Peculiar  small 
shrimps  and  crabs,  and  a  planarian  worm,  swarm 
in  the  weed,  as  well  as  small  turtles,  membrani 
pores,  mollusks,  medusae,  and  various  marine 
insects.  Besides  these,  small  flying-fish  (Daciy- 
lopteri)  find  there  a  secure  retreat  from  their 
many  enemies.  All  these  are  colored  so  as  to 
blend  with  the  colors  of  the  weed,  even  to  being 
marked  with  white  spots,  exactly  resembling  the 
older  and  darker  pieces  of  the  weed,  which  are 
covered  with  patches  of  membrani  pores.  Thus 
from  year  to  year  and  age  to  age  a  peculiar  flora 
and  fauna  are  propagated  in  the  very  centres  of 
the  deepest  parts  of  the  ocean. — E.  Shippen. 

Sartori,  Louis  C.,  Commodore  U.S.N.  Born 
in  New  Jersey.  Appointed  from  New  Jersey, 
February  2, 1829 ;  attached  to  ship  "  Warren"  and 
schooner  "  Enterprise,"  Brazil  Station,  1831-33  ; 


SASSE 


720 


SCARBOROUGH 


frigate  "Constellation,"  Mediterranean  Squad 
ron,  1834;  frigate  "  Constellation,"  West  Indies, 
1835;  ship  "Natchez,"  West  Indies,  1836-37. 

Promoted  to  passed  midshipman,  June  14, 
1837;  navy-yard,  Philadelphia,  1838;  frigate 
"Constitution,"  Pacific  Squadron,  1839-41. 

Commissioned  as  lieutenant,  Septembers,  1841 ; 
receiving-ship  "  North  Carolina,"  New  York, 
1842;  receiving-ship,  Philadelphia,  1843;  ship 
"  Plymouth,"  Mediterranean  and  Brazil  Squad 
ron,  1845-46 ;  bomb-schooner  "  Stromboli,"  Mex 
ican  war,  1847-48 ;  at  the  capture  of  Tabasco ; 
Mediterranean  Squadron,  1849-52;  on  board 
steamer  "Alleghany,"  frigates  "Constitution" 
and  "  Independence"  ;  receiving-ship  "  Pennsyl 
vania,"  Norfolk,  1853  ;  Naval  Asylum,  Philadel 
phia,  1853-54;  ship  "John  Adams,"  Pacific 
Squadron,  1855-56 ;  commanded  expedition  and 
engagement  against  the  Fejees,  1855;  navy-yard, 
Philadelphia,  1857-58;  commanding  steamer 
"Water- Witch,"  West  Indies,  1859-60. 

Commissioned  as  commander,  April  7,  1861 ; 
commandingsteamer"Flag,"  Blockading  Squad 
ron,  1861 ;  commanding  receiving-ship  "  Ohio," 
Boston,  1862;  commanding  steamer  "Florida," 
North  Atlantic  Squadron,  1862;  commanding 
ship  "  Portsmouth,"  West  Gulf  Squadron,  1863- 
65;  commanding  steamer  "Agawam,"  North 
Atlantic  Squadron,  1866. 

Commissioned  as  captain,  September  26, 1866  ; 
commanding  steamer  "  Ossipee,"  Pacific  Squad 
ron,  1868-69;  commanding  steamers  "  Saranac" 
and  "Lackawanna,"  1870;  commanding  naval 
rendezvous,  San  Francisco,  1871-72. 

Commissioned  as  commodore,  December  12, 
1873.  Retired  June,  1874. 

Sasse  (Eng.),  A  fish-weir  with  a  movable 
gate.  A  sluice  or  lock  in  a  navigable  river. 

Satellite.  A  secondary  planet.  It  is  of  the 
same  nature  as  the  primary  planets  about  which 
they  revolve.  Nearly  all  the  planets  have  one 
or  more  satellites ;  they  are  generally  called 
moons,  but  this  name  is  properly  applied  to  the 
earth's  satellite  only.  See  MOON,  PLANET. 

Saturn.  The  planet  next  beyond  the  orbit  of 
Jupiter ;  it  shines  with  a  steady,  silvery  light, 
like  a  star  of  the  first  magnitude,  but  does  not 
twinkle.  In  the  telescope  its  system  of  rings 
and  satellites  forms  a  magnificent  display.  There 
are  at  least  two  rings  and  eight  satellites,  the 
distance  of  the  satellites  from  the  primary  vary 
ing  from  120  thousand  to  2300  thousand  miles. 
Mean  distance  from  sun,  905  millions  of  miles  ; 
length  of  solar  day,  10h  29m ;  diameter,  77,000 
miles;  apparent  diameter,  18";  symbol  ^,  rep 
resenting  a  rude  scythe. 

Saucer  of  the  Capstan.  An  iron  saucer- 
shaped  socket  let  into  the  step  of  the  capstan,  in 
which  the  spindle  plays. 

Saucer-headed  Bolts.  Bolts  with  very  flat 
heads. 

Saucisson.  A  powder-hose,  of  tarred  canvas 
or  of  leather,  formerly  used  to  fire  the  magazine 
of  a  fire-ship. 

Saugue.    A  small  Mediterranean  fishing-boat. 

Saury.  A  fish  of  the  genus  Scomberesox  (S. 
aaurus),  belonging  to  the  pike  family. 

Sauve-tete.     A  splinter  netting. 

Savannah,  Chatham  County,  Ga.,  is  thelargest 
and  most  important  commercial  city  of  the  State. 
It  is  situated  upon  the  right  bank  of  the  Savan 
nah  River,  18  miles  from  its  mouth,  in  lat.  32° 


5'  N.,  Ion.  81°  8'  W.  The  principal  buildings 
are  the  custom-house,  court-house,  city  exchange, 
cotton  exchange,  masonic  temple,  and  Armory 
Hall.  The  harbor  is  one  of  the  best  on  the 
Southern  coast,  and  the  river  is  navigable  for 
steamers  to  Augusta.  There  is  on  the  bar  a 
depth  of  water  of  22  feet,  and  vessels  drawing  19 
feet  can  come  to  the  wharves.  Steamers  run 
regularly  to  New  York,  Boston,  Philadelphia, 
Baltimore,  and  other  ports.  The  chief  articles 
of  export  are  cotton,  rice,  lumber,  and  naval 
stores.  As  a  cotton  port  it  ranks  second  in  the 
United  States.  Pop.  36,000. 

Save-all.  A  small  sail  formerly  set  beneath 
other  sails  to  catch  the  wind  passing  under  them. 

Saw-bill.     The  goosander,  Mergus  merganser. 

Saw-bones.     A  jocular  title  for  the  surgeon. 

Saw-fish.  A  cartilaginous  fish  of  the  genus 
Pristis,  closely  allied  to  the  sharks.  It  has  the 
upper  jaw  prolonged  into  a  long  beak  or  snout, 
with  teeth  arranged  along  both  edges.  It  some 
times  attains  the  length  of  from  12  to  15  feet,  and 
is  one  of  the  most  formidable  enemies  of  the 
whale  tribe. 

Sayth.     A  coal-fish  three  years  old. 

Scabbard.  A  leather  or  metal  case  for  a 
sword  or  bayonet. 

Scald-fish.  A  fish,  the  Rhombus  arnoglossa, 
allied  to  the  turbot. 

Scaldings  !  A  cry,  used  by  sailors  to  clear 
the  way  about  decks,  intimating  that  there  is 
danger  from  hot  water. 

Scale.  A  graduated  bar,  rod,  or  plate,  for 
measuring  or  indicating  short  distances ;  as,  a 
drawing  scale,  the  scale  of  a  thermometer,  etc.  A 
stony  deposit,  composed  principally  of  salts  of 
lime,  formed  on  the  interior  surfaces  of  steam- 
boilers,  in  which  sea- water,  or  water  holding  min 
eral  salts  in  solution  or  suspension,  is  used. 

SCALING-TOOLS.  Tools  for  removing  scale 
from  the  interior  of  steam-boilers.  The  princi 
pal  ones  are  small  hammers,  chisel-shaped  at 
both  ends,  called  scaling-hammers ;  chisel-bars, 
which  are  bars  of  iron  of  assorted  lengths  having 
steel  chisels  wrought  upon  their  ends  ;  tube-bor 
ers  ;  scrapers ;  and  rakes  or  hoes  for  removing 
loosened  scale.  In  addition  to  these,  there  are 
many  devices  adapted  to  special  purposes. 

Scampavia.  A  Neapolitan  galley,  or  war- 
boat,  pulling  from  20  to  40  oars,  with  2  lateen- 
sails  and  a  jib,  setting  on  a  spit  that  veered 
abeam  when  the  6-pounder  brass  gun  was  fired 
ahead. 

Scandalize.  To  lower  a  sail  and  haul  out  the 
reef-tackles  without  slacking  the  sheets  or  tying 
reef-points.  Usually  done  to  the  mizzen-top- 
sail  when  before  the  wind. 

Scant.  Applied  to  a  wind  that  heads  a  ship 
off  so  that  she  can  hardly  lie  her  course,  with 
yards  braced  up  sharp.  Scant  timber  is  that 
which  is  barely  convertible  to  the  purpose  de 
signed. 

Scantling.  The  dimensions  of  a  piece  of  tim 
ber,  with  regard  to  its  breadth  and  thickness. 

Scar.  A  steep  cliff.  Rocks  bare  at  low- water. 
Gravel-  or  stone-beds  in  rivers. 

Scarborough,  a  seaport  town  of  England,  York 
County,  North  Riding,  on  a  headland  extending 
into  the  North  Sea,  in  lat.  54°  17'  N.,  Ion.  0°  23' 
5'  W.  It  is  much  frequented  for  sea-bathing 
and  for  its  mineral  waters.  Scarborough  harbor 
is  used  as  a  place  of  shelter  from  the  easterly 


SCARBRO'  WARNING 


721 


SCHOOL-SHIP 


gales,  is  easy  of  access,  and  safe  and  commodious 
within.  The  bay  is  protected  on  the  northeast 
by  a  high  promontory.  The  town  has  a  limited 
foreign  trade,  and  large  coastwise  traffic.  Pop. 
25,000. 

Scarbro'  Warning  (Eng.}.  Letting  anything 
go  by  the  run,  without  singing  out. 

Scarf.  A  joint  uniting  two  pieces,  of  timber. 
These  are  of  various  kinds,  according  to  the  loca 
tion  of  the  timbers  so  joined. 

SCARF-BOLT.  A  bolt  driven  into  a  scarf;  also, 
a  bolt  used  for  securing  the  false  keel  in  wooden 
ships. 

Scarlet-fish.  A  certain  Chinese  fish ;  the 
telescope  carp.  So  called  from  its  red  colors. 

Scat.     A  quick-passing  shower  of  rain. 

Scaup.  The  pochard,  or  diving-duck  (Fuli- 
gula  marila). 

Schedar.     The  star  a  Gassiopeise. 

Schenck,  James  F.,  Rear-Admiral  U.S.N. 
Born  in  Ohio,  June  11,  1807.  Appointed  from 
Ohio,  March  1,  1825;  sloop  "Hornet,"  West 
India  Squadron,  1829;  frigate  "  Brandywine," 
1830. 

Promoted  to  passed  midshipman,  June  4,  1831 ; 
sloop  "John  Adams,"  Mediterranean  Squadron, 
1833-34. 

Commissioned  as  lieutenant,  December  22, 
1835;  sloop  "St.  Louis,"  West  India  Squad 
ron,  1837;  brig  "Dolphin,"  Brazil  Squadron, 
1840;  razee  "Independence,"  Home  Squadron, 
1843 ;  frigate  "  Congress,"  Pacific  Squadron, 
1846-47.  During  the  war  with  Mexico,  Lieut. 
Schenck,  as  chief  military  aid  to  Commodore 
Stockton,  landed  and  took  possession  of  Santa 
Barbara  and  San  Pedro,  in  California ;  serving 
in  same  capacity,  marched  on  and  was  at  the 
first  capture  of  Los  Angeles.  As  second  lieu 
tenant  of  the  frigate  "  Congress,"  was  at  the 
bombardment  and  capture  of  Guaymas  and  the 
taking  of  Mazatlan.  Frigate  "  Congress,"  East 
India  Squadron,  1848;  commanding  mail  steam 
ship  "Ohio,"  1848-52. 

Commissioned  as  commander,  September  14, 
1855;  commanding  receiving-ship,  New  York, 
1848;  commanding  steamer  "Saginavv,"  East 
India  Squadron,  1$>0-61.  On  June  30,  1861, 
the  "  Saginaw"  wa^  fired  upon  by  a  fort  at  "  Quin 
Hone,"  Cochin  Chftna;  the  fire  was  returned  and 
the  fort  silenced.  / 

Commissioned/as  captain,  1861 ;  commanding 
frigate  "St.  La.wrence,"  Blockading  Squadron. 
1862. 

Commissioned  as  commodore,  July  2,  1863; 
commanding  steam-sloop  "  Powhatan,"  North 
Atlantic  Squadron,  1864-65;  commanded  "Pow 
hatan"  and  third  division  of  Porter's  squadron 
in  the  two  attacks  on  Fort  Fisher ;  commanded 
Naval  Station,  Mound  City,  111.,  1866.  Retired 
June  19,  1869. 

Commissioned  as  rear-admiral,  July,  1870. 

School.     A  shoal  of  fish,  or  whales. 

Schoolmaster.  A  petty  officer  in  the  navy, 
whose  duty  is  to  instruct  boys. 

School-ship,  Nautical.  A  vessel  commis 
sioned  under  special  laws  for  the  instruction  and 
training  of  boys  and  young  men  in  practical  sea 
manship  and  navigation. 

Nautical  school-ships   may  be   established  at 

any  of  the  principal  ports  of  the  United  States 

under  the  act  of  Congress  of  June,  1874,  which 

allows  the  detail  of  sailing-vessels  of  the  navy 

46 


for  that  purpose,  the  vessels  to  be  commanded 
and  officered  by  naval  officers,  but  organized 
and  supported  by  the  local  authorities.  The 
purpose  of  this  act  is  to  promote  nautical  edu 
cation  and  benefit  the  national  commerce.  Such 
schools  should  be  established,  and  as  soon  as  pos 
sible,  since  ships  of  every  class  will  always  need 
skilled  ready  seamen,  whether  under  sail  or  steam, 
and  the  duties  of  the  seaman  can  be  learned  only 
by  practical  experience  under  canvas. 

While  gales  of  wind  and  currents  are  encoun 
tered  at  sea,  the  ship  having  the  best  trained  and 
organized  crew  will  make  the  best  passages  from 
port  to  port,  and  deliver  her  cargo  in  better  order 
than  vessels  manned  by  inferior  crews. 

The  necessary  instruction  to  form  such  crews 
for  our  ships  can  best  be  given  on  board  vessels 
specially  intended  for  this  service,  where  a  sys 
tem  of  daily  drills  is  pursued,  and  where  more 
time  can  be  given  to  training  boys  in  the  duties 
of  a  seaman  than  would  be  possible  in  the  ordi 
nary  routine  of  duty  of  a  man-of-war  or  mer 
chant  ship  making  passages  at  sea. 

The  organization  of  a  nautical  school-ship 
should  be  carefully  considered,  as  upon  the  char 
acter  and  ability  of  the  officers  and  men  will  de 
pend  almost  entirely  the  discipline  and  efficiency 
of  the  future  seamen. 

The  duties  are  peculiar,  and  require  not  only 
high  professional  attainments,  but  also  patience, 
good  temper,  and  a  quick  appreciation  of  the 
natures  and  feelings  of  the  boys  who  are  under 
instruction.  These  qualities  are  absolutely  es 
sential  to  the  commanding  officer,  and  no  one 
should  be  assigned  to  such  duty  who  does  not 
possess  them  in  a  high  degree,  and  who  is  not 
impressed  with  the  importance  of  the  objects  to 
be  accomplished. 

There  should  be  a  number  of  officers,  large 
enough  to  perform  all  the  duties  of  the  ship  at  sea, 
and  at  the  same  time  act  as  instructors.  The 
graduates  from  the  Naval  Academy  could  be 
assigned  to  this  duty  with  advantage,  as  they 
would  be  benefited  in  the  practical  exercise  of 
professional  duties  while  imparting  to  others  the 
theoretical  knowledge  they  obtain  at  that  insti 
tution. 

A  few  thorough  seamen  of  intelligence  and 
good  character  should  be  employed  to  fill  the 
more  responsible  positions  on  board,  and  to  act  as 
assistants  to  the  commissioned  officers  in  matters 
of  detail,  squads  of  boys  being  assigned  to  them, 
and  for  whose  conduct  they  should  be  account 
able. 

The  discipline  enforced  should  be  firm  and  con 
sistent,  but  as  far  as  possible  kind,  and  no  severe 
punishments  should  be  inflicted  unless  absolutely 
essential.  The  attention  of  officers  and  men 
should  be  directed  rather  to  the  prevention  of 
breaches  of  discipline  than  to  their  detection  and 
punishment.  Uniforming  the  boys  and  putting 
them  as  far  as  possible  in  positions  of  trust,  will 
be  found  a  valuable  aid  in  preserving  the  disci 
pline  on  board,  and  should  be  resorted  to  where 
practicable. 

The  course  of  instruction  should  include  not 
only  all  the  duties  of  a  seaman,  from  knotting 
and  splicing  to  handling  ship  in  a  gale  or  work 
ing  off  a  lee-shore,  but  also  the  branches  of  an 
ordinary  common  school  course. 

The  length  of  time  to  be  spent  on  board  a  nau 
tical  school-ship  would  vary,  of  course,  with  the 


SCHOONER 


722 


SCREEN 


aptitude  and  intelligence  of  the  boys  themselves, 
and  of  this  the  instructors  could  best  judge. 

The  greater  portion  of  each  year  should  be 
spent  actually  at  sea,  without  regard  to  the  sea 
sons,  as  while  it  would  not  be  advisable  to  expose 
mere  boys  to  all  the  hardships  incident  to  a  life 
at  sea,  they  should  be  made  familiar  with  the 
management  of  a  vessel  under  all  circumstances, 
from  a  calm  to  a  heavy  gale. 

The  "St.  Mary's"  is  now  in  commission  as  a 
nautical  school-ship,  under  the  management  of 
the  Board  of  Education  at  New  York,  and  is 
performing  highly  valuable  service.  The  "James 
town,"  the  vessel  detailed  for  duty  at  San  Fran 
cisco,  was  withdrawn  after  three  years'  service. 
No  other  nautical  schools  have  yet  been  estab 
lished. — Henry  Glass,  Commander  U.S.Pf. 

Schooner.  A  class  of  vessels  first  invented  by 
Capt.  Andrew  Robinson,  of  Gloucester,  Mass., 
in  1713.  The  name  is  derived  from  their  swift 
motion  through  the  water,  the  word  scoon  mean 
ing  to  skip  over  the  water.  These  vessels  are  all 
fore-and-aft  rig,  and  have  from  two  to  four  masts. 
They  vary  in  size  from  50  to  more  than  1000 
tons.  A  topsail-schooner  carries  a  square  fore- 
topsail  and  topgallant-sail.  Sometimes  a  schooner 
sets  a  flying  square  foresail  in  addition  to  her  fore- 
and-aft  sail.  A  Ballahou  schooner  has  the  fore 
mast  raking  forward.  Three-masted  schooners 
are  in  common  use  in  America,  and  several  four- 
masted  schooners  are  on  trial.  Schooners  lie 
nearer  to  the  wind  than  square-riggers,  are  less 
costly,  and  require  fewer  men  to  handle  them, 
and  hence  are  generally  adopted  for  coasters. 

Schout.     A  Dutch  water-bailiff. 

Schreight.     A  kind  of  fish. 

Schultze's  Powder.     See  EXPLOSIVES. 

Schuyt.  A  Dutch  galiot,  short  and  round, 
used  in  the  river  trade. 

Scitie.  A  small  Levantine  boat  with  three 
lateen-sails. 

Scobs.  Droppings  from  the  blacksmith 's  forge. 

Sconce.     The  head.     A  magazine-lantern. 

Scoodyn.  The  furring  on  a  vessel's  foul 
bottom. 

Scope.  The  length  of  cable  by  which  a  ship 
rides.  This  varies  with  the  kind  of  bottom, 
nature  and  force  of  wind  and  tide,  etc.,  but 
should  never  be  less  than  three  times  the  depth 
of  water  in  which  the  anchor  is  dropped. 

Score.  The  groove  around  a  block  in  which 
the  strap  lies. 

Scorpio,  Constellation  of  (Lat.  scorpio  or 
scorpius,  "The  Scorpion").  The  eighth  con 
stellation  of  the  zodiac,  lying  between  Libra  and 
Sagittarius.  The  principal  star,  Antares,  may 
be  found  by  joining  Spica  with  the  South  Bal 
ance  (a  Librae,},  and  continuing  the  line  to  about 
the  same  distance,  a  Scorpionis  (Cor  Scorpionis), 
Antares. 

Scorpio,  Sign  of.  The  eighth  division  of  the 
ecliptic,  including  from  210°  to  240°  of  longi 
tude.  Owing  to  the  precession  of  the  equinoxes, 
the  constellation  Scorpio  no  longer  occupies  the 
sign  of  this  name,  the  constellation  Libra  having 
taken  its  place.  The  sun  is  in  Scorpio  from  about 
October  24  to  about  November  23.  Symbol  tt\,. 

Scorpion.  A  certain  sea-fish.  The  sea-scor 
pion. 

Scot,  or  Shot.  A  fair  share  or  proportion. 
Hence,  to  pay  his  shot  is  to  furnish  his  share  of 
expenses. 


Scotchman.  A  piece  of  wood  or  stiff  hide 
placed  over  shrouds  and  other  rigging,  to  prevent 
chafe*  by  the  running-gear. 

Scotch  Mist.     Very  tine,  drizzling  rain. 

Scotch  Prize.  A  prize  that  is  not  legal ;  one 
that  should  not  have  been  made,  and  must  be 
given  up. 

Scott,  Gustavus  H.,  Rear-Admiral  U.S.N. 
Born  in  Virginia,  June  13,  1812.  Appointed 
from  Virginia,  August  1,  1828;  frigate  "Guer- 
riere,"  Pacific  Squadron,  1829-31 ;  schooner 
"Experiment,"  Chesapeake  Bay,  1833. 

Promoted  to  passed  midshipman,  June  14, 
1834;  sloop  "  Vandalia,"  West  India  Squadron, 
1835-36;  waiting  orders,  1837;  West  India 
Squadron,  1839-40. 

Commissioned  as  lieutenant,  February  25, 
1841;  frigate  "Columbus,"  Mediterranean 
Squadron,  1843-44;  special  duty,  1845;  frigate 
"United  States,"  Mediterranean  Squadron, 
1846-47;  ordnance  duty,  1848-49;  waiting 
orders,  1850;  ordnance  duty,  1851;  frigate  "  St. 
Lawrence,"  Pacific  Squadron,  1852-53;  steamer 
"Michigan,"  on  the  lakes,  1855-57. 

Commissioned  as  commander,  December  27, 
1856  ;  light-house  inspector,  1858-60  ;  command 
ing  steamer  "Keystone  State,"  special  service, 
1861  ;  commanding  steam-gunboat  "  Mara- 
tanza,"  North  Atlantic  Blockading  Squadron, 
1862-63. 

Commissioned  as  captain,  November  4,  1863  ; 
commanding  steamer  "  De  Soto,"  Blockading 
Squadron,  1864;  commanding  steam-sloop 
"  Canandaigua,"  Blockading  Squadron,  1865; 
commanding  stea'm-sloop  "Saranac,"  Pacific 
Squadron,  1866-67 ;  member  of  Examining 
Board,  Philadelphia,  1868 ;  light-house  inspec 
tor,  1869-71. 

Commissioned  as  commodore,  1869. 

Commissioned  as  rear-admiral,  February,  1873 ; 
commanding  North  Atlantic  Station,  1873.  Re 
tired  June  18,  1874. 

Scour.  To  scour  a  beach,  to  sweep  it  by  a 
quick  flanking  fire.  To  scour  the  seas,  to  cruise 
piratically;  to  infest  the  seas. 

Scouse.  A  sea-dish  made  of  soaked  and 
pounded  biscuit  and  meat  cut  into  small  pieces. 
Where  no  meat  is  used,  it  is  called  bread-scouse. 
WThere  other  ingredients  are  introduced,  it  is 
called  lob-scouse. 

Scow.     A  large,  open,  flat-bottomed  boat. 

Scrabble  (Eng.}.     A  badly- written  log. 

Scraler.     The  puffinet  ( Colymbus  grille}. 

Scrape.  The  upper  spars  and  the  yard-arms 
of  a  man-of-war  are  kept  bright,  and  it  is  cus 
tomary  to  scrape  them  at  least  once  in  3  months, 
or  oftener.  After  they  are  scraped  with  knives, 
they  are  covered  with  slush. 

Scraper.  A  triangular  iron  instrument  with 
sharp  edges,  used  in  scraping  parts  of  a  ship. 
Scrapers  are  sometimes  square,  when  they  are 
called  tree- scrapers,  and  sometimes  have  one 
point  cut  off,  as  in  deck-scrapers.  Also,  a  name 
for  a  cocked  hat. 

Scratch-race.  An  impromptu  race,  where 
crews  volunteer  or  are  drawn  by  lot. 

Scrawl.     The  young  of  the  doy-crab. 

Scray.  The  sea-swallow,  or  tern  (Sterna 
hirundo). 

Screen.  A  canvas  partition  'used  about  decks 
for  various  purposes.  Coal-screens  are  used 
while  coaling  ship,  to  prevent  the  dust  from 


SCKEW 


723 


SCKEW 


coming  into  the  officers'  quarters.  Screens  are 
used  to  form  a  room  on  the  gun-deck  for  a  court- 
martial,  for  school,  or  to  separate  a  sick  man  from 
the  crew.  Fire-  or  magazine-screens  are  made  of 
thick  fearnaught. 

Screw.  A  convex  or  concave  cylinder  with 
one  or  more  helical  projections,  called  threads, 
winding  round  it.  The  advance  made  in  direc 
tion  of  the  axis  of  the  cylinder  by  one  convolu 
tion  of  the  thread  is  called  the  pitch.  Convex 
and  concave  screws  are  designated  technically 
by  the  respective  names  of  male  and  female ;  a 
short  concave  screw  fitted  to  a  convex  screw  is 
called  a  nut,  and  when  a  screw  is  spoken  of 
without  qualification,  a  convex  screw  is  usually 
understood.  Screws  intended  to  penetrate  wood 
are  usually  pointed  at  the  entering  end. 

A  compressor-screw  is  used  on  a  slide  gun- 
carriage  to  increase  the  friction  and  decrease  the 
recoil ;  an  elevating  screw,  to  depress  or  elevate 
the  breech  of  the  gun  ;  a  thumb-screw,  to  hold 
the  sight  in  place.  A  jack-screw  is  a  portable 
machine  for  raising  heavy  weight,  acting  by  a 
screw.  Rigger's  screws  are  iron  frames  in  which 
a  screw  works,  moving  a  clamp,  so  that  the  parts 
of  the  rigging  may  be  brought  together  as  in  a 
vise.  A  rigging-screw  is  an  iron  frame  with  a 
screw  working  in  it,  to  the  upper  end  of  which 
a  shroud  is  attached,  while  the  frame  is  made 
fast  to  the  channels.  See  SCREW-PROPELLER. 

SCREW-BOLT.  A  bolt  whose  lower  end  is 
terminated  by  a  screw.  A  screw  eye-bolt  is  a 
screw  terminated  by  an  eye-bolt.  A  screw  ring 
bolt  is  a  screw  with  a  ring  attached  to  its  head. 

SCREW-BOX.  The  box  in  which  the  foot  of  an 
elevating  screw  works. 

SCREW-CLAMP.  An  iron  half-frame  with  a 
screw  attached  to  its  upper  portion,  so  as  to  be 
used  as  a  portable  vise.  Used  by  ship-carpenters 
to  bring  two  pieces  of  timber  together. 

SCREW-DOCK.  An  apparatus  used  for  raising 
small  vessels  out  of  the  water  for  graving  pur 
poses.  It  consists  of  a  platform  which  has 
blocks  and  shores  upon  it ;  this  platform  is 
raised  or  lowered  as  required  by  the  use  of 
iron  screws  of  large  diameter,  the  screws  being 
attached  to  a  stationary  frame  above,  as  well  as 
to  the  platform  to  be  raised.  The  vessel  is  first 
floated  and  secured  upon  the  blocks,  and  then 
raised  to  the  desired  height. 

SCREW-FID.  A  fid  for  a  mast,  having  a  screw 
attached,  by  which  it  is  withdrawn. 

SCREW-GAMMONING.  A  gammoning  consist 
ing  of  a  plate  or  chain  fastened  by  a  screw. 

SCREW-PILE.  A  pile  sunk  by  a  screw  on  its 
lower  end. 

SCREW-POST.  The  main  stern-post  in  a  screw- 
steamer,  through  which  the  screw-shaft  passes. 

SCREW-PROPELLER.  A  contrivance  for  pro 
pelling  a  vessel  by  the  action  of  a  screw  in  the 
water,  which  serves  as  a  nut.  It  consists  of  two 
or  more  blades  or  vanes,  each  forming  a.  portion 
or  helicoidal  sector  of  a  screw-thread,  attached 
to  a  hub  or  centre  revolving  in  a  plane  perpen 
dicular  to  the  direction  of  the  motion  of  the  ves 
sel.  It  is  made  of  cast  iron,  steel,  or  composition, 
and  the  blades  may  be  either  cast  upon  or  bolted 
to  the  hub. 

There  are  numerous  varieties,  differing  widely 
one  from  another  in  the  number  and  contour  of 
blades,  area  presented  to  the  resistance  of  the 
water,  and  in  nature  of  pitch,  which  may  be  uni 


form  or  increasing  either  in  direction  of  the  axis 
or  from  hub  to  periphery.  In  the  plain  true 
screw  the  generatrix  is  a  straight  line  projecting 
radially  from  the  axis  in  a  plane  perpendicular 
thereto,  one  directrix  being  the  axis  and  the 
other  a  helical  curve  of  uniform  pitch  ;  but  the 
generatrix  may  be  curved  or  inclined  in  any 
direction,  the  angular  directrix  of  variable  pitch, 
or  there  may  be  two  angular  directrices  differing 
one  from  another  in  pitch  ;  and  by  combining 
these  various  conditions,  an  infinite  variety  of 
warped  surfaces  may  be  formed. 

No  general  theory  of  the  screw-propeller  has 
yet  been  established,  and  engineers  construct  it 
in  accordance  with  their  personal  investigations 
and  experience,  many  preferring  the  plain  true 
screw.  It  may  be  observed,  however,  in  the 
matter  of  general  proportions,  that  the  pitch 
should  be  such  as  to  permit  the  highest  prac 
ticable  velocity  of  engine  piston  ;  the  diameter 
such  that  the  screw  will  be  so  thoroughly  sub 
merged  as  to  avoid  loss  of  power  in  throwing 
water  off  in  spray  ;  the  contour  of  the  blades  so 
designed  as  to  reduce  to  a  minimum  the  vibra 
tions  caused  when  they  pass  the  stern-post ;  and 
that  in  some  very  satisfactory  screws  the  total 
area  projected  in  direction  of  the  axis  is  about 
four-tenths  of  that  of  a  circle  having  the  same 
diameter.  Screws  that  produce  good  results  at 
some  rates  of  speed  are  found  to  be  less  efficient 
at  others. 

This  instrument  is  believed  by  some  to  be  an 
early  invention  of  the  Chinese.  Many  claims 
have  been  made  to  its  invention  in  modern  times. 
Mr.  J.  Stevens,  of  New  York,  seems  to  have 
made  the  first  attempt  to  apply  it  to  the  propul 
sion  of  a  vessel.  In  1804  he  propelled  a  boat  by 
some  form  of  a  screw.  In  1815  the  English  en 
gineer  Trevethick  patented  a  worm  or  screw  re 
volving  in  a  cylinder  at  the  sides  or  stern  of  a 
vessel.  In  1816,  Kobert  Kinder  applied  for  a 
patent  for  a  shaft  and  screw  of  nearly  the  form 
now  in  use.  The  French  claim  the  invention, 
and  only  a  few  years  ago  they  erected  at  Bou 
logne  a  monument  to  Frederic  Sauvage  as  the 
inventor. 

The  first  demonstration  of  its  value  on  a  proper 
scale  was  made  in  England  during  the  year  1836, 
by  Capt.  John  Ericsson,  a  Swedish  engineer, 
and  now  a  resident  of  New  York.  After  an  ex 
periment  with  a  model  he  applied  the  screw  to  a 
boat  45  feet  in  length,  named  the  "  Francis  B. 
Ogden,"  and  made  successful  runs  on  the  river 
Thames.  Experiments  were  made  in  the  pres 
ence  of  the  Lords  of  the  Admiralty  by  towing 
their  barge  10  miles  an  hour  ;  yet  this  same  board 
reported  the  screw-propeller  unsuited  for  vessels 
of  war.  In  1826,  Mr.  Woodcroft  patented  a 
screw-propeller.  In  1836  or  1837,  Mr.  T.  P. 
Smith  took  out  a  patent  for  a  screw  made  to  re 
volve  under  water  in  a  recess  at  the  side  of  the 
vessel,  and  the  following  year  exhibited  it  in  a 
small  vessel.  Soon  after  this  it  was  applied  to  a 
vessel  of  237  tons,  called  the  "Archimedes.'' 
This  vessel  was  tested  against  the  "Widgeon," 
the  fastest  paddle-wheeler  plying  between  Dover 
and  Calais,  and  thus  established  the  screw  as  a 
successful  instrument  of  propulsion  in  Eng 
land. 

The  British  Admiralty  at  length  ordered  a 
screw-vessel,  named  the  "  Rattler,"  to  be  built 
from  the  same  model  and  dimensions  as  the  pad- 


SCRIMP 


T24 


SCURVY 


die-wheel  vessel  "  Alecto,"  then  building.  This 
was  8  years  after  Ericsson  demonstrated  its  prac 
ticability,  and  after  he  built  the  screw-vessel 
"Robert  F.  Stockton,"  70  feet  long  by  10  feet 
•wide,  at  Birkenhead. 

The  "  Rattler"  proved  successful,  and  estab 
lished  the  necessity  of  adopting  the  screw  in  the 
British  navy.  (The  screw  used  on  this  vessel  is 
now  in  the  South  Kensington  Patent  Museum.) 

Previous  to  the  construction  of  the  "  Rattler," 
Capt.  Ericsson  came  by  invitation  of  Com 
modore  Stockton,  U.S.N.,  to  Philadelphia,  and 
there  built  the  first  war  screw-steamship  (the 
"  Princeton")  that  ever  cruised  at  sea. 

This  ship  was  launched  in  1842,  cruised  on 
the  coast  in  1845,  burst  her  big  wrought-iron  gun 
on  the  Potomac  in  1843,  by  which  accident  sev 
eral  members  of  President  Tyler's  Cabinet  were 
killed.  She  served  on  the  blockade  of  the  coast 
of  Mexico  in  1846-47 ;  crossed  the  Atlantic  in 
the  latter-named  year  in  search  of  Mexican  priva 
teers  ;  returned  home  in  July,  1849,  and  was 
broken  up. 

SCREW-PROPELLER  GOVERNOR.  See  GOV 
ERNOR,  or  MARINE  GOVERNOR. 

SCREW-PROPELLER  WELL.  A  vertical  pit  or 
opening  at  the  stern  and  through  the  counter  of 
a  vessel,  into  which  the  propeller  is  hoisted  when 
sail-power  alone  is  used. 

SCREW-SHAFT.  An  engine  shaft  turning  a 
screw-propeller. 

SCREW-STEAMER.  A  steamer  propelled  by  a 
screw. 

Scrimp.    Scant, — applied  to  the  wind. 

Scroll-head.  A  piece  of  timber  joined  to  the 
knee  of  the  head  under  the  bowsprit,  in  place  of 
a  figure-head,  which  turns  outward. 

Scrovies.  Old  or  worthless  seamen  sent  on 
board  by  crimps. 

Scrub.  To  scour  the  decks,  hammocks,  etc., 
with  sand  or  soap.  Decks  are  scrubbed  with 
water  only,  with  sand  and  broom,  or  are  holy- 
atoned  with  sand. 

SCRUB-BROOM.  A  coarse  broom  for  scrubbing, 
made  out  of  hickory  strips,  or  coir. 

SCRUB-BRUSH.  A'brush  for  scrubbing,  made 
out  of  coir,  or  hog's  bristles. 

Scruff.  The  fur  adhering  to  the  bottoms  of 
foul  vessels. 

Scud.  Loose,  vapory  clouds,  driven  rapidly 
by  the  wind.  To  scud,  to  run  before  a  gale  with 
sufficient  low  canvas  to  keep  the  ship  ahead  of 
the  sea.  When  a  ship  carries  no  sail,  she  scuds 
under  bare  poles.  To  scud  like  a  'Mudian  (Eng.). 
to  be  off  quickly. 

Scull.  An  oar  so  short  that  one  man  may 
use  a  pair  readily.  A  short  oar  used  over  the 
stern  in  propelling  a  boat.  To  scull,  to  row  a 
boat  with  a  pair  of  sculls,  or  to  propel  her  by  an 
oar  over  the  stern,  worked  from  side  to  side,  and 
turned  in  the  water,  like  a  screw.  Japanese 
boats  are  propelled  very  rapidly  by  means  of 
sculls. 

Sculpin.  A  fish  of  the  genus  Cottin.  A  fish, 
the  Callonymus  dracunculus. 

Sculptor.     See  CONSTELLATION. 

Sculptures.  The  carved  decorations  of  the 
bow  and  stern  of  an  old  ship  of  war. 

Scum.  Refuse  at  change  of  tide.  Freshwater 
running  through  salt,  carrying  physalia  and 
other  gelatinous  animals  with' it  in  a  line  of  foam. 
Thin  atmospheric  vapor  j  scud. 


Scupper.  A  hole  cut  through  the  water-ways 
and  the  side  of  the  ship,  to  carry  off  the  water 
from  the  decks.  Also  called  scupper-hole. 

SCUPPER-HOSE.  A  canvas  or  leather  pipe 
nailed  over  the  lower  end  of  the  scupper-holes, 
to  keep  the  water  from  staining  the  ship's  side. 

SCUPPER-LEATHER.  A  leather  valve,  nailed 
over  a  scupper-hole,  BO  as  to  allow  no  water  to 
enter  from  outside. 

SCUPPER-PLUG.  A  wooden  plug,  cut  to  fit  the 
scupper-hole,  so  as  to  close  it  when  desired. 

SCUPPER-SHOOTS.  Tubes  of  metal  covered 
with  wood,  to  carry  the  water  from  the  spar-deck 
to  the  sea. 

Scurry.     A  sudden  fright,  as  of  birds  or  fish. 

Scurvy.  Definition. — A  special  disease  of  mal 
nutrition,  affecting  mainly  the  constitution  of 
the  blood,  and  dependent  upon  deprivation  of 
vegetable  food,  attended  by  hemorrhages,  livid 
spots  under  the  skin,  swollen,  spongy,  and  in 
flamed  gums,  and  general  debility,  not  neces 
sarily  accompanied  by  fever. 

History.— Hippocrates  gives  a  description  of 
symptoms  closely  corresponding  to  what  we  now 
recognize  as  scurvy. 

Celsus  (lib.  ii.  c.  vii.)  speaks  of  the  ulcera- 
tions  attending  scurvy  in  a  graphic  manner. 

Aretaeus,  Paul  of  JEgina,  and  Avicenna,  have 
noted  the  same  chain  of  symptoms.  Strabo  and 
Pliny  are  supposed  to  allude  to  scurvy  in  the 
Roman  army,  and  its  cure  by  a  certain  herb, 
called  Herba  Brittanica. 

The  Sieur  de  Joinville  gives  a  particular  ac 
count  of  the  ravages  of  scurvy  in  the  French 
army  under  Louis  IX.  during  the  crusade 
against  the  Saracens  of  Egypt. 

But  the  most  terrible  records  of  scorbutus  are 
found  in  naval  annals.  More  lives  were  sacri 
ficed  in  former  times  by  this  disease  than  by  all 
other  causes  combined,  whether  sickness,  tem 
pest,  or  battle  (Wood). 

Inefficiency  and  neglect  in  the  allied  armies' 
commissariat  during  the  Crimean  war  caused 
severe  suffering  from  scurvy ;  but  during  the 
late  civil  war  in  America  it  was  not  a  source  of 
any  considerable  mortality. 

Nevertheless,  some  U.  S.  army  hospitals  re 
corded  large  numbers  of  cases  where  the  scor 
butic  taint  was  the  cause  of  serious  and  pro 
tracted  disease,  which  was  cured  by  its  removal. 

Symptoms. — Unwillingness  and  disability  for 
bodily  exertion,  pallor,"  puffiness  of  face  and 
limbs,  livid  and  swollen  gums,  hard  and  painful 
swellings  of  the  muscles,  hemorrhages  from  mu 
cous  surfaces,  bruised  discolorations  of  the  skin, 
excessive  debility,  and  (often)  extremely  un 
healthy  ulcerations  characterize  the  disease. 

Causes. — The  one  essential  cause  of  scurvy  is 
the  absence  of  sufficient  vegetable  food.  It  is 
not  due — as  formerly  supposed — to  living  upon 
salt  meat,  but  only  to  living  upon  it  exclusively. 
It  will  not  occur  when  vegetables  are  freely  used, 
and  it  may  break  out  when  they  are  deficient, 
though  an  abundance  of  fresh  meat  be  supplied. 

Predisposing  and  assisting  causes  may  be  enu 
merated  ;  e.ff.,  previous  disease,  unwholesome 
diet,  bad  water,  foul  air,  or,  in  fact,  whatever 
weakens  the  system,  or  tends  to  deprave  the 
blood. 

Treatment. — This  consists  in  supplying  the 
necessary  food  whose  absence  caused  the  disease. 
A  sufficiency  of  fresh  vegetables  and  fruits  will 


SCUTCH 


T25 


SEA 


cause  rapid  and  almost  immediate  cure  of  even 
the  most  desperate  cases. 

Most  acidulous  fruits,  especially  limes,  lemons, 
oranges,  and  others  of  the  family  of  Aurantiacece, 
are  efficient  remedies.  To  Dr.  G.  Perin,  U.S.A., 
we  owe  the  knowledge  of  the  superior  curative 
virtues  of  the  juice  of  the  Agave  Americana,  in 
doses  of  two  or  three  fluidounces  three  times  a 
day.  Potatoes,  cabbage,  turnips,  carrots,  water- 
cresses,  onions,  and  radishes  are  among  the  most 
desirable  vegetables  for  use  in  this  disease. 

Cider,  malt  liquors,  and  wines  should  be  al 
lowed. 

Prevention. — Absolute  certainty  attends  pre 
ventive  measures  against  scurvy.  It  is  only 
necessary  in  sea-voyages  to  attend  to  cleanliness 
and  ventilation  of  vessels,  the  general  comfort 
of  the  crews,  and  the  supply  of  sufficient  lime- 
juice  to  distribute  an  ounce  per  diem  to  each  man 
on  board  ship. 

In  armies  and  hospitals,  the  only  requisite  is  a 
varied  vegetable  diet. 

Practically,  scurvy  is  no  longer  a  scourge  by 
sea  or  land,  and  can  become  so  only  by  inex 
cusable  neglect. — John  T.  Carpenter,  President 
Pennsylvania  State  Medical  Association. 

SCURVY-GRASS.  The  spoon-wort,  a  grass  of 
the  genus  Cochlearia,  formerly  eaten  as  a  salad, 
to  cure  scurvy,  or  prevent  it. 

Scutch.  To  separate  the  fibre  of  hemp  from 
the  woody  part  by  beating. 

SCUTCHER.  A  wooden  sword  for  breaking 
hemp. 

Scuttle.  A  small  opening  in  the  deck  of  a 
vessel  not  over  two  feet  square  ;  they  are  gener 
ally  made  flush  with  the  decks,  without  coam 
ings.  To  scuttle  a  ship,  to  sink  her  by  boring 
holes  in  her  bottom. 

SCUTTLE-BUTT.  A  cask,  having  a  square  hole 
cut  in  its  bilge  or  head,  with  drinking-water  in 
it  for  the  men's  use. 

Scuttle-fish.     The  cuttle-fish  (which  see). 

Sea.  The  swell  or  billowy  motion  of  the 
ocean ;  a  high  wave  or  billow.  At  sea,  away 
from  the  land  ;  on  the  ocean.  Figuratively,  be 
wildered,  confused.  To  ship  a  sea,  to  receive  a 
portion  of  a  wave  over  the  rail  of  a  vessel.  Half- 
seas  o'er,  half-drunk,  tipsy.  High  seas,  the  open 
sea;  where  the  tide  ebbs  and  flows.  Full  sea, 
high-tide.  See  CHOPPING,  COCKLING,  CROSS, 
GREEN,  etc. 

A  sea  is  a  body  of  salt  water,  only  less  in  size 
than  an  ocean.  The  same  word  is  used  to  desig 
nate  lakes,  as  the  Dead  Sea  and  Sea  of  Aral,  and 
likewise  expresses  the  idea  conveyed  by  the  word 
ocean,  meaning  the  whole  mass  of  water.  The 
movement  of  the  water  in  waves  and  surges  is 
called  by  the  sailor  a  sea,  the  figure  of  speech 
being  exactly  opposite  to  that  in  the  last  case. 
Seas  are  only  inferior  to  oceans  in  size,  although 
there  are  some  small  seas,  such  as  Marmora  and 
Azof,  neither  exceeding  5000  square  miles  in 
extent.  The  seas  emptying  their  waters  into 
the  Arctic  are  the  White  Sea,  having  an  area 
of  10,000  square  miles,  the  Kara  Sea,  contain 
ing  100,000  square  miles,  and  Greenland  Sea, 
about  the  same  area.  These  seas,  frozen  during 
much  of  the  year,  are  little  navigated.  Into  the 
Pacific  empty  the  following  Asiatic  seas :  1. 
Behring's  Sea,  containing  some  145,000  square 
miles,  washing  also  the  coast  of  Alaska  and  the 
chain  of  Aleutian  Islands.  It  is  important  for 


its  fisheries,  the  seal  and  whale  abounding.  2. 
Kamchatka  Sea,  an  arm  of  the  latter,  containing 
some  58,000  square  miles,  and  washing  the  shores 
of  Kamchatka.  Several  bays  open  on  it,  and  the 
important  port  of  Petropaulowski  is  situated  on 
one  of  them.  3.  Sea  of  Okhotsk.  The  Kam 
chatka  peninsula  and  the  Kurile  Islands  sepa 
rate  this  large  sea,  containing  180,000  square 
miles,  from  the  Pacific.  Many  bays  open  into 
it,  and  Saghalien  Island  is  situated  in  it.  4. 
The  Sea  of  Japan,  connected  with  the  latter 
by  two  straits,  and  separated  from  the  Pacific  by 
the  Japan  Islands,  contains  160,000  square  miles. 
The  Corea  Channel  connects  it  with  (5)  the 
Yellow  Sea,  opening  into  (6)  the  Eastern  Sea. 
Both  these  seas  wash  the  shores  of  China,  and 
receive  the  waters  of  the  mighty  Hoang-Ho  and 
Yangtze-Kiang.  The  former  has  130,000,  the 
latter  115,000  square  miles  of  area.  Their  navi 
gation  is  most  important.  The  former  gets  its 
name  from  the  mud  brought  down  by  the  rivers, 
and  a  like  cause  shallows  them  to  some  extent 
near  the  coast.  7.  The  China  Sea.  This  im 
mense  sea,  containing  420,000  square  miles, 
washes  the  shores  of  China,  Anam,  Malay  penin 
sula,  Philippine  Islands,  and  Borneo.  It  con 
nects  by  channels  and  straits  with  the  Eastern 
Sea,  Bengal  Sea,  Indian  Ocean,  Pacific  Ocean, 
and  the  three  following  seas.  Many  important 
ports,  as  Singapore,  Bangkok,  Hong-Kong,  Can 
ton,  Manila,  and  others,  are  situated  on  or  near 
it,  and  its  navigation  is  very  important,  and  com 
merce  extensive.  Many  shoals  and  islands  exist 
in  it.  It  is  the  fourth  in  size  of  the  great  seas. 
8.  Mindon  Sea,  142,000  square  miles.  9.  Celebes 
Sea,  216,000;  10.  Java  Sea,  173,000;  11.  Floris 
Sea,  72,000 ;  12.  Banda  Sea,  75,000  ;  13.  Ara- 
fura  Sea,  172,000  square  miles.  All  these  are 
situated  in  the  Malaysian  Islands,  connecting 
with  each  other,  and  with  the  Pacific  and  In 
dian  Oceans.  They  are  the  channels  of  commu 
nication  in  this  island  world,  and  are  much 
encumbered  by  small  islands. 

The  seas  emptying  into  the  Indian  Ocean 
are,  1.  Bengal  Sea.  This,  with  the  gulf  of  the 
same  name,  lies  between  the  Eastern  provinces 
and  the  Western  Indian  peninsula.  It  contains 
360,000  square  miles,  and  is  next  in  size  to  the 
China  Sea.  2.  Arabian  Sea.  This  sea,  contain 
ing  560,000  square  miles,  washes  the  shores  of 
Arabia,  Beloochistan,  and  India.  Into  it  empty 
the  Persian  Gulf  and  the  Red  Sea,  and  the  waters 
of  the  Indus,  Euphrates,  and  Tigris  find  their 
way  through  it  to  the  Indian  Ocean.  It  was  the 
scene  of  an  ancient  commerce,  and  the  trade  of 
India  and  China  is  again  brought  through  it  by 
the  opening  of  the  Suez  Canal.  3.  Red  Sea. 
This  is  a  long,  narrow  sea,  between  the  sandy 
regions  of  Arabia  and  Egypt,  and  is  hot,  very 
salt,  and  difficult  of  navigation.  But  the  com 
merce  of  the  East  finds  its  way  through  it,  and 
its  navigation  is  most  important.  The  northern 
end  is  at  a  lower  level  than  the  southern,  and  its 
waters  find  their  way  into  the  Arabian  Sea  by 
the  Straits  of  Bab-el-Mandeb  and  the  Gulf  of 
Aden.  It  connects  with  the  Mediterranean  by 
the  Suez  Canal.  No  seas  open  into  the  Pacific 
from  the  west  coast  of  America.  On  its  eastern 
shores  is  but  one,  the  Caribbean  Sea,  the  largest 
in  the  world,  containing  705,000  square  miles. 
It  washes  the  shores  of  South  America,  Central 
America,  and  the  West  India  Islands,  which 


SEA 


726 


SEA 


latter  separate  it  from  the  Atlantic.  It  connects 
with  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  by  Yucatan  Channel, 
and  contains  Jamaica  and  many  smaller  islands. 
Its  navigation,  rendered  more  important  by  a 
railroad,  will  be  far  more  increased  by  the  com 
pletion  of  a  projected  canal,  but  its  many  islands 
and  shoals,  and  its  numerous  storms  and  calms, 
are  serious  impediments. 

The  seas  opening  into  the  Atlantic  from  the 
shores  of  Europe  are  many  and  important.  To 
the  north  are  the  Irish  Sea,  measuring  8000 
square  miles;  the  North  Sea,  172,000;  and  the 
Baltic,  155,000.  The  North  Sea  washes  the 
coasts  of  the  British  Isles,  Holland,  Denmark, 
Belgium,  and  Norway,  and  through  it  passes 
the  large  and  important  commerce  of  the  North. 
Into  it  opens  the  Zuyder  Zee,  a  shallow  sea  in 
the  north  of  Holland,'  and  through  it  the  Baltic 
empties  its  watery  into  the  Atlantic  by  the  Cat- 
tegat  and  Skager-Kack  Sounds.  The  Baltic,  with 
its  arms,  the  Gulfs  of  Bothnia  and  Finland, 
penetrates  far  into  the  European  continent,  wash 
ing  the  coasts  of  Germany,  Sweden,  and  Russia. 
Its  entrance  is  exceedingly  difficult,  and  it  con 
tains  many  large  islands  and  innumerable  small 
ones  near  the  coast,  making  its  navigation  diffi 
cult.  Its  shores  are  everywhere  flat,  and  many 
gulfs  and  240  rivers — many  of  them  large  — 
empty  into  it.  Its  water  is  very  fresh,  and  it  is 
quite  shallow  in  places. 

The  Mediterranean,  with  its  chain  of  seas,  is 
the  only  other  sea  opening  into  the  Atlantic.  It 
is  only  inferior  to  the  Caribbean  in  size,  having 
an  area  of  690,000  square  miles.  It  lies  between 
Europe,  Asia,  and  Africa,  and  has  for  centuries 
been  the  scene  of  the  most  important  commerce. 
Into  it  open  the  following  seas  :  1.  Tyrrhenian  ; 

2.  Ionian, — each  containing  18,000  square  miles  ; 

3.  Adriatic,  40,000 ;  4.  ^Egean,  40,000 ;  5.  Mar 
mora  Sea,  4000 ;  6.  Black  Sea,  160,000 ;  7.  Sea 
of  Azof,  10,000.     Many  important  cities  are  on 
its  shores,  numerous  large  rivers  flow  into  it, 
and  several  islands  lie  in  it.     The  only  remain 
ing  sea  is  the  Caspian,  containing  120,000  square 
miles,  an  inland  sea,  shallow  on  the  shores,  deep 
in  the  centre,  containing  no  currents  nor  tides. 
It  receives  the  waters  of  the  Ural,  Volga,  and 
other  rivers,  and  is  subject  to  singular  variations 
in  size  during  long  periods  of  time.     It  is  no 
longer  doubted  that  it  was  one  with  the  Sea  of 
Aral,  and  many  geographers  maintain  that  it 
was  connected  with  the  Mediterranean  by  way 
of  the  Sea  of  Azof.     Its  winds  are  variable  and 
its  storms  terrific.     Small  vessels  only  navigate 
its  waters,  none  larger  than  150  tons.     It  is~330 
feet  below  the  level  of  the  sea,  and  100  feet  be 
low  the   Aral  Sea.     Properly  speaking,  it  is  a 
lake,  but  its  great  size  leads  it  to  rank  with  seas, 
while  the  name  of  sea  for  the  Aral  and  Dead 
Seas  is  considered  a  misnomer.     The  Caspian  Sea 
is  less  salt  than  the  ocean,  the  fresh  water  brought 
in  by  its  many  rivers  more  than  compensating 
for  the  very  rapid  evaporation.    With  the  excep 
tion  of  Russia,  the  countries  bordering  on  it  are 
uncivilized,  and  no  great  cities  are  placed  on  it, 
and  its  commerce  is  small  and  less  important  for 
this  reason. — F.  S.  Bassett,  Lieutenant  U.S.N. 

SEA-ADDER.  A  British  fish,  of  an  elongated 
and  slender  form,  with  15  short  dorsal  spines, 
and  the  entire  lateral  line  covered  with  carinated 
scales ;  the  Gasterosteus  spinachea,  or  stickle 
back.  The  pipe-fish,  Syngnathus. 


SEA-ANCHOR.  The  anchor  lying  toward  the 
sea.  A  floating  anchor  used  at  sea  in  a  gale.  It 
is  easily  improvised  by  making  a  triangle  of 
small  booms,  passing  a  sail  between  them,  back 
ing  or  thrumming  it  with  rope,  and  fastening  the 
cable  to  a  bridle  extending  from  the  three  apexes 
of  the  triangle.  A  more  portable  frame  is  made 
of  two  iron  bars,  joined  at  their  centres  so  as  to 
make  the  letter  X,  which  may  be  shut  up  when 
not  in  use. 

SEA-ANEMONE.  The  Actinia,  a  polyp  resemb 
ling  a  flower. 

SEA-APE.     The  sea-fox.     The  otter. 

SEA-ATTORNEY.     The  brown  shark. 

SEA-BANK.  A  bank  or  mole  to  keep  the  sea 
from  encroaching  on  the  shore. 

SEA-BAR.     The  sea-swallow. 

SEA-BARROW.     See  SEA-PINCUSHION. 

SEA-BAT.     A  kind  of  flying-fish. 

SEA-BEANS.  Acacia-pods,  brought  down  by 
rivers,  and  found  on  beaches  in  southern  waters. 

SEA-BEAR.  The  polar  bear.  Seals  of  certain 
genera,  as  Arctocephalus  and  Otaria,  using  their 
hind  fins  in  walking.  See  SEAL. 

SEA-BEARD.  Ctadaphora  rupestris,  a  sea-weed 
growing  in  dense  tufts. 

SEA-BLUBBER.     A  marine  insect. 

SEA-BOARD.  Land  bordering  on  the  sea  ;  the 
sea-shore. 

SEA-BOAT.  A  boat,  considered  with  reference 
to  her  qualities  or  behavior  at  sea  ;  as,  a  good,  or 
a  bad  sea-boat. 

SEA-BORNE.    Afloat  on  the  seas  ;  water-borne. 

SEA-BOTTLE.  The  seed-pod  of  the  Fucus 
gigantea,  found  in  Horn  latitudes. 

SEA-BREAM.  A  sea-fish  of  the  genus  Pagellus 
(Spams  of  Linnaeus),  growing  to  the  length  of 
from  16  to  20  inches,  and  used  for  food. 

SEA-BREEZE.  A  breeze  setting  from  the  sea 
toward  the  land.  See  BREEZE. 

SEA-BRIEF.     See  SEA-LETTER. 

SEA-CALF.     The  common  seal,  Phoca. 

SEA-CAP.  White-caps,  or  wind-blown  wave- 
summits. 

SEA-CARD.  An  old  name  for  a  chart.  The 
mariner's  compass. 

SEA-CARP.  A  spotted  marine  fish,  living 
among  rocks  and  stones. 

SEA-CAT.  The  wolf-fish,  A nanhicas  lupus.  A 
fish  of  the  family  Chimceroidei,  intermediate  be 
tween  the  sturgeon  and  the  shark.  The  northern 
sea-cat  (C.  monstrosa]  inhabits  northern  waters, 
and  has  green  pupils,  which  shine  at  night  like  a 
cat's  eyes.  The  southern  sea-cat  (C.  Australii) 
has  a  snout  turning  back  like  a  hoe,  and  is  of  a 
silvery  color. 

SEA-CATGUT.  The  sea-weed  Fucus  Jilum,  or 
sea-thread. 

SEA-CHICKWEED.  A  marine  plant,  Honkenya 
peploides,  growing  in  tufts  in  the  sand. 

SEA-COAST.  The  shore  or  land  washed  by  the 
sea. 

SEA-COB.     The  sea-gull. 

SEA-COCO ANUT.  Cocoanuts  from  the  palm, 
Lodoicea  seychellarum,  found  in  the  Leychelle 
Islands.  First  found  floating  in  the  sea,  they 
were  thought  to  be  fruit  of  the  sea-weed. 

SEA-COMPASS.     The  mariner's  compass. 

SEA-COOT.     The  coot.  (Fulica). 

SEA-CORMORANT.     The  sea-crow. 

SEA-COUETER.  The  arctic  puffin,  Fratercula 
arctica. 


SEA 


727 


SEA 


SEA-COW.     The  manatee  (which  see). 

SEA-CROW.  The  pewit  gull,  or  Xema  ridi- 
fundus.  The  cormorant. 

SEA  CROW-FISH.  Crustacea  of  the  genus  Pal- 
nurus. 

SEA-CUCKOO.  The  red  gurnard,  or  Trigla 
cuculus. 

SEA-CUCUMBER.  The  beche-de-mer,  an  echin- 
oderm  of  the  genus  Holothuria.  Salted  and 
dried,  it  is  eaten  in  China  under  the  name  of 
trepang.  They  are  found  in  shallow  water,  and 
there  are  8  genera,  with  13  species  on  the  Amer 
ican  coast. 

SE  A-CUNN Y.  The  helmsman  in  Lascar-manned 
East  India  vessels. 

SEA-DAFFODIL.  A  bulbous  plant,  the  Pan 
cratium  maritimum. 

SEA-DEVIL.  A  fish  of  the  ray  family  (Cepha- 
loptera}.  The  angler,  or  Lophius  piscatorius. 

SEA-DOG.  The  common  seal.  An  old  salt;  a 
sailor  long  used  to  the  sea. 

SEA-DOTTEREL.  The  Strepsilus  interpres,  a 
sea-bird  belonging  to  the  plover  family. 

SEA-DRAGON.  "A  marine  fish  of  the  genus 
Cottus. 

SEA-DRAKE.     See  SEA-CROW. 

SEA-EAGLE.  The  bald  eagle.  A  large  ray, 
with  wing-like  fins  and  a  long  tail,  armed  with  a 
bone  barb.  It  belongs  to  the  genus  Myliobatis. 

SEA-EAR.  A  gasteropod  mollusk  of  the  genus 
Haliotis,  green  and  violet  inside,  and  resembling 
the  human  ear  in  shape. 

SEA-EDGE.  The  bounding-line  between  the 
frozen  and  unfrozen  regions  of  the  pole. 

SEA-EEL.     The  conger-eel. 

SEA-EGG.  The  Echinus,  or  sea-urchin,  after 
its  spines  are  removed. 

SEA-ELEPHANT.  A  large  species  of  seal,  the 
Macrorhinus  proboscideus,  growing  to  30  feet  in 
length,  and  having  a  fleshy  snout  about  a  foot 
Ions*. 

SEA-FARING.  Following  the  sea  as  a  means 
of  livelihood. 

SEA-FENNEL.  The  same  as  samphire  (which 
see). 

SEA-FERN.     A  kind  of  coral  resembling  a  fern. 

SEA-FIGHT.  A  naval  action  ;  an  engagement 
at  sea. 

SEA-FISH.  Salt-water  fish.  Any  fish  that 
lives  usually  in  salt  water. 

SEA-FOWL.  A  marine  fowl.  A  bird  that 
lives  by  the  sea  and  gets  its  food  from  salt  water. 

SEA-FOX.  A  species  of  shark,  the  upper  lobe 
of  whose  tail  is  much  longer  than  the  lower, 
and  curves  upward.  It  frequently  measures  13 
feet  in  length,  including  the  tail,  which  is  then 
more  than  6  feet  long. 

SEA-FROG.     Same  as  fishing-frog  (which  see).  . 

SEA-GAGE,  or  GAUGE.  A  form  of  sounding  in 
strument,  by  which  the  depths  are  ascertained  by 
the  registered  pressure  of  a  liquid  or  vapor  in  the 
instrument. 

SEA-GARLAND.     A  kind  of  marine  plant. 

SEA-GATE,  or  GAIT.  A  long,  rolling  swell. 
Ships  that  collide  by  its  means  are  in  a  sea-gate. 

SEA-GIRDLE.  A  marine  plant,  the  Laminaria 
digitata;  also  called  sea-wand,  sea-ware,  and 
tangle. 

SEA-GODS.  Deities  supposed  to  have  power 
over  the  sea.  Principal  among  the  Grecian 
deities  were  (1)  Pontus,  the  father  of  sea-deities, 
and  (2)  Oceanus.  The  sons  of  Pontus  were  (a) 


Nereus,  the  god  of  the  quiet  sea ;  (b)  Thaumas, 
god  of  the  majesty  of  the  sea;  (c)  Phorcys,  (d) 
Ceto,  (e)  Eurybia,  deities  of  the  dangers  and 
terrors  of  the  sea.  The  sea-nymphs  were  the 
descendants  of  Oceanus.  Aphrodite,  born  of  the 
foam,  was  goddess  of  the  sea,  tutelary  goddess 
of  ships  and  mariners,  and  controlled  the  winds 
and  waves,  and  gave  good  voyages.  She  was 
wife  to  Neptune,  the  principal  god  of  the  sea, 
who  dwelt  in  ocean  depths,  and  from  thence  con 
trolled  winds  and  waves.  Sacrifices  were  made 
to  him,  especially  by  the  lonians  in  the  temple 
at  Corinth,  One  of  his  sons  was  Triton,  and  the 
Nereids,  50  daughters  of  Nereus,  attend  on  him. 

A  favorite  sea-deity  was  Glaucus,  especially 
the  god  of  fishermen  and  shipwrecked  sailors. 

SEA-GRAPE.     The  gulf-weed. 

SEA-GRASS.  An  aquatic  plant,  the  Zostera 
•marina. 

SEA-GREEN.  A  faint  green.  In  ancient  her 
aldry,  the  color  denoted  inconstancy. 

SEA-GROCER  (Eng.).  An  old  name  for  the 
purser. 

SEA-GULL.  A  sea-fowl,  the  Xema  ridibundus. 
It  is  considered  indicative  of  approaching  bad 
weather  for  them  to  seek  the  shore  in  numbers, 
or  to  alight  on  ships  at  sea.  To  kill  a  gull  is 
bad  luck.  Their  stupidity  is  proverbial,  and  they 
are  easily  duped. 

SEA-HARE.  A  marine  gasteropod  mollusk, 
the  Aplysia. 

SEA-HEATH.  Evergreen  plants  of  the  genus 
Frankenia,  found  on  sea-shores. 

SEA-HEDGEHOG.    The  Echinus,  or  sea-urchin. 

SEA-HEN.  The  guillemot,  a  sea-bird  of  the 
genus  Uria.  The  crooner,  a  fish  of  the  Trigla 
lyra. 

SEA-HOG.     The  porpoise. 

SEA-HOLLY.  An  evergreen  plant  of  the  genus 
Eryngium,  found  on  the  sea-shore. 

SEA-HOLM.     A  small,  uninhabited  island. 

SEA-HORSE.  The  walrus.  The  hippocampus, 
a  fish  having  a  prehensile  tail. 

SEA-KALE.  An  edible  plant,  the  Crambe 
mantima,  found  on  the  sea-shore ;  sea-cabbage ; 
sea-colewort. 

SEA-LAKE.     A  lagoon. 

SEA-LARK.  A  sand-piper.  The  ringed  dot 
terel. 

SEA-LAWS.  See  MARITIME  LAW,  OLERON 
CODE,  RHODIAN  LAWS. 

SEA-LAWYER.  An  idle,  querulous  sailor, 
given  more  to  questioning  orders  than  to  obey 
ing  them  ;  one  disposed  much  to  argue  the  ques 
tion.  The  tiger-shark. 

SEA-LEGS.  Ability  to  walk  on  the  moving 
deck  at  sea.  To  get  sea-legs  on,  to  become  accus 
tomed  to.  the  motion,  so  as  to  walk  on  the  deck. 

SEA-LEMON.  A  marine  gasteropod  mollusk 
of  the  genus  Doris;  it  is  lemon-colored,  oval, 
and  marked  with  numerous  punctures. 

SEA-LEOPARD.  A  seal,  the  Stenorhynchus  leo- 
pardinus,  spotted  like  a  leopard. 

SEA-LETTER.  A  document  issued  by  the  civil 
authorities  of  the  port  in  which  a  vessel  is  fitted 
out,  and  a  certificate  of  the  nationality  of  the 
vessel.  It  specifies  the  nature,  quantity,  owner 
ship,  and  destination  of  the  cargo. 

SEA-LION.  A  large  seal  of  the  genus  Platy- 
rhynchus,  having  a  mane  like  a  lion.  See  SEAL. 

SEA-LOG.  That  part  of  the  log  book  relating 
to  the  ship  while  at  sea. 


SEA 


728 


SEA 


SEA-LOUSE.     A  crab,  the  Pediculus  marinus. 

SEA-MAID.     A  mermaid  or  sea-nymph. 

SEA-MALL.     The  mew  ;  a  sea-gull. 

SEA-MARK.  Any  object,  as  a  beacon,  steeple, 
chimney,  tree,  or  hill,  easily  distinguishable 
from  to  seaward,  and  used  as  a  guide  in  the 
piloting  of  a  vessel. 

SEA-MEN.    Same  as  SEA-MALL. 

SEA-MOUSE.  A  marine  annelid,  the  Aphrodita 
aculeata,  covered  with  long  iridescent  hairs. 

SEA-NAVEL.     A  small  shell-fish. 

SEA-NEEDLE.  The  sea-pike,  or  gar  (Belone 
vulgaris),  with  long  pointed  jaws  and  a  forked 
tail. 

SEA-NETTLE.  All  Acalcphce,  particularly  the 
Medusce,  that  have  the  property  of  stinging. 

SEA-NYMPH.  A  nymph  or  inferior  goddess 
of  the  sea. 

SEA-ONION.  A  sea-coast  plant,  the  Scilla 
maritima. 

SEA-OOZE.    Soft  mud  near  the  shore. 

SEA-ORB.     A  round  marine  fish. 

SEA-OTTER.  An  aquatic  mammal,  the  Enhydra 
marina,  found  in  the  North  Pacific  Ocean. 

SEA-OWL.     The  lump-fish. 

SEA-PAD.     The  star-fish. 

SEA-PANTHER.     A  fish  like  a  lamprey. 

SEA-PASS.     See  PASSPORT. 

SEA-PAY.  The  pay  received  or  due  for  actual 
service  in  a  sea-going  ship. 

SEA-PERCH.    "Salt- water  perch. 

SEA-PHEASANT.  The  pin-tail  duck,  Dafila 
caudacuta. 

SEA-PIE.  A  sea-fowl,  the  Hcematopus  ostra- 
legus,  also  called  the  oyster-catcher,  from  its 
thrusting  its  bill  into  open  oysters  and  eating 
them.  A  dish  composed  of  fish  or  meat  and 
vegetables  in  layers  between  crusts,  the  number 
of  which  decide  whether  it  is  a  double-decker  or 
a  three-decker. 

SEA-PIKE.     The  gar-fish. 

SEA-PINCUSHION.  A  star-fish,  of  the  genus 
Goniaster. 

SEA-PINK.  A  marine  plant,  the  Cerastium 
repens. 

SEA-POACHER.  The  pogge,  or  Catophroctus 
Schonosldii. 

SEA-PORCUPINE.  This  name  is  given  to  sev 
eral  fish  of  the  genera  Diodon  and  Tetraodon, 
whose  bodies  are  thickly  covered  with  spines. 
Their  flesh  is  poisonous,  and  one  species  gives 
electric  shocks  if  touched. 

SEA-PORK.     The  flesh  of  young  whales. 

SEAPORT.     A  haven  on  the  sea. 

SEA-PUDDING.     A  species  of  holothurian. 

SEA-PURSE.    See  MERMAID'S  PURSE. 

SKA-PURSLANE.  A  marine  plant  of  the  genus 
Sesurium. 

S KA-QUADRANT.     A  name  for  the  Jacob's  staff. 

SEA-QUAKE.  A  quaking  or  shaking  of  the 
sea. 

SEA-RATE.     See  CHRONOMETER. 

SEA-RAVEN.  The  sculpin,  a  fish  of  the  genus 
Hemitripterus. 

SE\-REACH.  The  straight  lower  course  of  a 
winding  river  emptying  into  the  sea. 

SEA-REED.  A  grass  (Calamagrostis  arenarid) 
found  on  the  sea-shore. 

SEA-RISK.  Hazard  or  risk  incurred  by  pas 
sage  at  sea. 

SEA-ROBIN.  The  gurnard,  a  fish  of  the  genus 
Trigla. 


SEA-ROCKET.  A  plant  of  the  genus  Cakile, 
growing  on  the  shore. 

SEA-ROKE.  A  cold  fog  or  mist,  spreading  from 
the  sea  inland. 

SEA-ROOM.  Ample  space  at  sea  to  drive  or 
scud  without  danger. 

SEA-ROVER.     A  sea-robber  ;  a  pirate. 

SEA-SCORPION.  A  voracious  marine  fish,  the 
Coitus  scorpius,  having  its  head  armed  with 
spines. 

SEA-SERGEANTS.  A  Welsh  secret  society,  ex 
isting  from  1726  to  1765. 

SEA-SERPENT.  A  fabulous  animal  continually 
rediscovered  at  sea.  A  Mediterranean  eel.  A 
large  Australian  marine  serpent,  the  Hydrus 
Stokesii.  The  stories  of  the  sea-serpent  were 
mythological  in  origin,  coming  from  the  north 
of  Europe,  but  many  scientists  have  acknowl 
edged  the  possibility  of  the  existence  of  Saurians, 
or  sea-reptiles  of  great  size. 

SEA-SHORE.  The  coast  of  the  sea.  In  law, 
the  land  between  low-  and  high-water  marks. 

SEA-SICKNESS.  Vomiting  caused  by  the  mo 
tion  of  a  vessel  or  boat.  The  premonitory  symp 
toms  are  vertigo  and  headache,  with  a  peculiar 
feeling  of  sinking  and  distress  about  the  pit  of 
the  stomach,  which  is  soon  followed  by  a  pro 
found  nausea  accompanied  with  convulsive  heav 
ing  of  the  stomach  and  utter  prostration  of  the 
entire  body ;  a  deadly  pallor  and  profuse  cold 
sweat  are  commonly  present. 

SEA-SLATER.  The  Ligia  oceanica,  a  small  shell 
fish. 

SEA-SLEEVE.     The  squid,  Loligo  vulgaris. 

SEA-SLUG.     The  sea-cucumber,  or  Holothuria. 

SEA-SNAIL.  A  fish  found  under  stones  near 
the  sea-shore,  belonging  to  the  genus  Liparis. 

SEA-SPIDER.  A  crab  with  a  triangular  body 
and  long,  slender  legs,  the  Main  squinada. 

SEA-SPOUT.  The  spouting  of  water  through 
a  cleft  in  a  rocky  cliff. 

SEA-STAR.     The  star-fish. 

SEA-STREAM.  A  polar  term,  indicating  a  col 
lection  of  bay-ice,  affording  shelter  behind  it 
from  the  ocean. 

SEA-SWABBER.  A  term  of  reproach  for  an 
idle  sailor. 

SEA-SWALLOW.  The  tern,  Sterna  hirundo. 
The  storm-petrel,  Procellaria  pelagica. 

SEA-SWINE.     Porpoises. 

SEA-TANG.     Tang,  or  sea-weed. 

SEA-TOAD.     An  ugly  sea-fish. 

SEA-TRANSOM.  The  stern-transom  bolted  to 
the  ends  of  the  counter-timbers. 

SEA-TURN.  A  breeze,  gale,  or  mist  from  the 
sea.  A  tack  to  seaward. 

SEA-UNICORN.   The  narwhal.    See  NARWHAL. 

SEA-URCHIN.     The  Echinus.     See  SEA-EGG. 

SEA-WALL.  A  wall  built  to  prevent  the  sea 
from  overflowing  inclosed  lands. 

SEAWARD.     Toward  the  sea. 

SEA-WARE.     Sea-weed  thrown  on  the  beach. 

SEA-WATER.  The  water  of  the  ocean  varies 
greatly  in  its  component  parts  in  different  lo 
calities.  The  solid  parts  contained  therein  are 
chlorides  of  sodium,  potassium,  and  magnesium, 
bromide  and  sulphide  of  magnesium,  carbonate 
of  lime  and  magnesium,  ammonia,  silver,  and 
traces  of  other  metals.  Water  from  the  Mediter 
ranean  contains  410  parts  in  10,000;  from  the 
English  Channel,  380  parts;  from  the  North 
Sea,  312  to  360  parts;  and  from  the  Baltic,  66 


SEAL 


T29 


SECOND  OFFICER 


to  216  parts.  The  average  of  solid  parts  is  3£ 
per  cent.,  and  the  average  specific  gravity  is 
1.0274.  The  water  of  the  Dead  Sea  is  really  a 
mineral  water,  being  25  per  cent,  of  solid  parts. 

SEA-WEASEL.     The  lamprey  eel. 

SEA-WEED.     See  ALG.E. 

SEA-WIFE.     A  fish  of  the  genus  Labrus. 

SEA-WILLOW.  A  polyp  belonging  to  the  genus 
Gorgonia. 

SEA-WOLF.  The  wolf-fish.  Anarrhicas  lupus, 
found  in  northern  seas  about  Greenland,  Iceland, 
Norway,  Scotland,  England,  etc.,  and  so  named 
from  its  fierceness  and  ravenousness.  It  grows 
sometimes  to  the  length  of  4,  and  even  7  feet,  and 
feeds  on  crustaceous  animals  and  shell  fish,  as  well 
as  on  common  fish.  A  kind  of  seal.  See  SEAL. 

SEAWORTHY.  Fit  in  every  way  to  make  a 
voyage  at  sea.  Staunch  and  tight. 

SEA-WRACK.  Sea- weed  and  grass  thrown  on 
shore  on  the  coast  of  Holland,  and  used  for  ma 
nuring  land  (Zostera  marina). 

Seal.  An  aquatic  carnivorous  mammal  of  the 
family  Phocidce.  They  subsist  on  fish,  and  are 
abundant  in  the  colder  waters  of  the  globe.  The 
following  are  the  most  important  genera  and 
species :  The  genus  Callocephalus,  or  Phoca,  the 
common  seal,  C.  vitulinus,  belonging  to  it.  It 
is  common  in  European  and  American  waters, 
and  is  valuable  for  its  oil,  furs,  and  skin.  It  is 
from  4  to  6  feet  long.  The  P.  barbata,  or  bearded 
seal,  is  found  on  icebergs  in  the  open  Polar  Sea, 
and  attains  a  length  of  from  10  to  12  feet.  The 
Greenland  seal,  P.  Groenlandica,  is  found  in 
herds  on  floating  ice ;  is  most  useful  to  the 
Esquimaux  for  its  oil,  flesh,  and  skin,  and  fur; 
is  but  6  feet  long.  The  hare  seal,  P.  leporina, 
is  from  6  to  7  feet  long,  and  is  found  about  the 
northern  shores  of  Europe.  Another  genus  is 
Halichcerus.  To  it  belong  the  //.  griseus,  or  gray 
seal,  and  the  H.  Caspica,  or  Caspian  seal,  found 
in  the  Caspian  Sea,  and  valuable  for  its  excellent 
oil.  To  the  genus  Stenorychus  belongs  the  sea- 
leopard,  and  to  the  genus  Pelagius,  the  monk 
seal,  or  P.  monachus,  white-bellied,  from  8  to  10 
feet  long,  found  in  the  Adriatic  and  Mediterra 
nean  Seas.  To  the  genus  Stemmatopus  belongs 
the  crested  seal,  S.  cristatus,  7  to  8  feet  long, 
which  has  a  membranous  sac  on  its  head,  capa 
ble  of  inflation.  It  is  found  on  the  coast  of  Lab 
rador.  The  largest  seal,  the  elephant  seal,  be 
longs  to  the  genus  Macrorhinus  (M.  proboscideus] , 
and  attains  a  length  of  25  feet.  Its  oil  is  quite 
valuable.  Many  seals  belong  to  the  genus  Otaria, 
also  known  as  Platyrhynchus  and  Arcto-cephalus. 
The  sea-lions  and  sea-bears  belong  to  this  genus. 
There  is  a  northern  sea-lion  (0.  Stelleri)  and  a 
southern  sea-lion  (0.  Jubata),  as  well  as  a  north 
ern  sea-bear  (O.  Ursina)  and  a  southern  sea-bear 
(O.  Irorsteri),  the  latter  nearly  extinct. 

Sealed  Orders.  Orders-  sealed,  only  to  be 
opened  at  a  certain  time,  for  instance,  after  the 
ship  is  at  sea,  to  prevent  their  being  divulged. 

Seam.  The  openings  between  the  planks  of 
the  deck  and  sides  of  a  ship,  that  are  filled  with 
oakum  and  pitch  in  calking.  The  junction  of 
two  pieces  of  canvas,  when  they  are  sewed  to 
gether.  Sails,  awnings,  etc.,  are  sewed  with  dif 
ferent  seams,  varying  with  circumstances.  A 
flat  seam  is  one  in  which  two  edges  of  canvas 
are  overlapped  two  inches,  and  then  each  edge  is 
stitched  to  the  other  piece  by  a  direct  seam. 
"When  old  canvas  is  restitched,  it  is  sometimes 


necessary  to  middle  stitch  a  flat  seam,  by  running 
a  seam  midway  between  the  other  two.  A  round 
seam  is  one  in  which  two  edges  of  cloth  are 
brought  together,  and  stitched  together  by  over 
casting  the  thread.  A  cord  sea-mis  one  in  which 
the  edges  are  again  brought  together,  as  in  the 
round  seam,  but  are  slightly  rolled  in  on  the 
cloth,  and  stitched  to  it.  From  3  to  4  stitches  an 
inch  are  taken. 

Seaman.  A  mariner;  a  sailor.  Properly, 
one  competent  to  perform  all  the  duties  of  the 
profession,  whether  man  or  officer.  The  grade 
of  seaman,  or  able  seaman,  recognized  in  all 
navies,  comprises  those  who  are  practically  con 
versant  with  all  the  duties  of  common  seaman 
ship  ;  as,  to  reef,  to  hand,  to  steer,  to  heave  the 
lead,  to  rig  the  spars,  sails,  etc.  In  the  U.  S. 
navy  they  are  paid  $21.50  per  month  ;  in  the 
English  navy,  from  $6  to  $7.  Ordinary  seamen 
are  those  only  partially  skilled  in  these  duties. 

SEAMAN-GUNNER.  Seamen  who  are  particu 
larly  trained  in  gunnery  duties,  forming  a  dis 
tinct  grade  in  many  navies.  The  grade  was  created 
in  the  U.  S.  navy,  but  is  fast  becoming  extinct. 

SEAMAN'S  DISGRACE.     A  foul  anchor. 

Seamanship.  The  practical  science  and  art 
of  rigging,  fitting,  manoauvring,  and  handling  a 
ship  or  boat. 

Searcher.  A  customs-officer.  An  instrument 
for  examining  the  bore  of  guns. 

Seasoned  Timber.  Timber  prepared  for  use 
by  preservation  in  air,  water,  or  by  chemical 
processes  for  a  certain  length  of  time. 

Seasoning  a  Ship.  Allowing  a  ship  to  stand 
before  she  receives  her  planking,  so  as  to  dry 
out  the  timbers. 

Seat.  In  mechanism,  an  accurately  fitted 
portion  of  a  frame  or  relatively  fixed  piece  on 
which  another  piece  bears,  rests,  or  is  secured  ; 
as,  the  sent  of  a  bracket  or  flange,  or  a  valve-seat. 

Seat-lockers.  Lockers  arranged  so  as  to  form 
seats  in  the  cabins,  etc.  , 

Secondary  Circles.  Great  circles  of  the  sphere 
passing  through  the  poles  of  another  great  circle, 
which  is  called  their  primary. 

Secondary  Meridians.  Meridians  of  the  earth 
which  are  determined  like  the  first,  prime,  or 
primary  meridians,  such  as  those  of  Greenwich, 
Paris,  etc.,  by  astronomical  or  absolute  evidence, 
independently  of  the  chronometrical  or  relative 
method.  The  primary  meridians  are  those  from 
which  the  longitudes  in  the  tables  and  on  the 
charts  are  reckoned  ;  the  secondary  meridians 
are  useful  as  fundamental  and  independent  start 
ing-points  in  making  passages. 

Secondary  Planet.     See'PLANET. 

Second  Captain.  A  commander  in  a  ship  un 
der  a  captain,  in  some  navies. 

Second  Differences.  See  DIFFERENCES,  SEC 
OND. 

Second  Futtocks.  The  timbers  of  the  frame 
next  above  and  joined  to  the  first  futtocks,  or  to 
the  floor-timbers. 

Second-hand.  The  second  in  charge  of  a  fish 
ing-boat. 

Second  Lieutenant.  A  term  often  employed 
to  designate  the  officer  next  in  rank  to  the  execu 
tive-officer  ;  the  navigator.  The^lowest  grade  of 
commissioned  officers  in  the  marine  corps,  rank 
ing  with  an  ensign  in  the  navy. 

Second  Officer.  The  second  mate  of  a  mer 
chant  vessel. 


SECOND-RATE 


730 


SERPENT-FISH 


Second-rate.  The  second  of  the  grades  into 
which  ships  of  war  are  divided.  See  CLASSIFI 
CATION. 

Secret  Block.  A  block  with  a  lignum-vitte 
shell,  open  only  at  two  orifices  sufficiently  large 
to  allow  the  rope  to  pass  through  that  is  to  work 
around  the  sheave. 

Secretary.  A  rank  in  the  navy  corresponding 
with  lieutenant,  bestowed  on  the  person  em 
ployed  as  the  private  clerk  or  amanuensis  of  the 
admiral  and  of  the  vice-admiral.  An  officer  de 
tailed  to  serve  as  clerk  to  a  flag-officer,  usually 
ranking  with  lieutenant.  The  chief  or  confi 
dential  writer  to  the  commandant  of  a  naval 
station.  See  NAVY  DEPARTMENT. 

Sectional  Dock.  A  form  of  floating  dock, 
made  in  sections.  Each  section  is  a  tank  having 
trestle-work  on  the  sides  to  which  the  shores  are 
secured  Outside  the  tanks  on  each  side  are  floats 
made  of  sufficient  capacity  to  impart  the  proper 
stability  to  the  tank  when  the  vessel  is  raised  ;  on 
the  top  of  the  trestle-work  is  a  walk  or  platform 
upon  which  the  machinery  used  in  pumping  the 
dock  is  placed.  It  has  an  advantage  over  the 
docks  for  light  and  air,  and  can  be  used  or  floated 
anywhere  where  there  is  sufficient  water. 

The  tanks  and  blocks  of  an  ordinary  sectional 
dock  require  fifteen  feet  more  water  than  the  ship 
which  is  intended  to  be  raised.  For  this  reason 
alone  a  basin  dock  is  better  for  most  purposes. 

Secunda  Giedi.     The  star  a2  Capricorni. 

Secure  !  A  command  in  exercising  or  work 
ing  heavy  guns,  meaning  to  so  arrange  the 
breeching  and  tackles  that  the  gun  shall  be  in 
no  danger  of  breaking  loose  in  a  sea-way.  Guns 
are  secured  more  thoroughly  for  sea  than  for 
port. 

Securing-bolts.  Eye-bolts  placed  in  the  ship's 
side,  nearer  to  the  port  than  the  fighting-bolts, 
in  which  the  outer  blocks  of  the  tackles  are 
hooked  when  the  gun  is  secured. 

Sediment  Collector.  A  perforated  inverted 
cone,  placed  at  the  mean  water-level  of  a  marine 
steam-boiler,  to  the  apex  of  which  the  surface 
blow-pipe  is  attached.  It  is  not  found  efficient 
in  practice. 

A  cylindrical  drum,  attached  to  the  bottoms 
of  Western-river  steamboat  boilers,  to  which  the 
mud  blow-off  pipe  is  connected. 

Sedow.     The  gilt-head  (Sparus  auratus). 

Seeling.  Sudden  heeling  over,  and  return  to 
an  upright  position. 

Segment-shell.  A  rifle-shell,  having  a  thin 
outer  shell  lined  with  segmental  pieces  of  cast 
iron,  to  separate  at  explosion. 

Seize.  To  fasten  ropes  to  each  other  or  a  rope 
to  any  object  by  regular  turns  of  a  small  line. 

SEIZINGS.  These  are  of  various  kinds,  accord 
ing  to  their  position  and  use.  An  eye- or  throat- 
seizing  is  one  or  two  parts  of  a  rope  that  cross  to 
form  an  eye.  A  round  seizing  has  riding  or 
upper  turns  over  the  first  layer.  Aflat  seizing 
has  but  one  layer  of  turns. 

SEIZING-STUFF.  Small-stuff  is  used  for  seiz 
ings,  foxes  and  rope-yarns  for  temporary  seizings, 
marline,  hambroline,  houseline,  round  line,  etc., 
for  permanent  seizings.  Seizing-stuff  is  9-,  6-, 
or  4-thread  stuff,  of  tarred  hemp  yarns. 

Selaciun.  One  of  a  tribe  of  cartilaginous 
fishes,  including  the  ray  and  the  shark. 

Selchie.     The  seal,  Phoca  vitulina. 

Self-fastening  Rowlock.     A  metal  rowlock, 


whose  socket  travels  in  a  tube,  so  that  it  fastens 
itself  in  on  reaching  the  bottom  of  the  tube. 

Self-mousing  Hook.  A  hook  closing  auto 
matically  by  means  of  a  tongue,  so  that  it  will 
not  slip. 

Selfridge,  Thomas  O.,  Rear-Admiral  U.S.N. 
Born  in  Massachusetts.  Appointed  from  Mas 
sachusetts,  January  1,  1818. 

Commissioned  as  lieutenant,  March  3,  1827 ; 
Exploring  Expedition,  1829;  sloop  "Natchez," 
West  India  Squadron,  1830;  frigate  "Dela 
ware,"  Mediterranean  Squadron,  1834;  frigate 
"North  Carolina,"  1837;  rendezvous,  Boston, 
1840. 

Commissioned  as  commander,  April  11,  1844; 
navy-yard,  Portsmouth,  N.  H.,  1845;  frigate 
"Columbus,"  East  India  Squadron,  1846;  com 
manding  sloop  "Dale,"  Pacific  Squadron,  1848; 
commanding  rendezvous,  Boston,  1851-52 ;  Bos 
ton  Navy- Yard,  1853-55. 

Commissioned  as  captain,  September  14,  1855; 
commanding  steamer  "  Mississippi,"  1861 ;  com 
mandant  Mare  Island  Navy-Yard,  Cal.,  1862- 
64. 

Commissioned  as  commodore,  July  16,  1862. 
Retired  October  10,  1866  ;  commandant  navy- 
yard,  Philadelphia,  1867-68;  president  Exam 
ining  Board,  1869. 

Commissioned  as  rear-admiral,  July,  1870. 

Selvagee.  A  rough  rope,  made  of  a  bundle 
of  rope-yarns  wound  round  or  marled  with  an 
other  yarn. 

SELVAGEE  STRAP.  A  strap  made  of  selvagee, 
used  in  securing  the  breeching  of  guns,  etc. 

Semaphore.  An  upright  post  with  movable 
arms,  for  making  signals. 

Semidiameter.  Half  the  angle  subtended  by 
the  diameter  of  the  visible  disk  of  a  heavenly 
body  at  the  eye  of  the  observer. 

Semimenstrual  Inequality.  An  inequality 
of  the  tide,  which  goes  through  its  changes  every 
half-month. 

Send.  To  pitch  violently  into  the  trough  of 
a  sea.  To  'scend. 

Senior  Officer.  The  commanding  officer,  or 
the  most  advanced  line-officer  in  rank  at  any 
time  or  place. 

Sennit.  Flat  cordage,  formed  by  plaiting  rope- 
yarns  or  thread  together.  They  "must  be  of  an 
odd  number,  and  hence  the  name,  seven-knit. 
There  are  several  kinds.  Common  or  fat  sennit 
is  plain  plaiting,  five  to  seven  strands  being  used. 
French  sennit  is  similarly  made,  but  more  strands 
are  used,  and  it  is  more  open,  forming  a  woven 
band  of  yarns.  Round  sennit  is  formed  by  plait 
ing  even  numbers  of  strands  in  twos  around  a 
small  rope  or  heart.  Square  sennit  is  made  of 
even-numbered  strands  without  a  heart.  Sen 
nit  of  grass  was  formerly  woven  into  hats  by 
sailors,  but  is  so  no  longer. 

Sensible  Horizon.     See  HORIZON.     • 

Sentry,  or  Sentinel.  A  marine  or  seaman 
placed  on  post  charged  to  guard  certain  prop 
erty,  or  carry  out  certain  orders.  On  board  ship, 
marine  sentries  are  stationed  at  gangways,  cabin 
doors,  over  prisoners  and  scuttle-butt,  and  on  the 
forecastle  and  poop. 

Serang.     The  boatswain  of  a  Lascar  crew. 

Serpens  (Lat.  "The  Serpent"  of  Ophiuchus). 
A  constellation  lying  to  the  east  of  the  line  join 
ing  Arcturus  and  Antares. 

Serpent-fish.     A  fish  with  a  body  of  a  ribbon- 


SEKPENTINE 


<:.. 

731  SHAFT 


like  and  compressed  form,  and  a  band  of  red 
running  lengthwise,  Cepola  rubescens. 

Serpentine.  An  old  '24-pounder,  13  feet  long, 
weighing  4300  pounds. 

Serve.  To  perform  duty  on  board  ship  or  in 
government  establishments,  or  under  orders.  To 
cover  a  rope  closely  with  smaller  stuff,  so  as 
to  protect  it  from  the  weather.  Hope  is  first 
wormed,  then  parceled,  then  served.  To  serve 
the  vent,  to  clear  with  the  priming- wire  before 
loading. 

SERVICE.  The  small-stuff  wound 'around  a 
rope  to  protect  it  from  the  weather. 

SERVING-BOARD.  A  flat  piece  of  hard  wood, 
having  a  handle  attached,  used  in  serving  small 
ropes. 

SERVING-MALLET.  A  short  mallet,  with  a 
groove  on  the  under  side,  used  in  serving  large 
ropes. 

SERVING-STUFF.  Spun-yarn  is  generally  used, 
but  hambroline,  houseline,  and  round  line  are 
sometimes  preferred. 

Set.  The  direction  in  which  a  current  flows. 
A  suit,  or  complete  number,  as  a  set  of  signals. 
To  observe  and  note  the  bearings  of  any  object 
by  the  compass.  To  set  sail,  to  put  to  sea.  To 
set  a  sail,  to  spread  it.  To  set  the  chase,  to  ob 
serve  well  the  bearing  of  a  vessel  chased.  To  set 
the  course,  to  prescribe  the  course  to  be  steered. 
To  set  the  watch,  to  call  and  formally  report  the 
night-watch  at  8  P.M.  To  set  up  rigging,  to  take 
in  the  slack  of  the  standing  rigging,  so  as  to  give 
a  better  support  to  the  masts.  Setting  up  a  ship, 
raising  her  from  the  keel-blocks  by  wedging. 

Set-bolt.  A  bolt  used  as  a  punch  or  drift  to 
force  a  bolt  farther  in  than  can  be  done  by  driv 
ing  ;  it  is  also  used  to  drive  out  bolts.  A  bolt 
to  force  planks  together. 

Set-screw.  A  screw  binding  or  clamping  an 
adjustable  piece,  when  set  or  adjusted,  in  a  de 
sired  position,  to  another  relatively  fixed  piece, 
such  as  a  shaft,  bar,  or  portion  of  a  frame ;  as, 
the  set-screw  of  a  collar,  eccentric,  wheel,  slide,  etc. 

Sett.  A  power  used  by  shipwrights ;  two 
ring-bolts  with  a  staff,  fastened  by  cleats  and 
lashings. 

Settee.  A  vessel  used  in  the  Mediterranean, 
with  a  very  long  and  sharp  prow,  and  with  lateen- 
sails. 

Setting-pole.  An  iron-shod  pole,  to  move  a 
boat  with  in  shallow  water. 

Severalty.  A  law-term,  indicating  the  refer 
ence  of  disagreements  among  part-owners  of  a 
ship,  or  her  cargo,  to  the  courts. 

Sew.  To  cant  or  heel  when  left  on  the  sand 
by  the  tide. 

Sewant.     The  plaice. 

Sewin.     A  salmon  taken  in  "Welsh  waters. 

Sextans.     See  CONSTELLATION. 

Sextant.  The  sextant  (Lat.  sextans,  the  sixth 
part)  is  a  portable  instrument  for  measuring 
angles  by  reflection,  and  is  very  generally  used 
by  navigators  and  surveyors  for  measuring  the 
altitudes  of  heavenly  bodies,  the  angular  distance 
between  them,  and,  in  place  of  a  theodolite,  the 
horizontal  angular  distance  between  terrestrial 
objects.  The  instrument  was  invented  by  Sir 
Isaac  Newton,  who,  however,  did  not  publish 
his  invention,  which  was  subsequently  made  in 
dependently  by  Mr.  John  Hadley,  an  English 
man,  and  by  Mr.  Thomas  Godfrey,  a  Philadel- 
phian.  The  principle  governing  the  construction 


of  the  sextant  is,  that  "  the  angle  between  the 
first  and  last  directions  of  a  ray  of  light  which 
has  suffered  two  reflections  in  one  plane  is  equal 
to  twice  the  inclination  of  the  reflecting  surfaces 
to  each  other." 

The  sextant,  held  in  the  hand  and  requiring 
no  fixed  support,  is  peculiarly  adapted  to  use  on 
shipboard.  For  measuring  altitudes  at  sea  the 
line  of  the  apparent  horizon  is  used,  but  on  shore, 
where  various  objects  hide  the  natural  horizon, 
an  artificial  horizon  is  used,  consisting  usually 
of  a  flat  dish  of  mercury  with  a  glass  cover. 
The  image  of  an  object  seen  by  reflection  from 
the  surface  of  the  mercury,  appears  as  much 
below  the  horizon  as  it  is  really  above  it,  so  that 
the  angle  between  the  object  itself  and  its  re 
flected  image  is  double  its  altitude  above  the 
horizon.  Attempts  have  been  made  to  invent 
a  device  which  would  take  the  place  of  the  sea- 
horizon  when  it  was  hidden  by  fog  or  haze,  but 
thus  far-without  much  success. 

With  ordinary  sextants  no  angles  greater  than 
about  120°  can  be  measured,  but  with  the  admi 
rable  prismatic  sextant  of  Messrs.  Pistor  &  Mar 
tins,  angles  up  to  180°  may  be  accurately  meas 
ured.  In  this  instrument  the  index-glass  of  the 
ordinary  sextant  is  replaced  by  a  rectangular 
prism,  and  rays  from  the  object  seen  directly 
come  to  the  telescope  without  passing  through 
any  medium,  such  as  the  unsilvered  portion  of 
the  horizon-glass.  As  both  the  reflected  and 
direct  objects  are  much  better  defined  than  in 
the  ordinary  instruments,  this  sextant  is  pecu 
liarly  well  adapted  for  determining  latitude  by 
altitudes  of  stars  on  shore  with  the  artificial 
horizon. — F.  M.  Green,  Lieutenant- Commander 
U.S.N. 

SEXTANT,  ADJUSTMENT  OF.  The  index-glass 
must  be  perpendicular  to  the  plane  of  the  arc. 
The  horizon-glass  must  be  perpendicular  to  the 
plane  of  the  arc.  The  necessary  adjustments  are 
made  by  screws  at  the  back  of  the  mirrors.  The 
line  of  collimation  of  the  telescope  must  be  par 
allel  with  the  plane  of  the  arc.  The  adjustment 
is  made  by  means  of  the  screws  on  the  collar  of 
the  telescope.  When  the  index-glass  and  hori 
zon-glass  are  parallel,  the  index  should  coincide 
with  0  on  the  arc.  The  sextant  need  not  be  ad 
justed  on  account  of  this  error,  if  the  proper  al 
lowance  is  made  on  each  observation. 

Shackle.  An  iron  link,  one  end  of  which  is 
closed  by  a  movable  bolt.  Scre^v- shackle,  a 
shackle  in  which  the  bolt  is  screwed  into  place. 

SHACKLE-HOLT.  The  large  iron  bolt  that  closes 
a  shackle  when  in  place. 

SHACKLE-BLOCK.  A  block  with  an  iron  strap 
terminated  by  a  shackle  and  bolt. 

SHACKLE-NET.     A  flue-net. 

SHACKLE-PIN.  The  small  pin  that  confines 
the  shackle-bolt  in  place.  Wooden  pins  are  gen 
erally  used. 

SHACKLE-PUNCH.  An  iron  punch  for  driving 
out  shackle-bolts. 

Shad.     Fish  of  the  genus  Alosa. 

Shades.  Sets  of  colored  glasses  fitted  to  re 
flecting  instruments  to  diminish  the  glare  of 
bright  objects. 

Shaft.  In  machinery,  a  long  cylindrical  or 
prismatic  piece,  which  revolves  or  oscillates  about 
its  axis  on  journals  fitted  to  suitable  bearings, 
for  transmitting  to  a  wheel,  lever,  or  other  piece 
a  rotative,  oscillating,  or  reciprocating  rectilinear 


SHAG 


732 


SHEATHING 


motion  at  any  part  of  its  length.  Small  and 
rapidly  revolving  shafts  are  called  spindles, 

A  counter-shaft  is  a  short  shaft  through  which 
motion  is  transmitted  by  belts  from  line  shaft 
ing,  or  the  shaft  of  a  prime  mover  to  a  working 
machine  or  tool,  such  as  a  lathe,  planing-machine, 
saw,  blower,  etc.  It  is  provided  with  a  fixed 
and  a  loose  pulley,  and  means  for  shifting  the 
belt  of  the  driving-pulley  from  one  to  the  other, 
so  that  it  may  be  set  in  motion  or  at  rest  at  will, 
and  with  a  pulley,  drum,  or  speed-cone  belted  to 
corresponding  parts  of  the  driven  machine. 
When  it  is  required  to  suddenly  reverse  the  mo 
tion,  as  with  a  screw-cutting  lathe,  two  loose 
pulleys,  driven  in  opposite  directions  by  a  pair 
of  belts,  one  of  which  is  crossed,  are  used ;  the 
motion  being  communicated  to  the  shaft  by  a 
sleeve  and  clutch.  The  speed  of  the  machine  is 
determined  by  the  relative  sizes  of  the  pulleys ; 
and  a  speed-cone  is  used  when  varieties  of  speed 
are  required. 

An  intermediate  shaft  is  used  for  transmitting 
motion  from  one  shaft  to  another  when  their 
relative  positions  will  not  admit  of  direct  con 
nection,  or  when  the  difference  in  speed  is  such 
as  to  require  inconvenient  sizes  of  wheels  or 
pulleys  ;  also,  for  preserving  motion  in  the  same 
direction  of  two  shafts  connected  by  toothed 
wheels  or  gearing. 

Line  shafting  is  a  long,  continuous  line  of  sec 
tions  of  shafting  held  together  by  couplings  ;  as, 
a  screw-propeller  shaft,  or  the  line  shafting  of  a 
factory. 

SHAFT-ALLEY.  A  passage  extending  from  the 
engine-room  to  the  stern  stuffing-box,  in  which  is 
contained  the  propeller-shaft  and  its  bearings. 

SHAFT-BEARING.  A  support  for  the  journal 
of  a  shaft.  See  BEARING. 

SHAFT-COUPLING.  A  piece,  or  pair  of  pieces, 
for  securing  sections  of  shafting  together.  See 
COUPLING. 

SHAFT-PIPE.      The  pipe,  of  copper  or  iron, 

Placed  in  the  dead-wood  of  a  screw-ship  as  a 
ning ;  having  glands  or  a  proper  packing  at 
each  end,  it  can  be  made  water-tight. 

Shag.  The  green  cormorant,  Phalocr.ocorax 
graculus. 

Shake.  To  shake  out  a  reef,  to  let  it  out  and 
enlarge  the  sail.  To  shake  a  cask,  to  take  it  to 
pieces  and  pack  the  staves.  These  are  called 
shakes,  and  hence  the  term  "  no  great  shakes." 
To  shake  the  sails,  to  luff  up  in  the  wind,  caus 
ing  the  sails  to  shiver.  A  shake  among  ship 
wrights  is  a  crack  or  rent  in  timber.  Shake  a 
leg !  hurry  up  !  be  quick  ! 

Shakings.  Refuse  of  cordage,  canvas,  etc. 
Oakum  swept  up  off  decks. 

Shallop,  or  Shalloop.  A  small  boat  rowed 
by  two  men.  A  light  fishing-boat,  with  small 
fore-  and  main-lug  sails.  The  term  is  also  ap 
plied  to  sloops. 

Shallows.     Large  extents  of  shoal  water. 

Shallow-waisted.  A  term  opposed  to  deep- 
waisted,  applied  to  flush-deck  vessels. 

Shan.     Knotty  or  fibrous  defects  in  timber. 

Shang-Hai,  the  chief  emporium  of  China, 
now  open  for  European  commerce,  is  situated  in 
the  province  of  Kiang-Soo,  on  the  Woosung 
River,  and  12  miles  above  the  mouth  of  the  Woo 
sung,  in  the  estuary  of  the  Yang-tse-Kiang. 
The  river,  though  three-quarters  of  a  mile  broad 
opposite  Shang-Hai,  is  little  better  than  a  mere 


tidal  channel.  It  is  an  important  entrepot  of  the 
commerce  between  the  north  and  south  provinces 
of  China,  exporting  manufactured  goods  to  Tien- 
Tsin,  and  importing  large  quantities  of  pulse, 
flour,  meats,  rhubarb,  and  skins  from  the  shores 
of  the  Yellow  Sea.  It  has  an  extensive  river 
trade  with  the  interior  of  China,  and  its  coasting 
trade  is  also  very  large.  It  has  regular  steam 
communication  with  all  the  open  ports  of  China 
and  Japan,  and  with  India,  the  United  States, 
and  Europe.  About  2000  vessels  clear  port  here 
annually, 'and  the  value  of  the  imports  and  ex 
ports  is  about  $75,000,000  each  year.  Lat.  31° 
12/  N.  ;  Ion.  121°  28'  E.  Pop.  250,000. 

Shank.  An  arrangement  of  deep-sea  fishing- 
lines.  The  main  piece  of  an  anchor,  connecting 
the  stock  and  the  arms. 

SHANK-PAINTER.  A  rope  or  chain  which  con 
fines  the  shank  of  the  anchor  to  the  bill-board. 

Shanny.  A  small  fish  (Phohs  subfurcatus], 
which  lurks  under  stones  and  weeds. 

Shape.  To  shape  the  course,  to  determine  the 
course  which  the  ship  is  to  steer. 

Shark.  Cartilaginous  fish  of  the  family 
Squalidce.  They  are  carnivorous  and  very  vo 
racious.  There  are  some  100  species,  varying 
greatly  in  size,  from  3  feet  to  40  feet  in  length. 
The  Scyllidce  contains  the  dog-fishes,  and  they 
all  spout.  The  white  shark  ( Carcharias  vulgaris] 
and  the  blue  shark  (C.  glaucus)  belong  to  this 
family.  The  basking-shark  is  the  largest,  and 
belongs  to  the  genus  Sclache.  It  attains  a  length 
of  40  feet.  The  thresher-shark  belongs  to  the 
genus  Alopia ;  the  angel-fish,  monk-fish,  or  fiddle- 
fish,  to  the  Squahdas.  The  hammer-headed  shark 
belongs  to  the  Zygcenidce. 

Sharks  vary  somewhat  in  their  habits,  many 
kinds  being  dangerous  to  man,  while  others  are 
comparatively  harmless.  The  name  shark  is  also 
applied  to  crimps,  sharpers,  and  low  attorneys. 

SHARK'S-MOUTH.  The  opening  for  the  breech 
ing  at  the  cascabel  of  a  gun.  The  irregular 
opening  cut  in  an  awning  to  embrace  the  mast. 

Sharp.  Prompt  and  ready.  Be  sharp! 
make  haste  !  Look  sharp  !  be  quick  !  A  sharp  is 
one  versed  in  some  specialty,  as  a  torpedo-sharp, 
a  gunnery-sharp,  etc.  A  yard  is  sharp-up  when 
it  can  be  braced  up  no  farther.  Sharp-bottom,  a 
sharp  floor,  or  one  with  considerable  rise  in  the 
timbers.  Sharp-iron,  a  calking-tool. 

Sharpie.  A  long,  flat-bottomed  sail-boat, 
used  in  the  United  States. 

Shear.  An  iron  eel-spear.  A  stress  tending 
to  separate  a  body  into  parts,  overcoming  the 
cohesion  of  its  particles  by  sliding  one  part  over 
another  in  a  plane  parallel  to  the  direction  of  the 
force. 

Shear-bill.  A  sea-fowl,  the  Rhynchops  nigra. 
The  cutwater,  or  black  skimmer. 

Shear-hooks.  A  kind  of  sickle,  formerly 
placed  at  the  yard-arms  to  cut  the  rigging  of  an 
enemy  on  boarding  her.  They  are  described  by 
Vegetius  in  his  "  Re  militaris,"  and  were  exten 
sively  used  in  the  14th,  15th,  and  16th  centuries, 
and  even  as  late  as  the  17th  century  they  were 
seen. 

Shears.     See  SHEERS. 

Shear-water,  or  Shear-water  Petrel.  A  sea- 
fowl,  the  Pu.ffinus  Anglorum. 

Sheat-fish.     See  SHEET-FISH. 

Sheathing.  The  casing  or  covering  placed  on 
a  ship's  bottom  for  protection.  The  material  for 


SHEAVE 


T33 


SHEET  FLUE-BOILER 


such  covering.  Ships  were  formerly  breamed, 
or  charred,  for  this  purpose,  but  this  afforded 
slight  protection.  Wood  sheathing  was  also 
used.  Lead  was  introduced  in  1620,  the  sheets 
being  fastened  by  copper  nails.  This  lasted  un 
til  1770,  the  "  Marl  borough,"  English  line-of- 
battle  ship,  wearing  hers  entirely  off.  With 
wood  sheathing  nails  were  sometimes  used  with 
(heads  so  large  as  to  meet  and  cover  the  sheathing. 
A  coating  of  tar,  pitch,  and  brimstone  was  used 
in  1737,  and  was  quite  successful.  A  Japanese 
junk  of  800  tons  was  seen  in  Japan,  in  1613,  iron- 
sheathed.  In  1761,  copper  was  first  applied  as 
sheathing.  Galvanic  action  was  the  greatest 
obstacle,  and  it  led  to  the  use  of  copper  bolts. 
Compounds  of  copper  with  other  metals  have 
been  used,  chief  among  which  are  the  following  : 
Muntz's  metal — copper, 60, zinc,  1  part;  Mushet's 
metal — copper,  100,  zinc,  £ ;  Revere  metal — 
copper,  95,  zinc,  5;  Wethersted  metal — copper, 
90  to  97,  antimony,  3  to  10;  Collins's  red- 
copper,  8,  zinc,  1 ;  Collins's  yellow — copper,  10, 
zinc,  8;  Collins's  white— copper,  1,  zinc,  16,  tin, 
16;  Pope's  metal — lead,  1,  zinc,  3,  tin,  2  parts. 
Copper  is  put  on  with  after  and  under  sides  lap 
ping,  and  the  sheets  are  of  various  sizes,  shown 
by  the  weight  in  ounces  to  the  square  foot,  being 
16,  18,  28,  and  32  ounces. 

SHEATIIING-NAILS.  Large  flat-headed  metal 
nails,  used  to  nail  on  sheathing.  They  are  from 
£  to  2}  inches  long,  and  have  large  flat  heads. 

SHEATHING-PAPER.  Thick,  coarse  paper  put 
on  under  the  sheathing. 

Sheave.  The  wheel  on  which  the  rope  works 
in  a  block,  or  in  a  mast  or  yard.  They  are  of 
hard  wood,  generally  of  lignum-vitse,  or  of 
brass  or  iron.  Sheaves  are  open  or  solid  in  make, 
when  of  metal.  A  dumb-sheave  is  simply  a 
groove  in  the  heel  of  a  topmast  for  a  hawser  to 
lie  in.  A  patent-sheave  is  one  having  at  its 
centre  a  brass  frame  carrying  several  small  brass 
rollers,  inside  which  the  pin  is  put.  The  friction 
is  absorbed  by  the  rollers^.  A  layer  of  tiers  in  a 
coiled  rope  is  a  sheave. 

SHEAVE-HOLE.  An  aperture  cut  in  a  block, 
mast,  or  yard,  in  which  a  sheave  is  fitted. 

Shebeen.  A  low  groggery  frequented  by 
sailors. 

Shedders.  Female  fish  during  the  spawning 
season. 

Sheen-net.     A  large  drag-net. 

Sheep-shank.  A  hitch  made  in  a  rope  for 
the  purpose  of  shortening  it  temporarily.  It  is 
made  by  taking  two  long  bights  in  a  rope,  and 
half  hitching  each  part  over  an  end  of  this 
loop. 

Sheepshead.  A  fish  caught  on  the  shores  of 
Connecticut  and  of  Long  Island,  so  called  from  the 
resemblance  of  its  head  to  that  of  a  sheep  (Sparus 
ovis).  It  is  allied  to  the  gilt-head  and  sea-bream, 
and  is  esteemed  delicious  food. 

Sheer.  The  upward  longitudinal  curve  of  a 
vessel's  deck  or  sides.  The  position  in  which  a 
ship  is  kept  when  at  anchor,  to  keep  her  clear  of 
her  anchor.  To  sheer  off,  to  avoid  a  danger  by 
turning  the  ship's  head  away  from  it.  To  break 
the  sheer,  to  be  forced  by  wind  or  wave  over  the 
anchor,  so  as  to  be  in  danger  of  breaking  it  out. 

SHEER-BATTEN.  A  long  and  wide  batten  used 
in  running  the  sheer-lines  upon  the  ship  while 
building. 

SHEER-LINE.    See  LINE. 


SHEER-PLAN.  The  vertical  longitudinal  plan 
of  a  ship.  See  PLAN. 

SHEER-POLE.  An  iron  rod,  fastened  to  the 
shrouds  just  above  the  dead-eyes,  to  which  the 
ratlines  are  parallel. 

SHEER-RAIL.  A  rail,  molded  on  the  outside, 
placed  along  the  topsides. 

SHEER-SAIL.     A  drift-sail. 

SHEER-STRAKE.  In  merchant  ships,  the  upper 
strake,  or  that  strake  upon  which  the  plank-sheer 
rests.  In  vessels  of  war,  the  strake  worked  above 
the  ports  and  nearest  to  the  deck,  and  which  forms 
the  chief  strength  of  the  topsides. 

SHEER-WALES.     The  same  as  middle-wales. 

Sheers.  Sheers  consist  of  two  or  more  spars 
raised  at  an  angle,  lashed  and  supported  by  guys, 
and  having  purchases  attached  by  means  of 
which  masts  are  raised,  or  any  other  heavy 
weight  lifted.  Stationary  sheers  are  erected  in 
navy-yards,  and  are  of  various  patterns,  the 
most  ordinary  kind  being  two  inclined  spars, 
supported  by  ropes  or  chains,  and  two  breasting 
spars  or  skids.  Movable  sheers  are  temporary 
structures  erected  on  board  a  ship  for  the  pur 
pose  of  moving  her  masts.  (See  MASTING.) 
Sometimes  sheers  are  erected  on  a  movable 
vessel,  called  a  sheer-hulk.  Sheers  are  often  re 
placed  by  heavy  cranes  worked  by  steam. 

SHEER-HULK.  An  old  ship  fitted  with  sheers, 
etc.,  for  masting.  Figuratively,  an  old  sailor 
worn  out  in  the  service. 

SHEER-LASHING.  A  lash  passed  about  the 
head  of  the  sheers. 

SHEER-MAST.  A  mast  made  of  two  spars  like 
sheers,  inside  which  a  yard  works.  Used  on 
Peruvian  boats. 

Sheet.  A  rope  or  chain  fastened  to  the  lower 
corner  of  a  sail,  to  haul  and  keep  it  in  place.  A 
course  has  a  sheet  and  a  tack  at  each  lower 
corner.  When  before  the  wind,  both  sheets  are 
hauled  aft,  but  only  the  lee  sheet  under  other  cir 
cumstances.  Other  square-sails  use  both  sheets 
when  the  sail  is  set.  The  stay-sail,  jibs,  and  try 
sails  have  a  sheet  at  their  lower  after  corner 
only.  The  studding-sails  have  two  sheets  at 
their  lower  inner  corner  only.  The  sheets  are 
all  named  after  the  sails  which  they  extend. 
Sheet  home!  An  order  to  haul  on  the  sheets  of 
a  sail,  until  the  sail  is  as  close  to  the  yard, 
boom,  or  deck  as  it  may  be.  A  sheet  in  the 
wind,  half-tipsy,  fuddled.  Both  sheets  in  the 
wind,  very  drunk. 

SHEET-ANCHOR,  or  WAIST-ANCHOR.  An 
anchor  stowed  on  shores  in  the  waist  outside 
the  ship,  in  the  wake  of  the  fore-sheet,  on  either 
side.  Formerly  the  sheet-anchor  was  the  heaviest. 
By  the  allowance-book,  bowers  and  sheets  are  of 
the  same  weight  in  the  navy. 

SHEET-BEND.  A  bend  made  by  passing  the 
end  of  a  rope  through  a  bight  in  another,  round 
both  parts  and  under  its  own  part. 

SHEET-BITTS.  Bitts  for  the  sheet-chain.  Bitts 
near  the  mast,  to  belay  the  topsail-sheets  to. 

SHEET-CHAIN,  or  SHEET-CABLE.  The  cable  or 
chain  used  with  the  sheet-anchor.  They  are  fur 
nished  to  the  navy  15  fathoms  shorter*  than  the 
bower-cables,  but  of  the  same  diameter. 

Sheet-fish.     A  large  fish,  the  Siluns  glanis. 

Sheet  Flue-boiler.  A  boiler  in  which  the 
flues  are  made  of  sheets  or  plates  riveted  together. 
The  cross-section  of  the  flues  may  be  circular, 
rectangular,  oval,  or  of  any  arbitrary  form. 


SHEETS 


734 


SHIP 


Sheets.  The  sheets  of  a  boat  are  the  spaces  in 
the  forward  and  after  ends,  unoccupied  by  rowers, 
called  the  fore-sheets  and  the  stern-sheets. 

Sheldrake.     The  duck,  Tadorna  vulpanser. 

Shelf.  A  sand-bank  bounded  by  a  ledge  of 
rocks.  A  shelf-piece. 

Shelf-pieces.  Strakes  of  thick  plank,  run 
ning  along  inside  the  ship,  to  support  the  ends 
of  the  beams. 

Sheliak.     The  star  (3  Lyrce. 

Shell.  A  hollow  iron  shot  containing  explo 
sive  materials,  destined  to  burst  at  the  proper 
time  by  a  charge  contained  in  it.  Powder  is 
generally  used  for  this  charge  (called  the  burst 
ing  charge),  but  dynamite  and  other  powerful 
explosives  have  been  suggested.  (See  PROJEC 
TILES.)  The  outside  case  or  envelope  of  a  marine 
boiler.  It  is  entirely  of  iron  or  steel.  (See 
MARINE  BOILERS.)  The  wooden  or  metal  casing 
covering  the  sheave  of  a  block.  To  shell,  to 
throw  shell  into  a  place  so  as  to  thoroughly  bom 
bard  it. 

SHELL-BAG.  A  bag  used  for  carrying  or  hoist 
ing  shells  in  on  board  ship,  or  for  stowing  empty 
shell  in. 

SHELL-BEARER.  A  wooden  or  iron  implement 
for  carrying  heavy  shell. 

SHELL-CRANE.  An  iron  stanchion  shipped  at 
or  near  a  hatch,  for  hoisting  shell  from  below. 

SHELL-EXTRACTOR.  A  part  of  the  machinery 
of  a  breech-loading  rifle,  designed  to  remove  the 
empty  shell  after  each  fire. 

SHELL-GAUGE.  Callipers  to  gauge  the  dimen 
sions  of  shell. 

SHELL-GUN.  A  gun  designed  particularly  for 
throwing  shell. 

SHELL-HOUSE.  A  house  on  shore  for  the  stow 
age  of  shell. 

SHELLMAN.  One  of  a  gun's  crew  who  pro 
vides  the  gun  with  shell.  In  each  gun's  crew 
there  are  two  shellmen. 

SHELL-POWDER.  Powder  used  for  filling 
shells.  It  is  now  the  same  as  torpedo  powder. 

SHELL-ROOM.  A  room  below  the  berth-deck, 
constructed  and  lighted  like  a  magazine,  and 
used  to  stow  loaded  shell  in. 

SHELL-STRAP.  An  iron  strap  used  to  fasten 
the  sabot  to  the  shell. 

SHKLL-WHIP.  A  light  tackle  to  whip  up 
shell  from  below.  In  monitors,  the  upper  block 
runs  on  a  bar  above,  so  as  to  be  brought  to  the 
muzzle  of  the  gun,  or  over  the  shell-room  hatch. 

Shellac.     Melted  resin-  or  gum-lac. 

Shell-back.  A  well-seasoned  mariner.  An 
old  salt. 

Shell-fish.  Mollusks  or  articulates,  with  a 
shell-covering,  hard  or  soft. 

Shelves.  Dangerous  shoals,  shallows,  or  rocks, 
lying  immediately  under  the  surface. 

Shelving.     Gradually  rising  shoals  or  land. 

Sheratan.     The  star  '/3  Arietis. 

Shevo.     A  sailor-entertainment. 

Shibah.     A  small  Indian  vessel. 

Shield-ship.  A  ship  fitted  with  heavy  shields, 
to  protect  her  guns.  An  improvement  on  the 
cupola-ship,  it  finally  became  the  turret-ship. 

Shield-tower  (Eng.).     A  revolving  turret. 

Shieve.  To  row  the  wrong  way.  To  assist 
the  helmsman  in  a  narrow  channel. 

Shift.  A  term  applied  to  the  disposing  of  the 
butts  either  in  wood  planking  or  iron  plating,  so 
that,  the  greatest  strength  may  be  secured.  A 


change  in  direction  ;  as,  a  shift  of  wind.  A  party 
of  men  to  relieve  another  party.  To  alter  the 
position  of  anything.  To  replace  one  thing  by 
another;  as,  to  shift  the  ballast,  to  shift  the 
berth,  etc. 

SHIFTER.  An  assistant  to  the  ship's  cook,  who 
washed,  steeped,  and  shifted  the  salt  provisions. 

SHIFTING-BACKSTAYS.  Preventer  backstays. 
See  BACKSTAY. 

SHIFTING-BALLAST.  Pigs  of  iron,  bags  of 
sand,  etc.,  used  for  ballast,  and  capable  of  being 
moved  about. 

SHIFTING-BOARDS.  Wooden  bulkheads  in  a 
ship's  hold,  used  to  separate  the  cargo. 

SHIFTING-CENTRE.     See  META-CENTRE. 

SHIFTING-SAND.  Sand  that  changes  its  posi 
tion  by  the  action  of  tide  or  current. 

Shimal.  A  severe  northwest  gale,  accompa 
nied  by  a  cloudless  sky,  in  the  Persian  Gulf. 

Shiner.  A  light-house.  The  dace,  a  small 
fish. 

Shingle.     Coarse  gravel  or  rounded  stones. 

SHINGLE-TRAMPER  (Eng.).  A  coast-guards 
man. 

Shin  Up.  To  climb  up  a  rope  or  spar  by  the 
hands  and  legs  alone. 

Ship.  The  word  ship  (from  Greek  skaptein, 
to  scoop  out)  is  popularly  used  to  designate  any 
sea-going  vessel  larger  than  an  undecked  boat. 
But  a  ship,  technically  speaking,  is  a  large  ves 
sel  carrying  from  11  to  12  square-sails  on  three 
masts,  extended  by  yards,  and  also  a  number  of 
jibs,  stay-sails,  and  other  square  and  fore-and-aft 
sails. 

When  we  attempt  to  trace  the  history  of  the 
ship,  we  lose  ourselves  in  a  mass  of  traditions 
and  conjectures.  The  early  legends  of  most  na 
tions  refer  to  the  ship;  but  little  knowledge  of 
its  origin  and  progress  is  to  be  gained  from  such 
allusions.  First  dwelling  inland,  and  thence 
impelled  by  successive  migrations  to  river, 
lake,  and  sea-shore,  means  of  crossing  these 
waters  were  devised.  At  first  a  floating  log, 
then  one  hollowed  out  by  fire  or  stone  ax,  an 
swered  the  purpose  ;  but  larger  sheets  of  water 
rendered  necessary  an  assemblage  of  such  trunks, 
and  experience  increased  the  buoyancy  of  such 
structures  by  adding  a  number  of  inflated  skins 
to  them.  Others,  where  timber  was  scarce,  pre 
pared  a  wicker  structure  and  covered  it  with 
bitumen  or  pitch,  and  thus  crossed  a  rapid  stream. 
From  these  primitive  canoes  (monoxyles),  wicker- 
boats  (coracles),  or  rafts  (schedai,  Gr.  ;  rates, 
Lat. ),  gradually  arose  the  first  ship.  Nor  are  we 
without  legends  as  to  these.  Sanchoniathon,  a 
Phoenician  writer,  informs  us  that  Osoiis  (a  god) 
took  a  tree  that  a  storm  had  thrown  down  and 
that  lightning  had  hollowed  out,  and  with  it 
first  ventured  on  the  sea.  He  also  says  that  Chry- 
sor  ( Vulcan)  designed  the  raft.  Strabo  ascribes 
the  invention  of  the  latter  to  Ervthras,  a  king 
on  the  Persian  Gulf.  Isidore  ascribes  the  inven 
tion  of  ships  to  the  Lvclians.  The  first  voyage 
mentioned  in  the  Bible  is  that  of  the  sons  of 
Noah,  in  Gen.  vii.  The  ark,  the  first  vessel 
there  mentioned,  was  but  a  floating  covered  raft, 
450  feet  long,  75  feet  broad,  and  45  feet  high, 
capable  of  bearing  15,000  tons.  That  some  kind 
of  vessel  was  designed  before  the  final  separation 
of  the  nations  seems  apparent  from  the  fact  that 
the  Sanscrit  and  the  Greek  words  (naus)  ship  are 
nearly  identical. 


SHIP 


735 


SHIP 


The  Chaldeans,  the  earliest  historic  nation, 
were  doubtless  navigators  of  the  Persian  Gulf, 
the  Accad  rulers  being  especially  alluded  to  by 
Isaiah  as  "exulting  in  their  ships."  There 
originated  the  sea-god,  who  under  the  names  of 
Dagon,  Melkarte.  Poseidon,  and  Neptune,  en 
dured  for  many  centuries  as  the  prime  deity  of 
the  mariner.  Thence  emigrated  the  Phoenicians, 
carrying  their  sea-knowledge  with  them  to  the 
Mediterranean.  The  succeeding  Assyrian,  Me 
dian,  and  Persian  states  were  non-maritime,  and 
they  and  the  Jewish  kingdom  had  no  influence 
in  the  development  of  the  ship.  When  Sennach 
erib  and  Sargon  conquered  Phoenicia,  the  ships 
of  that  commercial  state  were  used  by  them  in 
further  conquests,  and  by  their  aid  Cypress  was 
taken  and  Susa  conquered.  The  earlier  Assyrian 
sculptures  show  us  only  boats  of  reeds,  and  rafts 
of  logs  and  inflated  skins  ;  but  after  these  con 
quests,  we  see  represented  vessels  with  one  or  two 
banks  of  oars,  evidently  Phoenician,  with  sharp 
prow  and  high  stern,  or  with  equally  high  and 
curved  stem  and  stern.  Some  of  these  were  40 
feet  long,  and  were  rowed  by  from  18  to  22  men. 

The  Lydians,  Carians,  Cilicians,  and  other  na 
tions  on  the  Asiatic  sea-board,  noted  for  their 
early  piractical  exploits,  seem  to  have  acquired 
their  maritime  knowledge  from  Phoenicia. 

Egypt,  whose  monuments  give  us  more  exact 
notions  as  to  her  ships,  was  essentially  a  non- 
maritime  state,  although  bordering  on  the  sea. 
Her  people  detested  and  feared  the  sea,  regarded 
salt  water  as  defiling,  and  deemed  it  a  disgrace 
to  be  buried  in  the  sea.  Mariners  were  of  the 
lower  caste,  and  only  on  the  sacred  Nile  did  they 
develop  maritime  knowledge.  Monuments  of 
2800-2000  B.C.  represent  ships,  and  an  inscription 
of  King  Una  (2000  B.C.)  mentions  war-vessels, 
one  assisting  to  tow  boats  laden  with  stone  for 
the  Pyramids.  But  until  the  advent  of  foreign 
ers  the  Egyptians  knew  little  of  the  sea,  and  it 
was  only  when  Carians,  Lybians,  Phoenicians, 
and  Cyprians  brought  them  ships  that  they  be 
gan  to  make  conquests  by  sea. 

The  smaller  boats  used  on  the  Nile  were  made 
of  papyrus,  and  the  larger,  of  short  planks  of 
acacia,  overlapped  at  the  edges,  and  calked  with 
papyrus.  Small  vessels  were  propelled  by  poles, 
and  larger  ones  by  oars  and  sails,  and  the  force 
of  the  current  was  utilized  in  coming  down 
stream.  One  of  the  oldest  vessels  shown  on  the 
monuments  has  40  oars,  and  is  probably  100  feet 
long.  It  had  a  double  mast  made  of  two  spars, 
and  a  large  square-sail  bent  to  a  yard,  and  man 
aged  by  sheets  and  braces.  Later,  vessels  are 
shown,  both  war  and  merchant,  with  one  mast 
and  one  square-sail,  spread  between  two  yards 
revolving  about  the  mast  in  a  kind  of  boxing 
Kameses  II.  had  a  large  fleet  of  war-galleys,  and 
is  said  to  have  equipped  300  ships  on  the  Red 
Sea.  Vessels  were  highly  ornamented,  the  lotus 
and  sacred  animals  being  painted  on  oar,  rudder, 
prow,  and  stern,  and  the  sails  were,  sometimes 
embroidered  and  ornamented  in  colors.  King 
Pepi,  of  the  6th  dynasty,  is  said  to  have  sent 
the  first  expedition  beyond  the  mouth  of  the 
Nile. 

But  the  great  maritime  people  of  antiquity 
were  the  Phoenicians,  whose  ships  monopolized 
the  entire  trade  of  the  Mediterranean  for  many 
centuries,  and  whose  merchant  fleets  sailed  from 
the  Syrian  Sea  into  the  ^Egean,  the  Euxine,  and 


Tyrrhenian  Seas,  and  to  the  "Western  Mediter 
ranean,  and  established  colonies  that  perpetuated 
their  maritime  renown.  They  furnished  the 
models  for  war  and  merchant  vessels  to  all  the 
surrounding  nations,  the  Gauli,  or  round  ships, 
and  the  Arco,  or  long  ship  (query,  Ark?  Argo?), 
distinguishing  the  classes.  We  know  from  Ays- 
syrian  sculptures  that  they  invented  the  bireme, 
with  2  ranks  of  oars,  and  Clement  of  Alexan 
dria  says  they  first  planned  the  trireme,  with  3 
ranks,  imparting  the  knowledge  to  the  Corin 
thians,  usually  credited  with  its  invention. 
Greek  ships  were  closely  modeled  from  Phoe 
nician,  and  it  was  the  misfortune  of  this  unwar- 
like  and  commercial  people  to  be  a  frequent  con 
quest  of  other  and  more  mighty  powers.  Thus 
they  furnished  fleets  to  Egypt,  Assyria,  Persia, 
and  Judea. 

The  earliest  beginnings  of  the  Greeks  are  con 
nected  with  navigation  and  ships.  Such  begin 
nings  extend  back  into  the  heroic  ages,  and  can 
only  be  traced  in  the  numerous  myths  and  le 
gends  handed  down  through  various  sources.  So 
the  stories  of  the  advent  of  Danaus,  Cecrops, 
Inachus,  and  others,  doubtless  involve  voyages 
of  settlement  and  discovery,  while  the  legends  of 
Pegasus,  Phryxus,  Perseus,  Icarus,  and  the  Rapes 
of  Europa  and  lo  refer  to  the  first  appearance 
of  the  ship.  Dardanus  is  said  to  have  come  to 
Troy,  after  the  flood,  in  a  leather-covered  boat. 
The  Homeric  vessels  at  the  siege  of  Troy  were 
small  undecked  boats,  carrying  from  50  to  120 
men,  hauled  up  on  shore  when  not  in  use,  and 
even  carried  when  necessary.  The  first  long 
voyage  of  Greek  ships  is  typified  in  the  story  of 
the  Argo.  Long  before  the  western  Greeks 
were  interested  in  the  revival  of  navigation, 
those  of  the  Asiatic  towns  and  the  islands  were 
hardy  and  skillful  navigators,  and  planted  many 
maritime  colonies.  Minos  of  Crete  first  subdued 
the  Carian  and  Cilician  pirates,  and  is  said  to 
have  possessed  the  first  marine.  The  larger 
islands,  Samos,  Chios,  Lesbos,  followed  after 
Crete,  and  as  the  Corcyran,  Corinthian,  and 
Athenian  states  became  interested  in  maritime 
affairs,  the  ship  was  perfected  more  and  more, 
the  war-vessel  particularly  improved,  and  the 
Greeks  gradually  succeeded  the  Phoenicians  as 
masters  of  the  Eastern  Sea.  When  the  great 
conqueror  established  the  Macedonian  empire,  a 
new  impulse  was  given  to  navigation,  and  the 
Indian  Ocean,  hitherto  unknown  to  the  Greek 
mariners,  was  soon  regularly  traversed  by  their 
keels.  The  Ptolemies  were  especial  patrons  of 
the  maritime  arts,  and  the  foundation  of  Alex 
andria  favored  them  in  advancing  trade  and 
commerce. 

The  Carthaginians  followed  in  the  wake  of 
their  illustrious  predecessors,  the  Phoenicians. 
Commerce  was  their  aim,  as  it  had  been  that  of 
their  ancestors,  but  instead  of  succumbing  to  the 
attacks  of  their  enemy,  they  resolutely  contended 
against  the  power  of  'Rome,  developing  the  war 
ship  in  the  course  of  the  struggle  in  which  they 
finally  perished.  They  are  said  to  have  first  built 
the  quadrireme  and  the  quinquereme,  with  their 
4  and  5  ranks  of  oars.  They  extended  farther 
the  navigation  of  their  predecessors,  sailing  be 
yond  the  pillars  of  Hercules,  as  far  as  the  Scilly 
Islands  north,  and  Cape  Bon  south,  and  even, 
if  we  rightly  interpret  the  tradition,  circumnavi 
gated  Africa. 


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736 


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Their  enemies,  the  Eomans,  at  first  ignorant 
of  nautical  matters,  copied  their  ships  and 
launched  huge  fleets  in  incredible  spaces  of  time. 
They  designed  new  means  of  contending  against 
their  enemies  and  developed  the  war-vessel  to 
some  extent.  The  various  Greek  colonies  in  Italy 
and  Sicily  aided  in  developing  the  ship,  and  the 
Phocsean  colony  of  Marseilles  has  not  yet  lost 
the  prestige  early  gained  in  maritime  affairs. 

The  Arabians  and  Indians  are  said  to  have 
possessed  ships  and  to  have  navigated  the  waters 
nearest  them  at  an  early  date,  but  we  know  little 
of  them.  The  Parthians  and  most  barbarians 
known  to  the  Romans  were  non-maritime  peoples, 
and  only  a  few  possessed  boats  of  leather  or  can 
vas.  Nor  do  we  know  any  reliable  facts  as  to 
the  great  antiquity  claimed  by  the  Chinese  to 
maritime  skill  and  invention. 

Having  thus  brought  the  history  of  the  ship 
down  to  mediaeval  times,  we  will  glance  briefly 
at  the  ancient  ship,  as  given  to  us  in  the  writings 
of  the  Greeks  and  Romans. 

Ancient  ships  were  divided  into  two  great 
classes, — the  war-ship  or  long  ship  (nees  ma- 
krai,  Gr. ;  navis  longa,  Lat. ) ;  and  the  merchant 
or  round  ship  (stroggule,  Gr.  ;  navis  onerarice, 
Lat.).  The  Greeks  called  the  real  fighting-ships 
Tacheiai,  the  transports,  Stratiodes,  for  men,  and 
Hippagoges,  for  horses. 

The  long  ships  were  row-galleys  seven  or  eight 
times  as  long  as  broad.  No  question  has  been 
more  unsatisfactorily  discussed  than  that  of  the 
arrangement  of  the  oars  in  these  galleys.  At 
first,  they  seem  to  have  been  designated  by  the 
number  of  rowers,  as  Eisosoroi,  singly  rowed, 
Triacontoroi,  30-oared,  Pentekontoroi,  50-oared, 
Exakontoroi,  60-oared,  and  others,  all  classed  as 
Monokrotos,  or  with  one  rank  of  oars.  But  later, 
vessels  with  more  rows  of  oars  were  planned 
(Polykrotos],  and  we  find  the  Diereis,  or  Bi.remis, 
the  Trieris,  or  Trireme,  the  Tetreis,  or  Quadri- 
reme,  the  Pentereis,  or  Quinquereme,  the  Hexe- 
reis,  or  Sexireme,  the  Heptereis,  the  Oktoreifs,  the 
Dekereis,  or  Decireme,  carrying  respectively  2, 
3,  4,  5,  6,  7,  8,  and  10  ranks  of  oars,  and  we  even 
hear  of  the  Ekkaidekereis,  Pentekondekereis,  and 
Tessakontereis,  of  15,  16,  and  25  banks  of  oars. 
Some  authorities  now  believe  that  in  the  case 
of  galleys  above  5  ranks  of  oars,  the  perpendicu 
lar  groups  are  understood  to  be  numbered,  and 
not  the  horizontal  rows.  The  Hexereis  and 
Heptereis  are  said  to  have  been  invented  by 
Dionysius  II.,  tyrant  of  Syracuse. 

The  men  rowed  the  oars  seated  on  benches, 
one  to  an  oar.  The  oars  were  4  feet  apart,  those 
of  each  row  1  foot  in  advance  of  that  below,  and 
2  feet  above  it.  The  lower  rank  of  rowers  were 
called  Thalamitai,  the  next  Zugitai,  the  third 
Thranitai,  the  fourth  Tetreritai,  and  the  fifth 
Penteritai.  The  oars  were  7J,  10£,  13£,  16£,  and 
19£  feet  long,  and  the  third  row  was  5£  feet  above 
the  water,  the  fifth  8  feet.  The  shape  of  the 
galley  in  section  was  like  a  V,  expanded  at  the 
top.  Ships  were -built  with  keels,  ribs,  beams, 
stem  and  stern-post  as  now.  At  first,  only  a 
partial  deck  extended  along  the  sides,  serving  as 
a  deck  for  the  Epibatai,  or  fighting  men,  but 
these  are  said  to  have  been  joined  in  a  deck  by 
Cimon  at  the  battle  of  the  Eurymedon.  The 
stem  rose  in  a  curved  ornament",  shaped  like  a 
gooseneck  turned  back  (Ckeniscus),  and  over  the 
stern  was  a  leaf-shaped  shelter,  the  Aplustre. 


One  mast,  with  a  square-sail  set  on  a  yard, 
was  used,  and  sometimes  two.  Triremes  were 
generally  used  by  the  Greeks,  and  quadriremes 
and  quinqueremes  by  the  Romans.  The  trireme 
usually  had  a  crew  of  200  rowers  and  30  marines. 
At  or  near  the  water-line,  sharp  prows  were 
added  to  serve  as  rams,  three  or  more  being  some 
times  seen.  The  Romans  added  square  towers  to 
the  decks  of  their  ships,  and  employed  military 
engines  on  their  decks.  About  the  time  of  the 
battle  of  Actium  (30  B.C.)  the  Libnrnian  galleys 
came  into  use.  We  know  little  of  them,  except 
that  they  were  light  and  handy, — a  reaction 
against  the  ponderous,  many-oared  galleys  then 
in  use. 

Besides  "being  shorter  proportionately,  the 
merchant  ships  were  shaped  alike  at  bow  and 
stern.  They  were  sometimes  large,  able  to  carry 
from  200  to  800  passengers.  They  used  3  masts, 
the  sails  on  the  middle  one  being  the  largest,  and 
there  being  sometimes  3  on  that  mast.  The 
Romans  used  in  some  vessels  triangular  topsails, 
called  Suppara  (shift).  Many  sailing-ships  made 
good  passages,  vying  with  our  modern  sailing- 
vessels,  and  the  galleys  made,  on  occasions,  still 
better  speed,  8  to  9  knots  not  being  uncommon. 
The  rudder  was  always  a  paddle  over  the  stern, 
there  generally  being  two,  one  on  each  side. 

During  the  Middle  Ages  the  modern  ship  had 
its  rise.  At  first  the  progress  of  improvement 
was  slow.  Upon  extinguishing  ancient  civiliza 
tion,  the  Northern  barbarians  were  at  first  un 
mindful  of  the  necessity  of  a  naval  force  to  the 
peoples  living  on  the  border  of  the  great  sea,  and 
neglected  maritime  affairs.  The  Vandals,  how 
ever,  found  that  the  aid  of  a  fleet  was  necessary 
to  the  conquest  of  the  African  provinces,  and 
Genseric  availed  himself  of  the  skill  of  others  to 
create  one.  The  boats  used  on  the  Black  Sea 
were  but  frail  ones,  and  the  lower  Latin  empire 
did  little  toward  developing  the  ship.  The 
Arabians,  or  Saracens,  after  overrunning  Africa 
and  Spain,  engaged  in  building  large  ships,  but 
they  were  somewhat  unwieldy  and  cumbrous. 
The  Rhodian  power  was  prominent  early  in 
maritime  affairs,  and  gave  the  first  code  of  mari 
time  laws  to  the  world.  The  northern  nations 
of  Europe  appear  early  in  the  Middle  Ages  as 
daring  seamen,  pirates,  and  fishermen,  and  their 
early  legends  repeat  the  many  heroic  deeds  of 
the  vikings  and  their  contemporaries.  They 
were  the  first  to  undertake  long  voyages  out  of 
sight  of  land,  and  first  crossed  the  Atlantic,  a 
terror  to  the  mariner  of  the  Mediterranean. 
They  gave  a  powerful  impulse  to  the  develop 
ment  and  improvement  of  the  sailing-ship.  The 
Saxons,  after  acquiring  England,  neglected  ma 
rine  affairs  until  the  advent  of  the  piratical 
Danes  led  Alfred  to  found  a  naval  force  to  repel 
their  incursions.  Toward  the  middle  of  the 
period  we  are  considering,  the  gradual  rise  of  the 
nations  of  Europe,  the  founding  and  growth  of 
the  Norman,  Venetian,  Genoese,  and  Catalan 
states  gave  a  remarkable  impulse  to  maritime 
affairs.  Ships  increased  in  number,  variety,  and 
types,  and  while  merchant  fleets  covered  the 
Mediterranean,  the  jealousy  of  these  maritime 
powers  developed  great  fleets  of  formidable  row- 
galleys.  The  Crusades  aided  materially  in  the  de 
velopment  of  navigation,  by  leading  English, 
French,  and  Flemish  powers  to  send  ships  on 
longer  voyages,  and  acquainting  them  with  Medi- 


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terranean  ships.  Then  followed  the  introduction 
of  the  mariner's  compass,  the  invention  of  ord 
nance,  and  of  maps  and  instruments  of  naviga 
tion,  all  directly  affecting  the  ship  and  rendering 
possible  the  great  discoveries  of  the  next  century, 
with  which,  undertaken  by  Portuguese,  Spanish, 
and  English,  we  close  the  Middle  Ages,  with  the 
ship  proper  fully  developed  into  a  strong  and 
stable  structure,  able  to  buffet  the  waves  of  the 
Atlantic,  and  to  undertake  greater  triumphs  in 
the  future. 

The  vessels  o'f  the  Middle  Ages,  infinite  in 
variety  of  class  and  size,  are  all  referable  to  one 
of  three  classes,  viz. :  1.  The  row-galley,  com 
prising  many  types,  the  chief  of  which  were  the 
pinaza,  galiot,  gatte,  saette,  fuste,  brigantine, 
dromon,  galardella,  galea,  galea  bastarda,  galea 
grossa,  galeide,  galeasse,  chelande,  ramberge, 
pamphyle,  and  demi-galere,  and  in  the  North, 
the  esneke,  drakar,  and  jarnbaud.  2.  The  sail 
ing-ship,  navis,  naos,  nef,  or  navire.  This  com 
prised  a  very  numerous  class,  among  which  we 
find  the  nao,  balaena,  carabella  or  caravelle,  tar- 
tane,  coca  or  cog,  galleon,  zelander,  huissier, 
buzo  or  buss,  gumbari,  carracca  or  carrack,  tar- 
ide,  grip,  heu,  hokebot,  aak,  flibot,  barca  or  bark, 
barkane,  bardetta,  brigantina  or  bergantin,  cara- 
vellone,  caramoussal,  fregate,  fregatone,  maone, 
marsillane,  and  palandra.  3.  A  mixed  class,  in 
cluding  the  selandra-pamphyle,  zelandra-huissia, 
buzo-navis,  and  others.  These  vessels  differed 
inter  se  as  to  form,  size,  sail-rig,  number,  and 
arrangement  of  oars,  etc. 

First,  then,  as  to  galleys.  These  vessels  re 
sembled  each  other  greatly.  As  in  ancient  times, 
they  were  long,  narrow,  and  low-built  vessels, 
principally  propelled  by  oars.  But  they  differed 
from  those  of  antiquity  in  having  seldom  more 
than  one  row  of  oars.  These  oars  were  sometimes 
arranged  as  in  the  modern  boat,  with  one  man  to 
an  oar.  The  number  of  banks  on  each  side 
varied  from  8  to  36,  with  sometimes  a  bank  less 
on  the  port  side,  to  make  room  for  the  cooking- 
place.  Other  galleys  had  2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  and  7 
men  to  an  oar,  thus  increasing  the  power  with 
out  lengthening  the  galley.  Three  were  more 
common  in  the  14th  century,  and  4  in  the  16th, 
in  the  light,  or  subtile  galley.  The  bastard  gal 
leys,  or  larger  ones,  increased  this  to  5  and  6 
men  to  the  oar,  and  the  chief  galley,  or  capitana, 
and  King's  galley,  or  reale,  usually  had  6  to  an 
oar.  Seven  to  an  oar  was  rarely  found,  but  gal 
leys  with  5  to  the  former  half  and  6  to  the  after 
half,  or  some  such  arrangement,  were  not  un 
common. 

Nor  was  this  the  only  way  of  arranging  the 
oars.  We  also  find  galleys  with  more  than  one 
oar  to  a  bank,  two  or  more  coming  through  the 
same  port,  and  each  being  managed  by  one  man. 
Two  oars  to  a  bank  was  a  common  arrangement 
in  the  14th  century,  while  we  find  3  in  the  15th, 
and  4  and  5  in  the  16th  centuries.  There  is  also 
mention  of  a  galley  with  7  oars  to  a  bank,  but  it 
was  not  successful. 

These  galleys,  then,  either  rowed  a  sencille, 
that  is,  with  one  man  to  an  oar,  or  di  scaloccio, 
that  is,  with  many  men  to  the  same  oar,  had  for 
a  crew  from  100  to  250  men.  These  were  in 
later  times  slaves  or  convicts,  and  were  chained 
to  the  banks  night  and  day,  protected  from  the 
sun  only  by  an  awning,  and  exposed  to  the 
water  coming  in  the  low  row-ports.  The  banks 


were,  with  one  oar  to  a  bank,  perpendicular  to 
the  keel,  but  when  many  oars  were  rowed  from 
the  same  bank,  it  was  at  an  oblique  angle  to  the 
keel.  The  forecastle  and  poop  were  sometimes 
decked  over,  sometimes  occupied  by  houses  or 
cabins,  and  were  connected  by  a  central  gang 
way,  on  which  the  mates  promenaded,  applying 
whip  and  voice  to  quicken  the  labors  at  the  oar. 
After  the  introduction  of  artillery,  the  guns  were 
at  first  only  mounted  to  fire  ahead,  under  a  para 
pet  or  rambade,  then  a  few  were  placed  between 
the  oars  in  broadside. 

Two  masts  with  square-,  lug-,  or  lateen-sails, 
and  occasionally  a  third  small  mast,  furnished 
the  auxiliary  sail-power  to  the  galley. 

The  forward  or,  in  case  of  three,  the  middle 
mast  carried  the  largest  sail.  Upper  sails  were 
seldom  used  on  the  galleys. 

A  galley  with  25  oars  to  a  side  was  125  feet 
long,  16  wide,  in  the  14th  century,  while  the 
French  galley,  a  century  later,  was  150  feet 
long,  30  wide.  The  hold  of  the  galley  was 
divided  into  store-rooms,  cabins,  etc.,  and  a 
tavern,  where  wine  was  sold  to  the  slaves. 

The  galiot,  pinaza,  saette,  fuste,  ramberge, 
fregate,  fregatone,  galea,  galeardella,  galeide, 
demi-galere,  and  brigantine  were  smaller  than 
the  galley,  as  were  the  row-galleys  of  the 
Northern  nations.  The  taride,  the  galea  grossa, 
the  pamphyle,  chelande,  dromon,  and  galeasse 
were  large  galleys.  Besides  these,  there  were 
many  others  of  this  class,  but  these  are  the 
principal  ones. 

The  speed  of  the  galleys  when  under  full  way 
was  considerable,  and  9  or  10  knots  were  not  un 
commonly  attained. 

The  galley  was  a  shallow  vessel,  and  its  walls 
were  prolonged  by  knees,  forming  projecting 
supports  for  the  oars  and  for  the  stanchions  sup 
porting  the  awning. 

An  equally  great  variety  of  sailing-vessels 
meets  us  in  the  Middle  Ages.  The  sailing-ship 
was  called  navis,  nave,  or  nef,  with  diminutives 
of  these  words.  These  vessels  differed  greatly  in 
size,  and  increased  generally  toward  the  end  of 
the  period.  These  were  ships  of  one,  two,  and 
three  decks,  and  of  various  dimensions,  but  their 
general  characteristics  were  the  same,  they  being 
short,  round  vessels,  built  for  carrying  and  not 
for  speed,  and  with  bow  and  stern 'alike  in  some 
cases,  but  not  always.  Their  sail-rig  was  equally 
varied.  One,  two,  three,  and  four  masts  were 
used,  and  one,  two,  and  three  sails  on  those 
masts,  in  form  lateen,  lug,  square,  or  trapezoidal. 
These  ships  were,  toward  the  end  of  the  13th 
century,  from  1000  to  1500  tons  burden,  carry 
ing,  some  of  them,  from  500  to  1000  passen 
gers.  The  ships  of  the  Normans  were  smaller, 
and  those  used  in  the  invasions  of  France  and 
England  were  but  large  open  boats  with  one  sail 
on  a  single  mast,  and  this  rig  of  one  square-sail 
on  one  mast  was  a  common  one  in  the  smaller 
vessels  of  the  llth  to  the  13th  centuries.  The 
nefs  were  short  and  round,  with  bluff  bows  and 
square  sterns,  and  forecastle  and  poop  began  to 
rise  in  height  in  the  15th  century.  Lateen-sails, 
used  at  first  on  the  larger  ships,  were  gradually 
replaced  by  square-sails,  except  in  the  case  of 
main  and  mizzen,  which  remained  lateen-sails. 
At  first  paddles  were  used  to  steer  by,  but  the 
rudder  came  into  use  in  the  14th  century,  and 
was  soon  universal.  The  galion  was  longer  and 


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finer  than  the  nef,  and  became  the  largest  of  the 
class,  equaled  by  the  carrick,  a  high,  broad,  un 
wieldy  vessel,  of  some  150  to  165  feet  long,  and 
from  40  to  47  broad,  and  carrying  upwards  of 
1000  tons  burden.  The  marsillane  was  a  large, 
square-sterned  vessel ;  the  hokebot  a  short,  round 
Dutch  fishing-boat.  Maones  were  large  and  un 
wieldy  Turkish  vessels.  Tarides  were  large 
transports,  and  uissiers  were  horse  transports, 
capable  of  carrying  40  horses.  The  caramoussal 
was  another  large,  unwieldy  Turkish  vessel,  and 
palandries  were  Turkish  transports.  Caravelles 
were  small  lateen-rigged  vessels,  from  50  to  150 
tons  burden.  Columbus  made  his  voyages  in 
such  vessels,  which  were  fast,  handy,  and  easily 
managed,  and  were  much  used  in  the  15th  and 
16th  centuries.  Buches  were  also  large  vessels, 
baleiniers  short,  high-pooped  fishing-vessels,  and 
gumbaries  large  sailing  war-vessels.  Tartanes 
were  moderate-sized,  and  the  zelandre  was  a 
sailing-vessel  of  90  to  100  tons  in  the  13th 
century. 

The  grip,  heu,  aak,  and  flibot  were  small 
coasting-vessels,  and  the  bark  was  a  small 
vessel  with  two  masts,  having  single  sails  on 
each.  Its  diminutive,  the  barchetta,  and  its 
augmentative,  the  barkasse,  resembled  it  in  form 
and  appearance.  The  brigantine  was  a  small, 
rapid  vessel,  much  in  favor  among  pirates. 

The  fregate  of  the  Middle  Ages  was  a  small 
lateen-rigged  vessel  with  one  mast  and  un 
decked,  and  the  fregatone  a  larger  vessel  of  the 
same  class. 

The  vessels  of  the  third  class  resembled  both 
the  galley  and  the  nef,  partaking  of  the  rig  of 
one  and  the  characteristics  of  the  other.  These 
were  not  numerous,  and  merit  no  particular  de 
scription. 

We  are  thus  brought  down  to  the  16th  century. 
"We  have  seen  larger  and  more  seaworthy  vessels 
resulting  from  the  commercial  rivalry  of  the  Ital 
ian  states  and  the  establishment  of  modern  naval 
powers,  and  we  may  thus  commence  the  modern 
epoch  with  ships  fitted  to  make  those  great  voy 
ages  of  discovery  which  soon  followed. 

The  conquest  of  Constantinople  by  the  Turks 
had  checked  maritime  development,  and  the 
decay  of  the  Italian  maritime  states  had  an 
equally  depressing  effect.  But  the  rise  of  more 
lasting  powers  on  the  Atlantic  coasts,  and  their 
voyages  for  gain  and  discoveries,  gave  an  im 
pulse  to  the  improvement  of  the  ship,  while  the 
contests  for  supremacy  on  the  ocean  in  which 
they  became  involved,  also  improved  and  en 
larged  the  war- vessel.  Spain  and  Portugal  at 
first,  then  England,  France,  and  Holland .]  were 
noted  for  superior  and  improved  vessels,  as  their 
successive  discoveries  led  them  to  make  regular 
voyages.  The  formation  and  development  of 
trading  companies  had  their  share  in  the  nau 
tical  march  of  improvement.  The  permanent 
navies  established  by  these  nations  to  defend 
their  merchant  fleets  soon  grow  in  size,  and  im 
proved  the  qualities  of  theirships.  War-galleys, 
hitherto  relied  upon  in  the  tranquil  Mediterra 
nean,  would  no  longer  do  for  the  more  stormy 
Atlantic,  and  the  sailing  ship  of  war  had  then 
its  real  rise  and  development.  To  the  clumsily- 
shaped  hull  succeeded  scientifically-constructed 
models  of  great  beauty.  To  the  lateen-sail  suc 
ceeded  the  square-sail,  and  this,  in  turn,  was 
partially  displaced  by  the  trapezoidal  sail  in 


small  vessels.  With  the  revival  of  science,  the 
principles  affecting  the  form  and  conduct  of  the 
ship  were  established,  and  scientific  construc 
tion  gave  better  vessels  and  greater  speed.  In 
vestigations  into  the  effects  and  properties  of 
waves,  of  the  wind  on  the  sails,  of  means  of 
preserving  wood,  and  the  ship's  bottom,  further 
benefited  the  construction  of  the  ship.  Artil 
lery  increased  in  size  and  power,  and  the  war 
ship  became  larger  and  of  stronger  build,  until, 
in  the  18th  century,  the  ship  of  the  line  of  110 
to  120  guns  reached  the  highest  development  of 
the  fighting-ship  of  the  sail  period.  The  high 
and  unwieldy  poop  and  prow  at  first  were  cut 
down,  then  a  century  later  the  square  stern, 
loaded  with  sculpture  and  ornaments,  was  abol 
ished,  and  the  ship  more  nearly  approached  its 
present  form  and  more  useful  proportions. 

The  use  of  iron,  first  as  an  aid  in  building  spars, 
then  for  the  frame,  and  finally  for  the  rigging  and 
spars  of  the  ship,  gave  greater  solidity  and  light 
ness.  Iron  was  first  proposed  for  frames  in  1809, 
and  the  first  iron  ship  was  built  in  1818,  the 
"Vulcan,"  on  the  Clyde  Kiver.  But  the  first 
sea-going  iron  vessel  was  the  "Elburkah,"  of 
55  tons.  Improvements  in  sail-rig  followed. 
Double  topsail  yards,  giving  greater  command 
of  the  sails  with  fewer  men,  were  invented  by 
Mr.  Forbes  in  1845.  Other  improvements  in 
the  form,  construction,  and  conduct  of  the  sail 
ing-vessel  were  made,  until  the  clipper,  the 
most  perfect  sailing-vessel  of  all  ages,  was  de 
signed,  and  speed  increased  from  8,  9,  and  10 
knots  to  15  and  18. 

Before  tracing  further  the  history  of  the  ship, 
we  must  go  back  to  the  first  beginning  of  a  new 
power  in  propelling  ships.  Sailing-vessels,  with 
all  the  improvements,  were  yet  dependent  on 
wind  and  tide ;  but  steam  came  to  the  aid  of  the 
mariner  when  most  needed,  in  the  increased  com 
mercial  intercourse  of  modern  times,  and  ren 
dered  him  independent  of  adverse  winds  or  tides. 
This  is  not  the  place  to  trace  the  steps  that 
led  to  the  final  construction  of  the  steam-en 
gine.  From  Blasco  de  Garay  in  1543,  to  Fulton 
in  1793-1800,  these  experiments  and  prelim 
inary  steps  were  made,  finally  resulting  in  the 
marine  engine.  The  first  successful  application 
of  steam  to  move  a  vessel  was  that  of  Fitch,  in 
1786;  and  Fulton,  in  1809,  built  the  "  Cler- 
mont,"  the  first  regular  steamer  to  ply  on 
rivers.  Bell,  in  1811,  built  the  "Comet,''  the 
first  steamer  in  England.  The  screw-propeller 
was  the  next  improvement.  It  was  first  applied 
to  steam-vessels  in  1836,  the  "  F.  B.  Ogden," 
built  by  Ericcson,  being  the  first  screw-vessel. 
The  first  steam  mun-of-war  was  the  "Comet," 
built  in  1819,  in  England  ;  and  the  "Princeton," 
built  in  1841,  was  the  first  screw  man-of-war. 
The  first  line  of  steam-vessels  was  established  in 
1822,  in  English  waters.  The  "  Savannah,"  in 
1819,  first  crossed  the  ocean  by  the  aid  of  steam, 
but  a  transatlantic  line  was  only  established  in 
1838.  The  first  of  the  present  great  lines  was 
the  Cunard,  in  1840.  Up  to  this  time  the 
average  speed  obtained  was  from  7J  to  9  knots, 
and  the  greatest  11  knots,  per  hour.  Other  lines 
were  soon  established,  and  regular  communica 
tion  by  steam  is  now  maintained  all  over  the 
world.  As  steamers  thus  came  into  use,  it  was 
found  that  wood  was  still  less  fit  for  their  frames 
and  hulls,  and  iron  rapidly  replaced  it.  Steamers 


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grew  rapidly  in  size,  the  first  being  40  to  60  tons, 
until  on  the  establishment  of  the  transatlantic 
lines  they  had  risen  to  1200  and  even  2000.  The 
short  and  broad  hull  of  the  sailing-vessel  was 
lengthened,  and  the  lines  of  the  steamer  became 
longer  and  finer,  until  it  attained  the  proportions 
of  the  old  row-galleys.  The  sailing-vessel  had 
been  in  length  from  4  to  5  times  the  breadth, 
and  now  the  steamer  reached  9  and  10  times  its 
breadth.  The  "Great  Britain,"  built  in  1843, 
reached  a  great  size,  being  322  feet  long  and  50 
broad,  and  carrying  2984  tons,  with  engines  of 
1000  horse-power.  But  considerable  sail-power 
was  still  retained  in  her  6  masts,  2  of  them 
square-rigged.  This  increase  in  size  culminated 
in  the  "  Great  Eastern,"  launched  in  1858.  This 
enormous  structure  was  a  double  keelless  iron 
vessel,  with  several  compartments,  separated  by 
water-tight  bulk-heads.  She  is  692  feet  long  and 
85  broad,  with  a  total  tonnage  of  22,500,  and 
was  intended  to  accommodate  4000  passengers, 
or  10,000  soldiers.  One  hundred  and  ten  fur 
naces,  under  10  boilers,  supplied  the  motive- 
power  to  the  4  paddle-  and  4  screw-engines, 
besides  furnishing  steam  to  the  6  smaller  en 
gines  of  300  to  400  horse-power.  These  engines 
of  2600  nominal,  or  11,000  actual  horse-power, 
are  able  to  move  the  enormous  hull  at  the  rate 
of  14  miles  an  hour.  Twenty  large  boats  are  car 
ried  on  davits,  and  2  steamers  100  feet  long  may 
be  carried  on  the  guards.  She  also  had  6  masts, 
the  second,  third,  and  fourth  only  being  square- 
rigged.  But  her  great  draft  (30  feet),  and  the 
cost  of  running  her,  has  made  her  unprofitable 
as  a  passenger  steamer,  and  her  principal  use 
has  been  to  lay  telegraph-cables,  for  which  her 
great  size  and  steadiness  fit  her. 

The  most  successful  vessels  of  the  great  ocean 
lines,  although  they  fall  far  short  of  this  monster, 
are  still  of  great  size.  The  "  City  of  Berlin"  of 
5000  tons,  the  "  Sardinian"  of  4200,  the  "Scythia" 
of  4557,  and  .the  "  Iberia"  of  4761,  are  among  the 
largest.  An  average  of  3000  tons  is  not  uncom 
mon.  Many  of  these  steamers  have  4  masts, 
others  3,  but  sail  is  always  auxiliary,  steam 
being  the  chief  reliance.  Enormous  fleets  of 
these  steamers  are  now  possessed  by  the  great 
steam  lines  of  the  world.  In  1875  the  Cunard 
line  had  49  vessels  of  90,000  tons  and  14,500 
horse-power;  the  Inman  line,  16  of  44,000  tons 
and  7000  horse-power;  the  Allen  line,  20  of 
54,000  tons  and  8QOO  horse-power ;  the  Anchor 
line,  30  of  70,000  tons  and  15,000  horse-power; 
the  Royal  Mail,  23  of  51,000  tons  and  9300 
horsepower;  the  Pacific  Company,  54  of  119,- 
800  tons  and  21,395  horse-power  ;  the  Liverpool 
and  River  Plate  Company,  30  of  32,995  horse 
power  ;  the  Peninsular  and  Oriental  Company, 
50  steamers  of  122,030  tons  and  22,000  horse 
power;  and  the  Messageries  Maritimes  of  France, 
the  largest  number  of  all,  66  steamers  of  175,000 
tons. 

Since  the  adoption  of  iron  for  the  frames  and 
hulls  of  steamers,  the  growth  of  these  vessels  has 
been  very  rapid.  In  1861  there  were  159  iron 
vessels  of  68,560  tons  built  in  England,  the  chief 
mart  of  this  trade  ;  and  in  1867,  224  of  90,823 
tons  ;  in  1872,  446  of  335,750  tons.  In  all,  in  13 
years,  there  were  built  there  4185  steamers  of 
2,489,840  tons. 

While  iron  ships  increased,  steam-vessels  also 
replaced  sailing-ships  rapidly.  The  decrease  of 


sailing-vessels  from  1870  to  1873  was  5.44  pei 
cent,  in  numbers,  or  11.57  per  cent,  in  tonnage ; 
also  6.67  per  cent,  in  size.  On  the  contrary, 
steamers  increased  in  number  54.9  per  cent.,  in 
tonnage  24.59  per  cent.,  and  in  size  6.67  per 
cent.  In  1876  there  were  5771  steamers  of 
5,506,842  tons,  and  58,208  sailing-vessels  of  15,- 
553,338  tons.  Steel  has  also  been  used  to  some 
extent  in  building  ships.  There  were  some  built 
as  early  as  1860 ;  but  only  3  were  built  from 
1866  to  1876,  and  one  in  1878.  That  year  574,- 
819  tons  of  shipping  were  built  in  England,  of 
which  52,657  was  of  wood,  517,692  of  iron,  and 
4470  of  steel ;  or  9  per  cent,  of  wood,  3.4  per  cent, 
of  steel,  and  87.6  per  cent,  of  iron.  A  steel  ship 
is  now  building  for  the  White  Star  line,  which 
is  to  be  546  feet  long,  50  feet  beam,  and  more 
than  8500  tons  in  burden. 

But  when  we  come  to  look  at  the  modern 
man-of-war,  we  find  more  remarkable  changes 
during  the  modern  period.  At  the  beginning  of 
the  16th  century,  the  row-galley  was  still  the 
main  reliance  in  the  fleets  of  European  powers. 
But  as  we  have  seen,  it  was  already  being  re 
placed  by  the  sailing  war-vessel.  As  this  took 
place  the  vessels  increased  in  size,  improved  in 
sail-rig  and  in  construction,  and  the  enormous 
structures  on  poop  and  forecastle  were  leveled 
to  the  deck.  Ports,  usually  ascribed  to  Des- 
charges,  of  Brest,  were  invented  before  his  time, 
and  guns  were  mounted  in  broadside  in  the  sail 
ing-vessel. 

The  fleets  of  sailing-ships  that  during  the  17th 
and  18th  centuries  contended  for  supremacy  were 
principally  made  up  of  those  lofty  three-deckers, 
— short,  high,  and  unwieldy,  but  formidable 
from  the  number  of  guns  they  carried,  and  neces 
sarily  opposed  to  them  were  ships  of  the  same 
class.  This  supremacy  of  the  ship  of  the  line 
was  weakened  by  the  introduction  of  the  steam- 
vessel  and  by  the  construction  of  heavier  frigates. 
This,  the  next  vessel  in  size,  gradually  attained 
a  greater  importance  as  its  dimensions  increased. 
So  long  as  the  paddle-wheel  was  in  use,  steamers 
were  not  of  great  size,  but  the  introduction  of 
the  propeller  again  brought  vessels  of  the  line 
into  use  ;  but  their  importance  as  a  fighting-ves 
sel  had  ceased,  and  comparatively  few  steam- 
liners  were  built.  With  the  introduction  of  the 
screw  the  sailing  man-of-war  was  doomed,  and 
steam-vessels  thenceforth  took  the  first  rank  in 
all  navies.  Wood  is  still  used  for  unarmored 
vessels,  but  is  being  replaced  by  iron,  and  ar 
mored  ships  are  built  of  iron  or  steel.  The  latter 
material  is  taking  a  decided  place  in  war-ship 
construction.  Eight  unarmored  corvettes  are 
building  for  the  English  navy,  and  steel  has  been 
used  in  the  construction  of  some  recent  armored 
vessels.  The  advent  of  the  armored  ship  has 
totally  changed  the  types  of  vessels  for  war,  and 
all  unarmored  vessels  are  now  only  adjuncts  to 
the  more  powerful  protected  ships.  The  intro 
duction  of  armor  has  caused  extensive  changes 
in  construction  to  meet  the  demands  for  greater 
strength  and  rigidity,  and  the  latest  men-of-war 
differ  totally  from  those  of  fifty  years  ago.  Better 
engines,  with  greater  power,  have  also  resulted 
from  the  construction  of  such  heavy  and  pon 
derous  vessels.  The  unarmored  steam-vessel  has 
gradually  increased  in  size,  until  sloops  exceed 
in  size  the  line-of-battle  ships  of  the  18th  cen 
tury,  and  armored  ships  have  gradually  increased 


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in  size  also.  In  the  middle  of  the  16th  century, 
the  "  Henry  Grace  a  Dieu,"  regarded  as  un 
usually  large,  was  no  more  than  1000  tons,  al 
though  her  high  poop  and  forecastle  gave  her 
the  appearance  of  greater  size.  A  century  later 
we  find  the  great  "  Koyal  Sovereign,"  the  largest 
man-of-war  then  built,  and  the  first  English 
three-decker,  to  be  232  feet  long  by  50  wide,  and 
only  1861  tons  burden. 

Still  a  century  later,  and  the  "  Royal  George," 
of  melancholy  fate,  the  greatest  ship  of  her  time, 
was  only  190  feet  on  the  middle  deck,  52  feet 
broad,  and  2280  tons  burden.  But  at  the  end 
of  this  18th  century  we  find  the  Spanish  "  San 
Jose"  to  have  increased  to  2457  tons,  being 
194  feet  on  the  middle  deck,  by  54  beam,  and 
carrying  112  guns,  while  the  English  "  Caledo 
nia,"  the  largest  of  the  old  wooden  liners,  was 
205  feet  long,  54  beam,  and  2616  tons  burden, 
with  120  guns.  Not  the  less  remarkable  is  the 
increase  in  size  of  steam  war-vessels.  The  first, 
the  "Comet,"  was  238  tons,  and  of  80  horse 
power.  This  was  in  1822,  and  five  years  later  the 
"  Carron"  measured  494  tons,  and  her  engines 
were  120  horse-power.  In  1830,  the  "Medea," 
of  835  tons  and  220  horse-power,  was  in  use,  and 
in  1839,  these  dimensions  had  increased  to  1195 
tons  in  the  "  Cyclops,"  of  320  horse-power.  In 
1843,  the  "  Albert  and  Victoria"  yacht  measured 
1442  tons,  with  engines  of  400  horse-power,  and 
in  1845  the  "Terrible,"  of  1850  tons  and  800 
horse-power,  was  built.  In  1846,  the  "Daunt 
less,"  of  2432  tons,  was  218  feet  long  and  39 
beam.  Iron  ships  then  carried  further  this  in 
crease  in  size.  The  French  built  seven  120-gun 
ships  in  1845  which  were  over  5000  tons  dis 
placement,  and  in  dimensions  210  feet  by  51. 
Armored  ships  checked  this  development  at  first, 
then  carried  it  to  greater  lengths.  "We  find  the 
"  Warrior,"  the  first  English  ironclad,  to  be  380 
feet  long,  58  beam,  and  of  9681  tons  displacement, 
and  the  "Northumberland,"  in  1865,  increased 
this  to  10,395  tons,  and  to  400  feet  in  length  and 
59  in  breadth  of  beam.  The  "Dreadnaught," 
in  1875,  further  carried  these  dimensions  to  10,- 
866  tons,  but  shortened  the  length  to  320  feet, 
with  a  beam  of  63  feet,  and,  finally,  the  "  Inflex 
ible"  reached  11,520  tons  displacement,  and  with 
the  same  length  as  the  "  Dreadnaught,"  increased 
the  breadth  to  75  feet.  The  probable  limit  in 
size  of  armored  vessels  is  reached  in  the  "  Italia" 
and  "  Lepanto,"  which  are  13,400  tons  in  dis 
placement,  400  feet  long  and  74  beam.  The 
noticeable  feature  in  the  development  of  size  in 
steam  war-vessels  has  been  the  gradual  increase 
of  length  from  a  proportion  of  5  to  1  of  breadth, 
until  7  and  8  to  1  were  reached,  and  then,  as 
weight  of  armor  increased,  these  proportions 
came  down,  until  the  "  Inflexible"  presents  a 
proportion  of  4.2  to  1.  Modern  construction  has 
also  brought  the  weight  of  the  hull  down  to  a 
minimum  of  39  per  cent,  of  the  whole  weight 
for  iron  hulls,  and  34  per  cent,  for  steel  hulls, 
from  an  average  of  46  per  cent,  in  the  wooden 
hull.  Sail-rig  has  altered  little  in  the  man-of- 
war,  but  the  gradual  adoption  of  steam  as  the 
principal  motor  has  led  to  a  rejection  of  much 
of  the  rig  of  the  sailing-vessel,  the  lighter  sails 
being  dispensed  with  in  steamers,  and  sail-power 
entirely  discarded  in  certain  classes  of  heavy 
armored  vessels. 

While  the  types  of  modern  ships  are  perhaps 


as  numerous  as  at  any  time  in  the  history  of  the 
ship,  they  are  more  easily  classified  by  an  arti 
ficial  system,  many  of  which  have  been  in  use. 
These  have  reference  :  1.  To  the  number  of  guns. 
2.  To  the  tonnage.  3.  To  the  rig  of  the  vessel. 
4.  As  regards  the  condition  of  the  hull.  5.  As 
to  the  mode  of  arranging  the  defensive  armor 
and  battery. 

During  the  16th  and  17th  centuries  the  mode 
of  classifying  war-vessels  by  the  number  of  guns 
they  carried  was  in  common  use.  We  have  thus, 
ships  of  120,  112,  100,  98,  86,  82,  80,  74,  64,  60,  56, 
50,  44,  40,  38,  36,  32,  28,  24,  22,  20,  18,  16,  14,  12, 
10,  8,  6,  and  4  guns.  These  ships  were  also  classed 
from  the  number  of  decks  on  which  guns  were 
carried,  as  ships  of  the  line  (double-deckers  and 
three-deckers),  frigates,  sloops,  pinnaces,  etc.  As 
to  a  classification  by  tonnage,  we  find  such  in  use 
in  the  Spanish  Armada ;  merchant  ships  are  so 
classed,  and  tonnage,  or  displacement,  is  made 
the  basis  of  a  classification  for  modern  naval  ves 
sels.  See  CLASSIFICATION. 

All  ships  are  classed  according  to  rig,  and  a 
description  of  these  vessels  will  be  found  under 
the  head  of  sloop,  frigate,  bark,  barkantine, 
brig,  brigantine,  schooner,  cutter,  polacre,  xebec, 
etc.  Modern  men-of-war  are  classed  by  rates, 
according  to  the  tonnage,  and  are  also  vaguely 
referred  to  from  the  manner  of  their  armament 
or  the  arrangement  of  their  armor.  A  proposed 
division  of  these  vessels  as  given  below  is  from 
the  Austrian  work  "Die  Marine,"  by  Von 
Littrow,  with  additions.  Ships  are,  by  this, 
classed : 

1.  By  size  and  draft. 

A.  Sea-going. 

B.  Coasting-vessels. 

2.  By  the  materials  and  system  of  construction. 

A.  Wooden  vessels. 

a.  Transverse  frames. 

b.  Diagonal  built. 

B.  Iron  vessels. 

a.  Transverse  frames. 

b.  Longitudinal  frames. 

c.  Bracket  frames. 

C.  Iron  vessels  cased  with  wood. 

D.  Composite  vessels   (iron  frames   and 

wood  planking). 

E.  Steel  vessels. 

3.  According  to  defensive  power. 

A.  Unarmored. 

B.  Armored. 

4.  According  to  propelling  motor. 

A.  Sailing-vessels. 
a.  Ship. 

b    Bark     I1'  Bark" 

( 2.  Barkantine. 

(1.  Brig. 
2.  Brigantine. 
3.  Hermaphrodite  brig. 

d.  Three-masted  schooner. 

„    G  i  (1.  True  schooner. 

e.  Schooner.     |2    Topsail  schooner. 
B.  Steam-vessels. 

a.  Paddle-wheel. 

f  1.  With  1  screw. 


screws. 

c.  Hydraulic  reaction  ship. 
5.  According  to  the  destination  of  the  ves 
sel. 


SHIP 


741 


SHIP 


A.  Ships  of  the  line. 

a.  For  home  waters. 
&.  Sea-going. 
c.  Station  vessel. 

B.  Cruisers. 

a.  To  capture  other  cruisers. 

b.  To  capture  mail-steamers. 

c.  For  cruising   and  dispatch   pur 

poses. 

d.  Station  gunboats. 

C.  Coast  defense  ships. 

a.  Offensive. 

b.  Defensive. 

D.  Dispatch-vessels. 

E.  Transports. 

a.  For  troops. 

b.  For  material. 

F.  School-ships. 

a.  Sea-going. 
6.  Not  sea-going. 

G.  Torpedo  ships. 

H.  Harbor  vessels,  —  tenders,  tugs,  pilot- 
vessels,     guard-ships,     coal-hulks, 
powder-hulks,  store-hulks,  etc. 
6.  According  to  the  arrangement  of  guns  or  of 
defensive  means 

A.  Kigged  vessels. 

1.  With  full  battery. 

a.  Guns   on   spar-deck  (flush-deck 

corvette  and  gunboat). 

b.  Guns  on  1  covered  deck  (decked 

corvette). 

c.  Guns  on  2  decks  (frigates). 

d.  Three  tiers  of  guns,  2  covered 

(two-decker). 

e.  Four  tiers   of  guns,  3  covered 

(three-decker). 

2.  With  central  battery. 

a.  Without  bow  and  stern  fire. 
6.  With  2  chase-guns. 

c.  With  3  chase-guns. 

d.  With  4  chase-guns. 

3.  With  turrets. 

a.  Fixed. 

b.  Movable. 

B.  Mastless  ironclads. 

1.  Without   a  central   redoubt  (mon 

itors). 

a.  Single  turret. 

b.  Double  turret. 

c.  3  or  4  turrets. 

2.  With  central   redoubt  (breastwork 

monitor). 
a.  With  1  turret. 

*1.  In    line  of 


.  With  2  turrets. 


2. 


placed. 

C.  Circular  ships. 

a.  Pppoffkas. 

b.  Livadia  style. 

D.  With  guns  en  barbette. 

Under  some  one  of  these  classes  comes  each 
man-of-war,  armored  or  unarmored,  steam  and 
sail,  and  all  merchant  vessels. 

In  the  matter  of  speed  great  progress  has  been 
made.  As  many  as  17  knots  and  even  18  has 
been  attained  by  the  larger  ships  among  the  men- 
of-war,  and  from  23  to  25  miles  an  hour  has 
been  made  by  merchant  steamers,  while  the 
smaller  torpedo-boats  attain  this  great  speed,  and 
are  expected  to  surpass  it.  The  modern  man-of- 


war  is  a  mass  of  machinery,  and  reliance  is 
wholly  placed  upon  the  engines  in  case  of  a  bat 
tle,  as  was  anciently  placed  in  the  oar-power. 
The  limit  as  to  size  has  been  attained,  both  in 
men-of-war  and  merchantmen,  and  much  greater 
speed  cannot  be  expected,  while  the  gun  has 
triumphed  over  the  armor,  so  that  development 
in  that  direction  seems  checked. — F.  S.  Bassett, 
Lieutenant  U.S.N. 

SHIPBOARD.     On  shipboard,  on  board  a  ship. 

SHIP-BREAKER.  One  who  breaks  old  ships  in 
pieces  when  no  longer  fit  for  use. 

SHIP-BROKER.  A  mercantile  agent  who  trans 
acts  business  for  ship-owners  and  merchants,  buy 
ing  and  selling  ships,  procuring  cargoes,  etc. 

SHIP-BUILDER.  A  shipwright;  one  who  builds 
ships. 

SHIP-BUILDING,  IRON.  By  the  substitution  of 
iron  for  wood  as  ship-building  material  the  gen 
eral  theory  of  naval  architecture,  including  the 
computations  of  weights,  displacement,  centres 
of  gravity,  meta-centres  and  stabilities,  strains 
to  which  the  structure  is  subjected,  speed,  etc., 
is  not  essentially  modified  ;  but  in  the  mechan 
ical  execution  a  radical  change  is  effected,  the 
art  of  the  wood-worker  yielding  its  prominence 
to  that  of  the  iron-worker.  The  saw-mill,  broad- 
ax,  adz,  auger,  and  treenail  are  nearly  super 
seded  by  the  furnace,  the  rolls,  the  iron-shearing 
or  planing-machine,  the  drill,  punch,  and  rivet. 
The  labor  of  the  draughtsman,  particularly  in 
such  matters  as  the  geometrical  constructions  for 
joining  necessarily  short  pieces  like  timbers,  is 
materially  diminished ;  but  extreme  accuracy  is 
required  in  laying  off  the  mold  and  beveling  tem 
plates  of  every  frame,  as  there  can  be  no  fairing  of 
the  body,  as  by  dubbing  with  an  adz  in  wooden 
ships,  after  the  structure  is  placed  in  position. 
As  iron  can  be  hammered,  bent,  twisted,  riveted, 
or  welded  into  any  conceivable  form,  and  so  ar 
ranged  as  to  utilize  its  utmost  resistance  to  all  the 
varied  strains  to  which  a  ship  is  subjected,  it  is 
eminently  adapted  to  such  structures.  Experience 
has  amply  demonstrated  their  superiority,  both 
in  strength  and  durability,  over  wooden  ships ; 
also  that  the  latter  are  incapable  of  sustaining 
the  steam-power  required  at  the  present  day. 
Of  the  many  notable  proofs  of  the  strength  of 
iron  ships  two  may  be  cited,  viz.,  the  ground 
ing  of  the"  Great  Eastern"  in  Long  Island  Sound 
a  few  years  since,  and  the  recent  collision  of  the 
Guion  steamship  a  Arizona"  with  an  iceberg  in 
mid-ocean  while  running  at  a  speed  of  15  knots 
an  hour.  The  former  vessel  was  extricated,  after 
replacing  a  few  plates,  without  strain  to  her 
general  structure,  the  latter  continued  her  voyage 
after  a  short  delay. 

There  are  three  general  methods  of  framing 
iron  ships,  viz.,  the  transverse  system,  the  longi 
tudinal  system,  and  the  bracket  system,  which  is  a 
combination  of  the  other  two.  The  solid  floor 
system,  as  applied  to  unarmored  vessels  of  war,  is 
also  a  combination  of  the  two  first  mentioned, 
and  in  a  few  instances  diagonal  framing  has  been 
attempted,  but  did  not  meet  with  favor. 

In  the  simplest  form  of  framing,  which  is  the 
transverse  system,  the  frames  are  arranged  trans 
versely  across  the  keel  in  the  manner  of  those 
of  wooden  ships.  The  frame  is  composed  of 
three  parts,  viz.,  the  frame  angle-iron,  or  outer 
angle-iron,  to  which  the  outer  plates  are  riveted  ; 
the  reverse  frame,  or  inner  angle-iron,  to  which 


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fever  in  the  early  part  of  the  day  and  an  increase 
in  the  evening,  while  there  is  great  stupor  during 
both  periods. 

The  peculiar  eruption  of  typhus  often  occurs 
on  the  fourth  or  fifth  day, — whence  one  of  its 
names — "  spotted  fever."  The  spots  are  irregular 
and  isolated,  or  else  grouped  in  irregular  patches, 
looking  not  unlike  measles. 

Soon  after  they  appear  they  become  perma 
nent  ;  that  is,  they  do  not  disappear  under  press 
ure.  They  are  confined  to  no  particular  part  of 
the  body,  are  light-colored  in  mild  cases  and 
dark  in  malignant  ones  ;  they  are  true  petechiaz, 
in  fact.  They  last  11  or  12  days,  usually  disap 
pearing  before  convalescence  begins.  They  are 
often  accompanied  or  succeeded  by  the  peculiar 
vesicular  eruption  called  sudamina. 

By  the  end  of  the  first  week,  or  when  the  dis 
ease  is  fairly  developed,  the  tongue  is  brown  and 
dry,  and  dark  sordes  collect  upon  the  teeth,  gums, 
and  lips.  Sometimes,  but  not  frequently,  the 
tongue  seems  deep  red  and  glazed,  looking  like  a 
piece  of  raw  beef. 

In  typhus  there  is  a  total  want  of  appetite ; 
but  food  is  borne  by  the  stomach  much  more 
readily  than  in  most  other  fevers.  In  excep 
tional  cases  the  bowels  maybe  loose;  but  usually 
they  are  only  moved  by  medicine,  and  the  de 
jecta  are  always  dark  and  most  offensive. 

There  is  no  marked  tendency  to  tympanitis. 
The  urine  is  generally  very  scanty.  The  dusky 
hue  of  the  face  grows  deeper,  with  great  suffu 
sion  of  the  eyes,  and  a  peculiar  and  character 
istic  odor  exhales  from  the  body,  which  has 
been  variously  described.  Some  liken  it  to  rot 
ten  straw,  some  to  the  smell  of  mice,  but  it  is 
really  sui  generis,  and  most  resembles  that  of 
confined  apartments  in  which  numbers  of  per 
sons,  whether  sick  or  not,  have  been  long  crowded 
together  without  attention  to  cleanliness  or  ven 
tilation.  When  once  experienced  the  odor  will 
always  be  remembered. 

Even  at  the  most  grave  period  of  the  disease  a 
patient  may  generally  be  roused  from  stupor  and 
made  to  answer  questions,  but  generally  imper 
fectly  and  with  reluctance.  But  often  he  sinks 
into  coma,  or  has  delirium,  generally  low  and 
muttering,  with  twitching  and  jerking  of  the 
muscles,  and  picking  at  the  bedclothes.  If  no 
favorable  change  takes  place,  the  patient  sinks 
into  the  last  stage,  that  of  complete  prostration, 
slipping  down  in  the  bed,  eyes  half  closed,  mouth 
open,  pupils  dilated,  or  else  very  much  con 
tracted,  hiccough,  tongue  like  a"  brown,  dry 
chip,  inability  to  swallow,  involuntary  dis 
charges  from  the  bowels,  suppression  of  urine, 
and  insensibility  of  the  skin  to  irritants,  coldness 
of  surface,  collapsed,  ashy  face,  and  pulse  im 
perceptible  at  the  wrist. 

No  case  must  be  considered  hopeless,  however, 
until  life  is  extinct,  as  wonderful  recoveries  from 
this  disease  have  occurred.  In  fact,  it  has  been 
regarded  as  almost  a  peculiarity  of  the  disease, 
that  persons  have  been  left  to  die  during  epi 
demics,  and  have  been  found  sitting  up  and  eat 
ing  the  food  left  beside  them. 

Sometimes,  and  generally  about  the  fourteenth 
day,  amelioration  of  symptoms  takes  place.  The 
pulse  falls,  the  skin  relaxes,  the  tongue  becomes 
moist  and  begins  to  clean,  the  eruption  fades  grad 
ually,  and  the  nervous  twitchings  subside  and 
consciousness  returns.  This  is  often  preceded  by 


a  profuse  perspiration,  or  an  unusually  profuse 
discharge  of  urine.  The  patient  frequently  falls 
into  a  sound  and  prolonged  sleep,  and  wakes  up 
a  new  man.  The  recovery  in  such  a  case  is 
usually  rapid ;  the  appetite  is  often  insatiable, 
and,  if  indulged  in,  is  apt  to  lead  to  relapse. 

When  recovery  takes  place  from  a  low  condi 
tion  or  from  collapse,  it  is  always  slow.  Sup 
porting  remedies  must  be  used,  for  there  is  ex 
treme  debility  to  be  overcome.  The  hair  is  apt 
to  come  out,  and  the  skin  to  peel.  The  brain 
and  nervous  system  are  slow  to  recover  tone, 
and  the  intellect,  especially  the  memory,  re 
mains  imperfect  for  a  long  time.  Kelapses  are 
rare  under  proper  treatment,  and  ultimate  re 
covery  is  generally  perfect. 

The  duration  of  ship,  or  typhus  fever,  is  varia 
ble.  When  it  terminates  favorably  it  runs  a 
course  of  about  three  weeks, — one  week  in  devel 
opment,  one  in  the  formed  state,  and  one  in  the 
decline. 

It  may,  if  mild,  terminate  earlier.  Some  cases 
run  on  longer  than  21  days.  Fatal  cases  may 
end  at  any  period.  Death  sometimes  occurs, 
without  reaction,  within  the  first  24  hours. 
This,  of  course,  is  where  great  susceptibility  re 
ceives  a  tremendous  dose  of  the  poison.  It  is 
not  unusual  for  death  to  occur  about  the  fifth  or 
sixth  day,  but  usually  it  takes  place  some  time 
in  the  second  week,  say  from  the  ninth  to  the 
twelfth  day.  Of  course  it  may  occur  at  a  much 
later  period. — E.  Shippen. 

SHIP-KEEPER.  A  watchman  employed  to  take 
care  of  a  ship  when  laid  up,  or  in  ordinary.  An 
officer  who  remains  much  on  board. 

SHIP-LANGUAGE.  Language  current  among 
sailors. 

SHIP,  LAUNCHING  OF.  At  the  commencement 
of  the  building  of  a  ship,  the  foundations  are  laid 
with  a  view  to  her  launching,  and  the  difficulties 
to  be  overcome  in  the  particular  situation  in 
which  the  work  is  to  be  performed,  are  carefully 
considered  and  provided  for. 

Particular  care  must  be  taken  that  the  founda 
tion  is  sufficient  to  bear  the  whole  weight  of  the 
fabric,  so  that  no  settling  may  occur  at  any  time 
during  the  progress  of  the  work,  or  at  the  time 
of  launching. 

If  the  location  requires  it,  piles  are  first  driven 
both  under  the  keel  and  the  launching-ways  the 
whole  length  of  the  ship,  and  under  the  exten 
sion  of  the  launching-ways,  as  far  out  into  the 
water  as-  is  necessary  to  extend  them,  that  the 
ship  maj7  be  floated.  Upon  these  piles,  under  the 
keel,  are  placed  the  ground-ways,  and  upon  the 
top  of  the  ground-ways  blocks  are  laid,  about  5 
feet  apart,  for  the  whole  length  of  the  ship. 

On  the  top  of  these  blocks,  before  the  keel 
is  laid,  other  blocks  are  placed,  made  wedging, 
athwartship,  from  2  to  3  feet  long.  These 
blocks  should  be  carefully  selected  with  refer 
ence  to  the  grain  of  the  wood,  so  that  they  may 
be  easily  split  at  the  time  of  launching  the 
ship.  Upon  these  blocks  the  keel  rests.  The 
height  of  this  foundation  should  be  laid  with 
reference  to  the  work  which  is  to  be  done  under 
the  bottom  of  the  ship,  as  well  as  the  descent  of 
the  ship  into  the  water.  The  blocks  are  laid 
upon  an  inclination  of  from  f  of  an  inch  to  1 
inch  to  the  foot. 

Great  care  should  be  taken  in  laying  the  keel, 
that  the  forefoot  shall  not  strike  the  ground- ways 


SHIP 


745 


SHIP 


in  launching,  allowance  being  made  for  the  set 
tling  of  the'ship  during  that  process. 

While  the  ship  is  building  her  weight  rests 
upon  the  blocks  under  the  keel,  and  such  shores 
as  may  be  needed  under  the  bilge  and  sides. 
When  the  time  of  launching  comes  this  weight 
is  to  be  transferred  from  these  keel-blocks  to  in 
clined  planes,  which  are  placed  one  on  each  side 
of  the  keel,  called  "  launching-ways." 

These  are  securely  placed  upon  the  top  of  the 
"piles"  previously  prepared  and  the  blocking 
necessary  to  bring  the  ground-,  or  lower  ways,  to 
the  required  height  and  inclination. 

The  surface  of  these  ways  should  be  calculated 
with  reference  to  the  amount  of  friction  coming 
from  the  weight  to  be  placed  upon  them.  And 
it  is  a  good  fault  that  the  ways  are  too  wide  rather 
than  too  narrow. 

The  ground-ways  having  been  placed,  they  may 
be  carefully  smoothed  and  laid  with  precision, 
either  to  a  gentle  curve  or  a  straight  line,  their 
entire  length,  and  when  ready  they  may  be  coated 
with  a  preparation  of  tallow,  lampblack,  castile 
soap,  and  oil  in  suitable  proportions.  The  slid- 
ing-ways  may  now  be  hauled  up  and  fitted. 

In  putting  together  the  sliding-ways,  take  care 
that  the  thin  part  of  the  snape  comes  aft,  and 
that  everything  is  removed  that  may  cause  the 
bilge-ways  to  catch  when  the  movement  com 
mences. 

After  the  sliding-ways  are  fitted,  a  ribband  is 
secured  to  the  outside  of  the  ground-ways.  Pack 
ing,  shores,  and  poppets  are  built  up  on  the  top 
of  the  sliding-ways  to  fit  the  bottom  of  the  ship, 
leaving  an  opening  of  from  4  to  6  inches,  for 
wedges,  between  the  sliding-plank  and  the  pack 
ing, — these  wedges  being  for  the  purpose  of  lift 
ing  the  ship  from  the  keel-blocks  and  transfer 
ring  the  weights  to  the  sliding-ways.  The  packing 
spoken  of  may  be  carried  as  far  forward  and  aft 
as  the  sliding-ways,  or  as  far  as  the  shape  of  the 
ship  will  permit. 

If  poppets  or  short  shores  are  used,  they  should 
be  secured  at  the  ends  to  each  other  and  to  the 
plank  above  the  wedges,  in  order  that  it  may  be 
like  a  solid  mass  of  wood,  trussed  and  secured 
with  chains  under  the  keel,  from  side  to  side. 

The  ribbands  having  been  secured  to  the 
ground- ways,  and  the  whole  of  the  new  fabric 
upon  which  the  ship  is  to  rest  well  shored  and 
braced,  the  foundation  is  complete  for  transfer 
ring  the  weight  of  the  ship  from  the  keel-blocks 
to  the  launching-ways. 

While  the  packing  or  chocks  are  being  fitted, 
wedges  of  large  size  are  fitted  between  these 
chocks  and  the  sliding-ways  fore  and  aft,  close 
together. 

When  this  work  is  all  done  it  is  usual  to  shore 
up  and  secure  the  packing  to  the  bottom  of  the 
ship,  and  push  the  sliding-ways  in  toward  the 
ship,  in  order  to  give  them  a  final  coat  of  the 
launching  composition  of  tallow,  oil,  soap,  etc. 
The  sliding-ways  being  thoroughly  coated,  they 
are  pushed  back  into  their  places  and  the  wedges 
inserted  fore  and  aft,  leaving  about  one-half  of 
their  length  outside  of  the  packing.  The  ends 
of  the  launching-ways  are  now  secured  to  the 
ground-ways. 

The  anchors  being  ready  for  letting  go,  and 
every  arrangement  having  been  made  which  is 
necessary  to  check  the  vessel  after  she  has  left  the 
ways,  the  word  is  given  to  "wedge  up."  The 


men,  provided  with  heavy  sledges  or  battering- 
rams,  wedge  up  on  both  sides  for  a  sufficient 
time  to  raise  the  whole  mass  slightly  from  the 
keel-blocks,  and  the  weight  is  thus  transferred  to 
the  sliding-ways. 

Now  commences  the  exciting  part  of  the 
launch.  The  blocks  are  removed  one  by  one, 
commencing  at  the  after  end,  usually  by  split 
ting  out  the  wedge-pieces  next  to  the  keel ;  and 
as  fast  as  the  blocks  are  removed  and  cleared  out 
of  the  space  between  the  sliding-ways,  the  bilge- 
and  wale-shores  are  removed.  When  all  the 
blocks  are  out,  the  plank,  or  trip,  which  is  the 
forward  end,  is  all  that  holds  the  ship  from 
sliding. 

The  word  is  now  given  to  "cut  away,"  and 
the  men  have  hardly  cut  oif  the  plank,  inch  by 
inch,  before  the  whole  mass  starts  for  its  native 
element,  amid  the  cheers  of  those  who  may  be 
in  attendance. — S.  H.  Pook,  Naval  Constructor 
U.S.N. 

SHIP,  LOG-.     The  log-chip.     See  LOG. 

SHIP-LORD.  An  old  term  for  the  owner  of  a 
ship. 

SHIPMAN.     An  old  term  for  a  mariner. 

SHIPMAN 's  CARD.  An  old  name  for  the  com 
pass. 

SHIP-MASTER.  The  captain,  master,  or  owner 
of  a  merchant  ship. 

SHIPMATE.  A  fellow-sailor.  One  who  serves 
on  board  the  same  ship. 

SHIP-MONEY.  Money  exacted  illegally  by 
Charles  I.  of  England  to  fit  out  ships  in  time  of 
peace. 

SHIP-OWNER.     One  who  owns  ships. 

SHIP-PENDULUM.  A  pendulum  to  show  by 
its  oscillations  the  roll  and  pitching  motion  of 
the  ship. 

SHIPPER.  One  who  embarks  freight  in  a  ship. 

SHIPPING.  Vessels  generally.  The  whole 
body  of  ships  in  a  place. 

SHIPPING-ARTICLES.  Articles  of  agreement 
between  the  master  and  seamen  with  regard  to 
wages,  length  of  time  of  service,  etc. 

SHIPPING-MASTER.  A  person  legally  ap 
pointed  to  superintend  the  shipping  of  seamen 
for  the  merchant  service. 

SHIP-RIGGED.  Kigged  like  a  ship,  with  three 
masts,  all  provided  with  yards,  and  spreading 
square-sails. 

SHIP'S  BOATS.  The  boats  belonging  to  the 
ship. 

SHIP'S  BOOKS.  The  books  of  the  executive 
and  of  the  paymaster,  in  which  the  names  of  the 
men  are  borne. 

SHIP'S  COMPANY.     The  crew  of  the  ship. 

SHIP'S  COOK.     See  COOK. 

SHIP'S  CORPORAL.  A  petty  officer,  whose  duty 
is  to  assist  the  master-at-arms  in  preserving  order, 
arresting  offenders,  etc. 

SHIP'S  DAYS.  The  lay-days  allowed  to  a  ship 
for  loading  or  unloading  cargo. 

SHIP-SHAPE.  In  a  seaman-like  manner.  Neat 
and  thoroughly  done. 

SHIP'S  HUSBAND.  The  agent  or  broker  who 
manages  her  accounts  with  regard  to  repairs, 
etc.,  while  refitting. 

SHIP-SLOOP  (Enff.).  A  sloop  rated  as  a  ship, 
because  commanded  by  a  captain. 

SHIP-STAR.     An  old  name  for  the  pole-star. 

SHIP'S  WRITER.  A  petty  officer  who,  under 
the  directions  of  the  executive-officer,  does  the 


SHIVER 


746 


SHORE 


writing  and  keeps  the  watch-,  muster-,  conduct-, 
and  other  books  of  the  ship. 

SHIP-TIMBER.  Timber  to  be  used  for  ship 
building. 

SHIP- WORM.  A  mollusk,  of  the  genus  Teredo, 
that  burrows  in  timber,  secreting  a  calcareous 
shell  as  it  goes,  and  weakening  the  wood. 

SHIPWRECK.  The  destruction  of  a  ship  by 
being  cast  ashore  on  shoals  or  rocks  ;  a  ship  that 
has  been  wrecked.  See  WRECK. 

SHIPWRIGHT.     A  builder  of  ships. 

SHIP-YARD.  A  dock-yard  ;  a  yard  where  ships 
are  built  or  repaired. 

Shiver.  A  sheave.  To  shiver  a  sail,  to  luff 
the  ship,  or  brace  the  yard,  so  that  the  wind,  act 
ing  on  the  edge  of  the  sail,  causes  it  to  shake. 

Shoal.  A  school  of  fish.  A  shallow  or  bar 
where  the  water  is  not  deep.  To  become  more 
shallow. 

SHOAL-INDICATOR.     A  buoy  placed  on  a  shoal. 

SHOALED-HARBOR.  A  harbor  secured  from 
the  violence  of  the  sea  by  banks,  bars,  etc. 

Shock,  William  H.,  Chief  Engineer  U.S.N. 
Chief  of  Bureau  of  Steam  Engineering.  Born  in 
Maryland.  Appointed  from  Maryland,  January 
18,  1845;  entered  the  naval  service  as  third 
assistant  engineer,  during  the  Mexican  war, 
served  on  board  the  steamers  "  General  Taylor," 
"  Princeton,"  "  Spitfire,"  and  the  frigate  "  Mis 
sissippi,"  in  which  vessels,  at  different  periods, 
he  participated  in  the  capture  of  Tampico,  under 
Commodore  Connor,  and  Alvarado,  Tuspan, 
Tlacotalpan,  and  Vera  Cruz,  under  Commodore 
Perry. 

Promoted  to  second  assistant  engineer,  July 
10,  1847;  ordered  to  the  steamer  "Engineer," 
Home  Squadron. 

Promoted  to  first  assistant  engineer,  October 
31,  1848 ;  1849,  was  senior  engineer  steamer 
"  Legare,"  coast  survey;  1850-51,  special  duty 
at  Philadelphia,  superintending  construction  of 
machinery  of  steam-frigate  "  Susquehanna." 

Promoted  to  chief  engineer,  March,  1851 ; 
1851-52,  special  duty,  Boston,  Mass.,  superin 
tending  construction  of  machinery  of  steamer 
"Princeton";  1853-54,  inspecting  engineer  of 
ocean  steamers  for  U.  8.  mail  service,  and  chief 
engineer  of  steamer  "  Princeton,"  Home  Squad 
ron  ;  1854-55,  West  Point,  superintending  con 
struction  of  machinery  for  steam-frigate  "  Mer- 
rimac"  ;  1855-56,  chief  engineer  steam-frigate 
"Merrimac,"  Home  Squadron;  1857-60,  chief 
engineer  steam-frigate  "  Powhatan,"  East  India 
Squadron;  1860-62,  president  of  Examining 
Board  of  Engineers;  1862-63,  special  duty  at 
St.  Louis,  superintending  construction  of  river 
monitors;  1863-65,  fleet-engineer,  West  Gulf 
Squadron,  participating  in  the  capture  of  Forts 
Gaines  and  Morgan,  under  Admiral  Farragut, 
and  the  Spanish  Fort  and  city  of  Mobile,  under 
Admiral  Thatcher;  1865-66,  chief  engineer  of 
Boston  Navy- Yard;  1867-68,  chief  engineer  of 
Washington  Navy- Yard  ;  1868-69,  fleet-engineer 
of  European  Squadron;  1869-70,  inspector  of 
machinery  afloat,  and  member  of  Board  of  Visi 
tors  to  Naval  Academy  at  Annapolis,  Md.  ;  in 
the  summer  of  1870  was  appointed  acting  chief 
of  Bureau  of  Steam  Engineering,  retiring  from 
the  ofBce  with  the  written  thanks  of  the  Depart 
ment  for  the  efficient  manner  in  which  the  duties 
of  the  bureau  were  discharged  ;  in  1871  was  again 
called  to  take  temporary  charge  of  the  Bureau  of 


Steam  Engineering,  and  on  retiring  from  the 
position  was  actively  employed  on  other  duty  in 
the  United  States  until  1873,  when  he  was 
ordered  to  Europe  on  a  tour  of  inspection  of 
public  and  private  dock-yards,  and  to  represent 
the  Bureau  of  Steam  Engineering  at  the  Inter 
national  Exhibition  at  Vienna,  and  by  direction 
of  the  President  was  appointed  one  of  the  Amer 
ican  Judges  of  Awards;  returning  from  Europe, 
was  detailed  to  other  duty  until  "March  3,  1877, 
when  he  was  appointed  and  confirmed  engineer- 
in-chief  of  the  U.  S.  navy. 

Shod.  An  anchor  is  shod  when  the  fluke  is 
covered  with  mud  that  has  adhered  to  it. 

Shoe.  An  iron  arming  to  a  hand-spike.  A 
board  hollowed  slightly,  and  placed  under  a 
sheer-leg,  to  serve  in  transporting  it.  The  outer 

Siece  of  the  forefoot.  A  flat  block  of  hard  wood, 
ollowed  to  receive  the  ear  of  an  anchor-fluke. 
It  slides  up  and  down  the  bows,  with  the  inner 
fluke  resting  in  it,  so  as  to  prevent  the  anchor 
from  tearing  a  hole  in  the  bow.  A  triangular 
plank  structure  placed  over  the  fluke  to  increase 
its  area.  Magazine  shoes  are  of  canvas,  to  be 
worn  in  the  magazine.  To  shoe  an  anchor,  to 
place  over  the  palms  projecting  pieces  of  hard 
wood,  secured  by  hoops  and  nails,  so  as  to  give 
greater  holding-power  in  soft  mud. 

Shoe-block.  A  block  consisting  of  a  single 
piece  of  wood,  without  a  strap,  with  two  sheaves 
inserted  at  right  angles  to  each  other.  They  are 
used  for  main-buntiine  blocks. 

Shoe-paun-dogee.  A  gorgeous  imperia.  yacht 
used  by  the  emperor  of  Burmah  on  ceremonial 
occasions.  It  has  a  very  high  curved  stern,  a 
griffin  terminates  the  bow,  and  a  richly-gilded 
house  is  built  on  the  deck. 

Sholes.  Pieces  of  oak  placed  under  the  soles 
of  the  shores  while  the  ship  is  building  ;  they  are 
used  to  increase  the  surface  under  the  shore  so  as 
to  prevent  its  sinking  into  soft  ground. 

Shoot.  To  move  rapidly;  as,  a  ship  "shoots 
ahead,"  etc.  To  pass  rapidly  through  or  by  ;  as, 
to  shoot  a  rapids,  or  a  bridge.  To  shoot  a  net,  to 
run  it  out  into  the  water.  To  shoot  the  sun,  to 
take  its  altitude.  To  shoot  the  compass,  to  go 
wide  of  the  mark. 

Shore.  The  littoral  of  a  country.  That  part 
near  the  ocean.  Bold  shore,  a  high,  steep  shore. 
Flat  shore,  a  low,  flat  coast.  Shelving  shore,  a 
gradually  descending  coast. 

A  prop  to  support  anything  from  below.  Bilge- 
shore,  a  shore  under  the  bilge.  Cap-shore,  a 
short  support  under  the  mast-cap.  (See  CAP- 
SHORE.)  Breast-shore,  a  shore  near  the  middle 
of  the  ship,  extending  abeam.  Wale-shores, 
shores  supporting  the  ship  at  the  wales,  extend 
ing  vertically  downwards.  To  shore  up  a  ship, 
to  place  shores  under  a  ship's  bottom. 

SHORE-ANCHOR.  The  anchor  lying  toward 
the  shore. 

SHORE-BOAT.  A  private  boat  belonging  ashore. 

SHORE-CLEATS.  Heavy  cleats  nailed  to  the 
side  of  a  ship,  against  which  shores  rest. 

SHORE-DUTY.  •  Service  on  shore,  as  distin 
guished  from  service  afloat.  Duty  at  navy-yards, 
Navy  Department,  etc. 

SHORE-FAST.  A  hawser  or  chain  securing  a 
ship  to  the  shore. 

SHORE-PAY.  The  pay  of  an  officer  when  on 
shore-duty.  In  the  U.  S.  navy  it  varies  from 
six-  to  eight-tenths  of  the  highest  pay. 


SHOKT 


747 


SHROUD 


SHORE-REEF.     A  fringing-reef. 

SHORE-STATION.  A  naval  establishment  on 
shore. 

Short.  To  heave  short,  to  heave  in  on  the 
cable  until  it  is  nearly  up  and  down,  or  until  the 
anchor  just  holds,  without  any  slack  cable. 
Short-apeek,  up  and  down,  applied  to  the  cable 
of  an  anchor.  Short  allowance,  a  reduction  of 
provisions,  water,  etc.,  in  case  of  necessity. 
Short  board,  a  short  run  on  one  tack,  when  cir 
cumstances  preclude  the  use  of  longer  intervals 
between  tacks.  Short  glass,  the  14-second  glass, 
used  with  the  log.  Short-handed,  deficient  in 
men.  Short-linked  chain,  chain  without  studs, 
and  with  short  links.  Short  sea,  a  confused, 
tumbling  sea.  Short-service,  service  placed  on  a 
hemp  cable  for  riding  at  a  short  stay.  Short  stay, 
that  position  of  the  cable  when  it  is  nearly  up 
and  down,  or  when  the  anchor  is  nearly  atrip. 

SHORTEN.  To  shorten  in  on  the  cable  is  to 
heave  in  to  a  shorter  scope.  To  shorten  sail  is  to 
reduce  the  amount  of  sail  by  taking  in  some  of 
them ;  to  haul  up  or  take  in  all  sail  when  set 
or  loosed  to  dry. 

SHORT-SHEET.  The  shorter  of  the  two  sheets 
fitted  to  a  topmast  stun'sail.  When  the  sail  is 
set,  it  is  led  through  a  thimble  on  the  lower  yard 
into  the  top,  where  it  is  belayed. 

SHORT-SPLICE.  A  short  union  of  two  ropes, 
used  when  an  increase  of  the  diameter  is  not  in 
admissible. 

Shot.  The  union  of  two  or  more  cables,  for 
greater  length,  form  a  shot  of  cable.  The  reck 
oning  or  expense.  A  place  where  fishermen  draw 
their  nets.  The  sternmost  part  of  a  fishing- 
boat.  A  kind  of  trout.  To  load  a  gun  with 
shot.  See  PROJECTILES. 

SHOT-GARLAND.     See  GARLAND. 

SHOT-GAUGE.  A  gauge  or  calliper  to  measure 
the  dimensions  of  shot. 

SHOT,  GRAPNEL-.  A  shot  with  a  grapnel  at 
tached,  carrying  a  line,  to  be  used  in  communi 
cating  with 'ships  in  distress. 

SHOT-LOCKER.  A  strongly-built  locker  in  the 
hold,  to  contain  shot.  Shot  in  the  locker,  money 
in  the  purse. 

SHOT-PILE.  A  pile  of  shot  in  a  navy-yard  or 
magazine  on  shore.  Shot  are  carefully  piled  on 
masonry  or  wooden  platforms.  The  number  of 
shot  in  a  pile  is  found  by  multiplying  the  sum 
of  the  three  parallel  edges  by  the  number  of 
balls  in  a  triangular  face. 

SHOT-PLUG.  A  wooden  plug  used  in  connec 
tion  with  fearnaught  for  stopping  shot-holes. 

SHOT-PROP.  A  wooden  prop  covered  with  tarred 
hemp,  used  to  stop  a  shot-hole  from  the  inside. 

SHOT-RACK.  Iron  rods  fitted  about  the  hatches, 
water-ways,  and  on  the  berth-deck,  to  contain 
shot. 

SHOT-TROUGH.  Wooden  troughs  placed  about 
the  decks  to  convey  shot  during  action. 

SHOT-WAD.  A  wad  of  hay  or  junk  placed  in 
front  of  a  shpt  to  hold  it  in  place  in  the  bore. 

SHOT-WHIP.  A  whip  for  hoisting  shot  from 
the  locker. 

Shotten  Herring.  Cleaned  herring  for  dry 
ing.  A  lean,  lazy  fellow. 

Shoulder.  The  projecting  portion  of  a  ship 
about  the  water-line,  that  gives  her  stability 
under  canvas.  A  ship  it  said  to  shoulder  the  an 
chor  when  she  drags  it  in  consequence  of  having 
too  little  cable  out. 


Shoulder-block.  A  block  with  a  shoulder  or 
square  projection  at  the  upper  end,  to  keep  it  in 
an  upright  position. 

Shoulder- knot.  An  ornamental  knot  of  gold 
lace,  worn  on  the  shoulder  in  lieu  of  strap  and 
epaulet.  Officers  of  the  grades  of  ensign  and 
midshipman,  and  corresponding  grades  in  the 
staff  corps,  and  company  officers  of  the  marine 
corps,  wear  shoulder-knots. 

Shoulder-of-mutton  Sail.  A  triangular  sail 
attached  to  a  mast,  and  used  in  boats. 

Shoulder-strap.  A  narrow  strap  of  cloth 
worn  on  the  shoulders  by  all  commissioned  offi 
cers  above  ensign  in  the  navy,  and  assimilated 
ranks,  and  all  field-officers  in  the  marine  corps. 
In  the  strap  distinguishing  ornaments  are  worn, 
as  follows :  all  line-officers,  an  anchor  in  the 
centre  or  at  each  end ;  master,  one  gold  bar  at 
each  end  ;  lieutenant,  two  gold  bars  ;  lieutenant- 
commander,  one  gold  leaf  at  each  end ;  com 
mander,  one  silver  leaf;  captain,  silver  eagle 
in  the  centre  ;  commodore,  one  star  in  the  centre ; 
rear-admiral,  one  star  at  each  end  ;  vice-admiral, 
three  stars;  admiral,  four  stars.  Officers  of  the 
staff  corps  substitute  for  the  anchor:  medical 
officers,  a  blank  ;  pay-officers,  an  oak  sprig  ;  engi 
neer  officers,  four  oak  leaves  in  a  cross  ;  naval 
constructors,  two  oak  leaves  and  an  acorn  in 
gold ;  chaplains,  a  silver  cross  ;  professors,  one 
oak  leaf  and  an  acorn  ;  secretaries,  the  letter  S  in 
silver.  See  UNIFORM. 

Shout  (Eng.}.  A  light  flat-bottomed  duck 
ing-punt. 

Shoveler.  A  duck  (Anas  clypeata],  with  a 
broad  bill. 

Show  Leg!  "Turn  out  quickly."  An  ex 
pression  used  to  get  the  watch  out  of  their  ham 
mocks. 

Shrab.     A  Calcutta  drink. 

Shrapnel.  A  species  of  shell,  devised  by 
Gen.  Shrapnel,  also  called  spherical  case.  They 
are  thin  shell,  being  one-tenth  of  their  diame 
ter  in  thickness.  They  contain  a  bursting  charge 
of  powder  only  sufficient  to  burst  the  shell,  and  a 
quantity  of  sulphur,  in  which  a  number  of  balls, 
from  .65  inch  to  1  inch  in  diameter,  are  im 
bedded.  They  are  cast  like  shell.  Their  use  is 
effective  against  boats  or  bodies  of  men,  at  con 
siderable  distances.  They  are  boxed  and  have 
sabots  like  shell,  but  the  boxes  are  painted  white. 
Those  for  smooth-bore  guns  and  howitzers  have 
Bormann  fuzes.  They  are  not  yet  used  in  rifle- 
cannon  in  the  U.  S.  navy.  English  shrapnel, 
also  called  diaphragm-shrapnel,  have  a  thin  iron 
partition  separating  the  bullets  from  the  bursting 
charge. 

Shrimp.  The  Crangon  vulgaris,  a  crustacean 
used  for  food. 

Shroud.  A  rope  belonging  to  the  standing 
rigging  of  a  ship,  generally  alluded  to  in  the 
plural.  Each  shroud  is  connected  with  another 
so  as  to  form  a  pair.  They  are  made  of  shroud- 
laid  tarred  hemp  rope,  or  more  commonly  now, 
of  wire  rope.  A  collar  is  formed  by  a  seizing 
that  embraces  the  mast-head.  In  the  end  of 
each  leg  of  a  pair  is  placed  a  dead-eye,  or  a 
rigging-thimble,  or  it  embraces  the  upper  part 
of  a  rigging-screw,  as  the  case  may  be.  It  is 
fastened  by  laniard  or  screw  to  the  chain-wales, 
and  the  shrouds,  being  set  up,  support  the  mast 
sideways.  When  there  is  an  odd  number  of 
shrouds,  the  forward  or  after  one  is  the  odd  one. 


SHUBKICK 


748 


SICK-BAY 


The  forward  shroud  is  called  the  swifter.  Shrouds 
after  being  cut,  when  of  rope,  are  wormed,  par 
celed,  and  served  where  the  eyes  are  formed,  and 
swifters,  all  the  length  ;  when  of  wire,  they  are 
red-leaded,  wormed,  and  parceled,  again  red- 
leaded  and  served  full  length.  Shrouds  are 
variously  named  from  the  spars  they  support. 

SHROUD-BRIDLE.  A  bridle  formerly  placed 
in  the  shrouds,  with  a  thimble  in  the  bight, 
through  which  the  lower  sheets  led. 

SHROUD-CLEAT.  A  wooden  or  iron  cleat, 
seized  to  a  shroud,  to  belay  a  rope  to. 

SHROUD-KNOT.  A  knot  formed  in  a  shroud 
that  has  parted. 

SHROUD-LAID  HOPE.  Eight-handed  four- 
stranded  rope,  with  a  heart. 

SHROUD-PLATES.  Iron  plates  extending  from 
the  dead-eyes  to  the  ship's  side. 

SHROUD-ROPE.  Superior  rope  for  shrouds  and 
stays,  of  the  best  Kussian  hemp. 

SHROUD-STOPPER.  A  rigging-stopper.  See 
STOPPER. 

SHROUD-TRUCK.  A  fair-leader,  or  short  wooden 
cylinder,  having  holes  in  it  for  rigging  and  a 
groove  and  score,  the  latter  embracing  the 
shroud,  and  the  former  filled  by  a  seizing,  fast 
ening  it  to  the  shroud. 

SHROUD-WARP.    See  WARP. 

Shubrick,  the  name  of  several  gallant  officers 
of  the  U.  S.  navy,  natives  of  South^Carolina,  sons 
of  Col.  Thomas  Shubrick,  aid  to  Gens.  Greene 
and  Lincoln  in  the  Revolutionary  war,  born 
1775;  died  at  Charleston,  S.  C.,  March  4,  1810. 

John  Taylor,  born  September  12,  1788  ;  died 
July,  1815 ;  midshipman,  June  20,  1806  ;  lieuten 
ant,  May  28, 1812.  He  was  in  the  "  Chesapeake" 
in  her  affair  with  the  "  Leopard,"  in  1807  ;  in  the 
action  of  the  "Constitution"  with  the  "  Guer- 
riere,"  in  August,  and  with  the  "  Java,"  De 
cember  29,  1812;  of  the  "Hornet"  with  the 
"  Peacock,"  February  24,  1813  (for  which  he  re 
ceived  medals  from  Congress);  of  the  "Presi 
dent,"  when  captured  by  a  British  squadron,  in 
January,  1815,  and  on  the  conclusion  of  peace  was 
dispatched  to  the  United  States  in  command  of 
the  "  Epervier"  with  the  treaty.  This  vessel  was 
never  afterward  heard  from. 

William  Branford,  born  October  31,  1790; 
midshipman,  June  20,  1806  ;  lieutenant,  Janu 
ary  6,  1813;  commander,  March  28,  1820;  cap 
tain,  February  21,  1831 ;  rear-admiral  (retired 
list),  July  16,  1862;  commanded  battery  of 
one  gun  on  Craney  Island  in  the  repulse  of 
the  British  forces,  June  22,  1813  ;  lieutenant  in 
the  "  Constitution"  in  action  with  the  "  Cyane" 
and  "  Levant,"  February  20,  1815;  commanded 
squadron  in  the  Pacific  in  1847,  and  captured 
Mazatlan  and  other  ports  from  the  Mexicans ; 
commanded  Brazil  Squadron  and  Paraguay  Ex 
pedition,  1859  ;  chairman  Light-House  Board, 
1860-70. 

Edward  Rutledge  died  at  sea,  March  12, 
1844,  at  about  50,  Midshipman,  January  16, 
1809  ;  lieutenant,  October  9,  1813  ;  commander, 
April  24, 1828;  captain,  February  9,  1837  ;  served 
under  Commodore  Rodgers  in  the  war  of  1812- 
15;  appointed  to  command  the  "Columbia," 
Brazil  Squadron,  May  4,  1842. 

Irvine,  born  in  1797 ;  died  in  Philadelphia, 
April  5,  1849.  Midshipman,  May  12,  1814 ;  lieu 
tenant,  January  13,  1826;  commander,  Septem 
ber  8,  1841 ;  served  under  Decatur  in  the  action 


of  the  "  President"  with  the  British  squadron  in 
1815 ;  also  in  the  war  with  Algiers  in  1816 ; 
as  first  lieutenant  of  the  "  Potomac,"  in  1832, 
headed  the  sailors  and  marines  in  the  destruction 
of  Quallah  Battoo. 

Shufeldt,  Robert  W.,  Commodore  U.S.N. 
Born  in  New  York.  Appointed  midshipman 
from  New  York,  May  11,  1839;  first  cruise  in 
the  frigate  "United  States,"  Pacific  Squadron, 
1839-41 ;  in  brig  "  Bainbridge,"  Home  Squad 
ron,  1842-44;  at  Naval  School,  Philadelphia, 
1844-45. 

Promoted  to  passed  midshipman,  July  2, 1845 ; 
on  the  coast  survey  in  1845-46  ;  in  frigate  "  United 
States,"  Mediterranean  Squadron,  1846-47,  and 
sloop  "Marion,"  same  squadron,  1847-48;  in 
mail-steamer  "  Atlantic,"  1849-50. 

Promoted  to  master,  February  21 ,  1853. 

Commissioned  as  lieutenant,  1854 ;  resigned, 
June  20,  1854.  (While  out  of  the  navy  he  was 
active  in  the  organization  of  the  steam  commer 
cial  marine  of  New  York.  Served  two  years  in 
the  Collins  line  of  Liverpool  steamers,  as  chief 
officer ;  superintended  the  building  of  and  com 
manded  the  steamers  "  Black  Warrior"  and 
"  Cahawba,"  between  New  York  and  New  Or 
leans  ;  was  engaged  for  a  year  in  the  effort  to 
open  a  transit  across  the  Isthmus  of  Tehuantepec. 
At  the  commencement  of  the  war,  was  command 
ing  the  steamer  "  Quaker  City,"  between  New 
York  and  Havana,  when  he  was  appointed  con 
sul-general  to  Cuba  by  President  Lincoln  ;  served 
in  that  office  for  two  years,  under  difficult  and 
trying  circumstances,  with  the  entire  approba 
tion  of  the  government.  He  resigned  in  April, 
1863,  and  accepted  a  commission  of  commander 
in  the  navy,  previously  tendered.) 

Reinstated  and  received  commission  as  com 
mander,  dated  November  19,  1862.  In  May, 
1863,  commanded  steamer  "  Conemaugh,"  South 
Atlantic  Blockading  Squadron  ;  was  present  and 
participated  in  the  capture  of  Morris  Island,  and 
in  several  of  the  attacks  upon  Fort  Wagner ; 
commandingsteamer  "Boteus,"  East  Gulf  Block 
ading  Squadron,  1863-65  ;  commanding  steam- 
sloop  "  Hartford,"  flag-ship  East  India  Squadron, 
1865-66 ;  commandingsteam-sloop  "  Wachusett," 
Asiatic  Squadron,  1866-68 ;  commanding  naval 
rendezvous,  New  York,  1868-69. 

Commissioned  as  captain,  December  31,  1869; 
commanding  monitor  "  Miantonomah,"  1870; 
commanding  Tehuantepec  and  Nicaragua  Sur 
veying  Expedition,  1870-71 ;  commanding  "  Wa- 
bash,"  flag-ship  European  Squadron,  1871-72  ; 
navy-yard,  New  York,  1872-74 ;  chief  of  Bureau 
Equipment  and  Recruiting,  1875-78  ;  command 
ing  "  Ticonderoga,"  special  service,  1879-80. 

Commissioned  as  commodore,  September  21, 
1876. 

Shurgnee.  A  damp  southeast  wind  in  the 
Persian  Gulf,  preceded  by  heavy  dews. 

Sick-bay.  This  term  is  used  for  the  hospital 
in  the  navies  of  English-speaking  people.  We 
understand  by  it  a  separate  apartment,  wherever 
situated,  on  board  ship,  for  the  reception  and 
treatment  of  the  sick  and  wounded. 

Few  single-decked  vessels  in  our  navy  have 
any  sick-bay,  or  hospital,  at  all,  the  sick  being 
slung  up  to  the  beams,  in  their  hammocks,  or 
cots,  anywhere  about  the  berth-deck  where  they 
will  be  most  out  of  the  way.  During  the  day 
they  unavoidably  suffer  from  noise,  constant  col- 


SICK-BAY 


749 


SICK-BAY 


lision  with  their  swinging-beds,  and  the  heat 
and  odors  of  cooking  from  the  galley.  At  night 
every  inch  of  the  space  about  them  is  occupied  ; 
the  air  is  mephitic,  and,  when  the  watch  is  re 
lieved,  the  noise  and  jostling  of  hammocks  re 
curs.  To  reach  a  sick  man  in  his  "billet,"  the 
medical  officer,  or  apothecary,  or  nurse  must  fre 
quently  pass  under  other  hammocks,  disturbing 
those  well  men  who  need  their  rest,  or  other  in 
valids. 

All  frigate-built  ships,  and  some  corvettes  or 
sloops-of-war,  have  sick-bays,  and  almost  invari 
ably  these  have  been  placed  on  the  lowest  inhab 
ited  deck,  and  in  the  extreme  forward  end  of  the 
vessel, — about  the  worst  possible  place  for  sick 
men. 

The  chief  requisites  for  a  hospital,  or  receptacle 
for  sick  and  wounded,  either  ashore  or  afloat,  are, 
in  addition  to  proper  shelter  from  the  weather, 
the  best  attainable  quietude,  ventilation,  and 
natural  light. 

These  requisites  have  been  systematically  ig 
nored  in  our  navy,  and,  until  quite  recent  times, 
in  most  other  navies.  In  most  of  the  latter  more 
enlightened  views  now  prevail,  however,  the 
French  having  led  the  advance.  This  being  the 
case,  it  is  altogether  possible  that  our  navy  will, 
in  due  time,  and  in  types  of  vessels  permitting  it, 
follow  an  excellent  example,  and  remove  the 
hospital  from  the  berth-deck. 

The  usual  position  of  the  "  sick-bay"  (said  to 
be  so  called  because  it  made  people  sick)  appears 
to  be  a  traditional  arrangement,  derived  from  the 
galley  period,  through  the  French,  and  thence  to 
us  through  the  English,  who  derived  many  of 
their  ideas  in  naval  architecture  from  study  of 
the  vessels  captured  from  their  neighbors  across 
the  Channel. 

Henry  Teonge,  a  chaplain  in  the  British  royal 
navy  more  than  two  centuries  ago,  who  kept  a 
very  minute  diary,  makes  particular  mention  of 
sickness  and  mortality  on  board  three  large  frig 
ates,  and  yet  never  hints  at  the  existence  of  any 
sick-bay  or  hospital.  It  is,  therefore,  to  be  sup 
posed  that  there  was  no  place  set  apart  for  the 
purpose  in  the  English  navy  at  that  time. 

Fonssagrives — one  of  the  best  authorities  upon 
the  subject — says  that  from  all  time  the  forward 
part  of  the  ship  seems  to  have  been  devoted  to 
the  sick,  and  that  it  was  so  devoted  when  rude 
manners  and  ideas  saw  in  the  sick  only  useless 
encumbrances,  and  when  v ss  segrotantibus  seemed 
as  natural  as  the  vse  metis  of  the  ancients. 

These  quarters  were  given  to  the  sick,  then, 
not  as  the  most  suitable  for  them,  but  with  a 
view  to  isolate  them,  and  thus  to  preserve  the 
rest  of  the  ship's  company  from  contagion, — often 
of  plague,  or  of  ship  fever, — putting  them  some 
where  where  well  men  would  not  be  obliged  to 
touch  them,  or  pass  them.  The  only  other  place 
where  these  conditions  could  obtain — the  stern 
of  the  vessel — was  already  occupied  by  the  com 
manding  officer. 

Jean  Marteilhe,  of  Bergerac,  tells  us  that  in 
the  French  royal  galleys  of  the  17th  and  18th 
centuries,  the  compartment  in  the  bows,  under 
the  low  deck  of  the  galley's  prow,  beneath  the 
water-line,  close,  dark,  and  dismal,  served  for 
the  combined  purpose  of  stowing  the  cables  and 
the  medicine-chest,  and  here,  upon  the  cables, 
were  piled  the  sick, — if  they  were  allowed  to 
leave  the  oar  at  all, — as  well  as  those  wounded 


in  battle;  so  that  great  mortality  ensued.  "  The 
wounded  died  like  flies,"  he  says. 

M.  Jal  also  alludes  to  the  hospitals  of  fighting- 
gallej'S,  of  an  earlier  period,  which  he  says  were 
in  the  forward  part  of  the  vessel,  and  called,  at 
that  time,  "  tollar,"  from  tolerare,  to  suffer.,  "It 
was  there  the  sick  suffered." 

Smollett,  writing  of  the  Carthagena  Expedi 
tion,  1741,  says  that  the  hospital  of  the  man-of- 
war  in  which  he  served  was  three  degrees  more 
offensive  and  more  suffocating  than  the  cock-pit, 
— then,  and  long  after,  the  quarters  of  the  sur 
geon's  mates,  as  has  been  the  case  in  our  navy 
within  twenty  years. 

In  the  French  navy  of  more  modern  times  the 
traditional  practice  of  placing  the  sick  on  the 
lower  deck,  forward,  seems  to  have  been  first 
broken  in  upon  about  the  year  1810,  when 
strong  remonstrances  against  its  impropriety  and 
impolicy — cruelty,  indeed — caused  important 
changes  to  be  inaugurated,  and  these  have  been 
permanent. 

It  is,  however,  within  quite  recent  times  that 
the  sick-bay  has  been  taken  from  the  berth-deck, 
in  double-decked  vessels  of  the  English  navy, 
and  it  never  has  been  done  in  the  IT.  S.  navy, 
except  in  some  receiving-ships,  which  are  not  in 
any  sense  sea-going  vessels. 

As  a  precaution  and  temporary  measure,  in 
cholera,  yellow  fever,  and  other  epidemics,  or  in 
case  the  wounded  were  so  numerous  as  to  over 
flow  the  limits  of  the  "  sick-bay,"  they  have  been 
placed  upon  the  gun-deck  or'  elsewhere.  Still, 
with  us,  the  old  sick-bay,  in  the  most  dismal 
part  of  the  ship,  is  the  only  recognized  official 
hospital  on  board.  The  usual  position  of  our 
"sick-bay"  is  objectionable  for  many  reasons. 
Ventilation  is  bad,  at  the  very  best.  Light  is 
defective  in  the  extreme.  The  air-ports,  of  which 
there  are  seldom  more  than  two,  of  a  few  inches 
diameter,  are  seldom  open,  except  in  a  calm,  or 
in  a  close  harbor.  As  a  rule,  candles  are  used  to 
examine  patients,  and  even  to  perform  important 
operations.  Ether  must  be  used  with  care  in 
artificial  light,  otherwise  there  is  danger  to  the 
ship  and  all  on  board. 

The  chains  are  worked  just  above  the  sick-bay. 
The  ship's  bell  is  generally  so  hung  that  its 
jarring  tones  are  more  distinctly  heard  in  the 
sick-bay  than  anywhere  else.  The  chatter  and 
noise  of  the  berth-deck  cooks,  and  the  smell  of 
onions,  garlic,  and  other  ingredients  of  nauti 
cal  "scouses,"  is  generally  more  perceptible  in 
the  sick  bay  than  anywhere  else. 

Since  the  abolition  of  flogging  prisons  have 
become  more  necessary,  and  these  are  now  gen 
erally  built  against  the  after  part  of  the  sick 
bay.  Sometimes  they  encroach  upon  its  scanty 
air-space.  Here  drunken,  noisy  men  are  apt  at 
times  to  be  confined.  There  is  also  unavoid 
able  damp  and  leakage,  from  the  working  of 
the  head;  the  water  often  trickling  down  the 
breast-hooks,  or  filtering  down  from  the  gun- 
deck,  after  seas  are  shipped  into  the  manger, 
through  the  hawse-pipes. 

At  sea,  or  even  at  anchor  in  roadsteads  and 
other  exposed  places,  with  fresh  winds  and  rough 
water,  the  monotonous,  pile-driving  blows  of  the 
sea  against  the  bows  are  almost  suiBcient  to  dis 
tract  a  well  man,  let  alone  a  patient  in  hospital. 

Our  merchant  vessels  long  ago  removed  their 
crews  from  the  holes  called  forecastles,  which 


SICK-BAY 


750 


SIDE 


answered,  in  most  respects,  to  the  usual  position 
of  our  sick-bay. 

Serious  attention  has  been  given  to  this  im 
portant  matter  by  many  of  the  naval  medical 
officers,  who  have  made  frequent  and  urgent  re 
ports  upon  the  subject,  especially  Medical  Direc 
tor  A.  L.  Gihon;  while  Admiral  Leroy,  Admiral 
Porter,  and  Commodore  Shufeldt  have  officially 
recommended  a  change.  Their  exertions  in  this 
direction  are  worthy  of  all  praise,  and  may, 
eventually,  be  successful  in  accomplishing  a 
reform  called  for  by  considerations  both  of 
humanity  and  expediency. 

With  a  personnel  crowded  in  the  extreme,  far 
beyond  all  sanitary  limits,  there  is,  on  the  berth- 
deck  of  a  man-of-war,  a  permanently  contami 
nated  atmosphere  which  is  never  very  much  im 
proved  during  a  cruise,  from  the  impossibility 
of  evacuating  and  thoroughly  cleansing  the 
deck,  even  in  the  daytime.  Even  if  evacuation 
could  be  accomplished,  the  means  of  thoroughly 
renewing  the  air  is  practically,  in  most  cases, 
nearly  wanting. 

The  air-ports  do  not  accomplish  it,  nor  do 
wind-sails,  and,  in  some  cases,  patent  apparatus 
has  done  more  harm  than  good,  while  other  ap 
paratus  have  been  rejected  on  account  of  the  ex 
pense,  as  if  any  cost  could  be  too  great  for  ma 
chinery  which  accomplished  this  all-important 
purpose.  Army  and  navy  men,  and  many  in 
civil  life,  are  continually  grappling  with  the 
difficult  question  of  the  disposition  of  the  emana 
tions  from  healthy  human  bodies  alone,  and  the 
question  has  not  been  solved.  Should  we,  then, 
expose  the  sick  to  these  emanations,  or  the  well 
to  those  of  the  sick  ?  Would  any  one  who  could 
live  elsewhere  live  in  a  damp  and  unventilated 
back  cellar?  And  yet  this  is  about  the  relative 
position  of  the  sick-bay  in  our  men-of-war,  where 
the  sick  and  wounded  are  not  afforded  the  best 
chance  of  recovery. 

As  has  been  stated,  the  sick-bays  in  the  French 
and  English  navies  are  now  generally  upon  the 
gun-deck ;  either  arranged  with  movable,  lat 
ticed  bulk-heads  and  placed  amidships,  or  on 
each  side,  taking  in  about  two  gun-ports,  the 
guns  being  slewed  round,  and  lashed  against  the 
side,  but  not  removed.  In  case  of  action  they 
are  readily  brought  into  service,  and  their  crews 
are  exercised  at  other  guns.  A  favorite  way  in 
the  French  navy  was  to  have  the  sick-bay' for 
ward  upon  the  gun-deck,  bulk-headed  with  lat 
ticed  windows,  and  embracing  the  bridle-ports, 
which,  being  mostly  kept  open, — even  at  sea  in 
fair  weather,— were  a  fine  source  of  light  and 
air. 

They  had,  generally,  glass  windows  for  these 

Drts:  to  be  used  in  cool  weather.  Here  was 
light,  ventilation,  and  cheerfulness  secured.  The 
chains,  in  this  case,  were  worked  by  oblique 
hawse-pipes  underneath  the  sick-bay. 

(Nothing  would  be  interfered  with  but  the 
traditional  chicken-coops  and  live-stock  in  the 
manger,  which  pollute  our  gun-decks  yet.) 

In  our  navy  the  personnel  of  the  sick-bay, 
besides  the  medical  officers  in  charge,  are  the 
apothecary,  whose  dispensary,  in  double-deck 
ships,  is  often  100  feet  or  more  from  the  sick 
bay,  while  the  medical  store-room  is  elsewhere, 
either  in  the  darkest  part  of  the  cock-pit,  or  in 
the  shaft-alley,  probably  to  the  great  detriment 
of  stores  and  medicaments  which,  upon  a  sudden 


ports 
light 


emergency,  may  be  of  the  highest  value,  and  ex 
posed,  more  or  less,  to  pilfering. 

The  apothecary  is  fairly  paid,  and  ranks  as  a 

stty  officer. 

The  attendants  upon  the  sick  are  now  called 
"nurses"  and  "  bay-men."  They  are  generally 
selected  from  the  crew,  paid  as  landsmen,  and 
usually  without  any  experience,  either  in  nurs 
ing  or  cooking.  The  apothecary,  nurses,  and 
bay-men  are  selected  by  the  senior  medical  officer. 
In  the  case  of  the  apothecary,  he  is  appointed, 
under  certain  regulations,  with  the  approval  of 
the  commanding  officer.  '  The  nurses  and  bay- 
men  may  be  appointed  in  the  same  way,  but  this 
is  generally  not  the  case,  they  being  picked  up 
from  among  the  landsmen. 

On  board  ship  men  whose  sickness  is  slight  are 
only  put  upon  the  "binnacle  list."  In  well- 
regulated  sick-bays  they  are  not  allowed  to  take 
up  the  limited  air-space  by  spending  their  time 
there,  except  while  being  prescribed  for  or  re 
ceiving  medicine. 

More  serious  cases  are  put  upon  the  "sick 
list,"  and  generally  allowed  to  have  their  ham 
mocks  down  in  the  daytime,  should  the  medical 
officer  consider  it  necessary.  Important  cases 
of  illness,  or  surgical  cases  of  gravity,  have 
cots  slung  for  them,  which  afford  a  very  fair  de 
gree  of  comfort.  Standing  beds,  of  iron,  swung 
to  upright  posts,  with  gimbals,  have  been  used, 
in  some  cases  with  approval,  in  our  sick-bays. 
Fleet-Surgeon  Foltz,  who  served  in  the  opera 
tions  under  Farragut  in  the  "  Hartford,"  always 
spoke  most  highly  of  them.  But  there  are. 
serious  objections  to  their  use,  not  necessary  to 
be  entered  upon  here,  in  the  confined  space  at 
present  allotted  to  the  sick-bays. — E.  Shippen. 

Sick-berth.  A  place  temporarily  screened 
off  to  accommodate  sick  men. 

Sick-book  (Eng.}.  An  account  of  sick  per 
sons  on  board,  or  sent  to  the  hospital. 

Sick-flag.  The  yellow  quarantine-flag.  In  the 
English  service  there  are  two  other  sick-flags, 
one  yellow  with  a  black  ball,  the  other  with  a 
square  in  the  centre,  used  to  denote  the  presence 
of  contagious  diseases. 

Sick-leave.  Leave  of  absence  given  on  a 
surgeon's  certificate  of  disability,  or  on  medical 
survey. 

Sick-list.  The  list  of  sick,  with  their  com 
plaints  and  condition,  sent  in  daily  to  the  com 
manding  officer  by  the  surgeon.  A  duplicate 
list  of  names  only,  posted  on  the  upper  deck,  is 
called  the  binnacle- list. 

Sick-mess.  The  mess  for  the  sick,  partly  pro 
vided  by  the  surgeon's  department. 

Sick-ticket.  A  paper  which  is  sent  with  a 
patient  to  a  hospital,  giving  rank,  description, 
disease,  etc. 

Side.  The  side  of  the  ship  includes  all  the 
outside  upper  works  from  the  gunwale  down  to 
the  main-wales,  where  the  bottom  commences. 

SIDE-BOYS.  Boys  detailed  to  attend  at  the 
gangway,  on  the  approach  of  officers,  digni 
taries,  etc.  By  the  regulations  of  the  navy, 
side-boys  may  be  called  as  follows :  for  admiral 
and  vice-admiral,  8  ;  rear-admiral  or  commodore, 
6  ;  captain  and  commander,  4  ;  all  other  officers, 
2.  This  time-honored  custom  is  gradually  fall 
ing  into  disuse. 

SIDE-CLEANERS.  Men  detailed  to  keep  the 
side  clean,  sweep  out  channels,  etc.  These  are 


SIDE-BEAM  ENGINE 


751 


SIGNALS 


chosen  from  each  part  of  the  ship  in  rotation,  and 
clean  their  own  parts. 

SIDE  COUNTER-TIMBER.  The  stern-timber 
resting  on  the  wing-transom,  and  extending  to 
the  upper  rail. 

SIDE-CURTAINS.     The  awning  curtains. 

SIDE-LADDER,  or  ACCOMMODATION-LADDER. 
A  staircase  fitted  to  ship  and  unship,  used  at  the 
gangways  on  the  outside  of  large  ships.  On 
steamers  it  is  usually  a  short  ladder,  tricing  up 
at  the  lower  end  when  not  in  use. 

SIDE-LIGHTS.  Lanterns  used  at  the  gangway 
at  night.  The  running  lights  placed  on  either 
side  of  the  ship,  green  and  red  in  color. 

SIDE  OUT  FORA  BEND  (Eng.},  In  coiling  a 
cable,  to  draw  outside  the  last  turn,  to  begin  a 
new  sheave,  or  tier. 

SIDE-SCREENS.  Screens  of  canvas  placed  about 
the  side-ladder. 

SIDE-STEPS.  Pieces  of  wood  bolted  to  the 
ship's  side  at  the  gangway,  serving  as  steps  to 
ascend  the  side. 

SIDE-STOPS.  Stops  fastened  to  the  side-ropes 
of  an  awning,  to  spread  it  to  the  ridge-rope. 

SIDE-WIND.  A  wind  from  one  side,  so  that 
the  ship  may  lay  her  course,  but  the  yards  are 
braced  in  more  or  less.  A  wind  blowing  from 
one  point  forward  to  three  points  abaft  the 
beam. 

Side-beam  Engine,  or  Side-lever  Engine. 
A  form  of  marine  steam-engine  in  which  the 
motion  is  transmitted  from  the  piston-rod  cross- 
head  by  side-rods  passing  downward  on  each  side 
of  a  vertical  cylinder  to  a  pair  of  beams  or  levers 
working  at  the  sides  of  the  bed-plate  near  the 
bottom  of  the  vessel,  and  from  thence,  through 
the  cross-tail  and  connecting-rod,  upwards  to  the 
crank.  The  object  of  the  arrangement  is  to 
secure  conciseness  and  enable  the  engine  to  be 
placed  low  in  the  vessel  and  well  protected  below- 
decks.  It  is  used  for  paddle-wheels  only.  The 
form  is  nearly  obsolete. 

Sidereal  (Lat.  sideralis,  from  sidus,  sideris,  a 
star).  Pertaining  to  the  stars.  See  DAY,  TIME, 
YEAR. 

Side-keels.  Keels  on  either  side  of  the  centre 
line  of  the  ship's  bottom.  Used  in  small  vessels, 
to  give  greater  stiffness  to  them. 

Side-keelsons.  Sister,  or  side-keelsons,  are 
additional  to  the  main  keelson,  and  are  used  es 
pecially  in  light-draft  vessels  to  add  to  the  stiff 
ness  of  the  main  keelson,  when  it  has  not  suffi 
cient  depth. 

Side-lever.  One  of  the  beams  of  a  side-lever 
engine.  A  lever  working  at  the  side  of  any  ma 
chine. 

Side-rod.  One  of  the  rods  connecting  the 
cross-head  of  a  steam-engine  to  a  side-lever.  In 
back-acting  screw-propeller  engines  having  a 
single  piston-rod,  the  rods  or  bars  connecting  the 
piston-rod  cross-head  with  the  connecting-rod 
cross-head  are  called  side-rods. 

Side-sights.  Sights  for  a  cannon  placed  at 
the  side  of  the  breech,  and  on  the  trunnion. 

Side-tackle.  A  luff-tackle  on  either  side  of  a 
broadside  gun-carriage,  having  the  inner-block 
hooked  to  an  eye-bolt  in  the  carriage,  and  the 
outer-block  to  the  fighting-bolt  or  to  the  securing- 
bolt  in  the  ship's  side. 

SIDE-TACKLE  BLOCK.  These  Mocks  are  now 
made  of  gun-metal,  with  a  nib,  or  h\!f-hook,  cast 
on  them. 


SIDE-TACKLE  BOLT.  The  eye-bolt  in  the 
gun-carriage,  to  which  the  side-tackle  hooks. 

Siding.  The  breadth  of  a  piece  of  a  timber. 
Making  two  sides  of  a  timber  parallel. 

Sight.  An  observation  of  the  altitude  or  other 
angular  distance  of  a  heavenly  body.  A  piece 
of  metal  fixed  on  a  fire-arm  for  the  purpose  of 
directing  the  fire  of  the  gun.  The  breech-sight  is 
that  placed  at  the  breech  of  the  gun,  on  which  are 
marked  the  degrees  of  elevation  and  the  distance 
corresponding  to  such  elevation  attained  by  the 
shot.  The  front-sight  is  a  small  wedge,  placed 
farther  towards  the  muzzle  of  the  gun,  which  is 
so  brought  in  line  with  the  bottom  of  the  notch 
in  the  breech-sight,  and  the  object,  that  a  straight 
line  is  formed  by  the  line  of  sight.  Sometimes 
this  sight  is  on  the  muzzle  ;  at  others  it  becomes 
a  reinforce-sight,  when  it  is  placed  at  or  near  the 
reinforce  of  the  gun.  Side-sights  have  been  de 
scribed  above,  and  then  the  front-sight  is  a 
trunnion- sight,  placed  on  the  trunnion  of  the 
gun.  Tangent-sight,  see  TANGENT.  Dispart- 
sight,  see  DISPART.  Rifle-sights  have  a  small 
side  piece,  allowing  for  the  drift  of  the  projectile. 
The  fitting  and  adjusting  of  the  sights  of  a  gun 
is  an  operation  requiring  great  care  and  preci 
sion.  Leaf-sights  are  those  on  small-arms,  where 
a  movable  leaf  or  hinge  is  raised,  to  obtain  long 
ranges.  To  sight,  to  see,  as  to  sight  land.  To 
sight  the  anchor,  to  heave  it  up  to  see  if  it  is 
clear. 

SIGHT-BAR.  A  metal  bar  on  which  the  range 
in  yards,  or  in  degrees,  is  marked.  It  is  a  part 
of  the  breech-sight,  and,  by  raising  or  lowering 
it,  different  ranges  are  obtained. 

SIGHT-COVER.  A  metal  cover,  placed  over  the 
sight  of  a  gun,  to  protect  it  from  injury  when 
not  in  use. 

SIGHT-MASS.  A  casting,  or  projection  on  the 
gun,  on  which  the  sights  are  placed. 

SIGHT,  TELESCOPIC.  Sights  with  telescopes 
attached,  to  magnify  the  "object  at  great  dis 
tances. 

SIGHT-VANE.    See  VANE. 

Signals,  Marine.  Marine  signals  are  certain 
signs  agreed  upon  for  suddenly  communicating 
intelligence  to  distant  objects  at  sea,  to  which 
the  voice  cannot  possibly  reach.  The  necessity 
for  the  establishment  of  a  code  of  communica 
tion  by  means  of  fixed  signs  must  have  been 
made  evident  and  have  been  provided  for  simul 
taneously  with  the  first  formation  of  a  fleet  for 
united  action.  It  is  well  known  that  signals 
were  made  in  the  early  Greek  and  Persian  fleets 
by  means  of  the  sails,  certain  meanings  being 
attached  to  the  partial  loosing  of  one  or  more. 
The  exhibition  of  shields  in  prominent  positions 
and  flaming  fires  were  also  modes  of  communi 
cation.  As  the  early  naval  tactics,  however, 
comprised  but  few  manreuvres,  no  full  descrip 
tion  of  any  single  code  of  signals  is  to  be  found 
in  ancient  writings.  Marine  signal  systems  are 
properly  divided  into  three  main  categories, — 
Day  signals,  Night  signals,  and  Fog  signals,  and 
these  branches  will  be  treated  of  separately  in 
considering  the  developments  of  the  science. 

Day  Signals. — Of  the  systems  coming  under 
this  head  those  involving  the  use  of  flags"  are  the 
most  important.  That  flag  signals  were  in  use 
as  early  as  the  13th  century  is  evidenced  by  one 
of  the  articles  of  the  Laws  of  Oleron,  by  which 
it  is  prescribed  that  a  vessel  desiring  a  tow  or  a 


SIGNALS 


752 


SIGNALS 


pilot  shall  hoist  her  ensign.  As  early  as  the  first 
part  of  the  17th  century  an  approach  to  a  regular 
flag  code  is  noted,  in  which  flags,  pennants,  and 
banners  were  used. 

Papal  Code  (1614). — In  the  papal  fleet  instruc 
tions  it  is  prescribed  that :  A  pennant  hoisted  on 
the  poop  indicates  "make  sail,"  and  it  is  to  be 
dipped  once  for  each  sail-  to  be  set.  A  pennant 
from  the  mast-head  look-out  indicates  a  strange 
sail  in  sight ;  it  is  to  be  dipped  once  for  each  sail 
seen.  A  pennant  from  the  yard-arm  indicates 
that  "  wine  is  being  served  out  to  the  crew."  A 
square  flag  at  the  same  place,  "bread  is  being 
served  out"  ;  and  both  signals  together,  "  bread 
and  wine."  A  banner  held  up  by  a  man  standing 
amidships  indicates  "  distress."  A  banner  held 
up  on  the  poop  indicates  "  form  line  ahead." 
From  these  examples  it  is  seen  that  both  tac 
tical  and  general  signals  were  in  use,  and  that 
a  distinction  of  color  in  the  flags  was  made  at 
that  day  is  evidenced  by  a  fragment  of  fleet 
instructions  issued  as  early  as  1420  by  the  Ve 
netian  Capt.-Gen.  Piero  Mozenigo,  in  which 
it  is  stated  that  each  galley  of  the  fleet  shall  have 
a  ship's  signal,  or,  as  it  would  now  be  called,  a 
number,  consisting  of  a  pennant  and  a  flag, 
which  when  hoisted  should  indicate  that  the  ad 
miral  desired  to  communicate  with  such  vessel. 
Although  fleet  signals  were  thus  used,  they  ap 
pear  to  have  been  upon  no  fixed  principles  pre 
vious  to  the  middle  of  the  17th  century. 

Duke  of  York's  Code  (1665).— To  King  James 
the  Second  of  England,  when,  as  Duke  of  York, 
he  commanded  the  English  fleet  in  the  Dutch 
war  of  1665,  belongs  the  honor  of  first  establish 
ing  a  signal  code  upon  a  regular  system.  Exactly 
what  this  code  was  is  not  known,  but  it  is  surmised 
that  it  was  based  upon  naming  flags  for  the  letters 
of  the  alphabet.  It  would  seem  scarcely  prob 
able  that  signals  were  spelled  out  by  this  means, 
as  the  majority  of  the  commanders  in  his  fleet  in 
all  probability  were  unable  to  read  ;  but  it  is  cer 
tain  that  his  fleet  instructions  comprehended  a 
long  list  of  tactical  and  general  signals  based 
upon  a  regular  system.  By  the  middle  of  the 
18th  century  this  system  had  been  developed  to 
the  extent  that  throughout  the  English  fleet  a 
code  system  was  in  use  in  which  30  flags  were 
used,  1  for  each  letter  of  the  alphabet  and  4  aux 
iliary  flags.  This  system  was,  however,  quite 
complex,  as  different  meanings  were  given  to 
combinations  when  hoisted  in  different  places. 

Lord  Howe's  Code  (1792).— In  1781  a  Mr.  Mc- 
Arthur,  who  had  been  secretary  to  Admiral  Lord 
Hood  on  the  American  station,  devised  an  im 
proved  code,  which  was  introduced  into  the  British 
service  as  Lord  Howe's  Code  in  1792.  In  this  code 
the  number  of  flags  was  reduced  to  13,  and  pen 
nants  were  abolished.  In  the  make-up  of  the 
flags  4  colors  were  used,  Ked,  Blue,  Yellow, 
and  White, — there  being  but  2  colors  in  each  flag. 
Each  flag  was  known  by  a  number  from  1  to  12, 
and  also  by  a  letter.  In  designating  the  letters 
a  very  shrewd  system  was  introduced.  The  flags 
were  made  as  follows  :  In  3  the  colors  were  hori 
zontal  ;  in  8  perpendicular ;  in  3  diagonal ;  in  3 
double  diagonal,  and  the  13th,  called  the  "  substi 
tute"  flag,  was  blue  with  a  square  white  centre 
(the  present  blue  peter).  The  flags  taken  in  regu 
lar  succession  were  called  from  the  first  12  letters 
of  the  alphabet.  For  the  next  12  they  were  in 
verted,  or  where  inversion  would  make  no  change 


the  other  color  was  placed  next  to  the  mast.  The 
last  two  letters  were  made  with  two  flags.  In  this 
manner  an  alphabetical  code  was  established, 
while  for  the  numbered  code,  by  means  of  the 
inversion  and  the  substitute  flag,  20,000  signals 
were  made  with  not  more  than  4  flags  in  a  hoist. 
It  was  by  means  of  this  system  that  the  famous 
Trafalgar  signal  was  made, — "  England  expects 
every  man  to  do  his  duty."  In  this  code  also 
appears  for  the  first  time  a  division  of  the  sig 
nal  book  into  subjects, — Anchoring,  Calling 
Officers,  Chasing,  Convoy,  Fighting  Instructions, 
Sailing  Evolutions,  Private  Signals,  and  Miscel 
laneous. 

United  States  Code  (1795).— The  early  United 
States  Code  was  almost  precisely  similar  to  the 
English  development  of  King  James's  Code. 
There  were  26  flags,  one  for  each  letter,  and  a 
number  of  pennants  for  special  and  defining  sig 
nals.  There  was  no  fixed  code  dictionary,  but 
beyond  a  few  general  signals  each  squadron  com 
mander  made  up  his  own  combination.  This 
continued  until  about  1816,  when  a  code  diction 
ary  was  issued,  in  which,  however,  no  regular 
method  was  followed  out.  About  1826  the  Brit 
ish  Admiralty  altered  their  system  to  a  10-flag 
code,  introducing  pennants  again  for  defining 
the  various  meanings  of  certain  combinations. 

Rogers's  American  Code  (1846). — The  United 
States  Navy  Department  adopted  a  code  in  1846 
devised  by  Henry  J.  Rogers,  superintendent  of 
telegraphs.  In  this  code  there  were  9  square 
flags  and  5  pennants.  The  flags  were  numbered 
from  1  to  9.  One  pennant  was  0,  or  hoisted  singly 
was  the  alphabetical  signal.  The  next  3  were 
repeaters,  and  when  hoisted  singly  were  respect 
ively,  Answering,  Yes  and  No.  The  fifth  pennant 
was  the  "  Numeral."  The  first  9  letters  of  the 
alphabet  were  made  with  the  single  flag,  the  next 
9  by  a  square  flag  with  a  pennant  under,  and  the 
last  8  by  the  square  flag  with  the  pennant  over. 
The  signals  in  the  dictionary  were  numbered  in 
regular  order  up  to  13,405,  the  book  being  di 
vided  into  14  headings.  In  this  system  a  pilot 
code  was  introduced  for  use  in  piloting  ships 
into  harbor  or  out  when  circumstances  would 
forbid  boarding.  These  were  made  by  means  of 
the  union-jack  hoisted  in  conjunction  with  one 
or  more  signals. 

United  States  Code  (1861). — Rogers's  Code  was 
modified  in  1861  to  a  system  having  12  square 
flags  and  9  pennants;  there  being  10  numbered 
flags,  3  repeating  pennants,  and  2  square  and  6 
pennants  as  defining  signals.  The  dictionary 
was  reduced  to  contain  9999  signals.  Thus  this 
system  was  an  elaboration  rather  than  a  modifi 
cation  of  previous  systems.  In  1866  this  system 
was  still  further  elaborated  by  the  addition  of 
some  6  or  8  defining  flags  and  pennants.  At  the 
same  time  the  signal  book  was  remodeled.  Tac 
tical  signals  were  separated  from  the  general 
signal  book,  and  the  latter  was  arranged  accord 
ing  to  the  customary  method, — Alphabetical, 
Compass,  Word,  Geographical,  and  General. 

International  Code  (1856).— The  British  gov 
ernment  devised  a  code  for  international  use  in 
1856,  which  by  1871  had  been  adopted  through 
out  the  world  with  the  single  exception  of  the 
U.  S.  merchant  marine.  This  code  is  made  up 
of  1  burgee,  or  swallow-tailed  flag,  13  square  flags, 
and  5  pennants.  Eighteen  of  these  flags  and 
pennants  represent  the  18  consonants  of  "the  al- 


SIGNALS 


753 


SIGNALS 


phabet,  the  nineteenth  color  being  a  pennant  for 
answering  and  defining.  In  this  code  appears 
an  arrangement  that  may  well  be  called  the  per 
fection  of  principle.  The  signal  book  is  divided 
into  different  topical  headings,  and  it  is  the  des 
ignation  of  these  headings  by  which  they  may  be 
known  at  great  distances  or  in  calms  that  con 
stitute  the  excellence  of  the  principle.  The  des 
ignations  are  as  follows : 

Two-flag  signals  having  the  burgee  uppermost 
are  attention  signals. 

Two-flag  signals  having  a  pennant  uppermost 
are  compass  signals. 

Two-flag  signals  having  a  square  flag  upper 
most  are  urgent  signals. 

Three-flag  signals  are  all  general  in  character. 

Pour-flag  signals  having  the  burgee  uppermost 
are  geographical  signals. 

Four-flag  signals  having  a  pennant  uppermost 
are  spelling  signals  or  names  of  men-of-war. 

Four-flag  signals  having  the  square  flag  upper 
most  are  names  of  merchant  vessels. 

This  principle  has  been  adopted  in  all  naval 
codes  except  that  of  the  United  States,  which  at 
present  is  the  most  cumbersome  extant. 

Tide  Signals. — At  many  ports  where  the  rise 
and  fall  of  the  tide  is  very  great,  flag  signals  are 
used  at  some  elevated  shore-station  to  denote  the 
depth  of  water  in  the  channel  at  different  tidal 
intervals.  At  these  stations  signals  are  also  pro 
vided  by  which  a  ship  may  be  directed  in  her 
course  up  the  channel  when  circumstances  forbid 
her  being  boarded  by  a  pilot. 

Storm  Signals. — A  system  has  been  introduced 
along  the  coast  of  the  United  States,  and  is 
rapidly  being  extended  to  European  coasts,  by 
which  the  approach  of  a  storm  arid  the  direction 
from  which  the  wind  will  blow  is  signaled  to  de 
parting  or  approaching  vessels. 

Distant  Signals. — Under  many  circumstances 
it  becomes  impossible  to  communicate  by  means 
of  flags  during  the  day,  and  to  obviate  this  diffi 
culty  a  system  of  distant  signals  is  introduced 
into  the  International  Code.  This  system  con 
sists  in  substituting  shapes  to  designate  letters  in 
place  of  flags ;  the  objects  chosen  are  a  ball,  a 
pennant,  and  a  square  flag,  or  objects  which 
would  approach  these  shapes,  such  as  a  bucket, 
an  oar,  and  a  shirt.  Eighteen  different  combi 
nations  of  these  objects  give  the  18  consonants 
of  the  code.  The  same  idea  is  carried  out  at 
shore-stations. 

Semaphoric  Signals. — At  coast  telegraph-sta 
tions  semaphores  are  put  up  for  communicating 
with  vessels.  These  semaphores  consist  of  a  long 
staff  having  hinged  at  its  top  a  disk,  and  down 
its  length  3  long  slats.  The  disk  at  horizontal 
means  Answering,  at  vertical,  International 
Code.  A  slat  pointing  angularly  downward 
represents  a  pennant,  horizontal,  a  ball,  and 
angularly  upward,  a  square  flag.  Thus  any  3- 
flag  signal  (all  such  being  general)  may  be  made 
at  one  motion. 

Night  Signals. — The  use  of  night  signals  prob 
ably  originated  about  the  same  time  as  day  codes ; 
as  previously  noted,  the  ancients  used  signal- 
fires,  and  in  Mozenigo's  fleet  instructions  we  find 
them  provided  for. 

Mozenigo's  Code  (1420).— A  fire  exhibited  on 

the  poop  shall  signify  "  set  the  mainsail,"  2  fires, 

"  both  the  square-sails,"  3  fires,  "  all  plain  sail,"  4 

fires,  "lay  in  the  oars  and  make  all  sail,"     In 

48 


the  papal  prescriptions  is  found  a  reference  to 
running  lights:  "Division  and  squadron  com 
manders  shall  carry  3  lanterns  at  night,  other 
galleys  1  lantern." 

King  James's  Code  (1665). — Guns  were  used  for 
night  signals  soon  after  their  introduction  in 
naval  services.  King  James  instituted  a  regular 
numbered  code,  which,  although  appearing  com 
ical  at  this  day,  shows  how  wisely  the  principles 
of  signaling  were  laid  down  at  that  time.  In 
this  code  guns,  blue-lights,  and  lanterns  were 
used.  One  gun  was  attention,  or  number  0.  Then 
1,  2,  3,  and  4  were  designated  by  the  correspond 
ing  number  of  lanterns,  5  by  1  blue-light,  6, 
1  blue-light  and  1  lantern,  and  so  on  up  to  10, 
which  was  2  guns.  There  were  only  40  signals 
in  the  code,  but  the  numbers  were  unmistakable. 
Thus,  39  would  be  4  guns,  1  blue-light  and  4 
lanterns.  The  signals  were  all  urgent  or  tactical. 

Kempenfeldt's  Code  (1792).— The  King  James 
Code  was  used  until  the  adoption  of  Lord  Howe's 
Day  Code,  in  1792,  when  a  code  of  lantern  sig 
nals,  devised  by  Admiral  Kempenfeldt,  and  per 
fected  by  Mr.  McArthur,  was  adopted.  This 
code  did  away  with  guns  and  blue-lights,  using 
only  lanterns.  Eight  lanterns  were  used,  divided 
into  2  groups  ;  4  were  hoisted  either  at  the  star 
board  yard-arm  or  fore-gaff,  and  4  at  the  port 
yard-arm  or  spanker-gaff,  depending  upon  the 
position  of  the  vessel  signaled  to.  Each  lantern 
was  provided  with  a  tin  "  obscurer,"  worked  by 
tricing  lines  from  deck,  and  numbers  were  sig 
naled  by  means  of  the  combinations  of  two  or 
more  lights  shown.  Whilst  this  system  was 
used,  the  old  gun  and  light  method  was  retained 
for  important  fleet  signals. 

Rogers'1  s  Code  (1846). — Colored  lights  were  in 
troduced  for  signal  purposes  in  the  first  part  of 
the  present  century,  but  the  first  regular  pyro- 
technical  system  was  devised  in  the  United  States 
by  Eogers.  In  this  system,  pyrotechnical  com 
position  was  made  up  in  small  cylinders,  colors 
corresponding  with  the  day  flags.  By  removing 
a  small  cap  and  igniting  the  composition  with  a 
slow-match,  the  colors  burned  in  regular  suc 
cession. 

Coston's  Code  (1858). — The  Rogers  system  was 
modified  and  improved  in  1858,  by  Gunner  Cos- 
ton,  of  the  U.  S.  navy.  A  more  brilliant  com 
position  was  introduced,  and  the  signals  were  so 
made  that  they  were  held  in  the  hand  and  ignited 
by  percussion. 

Very's  Code  (1877).— Lieut.  Very  introduced 
a  code  in  1877,  in  which  a  departure  was  made 
from  Rogers's  principle.  The  signals  them 
selves  were  devised  on  the  principle  of  a  ball 
cartridge,  single  stars  being  shot  into  the  air  to 
a  height  of  about  400  feet.  The  principle  of  the 
code  approached  closely  that  of  a  telegraphic 
system.  Each  digital  number  or  letter  of  the 
alphabet  is  made  by  the  same  number  of  stars, 
so  that  in  transmitting  a  signal  no  time  interval 
is  made  between  letters  or  figures.  By  a  simple 
method  of  interjecting  stars  in  the  regular  course 
of  a  signal,  the  desired  message  is  so  completely 
ciphered  as  to  be  entirely  unintelligible  to  any 
except  those  understanding  the  cipher.  In  place 
of  the  18  or  20  different  pyrotechnical  pieces  used 
in  the  Rogers  and  Coston  codes,  but  2  are  used, 
and  only  2  colors,  in  place  of  the  3  of  the  earlier 
methods. 

Rule  of  the  Road  Signals. — It  has  been  stated 


SIGNALS 


V54 


SILL 


that  running  lights  were  used  regularly  as  early 
as  the  15th  century,  and  probably  they  were 
used  much  earlier,  but  no  change  in  the  method 
of  carrying  a  light  at  night  appears  to  have  been 
made  from  the  earliest  days  down  to  1846,  when 
it  was  prescribed  that  steamers  should  carry  2 
lights.  In  1852  the  rule  for  vessels  to  carry  a 
red  light  on  the  port  side,  and  a  green  light  on 
the  starboard  side,  was  adopted.  In  1861  steam 
ers  were  ordered  to  carry  a  white  mast-head  light. 
In  1864  the  international  rules  were  promul 
gated,  by  which  sailing-vessels,  steamers,  vessels 
in  tow,  and  pilot  vessels  were  made  distinguish 
able  by  their  lights.  In  1880  these  rules  were 
revised,  and  additional  lights  were  provided  for 
vessels  in  distress,  and  for  vessels  engaged  in  dif 
ferent  kinds  of  fishing. 

Fog  Signals. — The  custom  of  blowing  fish-horns 
to  denote  the  position  of  a  vessel  in  a  fog  is  one 
several  centuries  old,  but  no  regular  rules  for 
fog  signals  appear  to  have  been  made  previous 
to  about  1840,  when  the  rule  for  sailing-vessels 
of  blowing  1  blast  when  on  the  starboard  tack, 
2  on  the  port,  and  3  when  running  free,  was 
made.  About  this  time  the  rule  for  steam- 
vessels  to  blow  the  whistle  was  established.  In 
1864  fog  signals  were  incorporated  in  the  Rules 
of  the  Road,  the  old  rule  for  sailing-vessels  being 
abolished,  and  in  place  of  it  a  single  signal  of  1 
blast  introduced.  All  vessels  at  anchor  in  a  fog 
struck  the  bell  at  short  intervals,  in  place  of 
sounding  a  horn  or  whistle.  In  1868  a  rule  was 
adopted  in  United  States  waters  by  which,  at  all 
times,  when  a  steam-vessel  changed  her  course 
to  avoid  another,  she  blew  1  short  blast  if  keep 
ing  to  starboard,  2  if  keeping  to  port,  and  3  if 
backing.  In  1880  the  new  Rules  of  the  Road 
made  the  system  complete.  By  these  rules  steam 
ers  blow  1  long  blast  at  intervals  in  a  fog,  1 
short  blast  if  keeping  to  starboard,  2  if  keep 
ing  to  port,  and  3  if  backing.  Sail-vessels  blow 
a  mechanical  horn;  1  blast  for  the  starboard 
tack,  2  for  the  port  tack,  and  3  for  running 
free.  Vessels  at  anchor  toll  the  bell  at  short 
intervals. 

Course  Signals. — In  addition  to  the  above- 
mentioned  fog  signals,  various  propositions  have 
at  times  been  submitted  to  different  governments 
for  the  introduction  of  a  code  of  signals  that 
should  designate  the  course  a  vessel  is  heading  in 
a  fog.  One  system  has  been  adopted  in  Sweden, 
and  that  government  is  at  present  making  en 
deavors  to  have  it  made  general. 

Ahlborg's  Code.— In  this  code  2  whistles  are 
used,— a  shrill  treble  and  a  deep  bass.  North  is 
denoted  by  a  blast  of  the  treble  whistle.  N.  E., 
one  treble  and  one  bass.  E.,  one  treble  and  two 
bass.  S.  E.,  one  treble  and  three  bass.  S.,  one 
bass.  S.  W.,  one  bass  and  one  treble.  W.,  one 
bass  and  two  treble.  N.  W.,  one  bass  and  three 
treble. 

Telegraphic  Signals.— The  first  military  code 
of  telegraphic  signals  of  which  well-authenti 
cated  information  exists  was  devised  in  France, 
in  1793.  This  consisted  of  a  semaphore,  having 
two  pivoted  and  jointed  arms,  by  which  combi 
nation/}  representing  letters  of  the  alphabet  could 
be  readily  made.  This  system  was  adopted  in 
the  French  navy,  and  was  shortly  afterward 
introduced  into  the  British  navy  in  a  modified 
form.  A  system  upon  the  same  basis  was  intro 
duced  in  the  U.  S.  navy  about  1830.  The  prin 


ciples  of  this  system  are  used  at  present  in  Euro 
pean  navies;  but  in  that  of  the  United  States, 
the  semaphoric  method  has  been  replaced  by 
Myer's  code,  consisting  of  combinations  of  two 
elements,  expressing  the  letters  of  the  alphabet. 
This  system  is  transmitted  by  day  by  means  of 
swinging  flags,  and  at  night  by  swinging  lan 
terns. —  Edward  W.  Very,  Lieutenant  U.S.N. 

SIGNAL-BOOK.  A  book  in  which  signals  are 
recorded.  A  book  containing  the  code  of  sig 
nals.  Signal-books  are  bound  with  metal,  so  as 
to  sink  in  case  of  capture,  and  are  kept  in  the 
cabin. 

SIGNAL-CHEST.  A  chest  on  the  poop,  arranged 
with  pigeon-holes  for  signal-flags. 

SIGNAL-FLAGS.     The  flags  used  in  signaling. 

SIGNAL-LOCKER.  A  locker  to  contain  signal- 
flags. 

SIGNAL-MAN.  A  man  who  makes  and  reads 
signals. 

SIGNAL-OFFICER.  The  officer  charged  with 
the  supervision  of  signals. 

SIGNAL-QUARTERMASTER.  A  petty  officer  who 
has  charge  of  the  signals,  lights,  lanterns,  etc. 

SIGNALIZE.     To  make  signals  to. 

Signing-officers  (Eng.).  Officers  accountable 
for  stores,  who  sign  the  receipt  therefor. 

Signs  of  the  Ecliptic,  or  Zodiac.  The  ecliptic 
is  divided  into  twelve  equal  portions  called  signs, 
each  occupying  30°  of  its  circumference,  com 
mencing  from  the  vernal  equinoctial  point,  or 
first  point  of  Aries.  The  names  of  the  signs,  in 
order,  with  their  several  symbols,  are  as  follows  : 
Aries,  CYD,  Taurus,  ^,  Gemini,  n,  Cancer,  05, 
Leo,  &,  Virgo,  H£  ;  Libra  =G=,  Scorpio  n^,  Sagit 
tarius  f  ,  Capricornus  VJ,  Aquarius  $*,  Pisces  }£ • 
The  first  six  are  the  northern,  and  the  last  six 
the  southern  signs.  These  are  the  names  also  of 
the  twelve  constellations  of  the  zodiac  ;  and  when 
this  notation  was  established,  "the  signs  of  the 
ecliptic,"  or,  as  they  are  sometimes  called,  "the 
signs  of  the  zodiac,'"  coincided  in  position  with 
the  "constellations"  of  the  same  name,  which 
name,  consequently,  the  sign  took.  This  coinci 
dence,  however,  no  longer  exists.  The  vernal 
equinoctial  point,  or  first  point  of  Aries,  from 
which  the  divisions  of  the  ecliptic  commence,  has 
a  slow  retrograde  motion  along  the  ecliptic,  so 
that  it  is  no  longer  in  the  constellation  of  Aries, 
but  is  now  situated  in  that  of  Pisces,  and  so  for 
all  the  "signs"  whose  position  is  defined  by  that 
of  the  origin  ;  they  have  retrograded  with  respect 
to  the  corresponding  constellations,  or,  which  is 
the  same  thing,  the  constellations  have  pro 
gressed  relatively  to  them,  the  constellation 
Aries  now  occupying  the  sign  Taurus,  the  con 
stellation  Taurus  the  sign  Gemini,  and  so  on. 
Hence  it  must  be  particularly  observed  that  the 
signs  of  the  ecliptic  are  now  regarded  as  purely 
technical  subdivisions,  and  are  not  to  be  confused 
with  the  constellations  of  the  same  name,  though 
they  were  original!}7  identical.  In  former  times 
it  was  usual  to  note  the  longitude  of  a  heavenly 
body  in  signs,  degrees,  minutes,  and  seconds,  a 
sign  being  equal  to  30°. 

Silence  !  A  command  to  the  men  at  the  guns, 
when  they  all  face  the  gun,  and  await  in  silence 
further  orders. 

Sill.  A  young  herring.  The  timber  at  the 
base  of  a  dock-entrance,  against  which  the  gate 
shuts.  The  upper  and  lower  part  of  the  frame  of 
a  port. 


SILLOCK 


755 


SISTEK-SHIPS 


Sillock  (Eng.).     Young  coal-fish. 

Silometer.  A  speed  measurer;  a  log  towed 
in  the  wake  of  the  ship,  registering  the  speed. 
See  LOG. 

Silt.  Soft,  oozy  sediment.  To  silt  up,  to  be 
come  choked  up  with  mud  or  sediment. 

SILT-GROUNDS.  Deep-water  fishing  banks  off 
Jamaica. 

Siluridan.  A  fish  of  the  family  of  which  the 
genus  Slluris  is  the  type. 

Siluris.  A  genus  of  large  malacopterygious 
fishes,  without  true  scales,  and  found  in  the  in 
land  waters  of  Europe,  Asia  Minor,  etc. 

Silver-fish.  A  fish  of  the  size  of  a  small  carp, 
having  a  white  color,  striped  with  silver  lines. 

Silver-oar  (Eng.).  A  badge  of  a  maritime 
court. 

Silver-thaw.  The  ice  falling  in  large  flakes 
from  sails  and  rigging. 

Simoom.  A  hot,  dry  wind,  blowing  from  the 
Arabian  deserts. 

Simpson,  Edward,  Commodore  U.S.N. 
Born  in  New  York.  Appointed  from  New 
York,  February  11,  1840;  attached  to  sloop 
"  Decatur"  and  frigate  "  Potomac,"  Brazil 
Squadron,  1840-41 ;  returned  to  the  United 
States  in  frigate  "  Constitution,"  1841  ;  attached 
to  frigate  u  Independence,"  Home  Squadron, 
1841-42  ;  attached  to  frigate  "  Congress,"  Medi 
terranean  and  Brazil  Squadrons,  1842-45 ;  at 
tached  to  receiving-ship  "  North  Carolina," 
1845 ;  Naval  Academy,  Annapolis,  Md.,  1845-46. 

Promoted  to  passed  midshipman,  July  11, 1846  ; 
war  with  Mexico  ;  attached  to  steamer  u  Vixen," 
1846-47  ;  present  at  attack  on  forts  of  Alvarado, 
under  Commodore  Connor;  at  two  attacks  on 
Tabasco,  under  Commodore  Perry  ;  at  capture  of 
Tampico,  under  Commodore  Perry  ;  at  capture  of 
Tuspan;  at  capture  of  Coatzacoalcos  ;  at  capture 
of  Laguna  de  Terminos.  At  siege  of  Vera  Cruz, 
covered  the  landing  of  the  U.  S.  army,  and  took 
part  with  the  rest  of  the  Mosquito  Fleet  in  the 
bombardment  of  the  city  of  Vera  Cruz  and  of 
the  Castle  of  San  Juan  de  Ulloa ;  attached  to  coast 
survey,  1848-50;  attached  to  frigate  "  Congress," 
Brazil  Squadron,  1850-53 ;  attached  to  Naval 
Academy,  as  assistant  instructor  in  naval  gun 
nery  and  infantry  tactics,  1853-54. 

Promoted  to  master,  July  10,  1854 ;  coast  sur 
vey,  1855-56. 

Commissioned  as  lieutenant,  April  18,  1855 ; 
attached  to  sloop  u  Portsmouth,"  East  India 
Squadron,  1856-58  ;  engaged  with  Commander 
A.  H.  Foote  in  the  bombardment  and  capture 
of  the  Barrier  Forts  in  the  Canton  River ;  at 
tached  to  Naval  Academy,  in  charge  of  instruc 
tion  in  theory  and  practice  of  naval  gunnery, 
1858-62  ;  commandant  of  midshipmen,  at  Naval 
Academy,  1862-63. 

Commissioned  as  lieutenant-commander,  July 
16,  1862  ;  commanding  ironclad  "  Passaic," 
South  Atlantic  Squadron,  1863-64  ;  engaged 
with  Fort  Wagner,  July  29,  1863  ;  Fort  Sumter, 
August  17, 1863  ;  Fort  Wagner,  August  18, 1863  ; 
Fort  Sumter,  August  23,  1863 ;  Fort  Moultrie, 
August  31,  1863^;  Fort  Sumter,  September  1, 
1863 ;  Battery  Bee,  September  8,  1863  ;  Fort 
Moultrie,  November  16,  1863;  commanding 
steamer  "Isonomia,"  off  Wilmington,  in  East 
Gulf  Squadron,  and  on  Bahama  Banks,  1864  ; 
fleet-captain,  Blockading  Squadron,  1865-66  ; 
engaged  in  operations  before  Mobile,  from  March 


27,  1865,  to  April  12,  1865,  when  the  city  capit 
ulated. 

Commissioned  as  commander,  March  3,  1865 ; 
commanding  steam-sloop  "Mohican"  and  steamer 
"Mohongo,"  North  Pacific  Squadron,  1866-68; 
in  charge  Hydrographic  Office,  Washington, 
1868-69 ;  assistant  to  chief  of  Bureau  of  "Ord 
nance,  Navy  Department,  Washington,  1869-70. 

Commissioned  as  captain,  August  15,  1870; 
special  service  in  Europe,  1870-72  ;  command 
ing  Torpedo  Station,  1873  ;  commanding  steam- 
frigate  "  Franklin,"  North  Atlantic  Station, 
1873-74;  commanding  frigate  "  Wabash," 
North  Atlantic  Station,  1874  ;  commanding 
Torpedo  Station,  1874-75 ;  commanding  steam- 
sloop  "  Omaha,"  South  Pacific  Station,  1875-77  ; 
navy-yard,  New  York,  1877-78. 

Promoted  to  commodore,  April  26,  1878  ;  com 
mandant  Naval  Station,  New  London,  Conn., 
1878-80. 

Sing.  To  cry  out  in  hauling  on  ropes, — not 
tolerated  in  the  navy.  To  sing  out,  to  cry  out. 

Single.  To  unreeve  the  parts  of  a  doubled 
rope,  as  tacks  and  sheets. 

Single-acting  Engine.  An  engine  in  which 
the  steam  acts  on  one  side  of  the  piston  only. 

Single  Anchor.  A  ship  is  at  a  single  anchor 
when  only  one  anchor  is  down. 

Single-banked.  When  but  one  man  on  a  seat 
rows  a  single  oar,  a  boat  is  said  to  be  single- 
banked.  Gigs,  dingeys,  and  whaleboats  are 
single-banked. 

Single-block.    A  block  with  but  one  sheave; 

Singlestick.  A  wooden  sword,  used  in  broad 
sword  exercise. 

Sinical  Quadrant.  An  instrument  formerly 
used  to  work  out  traverses. 

Sinking-head.  An  extra  length  on  a  casting, 
into  which  the  poorer  metal  sinks,  and  is  cut 
away.  Also  called  sprue-head. 

Sinnet.    See  SENNIT. 

Sirius,  or  Dog-star  (Gr.  Seirios,  from  seirein, 
to  scorch).  The  bright  star  a  Canis  Majoris  is 
so  called  for  the  following  reason :  In  ancient 
times  the  heliacal  rising  of  this  star  followed 
close  upon  the  summer  solstice.  This,  in  the 
Mediterranean  latitudes,  was  the  season  of  the 
greatest  heats,  unhealthy  and  oppressive,  and 
during  which  dogs  were  liable  to  madness.  The 
Egyptians  called  this  star  Sothis,  and  from  its 
heliacal  rising  were  warned  that  the  annual 
overflow  of  the  Nile  was  about  to  commence. 
Owing  to  the  precession  of  the  equinoxes  the 
heliacal  rising  of  Sirius  has  slowly  changed ;  it 
takes  place  now  about  August  10. 

Sirmarks.  Stations  marked  upon  the  molds 
for  the  frame-timber,  etc.,  indicating  where  the 
bevelings  are  to  be  applied. 

Sirocco.  A  hot  and  dry  wind,  southeast  in 
Italy,  blowing  from  the  desert. 

Sissoo.     A  kind  of  Indian  ship-timber. 

Sister-block.  A  double-block,  having  one 
sheave  over  the  other,  the  shell  being  in  one 
piece.  It  is  seized  in  between  the  two  forward 
topmast  shrouds. 

Sister-hooks.  A  pair  of  hooks,  working  on 
the  same  axis,  and  closing  into  one,  fitting  closely 
in  that  position. 

Sister-keelsons.  A  pair  of  keelsons  placed 
on  each  side  of  the  middle  line. 

Sister-ships.  Ships  made  on  the  same  model, 
and  rigged  alike. 


SITCH 


756 


SKETCHING 


Sitch.  A  little  stream  of  water,  dry  in  sum 
mer. 

Six-upon-four  (Eng.}.  Rations  reduced  at 
the  rate  of  6  to  4  men. 

Six- water-grog  (Eng.\  Grog  weakened  to 
six  parts  of  water,  for  punishment. 

Size-fish.  A  large  whale,  whose  whalebones 
are  at  least  6  feet  long. 

Sizing.  A  gelatinous  solution  used  in  paint 
ing,  gilding,  etc. 

Skate.  A  cartilaginous  fish  of  the  genus  Raia, 
having  the  body  flattened,  the  skin  set  above 
with  spines  or  thorns,  the  branchial  openings 
below,  and  cartilaginous  flaps  extending  from 
the  nose  backward  toward  the  pectoral  fins, which 
last  form  broad,  lateral  expansions,  and  give  the 
whole  body  a  rhomboid  form.  It  is  wholly  ma 
rine,  and  is  found  in  all  parts  of  the  world.  The 
Raia  batis,  called  the  skate,  gray  skate,  or  blue 
skate,  weighs  sometimes  200  pounds,  and  is  used 
for  .the  table. 

Skate-lurker.  Cant  for  a  begging  .impostor 
in  sailor-clothes. 

Skeat.    The  star  (3  Pegasi.     See  PEGASUS. 

Skeel.    A  wooden  bucket,  or  water-kid. 

Skeer.    See  SCAR. 

Skeet.  '  A  long-handled  scoop,  used  to  wash 
the  sides  of  a  ship,  and  formerly,  to  wet  the 
sails. 

Skee-tack.     A  name  for  the  cuttle-fish. 

Skeg,  or  Skegg.  A  projecting  stump  formerly 
left  on  the  keel,  abaft  the  stern-post.  The  after- 
e'nd  of  the  keel.  The  composition  piece  sup 
porting  the  heel  of  an  equipoise  rudder. 

SKEOG-SHORES.  A  name  for  the  shores  under 
the  after  part  of  the  keel,  when  launching  a 
ship. 

Sker,  or  Skerry.  A  flat  rock,  always  above 
water. 

Sketching.  The  art  of  sketching  is  of  the 
greatest  practical  utility  to  the  naval  officer,  and 
in  every  branch  of  his  profession  an  ample  field 
is  afforded  for  the  exercise  of  this  accomplish 
ment. 

Most  of  the  popular  and  scientific  magazines 
and  journals  are  filled  with  skillful  reproductions 
of  pen  or  pencil  sketches,  and  indeed  a  descrip 
tive  article  is  hardly  considered  complete  with 
out  these  embellishments. 

The  intimate  relation  of  drawing  to  almost 
every  art  and  trade  is  generally  recognized,  and 
in  the  principal  countries  of  Europe  the  instruc 
tion  of  artisans  in  the  uses  of  pen,  pencil,  and 
brush  is  encouraged  by  the  government. 

It  is  not  presumed  that  one  should  necessarily 
be  an  accomplished  artist  in  order  to  produce 
very  useful  and  creditable  plans  and  sketches. 
Enough  for  practical  purposes  can  be  done  by 
any  intelligent  person  who  will  devote  a  reason 
able  amount  of  time  to  acquiring  a  few  rudi 
mentary  principles  and  sufficient  practice. 

Whatever  may  be  the  advantages  of  the 
camera,  that  valuable  instrument  is  not  always 
at  hand,  and  when  it  is,  circumstances  beyond 
our  control  often  prevent  its  use ;  this  is  espe 
cially  apt  to  be  the  case  at  sea. 

In  time  of  peace  many  of  our  naval  officers 
will  be  employed  in  surveying,  and  on  squadron 
service  no  officer  is  more  usefully  engaged  than 
when  collecting  and  transmitting  the  informa 
tion  which  his  surroundings  afford.  Designs  of 
the  novel  vessels  now  building  in  Europe,  forti 


fications,  breakwaters,  landmarks,  approaches  to 
harbors,  and  new  inventions  in  artillery  can  in 
no  way  be  so  clearly  and  accurately  described  as 
by  sketches. 

In  time  of  war  there  can  be  no  question  about 
the  advantages  of  an  art  which  is  capable  of 
presenting  at  a  glance  the  order  of  battle,  plan  of 
attack  and  defense,  positions  of  fortifications  and 
obstructions,  and  the  manifold  considerations 
that  must  influence  the  movements  of  a  com 
mander. 

The  report  of  the  Honorable  Secretary  of  the 
Navy  for  1879  is  an  example  of  the  Depart 
ment's  encouragement  and  appreciation  of  such 
efforts.  Our  text-books  on  seamanship  and  gun 
nery  teem  with  illustrations,  and  every  inventor, 
to  present  clearly  his  ideas,  must  be  aided  by 
sketches  and  plans. 

To  the  marine  surveyor  the  art  is  invaluable. 
An  officer  who  has  seriously  tried  to  sketch  dur 
ing  the  progress  of  a  survey  will  often  be  grati 
fied,  if  not  surprised,  at  the  amount  of  informa 
tion  which  even  very  crude  sketches  may  afford. 
The  pencil  is  of  course  the  chief  instrument  for 
such  delineations, — a  hard  one  is  best,  and  draw 
ing-blocks  or  sheets  of  paper  are  necessary. 
With  these  simple  appliances  the  boat-officer 
will  be  able  to  sketch  in  the  coast-line,  while 
from  the  ship  the  more  general  outlines  of  the 
country  surveyed  may  be  drawn.  Such  work 
will  probably  represent  only  a  rough  outline, 
stained  by  the  salt  spray  and  very  "shaky"  in 
execution,  but  if  it  be  neatly  copied  in  the 
sketch-book  before  the  scene  is  forgotten,  minor 
details  may  be  supplied,  and  the  purpose  is  ac 
complished.  Circumstances  rarely  admit  of  the 
selection  of  positions  for  pictorial  effect,  but  there 
are  certain  essentials  which  should  if  possible  be 
complied  with. 

The  main  object  is  the  selection  of  a  station,  or 
point  of  view,  the  distance  of  which  from  the 
scene  or  object  should  not  be  less  than  the  width 
of  the  latter, — in  many  cases  it  may  be  greater, — 
but  where  the  distance  equals  the  width  of  the 
scene,  the  angle  of  vision  will  not  be  much  less 
than  60°,  which  is  the  greatest  the  eye  can  take 
in  at  one  view.  Having  determined  on  and  oc 
cupied  this  position,  and  chosen  the  objects  that 
are  to  constitute  the  front  of  the  picture,  the 
paper  having  been  previously  cut  nearly  the  size 
of  the  intended  drawing,  the  delineator  holds  it 
up  with  his  left  hand  before  the  scene,  its  lower 
edge  corresponding  with  the  front  line  of  those 
objects,  at  such  distance  from  his  eye  that  the 
width  may  exactly  comprise  the  scene  to  be 
drawn.  With  the  paper  in  this  position  let  him 
first  mark  on  both  its  sides  the  exact  intersections 
of  the  horizon  which  connect  by  a  line  across  it, 
opposite  to  this  mark  the  point  of  sight.  On  the 
sides  and  upper  and  lower  edges  mark  the  places, 
the  heights  and  widths  of  the  principal  lines  and 
objects. 

With  the  assistance  of  these  marks  and  the 
point  of  sight,  and  frequent  careful  references  to 
the  scene,  the  objects  may  be  drawn  in  their 
proper  places  and  in  tolerably  good  perspective, 
which  may  afterward  be  verified  and  corrected 
by  rule.  The  thickness  and  force  of  the  various 
marks  and  lines  must  be  graded  to  the  distance 
of  the  objects  they  respectively  represent.  In 
sketching,  this  is  a  great  aid  to  perspective  effect ; 
and  by  beginning  first  the  distance  with  a  finely- 


SKETCHING 


757 


SKEWER-PIECES 


pointed  pencil,  the  marks,  as  they  approach  the 
foreground,  will  of  themselves  acquire  increased 
thickness  by  the  wearing  down  of  the  point. 
Care  must  be  taken  to  avoid  too  many  marks 
and  lines,  which  will  produce  a  confused  effect, 
and  is  a  common  error  with  beginners,  who 
should  study  to  attain  the  smallest  number  of 
marks  that  will  correctly  denote  the  character  of 
the  object.  Increased  'boldness  in  the  outlines 
of  the  foreground  may  be  produced  by  using  a 
softer  and  blacker  pencil ;  this  will  often  assist 
the  perspective  effect  by  increasing  the  idea  of 
their  nearness  to  the  spectator. 

These  are  the  main  points  to  be  attended  to  in 
a  sketch  from  nature,  so  far  as  perspective  is 
concerned.  The  character  of  details,  such  as  the 
representation  of  kinds  of  foliage,  should  vary 
according  to  the  distance,  which  will,  in  some 
degree,  assist  the  perspective  idea  of  distance. 
No  precise  directions  can  be  laid  down  for  the 
representation  of  the  objects  of  nature ;  almost 
every  artist  has  a  way  or  touch  of  his  own  by 
which  he  conveys  his  ideas,  and  this  is  best  ac 
quired  by  a  contemplation  of  the  objects  them 
selves  and  studies  of  the  works  of  the  best 
masters. 

The  proper  management  of  light  and  shade, 
and  their  judicious  arrangement  into  breadths 
and  masses,  called  by  painters  chiaro-oscuro,  are 
also  valuable  aids  to  the  perspective  effect  of  a 
landscape.  It  is  a  common  mistake  with  the 
novice  to  appropriate  to  each  individual  tree, 
figure,  house,  or  other  object  its  own  light  and 
shade,  irrespective  of  the  general  effect.  The 
consequence  is  that  the  picture  is  cut  up  into  a 
great  number  of  lights  and  shadows  of  nearly 
equal  size  and  intensity,  alternating  over  the 
entire  surface  of  the  picture,  by  which  means 
the  eye  is  distracted,  and  cannot  rest  with  satis 
faction  on  any  portion  of  it,  since  all  the  objects 
depicted  are  thus  made  to  present  nearly  equal 
claims  to  attention.  The  avoidance  of  too  many 
lights,  the  placing  of  the  principal  object  in  one 
larger  and  more  intensely  illuminated  space,  the 
keeping  of  other  lights  subordinate  to  it,  and  the 
proper  regulation  of  the  contrasts  between  light 
and  shadow,  according  to  distance,  all  tend  to 
direct  attention  to  the  principal  object,  and  to 
preserve  the  proper  keeping  of  the  picture.  The 
same  may  be  said  of  the  shadows.  There  should 
be  one  principal  shadow,  to  which  the  others 
should  be  subordinate ;  they  should  not  be  too 
much  subdivided  into  numerous  small  shadows, 
but  a  proper  degree  of  breadth  of  shade  should 
be  maintained  undisturbed  by  intervening  lights, 
which  will  much  contribute  to  the  repose  of  the 
picture. 

Every  landscape  may  be  divided  with  greater 
or  less  precision  into  three  parts, — the  distance, 
the  middle-picture,  and  the  foreground.  As  the 
effect  of  distance  is  to  subdue  both  lights  and  shad 
ows,  the  first  of  these  seldom  plays  a  conspicuous 
part  in  the  general  arrangement  of  the  chiaro- 
oscuro,  although  the  deep  blue  of  a  distant  moun 
tain  in  full  shadow  is  sometimes  effectively  intro 
duced.  The  largest  breadth  of  shade  is  generally 
spread  over  the  middle-picture,  while  the  deepest 
shadows,  as  well  as  the  strongest  lights,  naturally, 
from  its  proximity,  occupy  the  foreground. 

Sometimes,  however,  this  order  is  reversed. 
In  this  case  a  few  strong  and  scattered  touches 
of  light  falling  on  objects  in  the  foreground  con 


trast  very  effectively  with  its  dark  tints.  In  day 
light  scenes,  in  nature,  the  principal  light  is  gen 
erally  in  the  sky ;  but  in  a  showery  or  stormy 
sky,  when  the  sun  is  supposed  to  be  shining,  but 
not  from  within  the  limits  of  the  picture,  the  en 
tire  sky  may  often  be  in  half-shadow,  with  the 
principal  light  in  the  foreground  or  middle-pic 
ture.* 

Guided  by  these  simple  instructions,  it  is  sup 
posed  that  a  sketch  of  a  harbor,  bay,  or  island 
has  been  made  in  pencil.  To  render  such  work 
more  permanent  and  give  a  greater  effect  the 
sketch  may  be  finished  in  India-ink,  sepia,  or 
water-colors  by  the  aid  of  the  pen  or  brush. 
Pen  and  ink  are  chosen  for  our  present  purpose 
as  being  best  adapted  for  photolithography  and 
the  most  simple.  A  photograph  may  be  taken 
directly  from  such  a  sketch,  and  to  obtain  the 
best  results  it  is  necessary  to  pay  particular  at 
tention  to  clearness,  and  draw  the  picture  a  little 
larger  than  required  in  the  published  sketch. 

The  ink  used  should  be  of  the  best  quality,  free 
from  hardness  and  grit,  and  susceptible  of  a  deep, 
brilliant,  black  tint  when  sufficiently  ground  on 
the  saucer.  Distilled  water  is  preferable  for 
grinding,  and  if  the  sketch  is  to  be  photo 
graphed  a  little  alum  may  be  mixed  with  the 
ink,  which  will,  neutralize  its  brilliancy.  If 
flies  are  troublesome,  a  small  quantity  of  ox- 
gall  added  to  the  ink  will  prevent  the  sketch 
being  spoiled  by  their  encroachments.  For  very 
fine  work  the  ink  may  be  ground  to  advantage 
on  the  thumb-nail.  The  saucer  should  be  thor 
oughly  cleaned  and  wiped  before  and  after  use ; 
any  particle  of  grease  destroys  the  fixing  and 
fluid  qualities  of  the  ink. 

Hot-pressed  drawing-paper  or  Bristol-board  is 
the  best  to  use  for  such  sketches.  The  pens  best 
adapted  for  free-hand  work  are  Gillott's  No.  303, 
the  mapping-pen,  No.  291,  and  the  lithographic 
pen,  No.  290;  with  these  grades  all  delineations 
from  the  finest  to  the  coarsest  may  be  made,  but 
in  skillful  hands  the  303  pen,  like  the  moyen  pen 
cil,  suffices  for  all  ordinary  purposes.  The  char 
acter  of  the  pencil-lines  should  be  accurately  ren 
dered  by  similar  touches  of  the  pen  and  tints  of 
ink. 

The  amount  of  finish  necessary  to  the  sketch 
depends  upon  the  time  and  facilities  at  the  dis 
posal  of  the  delineator.  In  general,  on  ship 
board,  it  is  not  convenient  to  be  too  minute ; 
the  refinements  may  be  left  for  office-work,  where 
good  light,  steadiness  of  position,  and  command 
of  the  best  materials  will  conduce  to  greater  neat 
ness  and  accuracy. 

English  surveying-vessels  are  usually  provided 
with  a  large,  airy,  well-lighted  house  on  the  upper 
deck  devoted  exclusively  to  the  use  of  the  sur 
veyors  and  draughtsmen. 

An  important"  point  not  to  be  omitted  in  the 
sketch  is  reference  to  the  point  of  view  by  bear 
ings,  which  should  be  carefully  noted. 

The  best  time  for  making  sketches  is  either  in 
the  morning  or  evening,  when  the  effects  of  light 
and  shade  are  most  favorable. — George  P.  Colvo- 
coresses,  Lieutenant  U.S.N. 

Skew.  Awry.  A  rudely-made  boat  in  Eng 
lish  waters. 

Skewer-pieces.  Pieces  of  salt  meat  without 
bone. 

*  I  am  largely  indebted  to  a  manual  of  drawing  by  B.  S.  Burn, 
Esq.,  for  the  foregoing  directions. 


SKIDDY-COCK 


758 


SLIDE 


Skiddy-cock  (Eng.).     The  water-rail. 

Skider  (Eng.).     the  skate. 

Skids.  Pieces  of  timber  temporarily  fastened 
to  the  rail  or  side,  to  absorb  the  chafe  in  hoisting. 
Pieces  of  plank  under  a  vessel's  bottom  for  get 
ting  her  afloat,  when  ashore.  Boat-skids  are 
frames  in  which  boats  are  built,  or  in  which  the 
boom-boats  rest.  Landing-skids  are  short  pieces 
of  plank  running  from  the  gunwale  to  the  beach, 
and  are  used  in  boats,  for  the  purpose  of  landing 
the  guns.  Gun-skids  are  beams  arranged  in  par 
allel  lines,  in  a  gun-park,  on  which  the  guns  are 
laid. 

SKID-BEAMS  (Eng.).  Beams  raised  on  stan 
chions  on  the  spar-deck  of  a  sloop,  where  booms 
and  boats  are  stowed. 

Skiff.  A  small  light  row-boat.  (Eng.)  A  sail 
boat  like  a  sloop,  but  with  no  bowsprit. 

Skilly.  Oatmeal  broth  in  which  meat  has 
been  boiled. 

Skillygalee.     A  drink  of  oatmeal  and  water. 

Skin.  The  inside  or  outside  planking  of  a  ship. 
The  outside  part  of  a  sail  when  furled.  To  skin 
up  a  sail,  to  pull  it  up  in  furling  until  the  out 
side  part  is  taut  and  smooth. 

Skip-jack.  A  fussy,  trifling  officer;  an  up 
start.  The  bonita,  a  small  fish.  A  small  por 
poise. 

Skipper.  The  master  of  a  merchant  vessel. 
A  familiar  appellation  for  the  commanding 
officer  of  a  man-of-war.  The  saury-pike,  Scom- 
bresox  saurus. 

Skirling.     Small  salmon  or  trout. 

Skiver.     A  dirk.     A  fork. 

Skoorie.     A  full-grown  coal-fish. 

Skout.     The  guillemot,  or  auk. 

Skouther.    The  stinging-nettle,  or  jelly-fish. 

Skow.     See  Scow. 

Skrae-fish  (Eng.).  Pish  sun-dried  without 
salting. 

Skua.     A  kind  of  sea-gull. 

Skulker.  A  shirker ;  a  coward  who  lurks  be 
low  during  action. 

Skull-fish.  A  whale  more  than  two  years  old. 

Skunk-head.  The  pied  duck,  Anas  Labra- 
dora. 

Skurrie.     The  shag,  Phalacrocorax  graculus. 

Sky-gazer.  A  fish  called  Uranosco'pus.  A 
light  triangular  sail,  set  flying  above  the  royal. 

Skylarking.  Frolicking;  scuffling  or  running 
about  decks.  It  formerly  meant  mounting  to 
the  mast-head,  and  sliding  down  the  royal  back 
stays. 

Skylight.  A  hatch  covered  with  glass,  admit 
ting  light  to  the  deck  below. 

Sky-sail.  The  next  sail  above  the  royal. 
Often  carried  in  merchantmen,  and  sometimes 
set  flying.  The  sail  above  it  was  the  sky-scraper, 
if  triangular  ;  the  moon-sail,  if  square. 

SKY-SAIL  MAST,  or  SKY-SAIL  POLE.  The  upper 
portion  of  a  royal  mast  when  used  for  a  sky-sail. 
Sometimes  it  slides  on  the  royal  mast,  like  a 
sliding-gunter. 

Sky-scraper.  A  triangular  sail  set  above  the 
sky-sail,  or  above  the  moon-sail,  when  it  is  often 
called  a  star-gazer. 

Slab.     The  outside  cut  of  a  tree. 

Slab-lines.  Kopes  led  through  blocks  on  the 
yard  or  under  the  top,  and  thence  abaft  to  the 
foot  of  the  courses.  Their  use  is  to  haul  the 
sail  up  snugly. 

Slack.     A  slack  rope,  one  hanging  loose.  The 


slack,  the  loose  part  of  the  rope.  To  slack  off,  to 
ease  up,  or  relieve  the  strain  on  a  rope.  Slack 
helm,  with  the  helm  carried  habitually  too  much 
alee.  This  occurs  often  when  too  much  down  by 
the  stern,  or  when  there  is  too  much  head-sail. 
Slack  in  stays,  a  term  applied  to  a  ship  that  is 
slow  in  tacking ;  also,  jocularly,  to  a  lazy  man. 
To  slack  up,  to  ease  oif  or  veer  out.  Slack- 
tide,  or  slack-water,  the  interval  between  ebb 
and  flow,  either  at  high-  or  low- water.  The  tide 
slackens  when  its  velocity  becomes  less. 

Slag.  A  glass-like  substance  formed  in  a 
blast-furnace  by  the  combination  of  the  silica, 
alumina,  lime,  etc.,  contained  in  the  ore  and 
flux.  It  floats,  in  a  molten  state,  upon  the  sur 
face  of  the  metal,  from  which  it  flows  through 
suitable  apertures. 

Slake.     Mud  or  ooze  in  a  river-bed. 

Slant  of  Wind.  A  temporary  breeze ;  also, 
the  duration  of  a  favorable  breeze. 

Slant  Tack.  The  most  favorable  tack ;  the 
long  leg. 

Slatch.     A  transitory  breeze. 

Slee.  A  cradle  placed  beneath  a  ship  when 
hauling  her  up  for  repairs,  as  at  a  marine  rail 
way. 

Sleep.  A  sail  sleeps  when  well  filled  and 
quiet. 

Sleeper.  A  large  acanthropterygious  fish  of 
the  family  Gobiodce,  the  species  of  which  are 
natives  of  warm  climates,  living  in  fresh  water, 
and  concealing  themselves  in  the  mud  ;  Eleotris 
dormatrix. 

Sleepers.  Pieces  of  curved  timber  which  are 
fayed  and  bolted  upon  the  transoms  and  counter- 
timbers  inside  the  ship  to  strengthen  the  stern. 
The  lower  tier  of  casks. 

Sleeve.     A  strait,  or  narrow  channel. 

Sleeve-fish.     The  squid,  Loligo  vulgaris. 

Slice.  A  bar  used  by  whalers,  to  strip  fish 
with.  A  tapering  piece  of  plank,  driven  between 
the  timbers  of  a  ship  before  planking.  A  wedge 
driven  under  the  keel  in  launching. 

Slice-bar.  A  bar  with  a  knife-shaped  end, 
used  in  furnaces  to  clear  the  grate  of  clinkers. 

Slide.  A  smooth  piece,  or  a  part  of  the  frame 
of  a  machine,  upon  which  another  piece  slides  or 
is  guided ;  as,  the  cross-head  slide  of  a  steam- 
engine,  the  slide  of  a  gun-carriage,  etc. 

SLIDE-BAB,  or  SLIDE-ROD.  A  bar  or  rod  for 
communicating  motion  from  one  piece  to  another, 
constrained  by  guides  so  as  to  move  or  slide  in 
direction  of  its  length  only. 

SLIDE-VALVE.  A  valve  that  is  opened  or 
closed  by  sliding  it  over  its  seat,  which  contains 
ports  or  openings,  usually  rectangular  in  cross- 
section,  for  the  passage  of  a  fluid.  It  is  exten 
sively  used  in  the  steam-engine  for  alternately 
admitting  and  releasing  the  steam  to  and  from 
the  cylinder ;  and  for  this  purpose  it  is  so  ar 
ranged  that  one  reciprocating  piece  performs 
these  functions  for  both  ends  thereof.  The  sim 
plest  form  is  the  three-ported  valve,  in  which  the 
valve-seat  contains  three  rectangular  ports, 
placed  side  by  side  a  short  distance  apart,  the 
two  outer  ones  communicating  with  their  re 
spective  ends  of  the  cylinder,  and  the  middle  one 
with  the  exhaust-pipe.  The  valve,  in  the  mid 
dle  of  whose  face  is  a  niche  or  recess  of  sufficient 
size  to  span  the  middle  port  and  one  of  the  end 
ports,  when  in  mid-position  and  the  engine  on  a 
dead  centre,  covers  all  the  ports ;  but  when 


SLING 


759 


SMAliL   BOWEK 


moved  in  either  direction,  one  of  the  end  ports 
is  uncovered  to  the  live  steam  surrounding  the 
back  of  the  valve,  the  other  releasing  the  exhaust 
steam  through  the  niche  in  the  valve-face  and 
the  middle  port.  Slide-valves  having  lap  are 
enabled  to  effect  a  cut-off  within  moderate  limits. 
Double-ported  valves  have  two  steam  and  exhaust 
openings  at  each  end,  thereby  reducing  the 
length  of  their  stroke.  There  are  many  devices 
for  relieving  the  bases  of  valves  from  the  steam- 
pressure,  such  as  the  D-valve,  the  use  of  balance- 
rings,  etc. 

SLIDING-BAULKS.  The  floor-timbers  of  a 
cradle,  sliding  on  the  bilge-ways  when  the  ship 
is  launched. 

SLIDING  BILGE-BLOCKS.  Large  blocks  with 
their  upper  parts  fitted  to  the  form  of  the  ship's 
bottom,  sliding  from  the  dock-steps  into  place. 

SLIDING-GUNTER.  A  mast  of  two  pieces,  the 
upper  sliding  up  and  down  the  lower  by  means 
of  hoops  or  rings.  Used  for  boats,  and  some 
times  for  sky-sails,  etc. 

SLIDING-GUNTER  SAIL.  A  triangular  sail  bent 
to  a  sliding-gunter  mast.  A  handy  form  of 
boat's  sail,  reefing  quickly  by  lowering  the  upper 
part  of  the  mast. 

SLTDING-KEEL.  A  sliding-keel  or  centre 
board  is  an  arrangement  invented  about  the  year 
1800  by  Capt.  John  Shanks,  R.N.  It  consists  of 
a  well-room  or  case  placed  amidships,  and  car 
ried  above  the  deepest  load-line,  generally  to  the 
deck.  It  contains  a  board  made  to  travel  up  and 
down,  as  the  vessel  may  be  required  to  sail  off  or 
on  the  wind  ;  it  is  used  principally  in  yachts  and 
coasters  where  a  light  draft  of  "water  is  needed. 
Shuld ham's  sliding-keel  was  triangular,  the 
broadest  part  being  aft. 

SLIDINQ-WAYS.  Sliding-ways,  or  launching- 
ways,  are  the  ways  which  are  prepared  for  and 
used  in  launching  a  vessel ;  they  are  placed  at  an 
inclination  sufficient  to  allow  the  ship  to  slide 
gradually  into  the  water. 

Sling.  To  suspend  in  ropes.  To  hang  the 
yards  with  spare  chains  on  going  into  action.  To 
attach  the  clews  to  a  hammock.  A  rope  or 
chain  strap  fitted  to  encircle  any  object,  so  as  to 
suspend  it.  The  chains  that  suspend  the  lower 
yards  and  gaffs.  Yard-slings  are  of  strong  chain, 
going  around  the  lower  mast-head,  and  connect 
ing  to  the  yard  by  a  slip-bolt.  Gaff-slings  are  of 
chain  or  wire  rope,  supporting  the  gaff  from 
above.  Boat-slings  are  lengths  of  chain  termi 
nated  by  a  large  link,  placed  in  the  bow  and 
stern  of  the  boat  to  hook  the  tackles  into.  Buoy- 
slings  are  rope  fittings  about  a  wooden  buoy,  to 
which  the  buoy-rope  is  so  attached  that  the  buoy 
will  ride  upright.  Butt-slings,  or  barrel-slings, 
are  used  in  hoisting  casks.  Gun-slings  are  iron 
chains  parceled  and  marled  together  fora  part  of 
their  length,  and  having  a  piece  of  rope  fastened 
to  them  to  pass  about  the  chase  of  the  gun.  To 
get  into  a  sling,  a  jocular  expression,  signifying 
to  get  into  difficulties. 

SLING-BAND,  or  SLING-HOOP.  An  iron  band 
on  the  yard,  to  which  the  slings  are  fastened. 

Slip.  To  let  go  suddenly  ;  as,  to  slip  the  cable. 
An  inclined  plane  on  which  ships  are  built.  An 
opening  left  between  docks  or  wharves.  An  in 
clined  plane,  up  which  ships  may  be  drawn  for 
repairs.  An  insurance  memorandum,  given  to 
the  underwriters  for  their  signatures.  The  dif 
ference  between  a  vessel's  speed  and  the  speed 


that  would  be  attained  if  the  propelling  device 
acted  upon  a  solid  or  immobile  substance  instead 
of  a  fluid.  It  is  usually  expressed  as  a  fraction 
or  per  centum  of  the  speed  due  to  the  action  of 
the  centre  of  effort  of  the  propeller  on  a  solid. 

SLIP-KNOT,  or  SLIP-NOOSE.  A  knot  which 
will  travel  along  a  rope  or  spar;  a  running- 
noose. 

SLIP-ROPE.  A  *ope  so  arranged  that  it  may 
be  slipped  or  let  go  suddenly. 

SLIP-SHACKLE.  A  shackle  consisting  of  a  long 
bolt  with  a  ring,  confining  it  to  its  own  part,  and, 
when  struck  off,  allowing  it  to  slide  through  the 
chain  to  which  it  is  fastened. 

SLIP-STOPPER.  An  arrangement  for  letting 
the  anchor  go.  Usually,  the  ends  of  the  anchor- 
stoppers  have  a  tongue  held  in  a  trip,  which  is 
held  by  a  trigger  and  controlled  by  a  line,  so  that 
one  man  may  detach  both  stoppers. 

Sloop.  A  small  vessel  having  one  mast,  with 
a  jib,  stay-sail,  mainsail,  and  gaff  topsail.  It  dif 
fers  from  a  cutter  in  having  a  fixed  bowsprit  and 
stay  for  the  jib.  A  war-vessel  next  in  size  to  a 
frigate.  Before  the  introduction  of  steam,  a 
sloop-of-war  carried  from  18  to  32  guns.  As  now 
understood,  any  vessel,  larger  than  a  gunboat, 
carrying  guns  on  one  deck  only. 

SLOOP-KIGGKD.  Rigged  like  a  sloop,  with  one 
mast  and  a  fixed  bowsprit. 

Slope  of  Wind.     A  slant  of  wind. 

Slops  (Eng.).  Ready-made  clothes  and  other 
furnishings  for  seamen. 

SLOP-BOOK.     A  register  of  small  stores  issued. 

SLOP-ROOM.  The  issuing-room,  or  store-room 
for  small  stores. 

SLOP-SHOP.  A  shop  where  sailors'  ready-made 
clothing,  small  stores,  etc.,  are  sold. 

Slow-match.    See  MATCH. 

Sludge.  Thin,  slushy  ice,  just  forming. 
Broken  ice  in  polar  seas. 

Sludge-holes  (Eng.}.     Mud-holes  of  boilers. 

Slue.     To  turn  around  ;  to  twist  about. 

SLUED.     Stupefied  by  drink  ;  tipsy. 

SLUE-ROPE.  A  rope  for  turning  a  gun,  spar, 
etc. 

Slush.  The  melted  grease  from  the  meat  in 
the  coppers.  Dirty  snow,  soft  mud,  etc.  To 
grease  with  slush.  To  slush  down,  to  grease  the 
spars  after  scraping  them. 

SLUSH-FUND.  Money  obtained  from  the  sale 
of  slush.  It  is  to  be  used  for  premiums  for  tar 
get  firing,  etc.,  and  not  for  ship's  purposes. 

SLUSH-ICE.     The  first  young  ice. 

Sly-gorse.  The  .  shell-drake,  Tadorna  vul- 
panser. 

Smack.  A  small  vessel,  rigged  like  a  cutter 
or  a  sloop,  sometimes  with  a  square  topsail. 

Small.  The  small  part  of  a  whale's  tail.  The 
shank  of  the  anchor,  immediately  below  the 
stock. 

Small-arms.  Fire-arms,  carried  in  the  hand, 
and  fired  from  the  hand  or  shoulder. 

SMALL-ARM  AMMUNITION.  Ammunition  for 
rifles,  pistols,  etc.  It  is  generally  fixed  ammu 
nition,  and  is  stowed  in  boxes,  kept  in  the  shell- 
room  or  torpedo-room.  Metallic  cartridges  are 
now  used. 

SMALL-ARM  MEN.  Men  trained  and  selected 
to  use  small-arms  in  boarding,  etc. 

Small  Bower.  Formerly,  the  bower-anchors 
were  of  different  sizes,  in  which  case  the  port 
anchor  was  the  small  bower. 


SMALL  HELM 


760 


SMITH 


Small  Helm.  That  condition  of  the  steerage 
of  a  ship  when  but  a  slight  movement  of  the 
helm  is  required  to  accomplish  good  results.  The 
subjection  of  a  talkative,  turbulent  bully  by 
decisive  measures. 

Small  Sails.  All  the  lighter  sails  except  the 
studding-sails. 

Small  Stores.  Soap,  needles  and  thread,  to 
bacco,  spices,  tin-ware,  razors,  brushes,  and 
various  other  articles,  issued  to  the  men  through 
their  mess-cooks  once  a  fortnight. 

Small-stuff.  The  general  name  given  to  all 
of  the  smaller  descriptions  of  rope  or  cord  which 
is  required  for  use  on  shipboard. 

The  term  includes  spun-yarn,  marline,  house- 
line,  roundline,  and  the  smaller  sizes  of  seizing- 
and  ratline-stuff  (all  of  which  are  made  of  hemp 
and  tarred),  and  the  corresponding  sizes  of  un- 
tarred  line,  made  either  of  flax  or  manilla. 

In  the  manufacture  of  all  these  varieties,  the 
finest  quality  of  fibre  is  or  should  be  used,  except 
for  spun-yarn,  which  is  of  a  coarser  description 
and  requires  less  strength  and  finish.  The  long 
fibre  of  the  tow,  called  barr,  is  generally  used 
for  that  purpose. 

Spun-yarn,  marline,  houseline,  and  roundline 
are  made  by  the  process  of  hand-spinning,  as  fol 
lows  :  at  each  end  of  the  spinning-room,  which 
is  several  hundred  feet  in  length,  wheels  are 
placed  which  are  turned  by  hand,  and  connect 
by  means  of  bands  with  several  small  hooks  or 
whirls  supported  in  an  open  box.  The  spinner 
secures  a  bundle  of  hemp  about  his  waist  with 
the  ends  fastened  behind,  attaches  a  small  quan 
tity  of  the  fibre  to  one  of  the  whirls,  which  is 
revolved  by  the  wheel,  and  walks  backward  the 
length  of  the  room,  by  which  movement  the  fibre 
is  drawn  from  the  bundle. 

The  thread  or  yarn  is  held  in  the  right  hand 
of  the  spinner  (a  piece  of  flannel  being  used  to 
protect  the  hand  from  friction),  the  thumb  and 
forefinger  serving  as  a  gauge  to  regulate  the  size 
and  uniformity  of  the  yarn,  while  the  supply  is 
regulated  by  the  left  hand,  either  faster  or  slower 
as  may  be  required.  The  requisite  amount  of 
skill  to  spin  a  uniform  yarn  of  a  given  size  can 
only  be  obtained  by  long  practice,  but  by  a  good 
workman  a  yarn  of  greater  evenness  and  strength 
can  be  spun  by  hand  than  by  machinery. 

Upright  posts  placed  in  the  floor  at  regular  in 
tervals  have  horizontal  arms  attached  at  right 
angles  to  the  walk  of  the  spinner,  which  are 
called  stake-heads.  Iron  pins  or  bolts  are  driven 
into  the  upper  edges  of  the  j5  take-heads  and  hold 
the  yarns  in  position,  as  the  spinner,  in  passing, 
places  the  yarn  upon  it. 

Two  or  three  spinners  follow  each  other  at  in 
tervals  of  a  few  feet.  Having  reached  the  end 
of  the  room,  a  bell  is  rung  as  a  signal  to  stop  the 
wheel,  and  the  ends  of  two  yarns  are  knotted  to 
gether  and  the  bight  placed  over  a  hook.  At  the 
same  time  the  man  who  turns  the  wheel  detaches 
the  yarns  from  the  whirls,  secures  them  to  an 
other  whirl  which  is  turned  in  the  opposite  direc 
tion  by  the  crossing  of  its  band,  and  by  which 
the  yarns  are  twisted  together  or  laid  up.  A 
bundle  of  the  completed  lengths  is  called  a  junk, 
the  number  of  which  it  is  composed  depending 
upon  the  weight. 

Yarns  for  spun-yarn,  marline,  and  houseline 
are  spun  from  left  to  right,  and  are  twisted  or 
laid  from  right  to  left.  Yarns  for  roundline  are 


spun  in  the  opposite  direction  and  laid  up  right- 
handed.  Spun-yarn  may  be  made  of  two,  three, 
or  four  yarns.  They  are  simply  twisted  together, 
but  not  laid.  It  is  used  for  the  more  common 
and  rougher  purposes,  such  as  for  service  to  pro 
tect  certain  parts  of  the  rigging  from  chafe,  bend 
ing  sails,  etc. 

Roundline,  houseline,  and  marline  are  made 
with  greater  care,  and  in  laying  the  yarns  a  top 
is  used  to  give  closeness  and  regularity  to  the 
lay.  The  latter  is  composed  of  two  yarns  or 
strands  ;  the  others  have  three  yarns,  but  round- 
line  is  somewhat  larger  than  houseline,  and  is 
used  principally  in  serving  the  lower  rigging 
and  stays.  All  of  these  different  kinds  of  small- 
stuff  are  tarred  in  the  junk. 

The  different  sizes  of  ratline-  and  seizing-stuff 
are  distinguished  by  the  number  of  yarns  or 
threads  of  which  they  are  composed.  Their 
names  imply  the  uses  for  which  they  are  inr 
tended.  Ratline-stuff  is  a  little  larger  than  seiz 
ing-stuff  of  the  same  number  of  threads,  and  it 
is  also  laid  up  with  less  twist,  by  which  it  is 
rendered  more  pliable.  The  threads  may  be 
spun  by  hand  or  by  machinery,  but  they  must 
be  tarred  before  being  twisted  and  laid.  The 
larger  sizes  of  ratline-  and  seizing-stuff  are  made 
by  the  same  machinery  as  the  various  sizes  of 
rope,  the  strands  being  tubed,  or  drawn  through 
tubes,  into  which  they  fit  closely,  previous  to 
being  twisted.  The  smaller  sizes,  however  (12- 
thread  and  less),  are  not  tubed,  but  the  threads 
are  extended  to  their  full  length  and  twisted  to 
form  the  strand,  and  the  strands  are  then  laid. 
The  machine  for  this  purpose  is  similar  to  that 
used  in  the  manufacture  of  rope,  but  is  of  more 
simple  construction.  See  EOPE. — E.  T.  Strong, 
Lieutenant  U.S.N. 

Smart-money  (Eng.}.  The  pension  given  for 
wounds. 

Smart-ticket  (Eng.].  A  certificate  from  a 
captain  or  surgeon,  for  a  pension  for  wounds. 

Smasher  (Eng.).  A  seaman  from  the  north 
of  England. 

Smear-dab.  A  kind  of  flat-fish ;  the  Pleuro- 
nectes  Icevis. 

Smelt.  A  small  fish  (Osmerus  eperlanus), 
allied  to  the  salmon.  It  is  of  a  silvery-white 
color,  and  is  highly  esteemed  as  a  delicate  food. 
It  emits  a  peculiar  odor,  whence  the  name  ;  called 
also  spirting. 

Smerlin.  A  certain  fish  ;  Cobitis  aculeata  of 
Linna3iis. 

Smew.  The  Mergus  albellus,  or  white-headed 
goosander. 

Smith,  John,  was  born  at  Willoughby,  Lin 
colnshire,  England,  in  Januar}r,  1579.  In  1606-7 
he  was  associated  with  Newport  in  his  expedi 
tion  to  Virginia,  and  was  left  there  to  manage 
the  little  colony  at  Jamestown.  In  1608  he  sur 
veyed  the  Chesapeake  Bay,  Chickahominy  and 
Potomac  Rivers,  and  gave  names  to  several  of  the 
islands  he  encountered  on  the  voyage,  and  also 
made  a  map  of  his  voyage  of  discovery.  In 
1609  he  left  Virginia  never  to  return.  In  1614, 
with  two  ships,  fitted  out  by  some  London  mer 
chants,  he  explored  a  large  portion  of  the  North 
American  coast,  to  which  he  gave  the  name  of 
New  England,  and  of  which  he  formed  a  toler 
ably  accurate  map.  In  1615  he  made  another 
voyage  to  New  England  for  the  purpose  of  found 
ing  a  colony,  but  was  captured  by  a  French  man- 


SMITH 


761 


SMOXE-SAIL 


of-war  and  taken  to  New  Rochelle.  Afterward 
he  claimed  to  have  participated  in  sea-fights  for 
the  French  against  the  Spaniards.-  About  1616 
he  received  the  title  of  Admiral  of  New  Eng 
land,  and  was  thenceforth  engaged  in  promoting 
American  colonization  by  means  of  a  series  of 
publications  on  America,  written  either  by  or 
for  him.  He  died  in  London  on  June  31,  1631. 

Smith,  Melancthon,  Rear-Admiral  U.S.N. 
Born  in  New  York,  May  24,  1810.  Appointed 
from  New  York,  as  acting  midshipman,  March 
1,  1826;  from  July  22,  1826,  to  June  15,  1830, 
attached  to  frigate  "  Brandywine"  and  sloop 
"  Vincennes,"  Pacific  Squadron  ;  Naval  School, 
18"31;  frigate  "Potomac,"  May  3  to  June  28, 
1831  ;  navv-yard,  New  York,  from  June  28, 
1831,  to  January  19,  1832. 

Promoted  to  passed  midshipman,  June  1, 1832  ; 
sloop  "St.  Louis,"  West  India  Squadron,  Au 
gust  8,  1832,  to  December  14,  1832 ;  navy-yard, 
Pensacola,  December  14,  1832,  to  July  21, 1833; 
brig  "Porpoise"  and  sloop  "Vandalia,"  West 
India  Squadron,  from  July  21,  1833,  to  August 
15,  1834 ;  navy-yard,  New  York,  July  20,  1835, 
to  November  4,  1835. 

Promoted  to  master,  1836;  sloops  "Natchez" 
and  "Vandalia,"  West  India  Squadron,  from 
1836  to  1838. 

Commissioned  as  lieutenant,  March  8,  1837  ; 
steamer  "  Poinsett,"  operating  against  the  In 
dians  in  Florida,  from  June,  1839,  to  March, 
1840;  commanded  a  fort  and  a  20-oared  barge 
for  one  month,  in  1839,  during  the  Florida  war; 
navy-yard,  New  York,  1841 ;  sloops  "  Fairfield" 
and  "  Preble,"  Mediterranean  Squadron,  from 
April  23,  1841,  to  September  5,  1843;  receiving- 
ship  at  New  York,  from  November,  1843,  to  Oc 
tober,  1844;  store-ship  "Erie,"  from  October, 
1844,  to  December,  1844;  sloop  "Vandalia"  and 
steamer  "Colonel  Harney,"  Home  Squadron, 
from  December,  1844,  to  January,  1846  ;  execu 
tive-officer  of  Pensacola  Navy-Yard,  January, 
1846,  to  April,  1848;  frigate  "Constitution," 
Mediterranean  Squadron,  from  September,  1848, 
to  January,  1851 ;  waiting  orders,  1851. 

Commissioned  as  commander,  September  14, 
1855;  executive-officer  of  frigate  "Potomac," 
while  she  was  flag-ship  to  Flag-Officer  Pauld- 
ing,  June,  1855,  to  October,  1855;  light-house 
inspector,  October,  1857;  commanding  at  differ 
ent  times  the  steamers  "  Mississippi,"  "  Massa 
chusetts,"  and  "  Monongahela,"  Gulf  Blockad 
ing  Squadron,  from  May  1,  1861,  to  June  22, 
1863.  While  commanding  the  "  Massachusetts," 
engaged  a  fort  at  Ship  Island,  July  9,  1861,  and 
3  Confederate  steamers  and  a  revenue-cutter  off 
Ship  Island  in  1861 ;  engagement  with  rebel 
steamer  "Florida-,"  Mississippi  sounds,  October 
26, 1861  ;  cut  the  telegraph-wire  between  Shields- 
boro'  and  Pass  Christian,  September  20,  1861  ; 
capture  of  a  battery  of  2  guns  at  Beloxi ;  De 
cember  31,  1861,  while  commanding  the  steamer 
"  Mississippi,"  was  in  the  attack  and  passage  of 
Forts  Jackson  and  St.  Philip,  and  the  capture  and 
destruction  of  the  rebel  ram  "  Manassas,"  April 
24,  1862.  Flag-Officer  Farragut,  in  his  official 
report,  says,  "Just  as  the  scene  appeared  to  be 
closing,  the  ram  '  Manassas'  was  seen  coming 
up  under  a  full  head  of  steam  to  attack  us.  I 
directed  Capt.  Smith,  in  the  '  Mississippi,'  to 
turn  and  run  her  down.  This  order  was  in 
stantly  obeyed  by  the  '  Mississippi,'  turning 


and  going  at  her  at  fu.'.l  speed.  Just  as  we  ex 
pected  to  see  the  ram  annihilated,  when  within 
50  yards  of  each  other,  she  put  her  helm  hard-a- 
port,  dodged  the  '  Mississippi,'  and  ran  ashore^ 
The  '  Mississippi'  poured  two  broadsides  into 
her,  and  sent  her  drifting  down  the  river  a. total 
wreck.  Thus  closed  our  morning's  light." 
Chalmette  batteries,  below  New  Orleans,  April 
25,  1862. 

Commissioned  as  captain,  July  16,  1862. 

Capt.  Smith  remained  in  the  "  Mississippi," 
taking  part  in  all  the  engagernents  of  the  squad 
ron  until  March  14,  1863.  when,  in  attempting 
the  passage  of  the  batteries  at  Port  Hudson,  the 
"  Mississippi"  grounded  in  23  feet  of  water,  and 
keeled  over  to  port.  Every  effort  was  made  to  get 
the  vessel  off,  but  without  avail,  and  the  enemy 
having  obtained  the  exact  range  of  the  ship, 
were  hulling  her  at  almost  every  shot,  when 
Capt.  Smith  gave  orders  to  fire  her,  which  was 
done  in  four  different  places  between  decks. 
When  the  flames  had  gained  sufficient  headway 
to  render  the  destruction  of  the  vessel  certain, 
Capt.  Smith  gave  orders  to  abandon  her,  which 
was  done  quietly  and  without  confusion,  he 
being  the  last  man  to  leave.  By  his  cool  and 
courageous  bearing  in  the  trying  situation  in 
which  he  was  placed  Capt.  Smith  won  the  ad 
miration  of  all,  and  his  course  was  approved 
by  both  Rear-Admiral  Farragut  and  the  De 
partment.  While  commanding  the  "Monon 
gahela,"  participated  in  the  attacks  on  Port 
Hudson,  from  June  1  to  20,  1863;  from  June 
22,  1863,  to  July,  1863,  under  orders  North  to 
report  for  a  command, — reporting  July  7,  1863  ; 
from  July,  1863,  to  February  16,  1865,  at  sea, 
commanding  ironclad  "  Onondaga"  ;  temporarily 
transferred,  April  23,  1864,  by  telegraph,  to  com 
mand  of  squadron  in  North  Carolina  sounds,  to 
capture  rebel  ram  "  Albemarle"  ;  engaged  that 
vessel  and  her  consort,  the  steamer  "  Bombshell," 
in  Albemarle  Sound,  capturing  the  latter  vessel 
May,  1864;  returned  to  "  Onondaga"  as  divis 
ional  officer  on  James  River,  and  was  perma 
nently  transferred  to  frigate  "  Wabash,"  for 
operations  against  Fort  Fisher  ;  participated  in 
both  attacks  on  Fort  Fisher ;  1865,  navy-yard, 
Washington,  D.  C. 

Commissioned  as  commodore,  July  25,  1866  ; 
chief  of  Bureau  of  Equipment  and  Recruiting, 
Navy  Department,  1866-70. 

Commissioned  as  rear-admiral,  July,  1870 ; 
commandant  navy-yard,  New  York,  1870-72. 
Retired  March  24,  1871. 

Smiting-line  (Eng.}.  A  line  by  which  a  yarn- 
stoppod  sail  is  loosed,  without  sending  men  aloft. 

Smoke.  A  dense,  sandy  vapor  on  the  coast 
of  Africa. 

Smoke-ball.  A  ball  which,  when  fired,  burns 
with  a  dense  smoke  for  several  minutes. 

Smoke-box.  A  chamber  connected  to  a  steam- 
boiler,  in  which  the  gases  of  combustion  collect 
after  having  performed  their  work,  and  from 
which  they  are  discharged  into  the  smoke-pipe  ; 
as,  the  smoke-box  of  a  locomotive.  The  term 
is  synonymous  with  front  connection  and  uptake 
as  applied  to  marine  boilers. 

Smoke-pipe.  The  metallic  chimney  or  funnel 
of  a  steam-boiler  furnace.  The  term  smoke-stack 
is  in  common  use  ;  but  the  word  stack  implies  a 
chimney  of  masonry.  See  FUNNEL. 

Smoke-sail.    A  piece  of  canvas  fastened  to 


SMOKE-SHIP 


762 


SOLSTICES 


two  small  yards,  hoisted  on  the  foremast  to  pre 
vent  the  smoke  from  the  galley  from  soiling  the 
mast.  To  reef  the  smoke-sail,  to  take  it  in  entirely. 

Smoke-ship.  A  novel  fire-ship,  invented  by 
Meesters  in  1794.  See  FIRE-SHIPS. 

Siiioke-stack.     See  SMOKE-PIPE. 

Smoking-hours.  Certain  hours  are  designated 
on  board  aien-of-war  when  the  men  may  smoke. 
These  are,  during  meals,  half  an  hour  after  the 
men  are  called  in  the  morning,  holidays,  Sun 
days,  Saturday  afternoons,  and  after  hammocks 
are  down,  until  8  P.M. 

Smoking-lamp.  A  small  lamp  with  a  hole 
in  it,  lit  during  smoking  hours,  so  as  to  furnish 
a  light  for  pipes. 

Smolt.  A  salmon  of  frtmi  4  to  6  inches  long, 
and  a  little  more  than  a  ye&r^old,  that  has  ac 
quired  its  silver  scales.  s^ 

Smorth.     A  clear  spot  in  the  surf. 

Smug-boat.     A  Chinese  opium  smuggler. 

Smurlin.     A  mollusk ;  the  Mya  truncata. 

Snacot.  A  certain  fish ;  the  gar-pike ;  the 
sea-needle. 

Snag-boat.  A  boat  used  on  rivers  with  ma 
chinery  for  removing  snags. 

Snake.  To  pass  turns  of  a  rope,  then  to  pass 
turns  across,  winding  from  one  to  the  other.  To 
wind  small  ropes  spirally  between  two  larger 
ones.  Backstays  are  snaked  together,  to  prevent 
them  from  falling,  if  shot  away  singly. 

SNAKING.  Turns  of  a  rope  passed  in  a  zigzag 
direction,  or  spirally,  between  two  other  ropes. 

Snape.  To  cut  the  end  of  a  timber  off  bevel 
ing,  so  as  to  fay  upon  an  inclined  plane. 

Snapper.  The  red  snapper,  Serranus  erythro- 
gaster,  a  fish  well  known  in  the  West  Indies. 

Snarl.  In  a  snarl,  in  disorder ;  confused  ; 
tangled. 

SNARL-KNOT.   A  knot  that  cannot  be  undone. 

Snarley-yow.     A  discontented  grumbler. 

Snatch.  To  place  a  rope  in  a  block  for  a 
proper  lead.  A  snatch  is  an  open  lead,  whether 
in  a  block  or  cleat.  In  the  latter  case  it  is  called 
a  dumb  snatch, 

SNATCH-BLOCK.  An  iron  or  wooden  block  with 
an  aperture  into  which  the  bight  of  a  rope  may 
be  introduced.  They  are  generally  of  wood,  and 
an  iron  strap  closes  the  aperture ;  or  they  hinge  at 
the  hook,  and  close  by  shutting  the  block  and 
clasp  attached.  A  large  snatch  is  called  a  voyal. 

SNATCH-CLEAT.  A  curved  cleat  or  chock, 
through  which  a  rope  may  be  led. 

Sneer  (Eng.}.  To  make  all  sneer  again  is  to 
strain  spars  and  sails  by  "cracking  on,"  or 
crowding  sail. 

Sneezer.     A  stiff  gale. 

Snifting-valve.  A  valve  controlled  by  a 
spring  or  weight,  used  in  the  earlier  forms  of 
steam-engine  previous  to  the  adoption  of  the 
air-pump,  for  expelling  the  air  and  uncondensed 
vapor  from  the  cylinder,  which  also  acted  as  a 
condenser,  by  the  impulse  of  the  piston  and  its 
attachments.  The  term  is  now  frequently  applied 
to  cylinder  relief-valves  when  their  action  is 
automatic. 

Sniker-snee.     A  fiVht  with  knives. 

Snipe-fish.     The. bellows-fish. 

Snood.  A  small  piece  of  hair  fastening  a 
fish-hook  to  the  line. 

Snook.     The  sea-pike  ;  the  Thyrsites  atun. 

Snorter,  or  Snotter.  A  small  rope  bent  to 
the  end  of  a  light  yard,  over  which  fits  the  eye 


of  the  lift  and  brace.  The  tripping-line  leads 
from  the  other  end  of  it  to  the  deck,  and  when 
hauled  upon  pulls  off  the  lift  and  brace. 

Snotter.  A  small  grommet  about  a  mast, 
with  an  eye  in  it,  in  which  a  sprit  ships. 

Snow.  A  two-masted  vessel  with  a  boom- 
mainsail  set  on  a  trysail  mast. 

Snub.     To  check  the  motion  of  anything. 

SNUB-POST.  A  bollard,  or  post  on  "a  dock,  for 
fastening  ropes  to,  in  order  to  check  a  ship. 

SNUBBER.     A  check-stopper. 

Snug.  A  piece  for  wedging  or  otherwise 
combining  two  or  more  other  pieces  together. 
In  a  safe  situation  ;  prepared  for  the  worst. 

Sny.  The  line  or  shape  given  to  planking 
put  upon  the  curving  surfaces  at  the  bow  or 
stern  of  a  ship.  The  upward  curving  of  the 
planking  at  the  bow  or  stern.  It  is  sometimes 
called  the  spiling. 

So!     Well!     Right  as  it  is! 

Soak  and  Send  (Eng.}.  Word  passed  for  wet 
swabs. 

Soam.     The  dried  air-bladder  of  herring. 

Soap,  Salt-water.  Soap  made  from  cocoa-nut 
or  palm-wood  oil.  It  solidifies  with  75  per  cent, 
of  water. 

Socket.  A  hole  into  which  a  spindle  fits. 
Capstan- socket,  the  socket  for  the  capstan-spin 
dle.  Pivot- sockets,  gun-metal  sockets  placed 
in  the  decks  to  receive  the  pivots  of  gun-car 
riages. 

Sod-bank.  The  refraction  of  banks  in  the 
water. 

Soft-laes  (En<j.).  Small  coves  and  bays  worn 
in  soft  cliffs  by  the  action  of  the  waves. 

Soft-plank.     An  easy  berth  on  the  deck. 

Soft-tack,  or  Soft-tommy.  Soft  bread,  or 
fresh-made  wheaten  bread. 

Solan-goose.     The  gannet,  Sola  bassana. 

Solano.     The  sirocco. 

Solar.  Pertaining  to  the  sun.  See  DAY, 
ECLIPSE,  TIME,  YEAR. 

Soldier.  A  derisive  term  for  a  poor  sailor. 
To  soldier,  to  make  a  pretense  of  working  with 
out  expending  much  force  ;  to  play  the  old  soldier. 
The  antagonism  long  existing  between  the  sailor 
and  the  soldier  is  likewise  manifested  by  the 
adage,  "  Tell  that  to  the  marines,"  implying  that 
they  will  believe  anything. 

SOLDIER-CRAB.     The  hermit-crab. 

SOLDIER'S-WIND.  An  especially  fair  wind, 
so  that  a  passage  may  readily  be  made. 

Sole.  A  marine  flat-fish  (Solea  vulgaris]  which, 
with  allied  species,  is  peculiar,  among  vertebrate 
animals,  in  having  both  eyes  placed  on  one  side 
of  the  head,  namely,  that  side  which  is  upper 
most  when  they  are  swimming.  It  remains  at  or 
near  the  bottom  of  the  sea.  It  sometimes  grows 
to  the  weight  of  6  or  7  pounds  or  more. 

An  additional  piece  on  the  bottom  of  the  rud 
der.  The  lining  of  bilge- ways  and  ports. 

Solid  Shot.  A  compact  projectile  used  for 
battering  purposes,  and  distinguished  from  hol 
low  shot,  grape,  canister,  shrapneJ,  etc. 

Solstices  (from  Lat.  sol,  the  sun,  and  stare,  to 
stand  still).  The  two  periods  of  the  year,  about 
June  22  and  December  22,  at  which  the  sun  at 
tains  his  maximum  declination.  When  the  sun, 
in  his  annual  revolution  in  the  ecliptic,  has  at 
tained  his  greatest  northern  declination,  his 
course  for  the  moment  is  parallel  to  the  equinoc 
tial,  and,  as  far  as  change  of  declination  is  con- 


SOLSTITIAL  COLUKE 


763 


cerned,  he  appears  "  to  stand  still"  ;  and  similarly 
he  appears  ''  to  stand  still"  when  at  his  greatest 
southern  declination.  They  are  distinguished  as 
the  summer  solstice  and  the  winter  solstice.  We 
must  bear  in  mind,  however,  that  these  terms 
are  relative,  for  what  is  the  summer  solstice  in 
the  northern  is  the  winter  solstice  in  the  southern 
hemisphere,  and  what  is  the  winter  solstice  in 
the  northern  is  the  summer  solstice  in  the  south 
ern  hemisphere. 

Solstitial  Colure.  The  hour-circle  which 
passes  through  the  solstitial  points.  See  COLURES. 

Solstitial  Points.  The  two  points  of  the 
ecliptic  at  the  greatest  distance  from  the  equinoc 
tial.  They  are  distinguished  as  the  summer  sol 
stitial  point  and  the  winter  solstitial  point,  and 
called  also  the  first  point  of  Cancer  and  the  Jirst 
point  of  Capricorn,  as  being  the  commencement 
respectively  of  these  signs  of  the  ecliptic.  They 
are  represented  by  the  symbols  of  these  signs,  05 
and  VJ.  The  figure  of  the  Crab  (Cancer)  has 
evident  reference  to  the  sideways  and  backward' 
motion  of  the  sun  at  this  point  of  his  orbit.  The 
solstitial  points,  like  the  equinoctial  points,  do 
not  preserve  a  constant  place  among  the  stars, 
but  have  a  slow  retrograde  motion. 


Soma.     A  Ja 


panese  junk, 
hant  used  by 


hauling.  The  call  formerly  used  by  the  leads 
man  in  giving  the  soundings  obtained.  See 
NAVAL  SONGS. 

Son-of-a-gun.  Originally,  a  boy  born  afloat. 
A  term  of  slight  contempt. 

Sops  (Eng.).  Detached  clouds  hanging  about 
mountain  tops. 

Sothis.  The  Egyptian  name  for  the  star  a 
Canis  Majoris.  See  SIRIUS. 

Sou'.     A  colloquial  abbreviation  for  south. 

Sough.  The  sighing  or  hollow  sound  made 
by  the  wind,  especially  before  a  gale. 

Sound.  A  cuttle-fish.  The  swimming-bladder 
of  a  fish.  To  measure  the  height  of  the  water 
in  the  pump-well.  To  measure  the  depth  of 
water  in  the  sea,  by  means  of  a  line  and  weight, 
or  by  some  machine  devised  for  the  purpose.  See 
DEEP-SEA  SOUNDING,  LEAD.  A  whale  sounds 
when  it  dives  upon  being  struck  with  a  harpoon. 

Narrow  passes  which  connect  larger  bodies  of 
water  receive  many  designations.  Among  these, 
sound  is  used  to  designate  some,  but  far  more 
are  called  strait.  The  three  terms,  strait,  chan 
nel,  and  sound,  are  interchangeably  used  to  name 
such  passes.  Besides  these,  in  many  places,  the 
word  passage  is  used.  Some  straits  are  called 
belts  in  the  Baltic,  firths  in  the  Scottish  isles, 
and  pertuis  on  the  French  coast.  The  words  canal 
and  canale,  in  Italy  and  Austria,  designate  sounds 
and  straits.  A  sound  or  a  channel  is  supposed 
to  be  larger  than  a  strait  or  passage,  but  such  is 
not  always  the  case. 

Great  numbers  of  these  water-passes  exist, 
straits  being  the  more  numerous,  and  sounds 
next,  while  channels  and  passages  are  not  far 
behind. 

The  principal  sounds  and  straits  of  Europe  are 
those  connecting  the  Baltic  with  the  North  Sea, 
the  latter  and  the  Irish  and  Mediterranean  Seas 
with  the  ocean,  and  the  various  seas  and  gulfs 
of  the  Mediterranean  basin  with  the  ocean,  or 
with  each  other.  The  Baltic  waters  find  their 
way  out  through  a  succession  of  passages,  called 
in  succession  Skager  Rack  for  150  miles,  Kattegat 


for  120  miles,  and  he  Sound  26  miles.  T\ie 
smaller  passages  abo1^  the  Danish  islands  are 
named  belts,  the  ch^f  being  the  Great  7Belt, 
Little  Belt,  Langela'd  Belt,  and  Fehmer;,i  Belt. 
In  the  Baltic  itself  tfe  Kalmar  Sound  -,'and  sev 
eral  small  passes.  r 

The  North  Ser  connects  with  4]the  English 
Channel  by  the  Srait  of  -Dover.  -*'The  two  pas 
sages  are  270  mitt  long>  and  frgjfa  45  to  18  miles 
wide.  The  Irish  £a  connects  £  with  the  Atlantic 
through  St.  Patric'8  and  Fthe  North  Channel, 
and  through  St.  Getg^  Channel.  These  are 
wide  sounds,  and  there^are  innumerable  passages, 
sounds,  etc.,  among  the  many  islands  of  this  sea. 

The  Strait  of  Gibraltar  connects  the  Mediter 
ranean  with  the  Atlantic,  and  the  other  princi 
pal  straits  of  this  sea  are  Bonifaccio,  Messina, 
Otranto,  and  the  Dardanelles  and  Hellespont 
Channels,  through  which  the  various  seas  con 
nect  with  the  larger  Mediterranean.  The  pas 
sages  separating  the  Ionian  isles  are  generally 
called  channels,  and  are  narrow  and  deep. 

Asia  is  separated  from  America  by  Behring's 
Strait,  connecting  the  Pacific  and  Arctic  Oceans. 
The  numerous  seas  that  indent  the  Asiatic  coast 
are  connected  with  one  another  and  with  the 
ocean  by  passages,  channels,  straits,  and  sounds 
innumerable,  chief  of  which  are  La  Perouse 
Strait,  Corean,  Fo-Kien,  Balintang,  and  Bashee 
Channels,  Malacca  Strait,  Falk  Channel,  and  the 
Straits  of  Ormuz  and  Bab-el-Mandeb.  The 
islands  of  Malaysia  and  Melanasia  are  separated 
by  similarly-named  passages,  the  largest  of  which 
are  Macassar,  Sunda,  Torres,  and  Bass  Straits, 
and  Gilolo,  Molucca,  and  Pitt  Passages. 

The  Mozambique  Channel,  on  the  African 
coast,  is  one  of  the  largest  sounds.  It  is  1000 
miles  long,  and  from  240  to  480  wide. 

The  many  islands  in  the  Frozen  Sea,  north  of 
America,  are  separated  by  straits,  sounds,  and 
channels,  named  to  perpetuate  the  memories  of 
their  discoverers  or  their  countries'  sovereigns, 
cities,  or  great  men.  Davis  and  Hudson's  Straits 
and  Melville  Sound  are  the  largest.  Here  we 
also  find  sounds  that  are  really  bays, — Albert, 
Kotzebue,  and  Norton  Sound  being  such  bodies 
of  water.  On  the  coast  of  the  United  States 
are  many  shallow  sounds,  and  in  the  West  Indies 
are  large  channels  and  passages.  On  the  southern 
coast  of  South  America  are  numerous  straits  and 
channels,  the  largest  being  the  Strait  of  Ma 
gellan.—  F.  S.  Bassett,  Lieutenant  U.S.N. 

SOUND-DUES.  Tolls  formerly  levied  on  all 
shipping  passing  into  the  Baltic  Seas. 

SOUNDING-LEAD.    See  LEAD. 

SOUNDING-LINE.     A  lead-line. 

SOUNDING-MACHINE.  Several  machines  have 
been  invented  to  facilitate  sounding.  Massey's 
lead  measures  the  depth  by  the  revolution  of  a 
fan,  set  in  an  ordinary  lead,  with  counter-wheels 
attached.  Walker's  harpoon  sounding-machine 
is  on  the  same  principle.  The  self -registering 
lead  was  invented  to  measure  the  depth  by  the 
compression  of  the  air  contained  in  a  tube>  and 
several  modifications,  Ericsson's  among  others, 
have  been  made,  but  none  are  in  general  use. 
Trowbridge's  electric  sounding  apparatus  has  a 
line  coiled  in  a  small  cylinder,  with  a  wire  inside 
the  line.  When  the  lead  strikes  the  bottom,  the 
circuit  is  completed,  and  announced  on  deck.  It 
is  not  successful. 

Sigsbee's  Sounding-machine. — Slightly  in   ad- 


SOUND 


764 


SOUTH-WESTEK 


?  .      . 

Vlmce  of  the  reel,  which  is  practically  the  same 

as  ^hat  in  the  Thomson  apparatus,  are  two  pipes 
parallel  to  each  other  and  about  6  feet  in  height, 
each  cd^tainin&  a  spiral  extension  spring  fastened 
at  the  bo$$p>tn'and  connecting,  by  means  of  ropes 
taken  over  pulleys  at  the  to^  Of  the  pipes,  with  a 
cross-head  moving  between  the  two  pipes,  the 
latter  serving  s?s  guides.  The  cross-head  contains 
a  pulley,  one  yalS?  in  circum]ference,  over  which 
the  wire  leads  in  it8  passage  from  the  reel  to  the 
water.  The  normal  position  of  the  cross-head  is 
at  the  top  of  its  guides,  £n,tf  it  can  be  borne  down 
only  against  the  resistance  of  the  springs.  By 
this  means  a  very  sensitive  accumulator  is  pro 
vided  to  ease  the  jerks  on  the  wire  while  reeling 
in,  and  which  also  shows,  by  a  graduated  scale 
on  the  pipes,  the  amount  of  strain  upon  the  wire 
at  all  times  during  the  same  operationVtlms-  act 
ing  as  a  dynamometer.  An  odometer  attached 
to  the  axle  of  the  cross-head  pulley  gives  without 
reduction  the  number  of  yards  of  wire  payed  out 
or  reeled  in. 

In  paying  out  no  weights  are  used  for  tighten 
ing  the  'friction-line,  but  the  latter  is  connected 
with  the  cross-head  in  such  a  manner  that  the 
resistance  of  the  springs  is  made  available  for  the 
purpose  stated.  This  arrangement  also  operates 
as  an  automatic  governor  on  the  motion  of  the 
reel  when  paying  out  wire  in  a  sea-way.  During 
the  downward  plunges  of  the  vessel,  when  the 
strain  upon  the  wire  is  suddenly  eased,  the  oper 
ation  of  the  governor  is  to  increase  the  strain  on 
the  friction-line,  slowing  down  the  reel  and  pre 
venting  the  wire  flying  from  the  drum.  As  the 
decreased  speed  of  the  reel  or  the  rising  of  the 
vessel  restores  the  tension  upon  the  wire  the 
friction-line  is  eased  in  turn,  and  the  reel  per 
mitted  to  revolve  more  rapidly.  At  the  instant 
when  the  sinker  strikes  bottom  the  governor  au 
tomatically  increases  the  resistance  upon  the  reel. 
There  are  various  accessories  to  facilitate  opera 
tions  and  to  insure  the  safety  of  the  wire.  The 
machine  as  now  constructed  is  almost  entirely  of 
steel,  and  has  a  small  steam-engine  attached. 
The  apparatus  folds  in  such  a  way  that  the 
whole  may  be  stowed  in  a  box  of  small  dimen 
sions. 

Sir  William  Thomson's  Sounding-machine. — 
This  machine  is  designed  for  the  purpose  of  as 
certaining  accurately  and  quickly  the  depth  of 
water  under  a  ship,  without  stopping  or  even  re 
ducing  her  speed. 

The  apparatus  consists  of  a  light  wheel  on 
which  is  coiled  about  300  fathoms  of  piano-forte 
steel  wire.  The  stand  to  which  the  supports  of 
the  wheel  are  attached  is  fixed  to  the  taffrail,  at 
the  stern  of  the  vessel,  so  that  the  sinker  can  be 
left  hanging  ready  for  a  cast.  A  cord  wound 
round  a  groove  in  the  circumference  of  the 
drum,  is  so  arranged  as  to  form  a  self-acting 
brake,  which  when  the  sinker  is  hanging  offers 
enough  of  resistance  to  prevent  it  from  running 
down,  but  when  it  is  being  hauled  in  offers  very 
little  resistance  to  the  turning  of  the  wheel. 
"When  the  order  is  given  to  take  a  sounding  the 
brake  is  released  by  the  hand,  so  as  to  leave  a 
force  of  about  7  pounds  pulling  on  the  rope,  by 
which  a  resistance  of  about  5  pounds  is  opposed 
to  the  wire  while  it  is  running  out.  Thus,  when 
the  sinker  reaches  the  bottom  the  wheel  suddenly 
stops.  The  brake  is  then  applied  to  prevent  it 
from  running  on  again. 


The  sinker  is  a  long  iron  weight  of  22  pounds, 
with  a  hollow  at  the  bottom  to  receive  the  usual 
arming  of  tallow,  etc.,  to  bring  up  a  specimen  of 
the  bottom.  It  is  attached  to  the  end  of  the  wire 
by  means  of  a  rope  6  or  8  feet  long. 

A  brass  tube  a  little  more  than  2  feet  long  is 
lashed  to  the  rope  connecting  the  sinker  with  "the 
wire.  A  glass  tube,  2  feet  long,  coated  inside 
with  chromate  of  silver,  and  closed  at  one  end 
and  open  at  the  other,  is  placed  with  its  open  end 
down,  in  the  brass  tube.  As  the  sinker  descends 
the  increased  pressure  drives  the  sea-water  up 
the  glass  tube,  which,  combining  with  the  chro 
mate  of  silver,  makes  a  white  mark.  The  height 
of  the  white  mark  registers  the  height  to  which 
the  liquor  has  been  forced  up  the  tube.  A  scale, 
graduated  to  fathoms,  shows  at  once  the  depth 
to  which  the  glass  tube  has  been.  This  method 
of  taking  soundings  depends  on  the  increased 
pressure  as  the  tube  descends,  but  is  independent 
of  the  amount  of  line  out,  so  that  the  vessel  does 
not  require  to  be  stopped  in  order  to  take  a 
sounding. 

The  advantages  of  wire  over  rope  of  the  same 
strength,  are  the  smallness  of  area  and  smooth 
ness  of  surface,  on  account  of  which  it  experi 
ences  very  little  resistance  when  pulled  rapidly 
through  water.  This  allows  the  sinker  to  de 
scend  very  quickly,  and  to  be  hauled  on  board 
again  with  great  ease,  so  that  two  men  working 
the  machine  can  take  soundings  in  100  fathoms 
every  few  minutes,  from  a  ship  running  at  any 
speed,  up  to  16  or  17  knots. 

When  the  machine  is  not  required  for  imme 
diate  use,  the  drum  must  be  kept  in  the  iron  tank 
covered  with  lime-water. 

SOUNDING-POLE.  A  pole  used  in  sounding  by 
small  craft  in  rivers.  They  are  represented  in 
Egyptian  wall-paintings  of  1800  B.C. 

SOUNDING-ROD.  A  rod,  marked  in  feet  and 
inches,  and  suspended  by  a  line,  used  to  sound 
the  pump. 

SOUNDINGS.  The  depth  of  water  ascertained 
by  the  lead.  On  soundings,  within  the  80-fathom 
line.  Soundings  are  expressed  in  fathoms  on 
charts,  except  in  French  charts,  where  metres 
are  used.  See  FATHOM,  DEEP-SEA  SOUNDING. 

Souse.     To  immerse  suddenly  in  a  fluid. 

SOUSED-GURNET  (Eng.}.    A  pickled  fish. 

South.  The  region,  and  the  point  of  the  com 
pass,  directly  opposite  to  the  north.  All  Teu 
tonic  and  Latin  races  use  the  same  word,  except 
Italians,  who  call  it  Ostro. 

Southampton.  A  seaport  town  of  England, 
on  a  peninsula  at  the  mouth  of  the  Itchen,  near 
the  head  of  Southampton  Water.  Lat.  50°  44' 
N. ;  Ion.  1°  24'  1"  W.  The  manufactures,  ex 
cept,  ship-building,  which  is  carried  on  to  a  large 
extent,  are  chiefly  confined  to  brewing,  coaches, 
castings,  silk  goods,  carpets,  and  the  refining  of 
sugar.  The  town  is  a  very  important  steam- 
packet  station,  and  is  much  visited  by  ocean- 
steamers.  It  has  very  fine  docks,  and  is  an  emi 
grant  station.  Pop.  54,000. 

South-easter.  A  southeasterly  gale  is  gener 
ally  wet  on  the  American  coast,  but  dry  and  hot 
in  the  Mediterranean. 

Southing.  The  distance  in  nautical  miles 
which  a  ship  makes  to  the  southward. 

South-wester.  A  southwesterly  gale,  accom 
panied  by  rain  on  the  American  and  English 
coasts.  A  storm-hat  of  painted  canvas,  oiled 


SPAIN 


765 


SPAN 


cloth,  silk,  or  rubber,  with  broad  brim  or  flaps 
to  protect  the  neck. 

Spain,  Navy  of.  The  discovery  of  the  New 
"World  by  Christopher  Columbus  naturally  led 
the  government  of  Spain  to  extend  the  desire  for 
exploration  and  possession  in  the  southern  parts 
of  the  western  hemisphere.  This  necessitated 
the  construction  of  more  ships  for  purposes  of 
traffic  and  travel ;  and  in  anticipation  of  the 
hostility  of  other  nations  possessing  like  maritime 
resources,  and  inspired  by  the  same  designs,  a 
navy  became  ultimately  necessary.  The  16th 
century,  however,  had  seen  eight  decades  before 
any  very  decided  steps  were  taken  to  give  em 
ployment  to  the  armament  which  Philip  II.  had 
devoted  so  much  time  and  treasure  to  raise.  In 
1587,  after  several  contests  with  the  Dutch  in  the 
great  War  of  Religion,  the  king  of  Spain  had  at 
command  a  force  of  130  magnificent  ships  of  war, 
well  manned  and  equipped,  and  with  these  he 
determined  to  make  a  descent  upon  England, 
with  the  avowed  purpose  of  taking  possession 
of  the  country  and  punishing  and  converting  the 
heretics.  The  "Invincible  Armada"  was  the 
pompous  title  given  to  the  hostile  expedition. 
It  left  the  Spanish  coast,  under  the  command  of 
Admiral  Medina  Sidoriia,  in  the  summer  of  1588, 
a  year  later  than  was  intended,  but  Admiral 
Drake  had,  in  the  interval,  crossed  to  the  Spanish 
coast  and  destroyed  100  vessels  laden  with  stores 
of  war,  besides  intercepting  and  capturing  a 
large  treasure-ship.  After  a  few  skirmishes  and 
isofated  combats  on  the  passage,  the  Armada  was 
confronted  by  an  English  fleet  on  the  8th  of  Au 
gust.  The  great  height  and  tonnage  of  the 
Spanish  ships  making  them  rather  unmanage 
able  when  evolutions  were  attempted,  conspired 
to  place  them  at  a  disadvantage  in  the  great 
battle  that  ensued.  After  a  combat,  which  lasted 
an  entire  day,  as  many  of  the  Spanish  men-of- 
war  as  had  not  been  crippled  or  captured  sailed 
away  in  a  northerly  direction  to  avoid  the  Dutch 
and  English  cruisers  in  the  Channel.  In  the 
North  Sea  they  experienced  a  heavy  storm,  which 
shattered  so  great  a  number  that,  on  the  arrival 
of  the  remnant  of  the  Armada  in  the  harbors 
of  Spain,  scarcely  one  that  had  escaped  was  en 
tirely  uninjured.  But  the  enormous  wealth  of  the 
nation,  arising  out  of  its  possessions  in  the  In 
dies,  enabled  it  rapidly  to  recover  from  its  dis 
asters,  and  during  the  two  centuries  that  ensued 
Spain  held  her  own,  now  against  England  and 
France,  now  associated  with  the  latter  power. 
Ultimately,  however,  the  naval  forces  of  her 
antagonists  prevailed,  and  as  the  loss  of  her 
foreign  possessions,  either  through  wars  or  re 
bellions,  reduced  her  resources  and  limited  the 
field  for  the  employment  of  her  ships,  she 
gradually  declined  as  a  naval  power,  and  her 
navy  is  now  represented  by  11  armor-clad 
vessels,  9  wooden  screw-frigates,  10  screw-cor 
vettes,  10  paddle-wheel  corvettes,  2  avisos,  75 
gunboats,  17  other  steamers,  and  4  sailing-ves 
sels,  a  total  of  138.  None  of  her  fighting-ships 
possess  either  the  armor,  speed,  or  armament  to 
compare  with  lately  constructed  armor-clads. 
The  "  Numancia"  and  the  "  Vitoria"  are  the 
most  powerful  of  the  armored  ships.  They  are 
rated  as  line-of-battle  ships,  have  broadside  bat 
teries  and  ram  bow,  and  are  built  of  iron.  Both 
of  the  above  vessels  are  of  the  same  general  di 
mensions  ;  the  principal  difference  is  in  the  armor 


and  armament.  The  "  Numancia's"  plates  are 
5  inches  thick  at  the  water-line,  and  she  carries 
six  18-ton  guns,  three  9-ton,  and  sixteen  7-ton, 
all  Armstrong  rifles  ;  the  "  VitoriaV  armor  is  5£ 
inches  thick  at  the  water-line,  and  her  armament 
consists  of  four  12-ton,  three  9-ton,  and  twelve  7- 
ton  Armstrong  guns.  The  minister  of  marine 
is  invariably  chosen  from  the  grades  of  vice-  or 
rear-admiral,  having  two  sub-secretaries  (rear- 
admirals).  The  corps  and  grade  divisions  of  the 
active  personnel  correspond  with  those  of  other 
nations,  the  grades  of  the  executive  corps  being 
as  follows : 

Almirante,  vice-almirante,  gefe  de  escuadra, 
capitan  de  navio,  capitan  de  fregata,  teniente  de 
navio  (la  cl.,  2a  cl.),  alfarece  de  navio,  guardia 
marina. 

The  grades  of  the  medical  corps  are  medical 
inspector,  medical  sub-inspector,  surgeon-major, 
first  surgeon,  second  surgeon. 

The  grades  of  the  commissar}'  corps  are  super 
intendent,  purveyor  (1st  class,  2d  class),  com 
missary  (1st  class,  2d  class),  first  assistant  com 
missary,  second  assistant  commissary,  third 
assistant  commissary,  supernumeraries. 

Chaplains  have  their  grade  and  rank  also. 
Sub-vicar-general,  first  chaplain,  second  chap 
lain,  sacristan  (lay  official),  chorister  (lay  offi 
cial). 

The  technical  corps  includes  the  ship  and  en 
gine  constructors,  and  have  the  grades  of  gen 
eral  officer,  brigadier,  ship-of-the-line  captain, 
frigate  captain,  lieutenant,  ensign. 

The  corps  of  machinists  who  work  the  engines 
are  graded  as  first,  second,  third,  fourth,  and  as 
sistant  machinists.  The  total  active  personnel 
of  the  fleet  is  1792  officers  (exclusive  of  chaplains, 
midshipmen,  and  the  technical  corps).  There  is 
also  a  marine  artillery  corps,  the  officers  of  which 
are  1  general  officer,  3  colonels,  7  lieutenant- 
colonels,  16  captains,  20  lieutenants,  and  the  ma 
rine  infantry  corps,  which  is  divided  into  2 
half  brigades  of  2  battalions  each,  and  2  com 
panies  of  native  infantry  in  the  Philippines. 
The  strength  of  this  corps  is  170  officers  and  6256 
men,  making  a  grand  total  of  1962  officers  and 
20,256  men  in  the  Spanish  navy.  The  Naval 
Academy  at  Ferrol  furnishes  all  the  officers  of 
the  executive  corps  of  the  service.  There  are 
also  special  schools  under  naval  control  for  the 
education  of  pilots  of  the  merchant  service,  one 
for  machinists,  and  an  academy  for  the  artillery 
and  technical  corps  The  Hydrographic  Bureau 
and  Naval  Museum  are  located  at  Madrid,  and 
the  Naval  Observatorj'  at  San  Fernando.  The 
annual  expenditure  for  the  navy  is  a  little  over 
$5,000,000. 

Spake-net.     A  net  for  catching  crabs. 

Spalding-knife.  A  Newfoundland  knife  for 
splitting  fish. 

Spaldings  (Eng.\  Whitings  and  other  small 
fish. 

Spales,  or  Spaling.  Cross-bands  placed  so  as 
to  keep  the  frames  of  a  wooden  or  iron  ship  in 
place  until  beams,  planking,  or  plating  are  put 
on. 

Span.  A  rope  having  both  ends  made  fast,  so 
that  a  purchase  may  be  hooked  in  the  bight.  A 
rope  made  fast  to  a  stay  or. shroud  in  the  centre, 
so  that  both  ends  may  be  used.  To  connect  by 
ropes.  To  span  in  the  rigging,  to  draw  the  top 
mast  rigging  together  by  tackles;  to  seize  on  the 


SPANISH-BURN 


Y66- 


SPENCER 


cathar pin-legs.  Span  of  the  rigging,  the  distance 
over  the  mast-head,  from  the  dead-eye  on  one 
side  to  that  on  the  other.  Spanning  a  harpoon, 
fixing  the  harpoon-line  to  it.  The  staff  ships  in 
an  iron  socket,  but  is  not  fast,  and  the  line  runs 
through  a  becket  on  the  staff,  and  through  the 
socket,  making  fast  to  the  head  of  the  harpoon. 
The  staff  disconnects  on  striking,  but  is  retained 
by  the  line. 

SPAN-BLOCKS.  Blocks  seized  into  each  bight 
of  a  strap  that  leads  across  a  cap  or  mast-head, 
so  as  to  hang  down  on  either  side. 

SPAN-LASHING.  The  lashing  of  a  span,  or  a 
lashing  that  spans  the  distance  between  two 
ropes  separated  by  a  slight  interval. 

SPAN-SHACKLE  (Eng.).  A  large  bolt  through 
the  forecastle  deck,  with  a  triangular  shackle  in 
the  head  to  receive  the  heel  of  the  old-fashioned 
fish-davit.  Bolts  driven  in  the  deck,  by  which 
the  spars  and  boom-boats  are  lashed  in  place. 

Spanish-burn  (Eng.}.  Hiding  defects  in 
timber  by  hacking  it  with  an  ax. 

Spanish-burton.  A  kind  of  purchase.  A 
single  Spanish-burton  has  two  single  blocks,  the 
upper,  the  standing  block,  with  a  tail  or  hook  to 
it,  the  lower  having  the  standing  end  of  the  fall 
made  fast  to  its  strap.  The  weight  is  applied  to 
the  bight  of  the  fall  between  these  blocks  by 
means  of  a  hook.  Double  Spanish-burtons  have 
three  blocks,  all  single  or  one  double,  two  blocks 
being  movable  and  one  fixed,  and  the  weight  is 
applied  to  the  lower  of  these.  The  fall  is  in  two 
parts, — one  secured  to  the  strap  of  the  leading 
block,  and  the  other  to  the  lower  block,  or  to 
the  upper  one.  The  increase  of  power  is  from  3 
to  5  times  that  applied. 

Spanish-fox.  A  single  yarn  twisted  up  left- 
handed,  or  contrary  to  its  lay. 

Spanish  Mackerel.     The 'tunny-fish. 
Spanish  Reef.     The  yards  are  "lowered  on  the 
cap,  but  the  reef-tackles  are  not  hauled  out,  as  in 
a  monkey-reef.     A  knot  tied  in  the  head  of  a  jib. 
Spanish  Windlass.     A  wooden  roller,  with  a 
rope  wound  about  it,  into  which  a  marling-spike 
is  thrust  to  serve  as  a  lever.     A  purchase  formed 
by  several  turns  of  a  rope  around  two  parts  of  a 
piece  of  rigging,  both  ends  being  hauled  upon. 

Spanker.  The  aftermost  sail  in  a  ship  ;  a  fore- 
and-aft  sail,  setting  abaft  the  mizzen-mast,  hav 
ing  a  gaff,  and  generally  a  boom.  Formerly 
called  the  driver.  Until  the  middle  of  the  last 
century  a  lateen-sail  was  used  instead  of  the 
spanker.  For  the  rigging  of  a  spanker,  see  un 
der  the  proper  heads. 

Spanker-eel  (Eng.}.     The  lamprey. 
Spanking.     Large  ;  fine ;  strong.     A  spanking 
breeze,  a  fine,  fresh  breeze.     A  spanking  frigate, 
a  large,  fine  frigate.     To  go  a  spanking,  to  sail 
with  a  fine  breeze  aft,  or  quartering. 

Spanner.  A  wrench  fitted  to  gripe  and  turn 
a  cylindrical  piece  ;  as,  a  hose-spanner  or  wrench 
with  which  hose-couplings  are  manipulated. 

Spar.  Any  round  piece  of  timber  used  for  a 
mast,  yard,  boom,  etc.  A  shifting  spar  is  a  light 
spar,  with  a  hook  or  a  grommet  attached,  used 
to  shift  a  light  gun  from  one  carriage  to  another. 
A  torpedo-spar  is  one  used  to  thrust  a  torpedo 
from  a  ship's  side  or  bow.  Spare  spars,  see 
SPARE. 

SPAR-DECK.    See  DECK. 
SPAR-MAKER.     A    carpenter    whose    especial 
trade  is  the  fabrication  of  ships'  masts,  yards,  etc. 


SPAR-PILE.  The  collection  of  spare  spars  on 
the  deck.  The  locality  is  called  the  booms. 

SPAR-SHED.  A  shed  or  shop  in  a  navy-yard 
where  spars  are  fashioned. 

SPAR-TORPEDO.     See  TORPEDO. 

Spare.  A  general  term  for  all  reserve  stores 
put  on  board  ship,  as  spare  sails,  spare  spars,  etc. 

SPARE  ARTICLES.  Duplicate  sets  of  small 
castings,  etc.,  placed  under  the  care  of  the  yeo 
man.  Also,  extra  sets  of  gear  for  the  service  of 
the  guns  issued  to  each  division,  such  as  sponges, 
breechings,  trucks,  etc. 

SPARE  ANCHOR.  An  additional  anchor,  the 
size  of  the  bower,  formerly  furnished  to  ships.  It 
is  now  replaced  by  one  of  the  sheet-anchors. 

SPARE  SPARS.  Certain  spars  furnished  in  du 
plicate.  These  are  fore-  and  main-topmasts,  fore- 
yard,  fore-  and  main-topsail  yard,  topgallant  and 
royal  yards,  and  studding-sail  booms.  Spare 
spars  are  not  furnished  so  liberally  to  steamers, 
not  being  so  essential  to  their  safety.  They  are 
placed  in  the  spar-pile,  or  on  cranes  in  the  chan 
nels  on  either  side. 

Sparling.     The  smelt. 

Sparoid.  Belonging  to  a  family  of  spinous- 
finned  fishes,  which  include  the  gilt-head,  sea- 
bream,  and  porgee. 

Spat.     The  spawn  of  the  oyster. 

Speak.  To  speak  a  vessel,  to  pass  within  hail 
and  communicate  with  a  ship  by  voice. 

Speaking-trumpet.     See  TRUMPET. 

Specific  Gravity.     See  GRAVITY. 

Speck.     The  blubber  of  whales. 

SPECK-BLOCK.  The  block  through  which  the 
speck-falls  are  rove. 

SPECK-FALLS.  Ropes  rove  through  the  speck- 
blocks,  at  the  mast-head  of  a  whaler,  and  con 
nected  to  the  blubber-guy ;  used  for  hoisting  the 
blubber  strips. 

SPECKTIONEER.  The  chief  harpooner,  who 
also  superintends  cutting  and  stripping  the 
blubber. 

Speed  of  Ships.  Ships  under  sail  make  from 
5  to  15  miles  an  hour,  with  good  breezes.  Their 
speed  varies  much  with  the  direction  of  the  wind, 
its  force,  and  the  state  of  the  sea.  Ships  sail 
slower  close-hauled  than  when  free,  and  better 
with  a  side  wind  than  when  it  is  aft.  The  aver 
age  rate  of  sailing  is  about  120  miles  per  day. 
Clipper-ships  have  far  surpassed  this,  and  the 
"Sovereign  of  the  Seas"  averaged  19  miles  an 
hour  in  a  trip  to  San  Francisco.  Yachts  have 
made  nearly  as  much,  and  greater  speed  has 
been  attained  by  sailing-catamarans.  The  speed 
of  steam-vessels  is  gradually  increasing.  Two 
hundred  miles  a  day  is  thought  to  be  a  fair 
average,  but  steamers  make  as  much  as  20  or  22 
miles  an  hour.  Some  boats  have  made  25  miles, 
and  even  more,  in  smooth  water.  An  average 
speed  of  10  knots  is  thought  no  longer  to  suffice, 
and  men-of-war  should  be  able  to  steam  15  miles 
in  a  moderate  sea, 

Speed-indicator.  A  log,  fixed  on  the  taffrail 
or  at  the  stem,  so  that  the  speed  of  the  vessel  is 
at  any  time  ascertained  by  looking  at  it.  See 
Loo. 

Spell.  A  short  period  employed  in  work.  A 
relief  or  temporary  respite  from  labor.  A  spell 
at  the  wheel  is  called  a  trick.  Spell  ho !  a  call 
for  a  relief.  To  spell,  to  relieve  at  any  work  for 
a  short  time. 

Spencer.    A  trapezoidal  sail  setting  on  a  mast 


SPENT 


767 


SPLICE 


and  gaff,  without  a  boom,  invented  by  Knight 
Spencer,  in  England,  in  1802.  Fore-spencer,  the 
fore-trysail.  Main-spencer,  the  main-trysail.  For 
the  gear  of  a  spencer,  see  under  proper'heads. 

SPENCER-MAST.  A  trysail-mast,  stepped  abaft 
the  principal  mast. 

Spent.  Having  lost  power  ;  as,  a  spent  shot,  a 
spent  mast,  etc. 

Sperm-whale,  or  Spermaceti-whale.  A  large, 
square-nosed  whale,  the  Physeter  macroceph- 
alus,  or  cachalot,  of  the  Delphinoid  or  toothed 
order  of  Cetaceans.  It  is  found  in  tropical  and 
temperate  seas,  and  its  oil  is  very  valuable.  It 
attains  a  length  of  from  60  to  80'feet,  the  head, 
containing  the  oil,  being  a  third  of  this  length. 
See  CACHALOT. 

Speronare.  An  Italian  boat,  having  two 
masts  with  lateen-sails,  the  foremost  raking  for 
ward. 

Spew  Oakum.  The  seams  are  said  to  spew 
oakum  when,  from  heat  or  working,  the  oakum 
starts  from  between  the  plank. 

Sphera  Nautica.  A  navigating  instrument 
used  in  1570. 

Spherical-case.     See  SHRAPNEL. 

Spica  (Lat.  an  ear  of  corn).  The  name  of  the 
bright  star  a  Virginia,  so  called  after  the  device 
of  the  ancient  Greeks,  who  placed  an  ear  of  corn 
in  the  hand  of  the  Virgin,  typical  of  the  harvest, 
which  with  them  coincided  with  the  sun's  ap 
proach  to  this  conspicuous  star.  See  VIRGO. 

Spider.  An  iron  outrigger,  to  keep  a  block 
clear  of  the  ship's  side,  of  the  funnel,  etc. 

Spider-band,  or  Spider-hoop.  An  iron  band 
around  the  lower  mast,  to  which  the  futtock- 
shrouds  are  attached  by  hooks  inserted  in  eye- 
bolts  in  the  band.  A  band  around  a  mast,  with 
sockets  attached,  into  which  belaying-pins  are 
thrust. 

Spider-crab.     The  sea-spider. 

Spike.  To  drive  spikes  in  plank  or  timbers. 
To  close  the  vent  of  a  gun  by  driving  a  steel 
spike  into  it.  A  cut  or  wrought  nail,  larger 
than  lOd,  used  in  boat-  and  ship-building. 
Boat-spikes  are  from  3  to  10  inches  long,  and 
there  are  from  2  to  17  of  them  to  the  pound. 
Ship-spikes  are  stouter,  from  4  to  10  inches  long, 
and  there  are  from  1  to  8  in  a  pound.  A  round 
steel  file  or  rod,  used  to  close  the  vent  of  a  gun. 
Spring-spikes  have  a  spring  at  the  lower  end,  to 
retain  them  in  place.  A  handspike. 

Spike-plank.  A  bridge  across  the  deck  of 
Arctic  vessels. 

Spike-tackle.  The  tackle  used  by  whalers  to 
hold  the  whale  alongside  while  stripping  it. 

Spike-tub.  A  tub  receiving  the  fat,  blubber, 
etc.,  of  whales,  until  it  is  rendered. 

Spile.  A  pin  driven  in  a  nail-hole.  A  pile. 
A  spigot.  A  wooden  peg  in  a  small  hole  in  a 
cask  containing  a  liquid. 

SPILE-HOLE.  An  air-hole  in  a  cask.  A  hole 
for  a  spigot. 

Spiling.  The  edge  curve  of  plank  or  timber. 
Taking  the  shape  from  a  curved  surface,  as  a 
ship's 'side,  by  the  use  of  a  straight  batten  and  a 
rule,  and  applying  the  same  to  a  plank  which  is 
to  be  bent  to  the  shape  taken  off. 

Spill.  To  take  the  wind  out  of  a  sail  by 
bracing  the  yard,  by  hauling  up  some  of  the 
gear,  or  by  luffing  the  ship. 

SPILLING-LINES.  Ropes  sometimes  tempo 
rarily  fitted  to  the  courses,  extending  abaft  the 


sail  to  the  leeches,  for  the  purpose  of  spilling  the 
wind  out  of  the  sails. 

Spindle.  The  upper  main  piece  of  a  made 
mast.  The  shaft  on  which  the  capstan  revolves. 
The  stem  or  axis  of  a  vane. 

Spindle-valve.  A  disk-shaped  valve  which  is 
moved  and  guided  to  and  from  its  seat  by  a  spin 
dle  or  stem  ;  as,  in  stop-valves,  poppet-valves,  etc. 

Spingard.     An  old  cannon. 

Spire-vapor.  Spiral  streams  of  vapor  rising 
from  the  surface  of  the  ocean,  seen  in  Arctic 
regions. 

Spirit-ration.  The  ration  of  grog,  formerly 
served  out  to  the  crews  of  our  ships,  and  still 
given  in  some  navies.  It  was  abolished  in  the 
II.  S.  navy  in  1862,  and  five  cents  a  day  is  paid 
each  man  as  a  commutation. 

Spirit-room.  The  room  in  the  hold  where 
spirits  were  formerly  kept,  under  sentry's  guard. 
It  was  abaft  the  main  hold,  and  forward  of  the 
after-peak,  and,  where  yet  existing,  is  used  for 
paymaster's  stores. 

Spirket.  A  space  forward  and  aft,  between 
the  floor-timbers. 

Spirketing.  That  part  of  the  inside  planking 
in  vessels  of  war  which  is  worked  between  the 
top  of  the  water-ways  and  the  lower  port-sills. 
Where  there  are  no  water-ways,  it  is  the  thick 
strake  wrought  on  the'top  side  of  the  beams. 

Spit.  A  narrow  tongue  of  land  or  shoal.  A 
light  rain-squall.  A  narrow  tongue  of  land  or 
a  shoal  making  out  into  the  sea. 

Spit-fire  Jib.  A  small  storm-jib  used  in  cutters. 

Spithead  Nightingales  (Eng.}.  Boatswains 
and  boatswains'  mates,  piping  their  calls. 

Spit-kid.  A  small  wooden  cask,  set  about  the 
decks,  for  spit-boxes.  Spitting  upon  decks  is 
an  unpardonable  offense,  and  men  are  sometimes 
punished  by  serving  as  perambulating  stands  for 
spit-kids. 

Spla-boards  (Eng.}.  Plank  fixed  at  an  angle, 
to  reflect  light  into  magazines. 

Splice.  To  unite  two  ropes,  or  to  join  a  rope 
to  a  chain,  by  interweaving  them.  The  union 
of  two  ropes,  or  of  a  rope  and  chain.  Two 
ropes  joined  to  reeve  through  a  block  are  united 
by  a  long  splice,  in  which  the  strands  of  each 
rope  are  replaced  by  those  of  the  opposite  -rope, 
and  the  ends  are  neatly  tucked  under  other 
strands.  A  short  splice  is  made  where  a  large 
diameter  is  not  objectionable.  The  ends  of  the 
strands  are  tucked  under  those  of  the  opposite 
rope  two  or  three  times.  An  eye-splice  is  one  in 
which  an  eye  is  formed  in  a  rope,  the  end  being 
spliced  into  its  own  part.  A  cut-splice  is  an 
oval  formed  by  splicing  the  ends  of  two  ropes 
into  the  opposite  rope,  at  6  or  8  inches  from  the 
end.  A  horseshoe-splice  is  made  by  splicing  a 
short  piece  of  rope  between  the  parts  of  a  bight 
formed  in  a  rope.  A  sailmaker's  splice  is  one 
joining  two  ropes  of  different  sizes,  so  that  the 
splice  is  tapered.  A  mariner's  splice  is  simply 
a  long  splice  in  cable-laid  rope.  A  drawing 
splicers  one  made  without  tucking  the  ends,  so 
that  it  may  be  drawn  out.  Ropes  are  spliced  to 
chain,  and  wire  ropes  are  spliced  together  by 
peculiar  methods,  and  rope  is  spliced  around 
thimbles  and  bull's-eyes. 

SPLICED  EYE.  An  eye  spliced  in  the  end  of 
a  rope.  A  thimble  or  bull's-eye  is  generally  in 
serted  in  if. 

SPLICING-FID.     A  tapered  wooden  fid,  used  to 


SPLINTER 


768 


SPRING 


open  the  strands  of  a  rope.  Marline-spikes  are 
oftener  used  for  splicing. 

SPLICING-SHACKLE.  A  large  shackle  in  the 
end  of  a  chain,  with  a  thimble  for  splicing  a  rope 
to  it. 

SPLICING  THE  MAIN  BRACE.  An  expression 
denoting  the  act  of  drinking  spirits.  It  is 
equivalent  to  "topping  up  the  boom,"  and 
"  sweating  up  the  halliards."  The  Germans  say 
"  Besahnshot  an!"  "Haul  aft  the  spanker- 
sheet!" 

Splinter.  A  fragment  of  wood  or  iron  broken 
off  by  the  passage  of  a  shot  through  a  ship. 

SPLINTER-NETTING.  A  netting  formed  of 
light  rope,  to  prevent  accidents  from  splinters, 
falling  spars,  etc. 

Splitter.  The  fisherman  who  splits  fish  open 
after  they  have  been  headed. 

Splitting-out.  Splitting  away  the  wedges 
from  under  a  vessel's  keel  before  launching. 

Splitting  the  Books  (Eng.).  Opening  a  new 
set  of  books  after  paying  off,  in  which  men  are 
continued  with  their  old  numbers. 

Spoke.  One  of  the  projecting  handles  of  the 
steering-wheel.  "  To  put  a  spoke  into  a  man's 
wheel"  is  to  say  a  good  word  for  him. 

Sponge.  A  fibrous  and  porous  substance 
from  the  sea-depths,  the  framework  of  a  ma 
rine  animal.  An  instrument  for  cleansing  the 
bore  of  a  gun.  The  ordinary  sponge  consists  of 
the  handle  or  staff,  and  a  wooden  head  covered 
with  alum-dressed  sheepskin,  and  having  a  small 
spiral  in  the  end,  to  bring  out  pieces  of  cloth. 
A  rope-sponge  has  no  handle,  but  merely  a  piece 
of  rope.  A  bristle-sponge,  used  in  rifle-guns, 
has,  instead  of  sheepskin,  stiff  bristles,  disposed 
in  spiral  strips,  or  straight  sections,  on  the  sponge- 
head.  A  sectional  sponge  is  one  whose  handle  is 
in  sections,  for  easier  manipulation  in  a  turret. 
A  sponge-and-rammer  is  furnished  to  boat-how 
itzers,  having  one  of  these  instruments  on  each 
end  of  the  staff.  A  valve-sponge  has  in  the  end 
a  valve  opening  by  pressure,  allowing  water  to 
escape,  and  thus  washing  the  bore.  It  is  used  in 
very  heavy  guns.  To  sponge,  to  clean  the  bore 
with  a  sponge.  In  some  modern  ships,  this  is 
done  from  the  deck  below,  by  depressing  the  gun, 
machinery  working  the  sponge. 

SPONGE-CAP.  A  canvas  bag,  fitted  over  the 
head  of  a  sponge  when  not  in  use. 

SPONGE-COVER.  The  sheepskin  nailed  over 
the  head  of  a  sponge. 

SPONGE-FISHING.  Sponges  are  procured  in 
Grecian,  Syrian,  and  Italian  waters,  and  coarser 
varieties  in  the  West  Indian  seas.  They  are 
procured  by  diving  after  them,  by  spearing  them 
with  a  long  spear  from  a  boat,  and  by  dredging 
after  them.  Sponges  abound  in  the  Mediter 
ranean. 

SPONGE-HANDLE,  or  SPONGE-STAFF.  The 
wooden  staff  serving  to  thrust  the  sponge  to  the 
bottom  of  the  bore.  It  is  often  in  sections, 
screwed  together. 

SPONGE-HEAD.  The  wooden  head  attached 
to  the  sponge-staff. 

Sponson.  The  space  forward  and  abaft  the 
paddle-boxes  of  river-steamers  to  increase  their 
stability.  ^  Sponsons  are  made  sometimes  open 
and  sometimes  closed,  depending  upon  the  rough 
ness  of  the  water  into  which  the  vessel  is  to 
run. 

SPONSON-BEAM.     A  projecting  beam  in  river- 


steamers  uniting  the  paddle-box  with  the  ship's 
side. 

SPONSON-RIM.  The  wale  upon  which  the  pad 
dle-beam  rests  at  the  ship's  side. 

Spoon,  or  Spoom.    To  scud  under  bare  poles. 

Spoon-drift.  The  fine  mist  blown  from  the 
top  of  the  waves,  and  filling  the  air  with  mist. 
Driving  snow  at  sea. 

SPOUT-FISH.  Any  marine  animal  that  spouts, 
as  whales,  etc. 

Spotts,  James  H.,  Commodore  U.S.N.  Ap 
pointed  midshipman,  August  2,  1837 ;  made  a 
cruise  around  the  world  in  the  "John  Adams," 
1837-40 ;  engaged  in  two  battles  on  the  island 
of  Sumatra,  in  1839;  in  the  "Delaware"  and 
"  Potomac,"  on  the  Brazil  Station,  1841-42. 

Promoted  to  passed  midshipman,  June  29, 
1843;  cruised  in  the  "  St.  Lawrence,"  in  the 
West  Indies,  in  1843,  and  in  the  "Falmouth" 
and  "  Southampton,"  on  the  coasts  of  Mexico  and 
Africa,  in  1844-45. 

Promoted  to  master,  April  8,  1851,  and  com 
missioned  as  lieutenant  in  November  of  the  same 
year.  He  was  on  the  Pacific  coast,  in  the  "  Lex 
ington,"  in  1846-49,  and  again,  in  the  "  Ports 
mouth,"  in  1851-55.  During  the  Mexican  war 
he  was  on  blockade  duty  on  the  west  coast  of 
Mexico,  and  participated  in  the  capture  of  Ma- 
zatlan,  San  Bias,  Lapaz,  etc.;  in  the  "  Michi 
gan,"  1856-58  ;  "  Cyane"  and  "Saranac,"  Pa 
cific  coast,  1858-60  ;  "Santee,"  Gulf  Squadron, 
1861  ;  commanded"  Wanderer,"  Gulf  Squadron, 
1861-62,  and  the  "  Magnolia,"  in  the  latter  part 
of  1862. 

Commissioned  as  commander,  July  16,  1862, 
and  commanded  the  "  South  Carolina"  in'  1863  ; 
commanded  the  "  Pawtuxet"  in  1864-65  ;  execu 
tive-officer  of  the  Mare  Island  Navy- Yard, 
1865-67. 

Commissioned  as  captain,  July  25,  1866 ;  com 
manded  the  "Saranac,"  on  the  Pacific  coast,  in 
1870-71,  and  the  "  Pensacola"  in  1871-72  ;  light 
house  inspector,  Pacific  coast,  1872-74. 

Commissioned  as  commodore,  September  25, 
1873 -,  inspector  of  government  vessels  on  the 
Pacific  coast,  1877-80.  During  the  war  of  the 
Rebellion  served  in  the  Gulf,  North  and  South 
Atlantic  Squadrons  on  blockade  duty ;  was  in 
both  engagements  at  Fort  Fisher,  and  all  the 
batteries  on  Cape  Fear  River  up  to  Wilmington, 
and  several  minor  engagements  whilst  on  block 
ade  duty  during  the  war;  was  up  the  James 
River  when  Richmond  was  captured. 

Spout.  Whales  are  obliged  to  rise  to  the  sur 
face  and  spout  at  intervals  varying  from  10  to  15 
minutes.  See  BLOW,  WATERSPOUT. 

Sprat.  A  small  fish  (the  Clupea  sprattus], 
allied  to  the  herring. 

SPRAT-WEATHER.  Dark  days  in  November 
and  December,  favorable  for  fishing  for  sprats. 

Spray.  Water  flying  in  small  drops  or  parti 
cles,  as  from  the  top  of  a  breaking  wave. 

SPRAY-BOARD.  A  strip  on  the  gunwale  of  a 
boat  to  keep  the  water  and  spray  from  coming  in. 

Spread-eagle.  To  make  a  spread-eagle  of  a 
person  is  to  lash  him  in  the  rigging  with  hands 
and  feet  outspread.  If  the  topmen  can  get  a 
passenger  or  new-comer  aloft,  he  is  thus  made  to 
pay  a  forfeit. 

Sprig,  or  Sprig-bolt.  A  small  eye-bolt  with 
a  ragged  point. 

Spring.     A  crack  in  a  spar,  rendering  it  de- 


SPRING-BALANCE   VALVE 


769 


SQUARE 


fective.  A  hawser,  run  out  from  any  part  of  the 
ship  to  a  point  on  shore,  a  buoy,  etc.,  to  turn  or 
spring  the  vessel.  A  hawser,  leading  from  the 
stern  outside  the  ship,  to  the  cable  by  which  the 
ship  is  anchored,  so  as  to  spring  her  in  action,  or 
for  any  other  purpose.  To  split  or  strain  a  spar. 
To  turn  a  ship  by  means  of  a  spring.  To  spring 
a  butt,  to  start  the  end  of  a  plank  from  its  fas 
tenings.  To  spring  a  leak,  to  begin  to  leak.  To 
spring  the  luff,  to  luff  up  into  the  wind,  so  as 
to  shake  the  sails  slightly,  and  then  to  fill  away 
again.  Spring  of  a  beam,  the  curve  upward  of  a 
beam  from  a  level  or  horizontal  line, — generally 
from  4  to  6  inches  in  40  feet. 

Spring-balance  Valve.  A  valve  which  is 
held  to  its  seat  and  adjusted  to  a  given  pressure 
by  a  spring-balance;  as,  the  safety-valves  of  lo 
comotive-engines,  etc. 

Spring-beam.  A  fore-and-aft  beam  connect 
ing  the  paddle-beams,  at  their  outer  ends. 

Spring-block.  A  block,  connected  to  a  ring 
bolt  by  a  spring,  used  on  tacks  and  sheets,  for 
greater  elasticity.  Invented  by  Hopkinson. 

Spring-forelock.  A  forelock,  formed  of  a 
piece  of  steel  bent  double,  so  as  to  spring  open, 
and  keep  its  place. 

Spring-rowlock.  A  rowlock,  fastened  in 
place  by  a  spring. 

Spring-searcher.  A  steel  pronged  tool  to 
search  for  defects  in  the  bore  of  a  gun. 

Spring-spike.  A  spike  for  a  gun,  with  a  spring 
at  the  lower  end  to  prevent  its  withdrawal. 

Spring-stay.  A  duplicate  stay,  placed  apart 
from  the  main  one,  to  serve  as  a  substitute  for  it 
in  case  of  injury  by  shot,  etc. 

Spring-tides  (Sax.  springan,  to  grow,  bulge). 
The  greatest  tides,  taking  place  after  the  syzygy 
of  the  sun  and  moon.  See  TIDES. 

Sprit.  A  small  spar  crossing  a  sail  diagonally 
from  the  tack  to  the  peak,  and  resting  in  a  becket 
at  the  mast,  called  a  snotter.  The  supporting 
spar,  or  belly-spar  of  a  pair  of  sheers. 

SPRITSAIL.  A  sail  formerly  suspended  under 
the  bowsprit,  from  the  spritsail-yard.  A  boat's 
sail,  extended  by  a  sprit,  quadrilateral  in  shape. 

SPRITSAIL-GAFFS.     A  name  for  the  whiskers, 

SPRITSAIL-SHEET  KNOT.  A  knot  formerly 
used  on  the  spritsail-sheet,  made  by  walling 
and  crowning  the  six  strands  together,  forming 
an  eye  or  short  bight,  to  which  the  sheet  was 
bent. 

SPRITSAIL-TOPGALLANT-SAIL.  A  sail  for 
merly  set  on  the  flying  jib-boom  in  the  same 
manner  as  the  spritsail-topsail  on  the  jib-boom. 

SPRITSAIL-TOPSAIL.  A  sail  above  the  sprit- 
sail,  bent  to  a  yard  hanging  under  the  jib-boom. 

SPRITSAIL-YARD.  A  yard  formerly  suspended 
under  the  bowsprit  near  the  cap,  to  which  the 
spritsail  was  bent.  It  had  lifts  reaching  to  the 
cap,  and  braces  coming  in  on  the  forecastle,  and 
was  trussed  to  the  bowsprit.  This  yard  is  re 
placed  by  the  whiskers  in  modern  vessels. 

SPRITSAIL  -  YARDING.  Thrusting  a  stick 
through  the  gills  of  sharks,  etc.,  and  turning 
them  loose  thus. 

Sprue-head.     See  SINKING-HEAD. 

Spud.     A  potato. 

Spun  (Eng.}.  Bilged,  or  turned  back ;  rejected 
in  an  examination. 

Spun-yarn.     Small-stuff,  formed  by  twisting 
together  two  or  three  old  rope-yarns  by  a  winch. 
See  SMALL-STUFF. 
49 


Spur.  A  projecting  spar.  A  spur-beam.  A 
spur-shore.  A  projection  on  the  bows  of  a  ram. 

SPUR-BEAM.  A  curved  timber  serving  as  a 
half-beam  to  support  a  deck,  abreast  of  the  hatch 
ways. 

SPUR-SHORES.  Long  timbers  resting  on  the 
launching-ways,  with  their  upper  ends  bolted  to 
the  ship's  side. 

SPUR-TUBE.     See  PRIMER. 

Spurket.     See  SPIRKET. 

Spurling-line.  A  line  wound  over  the  pro 
longation  of  the  axis  of  the  steering-wheel,  and 
connected  to  the  tell-tale,  by  means  of  which  the 
needle  followed  the  motions  of  the  wheel.  A 
line  formerly  lashed  to  standing-rigging,  with 
several  branches  holding  thimbles  or  fair-leaders 
for  running-gear. 

Spurn-water.  The  water-ways.  A  channel 
left  above  the  ends  of  the  deck-plank,  to  pre 
vent  the  water  from  going  farther. 

Spy-boat.     A  picket-boat,  or  look-out  boat. 

Spy-glass.  A  small  telescope  for  ship  or 
field  use. 

Squadron.  A  detachment  of  vessels  or  boats 
employed  on  any  particular  service.  The  divis 
ions  of  a  fleet,  as  van,  centre,  and  rear.  Any 
assemblage  of  vessels  smaller  than  a  fleet.  The- 
fleets  of  the  U.  S.  navy  in  various  parts  of  the 
globe  are  sometimes  called  squadrons,  as  the 
European  Squadron,  etc.  See  NAVAL  TACTICS. 

SQUADRON,  FLYING.  A  squadron  of  observa 
tion  or  practice,  that  cruises  rapidly  about  from 
place  to  place. 

Squall.  A  sudden  and  violent  gust  of  wind, 
of  greater  or  less  duration.  These  are  frequent 
in  some  localities  and  at  some  seasons,  and  are 
particularly  dangerous  near  high  land.  They 
are  generally  preceded,  accompanied,  or  followed 
by  clouds,  which,  together  with  the  indications 
of  the  barometer,  serve  as  a  warning  of  their 
approach.  White-caps  on  the  surface  of  the  sea 
also  aid  the  mariner  in  foreseeing  them.  As  the 
clouds  are  heavy  and  thick,  or  light  and  thin,  so, 
generally,  will  be  the  character  of  these  squalls  ; 
and  the  character  of  the  cloud,  whether  rapidly 
rising  and  flying  about,  or  quiescent  and  slowly 
changing,  also  foretells  more  or  less  wind.  Rain, 
or  snow,  attends  many  of  these  squalls.  A  black 
squall  is  dark  and  threatening,  and  generally  at 
tended  with  rain.  A  heavy  squall  is  one  attended 
with  much  wind.  A  white  squall  is  a  furious 
blow,  generally  met  with  on  the  African  coast, 
unannounced  by  signs  other  than  the  white-caps, 
and  by  a  rushing  sound,  attended  by  a  thin, 
whitish  haze.  Rain  generally  accompanies  it. 
As  regards  the  management  of  a  vessel  in  a 
squall,  the  practice  of  seamen  differs,  some  luffing 
her  up  and  shaking  the  sails  until  the  squall 
has  passed,  or  sail  has  been  reduced,  and  some 
putting  the  helm  up  and  running  before  the  wind ; 
which  to  do  would  depend  somewhat  upon  the 
ship,  the  circumstances,  crew,  etc.,  but  generally 
speaking  it  is  more  seamanlike,  more  general 
usage,  and  more  rational  to  luff  with  a  wind  for 
ward  of  the  beam,  and  to  bear  up  with  a  wind 
abaft  the  beam.  Sail  should  be  reduced  in  heavy 
squalls,  before  it  comes  if  possible,  and  too  great 
attention  to  the  warnings  cannot  be  paid. 

SQUALLY  WEATHER.  Weather  in  which 
squalls  are  frequent. 

Square.  The  position  of  the  yards  when  hori 
zontal  and  at  right  angles  to  the  keel.  A  gen- 


SQUATTER 


770 


STAFF-OFFICER 


eral  term,  signifying  level,  flush,  or  in  a  line 
with  any  object.  That  part  of  an  anchor-shank 
just  at  the  stock,  extending  to  its  upper  end.  ^  A 
very  long  yard,  giving  great  breadth  to  the  sails. 
To  place  the  frames  across  the  keel  at  right 
angles.  To  place  the  yards  at  right  angles  to 
the  keel  and  horizontal.  To  square  the  dead-eyes, 
to  get  them  In  the  same  horizontal  line.  To 
square  the  ratlines,  to  get  them  horizontal  and 
parallel  to  each  other. 

SQUARE-BODY.  The  square  body  comprises  all 
those  frames  that  are  square  to  the  centre  line  of 
the  ship. 

SQUARE-BUILT.  With  the  square  frames  much 
of  the  same  length,  and  with  short  bow  and  stern. 

SQUARE-BUTTED.  A  yard-arm  of  a  large  di 
ameter  and  square  at  the  end,  so  as  to  cut  a 
sheave-hole  without  detriment  to  the  yard,  is 
square-butted. 

SQUARE-FORESAIL.  A  course,  or  foresail  bent 
to  the  fore-yard.  The  monkey-foresail,  or  square- 
sail  set  on  the  yard  of  a  sloop  or  schooner. 

SQUARE-FRAMES.  Frames  square  with  the 
keel,  or  at  right  angles  to  it. 

SQUARE  IN  THE"  HEAD,  or  SQUARE-BOWED. 
Bluff  and  broad  in  the  fore-body. 

SQUARE-KNOT,     See  REEF-KNOT. 

SQUARE-MAINSAIL.  The  sail  bent  to  the  main- 
yard 

SQUARE-MARKS.  Marks  placed  on  the  lifts 
and  braces,  which,  when  brought  to  a  certain 
point,  indicate  that  the  yards  are  square. 

SQUARE-RIBBONS.  Horizontal  lines  in  a  ship's 
plans. 

SQUARE-RIGGED.  Rigged  with  yards  and 
square-sails  principally,  although  other  sails  are 
used.  Having  especially  long  yards.  Dressed 
out  in  full  dress. 

SQUARE-SAIL.  A  four-cornered  sail  bent  to  a 
yard.  The  foresail  of  a  schooner  set  on  a  yard. 
A  cutter's  or  sloop's  sail,  boomed  out. 

SQUARE-SAIL  BOOM.  A  boom,  hooked  to  an 
eye-bolt  in  the  foremast  of  a  schooner  or  sloop, 
used  to  boom  out  the  square-sail. 

SQUARE-STERNED.  Having  a  stern  formed  by 
a  wing  transom  nearly  straight,  so  as  to  give 
little  curve  to  it. 

SQUARE  TIMBER.  A  timber  perpendicular  to 
the  keel.  A  timber  worked  with  square  edges 
and  no  beveling. 

SQUARE-TOPSAIL.  The  topsail  of  a  sloop  or 
schooner,  set  on  a  yard. 

SQUARE-TOPSAIL  YARD.  The  light  yard  on 
the  topmast  of  a  schooner  or  sloop  to  which  a 
topsail  is  bent. 

SQUARE-TUCK.  A  stern  like  a  yawl-boat, 
which  is  built  without  counter-timbers,  the  tran 
som  continuing  up  to  the  top-height. 

SQUARE  YARDS.  To  get  the  yards  hori 
zontal  and  at  right  angles  to  the  keel.  Figu 
ratively,  to  settle  accounts.  In  squaring  yards, 
the  boatswain  and  his  mates  attend,  the  former 
going  ahead  in  a  boat,  and  signaling  with  flags, 
while  his  chief  mate  is  on  the  head-spars,  and 
interprets  the  signal  to  the  other  mates.  Square- 
yard-men  in  the  tops  attend  the  lifts,  and  the  re 
mainder,  on  deck,  the  braces. 

SQUARING-OFF.  The  trimming  off  of  the  pro 
jecting  edges  of  the  strakes  after  the  vessel  is 
planked. 

Squatter.  The  fluttering  of  sea-birds  on  the 
water. 


Squeegee.     See  SQUILGEE. 

Squeteague.  A  fish  (Labrus  squeteague  of 
Mitchell),  found  in  Long  Island  Sound  ;  called 
also  weak-fish. 

Squid.  A  variety  of  the  cuttle-fish,  the  Lo- 
ligo. 

SQUID-LINE.  A  fishing-line,  baited  with 
squid. 

Squilgee.  Formerly,  a  small  swab.  An  in 
strument  for  cleaning  the  water  from  the  decks, 
composed  of  a  wooden  head,  having  a  strip  of 
rubber  in  a  groove  in  its  under  part,  and  a  staff 
attached  to  it.  A  lazy,  mean  fellow.  A  line 
with  toggles  in  the  end,  used  in  setting  a  stud 
ding-sail.  A  long  line  bent  to  the  snorter,  in 
sending  down  light  yards, — generally  called  a 
tripping-line. 

Squirm.     The  twist  in  a  rope. 

Stabber.  A  pricker ;  an  awl  used  to  pierce 
holes  in  canvas. 

Stable.     See  STABILITY. 

Stability.  That  quality  in  a  vessel  by  which, 
when  she  is  disturbed  by  wind  or  wave,  she 
tends  to  regain  her  position  of  equilibrium.  The 
moment  of  stability  is  the  moment  of  the  couple 
formed  by  the  weight  of  the  ship  and  the  right 
ing  forces. 

Stack.  A  precipitous  rock  rising  out  of  the  sea. 
A  pile  of  guns,  made  systematically.  The  smoke 
stack  (which  see). 

Stacken-cloud  (Eng.}.     Cumulus  clouds. 

Stade.  A  station  for  ships.  A  landing- 
place. 

Staff.  A  light  pole  on  which  a  flag  is  to  be 
hoisted.  Ensign-staff,  a  staff  shipped  astern  for 
the  ensign.  Jack-staff,  a  pole  stepped  on  the 
bowsprit  for  the  jack.  A  class  of  nautical  instru 
ments  of  observation.  A  measuring  and  spacing 
rule  used  in  ship-building.  Cutting-down  staff, 
that  on  which  is  marked  the  heights  of  the  cut 
ting-down  line  from  the  keel.  A  half -breadth 
staff  has  marked  on  it  the  half-breadth  of  each 
beam.  A  height-staff  has  on  it  the  height  of 
each  frame  from  the  keel  to  the  beams.  A  room- 
and-space  staff  has  on  it  the  distance  between 
frames.  The  officers  composing  the  suite  of  an 
admiral  or  commodore,  consisting  of  the  senior 
or  fleet-captain,  the  fleet-paymaster,  fleet-sur 
geon,  fleet-engineer,  fleet  marine  officer,  secre 
tary,  flag-lieutenants,  masters,  ensigns,  and  mid 
shipmen,  and  when  separate  from  any  of  these, 
the  fleet  signal-officer. 

Staff-captain  (Eng.}.  A  captain  of  the  navi 
gating  branch  of  officers  in  the  English  navy. 

Staff-commander.  The  second  grade  of  navi 
gating  officers  in  the  English  navy. 

Staff-officer.  An  officer  attached  to  the  per 
sonal  staff  of  the  commander-in-chief.  An  officer 
of  the  navy  not  exercising  military  command. 
Staff-officers  in  the  U.  S.  navy  are  divided  into 
corps,  as  follows  :  medical,  pay,  engineer,  con 
structors,  chaplains,  civil  engineers,  secretaries, 
and  professors  of  mathematics.  The  medical 
corps  includes  the  surgeon-general,  medical  di 
rectors,  medical  inspectors,  surgeons,  passed  as 
sistant  surgeons,  and  assistant  surgeons.  The 
pay  corps  includes  the  paymaster-general,  pay- 
directors,  pay-inspectors,  paymasters,  passed  as 
sistant  paymasters,  and  assistant  paymasters. 
The  engineer  corps  includes  the  engineer-in- 
chief,  chief  engineers,  passed  assistant  engineers, 
assistant  engineers,  and  cadet  engineers. 


STAFF-SURGEON 


771 


STABLY 


Staff-surgeon.  A  title  used  in  the  English 
navy  for  the  senior  surgeons.  The  next  rank  of 
medical  officers  above  surgeon. 

Stag.     A  rock  rising  from  the  sea. 

Stage.  A  plank  platform,  or  single  plank 
used  to  support  men  while  working.  Floating 
stage.  (See  FLOATING.)  Hanging  stage,  a  stage 
suspended  over  the  ship's  side.  Cable-stage,  a 
platform  formerly  placed  in  the  hold  for  cables, 
hawsers,  etc. 

Stagger.  A  ship  is  said  to  stagger  when  she 
has  as  much  canvas  as  she  will  bear,  and  when 
she  moves  heavily  in  rolling. 

Stain.  Black  staining  may  be  done  with  log 
wood,  \  pound  ;  green  copperas,  6  ounces ;  nut- 
galls,  8  ounces  ;  vinegar,  £  gallon,  applied  warm. 
Or,  £  pound  logwood  boiled  in  water,  with  1 
ounce  pearlash,  J  ounce  verdigris,  and  J  ounce 
copperas  added,  then  the  mixture  strained,  and 
£  pound  rusty  steel-filings  added.  Another 
(ebony-black)  is  vinegar,  J  pound;  extract  log 
wood,  2  pounds  ;  green  copperas,  £  pound  ;  China 
blue,  £  pound  ;  nut-galls,  2  ounces.  Boil  over  a 
slow  fire,  and  add  J  pound  iron-rust. 

Staith.  An  embankment  on  a  river  where 
vessels  are  laden.  An  elevated  railway-track 
extending  over  the  water  for  loading  coal,  etc., 
into  a  vessel. 

Stake.     A  weir  for  fish.     A  strake  of  plank. 

Stake-head.  A  wooden  arm  in  the  stake-post 
of  a  rope-walk,  containing  pins,  to  keep  the 
strands  apart  in  laying  rope. 

Stake-post.  An  upright  wooden  post,  with 
mortices  for  stake-heads,  in  a  rope- walk. 

Stammareen  (Eng.).  The  helmsman's  seat 
in  a  Shetland  boat. 

Stamp  and  Go  !  An  order  to  quicken  the  men 
at  the  ropes  or  at  the  capstan,  intended  to  make 
them  heave  together. 

Stanch.  Strong;  tight.  A  stanch  vessel,  a 
strong  and  water-tight  ship.  See  STAUNCH. 

Stanchion.  An  upright  support.  Lifting 
stanchions  are  of  iron,  and  may  be  raised  and 
fastened  to  the  beam  above. 

Stand.  A  small  rest  or  support.  Stand  of 
ammunition,  the  projectile,  cartridge,  and  sabot. 
Stand  of  arms,  a  rifle,  bayonet,  belt,  cartridge- 
box,  etc.  Stand  of  grape,  one  complete  assemblage 
of  grape-shot  mounted.  To  stand,  to  resist.  To 
stand  fire,  to  receive  an  enemy's  fire  without 
yielding.  Stand  for,  to  direct  the  course  towards. 
'Stand  in,  to  head  in  toward  land.  Stand  off,  to 
direct  the  course  off  shore.  Stand  on,  to  continue 
in  the  same  course.  Stand  off  and  on,  to  direct 
the  ship's  head  first  to  seaward,  then  shoreward. 
Stand  out,  to  leave  a  harbor  and  direct  the 
course  seaward.  Stand  by  a  rope,  to  attend  it, 
ready  to  lower  or  ease  it  off.  Stand  by!  An 
order  to  be  ready  to  let  sails  fall  together ;  to 
oarsmen  to  be  ready;  to  men  in  heaving  the 
deep-sea  lead,  etc.  Stand  by  the  anchor,  to  pre 
pare  to  let  the  anchor  go.  Stand  clear  of  the  cable, 
an  order  to  warn  all,  before  the  anchor  is  let  go, 
to  keep  away  from  the  chains.  Stand  from  under ! 
A  cry  to  those  about  decks  to  beware  of  objects 
falling  from  aloft.  Stand  right  under!  A  fa 
cetious  observation,  meaning  to  stand  from 
under. 

Standard.  An  inverted  knee  placed  above 
the  deck,  such  as  standards  at  the  bitts,  etc. 
Also,  a  long  pole  or  upright  used  in  building 
stages  around  the  ship. 


Standard  Compass.  A  compass  placed  where 
the  local  deviation  affects  it  least,  and  to  which 
the  other  compasses  are  referred.  It  is  mounted 
on  a  ratchet-stand,  or  on  a  tripod,  and  is  usually 
an  azimuth  compass. 

Standard-deals.  Pieces  of  boards  of  fir  or 
pine,  in  form  and  thickness  conforming  to  a 
certain  trade  standard. 

Standard-knee.  An  inverted  knee  fayed  'on 
the  deck  and  against  the  side. 

Standing-backstays.     Permanent  backstays. 

Standing-bevel.     A  bevel  at  an  obtuse  angle. 

Standing-bowsprit.  A  bowsprit  permanently 
fixed  in  place. 

Standing-fid.     See  FID. 

Standing-jib.     The  jib  proper. 

Standing-masts.     The  lower  masts. 

Standing-orders.  Orders  or  regulations  con 
stantly  in  force. 

Standing-part.  Of  a  hook,  that  part  opposite 
to  the  point.  Of  a  sheet,  lift,  etc.,  that  part 
which  is  secured  to  the  yard,  to  the  side,  etc. 
Of  a  tackle,  that  part  which  is  made  fast  to  the 
block,  or  to  any  fixed  point. 

Standing-pull.  A  pull  on  a  rope  without 
moving,  facing  towards  the  running  part,  and 
pulling  2  or  3  feet  at  a  swig. 

Standing-rigging.  The  rigging  that  is  perma 
nent,  and  does  not  serve  to  move  yards,  masts, 
sails,  etc. 

Standing-stay.  The  principal  stay,  as  op 
posed  to  the  spring-,  or  spare-stay. 

Standing  Warrants  (Eng.).  Officers  remain 
ing  with  a  ship  in  ordinary,  as  the  gunner, 
boatswain,  carpenter,  and  cook. 

Standing  Water.  Stagnant  or  still  water, 
where  there  is  neither  current  nor  tide. 

Stand-pipe.  A  supply-pipe  to  the  boiler,  so 
far  below  the  level  of  the  outside  water  that  the 
pressure  may  overcome  the  steam-pressure  in  the 
boiler. 

Stangs.  Poles  placed  across  a  stream.  Eel- 
spears. 

Stanly,  Fabius,  Rear-Admiral  U.S.N.  Fa- 
bius  Stanly,  son  of  the  Hon.  John  Stanly,  was 
born  in  Newbern,  N.  C.,  December  15,  1815. 
Appointed  midshipman,  December  20,  1831; 
served  in  the  frigate  "Constellation,"  Mediter 
ranean,  1832-34;  receiving-ship  "  Hudson,"  New 
York,  1835;  sloops  "Concord"  and  "Warren," 
West  Indies,  1835-36;  bark  "Consort,"  survey 
ing,  1837;  sloop  "Falmouth," '  North  Carolina," 
74,  Pacific  Ocean,  1837-39;  "Delaware,"  74, 
Brazil,  1841-43. 

Commissioned  as  lieutenant,  1841 ;  steamer 
"Union,"  special  service,  1843-44;  steamer 
"  Princeton,"  special  service,  1844  ;  sloops 
"Dale,"  "St.  Mary's,"  and  "Warren,"  and 
frigate  "  Congress,"  Pacific  Ocean,  1846-48  ; 
commanded  mail-steamer,  1850 ;  commanded 
sloop  "Warren,"  California,  1853-54;  was  ex 
ecutive-officer  of  navy-yard,  Mare  Island,  1855; 
commanded  transport  "'Supply,"  Paraguay  Ex 
pedition,  1858-59;  commanded  steamer  "  Wy- 
andotte,"  south  side  of  Cuba,  1859-60;  com 
manded  receiving-ship  "Independence,"  Cali 
fornia,  1861 ;  light-house  duty,  California,  1862  ; 
commanded  sloop  "  Narragansett"  in  Pacific, 
1863-64;  ordnance-officer,  Mississippi  Squad 
ron,  1864;  investigating  bounty  frauds,  1864; 
commanded  "State  of  Georgia,"  South  Caro 
lina,  1864-65;  commanded  sloop  "Tuscarora," 


STAPLE-KNEE 


STAKS 


Pacific   Ocean,   1865-67;    rendezvous   in  Balti 
more,  1869. 

During  the  Mexican  war  was  in  the  Pacific; 
took  part  in  the  capture  of  California  and  de 
fense  of  San  Francisco ;  had  a  part  in  the  cap 
ture  of  Guaymas ;  led  the  advance  in  storming 
Fort  Cachori ;  commanded  the  expedition  against 
Fort  Bacoch  Vampa,— took  it  by  storm,  leading 
the  charge ;  was  in  command  of  the  night  expe 
dition  to  spike  a  battery  of  guns  on  its  way  to 
Guaymas;  passed  through  the  enemy's  lines  of 
1500  men  with  30  men,  spiked  the  guns,  and 
fought  his  way  back  to  the  boats  (12  miles), 
bringing  off  the  wounded  and  prisoners;  was 
commended  in  the  public  dispatches  from  each 
of  his  commanding  officers  (Capis.  Craven,  Yard, 
and  Commodore  Rudd)  for  his  conduct  in  each 
of  these  actions.  There  were  several  other  less 
important  affairs  not  mentioned  by  name,  for 
which  he  was  also  commended  in  the  public 
dispatches  from  Guaymas  by  the  above-named 
officers.  Was  at  the  capture  of  Mazatlan, — Ad 
miral  Shubrick  commanding, — and  was  assigned 
the  command  of  the  outpost  nearest  the  enemy, 
who  held  the  approaches  to  the  city,  their 
nightly  attacks  being  so  troublesome  that  two 
men  of  straw  had  to  be  placed  with  each  senti 
nel.  Was  in  the  battle  of  Trois,  commanding 
the  centre  division,  which  became  the  rear  on 
the  retreat  of  the  rear  division.  In  this  action 
had  1  man  killed  and  23  badly  wounded  out  of 
25  men  ;  was  in  the  action  the  next  day,  com 
manding  the  artillery  at  the  capture  of  the  vil 
lage  of  Trois ;  received  favorable  mention  in  offi 
cial  reports ;  had  frequent  skirmishes  with  the 
enemy  about  Mazatlan,  in  one  of  which  a  hand- 
to-hand  contest  ensued,  in  which  he  received  a 
lance  wound  in  the  breast. 

In  1860,  when  in  command  of  the  "  Wyan- 
dotte"  at  Key  West,  after  consulting  with  Gen. 
Meigs,  U.S.A.,  he  placed  his  ship  so  as  to  pro 
tect  Fort  Taylor  from  the  threatened  attack  of 
the  rebels  then  mustering  in  force  there;  was 
deprived  of  his  command  on  reporting  his  course 
to  the  Department.  Gen.  Meigs  was  also  cen 
sured,  being  ordered  from  Key  West. 

Was  on  the  coast  of  Mexico  (Pacific  Ocean) 
during  the  early  years  of  the  Rebellion ;  received 
the  thanks  of  the'State  Department  for  his  diplo 
matic  services  there;  had  received  the  thanks  of 
the  Navy  Department  twice  during  the  Mexican 
war  from  two  different  Secretaries  of  the  Navy. 

In  1865,  was  ordered  to  report  to  Admi 
ral  Dahlgren,  oflf  Charleston,  by  whom  he  was 
ordered  to  command  Fort  Johnson;  then  to 
arrange  and  command  an  expedition  up  the 
Santee  with  Gen.  Schemmelfinnig  ;  then  to  com 
mand  the  expedition  of  Bull's  ^Bay  with  Gen. 
Porter  against  Charleston,  the  success  of  which 
caused  the  fall  of  Charleston.  In  this  expedi 
tion  commanded  68  guns  and  13  field-pieces. 

Commissioned  as  commodore,  June,  1870 ; 
light-house  inspector,  1871-73. 

Commissioned  as  rear-admiral,  February  12 
1874.  Retired  June  4,  1874. 

Staple-knee.  An  iron  knee  made  in  the  form 
of  a  staple,  having  one  arm  secured  to  the  deck- 
beam  above  and  the  other  bolted  to  the  deck- 
beam  below,  with  the  body  secured  to  the  ship's 
side. 

Starboard.  The  right-hand  side ;  the  right 
side  of  the  ship  when  looking  forward.  From 


the  Saxon,  steoran,  to  steer,  and  bord,  a  plank  or 
border.  Starboard  the  helm,  see  HELM. 

STAR-BOWLINES,  or  STAR-BOLINS.  Men  of 
the  starboard  watch  were  formerly  so  called. 

Star-fish.  Sea-animals  of  the  sub-kingdom 
of  Radiates,  class  of  Echinoderms,  and  of  the 
order  Asterias.  Star-shaped,  spiny-skinned  an 
imals,  numerous  in  all  seas. 

Star-gazer.  A  spiny-rayed  fish,  of  the  family 
Trachinidce,  genus  Uranoscopus,  having  its  eyes 
directed  upward.  A  light  sail,  formerly  used 
above  the  sky-sails. 

Stars,  Fixed.  Stars  which  to  an  observer  on 
the  earth  maintain  their  places  with  reference  to 
each  other.  Careful  observations  compared  after 
a  lapse  of  years  show  that  some  of  them  do  move  ; 
probably  none  of  them  are  absolutely  fixed  in 
space.  Stars  are  classed  by  their  brilliancy.  (See 
MAGNITUDE.)  In  the  whole  heavens  about  6000 
stars  may  be  seen  with  the  naked  eye;  the 
number  above  the  10th  magnitude  is  placed  at 
200,000;  Herschel's  18-inch  reflector  reveals  20 
millions ;  instruments  of  greater  power  reveal 
yet  greater  multitudes. 

In  olden  times  it  was  usual  to  indicate  a  star 
by  the  position  it  occupied  in  the  constellation  ; 
as,  the  Bull's  Eye,  the  Lion's  Heart,  the  Belt  of 
Orion,  etc.  Many  of  the  brighter  stars  have 
names  of  Latin,  Greek,  or  Arabic  derivation  ;  as, 
Regulus,  Sirius,  Benetnash,  etc.  In  1604,  Bayer 
published  star-maps  in  which  the  stars  were  'in 
dicated  by  the  letters  of  the  Greek  alphabet,  the 
brightest  in  each  constellation  being  a,  the  next 
/?,  the  third  y,  and  so  on.  When  the  24  letters 
were  exhausted  in  designating  the  stars  he  used 
the  Roman  letters,  and  then  numbers.  The 
letters  do  not  now  always  give  the  exact  order 
of  brightness. 

Several  catalogues  of  stars  have  been  made, — 
the  first  by  Hipparchus,  B.C.  128,  contains  7026 
stars. 

The  polariscope  shows  that  the  stars  are  lu 
minous  bodies.  The  stellar  light,  analyzed  by 
the  spectroscope,  indicates  elements  in  the  stars 
identical  with  those  in  the  sun  and  on  the  earth, 
together  with  others  utterly  unknown. 

Sirius  is  computed  to  be,  as  a  centre  of  light 
and  heat,  394  times  larger  than  the  sun.  a  Cen- 
tauri,  the  nearest  of  the  fixed  stars,  is  21  millions 
of  millions  of  miles  distant ;  Polaris  is  292  mil 
lions  of  millions  of  miles  distant,  and  the  time 
required  for  the  passage  of  light  from  this  star  to 
earth  is  about  48  years.  Periodic  stars  increase 
and  diminish  in  brightness  at  regular  intervals  ; 
about  100  are  known,  having  periods  varying 
from  a  few  days  to  many  years.  The  most  re 
markable  periodic  star  is  /3  Persei,  in  the  head  of 
Medusa  ;  it  is  of  the  2d  magnitude  for  2d  13h  ;  it 
then  changes,  in  3J-  hours,  to  the  4th  magnitude  ; 
in  3£  hours  more  it  regains  its  former  brightness. 
Stars  which  appear  single  to  the  naked  eye  are 
sometimes  resolved  into  two  or  more  by  the 
telescope.  The  components  of  a  double  star  may 
be  only  apparently  near;  in  certain  cases  one  of 
the  components  describes  an  orbit  about  the 
other.  In  the  latter  case  the  star  is  known  as  a 
physically  double  or  binary  star.  Single  stars 
show  great  variety  of  color,  running  through 
shades  of  rod,  yellow,  blue,  and  green  ;  some 
stars  have  changed  color.  Sirius  was  formerly 
red ;  afterward  it  shone  with  purest  white,  and 
of  late  has  a  greenish  tinge.  Aldebaran,  Antares, 


STAET 


773 


STAY 


and  Betelgeuse  are  red  ;  Arcturus  is  orange ; 
Capella,  bluish.  Many  fixed  stars  have  a  small 
proper  motion;  hence  it  appear  that  the  solar 
system  is  moving  through  space.  The  motion 
is  toward  a  point  in  the  group  Hercules,  and  is 
probably  about  a  very  remote  centre  not  yet 
known. 
STAR-NAMES. 


a  Andromedae,  Alpheratz. 

a2  Geminorum,  Castor, 
ft  ,  Pollux. 
K  Herculis,  Mursic. 

p              ,  Muacti,  JUcar. 

ft  Aquarii,  Sadulstmd. 

8  ,  Skat, 
y  Aquike,  Tarazed. 

a  Hydras,  Alphard,  Cor  Hydrse. 
a  Leonis,  Regulus,  Cor  Leonis. 
yi              •,  Algeiba. 

Q  _        ilshain 

a.  Argus,  Canopus. 
y  Arietis,  Mesartim. 
ft  ,  Sheratan. 
a                Hamal 

ft  ,  Deneb  Aleet,  Denebola, 
Deneb. 
a  Leporis,  Arneb. 
a.  Librae,  Zuben  el  Genubi. 

a  Aurigaj,  Cupella. 

y       -       7ubcn  HuJcrabi 

rj  Bootes,  Muphrid. 

a  Lyrae,  Vega, 
ft  —      —   tihdiak 

'  V~  C.'('i'r'..       M'     -Ji 

Pulcherissima.* 
B                NcH'tir 

a.  Ophiuchi,  Itas  Alhague. 

a.  Gunum,  Ven.,  Cor  CaroU. 
ft  Canis  Majoris,  Mirzam. 

ft  Orionis,  lllfjel. 

e  ,  ^tZttra. 
ft  Canis  Minoris,  Gomeisa. 

a  ,   Betelgetix,  or  Betel- 
geuse. 
e  Pegasi,  Eitif. 

a-  Capricorn!,  Seainda  Giedi. 
8  ,  Deneb  Algiedi. 
ft  Cassiopeiae,  Chaph. 
a  ,  Schedar.. 
a  Cephei,  Alderaiidn. 
ft    ilphirJc 

a.  ,  Markab. 

ft  Persei,'  Algol. 
a                 "Mirfak 

v                 EiTai 

ft  Ceti,  Diphda. 
£  ,  Buten  Kaitos. 
o  ,  Mini. 
a  ,  Menlcar. 
a.  Columbse,  Phact. 
a  Coronai  Bor.,  Alphecca. 
a  Corvi,  Alchiba. 
8  ,  Algores. 
oCrateris,  Alkes. 
ft  Cygni,  Albireo. 

a.  Piscis  Aust.,  Fomalhuut. 
€  Sagittarii,  Kaus  Austmlis. 
a.  Scorpionis,  Antares,  CorScor- 
pionis. 
a  Serpentis,  Unukulhai. 
rj  Tuurl,  Alcyone  (Pleiad). 
a  ,  Aldeborun. 
B                Nath 

i  Ursfs  Majoris,  Talitha. 

ft  '  Merdk. 
y  ,  Pftecda. 
e  ,  A  lioth. 

C         ••—  Mi"ur 

irl  ,  Azetfafage. 
a  Delphini,  Svalocin. 
a  Draconis,  Thuban. 
ft  ,  Ahoaid. 
y  ,  Etanin. 
a.  Eridani,  Achernar. 

80  ,  Alcor. 

a  Ursae  Miuoris,  Polaris. 

ft  ,  Cursa. 
y  Geminorum,  Alheua. 
e              ,  Mebsutti. 

ft  Virgiuis,  Zavijava. 

a.  ,  Spica  Azimech,  Spka. 

Start.  A  point  of  land.  A  point  of  depart 
ure.  The  place  a  whale  is  expected  to  rise,  after 
being  struck.  To  move  weights.  To  empty  out 
liquids.  To  start  bread,  to  pour  it  out  from  bags  or 
barrels,  and  stow  it  in  bulk.  To  start  a  butt,  to 
loosen  a  plank  at  the  butt,  by  the  working  of  the 
ship.  To  start  a  rope,  to  ease  it  off  a  little.  To 
start  the  men,  to  hurry  them  on  deck, — formerly, 
by  a  vigorous  use  of  a  rattan  or  rope's-end. 

START-HAMMER.  A  hammer  with  a  small 
head,  used  to  drive  a  bolt  into  the  wood. 

START-BOLT,  or  STARTING-BOLT.  A  bolt  used 
to  dri've  out  another  bolt.  A  drift-bolt. 

STARTING-BAR.  A  bar  by  which  the  valve- 
gear  of  a  steam-engine  is  manipulated  by  hand 
when  starting  the  machine  in  motion,  either  for 
going  ahead  or  backing. 

STARTING-VALVE.     A  small  auxiliary  valve 


*  A  name  given  by  modern  astronomers  to  express  the  ex 
treme  beauty  of  this  double  star  (orange  and  green),  viewed 
with  a  good  telescope. 


for  admitting  steam  to  a  cylinder  of  an  engine 
when  starting,  used  to  avoid  manipulating  the 
main  valves  by  hand.  Sometimes  called  a  tail- 
valve. 

STARTING-WHEEL,  A  wheel,  worked  by  hand, 
by  which  the  go-ahead  or  backing  motion  of  the 
valve-gear  of  a  steam-engine  is  thrown  into 
action  at  will,  thereby  starting,  stopping,  or  re 
versing  the  motion  of  the  engine. 

Stash  it  there  !    An  old  cry  to  enforce  silence. 

State-room.  A  small  room  in  the  cabin  or 
wardroom  of  a  man-of-war,  or  in  the  saloon  of  a 
merchantman,  for  the  private  use  of  an  individ 
ual.  In  the  wardroom  the  state-rooms  are  occu 
pied,  on  the  starboard  side  by  line-officers,  and  on 
the  port,  by  staff-officers.  They  are  allotted  ac 
cording  to  rank,  the  senior  officer  occupying  the 
forward  room.  In  vessels  having  the  wardroom 
forward,  the  senior  officers  are  entitled  to  the 
after  rooms. 

Station.  The  allotted  place  of  each  person  on 
board.  These  are  designated  on  the  station-  and 
quarter-bill.  Cruising  station,  the  locality  in 
which  a  ship  habitually  cruises.  The  ships  of  the 
U.  S.  navy  are  distributed  among  5  stations,  viz. : 
A.  The  North  Atlantic,  or  Home  Station,  com 
prising  those  ships  on  the  east  coast  of  North 
America,  extending  east  to  Bermuda  and  south 
to  the  equator.  B.  The  South  Atlantic  Station, 
comprising  the  shores  of  South  America  and 
Africa  bordering  on  the  Atlantic,  south  of  the 
equator,  and  the  waters  between.  C.  The  Euro 
pean  Station,  comprising  the  European,  Medi 
terranean,  and  African  coasts,  as  far  south  as  the 
equator.  D.  The  Pacific  Station,  comprising  the 
west  coasts  of  North  and  South  America  and  the 
islands  as  far  as  Australia  and  the  Sandwich 
Islands.  E.  The  Asiatic  Station,  comprising  the 
coasts  of  Asia  and  Africa,  from  Behring's  Strait 
to  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  with  all  the  islands  con 
tiguous.  Shore-station,  see  SHORE.  Every  man 
to  his  station  and  the  cook  to  the  fore-sheet ! 
calls  all  idlers  in  merchantmen.  To  station,  to 
post  or  place  a  man  in  a  particular  place,  as  a 
sentry  on  his  post,  a  hand  by  the  fore-sheet,  etc. 
To  station  look-outs,  is  to  send  them  to  their  al 
lotted  places 

STATION-BILL.  A  bill  containing  a  list  of  the 
crew,  with  their  stations  and  duties  for  all  evo 
lutions.  See  WATCH-,  QUARTER-,  AND  STATION- 
BILL. 

STATIONER  (Eng.}.  One  who  has  served  long 
in  any  particular  station. 

STATION-POINTER.  An  instrument  used  in 
maritime  surveying,  to  lay  down  points  on  a 
chart  from  angles  previously  measured.  Three 
arms  move  about  a  central  pivot,  and  arcs  are 
attached  graduated  so  as  to  set  these  arms  to  any 
angles,  and  by  this  means  find  the  point  desired, 
and  lay  it  down  on  the  chart. 

STATIONS  FOR  STAYS  !  A  preliminary  order 
in  tacking,  or  box-hauling  ship,  to  direct  the 
men  to  their  stations. 

Staunch.  A  flood-gate  in  a  river,  so  contrived 
as  to  form  a  head  of  water,  and  float  lighters 
over  shallows. 

Stave.  To  break  a  hole  in  a  boat.  To  drive 
in  the  head  of  a  cask.  Stave  off,  to  boom  off,  or 
to  push  off  with  a  small  spar.  Figuratively,  to 
cause  to  be  deferred. 

Stay.  A  strong  rope,  leading  from  the  head 
of  any  mast,  forward.  A  support  to  a  davit, 


STEADY 


774 


STEAM 


bumpkin,  etc.  A  stay-tackle.  A  bar  or  rod 
confining  two  or  more  parts  of  a  structure  or 
machine  to  an  invariable  relative  position.  Tie- 
bars  or  rods  are  sometimes  called  stays.  The 
stays  of  a  ship  that  lead  forward  to  the  centre 
line  of  the  ship  are  fore-and-aft  stays.  Those 
leading  aft  to  the  ship's  side  are  backstays.  The 
various  stays  will  be  found  described  under  their 
headings.  A  steamer's  stay  is  an  iron  rod  uniting 
the  paddle-boxes.  A  jumper-stay  is  a  main-stay 
which  comes  to  the  side  of  the  ship.  These  are 
necessarily  used  in  steamers,  where  the  funnel 
interferes  with  their  leading  straight.  To  stay, 
to  support  a  mast  by  setting  up  the  rigging.  To 
tack,  to  bring  the  ship's  head  to  the  wind  in  going 
about.  In  stays,  or  hove  in  stays,  in  the  act  of 
going  about.  To  refuse  stays,  to  fail  to  tack. 
"To  miss  stays,  to  fail  in  an  attempt  to  put  the 
ship  about. 

STAY-APEEK.     See  APEEK. 

STAY-BAR,  or  STAY-ROD.  Strong  bars  or  rods 
supporting  the  top  of  a  furnace. 

STAY-BOLT.  A  short  stay  or  bolt  for  support 
ing  the  flat  surfaces  of  the  shells,  fire-boxes,  etc., 
of  a  steam-boiler. 

STAY-HOLES.  Holes  in  the  luff  of  a  stay-sail, 
for  the  lacing,  rings,  or  hanks  that  fasten  it  to 
the  stay. 

STAY-ROD.     See  STAY. 

STAY-SAIL.  A  triangular  or  trapezoidal  sail 
hoisted  on  a  stay. 

STAY-SAIL-NETTING.  A  rope  or  canvas  recep 
tacle  on  the  bowsprit  for  the  fore-topmast  stay 
sail. 

STAY-SAIL-STAY.  The  stay  on  which  a  stay-sail 
is  set.  Sometimes,  as  in  the  case  of  the  fore-storm 
stay-sail,  this  is  a  separate  stay,  only  gotten  up 
in  time  of  need.  When  on  the  standing-stays, 
the  port-  or  spring-stay  is  preferably  used  for  a 
stay-sail.  A  stay-sail  is  fastened  by  its  tack,  and 
hoists  along  the  stay,  being  confined  to  it  by 
wooden  or  iron  thimbles,  or  rings,  by  rope  or 
hide  hanks,  or  by  bridles  or  lacings  toggled  into 
the  stay-holes,  or  into  eyes. 

STAY-TACKLE.  Any  tackle  put  on  a  stay  for 
hoisting  out  or  moving  weights.  A  stay-pur 
chase,  a  tackle  used  in  setting  up  a  stay.  Tackles 
hooked  to  the  ends  of  the  triatic-stay,  used  in 
hoisting  boats'  anchors,  etc.,  in  conjunction  with 
the  yard-tackles. 

Steady !  An  order  to  the  helmsman  to  steer 
as  the  ship  heads. 

Steady-fast  (Eng.}.  A  hawser  carried  out  to 
some  fixed  object,  to  keep  a  ship  steady  in  a  tide 
way,  or  to  make  sail  from. 

Steal.  To  gain  a  ratline  or  two  in  going 
aloft,  while  waiting  for  the  order.  To  pick  up 
the  sail  before  the  order  to  furl  is  given.  To  gain 
distance  ahead  in  light  airs. 

Stealer.  A  plank  introduced  at  the  stem  or 
stern  between  curved  edges  and  straight-edged 
planks. 

Steam.  An  elastic  vapor  into  which  water 
is  converted  when  heated  to  the  boiling-point. 
This  point  depends  on  the  amount  of  salt  in  the 
boilers,  and  for  fresh  water  is  212°  F.  Advan 
tage  is  taken  of  the  elasticity  of  steam  in  the  steam- 
engine,  where  its  expansive  force  is  transferred 
to  other  mechanical  powers  through  the  piston. 
High-pressure  steam  is  that  whose  temperature 
is  far  above  the  boiling-point.  Low-pressure 
steam  is  that  at  the  boiling  temperature.  Sat- 


urated  steam,  or  wet  steam,  is  that  which  holds 
water  in  mechanical  suspension.  Superheated, 
surcharged,  or  anhydrous  steam  is  that  which  is 
heated  after  separation  from  the  water,  until  all 
the  water  held  in  suspension  is  vaporized.  Dry 
steam  holds  but  little  water  in  suspension.  The 
mechanical  equivalent  of  steam  is  the  amount  of 
force  it  exerts  to  raise  1  pound  of  water,  1°  F. 
in  temperature,  and  this  is  772  foot-pounds. 
The  conditions  affecting  steam  vary  with  its 
temperature,  but  at  212°,  saturated  steam  exerts 
a  pressure  of  14.7  pounds  per  inch.  Its  total 
heat  is  1.146°,  its  latent  heat  being  965.2°;  its 
weight  per  cubic  foot  is  .088  pound,  and  the 
volume  of  1  pound  is  26.36  cubic  feet.  The  vol 
ume  of  1  cubic  foot  of  water  after  evaporation  is 
1642  cubic  feet,  at  a  temperature  of  212°. 

STEAMBOAT.  A  boat  propelled  by  steam.  The 
term  is  generally  applied  to  river  and  coasting 
steamers. 

STEAM-BOILER.    See  MARINE  STEAM-BOILER. 
STEAM-BOILER  ALARM.      An  alarm,  to  tell 
when  the  water  is  low  in  the  boiler. 

STEAM-BOX,  STEAM-CHAMBER,  STEAM-CHEST, 
STEAM-DOME,  STEAM-CHIMNEY.  Synonymous 
terms  for  a  receptacle  of  steam  from  a  boiler ; 
the  object  of  the  device  is  to  temporarily  check 
the  velocity  of  the  steam  so  that  water  held  in 
suspension,  either  by  condensation  or  being 
drawn  from  the  boiler  by  induction,  may  have 
time  to  precipitate  before  passing  to  the  engine. 
A  steam-chimney  is  usually  an  annular  steam- 
space  surrounding  the  lower  part  of  the  smoke- 
pipe,  by  which  arrangement  the  steam  is  dried 
and  somewhat  superheated.  The  term  steam- 
chest  is  frequently  applied  to  the  valve-chest  of 
an  engine. 

STEAM-CASING.     See  STEAM-JACKET. 
STEAM-CUTTER.     A  steamboat,  smaller  than  a 
launch. 

STEAM-GAUGE.  An  instrument  for  indicating 
steam-pressure  by  means  of  a  dial  and  index,  or 
a  plain  graduated  scale.  There  are  numerous 
devices,  nearly  all  depending  for  their  action 
upon  the  resilience  of  metal  or  the  weight  of  a 
column  of  mercury.  The  latter,  only,  can  be 
considered  reliable. 

STEAM-GUN.  A  gun  in  which  balls  are  pro 
pelled  by  the  force  of  steam.  Leonardo  da  Vinci 
describes  one  in  a  manuscript  of  1500.  Van  Etten, 
in  1629,  also  described  one.  One  was  made  and 
shown  in  England  in  1824.  Bessemer  proposed 
to  throw  balls  from  the  nozzle  of  a  steam-pump, 
or  fire-engine.  Wood  and  Lay  devised  a  steam- 
gun  to  be  used  under  water,  but  it  was  not  suc 
cessful.  The  elastic  force  of  steam  is  not  a  con 
stantly  increasing  succession  of  shocks,  such  as 
is  necessary  in  a  gun,  and  will  probably  never  be 
successfully  used  in  this  connection. 

STEAM-HOIST.  A  steam  hoisting-machine 
used  in  navy-yards  for  various  purposes. 

STEAM-JACKET.  A  device  by  which  a  steam- 
cylinder  is  surrounded  by  a  thin  film  of  live 
steam  ;  the  object  being  to  prevent  the  condensa 
tion,  due  to  various  losses  of  heat,  of  a  large 
quantity  of  working  steam  within  the  cylinder, 
and  the  consequent  loss  of  latent  heat,  by  the  ex 
penditure  of  a  smaller  quantity  of  heat  from 
steam  of  higher  temperature. 

STEAM-LAUNCH.  A  launch  fitted  with  steam- 
power,  furnished  to  most  modern  men-of-war. 
Steam  torpedo-launches  are  for  the  purpose  of 


STEEDMAN 


775 


STEEDMAN 


exploding  torpedoes  under  the  enemy's  bottom, 
and  are  long,  narrow,  and  flat.  See  TORPEDO- 
LAUNCH. 

STEAM-PIPE.  A  pipe  for  conducting  steam 
from  a  boiler  to  an  engine,  heater,  evaporator, 
or  other  apparatus  where  it  performs  work. 

STEAM-PORT.  An  opening  for  the  admission 
of  steam  to  a  cylinder,  and,  except  in  a  few 
special  devices,  for  its  expulsion  therefrom  after 
having  performed  its  work. 

STEAM-ROOM.  The  space  contained  within  a 
steam-boiler  for  the  accumulation  of  steam  above 
the  water-level. 

STEAMSHIP.  Any  large  vessel  driven  by 
steam.  See  STEAM-VESSEL. 

STEAM-TOE.  A  cam-shaped,  oscillating  arm 
or  lever,  forming  part  of  some  kinds  of  valve- 
gear,  for  opening  and  closing  the  steam-valve  of 
an  engine,  as  in  the  Stevens  cut-off. 

STEAM-TUG.     A  small  steam  tow-boat. 

STEAM-VESSEL.  A  vessel  propelled  by  steam- 
power.  The  first  attempt  to  propel  vessels  by 
steam-power  was  made  at  Barcelona,  by  Blasco 
de  Garay,  in  1542,  and  various  attempts  were 
made  during  the  16th,  17th,  and  18th  centuries, 
but  it  was  not  until  the  beginning  of  the  present 
century  that  successful  steamboats  were  built, 
Fitch  running  a  boat  on  the  Potomac  in  1787, 
Symington,  the  "  first  practical  steamboat,"  the 
"Charlotte  Dundas,"  in  1801,  and  Fulton,  the 
"  Clermont,"  first  to  regularly  engage  in  traffic, 
in  1802. 

STEAM-WHISTLE.  An  apparatus  attached  to 
an  engine,  through  which  steam  is  discharged, 
making  a  shrill  sound  by  striking  the  edges  of 
a  metal  cup,  causing  it  to  vibrate. 

STEAM-WINCH.  A  hoisting-machine,  or  wind 
lass,  which  is  made  to  revolve  by  a  crank  con 
nected  with  the  piston  of  a  small  cylinder.  They 
are  extensively  used  on  modern  men-of-war,  for 
various  purposes. 

Steedman,  Charles,  Rear-Admiral  U.S.N. 
Native  of  Charleston,  S.  C.  Appointed  mid 
shipman  in  the  navy,  April  1,  1828;  first  duty 
at  the  New  York  Navy- Yard ;  served  in  the 
West  Indies  as  midshipman  in  the  sloops-of- 
war  "Natchez"  and  "Fairfield,"  and  schooner 
"  Grampus." 

Promoted  to  passed  midshipman,  January  14, 
1834.  In  the  Mediterranean  on  board  of  the 
frigates  "Constitution"  and  "United  States" 
and  schooner  "  Shark"  in  the  years  1836-38 ;  and 
in  the  West  Indies  on  board  the  "  Macedonian" 
up  to  1840, — the  last  six  months  as  acting  lieu 
tenant. 

Promoted  to  lieutenant,  February  25,  1841 ; 
served  in  the  brig  "  Dolphin"  on  the  Home  Sta 
tion  and  West  Indies  ;  invalided  and  sent  home 
1842  ;  coast  survey,  1843-44  ;  served  in  the  West 
Indies  and  Gulf  of  Mexico  on  board  of  the  "  St. 
Mary's,"  1845-47;  commanded  the  8-inch  gun 
in  the  naval  battery  at  the  bombardment  of  Vera 
Cruz,  and  commanded  the  "St.  Mary's"  launch  in 
an  attempt  to  surprise  and  capture  Mexican  gun 
boats  inside  of  Tampico  bar ;  attached  to  Naval 
Observatory  from  latter  part  of  1847  to  first  of 
1849  ;  served  on  board  frigate  "  Cumberland"  in 
the  Mediterranean,  1850-51 ;  attached  to  Naval 
Observatory,  1853-55. 

Commissioned  as  commander,  September  14, 
1855;  special  duty  in  Washington,  1857-58;  re 
vising  signal  code  and  framing  station-bills  for 


ships  of  the  navy;  commanded  brig  "  Dolphin," 
Paraguay  Expedition,  1859-60,  and  was  left  in 
command  of  Brazil  Squadron  when  Flag-Officers 
Shubrick  and  Forrest  returned  home,  remaining 
in  command  for  nine  months  until  the  arrival  of 
Flag-Officer  Sands ;  returned  home  in  December, 
1860.  At  breaking  out  of  the  Rebellion  was  on 
leave ;  volunteered  to  Admiral  Dupont  for  any 
service,  and  was  by  him  sent  to  take  command 
of  the  Baltimore  Railroad  Company's  steamboat 
"  Maryland'1 ;  kept  communication  open  between 
Havre-de-Grace  and  Annapolis  until  the  railroad 
bridges  were  repaired  and  communication  opened 
between  Baltimore  and  Philadelphia;  was  first  to 
telegraph  from  Havre-de-Grace  to  Gen.  Patterson 
that  Gen.  Butler  had  landed  at  Annapolis  with 
Massachusetts  regiment  and  Seventh  New  York 
Regiment,  and  had  opened  communication  with 
Washington  ;  in  1861,  ordered  to  join  Commo 
dore  Foote  on  the  Mississippi ;  soon  detached 
and  ordered  to  take  command  of  the  "  Bienville"  ; 
attached  to  Port  Royal  Expedition  under  Flag- 
Officer  Dupont ;  led  the  second  column  in  the 
attack  and  capture  of  Port  Royal ;  brought  North, 
in  the  "Bienville,"  Flag-Officer  Dupont's  dis 
patches  reporting  the  capture  ;  after  this  assisted 
in  blockading  the  coast  of  Georgia  in  the  "  Bien 
ville,"  and  participated  in  the  capture  of  all  the 
ports  on  that  coast  south  of  Savannah  ;  returning 
North,  was  detached  from  the  "  Bienville"  and 
ordered  to  the  "Paul  Jones";  joined  Admiral 
Dupont's  squadron  with  the  "Paul  Jones"  and 
other  gunboats  ;  engaged  Fort  McAllister,  on  the 
Ogeechee  River,  in  August,  1862;  on  the  17th 
September  following  engaged  and  , silenced  the 
batteries  at  St.  John's  Bluff,  on  the  St.  John's 
River,  Fla.  ;  considering  it  necessary  to  have 
troops  to  co-operate  in  capturing  the  forts  and 
getting  possession  of  the  river,  applied  to  Ad 
miral  Dupont  for  the  same  on  the  30th  of  same 
month ;  with  the  co-operation  of  Gen.  Brannon 
captured  the  forts  on  St.  John's  Bluff,  and  with 
the  gunboats  opened  and  held  the  St.  John's 
River  to  Lake  Beaufort. 

Commissioned  as  captain,  September  13,  1862. 
Transferred  to  the  steam-frigate  "  Powhatan," 
and  employed  in  her  blockading  off  Charles 
ton  for  several  months;  with  the  "Powhatan" 
towed  the  captured  ram  "  Atlanta"  to  Philadel 
phia  ;  soon  after  was  detached  and  took  com 
mand  of  the  "  Ticonderoga";  in  her  was  employed 
on  various  detached  service ;  returned  in  her  in 
November,  1864,  with  engines  disabled  from  an 
unsuccessful  search  of  the  rebel  vessel  "  Florida," 
on  the  coast  of  Brazil ;  volunteered  to  join  Ad 
miral  Porter's  command  ;  vessel  temporarily  re 
paired  ;  joined  the  admiral  and  participated  in 
the  two  attacks  and  capture  of  the  forts  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Wilmington  River,  December, 
1864,  and  January,  1865 ;  after  the  fall  of  those 
forts  joined  Admiral  Dahlgren's  squadron  off 
Charleston  ;  the  "  Ticonderoga"  being  unfit  for 
service,  was  ordered  to  Philadelphia  for  repairs ; 
so  soon  as  she  was  repaired,  proceeded,  Novem 
ber,  1865,  to  the  Mediterranean  and  joined  Ad 
miral  Goldsborough's  European  Squadron. 

Promoted  to  commodore,  July  25,  1866 ;  soon 
after  exchanged  commands  with  Capt.  Wyman, 
of  the  "  Colorado"  ;  returned  home  in  the  "  Col 
orado,"  September,  1867;  on  special  duty,  1868- 
69,  and  commanding  Boston  Navy-Yard,  1869- 
72. 


STEEL 


776 


STEEE 


•Commissioned  as  rear-admiral,  May  25,  1871. 
Retired  September  24,  1873. 

Steel.    See  IRON  AND  STEEL. 

STEEL-BRONZE.  A  mixture  of  steel,  tin,  and 
copper,  used  in  making  guns.  It  was  patented 
in  1870  in  Boston,  and  is  extensively  used  in 
Austria  for  the  manufacture  of  light  guns. 

Stembel,  Roger  N.,  Rear-Admiral  U.S.N. 
Born  in  Middletown,  Md.  Appointed  from 
Ohio,  March  27,  1832;  attached  to  schooner 
"Porpoise,"  West  India  Squadron,  1832-33; 
Naval  School,  New  York,  1834-38. 

Promoted  to  passed  midshipman,  June  23, 
1838;  attached  to  frigate  "  Brandy  wine,"  Med 
iterranean  Squadron,  1840-42. 

Commissioned  as  lieutenant,  October  26,  1843  ; 
coast  survey,  1844-47;  sloop  "Levant,"  Home 
Squadron,  1849-50;  sloop  "Jamestown,"  Brazil 
Squadron,  1851-53;  special  duty,  Washington, 
1855-57;  steam-frigate  "Mississippi,"  East  In 
dia  Squadron,  1857-59;  special  duty,  Cincin 
nati,  1861. 

Commissioned  as  commander,  July  1,  1861  ; 
Mississippi  Flotilla,  1862 ;  engagement  at  Lucas 
Bend,  September  9, 1861 ;  Belmont,  November  7, 
1861 ;  Fort  Henry,  February  6,  1862 ;  bombard 
ment  and  capture  of  Island  No.  10,  Mississippi 
Kiver,  from  March  16  to  April  7,  1882;  engaged 
near  Fort  Pillow  with  rebel  rams,  May  10,  1862, 
besides  several  minor  affairs,  while  attached  to 
Mississippi  Flotilla,  from  August,  1861,  to  May, 
1862;  wounded  near  Fort  Pillow,  May  10,  1862, 
in  engagement  with  rebel  rams ;  waiting  orders, 
1863 ;  rendezvous,  Philadelphia,  1864 ;  special 
duty,  Pittsburgh,  1865. 

Commissioned  as  captain,  July  25,  1866;  com 
manding  steam-sloop  "  Canandaigua,"  European 
Squadron,  1866-67 ;  commanding  naval  rendez 
vous,  Boston,  1869-70. 

Commissioned  as  commodore,  July  13,  1871; 
commanding  North  Pacific  Fleet,  1872.  Retired 
December  27,  1872. 

Commissioned  as  rear-admiral,  February  2, 
1875. 

Steep-to.  Said  of  a  bold  shore,  near  to  which 
vessels  may  approach. 

Steep-tub.  A  large  tub  for  soaking  salt-pro 
visions. 

Steer.  To  direct  or  govern- a  ship  by  the  mo 
tions  of  the  rudder.  It  requires  considerable 
skill  to  steer  well,  the  helmsman  being  com 
pelled  not  only  to  watch  the  compass  and  the 
ship's  head,  but  also  to  feel  and  anticipate  the 
motions  of  the  ship  in  a  sea-way.  To  steer  large 
is  to  use  much  helm,  or  to  steer  loosely,  and  also 
to  go  free.  To  steer  small  is  to  steer  with  little 
helm,  or  small  movements  of  the  wheel.  To 
steer  the  course  is  to  lay  the  course  with  a  free 
or  fair  wind. 

STEERAGE.  The  act  of  steering.  The  effect  of 
the  helm  on  a  ship.  (Eng.}  That  part  of  the 
ship  below  the  quarter-deck  and  before  the  cabin 
bulk-head  of  a  rnan-of-war.  (Eng.}  The  cabin 
of  the  middle-deck  of  a  three  decker.  The  for 
ward  part  of  the  lower-deck  of  a  passenger- 
steamer  or  ship.  That  portion  of  the  berth- 
deck  of  a  man-of-war  just  forward  of  the  ward 
room,  and  furnished  with  lockers,  mess-tables, 
and  sometimes  with  berths. 

STEERAGE-OFFICER.  An  officer  living  or  mess 
ing  in  the  steerage.  Steerage-officers  in  the  U.  S. 
navy  are  clerks,  midshipmen,  cadet-rnidshipmen, 


mates,  cadet-engineers,  ensigns  when  not  in 
charge  of  a  watch  and  division,  and  all  officers 
ranking  with  ensign. 

STEERAGE-PASSENGER.  A  second-  or  third- 
class  passenger  in  a  merchant  vessel. 

STEERAGE-WAY.  The  motion  of  the  vessel 
through  the  water,  sufficient  to  cause  her  to 
obey  the  helm. 

STEERING  APPARATUS.  Machinery  giving  in 
creased  power  for  the  management  of  the  rud 
der.  Many  forms  have  been  invented,  and  some 
are  successfully  used.  North's  steering  apparatus 
consists  of  a  wheel  turning  a  horizontal  shaft  on 
a  table,  geared  to  a  vertical  shaft  on  which  is  a 
drum  with  a  chain  fastened  to  it.  The  ends  of 
this  chain  connect  to  a  quadrant  on  the  rudder- 
head,  and  motion  is  thus  given  to  the  rudder. 
Jackson's  is  a  right-  and  left-handed  screw  on  the 
shaft  of  the  wheel,  on  which  sleeves  move,  at 
tached  to  levers.  These  levers  move  the  tiller, 
as  the  wheel  works  the  screws.  These  forms  of 
steering  gear  are  generally  used  as  prevonter- 
gear,  situated  aft,  while  a  wheel  situated  for 
ward  steers  the  ship  ordinarily,  by  means  of 
rods  or  chains  running  aft  to  the  tiller.  These 
are  now  superseded  in  large  ships  by  steam-  or 
hydraulic  gear.  The  steam-gear  is  of  various 
patterns.  That  used  in  the  English  navy  has 
two  small  engines  connected  with  the  tiller, 
whose  valves  are  controlled  by  a  light  steering- 
wheel.  Another  English  apparatus  consists  of  a 
pair  of  cylinders  acting  by  gearing  on  a  worm- 
wheel,  to  the  shaft  of  which  the  steering-barrel 
is  keyed,  and  a  chain  on  this  barrel  moves  the 
tiller.  Automatic  gear  stops  the  engine  when 
the  rudder  is  hard  over.  Sickles's  gear,  on  the 
"  Miantonomoh,"  consists  of  two  cylinders  mov 
ing  a  crank  attached  to  the  shaft  of  the  steering- 
barrel.  Wire-rope  is  wound  on  this  barrel, 
which  is  so  made  that  double  the  leverage  is 
effected  when  the  helm  is  hard  over.  A  hand- 
wheel  on  the  same  shaft  moves  the  engine- 
valves  by  a  cam  and  yoke,  and  the  engine 
stops  when  the  shaft  reaches  the  same  point  to 
which  the  hand-wheel  has  been  turned.  The 
Brotherhood  apparatus  uses  three  cylinders,  and 
lays  the  tiller  at  any  angle. 

Hydraulic  steering-gear  has  been  used  in  some 
large  modern  ships,  and  is  very  successful.  In 
it  a  small  tiller  opens  the  valves  of  the  hydraulic 
pump.  Other  steering-gear  connects  with  the 
propeller. 

STEERING-PROPELLER.  A  propeller  so  con 
trived  that  the  ship  is  steered  by  it  without  a 
rudder.  The  first  attempt  to  so  control  a  ship 
was  made  by  Stevens,  who  thought  that  he  could 
control  a  vessel  by  right- and  left-handed  screws, 
but  these  do  not  act  sufficiently  well.  Other  de 
vices  are  in  use,  the  Fowler  and  Mallory  wheels 
being  the  most  successful.  Hunt's  steering-pro 
peller  changed  the  angle  of  the  shaft  of  the  screw 
by  a  small  hand- wheel,  connected  to  it  by  gear 
ing  from  above. 

STEERING-SAIL.     A  studding-sail. 

STEERING-SIGNALS.  Signals  made  by  an  elec 
tric  apparatus  connected  with  the  helm,  so  as  to 
indicate  the  position  of  the  rudder  and  its  move 
ments.  Several  such  apparatus  have  been  de 
vised,  but  none  are  in  general  use.  Signals  from 
the  commander-in-chief  prescribing  the  courses 
to  be  steered. 

STEERING-WHEEL.     The  wheel  by  which  the 


STEEVE 


777 


STEVENS 


tiller  is  moved.  The  ordinary  steering-wheel  is 
a  common  wheel  whose  spokes  project  beyond 
the  rim,  and  whose  hub  is  prolonged  to  form  the 
barrel.  On  this  barrel  is  wound  the  wheel-rope. 
By  moving  the  wheel  to  the  right  or  left,  the 
opposite  rope  is  wound  on  the  barrel,  thereby 
moving  the  tiller  to  that  side.  In  men-of-war 
the  wheel  is  ordinarily  aft,  just  forward  of  the 
mizzen-mast,  but  in  some  modern  ships  it  is 
placed  in  a  shot-proof  house  on  the  forward 
part,  or  near  the  middle  of  the  deck,  or  even  on 
the  bridge  or  hurricane-deck.  Duplicate  wheels 
are  often  used  in  different  positions.  In  mer 
chant  steamers  wheels  are  generally  placed  in 
pilot-houses  forward,  and  connect  by  chains  or 
rods  with  the  tiller.  Wheels  are  also  used  with 
screw-  and  steam-steering-gear,  as  described  in 
STEERING  APPARATUS,  which  see. 

STEERSMAN.     A  helmsman. 

Steeve.  To  elevate  at  an  angle  any  spar,  as 
a  bowsprit.  To  stow  cargo  in  the  hold  by  a 
steeve,  or  by  a  jack-screw.  The  angle  which  a 
spar,  as  the  bowsprit,  makes  with  the  horizon. 
A  long  derrick  or  spar,  with  a  block  at  one  end, 
used  in  stowing  cargo. 

Stellwagen-cup.  A  sounding-cup  devised  by 
Lieut.  Stellwagen,  U.  S.  navy,  for  bringing  up 
portions  of  the  bottom. 

Stem.  The  main  timber  at  the  forward  end 
of  the  ship,  formed  by  a  combination  of  several 
pieces  into  a  curvilinear  figure.  Its  lower  end 
scarfs  into  the  keel,  and  it  receives  the  ends  of 
the  planking  around  the  bow.  To  stem,  to  make 
headway  against  a  tide  or  current. 

STEMSON,  or  STEM-KNEES  A  piece  or  pieces 
of  curved  timber  wrought  on  the  after  part  of 
the  apron,  on  the  inside  of  the  ship.  Its  lower 
end  scarfs  into  the  keelson,  its  upper  end  being 
continued  as  high  as  the  middle  or  upper  deck. 

Step.  A  step,  generally,  is  a  framing  in  wood 
or  iron,  which  is  intended  to  receive  an  upright 
shaft.  To  step,  to  fix  a  boat's  mast  or  a  lower 
mast  in  position.  At  the  present  time,  the  fore- 
and  mainmasts  are  stepped  in  cast-iron  mast- 
steps,  made  to  fit  down  over  the  main  keelson, 
with  a  broad  flange  on  the  sister  keelsons,  to 
which  they  are  secured.  The  mizzen-mast  steps 
in  a  piece  of  live-oak  timber,  scored  down  over 
the  berth-  or  orlop-deck  beams,  to  which  it  is  se 
cured.  Steps  of  the  side,  pieces  of  oak,  worked 
with  moldings,  and  fastened  on  the  ship's  side 
at  the  gangway,  for  the  convenience  of  ascend 
ing  and  descending  when  the  accommodation- 
ladder  is  unshipped. 

STEPPING-LINE.  The  bearding-line,  or  the 
line  of  the  top  of  the  rabbet  on  the  dead-wood  on 
which  the  frame-timbers  step. 

Stephenson-link.  A  part  of  the  valve-gear 
of  a  steam-engine  by  which  the  motion  from 
either  the  go-ahead  or  backing  eccentric,  or  a 
combined  motion  of  the  two,  is  transmitted  to 
the  valves,  without  "  unhooking"  or  disconnect 
ing.  The  engine  can  be  stopped  by  bringing 
both  eccentrics  into  nearly  equal  action  upon  the 
valves,  which  is  accomplished  by  placing  the  link 
in  mid-position  by  means  of  the  reversing-gear ; 
and  a  variable  cut-off  within  narrow  limits  may 
be  effected  by  setting  the  link  in  various  posi 
tions  by  the  same  means. 

Sterlet.  A  species  of  sturgeon  (Acipenser  ru- 
thenus),  found  in  the  Caspian  Sea,  and  its  rivers, 
from  whose  roe  is  made  the  finest  caviare. 


Stern.  The  whole  after  part  of  the  ship,  as 
the  forward  part  is  called  the  bows,  but  more 
especially  that  part  of  the  ship  which  is  bounded 
by  the  main-transoms  and  the  counter-timbers. 

STERN-BOARD.  The  backward  motion  of  a 
ship,  resulting  from  negligence  at  the  helm,  or 
bad  seamanship  ;  or  the  effect  of  an  intentional 
manoeuvre,  as  that  of  throwing  sails  aback  sud 
denly  to  avoid  a  danger.  To  make  a  stern-board, 
to  fall  astern  in  tacking. 

STERN-BOAT.     A  boat  carried  astern. 

STERN-CHASE.  A  chase  where  one  vessel  fol 
lows  the  other  in  her  wake,  both  steering  the  same 
course.  A  proverb  makes  it  "long  but  sure." 

STERN-CHASERS.     Guns  firing  directly  aft. 

STERN-DAVITS.  Davits  to  which  a  stern-boat 
is  hoisted. 

STERN-FAST.  A  rope  confining  the  stern  to  a 
wharf,  or  buoy. 

STERN-FRAME.  The  stern-post,  transoms,  and 
fashion-pieces,  bolted  together,  constitute  the 
stern-frame. 

STERN-GALLERY.  A  gallery  or  walk  formerly 
built  across  the  square  sterns  of  large  ships.  On 
three-deckers  there  were  two. 

STERN-KNEE.  A  large  knee  which  forms  the 
lower  piece  df  the  dead-wood  aft  and  connects  the 
stern-post  to  the  keel,  the  arm  being  securely 
bolted  to  the  stern-post  and  the  body  to  the  keel. 

STERN-LADDERS.  Eope  ladders  hung  on  either 
quarter,  for  convenience  in  ascending.  At  sea 
they  have  long  laniards  trailing  astern. 

STERNMOST.     Farthest  in  the  rear. 

STERN-PORTS.  Ports  made  in  the  stern  of  the 
ship,  so  that  guns  may  be  used  as  stern-chasers. 

STERN-POST.  A  long,  straight  piece  of  timber 
whose  lower  extremity  is  securely  fastened  and 
tenoned  into  the  keel,  and  whose  top  is  secured 
to  the  main-transom.  It  receives  the  ends  of  the 
planking  at  the  after  end  of  the  ship.  In  iron 
ships  it  is  simply  a  bar  of  iron  bolted  to  the  keel, 
to  which  the  plates  at  the  after  end  are  riveted. 

STERN-SHEETS.  The  after  part  of  a  boat,  be 
tween  the  after  thwart  and  the  coxswain's  box. 

STERNSON.  The  upper  piece  of  curved  tim 
ber  uniting  the  dead-wood  to  the  stern-post  at  the 
upper  end  in  wooden  ships. 

STERN- WALK.     A  stern-gallery. 

STERN-WAY.  The  opposite  of  headway.  Mo 
tion  backward,  or  astern. 

•  Stevedore.     A  stower.     One  employed  to  stow 
the  hold  of  vessels,  or  to  unload  from  the  hold. 

STEVEDORE'S-HOOK.  An  iron  hook  with  a 
handle,  to  hook  in  bales,  etc. 

Stevens,  Thomas  Holdup,  Commodore 
U.S.N.  The  subject  of  this  sketch  was  born  in 
Charleston,  S.  C.,  February  22,  1795.  Losing 
his  parents  early  in  life,  Gen.  Daniel  Stevens,  an 
eminent  citizen  of  that  State,  and  the  first  mayor 
of  that  city,  became  specially  interested  in  him, 
and  eventually  adopted  him.  Entering  the  navy 
as  a  midshipman,  January  16,  1809,  he  was  or 
dered  to  the  Charleston  Station,  upon  which  duty 
he  remained  until  ordered  to  the  sloop-of-war 
"John  Adams,"  on  board  of  which  vessel  he 
remained  until  the  fall  of  1812,  when,  as  an 
acting  lieutenant,  he  accompanied  Commodore 
Chauncey  to  Sackett's  Harbor,  where  a  naval 
force  was  being  organized  for  co-operation  with 
the  army  on  the  frontier,  and  to  operate  against 
the  floating  force  of  the  enemy  upon  the  North 
ern  lakes.  Shortly  after  reaching  Sackett's  Har- 


STEVENS 


STEVENS 


bor  he  was  assigned  to  duty  on  the  Niagara  fron 
tier  with  Capt.  Angus,  and  was  with  that  officer 
in  the  desperate  night  attack  upon  the  enemy's 
works  opposite  Black  Kock.  Of  his  conduct  upon 
that  occasion  Capt.  Angus  reports  :  "  I  was,  im 
mediately  after  landing,  joined  by  the  truly  brave 
Holdup  Stevens,  who  behaved  himself  like  a  gal 
lant  and  valuable  officer."  And  again:  "As 
for  the  gallant  Wragg,  Dudley,  and  Holdup  Ste 
vens,  their  conduct  speaks  for  itself."  In  recog 
nition  of  this  splendid  service  he  was  commis 
sioned  a  lieutenant  in  the  early  part  of  January, 
1813.  (For  further  notice  of  his  war-service  see 
Cooper's  "Naval  History.")  Congress  voted 
him  a  silver  medal  for  Lake  Erie,  and  the  citi 
zens  of  Charleston,  S.  C.,  presented  him  a  sword. 
Remaining  upon  the  lakes  as  executive-officer  of 
the  "  Niagara"  until  November  19,  1814,  he 
was  then  ordered  to  the  frigate  "Java,"  fitting 
out  under  Commodore  O.  H.  Perry  for  a  cruise 
in  the  Mediterranean.  In  1819-20  he  was  at 
tached  to  the  frigate  "  Constellation,"  and  for 
two  years  subsequently  was  attached  to  the  navy- 
yard,  New  York,  under  command  of  Commo 
dore  Chauncey.  When  the  Mosquito  Fleet  under 
Commodore  Porter  was  being  fitted  out;  for  the 
suppression  of  piracy  in  the  West  Indies,  he  was 
ordered  to  report  for  duty  to  that  officer,  and  was 
first  assigned  to  the  command  of  the  "  Asp," 
subsequently  to  the  command  of  the  schooner 
"Jackal,"  and  later  to  command  the  schooner 
"  Shark,"  in  which  vessels  he  rendered  effi 
cient  and  valuable  service,  and  added  largely 
to  his  brilliant  reputation.  In  March,  1825, 
he  was  promoted  to  a  master  commandant,  and 
in  1827-29  was  the  executive-officer  of  the 
Washington  Navy- Yard,  remaining,  upon  the 
death  of  Commodore  Tingley,  temporarily  in 
command.  Upon  the  expiration  of  this  term 
of  service  he  was  ordered  to  the  command  of 
the  sloop-of-war  "  Ontario,"  one  of  the  ves 
sels  comprising  the  Mediterranean  Squadron, 
under  the  command  of  Commodore  James  Bid- 
die,  and  upon  various  occasions  was  intrusted  by 
that  distinguished  officer,  whose  confidence  he 
possessed  to  an  eminent  degree,  with  duties  of  a 
highly  responsible,  grave,  and  delicate  character. 
Returning  to  the  United  States  with  the  respect, 
esteem,  and  affection  of  all  with  whom  he  had 
been  associated,  he  was  ordered  to  the  command 
of  the  naval  rendezvous  at  Boston,  where  he 
remained,  popularizing  the  navy  and  himself" 
through  his  rare  social  gifts  and  high  qualities, 
until  promoted  to  a  captain,  in  1836.  In  1840- 
41  he  commanded  the  navy-yard  and  station  at 
Washington,  D.  C.,  with  signal  success  and 
ability.  While  upon  this  duty  a  very  serious 
difficulty  occurred  between  the  late  Commodore 
M.  C.  Perry  and  Admiral  F.  H.  Gregory,  which 
was  only  prevented  from  a  mortal  issue  through 
the  earnest  and  untiring  efforts  and  friendly  in 
terference  of  that  gifted  and  incomparable  officer, 
Commodore  Charles  Morris,  and  the  chivalric 
officer  of  whom  we  write. 

Cut  off  in  the  vigor  and  bloom  of  manhood, 
with  the  past  an  earnest  of  his  future,  we  have 
just  reason  to  believe  that  in  the  stormy  times 
in  which  we  have  recently  lived,  had  his  life 
been  spared,  he  would  have  been,  through  the 
force  of  his  character  and  his  high  professional 
qualities,  a  prominent  actor  and  a  conspicuous 
leader. 


The  National  Intelligencer,  of  Washington,  at 
that  time  edited  by  Mr.  Seaton,  published  the 
following  beautiful  tribute  to  Commodore  Ste 
vens  at  the  time  of  the  publication  of  the  General 
Order  announcing  his  death  : 

"  The  Naval  Order  which  appears  to-day  will 
announce  to  our  readers  the  decease  —  sudden 
and  unanticipated  as  it  is  afflicting — of  Commo 
dore  Thomas  Holdup  Stevens,  of  the  navy.  In 
the  meridian  of  life,  and  in  the  enjoyment  of 
the  highest  health,  he  retired  to  bed  on  Wednes 
day  night,  and  before  morning  the  angel  of  death 
had  stricken  him  from  the  number  of  the  living. 
We  know  not  when  any  instance  of  those  solemn 
dispensations  which  Providence  orders,  as  it  were, 
as  admonitions  of  the  uncertain  tenure  of  exist 
ence,  has  struck  upon  us  more  painfully. 

"  Open-hearted,  frank,  and  generous,  we  know 
not  a  man  who  made  his  way  so  directly  to  the 
affections  of  all  to  whom  he  became  known  as 
this  gallant  and  lamented  officer ;  and  propor 
tionally  keen  is  the  sorrow  for  his  loss  and  the 
sympathy  which  is  universally  felt  for  his  large 
and  estimable  family. 

"  Commodore  Stevens  was  a  native  of  Charles 
ton,  S.  C.,  and  entered  the  navy  in  1809,  at  the 
early  age  of  fifteen.  Young  as  he  was,  he  had 
distinguished  himself  in  the  war  of  1812,  even 
before  Perry's  brilliant  victory  on  Lake  Erie, 
and  he  commanded  one  of  the  vessels  in  that 
ever-memorable  battle.  As  a  man,  he  was  with 
out  reproach,  and  as  an  officer,  he  was  regarded 
as  one  of  the  brightest  ornaments  of  the  navy  in 
peace,  as  he  had  been  one  of  its  most  gallant  sons 
in  war." 

Stevens,  Thomas  H.,  Rear-Admiral  U.S.N. 
Born  in  Connecticut.  Appointed  from  Connec 
ticut,  December  14,  1836  ;  attached  to  razee  "  In 
dependence,"  Brazil  Squadron,  1838-41. 

Promoted  to  passed  midshipman,  July  1,  1842  ; 
surveying  duty,  Gulf  of  Mexico,  1842-43 ; 
steamer  "Michigan,"  on  the  lakes,  1843-44; 
naval  storekeeper,  Honolulu,  1845-48;  Naval 
Station,  Sackett's  Harbor,  New  York,  1849. 

Commissioned  as  lieutenant,  May  10,  1849 ; 
attached  to  steamer  "  Michigan,"  on  the  lakes, 
1849-51  ;  coast  survey,  1852-55 ;  steam-frigate 
"Colorado,"  Home  Squadron,  1858-60;  com 
manding  steam-gunboat  "Ottawa,"  1861-62; 
participated  in  the  engagement  with  the  rebel 
fleet  at  Port  Royal,  November  4,  1861  ;  and  en 
gagement  with  Forts  Beauregard  and  Walker, 
November  5,  1861 ;  battle  of  Port  Royal  and 
capture  of  Forts  Beauregard  and  Walker,  No 
vember  7,  1861 ;  battle  of  Port  Royal  Ferry, 
January  1,  1862;  engagement  with  Tattnall's 
rebel  fleet,  February,  1862 ;  capture  of  Fort 
Clinch  and  the  towns  of  Fernandina  and  St. 
Mary's,  and  steamer  "Darlington,"  March  3, 
1862;  engagement  with  enemy's  riflemen  on  the 
St.  Mary's  River,  March  6,  1862;  during  the 
months  of  March  and  April,  1862,  Lieutenant 
Stevens  was  in  command  of  the  first  expedition 
up  the  St.  John's  River,  which  captured  Forts 
Steele  and  Finnegan,  with  their  guns,  etc.,  and 
the  towns  of  Mayport,  Jacksonville,  Magnolia, 
and  Pulaski,  and  yacht  "America." 

Commissioned  as  commander,  July  16,  1862 ; 
commanding  steamer  "  Maratanza,"  North  At 
lantic  Blockading  Squadron,  1862;  present  at 
the  battle  of  West  Point,  and  in  command  of  the 
first  naval  expedition  to  Cumberland  and  White 


STEVEN'S 


T79 


STEWAKD 


House  to  open  the  river  for  and  support  the  ad 
vance  of  Gen.  McClellan,  May,  1862  ;  present  at 
demonstration  against  Petersburg  and  battle  of 
Malvern  Hill,  June,  1862;  on  July  4,  1862,  the 
"  Maratanza,"  under  the  command  of  Com 
mander  Stevens,  captured  the  rebel  gunboat 
"  Teazer"  ;  commanding  ironclad  "  Monitor," 
North  Atlantic  Blockading  Squadron,  1862 ; 
while  in  command  of  the  "  Monitor,"  covered  the 
flank  of  McClellan's  army  on  the  James  River 
and  the  rear  in  his  withdrawal  from  the  Penin 
sula ;  commanding  steamer  "Sonoma,"  West 
India  Squadron,  1862-63  ;  capture  of  schooner 
"  Clyde,"  steamer  "  Victoria,"  brigantine  "  At 
lantic,"  bark  "Springbok,"  steamer  "Virginia," 
and  chase  of  rebel  privateer  "  Florida"  for  34 
hours  ;  commanding  ironclad  "  Patapsco,"  South 
Atlantic  Squadron,  1863  ;  while  in  command  of 
"  Patapsco,"  participated  in  engagement  with 
Fort  Morgan,  August  22,  attack  on  Fort  Sumter, 
August  23,  and  engagement  with  Fort  Moultrie, 
Battery  Bee,  and  adjacent  batteries,  in  command 
of  4  monitors,  August  31 ;  on  September  1,  de 
monstration  against  Fort  Sumter  and  obstruc 
tions;  September  6,  engagement  with  Forts 
Wagner  and  Gregg  and  capture  of  the  same; 
September  7,  demonstration  against  Fort  Sum 
ter  and  obstructions,  and  engagement  with  all 
of  Sullivan's  Island  batteries  ;  September  8,  en 
gagement  with  Sullivan's  Island  batteries;  in 
command  of  boat  assault  on  Fort  Sumter  on  the 
night  of  September  8;  bombardment  of  Fort 
Sumter,  from  October  25  to  November  4,  inclu 
sive;  commanding  steam-sloop  "  Oneida,"  West 
ern  Gulf  Blockading  Squadron,  1863-65;  opera 
tions  before  Mobile,  from  July  1  to  August  3, 
18ti4  ;  to  enable  Commander  Mullany  (now  rear- 
admiral),  who  had  volunteered  for  the  occasion, 
to  participate  in  the  fight,  Stevens  consented  to 
take  the  double-turreted  monitor  "  Winnebago," 
and  Mullany  was  assigned  to  the  "  Oneida"  (by 
this  arrangement  both  these  officers  commanded 
fighting  ships) ;  commanded  monitor  "  Winne 
bago"  in  engagement  with  Fort  Powell,  driving 
off  reinforcements  and  supplies,  August  4,  and 
in  battle  of  Mobile  Bay,  and  capture  of  rebel 
ram  "  Tennessee"  and  fleet,  and  at  capture  of 
Forts  Powell  and  Gaines;  bombardment  and 
capture  of  Fort  Morgan  ;  while  in  command  of 
"  Oneida,"  May  13, 1865,  off  Boca  Chico,  Texas, 
covering  left  flank  of  the  army  from  apprehended 
attack ;  present  at  the  ratification  of  the  agree 
ment  for  the  surrender  of  the  trans-Mississippi 
army  by  Gens.  Curtis,  Smith,  and  Magrudcr  ;  in 
command  of  Texas  division  of  Gulf  "Squadron, 
July,  1865 ;  in  August,  returned  to  New  York 
in  command  of  the  "  Oneida." 

Upon  the  occasion  of  his  leaving  the  squadron, 
the  following  letter  was  addressed  him  by  the 
late  Admiral  Dupont : 

"  I  cannot  permit  you  to  leave  without  ex 
pressing  my  regret  at  your  withdrawal  from  my 
squadron,  having  ever  found  you  prompt,  ener 
getic,  skillful,  and  brave  in  all  the  duties  per 
taining  to  your  command.  Your  operations  on 
the  St.  John's  River,  as  senior  officer  of  the  naval 
forces  which  took  possession  of  those  waters,  were 
attended  by  circumstances  requiring  judgment 
and  discretion,  both  of  which  you  exhibited  in  a 
manner  highly  satisfactory  to  me. 

"  I  am,  sir,  respectfully,  your  obedient  servant, 
"S.  F.  DUPONT." 


Upon  being  relieved'  of  the  command  of  the 
"  Monitor,"  then  in  Hampton  Roads,  the  present 
rear-admiral,  John  Rodgers,  wrote  as  follows : 

"  In  all  the  time  of  our  companionship  on  duty 
you  have  evinced  courage  and  coolness.  In  our 
reconnoissance  of  the  forts  at  Hilton  Head  pre 
vious  to  the  grand  attack,  in  the  grand  attack  in 
which  they  were  taken,  in  the  Cooper  River,  in 
the  Appomattox,  with  your  vessel  aground  under 
very  trying  circumstances,  you  have  exhibited 
the  characteristics  of  a  valuable  officer.  I  have 
not  cited  occasions  of  which  I  have  only  heard, 
but  of  which  I  have  been  mindful,  where  your 
conduct  has  received  the  warmest  praise.  Every 
where  you  have  shown  yourself  adashing,  zealous 
officer." 

Rear-Admiral  Charles  Wilkes,  in  a  letter  to 
the  Secretary  of  the  Navy,  in  reference  to  Capt. 
Stevens,  writes, — 

"I  have  had  many  and  favorable  oppor 
tunities,  having  been  associated  with  him  (Com 
mander  Stevens),  and  he  served  under  my  com 
mand  in  the  James  River,  and  in  the  West 
Indies,  most  of  the  time  under  my  immediate 
observation.  His  patriotism  is  beyond  doubt ; 
his  ability  as  an  officer  is  second  to  none  in  the 
navy ;  he  has  at  all  times  given  me  on  duty  en 
tire  satisfaction  in  the  performance  of  his  duties, 
and  the  zeal  with  which  he  executed  them.  I 
think  him  a  high-toned  officer  and  a  gentleman, 
and  know  him  to  be  an  ornament  to  the  service. 
His  duties  engrossed  his  whole  attention  ;  ever 
ready  and  prompt  in  their  execution,  winning  my 
entire  satisfaction  and  confidence  in  his  willing 
ness,  activity,  and  ability  in  the  execution  of 
orders.  His  command  was  always  held  ready 
j  for  duty,  and  through  his  example,  energy,  and 
good  management  he  fulfilled  many  orders,  over- 
I  coming  great  difficulties  he  had  to  encounter. 
I  He  is  brave  and  chivalric ;  no  officer  could  have 
shown  more  attachment  to  the  Union  cause  dur 
ing  the  late  war,  and  none  exerted  themselves 
more  to  maintain  and  restore  the  Union,  and  up 
hold  the  honor  of  our  flag." 

Commissioned  as  captain,  July  25,  1866; 
light-house  inspector,  1867-70;  commanding 
frigate  "Guerriere,"  European  Squadron,  1870- 
71. 

Commissioned  as  commodore,  November  20, 
1872 ;  commanding  navy-yard,  Norfolk,  Va., 
1873-76.  While  on  this  duty,  assigned  by  the 
President,  at  the  request  of  the  governor  of 
Virginia,  as  member  of  the  U.  S.  Advisory 
Board  of  Harbor  Commissioners  of  Norfolk  and 
Portsmouth  ;  continued  upon  same  duty  after 
being  relieved  as  commandant  of  the  yard,  upon 
expiration  of  term,  and  also  employed  at  present 
as  president  of  board  for  examination  of  and  re 
port  on  "  Puritan."  Special  duty,  Norfolk  har 
bor,  1876-80. 

Commissioned  as  rear-admiral,  October  27, 
1879  ;  commanding  Pacific  Squadron,  1880. 

Steward.  A  person  employed  on  board  ships 
to  provide  for  the  table,  superintend  its  culinary 
affairs,  etc.  In  merchant  ships  he  provides  for 
the  tables  of  passengers,  crew,  and  officers,  has 
charge  of  the  saloons,  baggage,  etc.  In  men-of- 
war  there  are  several  stewards.  The  paymaster's 
steward  is  now  styled  in  the  navy  the  paymaster's 
yeoman,  and  he  has  charge  of  the  store-rooms, 
issues  small  stores,  serves  out  rations,  and  assists 
in  issuing  clothing,  etc.  The  admiral's  steward. 


STEWAKDESS 


780 


STOCKHOLM 


captain's  steward,  wardroom  steward,  steerage 
steward,  and  warrant-officers'  steward,  are  petty 
officers,  receiving  from  $19.50  to  $41.50  per 
month,  and  charged  with  providing  for  the 
various  messes  under  their  charge.  Hospital 
steward,  the  former  title  of  the  apothecary,  which 
see. 

Stewardess.  A  woman  employed  in  passenger 
vessels  to  attend  to  the  wants  of  female  pas 
sengers. 

Stewart,  Charles,  Rear-Admiral  U.S.N., 
was  born  in  Philadelphia,  July  28,  1778.  He 
entered  the  merchant  service  at  the  age  of  13, 
and  rose  to  the  command  of  an  East  India- 
man.  Was  commissioned  lieutenant  in  the 
navy,  March  9,  1798.  Was  fourth  lieutenant 
of  the  "United  States,"  under  Barry,  in  the 
West  Indies.  In  1800,  commanded  the  schooner 
"  Experiment"  ;  captured  the  schooner  "Deux 
Amis."  Chased  by  two  French  vessels,  soon 
after,  he  captured  one.  the  "  Diane,"  by  a  skillful 
ruse,  and  next  a  privateer,  the  "  Laura  Bridger." 
Was  in  charge  of  the  "Chesapeake,"  in  1801, 
and  in  1802  sailed  for  the  Mediterranean  as  first 
lieutenant  of  the  "  Constellation,"  Capt.  Murray, 
and  was  in  the  first  brush  with  Tripolitan  boats. 
Keturning  in  1803,  was  given  command  of  the 
brig  "  Siren,"  and  arrived  off  Tripoli,  October  1, 
1803.  Convoyed  the  party,  in  the  ketch  "  In 
trepid."  that  destroyed  the  "  Philadelphia,"  and 
was  senior  officer  of  that  expedition.  Named 
senior  master-commandant  in  May,  1804,  and 
on  the  2d  of  March  captured  the  privateer 
"  Transfer."  Engaged  with  batteries  and  boats, 
in  April ;  in  the  attacks  of  August  4,  August  7, 
August  28,  and  September  3,  on  Tripoli.  Was 
promoted  to  captain  April  22,  1806.  Superin 
tended  construction  of  gunboats  in  New  York, 
1806-7,  and  was  in  the  merchant  service  from 
1808  to  1812;  fitting  out  the  "Argus"  and  the 
"  Hornet,"  1812,  and  then  commanded  the  "  Con 
stellation  "  In  conveying  her  down  Chesapeake 
Bay,  he  encountered  a  British  fleet,  and  only 
avoided  it  by  superior  seamanship.  Afterward, 
assisted  in  the  defense  of  Norfolk.  Commanded 
the  "Constitution"  next,  joining  her  in  Decem 
ber,  1813,  and  in  November,  1814,  captured  the 
"Pictou"  (14)  and  other  vessels.  Sailing  again, 
December  17,  crossed  the  Atlantic,  and  made  two 
prizes.  On  the  20th  of  February,  1815,  after  a 
gallant  fight,  he  captured  the  "  Cyane"  (20) 
and  "  Levant"  (18).  Was  chased  by  a  squad 
ron,  and  lost  the  "  Levant."  He  received  a  gold 
medal  and  a  sword,  the  thanks  of  Congress  and 
of  the  Pennsylvania  Legislature,  and  the  freedom 
of  the  city  of  New  York.  In  1816,  commanded 
the  Mediterranean  Squadron  in  the  "Franklin" 
(74),  until  January,  1820.  In  1821,  commanded 
Pacific  Squadron  until  1824.  For  alleged  irregu 
larities  he  was  tried  on  his  return  home,  in  1825, 
but  acquitted.  Waiting  orders,  1826,  1827, 
1828 ;  president  Examining  Board,  1829 ;  Com 
missioner  of  the  Navy,  1830-32 ;  waiting  orders, 
1833-37;  Philadelphia  Navy-Yard,  1838-41. 
During  the  latter  year  he  was  spoken  of  as  can 
didate  for  President,  but  not  nominated ;  1842-43, 
in  command  of  the  Home  Squadron ;  1844-45, 
waiting  orders ;  1846,  commanded  navy-yard, 
Philadelphia;  waiting  orders,  1850-54.  In 
1852  he  became  the  senior  officer  of  the  navy ; 
1854,  navy-yard,  Philadelphia,  which  position 
he  held  until  1861 ;  was  retired  as  senior  commo 


dore  in  1856,  when  78,  and  was  promoted  to  the 
rank  of  flag-officer  in  1860 ;  was  on  waiting 
orders  until  his  death.  Promoted  to  rear-ad 
miral,  July  16,  1862.  He  died  at  Bordentown, 
N.  J.,  November  6,  1869,  aged  91,  having  been 
the  senior  officer  in  the  navy  for  17  years  (the 
eighth  to  hold  that  office),  and  in  the  service  71 
years. — F.  S.  Bassett,  Lieutenant  U.S.N. 

Stick.     A  term  applied  to  a  mast. 

Stickle-back.  A  small  fish  of  the  genus  Gas- 
terosteus,  so  called  from  the  spines  which  arm 
their  back,  ventral  fins,  and  other  parts. 

Stiff.  That  quality  in  a  vessel  which  enables 
her  to  carry  a  press  of  sail  without  careening 
much.  A  stiff  ship  is  not  necessarily  stable. 
Stiff  bottom,  a  hard,  tenacious,  muddy  bottom. 
Stiff  breeze,  a  strong  breeze,  in  which  a  press  of 
sail  may  be  carried. 

STIFFENING-ORDER  (Eng.}.  A  custom-house 
warrant,  allowing  a  ship  to  commence  taking 
cargo  before  the  old  is  entirely  out,  to  prevent 
becoming  too  light. 

STIFF-HOOK  BLOCK.  A  block  with  a  rigid 
hook. 

Stiles.  The  up-and-down  pieces  in  a  section 
of  a  bulk-head,  or  those  that  form  the  two  sides 
of  it.  The  rails  lie  across  and  are  tenoned  into 
the  stiles.  When  the  panels  would  be  too  large, 
or  out  of  proportion,  to  fill  in  wholly  between 
the  stiles,  pieces  called  munnions  are  placed  be 
tween  them  in  the  same  direction,  and  tenoned 
into  the  rails. 

Still  Water.  Water  not  agitated  by  currents 
or  tides.  Slack-tide. 

Sting-bull.  A  fish  of  the  genus  Trachinus 
(T.  draco),  which  is  capable  of  inflicting  severe 
wounds  with  the  spinous  rays  of  its  dorsal  fins. 

Sting-ray.  The  Trygon  pastinaca,  a  fish  with 
a  saw-like  bone  on  the  upper  side  of  the  tail, 
which  wounds,  but  does  not  poison. 

Stink-balls.  Balls  carrying  an  offensive  prep 
aration  of  pitch,  rosin,  gunpowder,  assafoetida, 
and  colophony,  formerly  thrown  on  decks  at  close 
quarters. 

Stink-pots.  Earthen  jars  charged  with  a 
similar  mixture  to  that  in  stink-balls,  and  also 
with  hand-grenades,  to  throw  on  an  enemy's 
decks. 

Stirrup.  A  short  rope,  hanging  from  the 
yard,  with  a  thimble  in  the  lower  end,  through 
which  the  foot-rope  is  rove  ;  they  are  lashed  to 
the  iron  jack-stay  on  the  yard.  An  iron  plate 
joining  the  keel  and  stern-post,  and  bolted 
through  them  ;  called  also  stirrup-plate. 

Stirrup-plate.     See  STIRRUP. 

Stoach-way  (Eng.}.  A  small  stream  of  water 
running  through  the  sand  or  mud  at  low-tide. 

Stoak.  To  choke  up  the  timbers  so  that  the 
pump  will  not  empty  the  bilge. 

Stock.  A  cross-beam  of  wood  or  iron  at  right 
angles  to  the  shank  of  an  anchor.  The  wooden 
part  of  a  musket,  carbine,  or  pistol.  In  block- 
making,  a  wooden  tool  having  a  bit  at  one  end, 
and  a  pin  with  a  flat  head  at  the  other  end.  To 
stock  to,  to  pull  the  anchor  stock  in  an  upright 
position  on  the  bows,  by  the  stock-tackle. 

STOCK-AND-BILL  TACKLE,  or  STOCK-TACKLE. 
A  tackle  used  across  the  forecastle  for  the  purpose 
of  stowing  the  anchor,  or  getting  the  stock  up 
right,  and  the  flukes  on  the  bill-board. 

Stock-fish.    Cod  dried  in  the  sun  without  salt. 

Stockholm,  the  capital  of  Sweden,  is  beauti- 


STOCKS 


781 


STOPPEK 


fully  situated  between  Lake  Maelar  and  the 
Baltic.  It  stands  partly  on  the  north  and  south 
sides  of  the  strait,  between  the  lake  and  the  sea, 
and  partly  on  several  islands.  A  strong  citadel 
has  been  erected  on  the  small  island  of  Kastell- 
holm,  while  the  fortifications  of  Waxholm  have 
been  so  strengthened  as  to  command  the  only 
channel  by  which  a  hostile  approach  by  sea 
could  be  attempted.  Among  the  educational  es 
tablishments  are  a  technological  institute,  medi 
cal  college,  and  a  school  of  navigation.  The 
harbor,  though  somewhat  difficult  of  access,  is 
capacious,  and  has  depth  of  water  sufficient  for 
the  largest  vessels  at  its  quays.  It  has  a  con 
siderable  foreign,  inland,  and  coastwise  trade. 
Lat.  59°  20'  36"  N. ;  Ion.  18°  3/  45"  E.  Pop. 
166,000. 

Stocks.  A  place  properly  arranged  on  the 
shore  of  a  river  or  bay,  upon  which  a  vessel  is  to  be 
built.  It  consists  of  a  number  of  wooden  blocks 
ranged  parallel  to  each  other  at  convenient  dis 
tances,  with  a  gradual  decline  toward  the  water. 

Stockton,  Robert  Field,  Commodore  U.S.N. 
Born  at  Princeton,  N.  J.,  1796;  died  there  Oc 
tober  7, 1866.  A.M.  of  New  Jersey  College,  1820. 
He  left  New  Jersey  College  in  his  15th  year ;  en 
tered  the  navy  as  midshipman,  September  1, 
1811  ;  received  honorable  notice  for  gallantry  in 
several  battles  ;  was  made  lieutenant,  December 
9,  1814;  commander,  May  27,  1830;  captain, 
December  8,  1838 ;  resigned,  May  28,  1850.  In 
1815,  while  first  lieutenant  of  the  "Spitfire,"  he 
distinguished  himself  by  boarding  with  a  boat's 
crew  an  Algerine  war-vessel.  Ordered  in  1821 
to  the  coast  of  Africa,  he  obtained  by  treaty 
from  the  native  chiefs  the  tract  constituting 
the  present  republic  of  Liberia.  He  also  cap 
tured  many  slavers,  and  a  Portuguese  privateer 
of  22  guns.  On  his  return  he  was  successful 
in  breaking  up  the  nests  of  many  West  India 
pirates.  In  1826-38,  he  took  an  active  part  in 
politics  in  favor  of  Gen.  Jackson,  and  also  in  aid 
ing  internal  improvements  in  his  State.  In  1838, 
he  was  flag-officer  of  the  "Ohio"  in  the  Mediterra 
nean.  He  was  one  of  the  first  to  advocate  a  steatn 
navy  ;  and  the"  Princeton, "built  according  to  his 
plans  in  1842,  furnished  the  model  for  numerous 
other  vessels.  By  the  explosion  of  one  of  her  largo 
guns,  February  28,  1844,  Commodore  Stockton 
was  seriously  injured.  Sent  to  the  Pacific  in 
October,  1845;  he  with  1500  men,  including  600 
sailors,  in  about  6  months  conquered  the  whole 
of  California,  and  established  the  authority  of 
the  United  States  there.  Forming  a  provisional 
government,  he  returned  to  the  East  in  June, 
1847.  The  difficulty  between  him  and  Gen. 
Kearney  in  relation  to  the  supreme  command 
there  was  subsequently  made  the  subject  of  a 
court-martial.  U.  S.  Senator  in  1851-53,  he 
strenuously  opposed  intervention  in  favor  of  Hun 
gary,  and  procured  the  passage  of  a  law  for  the 
abolition  of  flogging  in  the  navy. 

Stoer-mackerel  (Eng.}.  The  young  tunny- 
fish. 

Stoke.  To  tend  the  furnace-fires,  or  the  galley- 
fire.  To  frequent  the  galley  ;  to  loaf  about  it. 

STOKE-HOLE.  The  space  in  front  of  a  steam- 
boiler  from  which  the  fires  are  managed.  See 
FIRE-ROOM. 

STOKER.  A  fireman  in  a  steam-vessel.  One 
who  attends  the  fires  in  a  furnace.  See  FIRE 
MAN. 


Stonacre  (Eng.}.  A  sloop-rigged  boat  for 
carrying  stone. 

Stool.  A  channel  abaft  the  main  channel  for 
backstays.  A  chock  under  the  lower  stem- 
transom,  to  which  the  lower  ends  of  the  fashion- 
pieces  are  fastened.  The  ornamental  block  which 
was  formerly  placed  over  the  stem  for  a  poop- 
lantern. 

Stop.  A  small  projection  at  the  head  of  a 
lower-mast,  supporting  the  trestle-trees.  A 
small  line  used  to  tie  up  anything.  Clothes- 
stops,  small  laniards  fastened  to  clothing,  to  hang 
it  by  when  washed.  Hammock-stops,  laniards 
on  hammocks  for  the  same  purpose.  Awning- 
stops,  short  rope-ends  spliced  into  the  ridge  of  an 
awning,  to  serve  to  tie  it  when  furled.  Awning 
side-stops,  small  lines  to  haul  the  edge  of  an 
awning  out  to  the  ridge-rope.  To  stop,  to  lash 
anything  temporarily  with  a  piece  of  small-stuff. 
To  close,  as  to  stop  a  leak. 

STOP  HER  !     An  order  to  stop  the  engines. 

STOP-VALVE.  A  tight-closing  valve  attached 
to  a  steam-boiler  or  engine  for  the  purpose  of 
isolating  one  boiler  from  steam  communication 
with  others,  or  for  thoroughly  excluding  steam 
from  the  engine. 

STOP-WATER.  An  object  towed  overboard, 
checking  the  ship's  way.  A  treenail. 

Stopper.  A  short  piece  of  rope,  secured  to  a 
bolt,  or  to  any  point  near  a  running  rope,  and 
used  to  check  the  motion  of  the  latter  by  its 
friction  when  wound  about  it.  The  ends  of 
stoppers  are  usually  unlaid,  and  plaited  up,  so  as 
to  make  them  soft  and  pliable. 

Ropes,  or  more  frequently  chains,  fastening 
the  anchor  in  place  on  the  bow. 

A  rope,  chain,  or  mechanical  contrivance  serv 
ing  to  arrest  the  motion  of  a  cable,  or  to  prevent 
its  running  out  when  at  anchor.  These  are  of 
various  kinds.  Deck-stoppers,  laniard-stoppers, 
or  rope-stoppers,  are  short  pieces  of  rope,  having 
a  large  knot  in  one  end,  and  a  rope  laniard,  of 
smaller  dimensions,  and  in  the  other  end  a  large 
hook  or  shackle  for  hooking  it  into  a  bolt  in  the 
deck.  The  laniard  is  wound  about  the  cable  and 
stopper,  and  the  knot  keeps  it  from  slipping. 
Dog-stoppers  are  strong  ropes  fastened  to  the 
mainmast,  hatch,  bitts,  etc.,  to  assist  the  deck- 
stoppers.  When  at  the  bitts,  they  are  bitt-stop- 
pers ;  when  in  the  hatches,  hatch-stoppers;  and 
when  secured  to  the  knees  in  the  wings  of  large 
vessels,  wing-stoppers.  Ring-stoppers  are  pieces 
of  rope  unlaid  and  plaited,  whose  bight  is  fast 
ened  about  a  ring  in  the  deck,  while  the  ends  are 
wound  about  the  cable.  Iron  stoppers  are  used, 
as  hatch-stoppers  in  the  corners  of  the  hatches, 
and  compressors  on  the  berth-deck,  at  the  bottom 
of  the  chain-pipes.  Both  these  are  curved  iron 
levers,  worked  by  a  tackle,  which  compress  the 
chain-cable  and  stop  it.  A  slip-stopper  consists 
of  two  or  three  short  links  of  chain,  shackled  or 
bolted  to  an  eye-bolt  or  ring-bolt  in  the  deck, 
with  a  slip-shackle  at  the  other  end.  Check-stop 
pers  are  pieces  of  rope  fastened  to  a  chain,  which 
part  by  the  strain,  but  check  the  cable  in  so 
doing.  Mechanical,  or  patent  stoppers,  are  con 
trivances  for  arresting  the  motion  of  the  cable. 
Many  have  been  devised,  but  the  more  common 
one,  Mix's  stopper,  serves  as  a  type  of  them  all. 
It  is  an  iron  casting  in  a  wooden  frame,  in  two 
parts.  The  upper  part  is  worked  by  a  screw  from 
above.  By  screwing  it  down  on  the  lower  part, 


STOKES 


782 


STORM 


but  one  link  is  held  in  the  casting,  and  the  next 
link  is  stopped.  A  lener  stopper  is  on  the  same 
principle,  a  casting  holding  but  one  link,  but 
only  while  the  chain  is  quiescent,  there  being  no 
upper  piece  to  hold  it  in  place. 

An  assemblage  of  ropes  and  dead-eyes,  used 
to  secure  rigging  when  it  has  parted.  (See 
FIGHTING  STOPPERS.)  To  stopper,  to  arrest  the 
motion  of  a  running  rope,  cable,  etc.,  with  a 
stopper. 

STOPPER-BOLTS.  Large  ring-bolts  driven 
through  the  deck  and  beam. 

STOPPER-KNOT.  A  knot  in  the  end  of  a  deck- 
stopper,  made  by  double-walling  the  end  of  the 
rope. 

STOPPER-LANIARD.  The  rope  fastened  to  the 
head  of  a  stopper.  The  rope  uniting  the  dead- 
eyes  in  a  fighting  stopper. 

STOPPING-UP-PIECES.  The  middle  pieces  sup 
porting  a  ship  on  the  cradle  in  launching. 

Stores.     Supplies  of  any  kind. 

STORE,  or  STORE-HOUSE.  A  house  in  a  navy- 
yard  where  any  property  is  stored. 

STORE-KEEPER  (Eng.).  An  officer  in  a  dock 
yard,  in  charge  of  all  stores  and  all  store-houses. 
A  person  superintending  a  store-house  in  a 
navy-yard. 

STORE-ROOM.  A  room  in  the  hold,  or  on  the 
lower  or  orlop-deck  of  a  ship,  in  which  stores  are 
placed.  General  store-room,  a  room  in  the  fore- 
peak,  containing  spare  articles,  iron  castings, 
blocks,  rope,  duplicate  tools,  etc.  It  is  under  the 
charge  of  the  yeoman,  i 

STORE-SHIP.  A  government  vessel  used  for 
carrying  stores,  or  for  storing  them  away  in  for 
eign'  ports. 

Storm.  A  violent  disturbance  of  the  atmos 
phere,  producing  wind, 'rain,  snow,  hail,  sleet, 
etc.  Wind-storms  are  direct,  as  hurricanes,  tem 
pests,  etc.,  or  revolving,  by  far  the  greater  num 
ber  belonging  to  the  latter  class.  To  storm,  to 
assault  a  fortified  place  by  open  force. 

Storm,  Revolving  (Hurricane,  Typhoon,  Cy 
clone,  etc.).  Definition^ — A  disturbed  condition 
of  the  atmosphere  extending  over  a  circular  area 
varying  in  diameter  (according  to  the  locality 
where  it  occurs)  from  50  to  1000  miles,  within 
the  limits  of  which  currents  of  air  move  with 
the  extraordinary  velocity  of  from  80  to  130 
miles  an  hour  around  a  central  calm-space  of 
low  atmospheric  pressure ;  while  at  the  same  time 
the  whole  storm-area  moves  forward  on  a  track, 
either  straight  or  curved,  itt  the  rate  of  from  1  to 
43  miles  an  hour. 

History  of  Storms.— The  history  of  this  phe 
nomenon  (which  for  the  sake  of  brevity  I  will 
call  cyclone)  dates  back  nearly  200  years,  and 
the  first  authentic  information  on  the  subject  was 
published  in  England  ("Philosophical  Trans 
actions,"  October,  1698),  in  a  paper  on  the  West 
India  hurricanes,  by  Capt.  Langford,  in  which 
paper  he  speaks  of  a  storm  as  a  whirlwind ;  de 
scribes  the  veering  of  the  wind  within  the  storm 
area,  and  refers  to  a  progressive  movement  of 
the  storm  itself. 

The  Spanish  navigator,  Don  Juan  d'Ulloa, 
during  a  cruise  on  the  Pacific  coast  of  South 
America  in  the  year  1743,  experienced  several 
storms  in  which  the  wind  changed  from  north  to 
west*  (which  would  occur  in  the  northeast  quad- 

*  Plddington,  p.  82,  and  "  Dove's  Law  of  Storms,"  p.  108. 


rant  of  a  cyclone  in  the  southern  hemisphere 
traveling  southward  and  eastward). 

In  1801,  Col.  James  Capper  published  a  work 
entitled  "  Observations  on  the  Winds  and  Mon 
soons,"  in  which  he  speaks  of  great  whirlwinds 
on  the  Coromandel  coast,  the  centres  of  which 
pass  generally  near  Madras  or  Pulicat,  and 
whose  diameter,  he  says,  cannot  exceed  120 
miles. 

A  French  writer  named  Romme,  in  a  work 
entitled  "  Tableaux  des  vents,  des  marees  et  des 
courans,"  published  in  1806,  describes  storms  in 
the  China  Sea  near  the  Gulf  of  Tonkin,  which 
he  distinctly  calls  whirlwinds,  and  applies  the 
same  name  to  other  storms  experienced  in  the 
Mozambique  Channel,  and  again  others  in  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico. 

Professor  Farrar,  of  the  Cambridge  University, 
Mass.,  in  describing  a  storm  that  passed  over 
Boston  on  September  23,  1815  (the  account  of 
which  was  published  in  the  "American  Philo 
sophical  Transactions,"  1819),  says  that  he  could 
not  determine  the  place  of  the  centre  or  the  lim 
its  of  this  storm,  but  noticed  the  veering  of  the 
wind,  and  the  fact  that  it  veered  in  opposite  di 
rections  at  Boston  and  New  York  at  the  same 
time. 

In  the  year  1831,  Mr.  William  Redfield,  an 
American  philosopher,  published  in  the  Ameri 
can  Journal  of  Science  a  paper,  in  which  he  de 
monstrated  not  only  that  the  storms  on  the 
American  coast  were  whirlwinds,  but  also  that 
they  had  a  progressive  or  forward  movement, 
traveling  on  curved  tracks  at  a  considerable 
rate,  and  were  traceable  from  the  West  Indies, 
along  the  coast  of  the  United  States,  curving  off 
to  the  eastward  at  some  point  between  the  Ber 
mudas  and  the  banks  of  Newfoundland. 

While  Mr.  Redfield  was  employed  collecting 
the  data  from  which  he  eventually  deduced  his 
law  of  storms,  a  similar  investigation  was  going 
on  in  Germany.  A  number  of  gales  had  attracted 
the  attention  of  German  meteorologists,  chiefly 
on  account  of  the  oscillations  and  great  fall  of 
the  barometer  before  and  during  these  gales. 
On  Christmas-eve,  1821,  the  barometer  sank  so 
low  that  many  people  believed  their  barometers 
were  out  of  order,  and  others,  who  were  not  mis 
taken  as  to  the  cause,  expected  a  great  catas 
trophe. 

Professor  Brandes,  a  German  meteorologist, 
who  had  kept  a  record  of  observations  for  a 
length  of  time,  obtained  the  registers  kept  at 
various  places  during  the  same  time,  and  eventu 
ally  advanced  a  theory  that  the  winds,  during 
these  great  storms,  blew  from  all  points  of  the 
compass  in  straight  lines  toward  a  central  space 
where  the  barometer  was  for  the  time  at  its 
lowest  stand.  ( See  Fig.  1.) 

The  theory  of  Mr.  Brandes  was  disputed  by 
Professor  Dove,  of  Berlin,  who  subjected  the  ob 
servations  to  a  new  examination,  and  made  it 
appear  that  an  explanation  of  all  the  phenomena 
was  afforded  by  the  assumption  of  one  or  more 
circular  currents  or  whirlwinds  of  great  diame 
ters,  advancing  from  southwest  to  northeast.  A 
full  account  of  this  is  found  on  page  162,  "  Dove's 
Law  of  Storms,"  2d  edition,  1862".  (See  Fig.  2.) 

Professor  Dove's  theory,  although  under  dis 
cussion  about  the  same  time  that"  Mr.  Redfield 
by  an  independent  course  of  investigation  arrived 
at  the  results  above  mentioned,  was  not  known 


STORM 


783 


STORM 


in  the  United  States  when  the  latter  gentleman 
published  his  paper  in  the  American  Journal  of 


FIG.  l. 


Science,  and  an   eminent    English   philosopher, 
Sir  David  Brewster,  is  accredited  with  saying 


FIG.  2. 


in  connection  with  Redfield's  discovery,  "The 
theory  of  rotary  storms  was  first  suggested  by 
Col.  Capper,  but  we  must  claim  for"  Mr.  Red- 
field  the  greater  honor  of  having  fully  investi 
gated  the  subject,  and  apparently  established  the 
theory  upon  an  impregnable  basis.  Mr.  Redfield 
had  no  knowledge  of  Col.  Capper's  discovery 
when  he  published  his  own  in  1831."* 

In  the  year  1838,  Lieut.-Col.  Reid,  of  the  royal 
engineers,  published  a  valuable  work  entitled 
"Reid  on  the  Law  of  Storms,"  in  which  he 
agreed  in  all  particulars  with  the  views  of  Red- 
field,  and  verified  by  personal  observation  all  his 
theory ;  adding  many  substantial  proofs  to  the 
same  by  investigations  of  some  of  the  West  India 
hurricanes,  and  of  some  in  the  Southern  Indian 
Ocean. 

Col.  Reid  by  his  observations  of  storms  in  this 
latter  sea  further  proves  Mr.  Redfield's  theory, 
that  the  storms  in  the  southern  hemisphere  re 
volve  in  a  contrary  direction  to  those  in  the 
northern  hemisphere.  Col.  Reid  embodied  in  his 
work  many  useful  rules  for  manoeuvring  in  a 
revolving  storm,  and  thus  may  be  said  to  have 
reduced  the  science  from  a  mere  speculative 
theory  to  a  practical  law  ;  and  the  recorded  ex- 

*  "  Keid  on  the  Law  of  Storms,"  3d  edition,  1850,  p.  2. 


perience  of  hundreds  of  able  and  observing  men 
who  have  carefully  and  intelligently  noted  and 
studied  the  course  and  gradual  veering  of  the 
wind  within  the  limits  of  the  storm-disk  goes  to 
prove  that  correct  conclusions  have  been  arrived 
at  in  this  respect. 

Origin  of  Storms. — With  respect  to  the  cause 
or  origin  of  cyclones  we  are  still  comparatively 
in  the  dark,  but  as  it  is  not  the  purpose  of  this 
article  to  deal  with  abstract  theories  or  to  dis 
cuss  doubtful  scientific  questions,  I  shall  confine 
myself  to  a  brief  recital  of  the  opinions  of  a  few 
gentlemen  who  appear  to  have  given  the  subject 
careful  consideration,  and  spent  much  time  and 
labor  in  the  prosecution  of  their  investigations. 

Mr.  Redfield  appears  to  have  had  no  particu 
lar  theory  as  to  the  causes  of  cyclones  ;  he  thought 
it  would  be  unscientific  to  attempt  to  account 
for  them,  until  better  informed,  by  the  exclusive 
action  of  any  one  or  more  causes.  Later,  how 
ever,  he  inclines  to  think  them  produced  by  the 
conflicts  of  prevailing  currents  in  the  different 
strata  of  the  atmosphere  giving  rise  to  circular 
movements,  which  increase  and  dilate  to  storms. 

Col.  Reid  avoids  any  general  speculation  as  to 
the  causes  of  cyclones.  He  adverts  to  the  pos 
sibility  of  there  being  some  connection  between 
storms  and  electricity  and  magnetism,  and  con 
cludes  with  an  account  of  an  experiment  with  a 
10-inch  hollow  shot,  which,  he  thinks,  partly 
confirms  his  views. f 

Professor  Dove  accounts  for  cyclones  by  cur 
rents  of  air  near  the  equator  being  from  any  cause 
set  in  motion  toward  the  poles  and  coming  in 
contact  with  other  currents  moving  in  a  different 
direction.  J 

Mr.  Piddington,  the  author  of  the  "  Sailor's 
Hornbook,"  in  the  third  edition  of  that  work 
(1860),  pp.  324,  325,  gives  it  as  his  opinion  that 
cyclones  are  purely  electrical  phenomena  formed 
in  the  higher  regions  of  the  atmosphere,  and  de 
scending  in  a  flattened  disk-like  shape  to  the  sur 
face  of  the  ocean,  where  they  progress  more  or 
less  rapidly,  according  to  circumstances.  He 
thinks  that  whirlwinds,  dust-storms,  and  water 
spouts  are  the  same  meteor  in  a  concentrated 
form,  but  cannot  say  where  the  law  which  regu 
lates  the  motions  of  the  larger  kinds  ceases  to  be 
an  invariable  one. 

The  views  of  Sir  John  Herschel  on  the  causes 
of  cyclones,  says  Mr.  Piddington  ("  Sailor's 
Hornbook,"  page  21),  may  be  briefly  stated  as 
follows : 

"  It  seems  worth  inquiry  whether  hurricanes 
in  tropical  climates  may  not  arise  from  portions 
of  the  upper  currents  prematurely  diverted 
downwards  before  their  relative  velocity  has 
been  sufficiently  reduced  by  friction  on,  and 
gradually  mixing  with,  the  lower  strata  ;  and 
so  dashing  upon  the  earth  with  that  tremen 
dous  velocity  which  gives  them  their  destructive 
character  and  of  which  hardly  any  rational  ac 
count  has  yet  been  given.  Their  course,  gen 
erally  speaking,  is  in"  opposition  to  the  ^regular 
trade- winds,  as  it  ought  to  be  in  conformity  with 
this  idea."  He  then  goes  on  to  say  that  it  does 
not  follow  that  this  must  always  be  the  case,  for, 
"  in  general,  a  rapid  transfer,  either  way  in  lati 
tude,  of  any  mass  of  air  which  local  or  tempo- 


1  Keid  on  the  Law  of  Storms,"  3d  edition,  1850,  p.  490. 
Dove's  Law  of  Storms,"  2d  edition,  1862,  p.  182. 


STORM 


784 


STORM 


rary  causes  might  carry  above  the  immediate 
reach  of  the  friction  of  the  earth's  surface,  would 
give  a  fearful  exaggeration  to  its  velocity. 
Wherever  such  a  mass  should  strike  the  earth  a 
hurricane  might  arise,  and  should  two  such 
masses  encounter  in  mid-air,  a  tornado  of  any 
degree  of  intensity  on  record  might  easily  result 
from  their  combination." 

Sir  John  Herschel  also  alludes  to  the  possibility 
of  the  meeting  of  two  atmospheric  undulations 
or  barometric  waves  traveling  in  different  direc 
tions,  producing  a  storm  and  giving  a  rotary 
motion  to  the  wind. 

Professor  Espy,  an  American  philosopher,  in 
his  fourth  meteorological  report,  1857,  page  11, 
gives  as  one  of  the  causes  of  storms  the  follow 
ing  :  Upon  any  partial  heating  of  the  air  at  the 
surface  of  the  earth  it  rises  in  columns  more  or 
less  charged  with  vapor,  which  as  they  rise  have 
their  vapor  condensed  into  clouds  or  rain.  Next 
in  this  changing  of  state  the  vapor  communicates 
its  latent  caloric  to  the  surrounding  air,  which 
also  expands,  is  cooled  itself  by  that  expansion, 
but  also  gives  heat  to  that  part  of  the  air  in 
which  it  is  then,  and  becoming  lighter,  is  carried 
farther  up.  In  short,  Mr.  Espy  considers  the 
centre  of  the  storm  the  base  of  a  huge  moving 
chimney,  circular,  or  of  any  longitudinal  shape, 
the  draft  of  which  is  occasioned  by  an  exten 
sive  condensation  of  vapor  above. 

Dr.  Alexander  Thorn,  in  a  work  on  storms  in 
the  Indian  Ocean,  south  of  the  equator,  gives  it 
as  his  opinion  that  circular  motion  is  given  to 
the  winds  in  a  storm-area  by  the  contact  in  meet 
ing  on  the  borders  of  the  monsoons  and  trade- 
winds  of  opposing  currents  of  air,  differing  in 
temperature,  humidity,  specific  gravity,  and 
electricity.  These,  he  thinks,  give  rise  to  a  re 
volving  action  which  originates  the  storm. 

It  is  believed  by  some  that  cyclones  originate 
at  great  volcanic  centres,  and  Mr.  Henry  Pid- 
dington  is  among  that  number.  On  page  23, 
11  Sailor's  Hornbook,"  I  find  the  following:  "  If 
we  produce  at  both  ends  the  line  of  the  track  of 
the  Cuba  cyclone  of  1844,  we  shall  find  that  it 
extends  from  the  great  and  highly  active  volcano 
of  Cosseguina,  on  the  Pacific  shore  of  Central 
America,  to  Hecla,  in  Iceland.  And  in  1821, 
the  breaking  out  of  the  great  volcano  of  Eyafjeld 
Yokul,  in  Iceland,  which  had  be"n  quiet  since 
1612,  was  followed  all  over  Europe  by  dreadful 
storms  of  wind,  hail,  and  rain." 

A  late  writer  (Professor  Silas  Bent),  in  an  ar 
ticle  published  in  the  St.  Louis  Republican,  No 
vember  3,  1878,  gives  a  very  interesting  solution 
of  the  cyclone  problem,  attributing  the  motion 
of  the  winds  within  the  storm-disk  to  the  earth's 
rotation  on  its  axis. 

For  full  information  on  the  subject,  see  the 
standard  works  of  Redfield,  Reed,  Dove,  and  Pid- 
dington,  already  referred  to.  Also  the  works  of 
Professors  Loomis  and  Meldrum  ;  "  Atmospheric 


303  ;  "  Etude  sur  les  Ouragans  de  1'Hemisphere 
Austral"  (2e  serie),  par  M.  Bridet;  "  Die  Wir- 
belsturme,  Tornados  und  Wettersaulen,"  p.  134; 
and  "  IT.  S.  Naval  Institute  Proceedings,"  vol. 
v.  pp.  236-238. 

Law  of  Storms. — The  theory  of  motion  of  the 
winds  within  the  storm-area  and  the  progressive 


movement  of  the  storm,  discovered  by  Redfield 
and  Dove,  verified  by  Col.  Reid,  and  confirmed 
since  its  publication  by  numberless  actual  obser 
vations  at  sea,  is  commonly  known  as  The  Law 
of  Storms,  and  is  based  on  the  supposition  that 
the  air-currents  within  the  limits  of  the  storm- 
disk  move  in  nearly  concentric  circles  round  a 
centre  of  low  pressure ;  from  right  to  left,  or 
against  the  hands  of  a  watch  (face  up)  in  the 
northern  hemisphere,  and  from  left  to  right,  or 
with  the  hands  of  a  watch,  in  the  southern 
hemisphere;  so  that,  when  facing  the  wind,  the 
centre  lies  on  the  right  hand  in  the  northern, 
and  on  the  left  hand  in  the  southern  hemis 
phere. 

It  must,  however,  be  remembered  in  this  con 
nection  that  the  author  of  the  cyclone  theory 
does  not  claim  that  the  winds  blow  uniformly  in 
circles  ;  it  is  well  known  that  certain  irregulari 
ties  in  the  course  of  the  winds  due  to  local  dis 
turbances  frequently  take  place  within  the  storm- 
disk,  and  Mr.  Redfield,  in  the  American  Jour 
nal  of  Science  and  the  Arts,  second  series,  No. 
1,  page  14,  says*  "When,  in  1830,  I  first  at 
tempted  to  establish,  by  direct  evidence,  the 
rotative  character  of  gales  or  tempests,  I  had 
only  to  encounter  the  then  prevailing  idea  of  a 
general  rectilinear  movement  in  these  winds. 
Hence  I  have  deemed  it  sufficient  to  describe  the 
rotation  in  general  terms,  not  doubting  that  on 
different  sides  of  a  rotatory  storm,  as  in  common 
rains  or  sluggish  storms,  might  be  found  any 
course  of  wind,  from  the  rotative  to  the  recti 
linear,  together  with  varying  conditions  as 
regards  clouds  and  rain. 

"  The  common  idea  of  rotation  in  circles,  how 
ever,  is  sufficiently  correct  for  practical  purposes, 
and  for  the  construction  of  diagrams.  .  .  .  The 
degree  of  vorticular  inclination  in  violent  storms 
must  be  subject,  locally,  to  great  variations ; 
but  it  is  not  probable  that,  on  an  average  of  the 
different  sides,  it  ever  comes  near  to  45  degrees 
from  the  tangent  of  a  circle,  and  that  such  aver 
age  inclination  ever  exceeds  two  points  of  the 
compass  may  well  be  doubted." 

The  nearest  approach  to  the  true  average  mo 
tion  of  the  wind  is  probably  a  spiral  curve,  any 
small  portion  of  which  may,  for  all  practical 
purposes,  be  considered  the  arc  of  a  circle,  whose 
centre  coincides  with  the  storm  centre,  as  in  Figs. 
3  and  4. 

Fio.  3  (North). 


The  correctness  of  the  circular  theory,  although 
generally   accepted   by  seamen    who   have   had 

*  See  also  Piddington's  "  Hornbook,"  p.  108. 


STORM 


785 


STORM 


experience  at  sea  and   opportunities  to  observe 
the  changing  of  the  wind,  etc.,  within  the  actual 

FIG.  4  (South). 


limits  of  the  storm-disk,  is,  nevertheless,  ques 
tioned  by  several  scientific  men  who  appear  to 
have  given  the  subject  careful  attention. 

Thus,  Capt.  Henry  Toynbee,  in  the  report  of 
the  British  Meteorological  Office  on  the  Storms 
in  the  North  Atlantic,  August,  1873,  represents 
the  wind  on  the  25th  August  as  blowing  in  lines, 
more  or  less  curved,  toward  the  centre,  as  shown 
in  Fig.  5.  And  Mr.  Meldrum,  from  his  inves 
tigations  of  the  Mauritius  hurricane  of  February 
25,  1860,  produces  a  similar  figure  to  represent 
the  movement  of  the  winds  in  that  storm. 
Fig.  6. 


FIG.  5. 


FIG.  6. 


Circulation  of  air,  hurri 
cane,  August  25,  1873, 
south  of  Newfoundland, 
according  to  Captain 
Henry  Toynbee. 


Circulation  of  air  in  the 
Mauritius  hurricane, 
February  25,  1860, 
according  to  Mr.  Mel- 
drum. 


It  is  stated  in  the  same  report  (August,  1873\ 
that  two  days  previous,  or  on  the  23d  August, 
the  American  steamer  "  Albemarle"  hove  to 
north  of  the  centre,  and  that  the  captain,  finding 
that  he  was  near  the  line  of  the  storm-track, 
subsequently  kept  the  vessel  off,  and  ran  with 
the  wind  two  points  on  the  quarter,  N.  W.  by 
W.,  wind  E.  by  S.,  and  thereby  cleared  the 
dangerous  part  of  the  storm,  a  fact  evidenced  by 
a  rise  of  the  mercury  and  rapid  improvement  of 
the  weather.  A  glance  at  Fig.  5  would  make 
it  appear  that  such  a  manoeuvre  was  not  possible, 
and  it  may  therefore  reasonably  be  supposed 
that  the  diagram  does  not  correctly  represent  the 
circulation  of  air  in  every  storm,  and  particu 
larly  in  the  one  on  the  23d  of  August. 

With  reference  to  Mr.  Meldrum 's  diagram  of 
the  circulation  of  air  in  the  Mauritius  hurricane 
of  February  25,  1860,  we  have  the  report  of  M. 
Bridet,  capitaine  de  fregate,  and  captain  of  the 
port  at  St.  Denis,  that  4  vessels,  viz.,  "  1'Angele," 
"la  Somme,"  "1'Alfred,"  and  "la  Victorine," 
did  cross  the  track  of  that  storm,  and  returned 
60 


to  St.  Denis  and  reported  the  fact.*  This  feat, 
according  to  Mr.  Meldrum's  diagram,  would  have 
been  impossible. 

The  theory  of  inblowing  or  centripetal  motion 
of  winds  (Fig.  1),  advanced  by  Profs.  Brandes 
and  Espy,  is  sufliciently  disproved  in  practice, 
as  may  be  seen  by  the  foregoing  examples  of  the 
"  Albermarle"  and  French  vessels  above  referred 
to,  to  require  no  further  comments  here. 

A   paper  entitled  "  The  September  Taifuns, 

1878,  in  the  China  and  Japan  Seas,"  by  E.  Knip- 
ping,  published  at  Tokio  ( Yedo),  Japan,  in  July, 

1879,  gives,  among  other  things  in  its  summary 
of  results,  the  following:  "The  centre  bore  10 
points  from  the  wind  within  a  distance  of  400 
miles  from  the  centre." 

"  The  bearing  of  the  centre  varied  with  the 
distance,  thus:  with  N.  E.,  N.  W.,  and  S.  W. 
winds,  the  anglef  increased  with  the  distance; 
while  with  S.  E.  winds  the  reverse  was  the  case/' 

Distortion  of  the  Storm-disk.  —  Revolving 
storms,  it  is  believed,  are  distinct  and  separate 
phenomena,  created,  existing,  and  dying  in  ac 
cordance  with  certain  natural  laws,  for  which, 
as  yet,  no  absolute  solution  has  been  found ;  and 
further,  that  when  unobstructed  in  mid-ocean, 
the  winds  within  the  limits  of  the  storm-disk 
circulate,  as  nearly  as  may  be,  in  circles  around 
a  centre  of  low  pressure ;  but  that  from  various 
causes,  «uch  as  contact  with  land,;};  meeting  or 
colliding"  with  another  storm, \  or  temporarily, 
from  local  atmospheric  disturbances  within  the 
storm-disk,  the  latter  may  become  so  distorted 
as  to  render  it  difficult  to  determine  the  position 
of  the  centre  ;  and  to  one  or  more  of  the  above 
causes,  I  believe,  may  be  traced  most  of  the  de 
fects  complained  of  in  the  circular  system.  The 
fact  of  but  few  storms  having  reached  the  Mo 
zambique  and  Formosa  Channels  is  doubtless  due 
to  the  effect  of  the  high  lands  of  Madagascar  and 
Formosa  Islands  in  turning  the  storms  off  to  the 
eastward  ;  and  the  same  effect  would  be  produced 
by  any  other  high  land  having  a  clear  expanse 
of  ocean  on  the  side  on  which  the  storms  ap 
proach.  Before,  however,  the  course  of  a  storm 
is  changed  by  pressure  against  the  land  which 
obstructed  its  original  course  the  storm-disk 
must  necessarily  undergo  considerable  change  in 
form  also,  and  in  such  cases  the  barometer  and 
good  judgment  are  all-important. 

REMARKS  ON  BAROMETER. — The  barometer 
as  an  instrument  of  warning,  and  also  an  approxi 
mate  measure  of  the  distance  from  the  centre  of 
a  cyclone,  is  of  vital  importance  to  the  seaman. 

First.  The  barometer  generally  indicates  the 
approach  of  a  storm  by  a  restless,  oscillating 
motion  of  the  mercury,  caused  by  a  disturbed 
condition  of  the  atmosphere  in  the  vicinity  of  a 
storm,  and  the  consequent  passage  over  it  of  at 
mospheric  waves  of  different  heights.  These 
oscillations  have  been  observed  to  vary  from  a 
just  perceptible  motion  to  0.02  inch.  One  in 
stance  is  recorded  where  the  oscillations  of  the 
barometer  amounted  to  0.178  inch. II 


*  "  Etnde  sur  les  Ouragans  de  1'hemispheYe  Austral"  (sec 
ond  edition),  pp.  115  to  137,  and  "  U.  S.  Naval  Institute  Pro 
ceedings,"  vol.  v.  pp.  251-262. 

f  The  angle  between  the  direction  of  wind  and  bearing  of 
centre. 

t  See  "  U.  S.  Naval  Institute  Proceedings,"  vol.  v.  pp.  250- 
252. 

I  See  Piddington's  "  Hornbook  "  4th  edition,  pp.  96-100. 

f  Ibid.,  p.  239. 


STOKM 


786 


STOKM 


Second.  The  barometer  often  rises  suddenly 
just  on  the  border  in  front  of  a  storm,  by  reason 
of  the  air  banking  up  there ;  and  therefore,  if 
the  clouds  and  general  appearance  of  the  weather 
indicate  the  approach  of  a  storm,  the  rise  in  the 
barometer,  if  any  occurs,  is  no  guarantee  that  it 
will  not  come,  but  rather  a  sign  that  a  severe 
storm  is  coming.  The  barometer  will  probably 
not  rise  much  in  front  of  a  slowly-moving  storm. 

Third.  A  very  rapid  fall  of  the  barometer 
after  fairly  entering  the  storm-disk  may  be  re 
garded  as  evidence  of  a  very  violent  storm  of 
small  diameter,  and  a  gradual  fall  would  indi 
cate  the  contrary. 

Fourth.  If  a  vessel  by  any  accident  was 
caught  in  a  cyclone  in  a  dangerous  position  near 
the  land,  the  knowledge  of  her  distance  from  the 
centre  might  be  all-important,  even  if  it  could 
not  be  determined  nearer  than  50  miles,  and 
to  aid  navigators  in  determining  probably  within 
that  distance, — the  distance  from  the  centre, — a 
table  is  published  in  Piddington's  "Hornbook," 
3d  edition,  page  252,  which  I  give  here  for  what 
it  is  worth,  and  which,  in  an  extreme  case,  may 
prove  of  service : 


Average  Fall  of  Baro 
meter  per  Hour 
From  0.02  inch  to  0.06  inch. 
"'    0.06    "          0.08    " 
"      0.08    "          0.12    " 
"     0.12    "          0.15    " 


Distance  in  Miles 
from  Centre. 

From  250  to  150 
"  150  "  100 
"  100  "  80 
"  80  "  50 


I  have  compared  the  fall  of  the  barometer  in  a 
great  number  of  cases  with  the  above,  and  gen 
erally  found  the  result  very  favorable. 

The  following  table,  from  Mr.  Knipping's 
publication,  "  the  September  Taifuns,  1878,  in 
the  China  and  Japan  Seas,"  shows,  according 
to  his  observations,  approximately  the  fall  of  the 
barometer  corresponding  to  an  approach  of  50 
miles,  according  to  various  distances  from  centre, 
as  follows : 


Mean  Distance  from 

Centre  in  Miles. 

375 

325 

275 

225 

175 

126 

75 


Fall  of  Barometer  Corre 
sponding  to  an  approach 
of  50  Miles. 

0.07  inch. 
0.08  " 
0.09  " 
0.10  « 
0.12  " 
0.14  " 
0.55  " 


The  figures  in  the  barometer  column,  divided 
by  5,  give  about  the  corresponding  fall  per  hour.* 

The  lowest  barometer  observed^  at  the  sea-level 
is  in  the  case  of  the  "  Duke  of  York,"  at  Ked 
geree,  in  1833,  when  the  mercury  fell  to  26.30 
inches.  In  the  case  of  the  "  Francis  Henty" 
(bark),  in  a  cyclone  near  the  Linchoten  group 
of  islands,  China  Sea,  1872,  the  mercury  fell  out 
of  sight,  that  is,  below  the  wood  of  which  the 
barometer  case  was  made,  the  last  reading,  about 
one-half  hour  before  reaching  the  centre,  being 
27.19  inches.  The  greatest  fall  of  the  barometer 
in  any  one  storm  occurred  in  the  case  of  the  brio- 
"Gazelle,"  in  the  China  Sea,  1849,  when  the 

*  It  will  be  observed  that  this  column,  when  divided  by  5, 
gives,  for  distances  from  the  centre  corresponding  to  hourly 
fall  of  barometer,  results  differing  considerably  from  those  ob 
tained  by  the  use  of  Piddington's  table ;  and  inasmuch  as  these 
results  place  a  vessel  nearer  to  the  centre  than  those  from 
Piddington's  table,  they,  ought,  perhaps,  as  a  measure  of  pru 
dence,  to  be  preferred. 


mercury  fell  from  29.80  inches  to  27.00  inches, 
or  2.8  inches. 

STORM  INDICATIONS. — The  indications  of  the 
approach  of  a  cyclone  do  not  differ  materially 
from  those  of  the  ordinary  gale  ;  but  a  few  such, 
as  a  hard  steel-gray  sky,  or  having  a  greenish 
tint,  a  blood-red  or  bright  yellow  sunset,  a  heavy 
swell,  unaccounted  for  in  any  other  way,  and  a 
thick,  lurid  appearance  of  the  sky,  may  be  re 
garded  in  connection  with  a  general  threatening 
appearance  of  the  weather,  and  particularly  with 
a  restless  state  of  the  barometer,  as  significant 
signs  of  a  more  than  ordinary  gale,  and,  whether 
seen  separately  or  together,  ought  not  to  be  dis 
regarded. 

When  by  any  of  these  signs,  or  by  the  action 
of  his  barometer,  the  navigator  has  reason  to 
suspect  that  a  cyclone  is  not  far  distant,  his  fii-st 
care  is  to  devise  a  plan  for  avoiding  it,  and  if  he 
knew  positively  the  direction  of  its  course,  this 
might  sometimes  be  accomplished.  An  approxi 
mate  idea  of  the  storm's  movement  in  certain 
localities  may  be  had  by  an  inspection  of  a 
cyclone  chart,  such  as  is  found  in  the  standard 
works  on  storms ;  but  although  the  cyclone 
tracks  generally  lie  in  the  same  direction,  and  as 
a  rule  not  very  far  apart, — probably  not  more 
than  four  or  five  hundred  miles  at  any  given 
point, — yet  it  does  not  follow  as  matter  of  course 
that  every  cyclone  travels  over  the  beaten  track, 
and  therefore  there  is  no  certainty  that  the  ap 
proaching  storm  will  do  so.  By  a  knowledge 
of  the  tracks  in  the  locality  the  navigator  may, 
however,  try  to  avoid  it ;  but  if  after  doing  his 
very  best  to  effect  this  he  is  still  caught  in  the 
storm,  he  must  then  as  quickly  as  possible  deter 
mine  his  position  in  the  storm-disk,  and  the 
course  of  the  storm.  This,  on  the  basis  of  Red- 
field's  law  of  storms,  may  always  be  done  by  a 
knowledge  of  the  following  few  simple  facts  com 
mitted  to  memory,  viz. : 

RULES    FOR    AVOIDING    THE    CENTRE. — Right 

Semicircle :  Wind  changes  to  the  right,  N.  13. 
S.  W.,  heave  to  on  starboard  tack. 

Left  Semicircle :  Wind  changes  to  the  left, 
N.  W.  S.  E.,  heave  to  on;»o?^  tack. 

This  is  all  that  is  necessary  to  place  the  ship 
in  a  safe  position  north  or  south  of  the  equator 
until  the  course  of  the  storm  is  determined. 
This  may  further  be  reduced  to  six  words,  by 
associating  the  direction  of  the  change  of  wind 
with  the  semicircle  of  the  storm  and  the  tack  to 
heave  to  on, — and  taking  them  in  this  order  we 
would  have  for  the  right  semicircle :  Right- 
Right-Starboard,  and  for  the  left  semicircle : 
Left-Left-Port. 

The  right  semicircle  is  that  portion  of  the 
storm-disk  situated  on  the  right  of  the  axis  of 
the  storm-track,  looking  in  the  direction  of  its 
course,  and  the  left  semicircle  the  portion  of  the 
storm-disk  lying  on  the  left  of  that  line. 

Rotation  of  wind. — Northern  Hemisphere  : 
from  Right^  to  Left.  N.  W.  S.  E.,  left-handed, 
or,  in  nautical  language,  against  the  sun. 

Southern  Hemisphere  :  "from  Left  to  Right. 
N.  E.  S.  W.,  right-handed,  or,  as  a  sailor  would 
say,  with  the  sun. 

Bearing  of  centre. — Northern  Hemisphere  :  8 
points  (90°)  to  the  right  of  the  wind-point,  look 
ing  in  the  wind's  eye. 

Southern  Hemisphere:  8  points  (90°)  to  the 
left  of  the  wind-point,  looking  in  the  wind's  eye. 


STOEM 


787 


STOKM 


Two  bearings  of  the  centre,  with  an  interval 
of  from  2  to  3  hours  between,  will  in  general  be 
sufficient  to  determine  the  course  of  the  storm, 
provided  an  accurate  account  has  been  kept  of 
the  ship's  way ;  but  if  the  storm  is  moving 
slowly  a  longer  interval  may  be  necessary. 
There  are  but  two  points  in  the  storm-disk  of  a 
cyclone  where  a  vessel  hove  to  will  not  ex 
perience  a  change  of  wind, — one  is  in  front  of 
the  centre  on  the  line  of  its  axis,  and  the  other 
in  rear  of  the  centre  on  the  same  line;  for 
these  two  cases  the  barometer  must  be  the  guide, 
— in  front  of  the  centre  it  falls,  and  in  rear  of 
the  centre  it  rises. 

There  are  also  five  points  in  the  storm-disk  of 
a  cyclone  where  a  vessel  may  run  along  with 
the  storm'  parallel  to  its  course,  and  at  equal 
speed,  without  having  any  change  of  wind,  and 
with  a  steady  barometer. 

Northern  Hemisphere. — 1st.  In  front  of  the 
centre  on  the  line  of  its  axis.  Wind  on  starboard 
beam. 

2d.  Anywhere  in  the  right  forward  quadrant. 
Wind  on  starboard  side  abaft  the  beam. 

3d.  In  rear  of  centre  on  the  line  of  its  axis. 
Wind  on  port  beam. 

4th.  Anywhere  in  the  right  rear  quadrant. 
Wind  on  port  side  abaft  the  beam. 

5th.  Abreast  and  to  the  right  of  the  centre. 
Wind  aft. 

Southern  Hemisphere. — 1st.  In  front  of  centre 
on  the  line  of  its  axis.  Wind  on  port  beam. 

2d.  Anywhere  in  the  left  forward  quadrant. 
Wind  on  port  side  abaft  the  beam. 

3d.  In  rear  of  centre  on  the  line  of  its  axis. 
Wind  on  starboard  beam. 

4th.  Anywhere  in  the  left  rear  quadrant. 
Wind  on  starboard  side  abaft  the  beam. 

5th.  Abreast  and  to  the  left  of  centre.  Wind 
aft. 

The  above  manoeuvres  are  possible  providing 
sail  can  be  carried,  but  only  three  of  them  are 
advisable,  viz.  :  the  position  abreast  of  the 
centre,  in  the  rear  quadrant,  and  in  rear  of 
the  centre.  Eunning  along  with  the  storm  in 
front  of  the  centre,  or  in  the  forward  quadrants, 
should  never  be  resorted  to,  as  an  accident  to 
sails  or  spars,  temporarily  disabling  the  vessel, 
would  at  once  place  her  in  great  danger  of  being 
overtaken  by  the  centre. 

To  run  out  of  the  storm  in  the  Northern 
Hemisphere* — Eight  Semicircle:  Haul  by  the 
wind  on  starboard  tack,  and  carry  sail  as  long  as 
possible;  if  obliged  to  heave  to,  do  so  on  star 
board  tack. 

Left  Semicircle  :  Bring  the  wind  on  starboard 
quarter.  Note  the  direction  of  the  ship's  head 
and  steer  that  course.  If  obliged  to  heave  to, 
do  so  on  port  tack. 

On  the  stDrm-track  in  front  of  centre  :  Square 
away  and  run  before  it.  Note  the  course  and 
keep  it,  and  trim  the  yards  when  the  wind  draws 
on  the  starboard  quarter.  If,  however,  obliged 
to  heave  to,  do  so  on  port  tack. 

On  the  storm-track  in  rear  of  centre :  Run  out 
with  wind  on  starboard  quarter,  or  heave  to  on 
starboard  tack. 

To  run  out  of  the  storm — Southern  Hemis 
phere.^ — Eight  Semicircle  :  Bring  wind  on  port 


*  See  Storm  Card,  Northern  Hemisphere.    Fig.  8. 
t  See  Storm  Card,  Southern  Hemisphere.    Fig.  7. 


quarter.  Note  the  course  and  keep  it.  If  obliged 
to  heave  to,  do  so  on  starboard  tack. 

Left  Semicircle:  Haul  by  the  wind  on  port 
tack.  Carry  sail  as  long  as  possible,  and  if 
obliged  to  heave  to,  do  so  on  port  tack. 

On  the  storm-track  in  front  of  centre:  Run  be 
fore  it.  Note* the  course  and  keep  it,  and  trim 
the  yards  as  the  wind  gradually  hauls  on  the 
port  quarter.  If  obliged  to  heave  to,  do  so  on 
starboard  tack. 

On  the  storm-track  in  rear  of  centre  :  Run  out 
with  the  wind  on  port  quarter,  or  heave  to  on 
port  tack. 

A  rise  of  the  barometer,  improvement  of  the 
weather,  and  a  gradual  abatement  of  the  force  of 
the  wind  will  result  from  the  above  manoeuvres  ; 
and  the  ship  should  in  each  case  be  kept  on  her 
course  until  by  these  signs  it  is  made  evident  that 
she  is  out  of  danger. 

All  the  above  manoeuvres  depend  of  course  on 
sea-room,  and  the  ability  to  carry  sail.  If  sail 
cannot  be  carried,  or  land  interferes,  the  ship 
must  be  hove  to  on  the  starboard  tack  in  the 
Right  semicircle,  and  on  the  port  tack  in  Left 
semicircle,  and  never  otherwise.  The  old  popu 
lar  idea  of  heaving  to  on  the  starboard  tack  in 
the  northern  hemisphere,  and  on  the  port  tack 
in  the  southern  hemisphere,  under  all  circum 
stances,  is  dangerous  practice  and  may  lead  to 
serious  consequences. 

It  sometimes  occurs,  although  the  cases  are 
very  rare,  that  a  cyclone  takes  a  sudden  turn, 
and  recurves  on  its  track  so  much  as  to  render  a 
vessel  liable  to  run  into  it  a  second  time.  See 
"  Eeid  on  the  Law  of  Storms,"  p.  173. 

The  results  of  the  manoeuvres  herein  recom 
mended  should,  as  before  stated,  be  a  rising 
barometer  and  improvement  in  the  weather. 
If,  however,  the  barometer  continues  to  fall,  or 
remains  stationary,  and  the  weather  becomes 
either  worse  or  remains  the  same,  it  is  evidence 
that  the  indraft  is  very  great,  and  in  either  case 
the  ship  should  be  hauled  up  as  near  the  wind 
as  possible  under  the  circumstances  of  wind  and 
sea,  and  so  kept  until  a  decided  rise  of  the 
mercury  and  improvement  in  the  weather  take 
place. 

Thus  the  barometer  is  always  a  measure  of 
safety,  even  when  the  rules  laid  down  for  avoid 
ing  the  centre  fail  to  carry  a  vessel  out  of  the 
dangerous  part  of  the  storm. 

In  a  very  extreme  case  of  indraft,  where  it  is 
found  impracticable  to  distance  the  centre  by 
sailing,  the  vessel  should  be  prepared  for  a 
heavy  blow,  and  hove  to  on  the  proper  tack, 
until  either  the  centre  has  passed  or  an  oppor 
tunity  occurs  (by  a  change  in  the  wind)  for  avoid 
ing  it. 

Storm-Tracks. — For  a  correct  idea  of  the  tracks 
generally  followed  by  revolving  storms  in  differ 
ent  parts  of  the  world,  reference  should  be  had  to 
the  track  charts  published  by  Henry  Piddington, 
accompanying  the  "Sailor's  Hornbook." 

Velocity  or  Rate  of  Travel. — The  rate  or  velocity 
of  translation  of  revolving  storms  over  their 
tracks  varies  not  only  in  different  localities, 
but  in  storms  passing  over  the  same  locality, 
and  even  in  one  and  the  same  storm  during 
different  stages  of  its  existence.  It  is  generally 
believed  that  storms  when  they  originate  are 
nearly  stationary,  and  that  after  being  fully 
formed  they  acquire  a  forward  or  progressive 


STOKM 


788 


STOKM 


FIG.  7. 


Storm  Card 

SOUTHERN  HEMISPHERE 


Storm  Card 

NORTHERN  HEMISPHERE 


STORM 


789 


STRAKE 


movement,  which  increases  more  or  less  rapidly 
according  to  the  locality  in  which  they  blow. 

The  idea  of  a  uniform  increase  in  the  forward 
or  progressive  movement  of  storms  cannot,  how 
ever,  be  sustained  by  evidence.  Experience,  to 
the  contrary,  shows  that  the  velocities  of  trans 
lation  of  particular  storms  have  varied  irregu 
larly,  increasing  and  decreasing  at  different  por 
tions  of  their  tracks. 

The  following  table  of  mean,  lowest,  and  high 
est  velocities,  compiled  from  Piddington's  "  Sail 
or's  Hornbook,"  may,  however,  as  far  as  it  goes, 
serve  as  a  guide  to  the  navigator,  who,  for  prac 
tical  purposes,  desires  to  ascertain  the  probable 
rate  of  movement  of  a  coming  storm  : 


Velocity  in  Miles 

per  hour. 

Locality. 

*J 

i 

Remarks. 

i 

I 

i 

& 

3 

s 

Atlantic  (North) 

25. 

9.5 

43. 

This  high  rate  refers  to 
the  Cuba  hurricane 

of  1844. 

Arabian  Sea  

10. 

4.0 

16. 

Bay  of  Bengal.... 

9. 

3.0 

39. 

This  high  rate  occurred 
only  in  one  instance. 

From  3  to  15  miles 

per    hour    may    be 

taken  as  the  usual 

rates. 

China  Seas  

15. 

7.0 

24. 

Indian      Ocean 

(South)  

5. 

0.5 

10. 

Col.  Reid  assigns  to  a 

cyclone    which    oc 

curred  in  1809  near 

the  Mauritius  a  ve 

locity  varying  from 
7  to  12>£  miles  per 

day. 

There  does  not  appear  to  be  at  hand  suffic'ent  data  for  the 
determination  of  rates  for  other  parts  of  the  world. 

Dimensions. — The  storms  in  the  Atlantic 
(North)  are  said  to  commence  with  a  diameter 
of  from  100  to  150  miles,  and  then  to  increase  to 
600  or  1000  miles  ;  a  fair  average  is,  perhaps,  500 
miles.  In  the  Arabian  Sea  they  probably  do 
not  exceed  240  miles.  In  the  Bay  of  Bengal 
they  are  from  300  to  350  miles  in  diameter.  In 
the  South  Indian  Ocean  from  150  to  600  miles, 
and  in  the  China  Seas  from  80  to  350,  and  pos 
sibly  as  high  as  600  miles.* 

Storm  Seasons. — The  period  of  the  year  during 
which  cyclones  are  most  frequent  may  in  a  gen 
eral  way  be  considered.  In  north  latitude,  from 
June  to  November  ;  August  and  September  being 
the  worst  months.  In  south  latitude,  from  Sep 
tember  to  May  ;  February  and  March  being  the 
worst  months.  In  other  words,  the  cyclone  sea 
son  appears  to  correspond  to  the  time  when  the 
sun  is  nearing  the  equator,  on  his  return  from 
his  highest  declination  in  either  hemisphere. — 
Thomas  Nelson,  Lieutenant-Commander  U.S.N. 

STORM-BRKEDER.  Heavy  cumulo-stratus 
clouds ;  also,  dark,  threatening,  cumulo-nimbus 
clouds.  A  weather-breeder. 

STORM-DRUM.  A  canvas  cylinder  hoisted  in 
English  ports  on  the  approach  of  a  storm. 

STORM-FINCH.     The  Mother  Carey's  chicken. 

*  See  "  U.  S.  Naval  Institute  Proceedings,"  vol.  v.  p.  242. 


STORM-FLAG.  A  flag,  red  with  a  white  square 
in  the  centre,  hoisted  in  American  ports  on  the 
probability  of  a  storm. 

STORM-JIB.  The  inner  jib  of  square-rigged 
ships.  A  strong  jib,  bent  in  bad  weather.  A 
fifth  size  of  jib,  used  in  cutters. 

STORM-KITE.  A  kite  for  sending  a  hawser  to 
a  stranded  vessel. 

STORM-MIZZEN.  A  triangular  storm-sail  of 
stout  canvas,  bent  to  the  spanker-mast,  and 
used  in  lying  to. 

STORM-SAIL.  A  sail  of  heavy  canvas,  bent 
and  set  during  a  storm  when  lying  to.  The 
storm-sails  are  the  fore-st orm-stay-sail,  the  main- 
storm-stay-sail,  the  mizzen-storm-stay-sail,  and 
the  storm-mizzen.  The  main-trysail  and  the 
main-topsail  are  also  used  as  storm-sails,  and 
also  the  foresail. 

STORM-SIGNAL.  A  signal  hoisted  on  shore  to 
warn  mariners  of  an  approaching  storm. 

STORM-STAY.     A  stay  for  a  storm-sail. 

STORM-WARNING.     See  FORECAST. 

STORM-WAVES.  The  waves  that  precede  or 
follow  a  storm. 

STORMY-PETREL,  or  STORM-PETREL.  The 
Mother  Carey's  chicken,  a  small  bird  of  the  genus 
Procellaria.  See  PETREL. 

Stove.  Boat  stoves  are  small  stoves  for  use  in 
boat  expeditions,  neatly  packed  in  a  box.  Hang 
ing  stoves,  or  drying  stoves,  are  small  charcoal 
stoves  used  for  drying  decks.  Stove  in,  broken 
in> — applied  particularly  to  a  fracture  of  the 
casing  of  a  ship  caused  by  collision,  grounding, 
etc.  If,  on  grounding,  the  bottom  is  fractured, 
the  ship  is  said  to  be  bilged.  * 

Stow.  To  put  in  place  or  position.  To  stow 
the  hold,  to  arrange  the  stores  or  cargo  properly 
in  the  hold.  To  stow  a  sail,  to  furl  or  pack  it 
neatly  on  the  yard  or  in  the  netting.  Stay-sails 
are  stowed,  other  sails  furled.  To  stow  the  an 
chor,  to  get  it  up  in  place.  To  stow  the  cargo,  to 
get  it  on  board  and  properly  dispose  of  it.  To 
stow  the  hammocks,  to  place  them  in  the  net 
tings.  To  stow  in  bulk,  to  stow  goods  without 
any  packages,  as  grain,  etc.  To  stow  in  bale,  to 
stow  goods  in  packages. 

STOWAGE.  The  art  of  properly  arranging  and 
disposing  the  weights  in  a  ship's  hold,  so  that  the 
qualities  of  the  ship  shall  be  the  best  possible. 
Reference  must  be  had  to  stability,  speed,  easi 
ness  of  motion,  economy  of  space,  and  conve 
nience  of  access.  The  trim  must  be  accurately 
preserved,  and  great  weights  kept  as  near  the 
centre  as  possible. 

STOWING-STRAKE.     A  stealer. 

Straggler.     See  DESERTER. 

STRAGGLING-MONEY  (Eng.}.  A  reward  paid 
for  the  apprehension  of  stragglers. 

Straight  of  Breadth.  The  space  before  and 
abaft  the  midship  frame  of  a  ship  which  does  not 
taper,  or  is  all  of  the  same  breadth. 

Strain-bands.  Bands  of  canvas  across  a  sail, 
to  take  a  part  of  the  strain. 

Strait.  A  narrow  passage  between  two  bodies 
of  water.  See  SOUND. 

STRAIT-GULF.  A  gulf  with  a  narrow  en 
trance. 

Strake.  One  breadth  of  plank,  worked  from 
one  end  of  the  ship  to  the  other. 

Strakes  of  plank  have  various  names  accord 
ing  to  their  position.  The  wales  are  those  strakes 
which  are  worked  from  the  water-line  or  there,- 


STKAND 


790 


STKINGER 


abouts  to  the  plank-sheer,  or  lower  port-sill. 
The  bottom-planking  is  the  name  for  the  strakes 
from  the  lower  edge  of  the  wales  to  the  garboard- 
strake.  The  garboard-strake  is  the  name  of  the 
strake  which  comes  next  to  the  keel  on  the  out 
side.  The  ceiling  is  the  name  of  the  strakes 
worked  below  thelower  deck-clamps.  The  bilge- 
strakes  and  thick  strakes  are  the  strakes  worked 
at  the  bilge,  and  are  made  heavy  to  support  the 
ship,  in  taking  ground.  The  limber-strakes  are 
those  next  the  keelson.  The  lower  deck  clamps 
are  the  strakes  worked  from  the  lower  edge  of 
the  lower  deck-beams  to  the  lower  ends  of  the 
hanging-knees.  The  spirketing  is  the  two 
strakes  above  the  water-ways.  The  upper  deck- 
clamps  and  ceiling  occupy  the  space  between  the 
spirketing  and  the  bottom  of  the  upper  deck- 
beams.  Stringers  fill  the  space  from  the  port-sill 
to  the  plank-sheer.  Thick-strakes  are  worked  on 
the  deck-beams  next  the  water-ways,  and  are 
bolted  to  the  water-ways  as  well  as  to  the  beams. 
Strakes  of  the  deck  are  the  deck-planking,  all 
over  the  ship. 

Strand.  A  number  of  rope-yarns  twisted  to 
gether.  One  of  the  primary  assemblages  of  wire 
in  a  wire-rope.  The  sea-beach  ;  the  shore.  To 
strand,  to  break  one  of  the  strands  of  a  rope.  To 
run  a  ship  ashore,  on  the  beach.  To  drift  or  be 
driven  ashore. 

Strange  Sail.  A  vessel  sighted  whose  nation 
ality,  character,  etc.,  are  not  known 

Strap.  A  shoulder-strap.  A  band  of  iron 
used  to  connect  or  hold  parts  together.  A  ring 
of  rope,  or  a  binding  of  iron,  put  on  a  block.  A 
piece  of  rope,  spliced  to  form  a  ring,  used  to 
eling  heavy  weights,  etc.,  or  serving  to  attach  a 
tackle  to  any  object,  etc.  A  circular,  or  curved 
iron  band,  used  for  various  purposes  about  a 
steam-engine. 

STRAP-HEAD.  A  journal-box  at  the  end  of  a 
connecting-rod. 

Stratus.    See  CLOUD. 

Stray-line.  The  portion  of  the  log-line  which 
is  veered  from  the  reel  to  allow  the  chip  to  get 
clear  of  the  eddies  under  the  stern,  before  the 
glass  is  turned. 

Stray-mark.  The  mark  noting  the  extent  of 
stray-line. 

Streak.     A  strake. 

Stream.  Flowing  water,  as  a  tide-stream,  the 
stream  of  a  current,  etc.  To  stream  'the  buoy,  to 
cast  the  buoy,  attached  to  the  anchor,  overboard, 
previous  to  letting  go  the  anchor.  See  GULF 
STREAM. 

STREAM-ANCHOR.  An  anchor,  from  one-fourth 
to  one-third  the  si ze  of  the  bowers,  stowed  in  the 
hold  or  on  deck,  and  used  for  warping,  clubbing, 
etc.  See  ANCHOR. 

STREAM-CABLE.  A  cable  used  with  the  stream- 
anchor.  In  the  navy,  chain  stream-cables  are 
about  two-thirds  as  long  as  bower-cables,  and  the 
links  are  one-half  the  ^diameter  of  those  of  the 
latter. 

STREAM-ICE.  Drift-  or  bay-ice,  forming  and 
flowing  in  a  current. 

STREAM-LAKE  (Eng.).  A  lake  emptying  into 
the  sea  by  a  river. 

Streamer.  A  long  and  narrow  flag,  termi 
nating  in  a  point. 

Stress  of  Weather.  Continued  and  sustained 
violence  of  the  elements. 

Stretch.    The  distance  sailed  on  one  tack.    To 


sail  by  the  wind  under  press  of  canvas.  To 
stretch  out,  to  extend  the  stroke,  and  increase 
the  muscular  force  in  rowing. 

Stretcher.  A  sheer-pole.  A  narrow  foot- 
piece  in  a  boat  for  an  oarsman.  A  cross-piece 
put  in  the  slings  of  a  -boat,  to  prevent  crushing 
the  sides.  A  stick  placed  between  the  clews  of  a 
hammock,  to  extend  them.  Jocularly,  a  lie ;  a 
tough  yarn. 

Stribling,  Cornelius  K.,  Rear-Admiral  U.S.N. 
Born  in  South  Carolina.  Appointed  midship 
man  from  same  State,  June  18,  1812;  served  on 
board  the  "  Macedonian"  from  January  1,  1813, 
to  April,  1814,  and  "Mohawk, "on  Lake  On 
tario,  until  April,  1815,  and  in  "Macedonian," 
in  the  squadron  under  the  command  of  Commo 
dore  Decatur,  when  the  Algerine  frigate  and 
brig  were  captured,  in  1815;  from  "  Macedo 
nian"  to  "  Constellation"  in  October,  1815,  and 
returned  to  the  United  States  in  "  Constella 
tion,"  end  of  1817. 

Commissioned  as  lieutenant,  April  1,  1818;  on 
board  the  "Constellation,"  on  coast  of  South 
America,  1819-20;  in  the  West  Indies,  on  board 
the  "  Hornet,"  "Peacock,"  "John  Adams,"  and 
"Constellation,"  1822-25;  in  April,  1823,  com 
manded  two  barges  on  the  coast  of  Cuba,  and 
after  a  running  fight,  captured  the  piratical 
schooner  "  Pilot"  ;  on  board  the  "  Brandywine," 
Pacific  Squadron,  1826-27,  and  sloop  "  Vincen- 
nes,"  1827-31 ;  receiving-ship  "  Norfolk,"  1831- 
33 ;  assistant  inspector  of  ordnance,  1833-35 ; 
sloop-of-war  "  Peacock,"  East  India  and  Pacific 
Squadrons,  1835-37;  rendezvous,  Norfolk,  1840. 

Commissioned  as  commander  in  1840 ;  com 
manding  rendezvous,  Norfolk,  1840;  navy-€yard, 
Washington,  1840-41 ;  commanding  sloop-of-war 
"Cj'ane,"  1841-44;  Pacific  Squadron,  frigate 
"United  States,"  1844;  receiving-ship  "Nor 
folk,"  1845-47;  fleet-captain,  Pacific  Squadron, 
1847-48;  commanding  ship-of-the-line  "Ohio," 
1848-50 ;  superintendent  of  the  Naval  Academy, 
1850-53. 

Commissioned  as  captain,  August  1,  1853; 
commanding  sloop-of-war  "  San  Jacinto,"  special 
service,  1854-55;  commandant  Pensacola  Navy- 
Yard,  1857-59 ;  commanding  East  India  Squad 
ron,  1859-61  ;  commandant  navy-yard,  Philadel 
phia,  1862-64;  commanding  East  Gulf  Block 
ading  Squadron,  1864-65;  member  of  Retiring 
Board  of  1855;  in  1861,  member  of  a  Board  of 
Commissioners  (3  Senators,  3  members  of  the 
House  of  Kepresentatives,  1  army,  and  1  navy 
officer),  provided  for  by  act  of  Congress  of  July 
31,  1861,  to  examine  and  report  as  to  compensa 
tion  of  all  officers  of  the  government,  and  for 
other  purposes ;  member  of  Light-House  Board, 
1862. 

Commissioned  as  commodore,  July  16,  1862. 

Commissioned  as  rear-admiral,  July  25,  1866; 
member  of  the  Light-House  Board,  1867-70. 
Total  sea-service,  26  years,  2  months  ;  shore  and 
other  duty,  19  years,  1  month.  Died,  1880. 

Strike.*  To  touch  bottom,  as  a  ship  strikes  on 
a  bar.  To  haul  down  the  colors,  in  token  of 
submission.  To  lower  to  the  deck  a  topmast, 
yard,  or  other  upper  spar.  To  send  anything 
below  decks. 

Stringer.  A  shelf-piece.  In  iron  ship-building, 
certain  plates  riveted  fore-and-aft,  to  strengthen 
the  structure.  Hold-stringers  are  plates  riveted 
to  the  frames  in  the  hold,  and  connected  by 


STRINGS 


791 


STUDDING-SAIL 


angle-irons  to  the  bottom  plating.  Deck-stringers 
are  strakes  of  deck-plating  riveted  on  top  of  the 
beams  next  to  the  side,  and  joined  by  angle-irons 
to  the  outside  plating.  Stringers  are  required  by 
Lloyd's  rules  in  all  iron  ships. 

Strings.  The  highest  strakes  in  the  ceiling  of 
the  ship. 

Strip.  To  strip  a.  mast,  to  remove  all  its  rig 
ging.  To  strip  to  a  girt-line,  to  remove  all  the 
rigging  from  a  ship.  A  whip  or  girt-line  re 
mains  at  the  mast-head  for  convenience  in  going 
aloft  when  the  ship  is  subsequently  rigged.  The 
expression  is  also  used,  figuratively,  to  signify 
the  removing  from  the  person  of  every  article  of 
wearing  apparel. 

Stroke.  In  the  steam-engine,  the  distance 
passed  over  by  a  piston  in  moving  from  one 
end  of  the  cylinder  to  the  other.  The  sweep 
of  an  oar.  A  gig-stroke  is  that  given  in  a  gig 
or  long-oared  single-banked  boat.  A  cutter- 
stroke,  that  in  a  short  double-banked  boat.  A 
long-stroke,  one  of  great  sweep.  A  short-stroke, 
one  of  little  extent,  and  quicker.  A  galley-stroke 
is  that  formerly  used  in  the  galleys,  and  still  seen 
in  Portuguese  and  Brazilian  waters.  In  rowing 
it,  the  men  rise  to  their  feet  as  they  advance  the 
oar,  and  fall  back  as  they  finish  the  stroke. 

STROKE-OAK.  The  aftermost  oar,  giving  the 
time  to  the  others. 

STROKE-OARSMAN.  The  man  who  rows  the 
after  oar  if  single-banked,  or  the  starboard  after 
oar  if  double-banked.  Both  men  on  the  after 
thwart  in  a  double-banked  boat  are  called 
stroke-oarsmen,  but  the  starboard-man  gives 
the  stroke. 

STROKE-SIDE.  The  side  of  a  single-banked 
boat  in  which  the  stroke-oar  is  placed. 

Strong,  James  H.,  Rear-Admiral  U.S.N. 
Born  in  New  York.  Appointed  from  New  York, 
February  2,  1829  ;  attached  to  sloop  "  Lexing 
ton,"  Brazil  Squadron,  1832-33  ;  schooner  "En 
terprise,"  Brazil  Squadron,  1834;  Naval  School, 
New  York,  1835  ;  frigate  "  Constellation,"  West 
India  Squadron,  1836. 

Promoted  to  passed  midshipman,  June  4, 1836  ; 
razee  "  Independence,"  Brazil  Squadron,  1839- 
42. 

Commissioned  as  lieutenant,  September,  1841 ; 
frigate  "  Columbus,"  East  India  Squadron,  1844- 
46;  receiving-ship,  New  York,  1851-52;  sloop 
"Levant,"  Mediterranean  Squadron,  1853-55; 
receiving-ship,  New  York,  1856 ;  rendezvous, 
New  York,  1857-58;  commanding  store-ship 
"  Relief,"  1859. 

Commissioned  as  commander,  April  24,  1861 ; 
commanding  steamer  "  Mohawk,"  South  At 
lantic  Squadron,  1861  ;  commanding  steamer 
"Flag,"  South  Atlantic  Squadron,  1862;  com 
manding  steam-sloop  "  Monongahela,"  Western 
Gulf  Blockading  Squadron,  1863-65. 

In  November,  1863,  Commander  Strong  con 
voyed  a  division  of  the  army  under  Gen.  Banks 
from  New  Orleans  to  Brazos  Island,  at  Brazos 
de  Santiago.  On  November  25,  1863,  a  body 
of  troops  under  Major-Gen.  Banks  captured  a 
battery  of  3  heavy  guns  at  Arkansas  Pass.  Com 
mander  Strong,  after  assisting  in  the  landing  of 
the  troops,  steamed  ahead  and  opened  an  effective 
fire  on  the  battery,  which  soon  hoisted  a  white 
flag  and  was  taken  possession  of  by  the  troops, 
who  had  also  engaged  it.  Gen.  Banks  com 
mended  the  effective  gunnery  of  the  "  Monon 


gahela."  Commander  Strong  commanded  the 
"Monongahela"  at  the  battle  of  Mobile  Bay, 
August  5,  1864.  His  vessel  was  the  first  to  en 
gage  the  rebel  ram  "Tennessee."  He  sheered 
out  of  the  line  to  run  into  her,  and  struck  her 
fair,  at  the  same  time  giving  her  a  broadside  of 
solid  11-inch  shot,  which  had,  apparently,  little 
if  any  effect  upon  her.  Soon  after  signal  was 
made  to  his  ship  to  again  run  into  her ;  he  did 
so,  and  was  about  to  try  it  a  third  time,  when  she 
surrendered  to  the  fleet. 

Commissioned  as  captain,  August  5,  1865  ;  in 
spector  at  navy-yard,  New  York,  1866-67;  com 
manding  steam-sloop  "  Canandaigua,"  European 
Squadron,  1868-69;  attached  to  navy-yard,  New 
York,  1870. 

Commissioned  as  commodore,  March  2,  1870 ; 
light-house  inspector,  1871-72. 

Commissioned  as  rear-admiral,  September, 
1873 ;  commanding  South  Atlantic.  Station, 
1873-75.  Retired  April  25,  1876. 

Strong.  A  strong  breeze,  a  breeze  blowing 
some  20  to  25  miles  per  hour  (No.  6  in  the  Beau 
fort  scale),  in  which,  close-hauled,  only  single-  or 
double-reefed  topsails,  jib,  courses,  and  spanker 
would  be  carried.  Strong  gale,  a  gale  reducing 
a  ship  to  close-reefed  topsails  and  reefed  courses, — 
No.  9  of  Beaufort  scale,  blowing  35  miles  per 
hour. 

Strong-back.  A  samson-post.  A  lever  over 
the  windlass  to  lift  the  chain  off  of  it.  A  light 
spar  lashed  to  boat-davits,  to  which  the  boat  is 
secured  at  sea. 

Strop.     See  STRAP. 

STROP-BOUND  BLOCK  (Eng.\  A  clew-line 
block,  with  a  shoulder  on  it,  and  bound  with  a 
rope  strap. 

Struse.  A  long,  unwieldy  craft,  used  on  in 
land  waters  in  Russia. 

Strut.  A  stanchion  to  the  lower-deck  beams. 
A  stanchion  of  the  hold.  A  diagonal  shore. 

Stubb  (Eng.}.  The  lower  end  of  a  rainbow, 
foretelling  squally  weather. 

Stub-end.  The  enlarged  end  of  a  connecting- 
rod,  containing  the  blocks  that  encircle  the  pin. 

Stud.  A  piece  of  cast  iron  put  across  the  links 
of  large  chain-cables  to  strengthen  them. 

STUD-LINKS.  Links  of  chain  that  have  studs 
in  them. 

Studding-sail.  A  sail  set  outside  the  square- 
sails  in  good  weather,  and  when  the  wind  is  fair. 
The  word  is  generally  supposed  to  have  been  origi 
nally  steering-sail,  but  a  better  derivation  would 
seem  to  be  from  its  former  name  of  scudding-sail. 
These  sails  are  made  of  light  canvas,  and  roped 
with  light  rope.  There  are  on  each  side,  a  lower 
studding-sail,  a  fore-topmast  studding-sail,  fore- 
and  main-topgallant  studding-sails,  and  some 
times  a  main-topmast  studding-sail.  Royal  stud 
ding  sails  were  formerly  used.  The  use  of 
studding-sails  on  board  steamers  is  becoming 
obsolete.  The  topmast  studding-sail  is  set  with 
the  wind  a  point  free,  but  the  others  not  until  the 
wind  is  abaft  the  beam.  They  are  set  on  both 
sides  when  the  wind  is  exactly 'aft.  In  setting  a 
studding-sail,  it  is  first  rolled  up  and  then  bound 
by  thrusting  a  toggle  in  the  eyes  of  a  strap,  to 
the  end  of  which  a^laniard  is  made  fast.  When 
the  sail  is  nearly  up,  the  squilgee  is  pulled  out, 
and  the  sail  unfolds,  and  is  then  set  by  hauling 
out  the  tack,  pulling  up  the  halliards,  and  trim 
ming  down  the  sheet.  When  taken  in,  the  stud- 


STUFF 


792 


SUBMARINE   MINES 


ding-sails  are  neatly  rolled  up  on  their  yards, 
and  the  lower  and  topmast  are  stowed  about 
decks,  while  the  topgallant  studding-sail  is  kept 
in  the  top,  extended  along  the  rigging. 

STUDDING-SAIL-BOOM.  A  spar  rigged  out  for 
the  purpose  of  setting  a  studding-sail,  and  taking 
its  name  from  the  sail  above  it.  The  lower  stud 
ding-sail-boom  swings  out  from  the  side  of  the 
ship.  The  topma&t  and  topgallant  studding-sail- 
booms  lie  along-the  lower  and  topsail-yards  when 
not  in  use.  When  the  sail  is  to  be  set,  they  are 
thrust  out  beyond  the  yard-arms.  Boom-irons 
confine  them  to  the  yard,  in-and-out  jiggers 
handle  them,  and  they  are  supported  by  guys 
when  necessary.  On  the  outer  end  is  a  jewel- 
block  or  a  fixed  block  confined  by  a  pin,  through 
which  the  tack  is  rove. 

STUDDING-SAIL-BOOM  BRACE.  A  rope  leading 
from  the  end  of  the  topmast  studding-sail-boom 
to  the  side  of  the  ship  abaft,  serving  as  a  brace  to 
support  the  boom. 

STUDDING-SAIL-HALLIARDS.  Hopes  used  to 
hoist  the  studding-sails.  They  lead  through 
blocks  at  the  yard-arms,  and  are  bent  to  the 
yards  of  the  studding-sails.  The  outer  halliards 
of  the  lower  studding-sail  lead  through  a  block 
on  the  topmast  studding-sail-boom,  and  a  light 
whip  is  used  to  haul  up  the  upper  inner  corner  of 
the  sail,  and  is  then  called  the  inner  halliards. 

STUDDING-SAIL-HALLIARD  BEND.  A  bend 
used  to  fasten  the  studding-sail-halliards  to  the 
yard. 

STUDDING-SAIL-OUTHATTL.  The  tack  of  the 
lower  studding-sail,  leading  through  a  block 
near  the  end  of  the  swinging-boom,  and  through 
a  sheave  in  the  ship's  side  near  the  gangway. 

STUDDING-SAIL-SHEET.  A  rope  fastened  to 
the  inner  lower  corner  of  a  studding-sail,  to  assist 
in  retaining  it  in  place.  The  topmast  studding- 
sail  has  two  sheets,  one,  the  deck-sheet,  being 
kept  on  deck,  and  used  in  setting  and  taking  in 
the  sail.  The  other  is  called  the  short  sheet.  See 
SHORT  SHEET. 

STUDDING-SAIL-TACK.  A  rope  fastened  to  the 
outer  lower  corner  of  a  studding-sail,  and  reeving 
through  a  block  on  the  end  of  the  boom,  so  as  to 
haul  the  sail  out  in  place. 

STUDDING-SAIL-YARD.  The  small  spar  to 
which  a  studding-sail  is  bent.  They  are  flying 
yards,  and  are  set  and  taken  in  with  the  sail. 

Stuff.  Square  timber  of  any  thickness.  A 
mixture  of  tallow,  turpentine,  etc.,  applied  to  the 
masts,  yards,  or  bottom  of  the  ship  in  former 
times.  Turpentine  and  resin  was  used  on  the 
lower  masts ;  tallow  on  the  topmasts  ;  for  the 
side,  turpentine,  oil,  and  varnish  ;  for  the  bot 
tom,  tallow,  sulphur,  and  resin. 

Stuffing-box.  A  contrivance  by  which  soft 
packing  material,  such  as  hemp,  is  confined  in 
an  annular  space  about  a  rod,  spindle,  valve- 
stem,  etc.,  entering  a  cylinder,  pump,  or  other 
vessel  required  to  be  air-tight.  The  packing  is 
confined  by  means  of  a  gland  and  screws. 

Stump.  Stamp  masts,  masts  which  have  been 
broken  off.  Stump  topgallant-masts,  short  masts 
without  poles. 

Stun'sail.  A  corruption  of  studding-sail,  in 
common  use  among  seamen. 

Sturgeon.  A  large  cartilaginous  fish  of  the 
genus  Acipenser.  The  American  species  is  the 
A.  oxyrhyncus.  From  its  roe  caviare  is  made, 
and  isinglass  from  its  muscular  parts. 


Subbrachian.  One  of  an  order  of  malacop- 
terygious  fishes,  comprising  those  which  have 
the  ventral  fins  situated  either  immediately  be 
neath  or  between,  or  a  little  in  front  of  or  behind, 
the  pectoral  fins. 

Sub-calibre.  A  term  applied  to  projectiles 
that  are  smaller  than  the  bore  of  a  gun,  and  that 
are  enlarged  by  expanding  bands,  sabots,  etc. 

Sub-lieutenant.  The  rank  next  below  lieu 
tenant  in  the  English  navy. 

Submarine  Bank.  A  bank  with  deep  water 
over  it. 

Submarine  Boat.  A  boat  for  use  below  the 
surface  of  the  water. 

Submarine  Explorer.  A  double  diving-bell, 
furnished  with  air-  and  light-chambers,  and  ap 
pliances  for  purifying  the  air  contained  within. 

Submarine  Gun.  A  gun  intended  to  project 
a  shot  below  the  surface  of  the  water.  Sub 
marine  weapons  are  said  to  have  been  devised 
by  Calluricus  for  use  with  Greek  fire,  but  doubt 
exists  of  this.  In  1797,  Saint  Cyr  proposed  a 
catamaran  with  a  submarine  gun.  Fulton,  in 
1814,  experimented  with  such  guns  in  New  York 
harbor.  Mr.  Phillips,  of  Indiana,  in  1855,  and 
Mr.  Woodbury,  of  Boston,  in  1861,  made  ex 
periments  with  these  guns,  firing  them  under 
water,  and  the  latter  gentleman  has  made  other 
plans  since  that  time  for  using  these  guns. 
"Jones's  submarine  battery"  shattered  a  raft 
passing  over  it  in  New  York  harbor  in  1862. 
A  submarine  gun  was  shown  in  the  Paris  Ex 
position  in  1867,  designed  by  a  Mr.  Duify.  Ex 
periments  made  in  England  in  1864  demon 
strated  that  guns  could  be  successfully  fired 
under  water,  and  that  the  projectile  acquired 
considerable  velocity,  and  deviated  considerably. 
Ericsson  in  experimenting  with  submarine  guns, 
for  use  in  his  torpedo-boat,  at  first  used  steam, 
but  later,  had  recourse  to  explosives.  His  ex 
periments  are  not  concluded.  The  necessity  of 
a  weapon  that  will  attack  the  ship  below  the 
water  has  given,  since  the  advent  of  armored 
vessels,  considerable  impulse  to  the  subject  of  sub 
marine  guns,  but  at  present  they  are  not  so  greatly 
developed  as  submarine  mines  or  torpedoes. 

Submarine  Lamp.  A  lamp  for  use  under 
water.  Many  such  have  been  devised,  but  they 
will  now  be  replaced  by  the  electric  light. 

Submarine  Mines.  The  term  "submarine 
mines"  is  applied  to  defensive  mines,  or  those 
which  would  be  used  to  obstruct  the  channel  of 
a  river,  or  the  approaches  to  a  fortified  seaport. 
Col.  Samuel  Colt,  the  inventor  of  the  revolver, 
first  demonstrated  the  practicability  of  blowing 
up  vessels  by  submarine  mines  fired  by  electricity. 
After  many  years  devoted  to  experiments,  about 
the  year  1842  he  blew  up  the  old  gunboat"  Boxer" 
with  a  submarine  mine,  exploded  by  means  of  a 
galvanic  battery.  After  destroying  several  hulks 
at  anchor,  on  the  13th  of  April-  1345,  on  the 
Potomac  River,  he  b'^v/  up  a,  brig  while  under 
way,  sailing  at  the  rate  of  5  knots  an  hour.  He 
had  stationed  himself  at  Alexandria,  5  miles 
distant  from  the  mine.  Nothing  further  was 
done  at  the  time,  although  Col.  Colt,  in  a  letter 
to  the  President  of  the  United  States,  clearly 
explainer!  the  great  value  of  this  invention  for 
defend!  »ig  our  harbors  from  an  enemy. 

The  Russians  used  submarine  mines  to  defend 
their  \)orts  during  the  Crimean  war,  but  no  ves 
sels  v/ere  destroyed  by  them. 


SUBMARINE   MINES 


SUBSIDY 


The  South ,  during  the  late  civil  war,  first  proved 
the  great  value  of  submarine  mines  for  river  and 
harbor  defense.  The  torpedo  and  submarine 
mine  were  never  before  fully  recognized  as  legit 
imate  engines  of  war. 

The  first  mines  encountered  by  the  Federal 
navy  were  planted  in  the  Savannah  River,  about 
February,  1862,  but  for  some  time  they  were  so 
crude  in  construction  as  to  cause  little  damage. 
However,  during  the  summer  of  1863  they  be 
came  very  effective.  One  of  the  most  successful 
of  the  many  kinds  employed  by  them  was  the 
Singer  torpedo,  as  it  was  then  called.  This  con 
sisted  of  a  tin  case  holding  from  50  to  100  pounds 
of  powder  arranged  so  that  it  was  buoyant,  and 
anchored  in  the  channel  at  the  proper  depth.  It 
had  on  its  top  a  heavy  cast-iron  cap,  which, 
when  the  torpedo  was  struck  by  a  passing  vessel, 
fell  off,  thus  pulling  a  string  fastened  to  a  small 
pin.  The  pulling  out  of  this  pin  caused  the 
explosion  of  the  mine.  Obstructions  in  channels 
and  on  bars  were  frequently  made  much  more 
formidable  by  submarine  mines  fitted  with  fuzes 
to  explode  by  contact  when  struck  by  a  vessel's 
bottom.  Regular  frames  were  sometimes  con 
structed  to  support  the  mines.  These  were  called 
u  frame  torpedoes."  The  Federal  gunboats  never 
tried  to  force  a  passage  through  a  channel  de 
fended  in  this  manner. 

A  great  number  of  buoyant  mines  were  used 
by  the  rebels,  particularly  in  the  beginning  of 
their  use  of  submarine  mines.  These  consisted 
of  barrels  or  other  vessels  partially  filled  with 
powder,  and  anchored  in  channels  and  harbors; 
they  were  fitted  with  sensitive  or  contact  fuzes, 
and  were  much  dreaded  by  our  navy. 

Towards  the  end  of  the  war,  during  the  sum 
mer  of  1864,  the  rebels  planted  enormous  mines 
at  Charleston,  Mobile,  Fort  Fisher,  and  in  the 
James  River.  At  first  old  boilers  were  used  as 
cases,  but  soon  regular  ones  were  made.  These 
mines  were  fired  by  electricity,  and  proved  very 
effective.  During  the  war  7  monitors  and  11 
wooden  vessels  of  war  were  totally  destroyed  by 
submarine  mines,  and  all  these  occurred  during 
the  last  half  of  the  conflict.  Had  the  rebels  pos 
sessed  the  same  knowledge  of  submarine  mines 
and  torpedoes  at  the  beginning  of  the  war  that 
they  possessed  at  its  end,  the  struggle  would  at 
least  have  been  much  prolonged.  While  sub 
marine  mines  arranged  to  explode  on  contact 
with  a  vessel  may  be  useful  to  a  blockading 
force  and  other  special  occasions,  the  certainty 
of  explosion  by  electricity  makes  that  the  desir 
able  method,  when  they  are  intended  to  assist 
in  the  defense  of  a  river  or  harbor.  Besides, 
when  fitted  with  electrical  fuzes  they  allow 
friendly  vessels  to  pass  over  them  in  safety. 

The  difficulty  originally  in  using  electricity  to 
explode  the  mines  was  in  determining  the  exact 
relative  position  of  the  vessel  and  mine,  so  as  to 
produce  an  effective  explosion.  But  by  planting 
the  mines  in  groups,  and  by  careful  ranges,  to 
gether  with  the  use  of  plane  tables  and  other  in 
struments  suitable  for  the  purpose,  the  position 
of  the  vessel  can  be  accurately  determined.  The 
firing  of  the  mine  the  instant  the  vessel  is  proven 
to  be  over  it  by  two  distinct  ranges  is  now  done 
by  a  self-acting  instrument,  invented  for  this 
purpose.  The  use  of  gun-cotton  has  added  to 
the  efficiency  of  this  method  of  defense,  as  that 
explosive  is  not  injuriously  affected  by  damp 


ness.  Formerly  the  great  number  of  insulated 
wires  required — two,  and  afterwards  one  to  each 
mine — was  a  serious  trouble  in  putting  down  sub 
marine  mines,  but  a  recent  invention  of  Capt. 
McEvoy's,  called  "  McEvoy's  single  main  sys 
tem,"  does  away  with  the  necessity  of  more  than 
one  wire  from  the  battery  on  shore  to  the  group 
of  mines.  Each  mine  is  connected  by  a  wire  of 
its  own  to  the  "junction,"  and  a  single  wire  con 
nects  this  instrument  to  a  similar  one  on  shore. 
By  means  of  this  invention  each  mine  is  under 
as  thorough  control  as  though  it  had  a  wire  of 
its  own. 

The  importance  of  submarine  mines  for  the 
defense  of  our  harbors  and  coast  cannot  be  over 
estimated,  yet  they  should  be,  in  order  to  be 
thoroughly  efficient,  supported  by  heavy  rifled 
guns,  so  that  the  enemy's  vessels  would  be  unable 
to  drag  for  them  or  destroy  them  by  any  means. 
The  manufacture  and  planting  of  submarine 
mines  for  harbor  defense  in  this  country  is  one 
of  the  duties  confided  to  the  army.  They  are 
exploded  from  the  forts  nearest  at  hand.  This 
is  chiefly  a  matter  of  nice  calculation.  Whereas 
the  manufacture  and  use  of  torpedoes  belongs  to 
the  navy.  In  their  successful  employment  is  re 
quired  the  highest  order-  of  personal  courage, 
coolness,  and  determination  under  the  most  try 
ing  circumstances. — R.  M.  Cr.  Brown,  Lieutenant 
U'.S.N. 

Submarine  Navigation.  Navigation  of  the 
depths  of  the  ocean  by  means  of  submarine 
boats. 

Submarine  Projectiles.  Projectiles  for  use 
below  the  surface  of  the  water.  Shot,  shell,  and 
rockets  are  used,  and  differ  little,  if  any,  from 
those  used  above  the  surface. 

Submarine  Rocket.  A  rocket  for  use  under 
water.  Such  rockets  were  used  as  early  as  1730 
in  France.  In  1823,  Joshua  Blair  devised  them 
in  America,  but  they  were  not  put  in  use. 
Montgery,  in  France,  proposed  a  battery  of 
rockets  i'n  1825,  firing  them  from  a  g\in  under 
the  surface,  using  a  lap-valve  in  the  ship's  side. 
Major  Hunt  tried  rockets  from  a  12-inch  gun  in 
a  caisson  in  1862.  He  was  drowned,  and  ex 
periments  ceased.  Mr.  Quich,  in  England,  in 
1872,  Mr.  Weir,  of  New  York,  in  1874,  Gunner 
Burdett,  of  the  U.  8.  navy,  in  1874,  and  Van 
Schelila,  in  Russia,  in  1874,  have  all  proposed 
and  planned  rockets  more  or  less  successful. 

Submarine  Telegraph.  A  telegraph  wire- 
cable  armed  to  prevent  the  action  of  water, 
grinding  on  rocks,  etc.,  crossing  the  shallower 
sea-depths.  The  first  was  laid  in  1858,  across 
the  ocean.  See  TELEGRAPH  CABLES. 

Submarine  Telescope.  A  telescope  used  for 
looking  at  objects  below  the  surface.  It  consists 
of  two  tubes  united,  one  of  which  is  thrust  into 
the  water,  the  other  throwing  light  into  it. 

Submarine  Thermometer.  A  thermometer 
for  use  in  sea-depths,  specially  constructed  to 
sustain  the  great  pressure  of  the  water.  See 
DEEP-SEA  SOUNDING. 

Submarine  Valve.  A  valve  used  in  connec 
tion  with  a  submarine  gun,  opening  in  the  side 
of  the  ship,  and  allowing  the  gun  to  emerge. 

Subsidy.  A  sum  paid  to  the  owners  of  steamer- 
lines,  to  aid  them  in  establishing  the  line.  Sub 
sidized  steamers  are  generally  available  for  war 
purposes,  and  some  have  been  built  with  a  view 
to  their  use  as  cruisers. 


SUBSISTENCE 


794 


SUFFREN 


Subsistence.  The  amount  of  rations,  cloth- 
ins:,  etc.,  furnished  to  men. 

Suck.  To  draw  air  when  the  water  is  low, 
said  of  a  pump.  To  suck  the  monkey  (Eng.),  to 
rob  the  grog-can. 

Sucker.  The  lump-fish.  The  sucking-fish,  or 
remora. 

Sucking-fish,  or  Suck-stone.  This  fish  has  a 
long  oval  plate  on  the  top  of  the  head,  by  which, 
having  exhausted  the  air  in  it,  it  clings  to  a  ship's 
bottom,  to  the  sides  of  a  shark,  or  to  turtle. 
Among  the  ancients  the  remora  was  credited 
with  power  to  impede  and  even  arrest  the  pro 
gress  of  vessels, — the  delay  of  Antony's  ship  in 
getting  into  the  battle  of  Actium  being  attributed 
to  it.  "A  curious  use  of  the  remora,  said  to  pre 
vail  on  the  coasts  of  Mozambique,  is  as  an  aux 
iliary  to  the  fishermen,  who,  fixing  a  ring,  with 
a  cord  attached,  around  its  tail,  place  it  in  a  ves 
sel  of  sea-water  and  carry  it  in  their  boat  till  they 
discover  a  sleeping  turtle,  when,  having  ap 
proached  as  near  as  practicable,  they  throw  the 
remora  in  the  direction  of  the  turtle,  to  which  it 
seldom  fails  to  attach  itself,  when  drawing  in  the 
cord  the  fishermen  secure  their  prize. 

Suction.  A  term  applied  to  the  tendency  of 
matter,  under  atmospheric  pressure,  to  fill  a 
vacuum. 

SUCTION-PIPE.  A  pipe  through  which  a  fluid 
is  supplied  to  a  pump,  either  by  its  weight  or  the 
atmospheric  pressure. 

SUCTION-VALVE.  The  receiving-valve  of  a 
pump,  or  one  which  prevents  the  reflux  of  a 
fluid  through  the  suction-pipe. 

Suez.  A  frontier  seaport  town  of  Egypt,  near 
the  head  of  the  Gulf  of  Suez.  It  is  connected 
by  railway  with  Cairo  and  Alexandria,  and  since 
the  construction  of  the  Suez  Canal,  which  crosses 
the  Isthmus  of  Suez  from  Port  Said  to  this  town, 
it  has  greatly  improved.  It  has  always  been  a 
place  of  extensive  transit  trade.  Two  miles  south 
of  the  town  is  a  spacious  new  artificial  port, 
with  a  dry-dock,  besides  which  there  is  a  canal- 
port,  with  extensive  buildings,  and  a  quay.  Lat. 
29°  68'  6"  N. ;  Ion.  32°  34'  2"  E.  Pop. 
13.000. 

Suffren  de  Saint-Tropez  (Pierre  Andre  de), 
commonly  known  as  the  Bailli  de  SufFren,  and 
one  of  the  most  illustrious  of  French  seamen, 
was  born  at  Saint  Cannat,  near  Lambesc,  in 
1726,  and  died  in  Paris  in  1788. 

Sutfren's  whole  life  may  be  said  to  have  been 
passed  in  fighting  the  English.  As  was,  and  is, 
still  customary  among  noble  families,  that  of  Suf 
fren  (to  increase  the  fortune  of  an  elder  brother) 
devoted  the  younger  to  the  Order  of  Malta  and 
to  a  sea-life.  Fortunately  the  young  aspirant 
was  eminently  fitted  for*  and  loved  his  des 
tined  profession.  He  not  only  possessed  the  most 
dauntless  courage,  but  had  acquired  a  great  deal 
of  ^  general  knowledge,  and  was  early  distin 
guished  for  elevation  of  character  and  coolness  of 
judgment.  In  spite  of  his  fitness  for  the  naval 
service  he  made  his  way  in  it  rather  slowly,  con 
sidering  his  family,  and  the  spirit  of  the  times. 

Entering  the  navy  in.  1743,  he  was,  after  sev 
eral  very  active  cruises,  made  ensign  in  1748; 
and  with  that,  rank  took  part  in  the  operations 
at  Belle  Isle,  where  he  was  made  prisoner  by  the 
English.  The  treaty  of  Aix-la-Chapelle  re 
stored  him  to  liberty,  and  he  then  went  to  Malta, 
where  he  took  active  service  for  a  considerable 


period.  In  1754  he  re-entered  the  French  Royal 
Marine,  and  was  employed  in  the  squadron  of 
La  Galissonniere  at  the  siege  of  Mahon,  in 
1756.  Was  again  made  prisoner  in  1759,  and 
after  various  vicissitudes  and  constant  service, 
finally  attained  the  grade  of  capitaine  de  fregate 
in  1767.  After  attaining  this  rank  in  the  French 
navy,  he  made  several  cruises  in  the  galleys  of 
his  order,  and  became  a  Commander  of  Malta. 

The  title  of  Bailli,  by  which  he  is  best  known, 
was  not  given  to  him  until  some  years  after  this 
time. 

Becoming  capitaine  de  vaisseau  in  1772,  he 
served  with  great  credit  in  the  Levant,  and 
afterwards  in  the  French  fleet  which  served  on 
the  American  station  during  our  Revolution. 

"When  it  became  plain  that  most  active  meas 
ures  were  necessary  to  prevent  the  seizure  of  the 
French  and  Dutch  East  Indian  colonies  by  the 
English,  SufFren  was  the  officer  selected  to  pro 
tect  French  interests,  and  to  uphold  the  honor 
of  his  flag  in  those  distant  seas. 

Sailing  from  Brest,  a^  chef  d'escadron,  or  com 
modore,  of  a  squadron  composed  of  5  line-of-bat- 
tle  ships  and  2  frigates,  he  carried  out  a  body  of 
troops  destined  for  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  On 
the  passage,  in  the  latitude  of  the  Cape  Yerde 
Islands,  April  16,  1781,  he  encountered  an  Eng 
lish  squadron,  with  which  he  had  a  successful 
fight,  and  proceeded  to  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope, 
which  colony  he  reinforced  and  reprovisioned. 

From  the  cape  he  sailed  for  the  Isle  of  France, 
where  he  united  his  squadron  with  that  of  the 
Count  d'Orves. 

The  death  of  that  officer  soon  left  him  in  com 
mand  of  the  fleet,  and  in  February,  1782,  he 
inflicted  a  crushing  defeat  upon  the  English 
fleet  under  Admiral  Hughes,  near  Madras,  after 
which  he  concluded  an  alliance  with  the  cele 
brated  Hyder  Ali,  who  was  then  striving  against 
the  English  with  great  desperation. 

Suffren  again  defeated  an  English  fleet  off 
Negapatam,  formerly  the  capital  of  the  Dutch 
possessions  in  India,  and  captured  Trincomalee. 
The  English,  indeed,  never  had  so  capable  and 
worthy  an  opponent  in  that  part  of  the  world, 
and  were  no  doubt  relieved  when  the  peace  of 
Versailles,  in  1783,  caused  the  French  seaman  to 
return  home,  where  he  was  received  enthusias 
tically  and  loaded  with  honors. 

New  complications  with  England  having 
arisen  in  1787,  Louis  XVI.  gave  SufFren  the 
command  of  a  fleet  fitting  out  at  Brest ;  but  he 
died  suddenly,  at  Paris,  just  as  his  orders  were 
made  out. 

It  was  given  out  at  the  time  that  he  died  of 
apoplexy;  but,  according  to  Jal,  the  historiog 
rapher  of  the  marine,  he  was  killed  in  a  duel. 
The  story  was  that  the  Bailli  de  Suffren  had 
punished  two  young  aspirants,  serving  under  his 
orders,  for  some  military  breach  ;  and  when  their 
relative — a  grand  signeur — came  to  the  Bailli  to 
plead  for  them,  the  latter  used  no  measured 
language  in  regard  to  them  and  their  offense. 

A  duel  ensued  at  once,  the  Chevalier  Bemin 
being  the  witness.  SufFren  was  greatly  at  a  dis 
advantage,  as  he  was  so  fat  as  to  be  unwieldy. 
His  groin  was  pierced  by  his  antagonist's  sword, 
and  he  died  almost  instantly. 

The  Bailli  is  described  as  being  not  above  the 
ordinary  height,  but  immensely  fat.  He  had 
very  regular  features,  and  a  very  noble  and 


SUGAK-LOAF 


SURF 


pleasant  expression.  His  manners  are  said  to 
have  been  polished  and  easy,  while  to  his  infer 
iors  he  was  particularly  kind  and  considerate. 

His  men,  knowing  his  courage,  coolness,  and 
judgment  in  action^were  willing  to  follow  him 
anywhere,  and  Suffren  was  as  quick  to  notice 
and  reward  courage  and  conduct  as  he  was  sure 
to  detect  and  punish  the  least  ill-conductor  cow 
ardice. — E.  Shippen. 

Sugar-loaf.  A  hill  shaped  like  a  sugar-loaf. 
Applied  to  the  waves,  a  sugar-loaf  sea  is  one  in 
which  the  waves  rise  into  sugar-loaf  shapes,  with 
little  wind. 

Sugg  (Eng.}.  To  move  or  roll  heavily  on  a 
bank  or  reef. 

Suit.     Suit  of  sails,  a  set  of  sails. 

Sullage.  The  deposit  of  mud  and  silt  by 
water. 

Sullit.    A  broad  and  deep  Dutch  fishing-boat. 

Summary  Court-martial.  See  COURT-MAR 
TIAL. 

Summer-blink.  A  transient  sunny  spell  in 
bad  weather. 

Sumner's  Method.     See  NAVIGATION. 

Sump.     A  swamp  or  bog. 

Sun.  The  direction  of  the  sun  in  the  northern 
hemisphere  is  to  the  right  of  an  observer  looking 
to  the  north,  hence  motion  to  the  right,  or  from 
left  to  right,  is  with  the  sun.  Motion  in  the  oppo 
site  direction  is  against  the  sun. 

SUN-DOG.  A  portion  of  a  luminous  circle 
about  the  sun. 

SUN-FISH.  A  soft-finned  fish  of  the  genus 
Orthagoriscus  (O.  mola),  having  a  short  disk-like 
body  and  two  fins.  The  Selachus  maximus,  or 
basking  shark. 

SUNRISE  AND  SUNSET.  It  is  important  to  the 
navigator  to  know  the  times  of  sunrise  and  sun 
set.  A  gun  is  fired  at  sunset  in  every  harbor 
where  there  is  a  man-of-war,  colors  are  hauled 
down,  etc.  The  time  of  sunset  is  given  in  nau 
tical  tables,  and  is  tabulated  for  all  latitudes  and 
declinations.  It  is  usual  to  hoist  boats,  and  some 
times  light  yards  are  sent  down  at  sunset. 

SUN-STAR.     A  star-fish  ;  the  Solaster  pa.pposa. 

Sunderland.  A  borough  and  seaport  town  of 
England,  at  the  mouth"  of  the  Wear,  in  the 
North  Sea.  The  town  proper  occupies  a  penin 
sula  between  the  expansion  of  the  Wear  and  the 
sea.  This  is  one  of  the  principal  ports  of  Eng 
land  for  the  shipment  of  coal ;  it  has  besides  a 
large  export  of  lime,  glass,  earthenwares,  rope, 
and  chemical  products.  Mercantile  ship-building 
is  extensively  carried  on.  The  harbor  is  defended 
by  batteries,  and  connected  with  it  are  large 
docks.  Lat.  54°  54'  N.  Population  of  the  bor 
ough  99,000. 

Sunken  Rock.  One  lying  beneath  the  sur 
face. 

Sunken  Vessels,  Raising.  Sunken  vessels  are 
now  raised  by  various  methods.  One,  very  suc 
cessful,  consists  in  sending  down  and  attaching  to 
the  hull  a  number  of  casks,  containing  compressed 
air  in  chambers,  liberated  after  the  casks  are  at 
tached.  Small  vessels  are  raised  by  chains  and 
powerful  steam  appliances  for  heaving  in  on  them. 
Sunn-hemp.  Also  called  brown-hemp,  or 
Madras  hemp,  a  kind  of  hemp  made  from  the 
fibres  of  a  kind  of  Indian  plant ;  the  Crotolaria 
juncea. 

Superannuated  (Eng.}.  Retired  from  service 
on  account  of  age.  / 


Supercargo.  A  person  in  the  merchant  ser 
vice  charged  with  the  sale  of  the  cargo,  and  other 
commercial  transactions. 

Superheat.  To  heat,  as  steam,  after  separation 
from  'the  water,  thereby  increasing  the  elastic 
properties. 

SUPERHEATER.  A  part  of  or  attachment  to 
the  boiler,  in  which  the  steam  is  superheated. 

Superior.     See  CONJUNCTION,  PLANETS. 

Superior  Officer.  An  officer  whose  rank  is 
higher  in  comparison  with  another.  A  senior 
officer. 

Supernumeraries.  Men  above  the  regular 
complement,  borne  on  a  separate  list.  Extra 
members  of  a  ship's,  boat's,  or  gun's  crew. 

Supporter.  A  curved  knee,  placed  under  the 
cat-head.  A  pin  at  the  hounds  of  the  mast,  to 
support  the  trestle-trees  in  small  vessels. 

Sura.     Another  name  for  toddy. 

Sures.  Southerly  winds  on  the  west  coast  of 
South  America.  When  rain  or  fog  comes  with 
them,  they  are  sures  pnrdos. 

Surf.  The  swell  of  the  sea  breaking  upon  the 
shore  or  on  rocks,  etc.  Properly  speaking,  surf 
is  only  those  swells  breaking  in  gradually  shal 
lowing  water  on  approaching  a  shore,  each  of 
which  is  a  roller  ;  while  the  sudden  breaking  up 
of  waves  on  rocks  or  other  obstacles  are  breakers. 
In  rowing  to  seaward  the  danger  is  that  a  heavy 
sea  will  up-end  the  boat,  or  turn  it  broadside  on. 
If  sufficient  command  can  be  kept  over  the  boat, 
the  sea  is  avoided,  if  possible,  so  as  not  to  meet 
it  at  the  moment  of  its  breaking.  If  impossible 
to  avoid  the  sea,  give  the  boat  sufficient  speed  to 
prevent  her  being  carried  back  by  the  wave. 

In  rowing  before  a  heavy  surf,  the  effect  of  a 
sea  is  to  throw  up  the  boat's  stern  and  to  depress 
her  bow.  If  she  then  have  sufficient  inertia  she 
will  assume  in  succession  the  descending,  the 
horizontal,  and  the  ascending  positions,  as  the 
wave  passes  under  her  stern,  her  midships,  and 
her  bow.  If  a  boat  with  little  inertia  be  overtaken 
by  a  heavy  roller,  her  stern  is  raised,  and  the 
boat  is  carried  along  bodily  on  the  front  of  the 
wave,  the  bow  meanwhile  immersed  in  the  hol 
low  of  the  sea,  where  the  water  is  comparatively 
stationary  and  offers  a  resistance.  The  danger 
now  is  that  the  boat  will  be  turned  end-over-end, 
or  that  she  will  broach  to.  To  lessen  the  danger 
attendant  upon  rowing  in  before  the  surf,  the 
following  instructions  have  been  laid  down  : 

1.  As  far  as  possible  avoid  each  sea  by  placing 
the  boat  so  that  the  sea  will  break   ahead  or 
astern  of  her. 

2.  If  the  sea  be  very  heavy,  or  if  the  boat  be 
very  small,  and  especially  if  she  have  a  square 
stern,  bring  her  bow  around  to  seaward,  and 
back  her  in,  rowing  ahead  against  each  surf  that 
cannot  be  sufficiently  avoided  to  allow  it  to  pass 
the  boat. 

3.  If  it  be  considered  safe  to  proceed  to  the 
shore  bow  foremost,  back  the  oars  against  each 
sea  on  its  approach,  and  if  there  is  a  drogue,  or 
anything  in  the  boat  that  may  be  used  as  one, 
tow  it  astern  to  aid  in  keeping  the  boat  end-on 
to  the  sea. 

4.  Bring  the   principal  weights  in  the  boat 
toward  the  end  that  is  to  seaward,  but  not  to 
the  extreme  end. 

5.  If  a  boat  worked  by  sails  and  oars  be  run 
ning  under  sail  for  land  through  a  heavy  sea, 
her  crew  should,  unless  the  beach  be  quite  steep, 


SURFACE-CONDENSEK 


796 


SWASH 


take  down  her  masts  and  sails  before  entering 
broken  water,  and  take  her  to  land  under  oars 
alone.  If  she  have  sails  only,  her  sails  should 
be  much  reduced,  a  half-lowered  foresail,  or 
other  small  head-sail  being  sufficient.  A  boat 
should  be  steered  with  an  oar  over  the  stern. 

Landing  in  a  Surf. — On  a  flat  shore  the  boat 
is  kept  end-on  to  'the  sea  until  she  is  fairly 
aground,  and  she  is  then  taken  farther  in  by 
each  sea,  aided  by  the  crew,  who  jump  out  to 
lighten  her,  and  drag  her  in.  On  a  steep  beach 
it" is  the  general  practice,  in  a  boat  of  any  size, 
to  retain  speed  right  on  to  the  beach,  and  in  the 
act  of  landing  to  turn  her  bows  half  round,  so 
that  she  may  be  thrown  on  her  broadside  upon 
the  beach.  "When  the  surf  breaks  only  a  short 
distance  from  the  beach,  a  boat  may  be  anchored 
outside  the  surf,  and  veered  or  backed  in  from 
her  own  anchor. 

SURF-BOAT.  A  boat  used  to  land  passengers 
and  freight  in  a  surf.  Boats  of  various  forms 
are  used,  and  the  natives  of  many  of  the  Pacific 
islands  have  some  very  good  boats  for  this  pur 
pose. 

SURF-DUCK.     The  Anas  per spicallata. 

Surface-condenser.  A  condenser  in  which 
steam  is  condensed  by  contact  with  cold  metallic 
surfaces.  See  CONDENSER,  MARINE  STEAM- 
ENGINE. 

Surface-current.  The  deep-sea  currents  of 
the  surface.  (See  CURRENTS.)  Fresh  water  run 
ning  over  salt  at  the  mouths  of  rivers. 

Surface,  Water-heating.  The  surface  in  a 
steam-boiler  from  which  the  heat  of  the  fire  is 
absorbed  by  the  water. 

Surge.  A  large  swelling  wave.  The  tapered 
part  of  the  whelps  on  a  capstan.  The  slacking- 
up  of  a  cable  on  the  capstan.  The  swaying 
motion  of  a  ship  that  is  aground  as  she  rises  to 
the  seas.  To  swell,  as  the  waves.  To  slacken 
up  a  rope  suddenly.  To  rise  and  fall  with  the 
heave  of  the  sea  when  on  a  reef.  To  surge  the 
capstan,  to  slacken  the  rope  about  it.  Surge  ho ! 
a  warning  given  when  a  rope  is  to  be  surged. 

Surgeons.  The  name  of  surgeon  does  not  ap 
pear  in  any  of  the  accounts  of  the  British  navy 
before  the  year  1557,  although  probably  of  much 
earlier  date  in  that  establishment.  During  the 
civil  wars  of  Charles  I.'s  time  it  was  not  uncom 
mon  for  doctors  of  medicine  to  act  as  captains 
and  command  regiments  of  cavalry  and  infantry. 

The  title  is  a  contraction  of  the 'French  chirur- 
gien,  Latin,  chirurgus,  both  derived  from  a 
Greek  word  signifying  operating  with  the  hand. 
In  Spanish  the  word  is  cirujano,  Portuguese 
cirurgiao,  Italian  chirurgo. 

The  medical  corps  of  the  royal  navy  is  com 
posed  of  a  director-general,  inspector-generals  of 
hospitals  and  fleets,  deputy  inspector-generals, 
staff-surgeons,  first  and  second  class,  and  surgeons. 

Old  Sir  William  Monson  says,  "The  surgeon 
is  to  be  placed  in  the  hold,  where  he  should  be 
in  no  danger  of  shot ;  for  there  cannot  be  a 
greater  disheartening  of  the  company  than  in 
his  miscarrying,  whereby  they  will  be  deprived 
of  all  help  for  hurt  and  wounded  men."  See 
MEDICAL  CORPS. 

SURGEON'S  DIVISION.  The  apothecary,  nurse, 
and  others  attached  to  the  medical  department 
on  board  ship. 

SURGEON'S  MATE.  A  former  rank  in  the 
English  navy,  now  assistant  surgeon. 


Survey.  An  inspection  or  examination  into 
stores,  etc.  To  ascertain  the  form,  dimensions, 
position,  etc.,  of  a  portion  of  the  surface  of  the 
earth. 

SURVEY,  BOARD  OF.  A  board  of  three  or 
more  officers,  appointed  to  survey  government 
property  to  ascertain  its  condition  and  disposi 
tion.  Surveys  are  ordered  by  any  commanding 
officer  on  representation  of  the  necessity  there 
for,  or  on  all  stores  purchased  or  made  for  the 
service.  Boards  may  summon  experts  to  assist 
them.  They  must  ascertain  the  cause,  nature, 
and  extent  of  the  damages,  and  recommend  the 
disposal  of  condemned  property.  All  purchased 
articles  must  be  passed  by  a  board  before  they 
are  paid  for.  A  medical  survey  is  ordered  on 
any  persons  so  disabled  as  to  make  it  desirable  or 
necessary. 

SURVEYING.  The  art  of  determining  the  area, 
etc.,  of  any  part  of  the  earth's  surface,  and  delin 
eating  it  on  paper.  See  CHART,  HYDROGRAPHY. 

SURVEYING-VESSEL.  A  vessel  fitted  for  mak 
ing  a  maritime  survey. 

SURVEYORS.  Examiners  employed  by  under 
writers.  Two  officers,  formerly  on  the  English 
Naval  Board,  charged  with  the  building  and  re 
pairing  of  ships  in  the  navy. 

Suspend.  To  debar  an  officer  from  the  execu 
tion  of  the  duties  of  his  office.  Unless  the  officer 
is  to  be  brought  before  a  court-martial,  his  sus 
pension  cannot  exceed  10  days. 

Svalocin.     The  star  a  Delphini. 

Swab.  A  long  mop,  made  by  binding  rope- 
yarns  in  a  bundle,  used  to  dry  the  decks,  etc. 
Hand-swab,  a  small  swab  made  from  the  threads 
of  canvas.  The  term  sviab  is  applied  to  an  epau 
let,  and  also,  in  an  uncomplimentary  way,  to  a 
sailor. 

SWAB-ROPE.  A  rope  bent  to  a  swab,  for  dip 
ping  it  overboard. 

SWAB-WASHER.     The  captain  of  the  head. 

SWABBER  (Eng.}.  Formerly,  a  petty  officer  on 
board  a  man-of-war,  whose  duty  was  to  see  the 
decks  clean.  (Eng.)  A  man  formerly  appointed 
to  use  the  swabs  in  drying  decks;  called  also 
ship's  sweeper,  or  captam  of  swabbers. 

Swad.     A  fish-basket. 

Swag.     To  sink  down  ;  to  sag  down. 

Swage.  A  tool  used  by  shipwrights  in  driv 
ing  in  eye-bolts,  etc. ;  it  is  made  to  fit  the  head 
of  the  bolt,  so  that  in  driving  or  striking  on  the 
swage,  the  bolt  is  forced  in  without  bruising  the 
head  of  it.  It  is  also  used  by  shipsmiths  in 
making  the  various  kinds  of  bolts. 

Swallow.  The  aperture  in  a  block  through 
which  the  rope  reeves. 

Swallow-fish.  The  Trigla  hirundo,  a  fish 
with  large  gill-fins ;  also  called  Sapphirine  gur 
nard. 

Swallow-tail.  The  points  of  a  burgee,  or 
swallow-tailed  flag. 

Swamp.     To  capsize  or  fill  a  boat  with  water. 

Swape.  A  wooden  support  for  a  light.  A 
pump-handle.  A  long  oar  used  in  English  coal- 
keels. 

Swart-back.  The  great  black  and  white  gull ; 
the  Larus  marinus. 

Swash.  A  sudden  surge  of  the  sea.  A  shoal 
in  a  tideway,  over  which  the  tide  ripples.  A 
narrow  sound  inside  of  a  shoal. 

SWASHWAY.  A  channel  across  a  bank  or 
among  shoals. 


SWATHE 


797 


SWEEP 


Swathe  (Eng.}:     The  entire  length  of  a  wave. 

Sway.  To  hoist ;  to  raise.  To  sway  on  end, 
to  hoist  to  a  perpendicular  position  from  the 
deck.  To  sivay  across,  to  sway  a  yard  to  a  hor 
izontal  position.  To  sway  away  on  all  top-ropes, 
figuratively,  to  go  to  great  lengths. 

Sweat-box.  A  narrow  cell  in  which  prisoners 
were  formerly  confined. 

Sweating  the  Purser  (Eng.).  Wasting  the 
stores,  burning  candles  up,  etc. 

Sweden  and  Norway,  Navy  of.  Although 
Gustavus  Adolphus  set  little  store  by  a  naval 
power,  the  exigencies  of  later  wars  than  that  in 
which  he  took  so  conspicuous  a  part  have  obliged 
the  combined  states  (now  under  one  monarchy) 
to  possess  considerable  fleets.  Washed  on  one 
side  by  the  Baltic  and  on  the  other  by  the  North 
Seas,  Norway  and  Sweden  have  always  produced 
hardy  seamen  and  skillful  navigators,  and  when 
ever  engaged  with  an  enemy  they  have  given  a 
good  account  of  their  potency.  At  the  present 
time  the  navy  of  Sweden  is  divided  into  two 
branches, — the  navy  proper  and  the  "  coast  artil 
lery."  .  The  navy  consists  of  38  vessels,  all  un- 
armored,  and  mounting  325  guns.  The  largest 
ship,  the  "  Stockholm,"  is  of  2850  tons  displace 
ment,  carrying  six  7-inch  and  sixty  30-pounder 
guns,  and  has  a  speed  under  steam  of  63-  knots 
per  hour.  The  next  in  rank  is  the  "  Vanades," 
of  2130  tons,  armed  with  16  guns,  and  having  a 
maximum  speed  of  11  knots.  There  are  also  18 
unarmored  gunboats,  4  corvettes,  and  12  sailing- 
vessels.  The  coast  artillery  is  the  most  impor 
tant  arm  of  defense,  its  total  force  being  120  ves 
sels  of  all  kinds.  The  most  important  are  the 

4  monitors,  "  Loke,"  "John  Ericsson,"  "  Thor- 
doen,"  and  "Tyrfing."     The  largest  of  these, 
the  "Loke,"  is  of  1600  tons  displacement,  450 
horse-power,  and  has  a  thickness  of  armor  of 

5  inches  at  the  water-line ;  her  armament  con 
sists  of  two  10-inch  guns  mounted  in  a  single 
fixed  turret.     The  others  are  of  nearly  the  same 
size  and  power.     There  are  also  10  armored  gun 
boats  with  fixed  turrets,  44  sloop-rigged  galleys, 

6  mortar-launches,  and  53  yawls.      The   head 
quarters  of  the  navy  is  at  Stockholm,  the  island 
of  Skeppskolm  being  occupied  as  the  repairing 
and  outfitting  yard,  and  there  is  also  a  naval 
establishment  at  Carlscrona. 

The  small  fleet  of  the  Norwegian  navy  is  com 
posed  of  4  monitors,  1  frigate,  4  corvettes,  1 
sloop,  and  22  gunboats ;  also  4  sailing-vessels, 
and  2  torpedo-boats.  The  monitors  are  the  only 
armored  vessels  in  the  navy.  There  are,  in  addi 
tion  to  the  above,  83  small  boats  of  different 
kinds,  carrying  from  1  to  6  guns  each.  One  of 
the  monitors,  the  "  Thor,"  is  of  600  horse-power 
and  2003  tons  displacement ;  another,  the 
"Thrudnang,"  has  500  horse-power  and  1575 
tons;  the  third,  the  "  Mjalner,"  1515  tons  and 
450  horse-power ;  and  the  fourth,  the  "  Skarpi- 
anen,"  1447  tons  and  350  horse-power;  and  the 
armament  of  each  consists  of  two  9-irich  Arm 
strong  guns  mounted  in  a  single  revolving  tur 
ret.  "The  "Thor"  has  7  inches  of  armor,  the 
others  5  inches.  The  frigate,  the  "  Kang  Suerre," 
is  of  1500  horse-power,  3472  tons  displacement, 
and  mounts  50  guns.  Of  the  corvettes,  the  "  St. 
Olaf"  is  of  1100  horse-power,  2182  tons  displace 
ment,  and  carries  38  guns;  the  "  Nordstjernen," 
1609  tons,  720  horse-power,  and  19  guns ;  the 
"  Nidaros"  and  "  Nornen"  are  of  1700  and  1550 


tons  displacement  respectively.  The  fleet  will 
soon  be  strengthened  by  the  addition  of  3  gun 
boats  building  at  Stockholm.  The  navies  of 
these  two  countries  are  distinct  services,  each 
having  its  own  complete  organization  and  ad 
ministration.  The  Norwegian  navy  is  repre 
sented  in  the  cabinet  by  a  rear-admiral,  chief  of 
the  marine  department,  who  is  assisted  by  a  sec 
ond  rear-admiral,  chief  of  staff.  The  central 
control  at  Stockholm  is  divided  into  three  main 
sections,  with  controllers  at  their  heads,  and  sub 
divided  into  bureaus.  The  general  administra 
tion  is  divided  in  control  between  two  dock 
yards,  Christiania  and  Stockholm.  There  is  also 
a  naval  academy,  hydrographic  office,  and  ob 
servatory.  The  Swedish  navy  is  represented  in 
the  cabinet  by  a  minister  of  marine,  the  central 
control  having  two  main  divisions,  chancellery 
and  command.  There  is  in  addition  a  com- 
mander-in-chief  of  personnel,  a  military  depart 
ment,  construction  department,  commissariat  de 
partment,  pilotage  department,  naval  school, 
and  hydrographic  office.  The  general  adminis 
tration  is  divided  between  the  two  naval  stations 
of  Carlskrona  and  Stockholm.  The  personnel  of 
both  navies  is  rec/uited  by  voluntary  enlistment, 
there  being  a  special  arrangement  for  conscrip 
tion  in  case  of  war  in  the  maritime  districts  of 
all  persons  between  the  ages  of  22  and  35  years. 
The  annual  expense  of  the  Norwegian  navy  is 
about  $600,000,  and  of  the  Swedish"  navy  about 
$1,500,000.  The  personnel  consists  of  108  com 
missioned  officers  and  150  non-commissioned 
and  2080  enlisted  men  in  the  navy  of  Norway, 
and  the  royal  fleet  of  Sweden  is  manned  by  5607 
men,  distributed  as  follows :  vice-admiral,  1  ; 
rear-admirals,  3;  commanders,  5;  captain-com 
manders,  20  ;  captains,  43  ;  lieutenants,  43  ;  sub 
lieutenants,  26  ;  engineers,  13  ;  medical  officers, 
24 ;  petty  officers  of  first  class,  401  ;  petty  offi 
cers  of  the  second  class,  844;  mechanicians  and 
workmen,  150;  seamen,  2385;  seamen  employed 
on  shore,  1310;  recruits,  339.  Total,  5607.  There 
are  no  foreign  squadrons  in  either  navy,  the 
Norwegian  ships  are  entirely  confined  to  coast 
defense,  and  in  the  Swedish  fleet  the  cruising 
is  confined  to  single  vessels.  There  is  a  royal 
naval  reserve  besides  the  force  actually  in  com 
mission,  and  a  Beooring  which  numbers  40,000 
men.  All  sea-faring  men  and  dwellers  in  sea 
ports  are  amenable  to  the  maritime  conscription. 

Sweep.  The  trend  of  a  coast  to  a  crescent. 
A  large,  broad  oar  used  in  racing-boats,  and 
formerly  to  propel  small  craft  in  a  calm.  The 
curve  of  the  leech  of  a  sail.  To  drag  with  the 
bight  of  a  rope  for  an  object  at  the  bottom  of  a 
harbor.  To  scan  the  heavens  rapidly,  and  in  a 
systematic  manner,  in  search  of  a  star.  To  sweep 
down,  to  clean  the  decks  with  a  broom.  Sweep 
of  the  tiller,  the  arc  on  which  the  end  of  the  tiller 
traverses. 

In  the  year  1800,  and  for  some  time  after 
ward,  it  was  customary  in  forming  ship's  bodies 
to  design  portions  of  the  frames  by  the  use  of  arcs 
of  circles  called  sweeps,  of  which  there  were  gen 
erally  five : 

1st.  The  floor-sweep,  which  is  limited  hyaline 
in  the  body-plan  perpendicular  to  the  plane  of 
elevation,  a  little  above  the  keel,  and  the  height 
of  this  line  above  the  keel  is  called  the  dead- 
rising.  The  upper  part  of  this  arch  formed  the 
head  of  the  floor-timber.  If  a  straight  line  be 


SWEETENING-COCK 


798 


SYZYGY 


drawn  from  the  upper  edge  of  the  keel  to  touch 
the  back  of  the  floor-sweep,  the  form  of  the  mid 
ship-frame  below  the  lower  height  of  breadth 
will  be  obtained. 

2d.  The  lower  breadth-sweep,  the  centre  of 
which  was  a  line  representing  the  lower  height 
of  breadth. 

3d.  The  reconciling  sweep  joins  the  two  former 
without  intersecting  either,  and  makes  a  fair 
curve  from  the  lower  height  of  breadth  to  the 
rising  line. 

4th.  The  upper  breadth-sweep,  the  centre  of 
which  is  in  the  line  representing  the  upper  height 
of  breadth  of  the  timber.  This  sweep  describes 
upwards  from  the  lower  part  of  the  top  timber.^ 

5th.  The  top-timber  sweep,  or  back-sweep,  is 
that  which  forms  the  hollow  of  the  top  timber. 
This  hollow  is,  however,  very  often  formed  by  a 
mold  so  placed  as  to  touch  the  upper  breadth- 
sweep,  and  pass  through  the  point  limiting  the 
half  breadth  of  the  top-timber.  No  attention  is 
paid  to  these  instructions  nowadays  in  framing 
ship's  bodies. 

SWEEPER.  A  person  appointed  to  sweep  the 
deck  at  intervals.  Sweeper  of  the  sky,  a  sailor's 
term  for  a  northwest  gale. 

SWEEP-NET.  A  large  draw-net  used  in  fishing. 

SWEEP-PIECE.  A  curved  piece  of  wood  fast 
ened  to  the  port-sill,  to  aid  in  training  a  gun. 

Sweetening-cock.  A  cock  in  the  ship's  side  to 
admit  sea-water  into  the  hold. 

Swelchie.  A  swirling  current  formed  in  the 
Hebrides.  A  seal. 

Swell.  The  rise  and  fall  of  the  waves  during 
a  cairn.  A  rolling  wave,  the  result  of  winds 
either  present,  preceding,  or  following  it.  The 
increase  in  diameter  at  the  muzzle  of  a  gun. 
The  increased  size  of  a  mast  at  the  hounds. 

Swift,  or  Swifter.  A  small  rope  passed  from 
bar  to  bar  of  the  capstan.  A  strong  rope  passed 
about  a  frail  boat,  to  strengthen  her.  A  hawser 
used  to  swifter  in  rigging.  The  forward  shroud. 
Formerly,  in  the  English  service,  the  after  pair 
of  shrouds.  To  swifter  a  ship,  to  haul  her 
ashore,  or  to  careen  her.  To  encircle  a  ship  or 
boat  with  ropes,  to  strengthen  her.  To  swifter 
the  bars,  to  pass  a  swifter  around  the  ends  of  the 
capstan-bars,  so  as  to  distribute  the  strain.  To 
swifter  in  the  rigging,  to  tauten  slack  rigging  by 
passing  a  hawser  through  blocks  in  the  rigging  8 
or  10  feet  from  the  rail,  and  through  blocks  on 
the  opposite  side  of  the  deck,  and  hauling  it  taut. 

Swig.  A  pull  on  a  rope  fast  at  both  ends.  A 
tackle  whose  falls  are  not  parallel.  To  swig  off, 
to  pull  a  rope  that  is  fast  at  both  ends,  by  sway 
ing  or  throwing  the  weight  on  the  bight  of  it. 

Swill  (Eng.}.  A  wicker  fish-basket.  The  air- 
bladder  of  a  fish. 

Swim.  The  air-bladder  of  a  fish.  To  move 
in  the  water  by  means  of  fins,  or  by  the  hands 
and  feet.  To  float,  or  be  borne  up  by  the  water. 
Swimming  should  be  taught  to  all  sailors.  Men 
may  swim  from  10  to  15  miles,  and  it  is  on  record 
that  the  Hellespont  has  been  crossed  several 
times,  where  it  is  20  miles  wide. 

Swine-fish.     The  wolf-fish. 

Swing.  To  turn  around  by  action  of  wind  or 
tide  when  at  anchor.  Swinging  ship,  the  opera 
tion  of  determining  the  local  deviation  of  the 
compass,  by  bringing  the  ship's  head  successively 
to  each  point  of  the  compass,  and  taking  bear 
ings  of  a  distant  object.  See  COMPASS. 


SWINGING-BUOYS.  A  set  of  buoys  planted  in 
a  convenient  place  for  swinging  ship. 

Swinging-boom.  A  long  spar,  used  at  sea  to 
stretch  the  foot  of  a  lower  studding-sail,, and  in 
port  for  the  boats  to  hang  on  to.  It  is  secured 
by  an  iron  goose-neck  to  the  fore-channels,  is 
supported  by  a  topping-lift,  leading  through  a 
block  on  the  fore  yard-arm,  and  is  retained  in 
place  by  forward  and  after  guys,  leading  to  the 
bowsprit  and  to  the  gangway.  When  not  rigged 
out,  the  after  end  lies  in  an  iron  crane.  It  has 
ladders  and  pendants  hanging  from  it,  to  which 
the  boats  make  fast. 

Swipes  (Eng.}.     Weak  beer  issued  to  sailors. 

Swirl.  An  eddy  of  wind,  or  in  the  water.  A 
knot  in  timber. 

Swish  (Eng.}.     The  light,  driving  sea-spray. 

Swivel.  A  link,  ring,  or  pin  moving  about 
in  a  socket.  Swivel-bolt,  a  bolt  turning  about 
its  axis.  Swivel-block,  a  block  turning  on  a 
swivel.  Swivel-gun,  a  small  gun  fixed  on  a 
pivot,  or  swivel.  Swivel-hook,  a  hook  fixed  so 
as  to  turn  on  a  swivel.  Swivel  rowlock,  a 
rowlock  turning  on  a  swivel.  Swivel-link,  a 
link  in  chain  fitted  to  turn  about  a  swivel,  so  as 
to  keep  it  free  from  turns.  They  are  placed  in 
each  length  of  15  fathoms  of  a  cable.  Swivel- 
eyed,  cross-eyed. 

Swona  Wells  (Eng.}.  Whirlpools  near  Swona 
Island. 

Sword-fish.  The  Xiphias  gladius,  a'  fish  of 
the  Scomberidce,  or  mackerel  family,  having  a 
long,  pointed,  sword-shaped  upper  jaw. 

Sword-knot.  A  gilded  knot  worn  on  the  sword- 
hilt.  See  UNIFORM. 

Sword-mat.  A  mat  made  of  rope-yarns,  by 
weaving  them  closely,  used  for  chafing-gear. 

Sydney,  the  capital  of  the  British  colony  of 
New  South  Wales,  in  Australia,  is  situated  on 
the  southern  shores  of  Port  Jackson,  5  miles 
from  the  entrance  of  the  harbor.  The  harbor 
is  quite  landlocked,  with  deep  water  to  the  edge 
of  its  rocky  shores.  It  has  2  large  dry-docks,  an 
observatory,  several  parks,  and  a  museum.  It 
has  an  extensive  commerce,  and  a  regular  line 
of  steam-packets  ply  between  Sydney,  Welling 
ton  (New  Zealand),  and  Panama.  Lat.  33°  51' 
S.  ;  Ion.  151°  11'  42"  E.  Pop.  136,000. 

Sympiesometer.  An  instrument  for  measur 
ing  the  weight  of  the  atmosphere  by  the  com 
pression  of  gas.  Hydrogen  gas  is  generally  used. 

Syphering.  Lapping  the  chambered  edges  of 
planks  so  as  to  form  a  plane  surface. 

Syzygy  (Gr.  suzugia,  a  yoking  together;  from 
sun  together,  zugon,  a  yoke).  The  position  of 
the  sun,  earth,  and  other  moving  bod}-,  when 
their  projections  on  the  plane  of  the  ecliptic  are 
in  one  line.  By  the  syzygies  of  a  planet  or  of 
the  moon  are  meant  those  points  of  its  orbit  at 
which  the  body  is  in  conjunction  or  opposition 
with  the  sun  ;  the  two  points  when  the  body  ap 
pears  90°  from  the  sun  being  distinguished  as  the 
quadratures.  "  The  moon  in  syzygy"  expresses 
the  position  both  of  conjunction  and  opposition, 
the  times  both  of  new  and  full  rnoon  ;  and  the 
term,  consequently,  is  a  very  handy  and  appro 
priate  one  in  speaking  of  the  tides. 

SYZYGY  TIDE.  The  tide  which  takes  place  on 
the  afternoon  of  the  day  the  sun  and  moon  are 
in  syzygy :  if  the  syzygy  takes  place  when  the 
sun  or  moon  is  on  the  meridian,  the  tide  is  par 
ticularized  as  the  meridional  syzygy  tide. 


T99 


TACKLES 


T. 


T.  Abbreviation  for  the  in  the  II.  S.  General 
Service  Signal  Code.  In  the  log-book,  t  indicates 
thunder. 

Taberin.  A  species  of  shark  found  in  the 
neighborhood  of  Ceylon. 

Tabernacle.  An  attachment  to  the  mast  of  a 
river-boat  by  which  it  can  be  lowered  when  pass 
ing  under  a  bridge. 

Table.  An  arrangement  of  numbers  express 
ing  the  data  of  the  motions  and  positions  of  heav 
enly  bodies,  by  the  aid  of  which  computations  in 
astronomy  and  navigation  are  made. 

Table-cloth.  The  name  given  to  the  white, 
fleecy  clouds  which  sometimes  hang  over  the 
"table"  or  flat  top  of  Table  Mountain  at  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope,  indicating  the  approach  of 
a  southeast  gale. 

Table-money.  An  allowance  received  by 
the  higher  grades  of  officers  in  some  navies  with 
which  to  furnish  their  tables. 

Table-shore.     A  low,  flat  shore. 

Tabling.  A  broad  hem  on  the  edges  of  a  sail 
to  which  the  roping  is  sewed  ;  also,  a  method  of 
securing  two  planks  by  alternate  projections  and 
depressions. 

Tack.  The  lower  corner  of  the  luff  of  a  fore- 
and-aft  sail.  The  rope  by  which  the  outer  lower 
corner  of  a  studding-sail  is  hauled  out  to  the 
boom.  The  purchase  by  which  the  weather  lower 
corner  of  a  course  is  confined.  To  change  the 
direction  of  a  vessel  from  one  tack  to  another 
when  close-hauled,  by  bringing  the  head  into  the 
wind  and  causing  it  to  fall  off  with  the  wind  on 
the  other  bow,  by  using  the  helm  and  sails.  A 
vessel  is  on  the  starboard  tack  when  the  wind 
blows  against  the  starboard  side,  but  on  the  port 
tack  when  the  wind  is  on  the  port  side.  Tack 
and  half-tack,  a  long  and  short  tack.  Rise  tacks 
and  sheets!  An  order  given  in  tacking  a  square- 
rigged  vessel,  at  which  the  tacks  and  sheets  of 
the  courses  are  let  go  and  the  clews  hauled  up. 
The  expression  not  to  start  tack  or  sheet  means 
that  no  sail  is  taken  in.  When  applied  to  a 
person  it  implies  a  resolution  not  to  move. 

TACK-BLOCK.  The  block  through  which  a 
tack  reeves. 

Tackles.  Combinations  of  ropes  and  blocks 
used  as  a  mechanical  power  for  moving  or  hoist 
ing  heavy  weights. 

They  are  variously  applied  on  shipboard  for 
sending  aloft  masts  and  yards,  hoisting,  setting, 
or  taking  in  sails,  setting  up  or  tightening  the  rig 
ging  by  which  the  masts  are  supported,  and  in 
moving  guns,  anchors,  etc. 

The  necessities  for  the  application  of  this  power 
are  constant,  and  it  is  by  its  use  that  a  limited 
number  of  persons  are  able  to  control  the  force 
of  wind  and  sea  which  is  exerted  upon  a  vessel. 

A  block  consists  of  the  shell  or  outside  frame 
work,  either  of  wood  or  iron,  in  which  the 


sheaves  or  pulleys  are  secured  by  an  iron  pin 
passing  through  their  centres,  over  which  the 
rope  or  fall  passes.  The  most  simple  form  of  a 
tackle  is  that  in  which  only  a  single  fixed  block 
is  used.  In  this  case  there  is  no  gain  in  lifting 
power,  as  the  power  applied  to  the  rope  on  one 
side  of  the  block  must  be  equal  to  the  weight  on 
the  other  side  in  order  to  sustain  it.  The  ad 
vantage  gained,  however,  is  that  the  power  can 
be  more  effectively  applied. 

If  the  single  block  be  attached  to  the  weight 
to  be  raised,  one  end  of  the  rope  being  secured 
and  the  power  applied  to  the  other  end,  the  lift 
ing  power  is  doubled,  for  the  weight  is  then  sus 
tained  by  two  parts  of  the  rope,  each  of  which 
bears  an  equal  strain. 

Let  the  rope  be  passed  through  another  fixed 
block ;  the  lifting  power  of  the  tackle  remains 
the  same,  but  greater  convenience  and  effect  is 
obtained  in  the  application  of  the  power,  or,  the 
men  who  pull  upon  the  rope. 

It  is  then  evident  that  the  ratio  of  the  lifting 
power  of  a  tackle  to  the  applied  power  depends 
upon  the  number  of  parts  of  rope  which  are  con 
nected  with  the  movable  block,  while  stationary 
blocks  serve  only  to  give  direction  or  lead  to  the 
rope,  or  a  more  effective  application  of  the  power. 

If  the  standing-part  of  the  fall  is  fastened  to 
the  movable  block,  the  advantage  of  one  more 
part  is  obtained,  and  in  order  to  exert  the  great 
est  amount  of  power  with  a  tackle,  that  block 
should  be  applied  to  the  weight  which  contains 
the  greatest  number  of  parts  of  the  rope. 

To  ascertain  the  power  which  it  is  necessary  to 
apply  to  a  tackle  in  order  to  sustain  a  certain 
weig'ht,  divide  the  weight  by  the  number  of  parts 

of  rope  attached  to  the  movable  block,  or  P  =  — . 

Thus  far  the  weight  has  been  considered  only 
as  sustained  or  balanced  by  the  power  applied  to 
the  fall.  If  the  weight  is  raised  by  such  an  in- 
.  crease  in  the  applied  power  as  shall  set  the 
sheaves  in  motion,  the  important  element  of 
friction  must  be  considered  in  calculating  the 
amount  of  power  which  it  is  necessary  to  apply 
in  raising  a  certain  weight. 

On  account  of  friction,  the  amount  of  tension 
upon  each  part  of  the  rope  will  differ.  The 
hauling-part,  having  the  friction  of  all  the  sheaves 
to  overcome,  will  bear  the  greatest  strain  ;  while 
the  standing-part  will  have  only  its  proportional 
part  of  the  weight  to  sustain.  Each  intermediate 
part  will  also  sustain  its  own  proportional  part 
of  the  weight,  increased  by  the  friction  of  each 
sheave  between  it  and  the  standing-part. 

The  ratio  which  the  friction  of  a  pulley  bears 
to  the  weight  or  pressure  cannot  be  determined 
with  any  degree  of  accuracy  on  account  of  the 
great  diversity  of  conditions  in  the  material 
which  is  used  ;  as,  for  example,  the  material  of 


TACKLES 


800 


TACKLES 


which  the  rope  is  made, — its  flexibility,  state  of 
dryness,  whether  tarred  or  untarred,  etc.  ;  also 
the  materials  of  which  the  sheave  and  pin  are 
made,  and  the  relative  diameter  of  each.  It  is 
known,  however,  that  the  friction  of  the  pulley 
follows  in  all  respects  the  laws  by  which  the 
friction  of  sliding  bodies  is  governed,  which  are, 
1st.  With  the  same  materials  and  under  the 
same  conditions  a  constant  ratio  exists  between 
the  pressure  of  the  surfaces  in  contact  and  the 
friction.  2d.  With  the  same  pressure  and  under 
the  same  conditions  of  surface  the  amount  of 
friction  is  independent  of  the  extent  of  surface. 
3d.  Friction  is  independent  of  the  velocity  of  in 
dependent  motion. 

The  friction  of  the  pulley  is  greater  than  that 
produced  by  rolling  bodies,  and  less  than  that  of 
sliding  bodies.  It  has  been  estimated  that  one- 
sixth  of  the  power  gained  by  each  sheave  is  ex 
pended  in  overcoming  friction,  and  the  common 
rule  is  that  the  hauling-part  of  a  fall  bears  double 
the  strain  of  the  standing-part  when  raising  a 
weight.  This  estimate  is,  however,  greatly  re 
duced  by  the  application  of  rollers  to  the  sheaves 
of  patent  blocks.  Loss  of  time  is  involved  in 
any  increase  of  power ;  or,  the  velocity  with  ivhich 
the  applied  power  moves  is  to  the  velocity  with 
which  the  weight  rises  as  the  number  of  parts  of 
rope  at  the  movable  block  is  to  unity.  Upon  this 
law  the  convenience  of  using  tackles  of  great 
lifting  power  often  depends.  The  amount  of 
power  that  may  be  applied — that  is,  the  number 
of  men  that  can  be  placed  at  the  fall — may  gen 
erally,  within  certain  limits,  be  considered  a 
known  quantity,  and  upon  this  depends,  in  a  great 
degree,  the  required  power  of  a  tackle,  and  hence 
the  time  in  which  a  body  can  be  lifted  or  moved. 
The  inconveniences  which  arise  from  tackles  of 
great  power  are  loss  of  time  and  accumulation 
of  fall  by  which  the  deck  of  a  vessel  would  be 
encumbered. 

Tackles  of  different  sizes  and  power  are  used 
for  the  various  purposes  on  shipboard,  and  they 
are  generally  named  from  the  particular  uses  to 
which  they  are  applied. 

A  single  whip  has  one  single  fixed  block. 

A  gun-tackle  purchase  consists  of  two  single 
blocks. 

A  luff-tackle  has  a  double  and  single  block. 

A  twofold  purchase  consists  of  two  double 
blocks,  a  threefold  purchase  of  two  treble  blocks, 
etc. 

A  boom-jigger  has  usually  a  double  and  single 
block,  and  is  used  for  rigging  studding-sail- 
booms  in  and  out  on  the  lower  yards. 

A  boom-tackle  is  a  double  purchase,  and  is  used 
in  fore-and-aft  rigged  vessels  in  guying  out  the 
main-boom  over  the  quarter  of  the  vessel  with  a 
fair  wind. 

A  deck-tackle  is  a  heavy  double  purchase  used 
in  heavy  work  about  the  deck,  such  as  hauling 
in  the  cable,  etc. 

A  fish-tackle  is  a  heavy  double  purchase  used 
in  fishing  the  anchor. 

A  fore-and-aft  tackle  is  used  for  stretching  the 
backbone  of  an  awning  in  spreading  it.  Any 
tackle  may  be  thus  designated,  when  for  a  special 
purpose  it  is  used  in  a  direction  with  the  length 
of  the  vessel. 

A  griolet-purchase  is  used  for  dismounting 
guns  on  a  covered  deck.  It  consists  of  two 
tackles,  called  the  muzzle-purchase  and  breech- 


purchase.  The  lower  block  of  the  former  con 
sists  of  a  short  cylindrical  block  of  wood,  one 
end  of  which  fits  into  the  muzzle  of  the  gun, 
while  sheaves  are  placed  in  the  outer  end.  The 
lower  block  of  the  breech-purchase  has  connected 
with  it  a  shackle  which  fits  into  the  jaws  of  the 
cascabel.  The  upper  blocks  of  both  tackles  are 
of  iron,  and  have  three  sheaves. 

A  hatch-tackle  is  a  small  purchase  used  for 
hoisting  articles  from  the  store-rooms. 

A  jeer-tackle  is  a  heavy  purchase  used  in  send 
ing  lower-yards  up  and  down.  By  a  recent  im 
provement  the  upper  jeer-block  is  connected  with 
and  forms  a  part  of  the  slings  of  the  yard,  the 
chain  being  attached  to  the  base  of  the  block  by 
a  slip-link.  This  block  being  unwieldy  from  its 
size  and  weight  is  thus  always  hooked  in  place, 
and  there  is  no  loss  of  time  in  sending  it  aloft 
when  required  for  use. 

A  jigger  is  a  small  tackle  used  for  various  pur 
poses. 

A  rigging-luff,  used  in  setting  up  rigging,  has       \ 
two  single  blocks, 

A  pennant-tackle  is  composed  of  a  double  and 
single  block.  It  is  kept  hooked  to  the  pennant 
under  the  top,  and  is  used  in  staying  the  mast, 
steadying  it  in  case  of  injury  to  the  rigging,  and 
other  purposes. 

A  port-tackle  is  used  in  tricing  up  a  lower- 
deck  port  of  a  ship  of  war. 

A  reej-tackle  is  used  in  reefing  a  topsail  or  a 
course. 

Relieving-tackles  are  hooked  to  the  tiller  in 
order  to  relieve  the  wheel-ropes  in  heavy  weather, 
when  a  great  strain  is  brought  upon  them  ;  or 
to  steer  the  ship  in  case  the  wheel-ropes  are  in 
jured  in  action. 

A  rolling-tackle  is  hooked  to  the  quarter  of  a 
lower-  or  topsail-yard  and  to  the  mast,  in  order 
to  relieve  the  strain  of  the  yard  upon  the  truss 
or  parrel  when  the  vessel  is  rolling  heavily. 

A  rudder-tackle  hooks  to  the  rudder-pennants, 
by  which  a  vessel  may  be  steered  in  case  of  injury 
to  the  rudder-head. 

A  sail-tackle  is  the  purchase  used  in  hoisting  a 
topsail  from  the  deck  to  its  yard  in  bending. 

A  side-tackle  is  used  in  running  out  a  broad 
side  gun.  It  consists  of  a  double  and  single  com 
position  block,  the  latter  being  the  movable 
block. 

A  stay-tackle  is  a  heavy  double  purchase  which 
is  hooked  to  the  triatic  stay  in  hoisting  out  heavy 
boats. 

A  Spanish  burton  is  a  purchase  much  used  in 
merchant  vessels  for  handling  cargo.  The  single 
Spanish  burton  has  two  single  blocks.  The 
leading-part  of  the  fall  comes  from  the  lower  or 
movable  block,  the  standing-part  leads  from  the 
upper  or  stationary  block  and  is  secured  to  the 
lower  block,  while  the  hook  by  which  the  burton 
is  connected  with  the  weight  is  fastened  to  the 
bight  of  the  rope  between  the  two  blocks. 

Thedouble  Spanish  burton  consists  of  one  double 
and  two  single  blocks,  by  which  the  lifting  power 
is  five  times  greater  than  the  applied  power. 

A  stock-and-bill  tackle  is  a  small  tackle  used  in 
securing  anchors  for  sea. 

A  tack-tackle  is  a  heavy  double  purchase,  some 
times  used  In  setting  the  tack  or  weather  clew 
of  a  course. 

A  top  burton  is  a  tackle  generally  used  in  the 
tops,  but  is  of  sufficient  length  for  the  lower 


TACK-PIN 


801 


TAPER 


block  and  end  of  the  fall  to  reach  the  deck.  It 
is  kept  hooked  to  the  pendant  at  the  mast-head, 
and  has  the  purchase  of  a  luff-tackle,  or  a  double 
and  a  single  block.  A  fiddle-block  is  used  in 
place  of  the  double  block,  on  account  of  the  nar 
row  space  between  the  rigging  and  the  mast 
head. 

A  top-tackle  is  a  heavy  double  purchase  used 
in  sending  a  topmast  up  or  down. 

A  train-tackle  is  hooked  to  the  rear  of  a  broad 
side  gun-carriage  and  an  eye-bolt  amidships, 
serving  to  run  the  gun  in  and  prevent  it  from 
running  out  while  being  loaded.  Two  training- 
tackles  are  used  in  pointing  a  gun  mounted  on  a 
pivot-carriage. 

A  watch-tackle  is  a  small  tackle  convenient  for 
any  use  as  a  jigger.  The  double  block  is  usually 
fitted  with  a  tail  in  place  of  a  hook. 

A  winding -tackle  is  a  purchase  consisting  of  a 
double  and  single  block,  or  two  double  blocks. 
It  is  used  in  hoisting  heavy  weights,  being 
hooked  to  the  eye  of  a  top-pendant  or  other  con 
venient  rope  at  one  of  the  lower  yard-arms.  The 
Eendant,  being  rove  through  a  block  at  the  mast- 
ead,  is  secured  to  the  deck  near  the  mast,  and 
serves  as  a  support  to  the  yard-arm. 

A  yard-tackle  is  a  heavy  tackle  hooked  to  a 
lower-yard  and  used  in  hoisting  heavy  weights. 
It  is  thus  named  to  distinguish  it  from  the  stay- 
tackle,  which  is  hooked  to  the  stay. — E.  T.  Strong, 
Lieutenant  U.S.N. 

Tack-pin.  A  long  belaying-pin  used  at  the 
fife-rail. 

Tack,  Thumb-.  A  tack  with  a  broad,  flat 
head  for  attaching  paper  to  a  drawing-board. 

Tactics.     See  NAVAL  TACTICS. 

Taffia.  A  kind  of  spirits  distilled  from  mo 
lasses  at  Mauritius. 

Taffrail.     The  rail  about  a  vessel's  stern. 

Tail.  A  rope  spliced  around  a  block  with  an 
end  of  sufficient  length  to  secure  it  to  another 
rope,  instead  of  a  hook.  A  tail-block  is  a  block 
strapped  with  a  tail,  which  may  be  used  as  a 
leading  block.  A  vessel  tails  inshore,  offshore, 
up-stream  or  down-stream,  when,  being  at  an 
chor,  her  stern  tends  in  that  direction.  The  tail 
of  a  gale  is  the  latter  part  of  the  gale,  after  the 
wind  has  commenced  to  moderate.  To  tail  on  to 
a  rope  is  to  man  it.  To  tail  one  rope  on  to  another 
is  to  bend  or  tie  them  together. 

Tailor.  A  kind  of  fish  resembling  the  shad, 
but  inferior  to  it  in  size  and  flavor. 

Tail-race.  The  disturbed  water  after  leaving 
the  paddles  of  a  steamer.  The  channel  that  car 
ries  off  the  water  from  a  water-wheel. 

Tail-tackle.     A  watch-tackle. 

Tail-up.  Said  of  a  whale  when  it  shows  its 
tail  in  diving.  Also  called  fluking. 

Tail-valve.  A  small  auxiliary  valve  to  aid 
in  starting  a  large  steam-engine  by  admitting 
steam  to  a  cylinder  when  excluded  by  the  main 
or  cut-off  valves.  Starting-valve  and  pass-over 
valve  are  synonymous  terms. 

Taiste  (Eng.).  A  name  for  the  black  guille 
mot. 

Take.  A  take  of  fish  is  the  amount  that  is 
caught  at  a  single  cast  of  the  net.  To  take  a  de 
parture  is  to  observe  the  bearing  and  distance  of  a 
point  of  land,  light-house,  etc.,  before  losing  sight 
of  the  land.  To  take  in  sail  is  to  reduce  sail.  To 
take  an  observation  is  to  observe  the  altitude  of  a 
heavenly  body  for  obtaining  the  latitude  or  lon- 
51 


gitude.  To  take  in  water  is  to  ship  water  over 
the  rail.  The  decrease  of  tides  from  the  spring 
tides  is  called  their  taking  off. 

Takel  (Ang.-Sax.}.  An  ancient  name  for  the 
arrows  which  were  supplied  to  vessels. 

Take-up.  A  contrivance  for  adjusting  the 
length  of  a  connection  between  two  points.  The 
object  may  be  accomplished  by  moving  a  bolt  or 
pin  from  one  of  a  series  of  holes  to  another;  by  H 
series  of  hooks ;  or  by  a  turnbuckle,  etc.  A  leak 
in  a  steam-boiler,  or  other  vessel,  is  said  to  u  take- 
up"  when  it  stops,  without  manipulation,  by  the 
action  of  temperature,  pressure,  filling  in  of  for 
eign  matter,  or  corrosion. 

Talero.  A  silver  Venetian  coin,  equal  in  value 
to  $1.00. 

Tallant.     The  upper  part  of  a  rudder. 

Tall  Ship.  A  lofty  ship ;  a  former  name  for 
a  square-rigged  vessel. 

Tang,  or  Tangle.     A  kind  of  sea-weed. 

Tangent-screw.  A  screw  acting  at  a  tangent 
to  the  arc  of  a  circle,  by  which  a  gradual  motion 
may  be  given  to  a  limb  passing  over  the  arc. 

Tang-fish.     A  Scotch  name  for  the  seal. 

Tangier,  the  diplomatic  capital  of  Morocco, 
is  situated  near  the  western  entrance  of  the  Strait 
of  Gibraltar,  southeast  of  Cape  Spartel,  in  lat. 
35°  4V  12"  N.,  Ion.  5°  48'  30"  W.  It  presents 
a  very  striking  appearance  from  the  sea,  as  it 
stands  on  a  height  near  a  spacious  bay,  and  rises 
in  the  form  of  an  amphitheatre.  It  is  surrounded 
by  walls,  and  defended  by  a  castle  and  several 
forts.  The  harbor,  which  was  once  capacious 
and  protected  by  a  mole,  was  formerly  frequented 
by  vessels  from  nearly  all  maritime  nations,  but 
is  now  neglected,  and  the  trade  is  confined  chiefly 
to  Gibraltar  and  the  Spanish  coast.  Pop.  15,000. 

Tangles.  An  instrument  used  in  dredging, 
for  obtaining  the  more  minute  forms  of  animal 
life  from  the  bottom  of  the  sea. 

Tank.  An  iron  structure  for  holding  fresh 
water.  It  is  cubical  in  shape,  and  usually  con 
tains  about  600  gallons.  A  circular  hole  in  the 
top,  called  a  man-hole,  is  of  sufficient  size  t<- 
admit  a  person  for  the  purpose  of  cleaning  and 
whitewashing.  Small  copper  tanks  are  placed 
in  the  magazine  for  the  stowage  of  powder. 
See  POWDER-TANK. 

TANK-TOGOLE.  A  short  stout  piece  of  wood 
placed  inside  the  man-hole  of  a  tank  when  it  is 
to  be  hoisted,  serving  as  a  place  to  which  thc> 
tackle  can  be  attached. 

Tanka.  A  covered  Chinese  row-boat,  used  in 
taking  passengers  to  and  from  vessels. 

Tanned  Sails.     Sails  soaked  in  oak-bark. 

Tap.  A  piece  of  tempered  steel  having  an 
exterior  screw-thread  upon  its  surface,  a  portion 
of  which  is  cut  away  by  longitudinal  grooves, 
for  cutting  interior  or  female  screw-threads.  It  i> 
provided  with  a  square  head  for  receiving  ;. 
wrench.  An  orifice  for  withdrawing  a  fluid  from 
a  pipe,  chamber,  or  reservoir.  To  tap  a  buoy,  1<> 
empty  the  water  from  a  buoy  which  has  leaked 
in,  causing  it  to  float  low  in  the  water ;  to  blee<! 
a  buoy.  To  tap  the  admiral  (Eng.},  an  expres 
sion  applied  to  a  person  who  is  willing  to  drink 
anything  that  he  can  obtain, — referring  to  the 
story  of  the  theft  of  spirits  from  the  cask  con 
taining  the  dead  body  of  an  English  admiral. 

Taper.  To  reduce  the  size  of  a  rope  to  a  poim 
at  the  end,  by  cutting  out  the  rope-yarns  as  re 
quired. 


TAPERED  CLEAT 


802 


TAYLOR 


Tapered  Cleat.  A  piece  of  timber  bolted 
under  beams  to  support  them,  in  place  of  stan 
chions. 

Tappet.  In  machinery,  an  arm  or  lever  which 
is  moved  periodically  by  contact  with  a  pin, 
roller,  or  other  piece  having  a  reciprocating 
motion  ;  as,  the  tappets  which  actuate  the  steam- 
valves  of  the  Cornish  pumping-engine  and  other 
steam-pumps. 

TAPPET-MOTION.  A  term  applied  to  the  valve- 
gear  of  a  steam-engine  when  the  valves  are  ac 
tuated  by  tappets. 

Tar.  "A  thick  resinous  substance  obtained 
from  pine  wood,  used  upon  rope  to  protect  it 
from  the  weather  and  prevent  dampness  from 
penetrating  among  the  fibres.  Also,  to  cover  or 
smear  with  tar.  Tar  and  feather,  an  illegal  mode 
of  punishment,  occasionally  resorted  to  in  ex 
treme  cases.  During  the  reign  of  Richard  I.  of 
England  it  was  a  legal  punishment  for  theft  in 
the  British  navy.  A  sailor  is  sometimes  called 
a  tar. 

TARBRUSH.  A  touch  of  the  tarbrush,  a  descrip 
tion  of  the  color  of  a  person  of  mixed  blood. 
Tarred  with  the  same  brush,  said  of  men  of  a 
similar  character ;  synonymous  with  "  Birds  of 
a  feather." 

TARRED  LINE.  Line  to  which  tar  has  been 
applied. 

Tarragona,  a  seaport  city  of  Spain,  is  princi 
pally  built  upon  a  large  rock  at  the  mouth  of 
the  Francoli,  in  the  Mediterranean.  It  is  divided 
into  two  sections,  an  upper  and  lower  town ;  is 
inclosed  by  walls  and  ramparts,  and  defended  by 
two  castles.  Among  the  principal  buildings  are 
the  academies  of  design  and  naval  architecture. 
It  has  manufactures  of  coarse  cloth,  hats,  bar 
rels,  etc.,  and  a  large  export  trade  in  wine, 
brandy,  nuts,  and  cork.  Pop.  19,000. 

Tarbet.  A  Scotch  name  for  a  low  spit  of 
land  dividing  a  lake  from  the  sea. 

Target.  A  mark  for  great  gun  or  small-arm 
practice.  The  regulation  target  for  great  guns 
consists  of  a  frame-work,  made  by  two  boards 
crossing  at  right  angles,  through  the  centre  of 
which  is  secured  an  upright  mast  about  12  feet 
in  height.  Small  ropes  connecting  the  upper 
end  of  the  mast  with  the  ends  of  the  crossed 
boards  serve  as  stays,  upon  which  the  four  trian 
gular  sails  of  the  target  are  set.  The  target, 
when  ready  for  use,  is  of  the  form  of  a  pyramid. 
A  _  small-arm  target  is  of  sheet-iron,  "having 
painted  on  its  face  the  different  inclosed  squares 
by  which  the  shots  may  be  scored. 

TARGET-FRAME.    See  TARGET. 
^TARGET-PRACTICE.      The   quarterly   exercise 
of  the  crew  of  a  vessel  in  firing  at  a  target  either 
with  great  guns  or  small-arms. 

Targia.  The  ancient  name  for  the  tartan,  a 
small  vessel  used  in  the  Mediterranean. 

Tarita.  An  ancient  term  for  a  vessel  carrying 
a  cargo. 

Tarn  (Scotch).     A  small  mountain  lake. 

Tarpaulin.  Canvas  painted  to  render  it  water 
proof,  used  as  a  covering  for  hatches,  etc.  Tar 
was  formerly  used  instead  of  paint.  Painted 
hats  and  coats  for  bad  weather  are  also  called 
tarpaulins. 

Tarrock.    A  kind  of  gull  (Larus  tridactylus). 

Tartan.  A  coasting  vessel  of  small  size,  used 
in  the  Mediterranean.  It  carries  one  mast,  upon 
which  a  lateen-sail  is  set. 


Tartar.  A  commander  with  a  bad  temper. 
To  catch  a  tartar  is  to  mistake  the  force  of  an 
enemy  and  be  obliged  to  surrender. 

Task  (Eng.).  To  examine  a  vessel  regarding 
the  soundness  of  her  timbers.  A  timber  is  tasked 
by  cutting  or  boring  it  with  an  auger  to  ascer 
tain  its  condition. 

Tasman,  Abel  Janssen.  Exploring  the  coast 
of  New  Holland  under  instructions  from  Van 
Diemen,  this  Dutch  navigator  came  (December 
1,  1642)  upon  the  island  south  of  Australia,  to 
which  he  gave  the  name  of  his  patron,  but  which 
is  now  called  Tasmania.  Pursuing  his  investi 
gations  in  the  Southern  Atlantic,  he  discovered 
New  Zealand,  and  a  group  of  islands  then  un 
known  to  geographers. 

Tasting  Timber.  Chipping  it  with  the  adze, 
or  boring  it  with  the  auger,  for  the  purpose  of 
ascertaining  its  quality  or  defects. 

Tattoo.  The  evening  drum-boat  before  "pip 
ing  down."  To  mark  the  body  with  indelible 
inks  or  dyes. 

Taunt.  Tall,  as  applied  to  the  masts  of  a 
vessel. 

Taurus,  Constellation  of  (Lat.  "  The  Bull"). 
The  second  constellation  of  the  ancient  zodiac, 
lying  between  Aries  and  Gemini.  This  group  is 
easily  identified  in  the  heavens,  as  it  contains 
the  two  beautiful  little  clusters  of  minute  stars 
called  the  Hyades  and  the  Pleiades ;  in  the  former 
is  situated  the  bright  ruddy  star  a  Tauri.  A  line 
joining  Aldebaran  and  Sirius  is  bisected  by  the 
middle  star  of  Orion's  Belt,  a  Tauri,  Aldebaran  ; 
/?  Tauri,  Nath  ;  77  Tauri,  Alcyone. 

Taurus,  Sign  of.  The  second  division  of  the 
ecliptic,  including  from  30°  to  60°  of  longitude. 
Owing  to  the  precession  of  the  equinoxes,  the 
constellation  Taurus  is  no  longer  in  the  sign  of 
that  name,  the  constellation  Aries  having  taken 
its  place.  The  sun  is  in  Taurus  from  about  April 
20  to  about  May  21.  Symbol  ^  . 

Taut  (Ang.rSax.  touaht).  Tight,  said  of  a  rope. 
On  a  taut  bowline,  said  of  a  ship  when  close- 
hauled,  as  the  bowlines  are  then  taut.  A  tout 
hand,  a  firm  hand  in  matters  of  discipline.  Taut 
weather  helm,  or  taut  helm,  is  caused  by  the  trim 
of  a  vessel,  or  by  want  of  balance  of  sail,  by 
which  the  quality  of  ardency  is  given  to  the 
vessel.  Taut  leech,  said  of  a  sail  when  hoisted 
so  as  to  make  the  leeches  taut. 

Taylor,  J.  Winthrop,  Surgeon-General 
U.S.N.  Born  in  New  York.  Appointed  from 
New  Jersey,  March  7,  1838;  entered  the  service 
as  assistant  surgeon  ;  attached  to  sloop  "  Erie," 
West  India  Squadron,  1838-40  ;  sloop  "  Marion," 
West  India  Squadron,  1842-43;  sloop  "John 
Adams,"  Home  Squadron,  1845-48;  receiving- 
ship,  Boston,  1850;  sloop  "  Dale,"  1851-53. 

Commissioned  as  surgeon,  May  1,  1852;  ren 
dezvous,  New  York,  1854-56;  sloop  "  St. 
Mary's,"  1856-59;  steam-sloop  "  Pensacola," 
West  Gulf  Blockading  Squadron,  1861-63  ;  na 
val  rendezvous,  Boston,  1864-66;  fleet-surgeon, 
Gulf  Squadron,  1866-67;  fleet-surgeon,  North 
Pacific  Squadron,  1868-69;  Naval  Hospital, 
Chelsea,  1870-72;  naval  rendezvous,  Boston, 
1873-77;  chief  of  the  Bureau  of  Medicine  and 
Surgery,  1878-79.  Retired  August  25,  1879; 
died  January  19,  1880. 

Taylor,  William  Rogers,  Rear-Admiral 
U.S.N.  Appointed  midshipman,  April  1,  1828. 

Promoted  to  passed  midshipman,  June  14, 1834. 


TAYLOR 


803 


TELEGRAPH   CABLES 


Promoted  to  lieutenant,  February  10,  1840. 

Promoted  to  commander,  September  14,  1855. 

Promoted  to  captain,  July  16,  1862. 

Promoted  to  commodore,  July  25,  1866. 

Promoted  to  rear-admiral,  January  19,  1871. 

Retired  by  law,  having  attained -the  age  of  62 
years,  November  7,  1873. 

As  midshipman  he  served  on  board  the  frigate 
"Hudson"  and  the  sloop-of-war  "Vandalia," 
on  the  coast  of  Brazil,  from  1828-31,  and  on 
board  the  sloop-of-war  "  Peacock,"  on  the  coast 
of  Brazil,  in  1832. 

As  passed  midshipman,  on  board  the  sloop-of- 
war  "Peacock,"  in  1835  and  1836,  in  the  East 
Indies. 

As  acting  lieutenant,  on  board  the  schooner 
"  Enterprise,"  in  the  East  Indies  and  the  Pacific 
Ocean,  in  1836-37,  and  on  board  the  line-of- 
battle  ship  "North  Carolina,"  in  the  Pacific, 
in  1837-38. 

As  lieutenant,  on  board  the  steamer  "  Poin- 
sett"  and  the  brig  "  Oregon,"  engaged  in  a  sur 
vey  of  Tampa  Bay,  under  command  of  Lieut. 
L.  M.  Powell,  in  1842-43.  During  a  portion 
of  that  time  he  was  in  command  of  each  of 
those  vessels.  Brig  "Perry,"  on  the  coast  of 
Brazil,  in  1843-44 ;  and  the  line-of-battle  ship 
"Columbus,"  on  the  coast  of  Brazil,  in  1844; 
sloop-of-war  "St.  Mary's,"'  in  the  .Gulf  of  Mex 
ico  during  the  Mexican  war,  in  1845-46 ;  frigate 
"St.  Lawrence,"  in  the  North  Sea,  in  1847; 
sloop-of-war  "  Albany,"  in  the  West  Indies,  in 
1849-50;  sloop-of-war  "Saratoga,"  in  the  Atlan 
tic  Ocean,  in  1855,  from  which  ship  he  was  de 
tached  for  promotion. 

As  commander,  he  was  ordered  to  the  ship 
"  Housatonic,"  but  before  sailing  was  promoted 
to  captain. 

As  captain,  in  command  of  the  "  Housatonic," 
in  the  South  Atlantic  Blockading  Squadron,  in 
1862-63;  as  fleet-captain  with  Admiral  Dahlgren 
in  1863;  and  in  command  of  the  ship  "  Juni- 
ata,"  in  the  North  Atlantic  Blockading  Squad 
ron,  in  1864. 

As  commodore,  in  command  of  the  North 
Squadron  of  the  Pacific  Fleet  in  1869-71,  when 
he  was  detached  on  promotion. 

As  rear-admiral,  in  command  of  the  South 
Atlantic  Station  in  1872-73,  from  which  duty  he 
was  detached  on  being  retired  by  law. 

His  duties  on  shore  during  his  early  naval  life 
were  performed  at  navy-yards,  receiving-ships, 
the  Naval  Observatory,  and  the  Naval  Asylum. 
He  was  president  of  a  board  to  revise  and  modify 
a  code  of  regulations  for  the  navy  in  1863-64.  In 
1865-66,  he  was  in  charge  of  the  ordnance-yard 
at  Washington,  then  a  branch  of  the  Bureau  of 
Ordnance.  His  total  amount  of  bureau  duty 
was  9  years  and  5  months,  as  lieutenant,  com 
mander,  captain,  and  commodore,  embracing 
work  at  Alger's,  Cold  Spring,  Tredegar,  Bellona, 
Fort  Pitt,  and  Hickory  and  Williams's  found 
ries,  and  the  foundries  at  Reading,  Pa.,  and  at 
Portland,  Me.  ;  in  the  Bureau  of  Ordnance,  at  the 
powder-works  near  Dover,  N.  H.,  and  at  South 
Acton,  Mass.,  and  at  the  Boston  Navy- Yard. 

On  the  assassination  of  President  Lincoln,  he 
was  appointed  one  of  a  guard  of  honor  to  escort 
his  remains  from  Washington  to  Springfield, 

In  1868,  he  was  a  member  of  a  board  for  the 
examination  of  officers  for  promotion  ;  and  in 


1871-72,  he  was  president  of  the  Naval  Board 
for  examination  and  retirement,  at  the  Navy  De 
partment. 

The  principal  events  of  his  naval  life  were  as 
follows  :  When  the  "  Peacock"  was  stranded  on 
the  island  of  Mazira,  in  1836,  he  was  sent  in 
command  of  a  cutter  to  convey  Edmund  Rob 
erts,  a  diplomatic  agent  of  the  United  States, 
from  the  ship  to  the  port  of  Muscat,  with  the 
ratified  copies  of  some  treaties,  which  he  was 
commissioned  to  exchange.  The  boat  was  single- 
banked,  and  pulled  5  oars;  the  \oyage  lasted 
about  5  days,  and  was  not  a  perfectly  safe  one. 
At  Muscat,  he  was  invited  by  theimaum  to  take 
under  his  orders  a  slocp-of-war  called  the  "  Sul- 
tane,"  mounting  16  guns,  and  proceed  to  the  re 
lief  of  the  "Peacock"  ;  that  ship  had,  however, 
in  the  mean  time,  been  got  off,  and  he  fell  in  with 
her  at  sea. 

On  the  8th  and  the  15th  June,  1846,  the  "  St. 
Mary's"  engaged  a  battery  near  the  point  at 
Tampico  Bar,  and  he  bommanded  the  first  divis 
ion  of  guns  on  both  occasions. 

At  the  surrender  of  Tampico  to  Commodore 
Connor,  he  commanded  the  "St.  Mary's" 
launch,  which  was  a  part  of  the  attacking  force. 

During  the  siege  of  Vera  Cruz,  he  commanded 
an  8-iiich  gun  in  the  naval  battery  for  36  hours. 

During  the  blockade  of  Charleston,  he  hap 
pened  to  be  senior  officer  off  that  port  when  the 
rebel  rams  "  Chocura"  and  "  Palmetto"  attacked 
the  squadron,  in  January,  1863.  He  engaged  one 
of  them  with  the  "Housatonic,"  but  she  with 
drew  over  the  bar.  His  ship  formed  part  of  the 
reserve  fleet  when  Admiral  Dupont  made  his  at 
tack  upon  the  Charleston  forts.  When  Admiral 
Dahlgren  relieved  Admiral  Dupont,  he  was  ap 
pointed  fleet-captain,  and  served  with  Dahlgren 
in  all  the  operations  against  Morris  Island,  from 
July  10  to  the  19th,  1863.  On  the  16th  he  was 
in  battle  with  him  on  board  the  monitor  "  Cats- 
kill,"  and  again,  on  the  18th,  in  the  monitor 
"  Montauk." 

On  the  24th  and  25th  December,  1864,  he  com 
manded  the  "  Juniata"  in  the  attack  upon  Fort 
Fisher. 

Admiral  Taylor  was  a  member  of  the  Board 
of  Visitors  to  attend  the  graduation  of  the  class 
of  midshipmen  at  the  Naval  Academy  in  June, 
1860,  and  in  January,  1872,  he  was  president  of 
the  Board  of  Visitors  to  attend  the  graduation 
of  the  class  at  the  Torpedo  Station.  . 

Teach.  A  term  applied  to  the  direction  that 
any  line  points  out. 

Teak.  A  tree  ( Tectonia yrandis]  of  East  Indian 
growth,  valuable  for  ship-timber. 

Teal.  A  small  wild  duck  of  the  species 
Querquedula  crecca. 

Team-boat.  A  side- wheel  ferry-boat  worked 
by  horse-power.  • 

Tea-wagon.  An  old  name  for  the  British 
East  India  Company's  ships,  tea  constituting 
the  greater  part  of  their  homeward-bound  cargo. 

Teazed  Oakum  (Eng.}.  Oakum  prepared  for 
use  in  calking. 

Teeth.  AT  fanciful  name  sometimes  given  to 
the  guns  of  a  vessel.  It  was  more  applicable  to 
the  batteries  displayed  by  a  ship  of  the  line  than 
to  ships  of  more  modern  construction. 

Telegraph-cables.  The  idea  of  submarine 
communication  by  means  of  electricity  was  en 
tertained  by  some  of  the  earliest  electricians,  but 


TELEGRAPH  CABLES 


804 


TELEGRAPH  CABLES 


no  practical  use  was  made  of  the  discoveries  in 
that  direction  until,  by  the  inventions  of  Pro 
fessor  Morse  in  1836,  apparatus  for  the  recording 
of  telegraphic  messages  was  introduced,  and  the 
practicability  of  communication  by  this  means 
established. 

Don  Francisco  Salva  is  said  to  have  proposed 
the  laying  of  a  submarine  cable  between  Barce 
lona  and'Palnia,  a  port  on  the  island  of  Majorca, 
in  1797,  but  the  first  cab]e  or  wire  upon  which 
experiments  were  actually  made  was  constructed 
and  operated  by  Dr.  O'Shaughnessy,  near  Cal 
cutta,  in  1839.  The  wire  was  21  miles  in  length, 
and  insulated  bv  a  covering  of  tarred  yarns,  over 
which  split  rattan  was  placed,  and  over  the  rat 
tan  another  covering  of  tarred  yarns. 

Professor  Wheatstone,  in  1840,  before  a  com 
mittee  of  the  English  House  of  Commons,  as 
serted  the  practicability  of  laying  and  operating 
a  submarine  cable  between  England  and  France, 
and  in  1842  successful  experiments  were  made  by 
Professor  Morse  with  a  copper  wire  submerged 
between  New  York  and  Governor's  Island,  which 
was  insulated  by  winding  it  with  a  hemp  strand 
covered  with  a  compound  of  tar,  pitch,  and 
india-rubber. 

In  a  letter  addressed  to  the  Secretary  of  the 
Treasury  by  Professor  Morse,  in  1843,  he  said 
that,  judging  from  his  experiments  of  the  pre 
vious  year,  telegraphic  communication  could  with 
certainty  be  established  across  the  Atlantic.  In 
1848,  Samuel  Colt  also  laid  a  wire  from  Fire 
Island  to  New  York  City,  which  was  successfully 
used. 

Experiments  for  the  more  perfect  insulation 
of  submarine  cables  followed  these  trials,  and  in 
1845  a  process  of  preparing  gutta-percha  for  this 
purpose  was  patented  in  England,  which  mate 
rial  has  been  extensively  used  in  the  manufac 
ture  of  submarine  cables  since  that  time.  Its 
first  use  was  upon  a  cable  one-half  of  a  mile  in 
length,  which  was  laid  under  the  Rhine  between 
Dentz  and  Cologne,  and  in  1846  a  wire  covered 
with  the  same  material  was  laid  between  New 
York  and  Jersey  City. 

In  1850  a  cable  was  laid  across  the  Strait  of 
Dover,  27  miles  in  length,  from  Dover  to  Cape 
Grinez.  This  was  the  first  cable  laid  in  the  open 
sea,  and  it  failed  to  transmit  messages  after  the 
first  day  of  its  completion.  Another  was  laid  in 
the  following  year  between  Dover  and  Calais, 
which  contained  four  conducting  wires,  each  of 
which  was  insulated  with  gutta-percha,  and  these 
were  covered  with  a  layer  of  hemp,  steeped  in  a 
solution  of  tar  and  tallow.  In  1853  a  cable  80 
miles  in  length  was  laid  between  Dover  and 
Ostend,  which  contained  6  conducting  wires  and 
weighed  5|  tons  per  mile.  In  1853  England  and 
Holland  were  connected  by  a  single  insulated 
wire,  120  miles  in  length,  weighing  If  tons  per 
mile,  which  was  in  use  for  12  years.  From  this 
time  the  use  of  submarine  cables  in  connection 
with  shore  lines  of  telegraph-wires  greatly  in 
creased,  so  that  between  1853  and  1858  37  cables 
of  various  extents  had  been  laid  in  Europe  and 
its  adjacent  waters,  with  a  total  length  of  3700 
miles. 

The  brilliant  undertaking  of  uniting  America 
and  Europe  by  a  telegraphic  cable  was  first  at 
tempted  in  1857,  and  with  this  and  succeeding 
attempts  the  name  of  Cyrus  W.  Field  is  insepa 
rably  connected.  The  U.  S.  S.  "  Niagara"  and 


H.  B.  M,  S.  "Agamemnon"  were  employed  in 
laying  the  first  cable,  but  owing  to  the  breaking 
of  the  cable  the  undertaking  was  not  successful. 
In  1858  another  trial  was  made,  and  the  two 
parts  were  successfully  united  in  mid-ocean,  and 
the  cable  completed  August  10.  Congratulatory 
messages  were  exchanged  between  Queen  Vic 
toria  and  President  Buchanan,  and  for  23  days 
the  cable  continued  to  transmit  messages,  al 
though  the  signals  were  with  difficulty  under 
stood,  owing  to  the  weakness  of  the  current.  At 
the  end  of  this  time  the  transmission  of  intelli- 

fible  messages  entirely  failed,  and  the  cable  was 
nally  abandoned.  This  cable  was  composed  of 
7  conducting  wires, — 6  laid  around  1  central 
wire, — covered  with  3  layers  of  gutta-percha. 
Outside  of  this  a  layer  of  tarred  hemp  was  placed, 
and  the  whole  surrounded  by  18  strands  of  char 
coal  wire,  each  strand  being  composed  of  7  wires, 
— 6  laid  around  1  central  wire.  The  whole  cost 
of  this  enterprise  amounted  to  $1,834,500. 

After  this  failure  steps  were  taken  for  the  lay 
ing  of  a  cable  from  Labrador  to  Scotland,  by  way 
of  Greenland,  Iceland,  and  the  Faroe  Islands, 
and  in  1860  soundings  were  taken  of  the  pro 
posed  route  by  an  English  ship  of  war,  and  ex 
aminations  made  of  the  different  coasts  for  the 
purpose  of  obtaining  practicable  landing-places 
for  the  ends  of  the  cables.  The  required  length 
by  this  route  is  1800  miles,  which  could  be 
divided  into  three  sections  of  about  600  miles 
each.  Although  favorable  reports  of  the  feasi 
bility  of  this  route  were  made,  no  further  steps 
were  taken. 

In  1862,  Mr.  Field  again  visited  England,  in 
order  to  make  arrangements  for  carrying  out  his 
original  design,  which  resulted  in  a  third  attempt 
to  lay  a  cable  between  the  coasts  of  Ireland  and 
Newfoundland  in  1864-65.  The  steamship  "Great 
Eastern"  was  employed  in  this  undertaking,  but 
another  failure  was  experienced  on  account  of 
the  breaking  of  the  cable  and  the  inability  to 
recover  the  end.  During  the  year  1866  another 
cable  was  laid  by  the  same  steamer,  which  was 
successfully  completed  July  27,  and  the  cable 
of  1865  was  also  recovered  and  united,  thus 
forming  two  lines  of  communication  between 
Europe  and  America. 

These  cables  lasted  but  about  8|  years,  and  in 
1873  and  1874  two  others,  similar  in  construc 
tion,  were  laid,  the  work  being  successfully  ac 
complished  by  the  "  Great  Eastern,"  assisted  by 
three  smaller  vessels.  The  work  of  laying  the 
former  was  commenced  June  16,  1873,  and  on 
June  27  the  western  end  was  landed  at  Heart's 
Content,  1700  miles  having  been  payed  out  in 
11  days.  The  latter  extended  from  Ballenskil- 
ling's  Bay,  Ireland,  to  Nova  Scotia,  arid  thence 
to  Rye,  N.  H.,  and  was  not  completed  until  early 
in  the  summer  of  1875. 

In  1869  a  cable  was  laid  by  the  "Great 
Eastern"  between  Brest,  France,  and  the  island 
of  St.  Pierre,  near  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence,  and 
thence  to  Duxbury,  Mass.  The  entire  length  of 
the  two  sections  o'f  the  cable  is  3047  miles.  The 
weight  of  the  section  between  Brest  and  St. 
Pierre  is  400  pounds  per  mile,  and  that  of  the 
western  section  107  pounds  per  mile.  The  con 
ductor  of  both  sections  is  composed  of  6  copper 
wires  laid  around  1  central  wire,  which  are 
insulated  by  alternate  layers  of  gutta-percha  and 
Chatterton's  compound,  covered  with  a  coating 


TELEMETER 


805 


TEMPLE 


of  tarred  jute-yarns.  Outside  of  this  core  gal 
vanized  iron  wire,  covered  with  manilla  steeped 
in  tar,  is  placed  next  a  coating  of  mineral  pitch 
and  silica,  called  Clark's  compound,  and  out 
side  of  all  a  layer  of  galvanized  iron  wire. 

A  cable  was 'laid  between  the  coasts  of  Ireland 
and  Newfoundland  in  1879,  followed  by  another 
in  the  present  year,  in  which  the  cores  consist  of 
homogeneous  iron  wires  covered  with  two  coats 
of  yarn,  pitch,  and  silica.  During  the  past  20 
years  telegraphic  cables  have  been  laid  in  all 
parts  of  the  world,  and  it  is  estimated  that,  at 
the  present  time,  their  total  length  is  about 
231,000  miles.  Among  the  principal  ones  is  that 
from  Malta  to  Alexandria,  Egypt,  laid  in  1861, 
1518  miles  long  ;  the  Persian  Gulf  cable,  in  1864, 
1330  miles  long  ;  the  direct  cable  from  Malta  to 
Alexandria,  in  1868,  1053  miles  long  ;  from  Suez 
to  Aden,  1460  miles;  from  Aden  to  Bombay, 
1818  miles;  and  from  Gibraltar  to  Malta,  1120 
miles,  in  1870.  The  completion  of  the  China 
cable,  in  1871,  terminating  in  Japan,  which, 
with  its  branches,  connect  the  principal  ports  of 
China,  Australia,  and  adjacent  islands  with 
western  Europe ;  also  the  cables  of  the  West  In 
dia  and  Panama  Company,  2613  miles  long, 
the  Panama  and  South  Pacific  cable,  1100  miles 
long,  and  that  which  connects  the  Windward 
Islands  with  Demerara  during  the  same  year; 
from  Pernambuco  to  Para,  in  1873,  1080  miles 
long ;  and  from  Lisbon  to  Madeira,  in  1873, 
which,  in  1874,  was  extended  to  Cape  St.  Vincent, 
on  one  of  the  Cape  de  Verd  Islands,  1260  miles, 
and  thence  to  Pernambuco,  Brazil,  1953  miles. 
From  these  and  other  main  lines  of  cables 
branches  extend,  in  connection  with  shore  lines 
of  telegraph-wires,  so  that  nearly  all  of  the 
principal  inland  cities  and  seaports  of  the  world 
are  now  in  telegraphic  communication. — E.  T. 
Strong,  Lieutenant  u.S.N. 

Telemeter.  An  instrument  used  for  determin 
ing  the  distance  of  an  object  whose  length  is 
known,  from  its  apparent  length  when  seen  be 
tween  the  parallel  wires  of  a  telescope. 

Telescopic  Funnel.  A  steamship  smoke-pipe 
or  funnel  made  in  two  or  more  sections,  so  ar 
ranged  that  one  slides  within  another,  in  the 
manner  of  a  telescope,  for  the  purpose  of  lower 
ing  it  clear  of  the  sails  and  rigging  when  the 
ship  is  under  sail  alone. 

Telescopium.     See  CONSTELLATION. 

Tell  Off.  To  count  off  or  select  men  for  a 
special  duty. 

Tell-tale.  A  small  compass  hanging  from  the 
deck  overhead  with  its  face  downwards.  It  is 
generally  placed  in  the  cabin,  where  it  can  be 
conveniently  referred  to  by  the  commanding 
officer.  Also,  an  attachment  to  the  steering- 
wheel,  showing  the  position  of  the  tiller.  Tell 
tale  shake,  the  shaking  of  a  rope  from  aloft  as  a 
signal  to  let  it  go,  in  place  of  hailing  from  aloft. 

Tell  that  to'the  Marines  !  An  exclamation 
of  doubt  as  to  the  truth  of  a  statement. 

Temple,  William  Grenville,  Commodore 
U.S.N.  Born  in  Vermont,  March  23,  1824. 
Appointed  acting  midshipman  from  Vermont, 
April  18,  1840;  ordered  to  receiving-ship  "Co 
lumbus,"  Boston,  September  24,  1840;  detached 
from  "  Columbus"  and  ordered  to  frigate  "  Con 
stellation,"  Boston  ;  May  8,  1844,  detached  from 
"  Constellation"  at  Norfolk,  and  granted  leave 
of  absence ;  August  21,  1844,  ordered  to  frigate 


"Potomac,"  flag-ship 'of  the  Home  Squadron, 
Philadelphia;  March  14,  1845,  detached  from 
"  Potomac"  at  Pensacola,  and  ordered  to  brig 
"Lawrence"  at  same  place;  October  21,  1845, 
detached  from  "  Lawrence"  at  Pensacola,  and 
ordered  back  to  "  Potomac"  at  same  place ; 
December  5,  1845,  detached  from  the  "  Potomac" 
at  Norfolk,  and  ordered  to  Naval  School,  An 
napolis. 

Promoted  to  passed  midshipman,  July  11, 
1846;  July  13,  1846,  detached  from  Naval 
School ;  October  5,  1846,  ordered  to  sloop-of-war 
"Boston"  ;  November  15,  1846,  wrecked  on  west 
end  of  Eleuthera,  one  of  the  Bahamas,  opposite 
Hole-in-the-Wall  ;  November  29,  1846,  ordered 
to  Norfolk  in  schooner  "Volant,"  in  charge  of 
sick  men  from  wreck  of  the  "  Boston"  ;  January 
7,  1847,  ordered  to  receiving-ship  "  Pennsyl 
vania,"  Norfolk;  February  4,  1847,  detached 
from  "Pennsylvania,"  and  ordered  to  steamer 
"Scourge,"  New  York;  March  29,  1847,  pres 
ent  at  the  surrender  of  Vera  Cruz;  March  31, 
1847,  present  at  the  capture  of  Alvarado  by  the 
"Scourge,"  and  ordered  to  take  command  on 
shore;  April  1,  1847,  relieved  on  shore  and  or 
dered  back  to  the  "  Scourge"  ;  April  18,  1847, 
present  at  the  capture  of  Tuspan  ;  June  15  and 
16,  1847,  present  at  the  capture  of  Tabasco; 
November 27, 1847, detached  from  the  "Scourge" 
at  Frontera  ;  December  25,  1847,  ordered  as 
acting  master  to  the  steamer  "  Mississippi" ; 
April  21,  1848,  detached  from  the  "  Mississippi"  ; 
June  14,  1848,  ordered  to  Naval  Observatory, 
"Washington ;  May  2,  1849,  detached  from  the 
Observatory,  and  ordered  as  acting  master  to  the 
coast  survey  schooner  "Petrel,"  New  York; 
transferred  at  New  Orleans  into  the  coast  survey 
steamer  "Hetzel";  August  2,  1850,  detached 
from  the  "Hetzel,"  and  ordered  to  the  Coast 
Survey  Office;  October  11,  1850,  detached  from 
the  coast  survey,  and  ordered  to  the  Observatory  ; 
November  28,  1850,  detached  from  the  Observa 
tory,  and  granted  leave  of  absence  for  the  pur 
pose  of  taking  charge  of  the  h  ydrographic  works 
on  the  survey  of  the  Isthmus  of  Tehuantepec,  for 
a  railroad  and  canal ;  April  5,  1852,  ordered  as 
acting  master  to  the  sloop-of-war  "  Levant." 

Promoted  to  master,  July  21,  1854. 

Promoted  to  lieutenant,  April  18,  1855 ;  May 
7.  1855,  detached  from  the  "Levant";  June  4, 
1855,  ordered  to  the  steamer  "  Corwin,"  coast 
survey ;  December  3,  1855,  detached  from  the 
"  Corwin"  and  ordered  to  the  CoastSurvey  Office; 
May  19,  1856,  detached  from  Coast  Survey  Office, 
and'  ordered  to  the  steamer  "  Corwin,"  coast  sur 
vey  ;  June  1, 1857,  succeeded  to  the  command  of 
the  "Corwin";  October  11,  1858,  detached  from 
command  of  the  "Corwin,"  and  ordered  to  the 
Coast  Survey  Office  ;  April  7, 1859,  detached  from 
the  Coast  Survey  Office,  and  ordered  to  the  steam- 
frigate  "  Lancaster,"  flag-ship  of  the  Pacific 
Squadron;  October  11,  1861,  detached  from  the 
"  Lancaster,"  and  ordered  to  return  to  New 
York  ;  November  11, 1861,  ordered  to  command 
the  steamer  "Flambeau";  January  22,  1862, 
detached  from  command  of  the  "Flambeau"; 
February  26,  1862,  ordnance  duty,  New  York. 

Promoted  to  lieutenant-commander,  July  16, 
1862;  September  22,  1862,  detached  from  ord 
nance  duty,  and  ordered  to  command  the  steam- 
gunboat  "Pembina,"  and  to  join  the  West  Gulf 
Blockading  Squadron ;  November  22,  1862,  de- 


TEMPLET 


806 


THATCHER 


inched  from  command  of  the  "Pembina,"  and 
ordered  to  Key  West  as  fleet-captain  of  the  East 
Gulf  Blockading  Squadron;  April  10,  1864,  or 
dered  temporarily  to  command  the  flag-ship 
"San  Jacinto,"  for  special  service;  April  13, 

1864,  detached   from   command    of    the   "San 
Jacinto,"  and  ordered  to  resume  duty  as  fleet- 
captain  ;   July  12,  1864,  present  on  duty  in  the 
trenches  about  "Washington,  on  the  occasion  of 
Gen.  Early's  attack;    September  19,   1864,  de 
tached  from  fleet-captaincy,  and  ordered  to  ord 
nance  duty  at  Cold  Spring  Foundry  ;  November 
8,  1864,  detached  from  ordnance  duty,  and  or 
dered   to  command  the  steamer  "  Pontoosuc," 
and    to    join   the   North   Atlantic    Blockading 
Squadron  ;  December  24  and  25,  1864,  present 
at  the  bombardment  of  Fort  Fisher  ;  January  13 
to  15, 1865,  present  at  the  capture  of  Fort  Fisher  ; 
February  18  to  22,  1865,  present  at  the  passage 
up  the  Cape  Fear  Eiver,  and  the  capture  of 
Wilmington,  N.  C. 

Promoted  to  commander,  March  3,  1865 ; 
April  1,  1865,  present  at  the  bombardment  of 
rebel  fortifications  on  the  James  River,  above 
Dutch  Gap ;  April  3,  1865,  present  at  the  cap 
ture  of  Richmond,  Petersburg,  etc.  ;  May  25, 

1865,  detached  from  command  of  the  "Pontoo 
suc,"   Hampton   Roads,  and  granted   leave    of 
absence ;  August  17,  1865,  ordered  to  command 
the  steamer  "  Tacony,"  and  to  join  the  Atlantic 
Squadron  ;  October  31, 1866,  detached  from  com 
mand  of  the  "  Tacony,"  and  ordered  as  inspector 
of  ordnance  to  Portsmouth,  N.  H. ;  October  18, 
1869,  detached   from   ordnance   duty  at   Ports 
mouth,  and  ordered  as  member  of  Permanent 
Ordnance  Board,  at  the  Navy  Department. 

Promoted  to  captain,  August  28,  1870 ;  Octo 
ber  18,  1870,  detached  from  ordnance  duty,  and 
ordered  as  assistant  judge-advocate  of  the  navy  ; 
December  23,  1870,  detached  from  the  Navy  De 
partment,  and  ordered  to  command  the  frigate 
"  Tennessee"  ;  April  25, 1871,  detached  from  the 
"Tennessee";  May  1,  1871,  ordered  to  duty 
under  the  Bureau  of  Ordnance  ;  October  5,  1871, 
detached  from  ordnance  duty,  and  ordered  to 
flag-ship  "Wabash";  July  6,  1872,  ordered  to 
command  the  "  Wabash"';  May  31,  1873,  de 
tached  from  the  "  Wabash,"  with  leave  of  ab 
sence  for  18  months,  and  orders  to  return  to  the 
United  States  at  its  expiration;  December  11, 

1874,  ordered  to  take  charge  of  the  government's 
reception  of  the  king  of  the  Hawaiian  Islands 
at  Washington,  for  which  service,  by  permission 
of  Congress,  received  from   his   majesty  Kala- 
kaua  a  decoration  as  Knight  Commander  of  the 
Royal  Order  of  Kamehameha  I. ;  relieved  from 
this  duty  on  December  28,  1874;   February  1, 

1875,  ordered,  as  captain  of  the  yard,  to  New 
York  Navy- Yard;    October  31,  1877,  detached 
from  New  York  Navy- Yard,  and  placed  on  wait 
ing  orders. 

Promoted  to  commodore,  June  5,  1878 ;  Octo 
ber  26,  1878,  ordered  to  Montevideo,  South 
America,  for  temporary  duty  on  board  the  flag 
ship  "Hartford";  February  15,  1879,  detached 
and  placed  on  waiting  orders  ;  October  22,  1879, 
member  of  the  Examining  and  Retiring  Board, 
which  is  his  present  duty. 

Templet,  or  Template.  A  mold  in  wood,  or 
an  iron  plate  cut  to  any  particular  shape  by 
which  other  materials  are  shaped. 

Temporary  Star.     One   that  having  become 


visible,  increases  gradually  in  brilliancy  and 
then  slowly  disappears. 

Tench.  The  Tinea  vulgaris,  a  fresh-water 
fish. 

Tender.  A  small  vessel  used  for  giving  as 
sistance  to  a  large  ship  or  a  flag-ship,  as  carrying 
stores  or  dispatches,  transferring  men,  etc. 

Tenon.  The  shoulder  at  the  end  of  a  piece  of 
timber  which  fits  into  a  mortice;  as,  the  tenon  at 
the  heel  of  a  mast. 

Ten-pounder.  The  name  of  a  fish  found  in 
the  West  Indies. 

Teredo  Navalis.  A  worm  found  in  the  sea 
which  is  very  destructive  to  submerged  wood. 
It  is  a  genus  of  testaceous  mollusks,  and  has  been 
seen  at  a  depth  of  10  fathoms. 

Term-piece.  A  piece  of  carved  work  placed 
upon  the  stern,  extending  from  the  taffrail  to 
the  foot-rail  of  the  balcony. 

Tern.  A  sea-bird  of  the  genus  Sterna,  resem 
bling  a  gull. 

Terrada.     A  large  Persian  boat. 

Terrapin.  A  large  turtle  of  the  genus  Chalonia, 
found  in  salt  water. 

Tertiate.  To  examine  the  thickness  of  the 
metal  of  a  gun  to  ascertain  its  strength  and  prove 
the  proportions  at  different  parts. 

Test-cock.  A  cock  for  withdrawing  a  small 
quantity  of  fluid  from  a  vessel  or  chamber  in 
which  it  is  confined,  for  the  purpose  of  observing 
its  condition. 

Testone.  A  former  Papal  coin,  issued  in  1785, 
in  value  about  $0.32. 

Testoon.  A  Portuguese  coin,  about  $0.13  in 
value. 

Tew  (Eng.}.  To  beat  hemp  in  preparing  the 
fibre. 

Thatcher,  Henry  K.,  Rear-Admiral  U.S.N. 
Born  in  Maine,  at  the  seat  of  his  grandfather, 
Maj:-Gen.  Henry  Knox,  of  Revolutionary  mem 
ory.  Appointed  midshipman  from  there,  March 
4, 1823  ;  Washington  Navy- Yard  during  that 
year  (which  was  very  active  in  equipping  the 
so-called  Mosquito  Fleet  of  Commodore  David 
Porter,  to  attack  the  pirates  of  the  West  Indies), 
from  thence  to  frigate  "  United  States,"  under 
Commander  Isaac  Hull,  until  May,  1827. 

Promoted  to  passed  midshipman,  March  23, 
1829. 

Promoted  to  lieutenant,  February  28,  1833; 
served  at  various  navy-yards  and  on  board  dif 
ferent  vessels  from  1833  to  1855. 

Promoted  to  commander  in  February,  1855 ; 
commanding  sloop-of-war  "Decatur,"  Pacific 
Squadron,  from  1855-57;  executive-officer,  Bos 
ton  Navy- Yard,  1860-61  ;  commanding  sloop-of- 
war  "  Constellation,"  coast  of  Europe  and  Med 
iterranean,  1862-63,  as  a  commander. 

Promoted  to  commodore  during  this  command. 
Relieved  July,  1863,  and  ordered  home  to  com 
mand  steam-frigate  "  Colorado"  and  division  of 
Southern  blockade  ;  commanded  first  division  of 
Porter's  squadron  in  the  attacks  and  capture  of 
Fort  Fisher  and  dependencies,  in  December, 
1864,  and  January,  1865  ;  after  which  he  was 
ordered  to  command  of  the  West  Gulf  Squadron 
as  acting  rear-admiral,  and  at  once  commenced 
active  operations  for  the  capture  of  Mobile  and 
coast  of  Texas,  in  co-operation  with  the  land- 
forces  under  Gen.  Canby.  After  a  vigorous 
bombardment,  Forts  Alexis  and  Spanish  Fort 
were  carried  by  assault  by  the  army  on  the  night 


THEODOLITE 


807 


THKOAT 


of  April  9,  1865,  leaving  the  minor  works  a  com 
paratively  easy  prey, — the  Forts  Tracy  and  Hu- 
ger,  near  Tracy  and  Huger,  made  a  spirited 
resistance  until  the  night  of  the  llth,  when  their 
garrisons  made  their  escape  through  the  marshes 
and  in  boats.  On  the  following  day  flags  of 
truce  were  discovered  at  the  landing,  and  the 
announcement  made  that  the  rebelGen.  Maury 
had  evacuated  the  city  with  all  his  army ;  a 
formal  demand  was  at  once  made  by  Gen.  Granger 
and  Acting  Rear-Admiral  Thatcher  for  the  sur 
render  of  the  city,  which  was  unconditionally 
complied  with.  The  rebel  naval  forces,  under 
Flag-Officer  Ebenezer  Farrand,  consisting  of  the 
ironclad  frigate  "Nashville,"  sloop-of-war  "Mor 
gan"  (partially  ironclad),  the  ironclad  ram 
"Baltic,"  the  steamer  "Black  Warrior,"  and 
the  rams  "  Tuscaloosa"  and  "  Huntsville,"  fled 
to  the  river  Tombigbee,  and  sinking  the  two  last 
named  in  the  channel.  Our  forces  afloat  being 
about  to  pursue  them,  'Farrand  proposed  terms 
of  surrender,  which  having  been  accepted  by 
Acting  Rear-Admiral  Thatcher,  a  suitable  force 
under  Commander  Edward  Simpson  (fleet-cap 
tain)  was  dispatched  by  him  to  take  possession 
and  bring  them  with  their  officers  and  men  to 
the  city.  In  May,  1866,  Commodore  Thatcher 
was  relieved  from  the  Gulf  and  ordered  to  the 
command  of  the  North  Pacific  Squadron,  in 
which  command  he  remained  until  relieved,  in 
August,  1868. 

Commissioned  as  rear-admiral,  July  25,  1866  ; 
port-admiral,  at  Portsmouth,  N.  EL,  1869-71. 
Retired  May  26,  1868;  died  1880. 

Theodolite.  An  instrument  used  in  survey 
ing,  for  measuring  angles,  leveling,  etc. 

There  Away.     In  that  direction. 

Thermal  Unit.  A  unit  of  heat ;  or,  the  quan 
tity  of  heat  that  will  raise  a  unit  of  weight  of 
matter  through  a  unit  of  temperature.  The 
English  thermal  unit  is  the  quantity  of  heat  that 
will  raise  one  pound  of  pure  water  at  its  maxi 
mum  density,  and  temperature  of  39.1°,  one 
degree  F. 

Thermometer.  An  instrument  for  indicating 
comparative  temperature.  In  its  common  form 
it  consists  of  a  capillary  glass  tube,  hermetically 
sealed  at  one  end  and  having  a  bulb  blown  at 
the  other,  thoroughly  filled  with  mercury  or 
colored  alcohol  at  a  higher  temperature  than  the 
instrument  is  intended  to  indicate  or  is  likely  to 
be  subjected  to,  a  Torricellian  vacuum  being 
formed  above  the  liquid  when  it  contracts  to 
lower  temperatures.  The  tube  is  attached  to  an 
arbitrarily  graduated  scale,  usually  that  of  Cel 
sius,  Fahrenheit,  or  Reaumur,  the  range  or  ex 
pansion  of  the  liquid  between  the  temperature, 
of  melting  ice  and  that  of  boiling  water  being 
divided,  respectively,  into  degrees  of  100,  180,  or 
80  parts.  The  zero  of  the  Celsius  (Centigrade] 
and  Reaumur  scales  is  the  temperature  of  melt 
ing  ice  ;  that  of  Fahreheit,  32°  below.  In  deli 
cate  physical  investigations  an  air  thermometer 
is  employed. 

The  thermometers  in  use  on  shipboard  for  me 
teorological  purposes  are  the  dry  bulb,  from  which 
the  temperature  of  the  air  is  noted  ;  the  ivet  bulb, 
which,  by  comparison  with  the  dry  bulb,  gives 
the  amount  of  moisture  in  the  atmosphere  ;  and 
the  water  thermometer,  which  is  used  in  obtain 
ing  the  temperature  of  sea-water.  A  maximum 
and  minimum  thermometer  is  one  that  regulates 


the  extremes  of  temperatures.  A  deep-sea  ther 
mometer  is  used  to  obtain  the  temperature  of  sea- 
water  at  great  depths,  and  is  constructed  so  as  to 
resist  the  pressure  of  water  at  such  depths. 

Thick-and-dry  for  Weighing.  An  expres 
sion  indicating  that  the  nippers  should  be  placed 
close  together  on  the  cable,  and  as  dry  as  possi 
ble,  to  prevent  the  slipping  of  the  cable  when  the 
anchor  breaks  ground. 

Thick-and-thin  Block.  A  block  having  two 
sheaves  of  different  sizes,  one  above  the  other. 
Also  called  a  fiddle-block. 

Thick-stuff.  Planking  used  in  ship-building, 
between  4  inches  and  1  foot  in  thickness. 

Thieves'  Cat  (Eng.}.  A  cat-o'-nine-tails  with 
knots  upon  the  lashes,  which  is  applied  as  a  pun 
ishment  for  theft. 

Thimble.  An  iron  ring,  the  outer  surface  of 
which  is  concave  in  order  that  it  may  be  held  in 
position  by  a  rope  when  spliced  around  it.  It 
thus  serves  as  a  lining  for  the  rope,  and  protects 
it  from  the  chafe  of  a  hook  or  other  thimble. 

A  lock-thimble  is  formed  by  two  thimbles 
which  are  interlocked. 

THIMBLE-EYES.  Holes  shaped  like  thimbles 
made  in  an  iron  plate ;  formerly  used  in  place  of 
dead-eyes  for  setting  up  topmast  rigging. 

Thokes  (Eng.}.  Fish  with  broken  bellies, 
which  are  not  allowed  to  be  packed  with  the  un 
broken,  or  tale  fish. 

Thole,  or  Thole-pin.  A  pin,  either  of  wood 
or  metal,  fixed  to  the  gunwale  of  a  boat  to  retain 
the  oar  in  place  when  rowing,  and  which  serves 
as  the  fulcrum  of  the  lever.  The  oar  may  be 
placed  between  two  such  pins,  or  secured  to  a 
single  pin  by  means  of  a  grommet. 

Thorn-back.     The  fish  Raia  clavata. 

Thorough -foot.  The  disarrangement  in  the 
parts  of  a  tackle-fall  caused  by  turning  or  cap 
sizing  one  of  the  blocks  through  the  parts. 

Thorough-put.     A  thorough-foot  (which  see). 

Thrasher.  The  shark  Carcharias  vulpes. 
The  name  is  also  applied  to  the  grampus  on  ac 
count  of  its  supposed  mode  of  attack  with  its 
tail. 

Thread.  To  follow  the  course  of  a  narrow, 
tortuous  channel. 

Three-cocked-hat.  An  old  style  of  hat  for 
merly  worn  by  naval  officers. 

Three-decker.  A  ship  fitted  for  carrying 
guns  upon  three  decks. 

Three  Half-hitches  are  more  than  a  King's 
Yacht  wants  is  an  exclamation  peculiar  to  the 
English  service,  meaning  that  two  are  enough 
for  any  purpose. 

Three  Sheets  in  the  Wind  is  descriptive  of  the 
condition  of  a  person  partially  intoxicated. 

Three  Sisters  (Eng.).  The  three  rattans 
formerly  carried  by  the  master-at-arms  and  boat 
swain's  mate. 

Three-square.  A  surface  bounded  by  three 
sides  ;  as,  a  three-cornered  sail. 

Thrift  (Eng.).  The  Armeria,  a  plant  found 
near  the  coast. 

Throat.  That  part  of  a  gaff  which  is  next  to 
the  mast.  Also  applied  in  ship-building  to  the 
midship  portion  of  the  floor-timbers,  knees, 
breast-hooks,  etc. 

THROAT-BOLT.  An  eye-bolt  either  on  the 
throat  of  a  gaff  or  under  the  top,  into  which  the 
throat-halliards  are  hooked. 

THROAT-BRAIL.     One  of  the  ropes  or  brails  by 


THROTTLE-VALVE 


808 


TIDES 


which  a  trysail  or  spencer  is  gathered  up  to  the 
throat  of  the  gaff  when  the  sail  is  taken  in. 

THROAT-HALLIAKDS.  The  tackle  by  which 
the  throat  of  a  gaff  is  hoisted. 

THROAT-SEIZING.  The  seizing  nearest  the 
dead-eye,  connecting  the  end  part  of  a  shroud 
or  backstay  with  the  standing  part.  Also,  the 
seizing  by  which  the  strap  of  a  block  is  made  to 
fit  into  its  score. 

Throttle-valve.  A  valve  situated  in  the 
steam-pipe  for  regulating  the  admission  of  steam 
to  an  engine,  ft  generally  consists  of  a  disk 
arranged  to  rotate  about  one  of  its  diameters, 
the  throttle-vaive-siem,  or  axis,  being  attached  to 
suitable  levers  and  handles. 

Through  All.  Sail  is  carried  "  through  all" 
when  it  is  not  reduced  to  a  squall.  Formerly, 
when  the  anchor  was  weighed  by  means  of  a 
messenger,  the  cable  was  said  to  "  heave  through 
all"  when  the  nippers,  being  wet  and  slippery, 
did  not  secure  the  cable  to  the  messenger. 

Through-bolt.  A  bolt  which  is  driven 
through  and  through  the  sides  of  the  ship,  and 
is  riveted  on  the  inside  upon  clinch-rings. 

Through-fastening.  A  bolt  passing  through 
timber  and  planking. 

Through  the  Fleet.  A  former  mode  of  pun 
ishment  in  the  English  navy,  sometimes  given 
for  serious  offenses,  in  which  the  offender  was 
towed  to  each  vessel  in  the  fleet,  where  he  re 
ceived  a  part  of  the  lashes  to  which  he  had  been 
sentenced. 

Thrums.  Short  bits  of  rope-yarns  used  in 
making  mats.  A  thrummed  mat  is  made  by 
sewing  short  pieces  of  yarns  to  one  side  of  a 
piece  of  canvas  or  heavy  cloth,  and  is  used  in 
protecting  sails  and  rigging  from  chafe. 

Thrust.  A  force  which  acts  between  two  con 
tiguous  bodies,  or  parts  of  a  body,  when  each 
pushes  the  other  from  itself,  and  which  tends  to 
compress  or  shorten  each  body  on  which  it  acts 
in  the  direction  of  its  action.  It  is  the  kind  of 
force  which  is  exerted  by  a  fluid  tending  to  ex 
pand  against  the  bodies  which  surround  it. 

THRUST-BEARING.  A  bearing  that  receives  a 
force  acting  in  the  direction  of  the  axis  of  a 
shaft ;  as,  the  bearing  that  transmits  the  propel 
ling  force  of  a  screw-propeller  to  the  hull  of  a 
vessel. 

Thuban.     The  star  a  Draconis. 

Thule.  The  ancient  name  applied  to  the  ex 
treme  north. 

Thumb-cleat.  A  cleat  used  on  a  topsail-yard 
to  prevent  the  turns  of  the  reef-earing  from  slip 
ping  in  on  the  yard. 

Thumb-stall.  A  leather  covering  worn  on 
the  thumb  by  a  captain  of  a  gun  to  protect  it 
from  heat  in  serving  the  vent. 

Thunder-squall.  A  squall  accompanied  by 
thunder  and  lightning. 

Thunny.     See  TUNNY. 

Thus,  Very  well  Thus,  or  Dice.  An  old  order 
to  the  helmsman,  the  ship  being  close-hauled,  to 
steer  as  the  ship  heads.  It  is  seldom  used  at  the 
present  day  but  by  the  oldest  of  quarter-masters. 

Thwart.  The  seat  in  a  boat  upon  which  the 
rower  sits. 

Thwart-marks.  Objects  on  shore  near  the 
coast,  which  being  in  line  indicate  the  channel 
or  the  direction  of  shoals. 

Thwart-ships.     Ath wart-ships  (which  see). 

Tibric  (Eng.).   An  old  name  for  the  coal-fish. 


Ticket,  Hospital.  The  document  which  ac 
companies  a  person  in  the  naval  service  when 
sent  to  a  naval  hospital  from  a  vessel,  in  which 
is  stated  the  disease  or  injury  under  which  the 
patient  is  suffering,  and  the  evidence,  if  any, 
that  said  disease  was  contracted,  or  the  injury 
received,  in  the  line  of  duty.  It  also  contains 
the  descriptive  list  of  the  patient,  and  a  list  of 
clothing  accompanying  him.  The  ticket  is 
signed  by  the  medical  officer  of  the  vessel,  and 
approved  by  the  commanding  officer  of  the 
vessel  and  the  commandant  of  the  station. 

Tides  (Sax.  tidan,  to  happen  ;  from  tid,  time). 
Semidiurnal  oscillations  of  the  ocean  occasioned 
by  the  combined  action  of  the  sun  and  moon. 
The  relative  effects  of  these  two  bodies  are  di 
rectly  as  their  mass,  and  inversely  as  the  square 
of  their  distance,  and  the  moon,  although  very 
small  in  comparison  with  the  sun,  is  so  much 
nearer  that  she  exerts  by  far  the  greater  influence 
on  the  phenomena  of  the  tides. 

The  attraction  of  the  moon  on  different  parts 
of  the  earth  is  less  as  the  distance  is  greater,  and 
thus  it  influences  the  parts  of  the  ocean  nearest 
to  her  more  powerfully  than  the  body  of  the  earth, 
and  this  again  more  powerfully  than  waters  most 
remote.  The  particles  of  water  under  the  moon 
have  a  tendency  to  leave  the  earth,  but  are  re 
tained  by  the  superior  attraction  of  the  earth  ; 
again,  the  moon  attracts  the  centre  of  gravity 
of  the  earth  more  powerfully  than  she  attracts 
the  particles  of  water  in  the  hemisphere  opposite 
to  her,  so  that  the  earth  has  a  tendency  to  leave 
these  waters,  which  are  retained,  however,  by 
the  superior  attraction  of  the  earth.  The  effect 
of  this  difference  of  the  attractions  on  the  super 
ficial  water  on  opposite  sides  and  on  the  central 
mass  is  two  risings  of  the  water,  the  one  verti 
cally  below  the  moon,  and  the  other  diametri 
cally  opposite  to  this  place.  If  the  earth  were 
entirely  covered  with  an  ocean,  the  waters  would 
thus  assume  the  form  of  an  oblongated  spheroid, 
having,  if  the  earth  had  no  rotation,  its  longer 
axis  directed  towards  the  moon  and  its  shorter 
axis  at  right  angles  to  that  direction.  As  the 
moon  in  her  apparent  diurnal  motion  looks  down 
successively  upon  each  meridian,  the  protuber 
ance  of  the  ocean  follows  its  motion  from  east  to 
west ;  but  by  reason  of  the  inertia  of  the  water, 
this  occurs  at  a  meridian  about  30°  to  the  east 
of  the  moon.  This  great  wave,  following  all 
the  motions  of  the  moon,  is  modified  by  the  ac 
tion  of  the  sun.  The  sun  raises  a  similar  but 
much  smaller  wave,  which  tends  to  follow  his 
motions,  and  which  consequently  at  times  com 
bines  with  the  lunar  wave  and  at  other  times 
opposes  it,  according  to  the  relative  position  of 
the  two  bodies.  It  must  be  particularly  noted 
that  the  bodies  do  not  draw  after  them  the  water 
first  raised,  but  continually  tend  to  raise  that 
under  them  at  the  time.  The  tide  is  not  a  cir 
culating  current,  but  an  immensely  broad  and 
excessively  flat  wave,  which  is  propagated  by  the 
transits  of  the  disturbing  body.  As  this  wave 
strikes  the  coasts  the  water  gradually  elevates 
itself  to  a  certain  height,  then  as  gradually  sinks 
to  about  the  same  extent  below  its  mean  level ; 
and  this  oscillation  is  continued  constantly,  with 
certain  variations  in  the  height  and  in  the  times 
of  attaining  the  maxima  of  elevation  and  depres 
sion.  Considering  the  tides  relatively  to  the 
whole  earth  and  open  seas,  on  the  meridian 


TIDES 


809 


TIDES 


about  30°  to  the  east  of  the  moon  there  is  high- 
water,  on  the  west  of  this  circle  the  tide  is  flow 
ing,  on  the  east  it  is  ebbing,  and  on  every  part 
of  the  meridian  at  90°  distant  it  is  low-water. 

TIDES,  NEAP-  (Sax.  neafte,  scarcity).  The 
smallest  tides,  being  the  result  of  the  action  of 
the  moon  and  sun  when  they  are  conflicting. 
They  take  place  after  the  moon  is  in  quadratures, 
—i.e.,  after  the  first  and  third  quarter  of  the 
moon.  The  smallest  neap-tides  happen  when 
the  moon's  and  sun's  attractions  tend  most  to 
counteract  each  other,  which  will  happen  when 
the  moon's  action  is  the  least  possible  and  the 
sun's  the  greatest  possible.  This  will  evidently 
be — (1)  When  the  rnoon  is  in  apogee  and  the  earth 
in  perihelion  at  or  near  the  same  time ;  or,  in 
other  words,  as  the  parallax  of  a  body  indicates 
its  proximity  to  the  earth,  when  the  moon's  par 
allax  is  the  least,  while  the  sun's  is  the  greatest. 
(2)  When  the  moon's  declination  and  the  lati 
tude  of  the  place  are  of  different  names,  and  the 
declination  the  greatest  possible,  at  the  same 
time  that  the  sun's  declination  coincides  or  ap 
proximates  to  the  latitude  of  the  place,  both  be 
ing  .north  or  south ;  or,  in  other  words,  when 
the  moon's  altitude  is  the  least  possible  and  the 
sun's  the  greatest,  the  action  being  the  more 
powerful  in  proportion  as  the  body  is  more 
nearly  vertical.  The  magnitude  of  the  tide  is 
also  affected  by  strong  winds  and  the  state  of 
the  atmosphere.  The  action  of  the  former  is 
most  conspicuous  in  rivers  and  narrow  seas,  and 
of  the  latter  it  has  been  observed  that  a  rise  in 
the  barometer  of  an  inch  has  been  accompanied 
by  a  depression  in  the  water  of  the  tide  of  12  or 
14  inches. 

TIDES,  SPRING-  (Sax.  spring  an,  to  grow, 
bulge).  The  greatest  tides  being  the  result  of 
the  action  of  the  moon  and  sun  when  they  are 
co-operating,  they  take  place  after  the  moon  is 
in  syzygies, — i.e..  in  conjunction  or  opposition, 
when  it  is  new  and  full  moon.  The  greatest 
spring-tides  happen  when  the  moon  arid  sun  are 
in  such  positions  that  their  attractions  produce 
the  greatest  effect  upon  the  waters,  especially 
when  these  positions  are  contemporaneous. 
These  are — (1)  When  the  moon  is  in  perigee; 
when  the  earth  is  in  perihelion.  In  other  words 
(as  the  parallax  of  a  body  indicates  its  proximity 
to  the  earth),  the  effect  of  each  body  in  raising 
the  tide  is  greater  as  its  parallax  is  greater.  (2) 
When  the  moon's  declination  coincides  with  or 
approximates  to  the  latitude  of  the  place,  both 
being  north  or  south;  when  the  sun's  declina 
tion  fulfills  the  like  condition.  In  other  words 
(as,  generally  speaking,  the  vertical  action  is 
the  most  powerful),  the  effect  of  the  two  bodies 
is  greater  as  their  altitudes  are  greater.  The 
magnitude  of  the  tide  is  also  affected  by  strong 
winds  and  the  state  of  the  atmosphere;  favor 
able  winds  and  a  low  barometer  are  the  meteor 
ological  conditions  which  augment  the  tides. 

TIDE,  SUPERIOR  AND  INFERIOR.  The  superior 
tide  is  that  which  takes  place  in  the  hemisphere 
which  has  the  moon  above  the  horizon ;  the 
inferior  tide  is  that  which  happens  simultaneously 
in  the  hemisphere  which  has  the  moon  below  the 
horizon. 

TIDE- WAVE.  The  accumulation  of  the  waters 
of  the  sea  which  is  caused  by  the  action  of  the 
moon,  modified  by  that  of  the  sun,  changes  its 
position  through  the  day.  The  moon  and  sun 


in  their  diurnal  revolutions  continually  and  suc 
cessively  tend  to  raise  the  water  beneath  them  at 
the  time,  and  thus  the  alteration  in  the  level  of 
the  sea  is  propagated  from  east  to  west,  though 
there  is  no  transference  of  the  water  itself  except 
near  the  shore.  Interruptions  in  the  regular 
propagation  of  the  tide-wave  are  caused  by  the 
depth  of  the  ocean  and  the  barriers  presented  by 
land  stretching  athwart  its  direction. 

TIDE-CURRENT.  The  current  in  a  channel 
caused  by  the  alteration  of  the  level  of  the  water 
during  the  passage  of  the  tide-wave.  The  tide- 
current  does  not  generally  change  with  the  tide  ; 
thus,  under  certain  circumstances,  the  current  of 
the  ebb  continues  to  run  for  some  hours  after  the 
flood-tide  has  made. 

TIDE,  KANGE  OR  HEIGHT  OF.  The  difference 
between  the  level  of  high-water  and  that  of  low- 
water.  Speaking  of  the  earth  at  large,  the  range 
is  greater  in  those  latitudes  over  which  the  moon 
and  sun  pass  vertically,  being  very  small  in  high 
latitudes.  In  the  open  ocean  the  range  is  incon 
siderable,  and  in  inland  seas  almost  insensible. 
It  is  most  affected  by  local  causes,  as  the  shoaling 
of  the  water  and  the  narrowing  of  the  channel,  es 
pecially  if  the  channel  opens  in  the  direction  of 
the  tide- wave. 

TIDE,  RETARD  OR  AGE  OF.  The  interval  be 
tween  the  transit  of  the  moon,  at  which  a  tide 
originates,  and  the  appearance  of  the  tide  itself. 
It  is  found  in  general  that  any  particular  tide  is 
not  due  to  the  moon's  transit  immediately  pre 
ceding,  but  to  a  transit  which  has  occurred  some 
time  before,  and  which  is  said  therefore  to  cor 
respond  to  it.  The  retard  of  the  tide  is  thus  dis 
tinguished  from  the  Innitidal  interval,  which  is 
the  interval  between  the  moon's  transit  and  the 
high-water  next  following.  The  name  retard  is 
derived  from  the  tide  appearing  to  be  "  retarded" 
in  following  the  moon  in  her  diurnal  course.  The 
cause  of  the  phenomenon  may,  however,  be  best 
understood  by  regarding  the  actual  rotatory  mo 
tion  of  the  earth  on  its  axis,  instead  of  the  ap 
parent  diurnal  revolution  of  the  moon  in  the 
heavens.  The  momentum  of  the  water  will 
cause  a  continuance  of  its  rise  long  after  it  has 
passed  under  the  excited  cause.  On  the  same 
principle,  changes  in  the  parallax  and  declination 
of  the  sun  and  moon  produce  their  several  effects 
on  the  time  and  height  of  the  tide,  not  immedi 
ately,  but  after  certain  intervals. 

TIDE,  TIDE  AND  HALF-TIDE,  TIDE  AND 
QUARTER-TIDE.  In  the  open  sea  high- and  low- 
water  succeed  each  other  at  intervals  of  about  6h 
12m;  such  interval  is  designated  "  a  tide."  In 
channels  where  a  tide-current  is  formed,  when 
the  stream  continues  to  flow  up  for  8h  after  it  is 
high-water,  it  is  said  to  make  "a  tide  and  half- 
tide"  ;  if  it  continue  to  flow  during  lh  30m  after 
high- water,  it  is  said  to  make  "  a  tide  and  quarter- 
tide,"  and  so  on. 

TIDE-DAY,  PRIMING  AND  LAGGING.  The 
tide-day  is  the  interval  between  two  successive 
arrivals  at  the  same  place  of  the  same  vertex  of 
the  tide-wave.  It  varies  in  length  as  the  waves 
due  to  the  separate  action  of  the  moon  and  sun 
approach  to  or  recede  from  coincidence,  the  re 
sultant  maximum  being  at  a  point  intermediate 
between  them.  The  lengthening  and  shortening 
of  the  tide-day  on  its  mean  is  called  the  priming 
and  lagging  of  the  tide. 

TIDE  ESTABLISHMENT  OF  THE  PORT.   The  sun 


TIE 


810 


TIME 


and  moon  being  in  the  same  relative  position,  the 
time  of  high-water  is  different  for  different  ports, 
owing  to  the  inertia  of  the  water  and  the  ob 
structions  it  meets  with  from  the  friction  of  the 
sea-bed,  and  the  narrowness,  length,  and  direc 
tion  of  the  channels  along  which  the  wave  has 
to  travel  before  reaching  the  port.  It  is  of  great 
maritime  importance  to  be  able  to  find  the  time 
of  high-water  for  harbors  and  ports,  and  to  this 
end  a  standard  tide  is  fixed  upon,  indicated  by 
a  particular  relative  position  of  the  moon  and 
sun,  from  which  the  time  of  every  tide  may  be 
deduced.  This  standard  is  called  the  establish- 
ment  of  the  port,  and  is  the  time  of  high- water 
at  full  and  change  of  the  moon  at  the  given  port 
reckoned  from  apparent  noon.  It  is  the  actual 
time  of  high-water  when  the  moon  passes  the 
meridian  at  the  same  time  as  the  sun,  or  the  in 
terval  between  the  time  of  transit  of  the  moon 
and  the  time  of  high-water  on  full  or  change 
days.  It  may  be  determined  roughly  by  obser 
vation  on  the  day  of  full  or  change,  and  is,  in 
this  case,  distinguished  by  Whewell  as  the  vulgar 
establishment  of  the  port.  The  corrected  es 
tablishment  of  the  port  is  the  interval  between 
the  time  of  the  moon's  transit  and  the  time  of 
the  tide  not  on  the  day  of  syzygy,  but  corre 
sponding  to  the  day  of  syzygy.  It  may  be  de 
termined  by  observing  the  intervals  of  the  times 
of  the  moon's  transit  and  the  times  of  tide  every 
day  for  a  semi-lunation,  and  taking  the  mean  of 
these.  If  we  know  by  how  much  "the  transit  of 
the  moon  to  which  the  tide  corresponds  is  ante 
cedent  to  the  transit  next  preceding  the  tide,  the 
corrected  establishment  may  be  obtained  from 
one  observation  of  any  tide.  The  establish 
ment  of  the  port  is  spoken  of  by  Robinson  as 
"the  time  of  the  syzygie  high- water  for  the 
given  port,"  which  may  be  abbreviated  into 
syzygy  tide;  similarly,  it  has  been  called  the 
change  tide. 

Tie.  That  part  of  the  purchase  for  hoisting  a 
topsail-yard  which  is  attached  to  the  yard  and 
passes  through  the  sheave-hole  in  the  mast,  or 
the  tie-block  at  the  mast-head.  Tie  of  a  cartridge, 
the  end  of  the  cylinder  secured  by  a  woolen 
thrum  after  the  cartridge  is  filled. 

Tie-for-tie.  A  former  expression  indicative 
of  exchange  of  courtesy  and  good-will,  handed 
down  from  the  days  when  cues  were  worn,  and 
tying  required  to  be  performed  by  another. 

Tier.  A  row  or  layer ;  as,  the  upper  or  lower 
tier  of  casks.  The  cable-tier  is  that  part  of  a 
vessel's  hold  where  the  hawsers  or  hemp-cables 
are  stowed. 

Ti  EREB.  A  man  stationed  in  the  chain-locker 
to  stow  the  chain  ;  but  formerly,  one  stationed  in 

the  cable-tier  for  the  stowing  of  hemp-cables, 

hence  the  name. 

TIER-SHOT.  Grape-shot  in  which  the  several 
layers  or  tiers  are  secured  by  parallel  iron  plates. 

Tierce.  A  cask  of  the  capacity  of  42  wine 
gallons.  Also,  a  measure  of  the  same  amount. 
A  cask  used  in  packing  salt  provisions,  contain 
ing  336  pounds. 

Tie-ties.  Stops  of  small  cord,  sometimes 
used  in  securing  a  hammock,  in  place  of  a  ham 
mock-lashing. 

Tight.  Free  from  leaks  ;  applied  either  to  a 
cask  which  retains  a  liquid  or  to  a  ship  which 
excludes  it.  Taut  is  used  in  place  of  tight  when 
speaking  of  a  rope  upon  which  there  is  a  strain. 


Tiller.  An  iron  or  wooden  bar  fitting  intc 
the  socket  near  the  rudder-head,  which  forms  the 
lever  by  which  the  rudder  is  moved. 

TILLER-HEAD.  The  end  of  the  tiller  farthest 
from  the  rudder. 

TILLER-ROPES,  or  WHEEL-HOPES.  Ropes 
which  connect  the  tiller  with  the  wheel.  They 
are  usually  made  of  hide.  Small  chains  or  wire- 
ropes  are  sometimes  used  for  that  purpose  in 
merchant  steamers. 

TILLER-SWEEP.     See  SWEEP. 

Tilt  (Eng.}.  A  small  awning  sometimes  used 
to  protect  the  stern  of  a  boat. 

TILT-BOAT  (Eng.}.  A  boat  covered  with  can 
vas,  in  which  articles  can  be  protected  from  the 
weather. 

Timber.  A  name  given  to  any  of  the  pieces 
of  timber  which  compose  the  frame  of  a  ship  ;  as, 
floor-timbers,  futtock-timbers,  top  timbers,  etc. 

TIMBER  AND  ROOM.  The  space  from  the 
centre  to  the  centre  of  the  frames. 

TIMBER-HEADS.  Projecting  timbers  for  be 
laying  towing-lines,  etc. 

TIMBER-HITCH.  A  hitch  made  by  passing  the 
end  of  a  rope  around  an  object,  then  over  and 
under  the  standing  part,  and  securing  the  end 
from  slipping  by  taking  two  or  three  turns 
around  its  own  part. 

Time.  A  definite  portion  of  duration.  It  is 
marked,  in  a  general  manner,  by  the  recurrence 
of  striking  natural  phenomena,  such  as  the  alter 
nations  of  light  and  darkness,  and  the  succession 
of  the  seasons.  Thus  the  two  natural  measures 
of  time  are  the  day  or  period  of  the  earth's  rota 
tion  on  her  axis,  and  the  year  or  period  of  the 
earth's  revolution  in  her  orbit.  See  CALENDAR. 

Time,  in  the  abstract,  is  reckoned  from  an  epoch 
(or  initial  instant)  independent  of  local  situation, 
— such  is  that  known  among  astronomers  as  equi 
noctial  time,  which  is  the  same  for  all  the  in 
habitants  of  the  earth.  Local  time  is  reckoned 
at  each  particular  place  from  an  epoch  deter 
mined  by  local  convenience,  such  as  the  transit 
of  the  sun's  centre  over  the  meridian  of  the 
place ;  what  is  called  Greenwich  time  and  ship- 
time  are  both  examples  of  local  time. 

The  day  depends  upon  the  rotation  of  the  earth 
on  her  axis,  but  this  is  indicated  to  a  spectator 
on  the  surface  only  by  the  apparent  revolution 
of  the  celestial  sphere  in  the  opposite  direction. 
Diurnal  time  is,  therefore,  defined  by  the  motion 
of  some  chosen  point  in  the  heavens  as  it  appears 
to  revolve  from  east  to  west,  and  is  measured  by 
the  angle  at  the  pole  of  the  heavens  between  the 
celestial  meridian  and  the  hour-circle  passing 
through  the  point  of  definition,  reckoning  west 
ward.  Thus  we  have  sidereal  time,  apparent 
solar  time,  and  mean  solar  time,  according  as  the 
point  of  definition  is  the  first  point  of  Aries,  the 
actual  sun,  or  the  mean  sun. 

TIME  AZIMUTH.  An  azimuth  determined  by 
calculation  from  the  latitude,  the  declination, 
and  the  hour-angle.  An  altitude  azimuth  is  an 
azimuth  determined  by  calculation  from  the 
latitude,  the  declination,  and  the  altitude. 

TIME-BALL.  A  ball  attached  to  a  mast  or 
staff,  placed  in  a  position  where  it  can  be  easily 
observed.  The  ball  is  dropped  on  its  staff  at  a 
certain  instant  of  mean  time,  usually  at  meridian, 
and  affords  an  opportunity  for  correcting  chro 
nometers. 

TIME-FUZE.    A  fuze  so  constructed  as  to  burn 


TIMENOGUY 


811 


TONNAGE 


a  certain  number  of  seconds  after  ignition  by  the 
flame  from  the  charge,  exploding  the  shell  at  the 
end  of  that  time. 

TIME-KEEPER.  An  instrument  for  the  meas 
uring  of  time. 

TIMS,  SHIP-.  The  mean  solar  time  at  the 
place  where  a  ship  happens  to  be,  as  contrasted 
with  Greenwich  mean  time. 

TIME-SIGHT.  The  name  usually  applied  to 
an  observation  of  the  altitude  of  a  heavenly  body 
for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  the  mean  time  of 
observation,  from  which  the  longitude  is  de 
duced. 

Timenoguy.  A  rope  stretched  from  one  place 
to  another  to  prevent  gear  from  becoming  foul. 
That  most  commonly  used  extends  from  the  fore 
rigging  to  the  anchor-stock  to  keep  the  fore 
tack  and  sheet  clear  of  the  anchor-stock  in  tack 
ing.  The  pendant  which  extends  from  the 
mizzen-top  to  the  main-brace  block  as  a  support 
to  the  latter  is  sometimes  called  by  the  same 
name. 

Timonogy.  A  gauge  or  tell-tale  formerly 
used  in  large  ships,  by  which  the  position  of  the 
tiller  could  at  all  times  be  known. 

Tindal.     A  Lascar  boatswain's  mate. 

Tinker  (Eng.}.  A  small  mortar  which  was 
formerly  used  in  ships  of  war.  Also,  a  mackerel 
of  small  size  ;  also  called  skate. 

Tinkerman  ( Eng.}.  A  name  formerly  applied 
to  fishermen  of  the  Thames  who  took  fish  with 
nets,  contrary  to  law. 

Tin-potter.     A  galley  skulker. 

Tip  All  Nines  (Eng.}.  To  founder;  there- 
suit  of  carrying  too  much  sail. 

Tippet  (Eng.}.     A  snood  on  a  fishing-line. 

Tip  the  Grampus.  To  duck  a  look-out  for 
being  asleep. 

T-iron.  Bar-iron  having  a  cross-section  of 
the  form  of  the  letter  T. 

Titivate.     To  clean  and  put  to  rights. 

T-joint.  In  pipe-fitting,  a  joint  by  which 
three  pieces  of  pipe  are  connected  in  the  form  of 
the  letter  T ;  two  pieces  being  continued  on  the 
same  axis,  and  the  third  branching  at  right 
angles  therefrom. 

Toad-fish.  The  Lophiuspiscatorius,  or  fishing- 
frog. 

Tobacco-chart  (Eng.}.  The  name  formerly 
given  to  a  worthless  kind  of  chart  sold  by  ship- 
chandlers. 

Tod-boat.     A  Dutch  fishing-boat. 

Toddy.  The  juice  extracted  from  the  palm 
and  sometimes  called  palm-wine.  Also,  a  mix 
ture  of  spirits,  sugar,  and  water. 

Toe  a  Seam.  To  stand  on  deck  without  mov 
ing. — a  punishment  sometimes  given  for  minor 
offenses. 

Toggle.  A  piece  of  wood  varying  in  size  and 
strength,  used  for  connecting  two  ropes  in  place 
of  a  hook.  The  toggle  being  fixed  to  the  end  of 
one  rope  is  passed  into  the  eye  made  in  another, 
like  a  button.  By  this  means  bowlines  are  fas 
tened  to  their  bridles,  and  buntlines  to  the  foot 
of  a  topsail  or  course.  Toggles  are  frequently 
fastened  to  the  lower  and  topsail  braces  to  pre 
vent  them  from  unreeving  from  the  brace-block 
on  the  yard-arm  in  case  of  injury  to  the  brace. 
A  heavy  toggle  is  used  by  whalers  for  attaching 
the  blubber  to  the  lower  purchase-block  in  "  cut 
ting  in,"  it  being  more  easily  handled  than  a 
hook. 


TOGGLE-BOLT.  A  bolt  used  in  confining  an 
iron  band  or  strap  in 'its  place  ;  as,  the  band  by 
which  a  boat's  mast  is  secured  to  a  thwart,  or  a 
flag-staff  to  the  stern  of  a  vessel. 

Togs.  An  old  name  for  clothes  among  sailors. 
Sunday  togs  are  best  clothes,  and  long  togs  are 
those  worn  by  people  on  shore.  An  officer 
togged  to  the  nines  is  in  full  dress. 

Toke.  A  drink  made  from  honey  on  the 
island  of  Madagascar. 

Toko  for  Yam.  An  expression  used  by  the 
negroes  of  the  West  India  Islands,  meaning  to 
cry  out  before  being  hurt. 

Tom  Astoner.     A  gay,  dashing  fellow. 

Tomcod.  The  fish  Morrhua  pruinosa,  which 
is  found  on  the  coast  of  America  at  the  time  of 
frosts;  hence  called  frost-fish. 

Tom  Cox's  Traverse  signifies  the  efforts  made 
by  a  skulker  to  avoid  work.  It  has  been  de 
scribed  by  "Up  one  hatchway  and  down  an 
other;"  also,  "  Three  turns  around  the  long-boat 
and  a  pull  at  the  scuttle."  But  the  traverse  is 
not  limited  to  these  descriptions. 

Tomnoddy,  or  Tomnorry.  A  fish  ;  the  Fra- 
tercula  artica. 

Tom  Pepper.     The  name  for  a  liar. 

Tompion.  A  wooden  plug  placed  in  the  muz 
zle  of  a  gun  to  keep  out  water  and  dust. 

Tom-tom.  A  rude  drum  used  by  the  natives 
in  tropical  countries. 

Ton.  20  hundred-weight,  or  2240  pounds. 
A  short  ton  of  2000  pounds  is  frequently  used. 
A  ton  in  space  is  estimated  at  about  40  cubic 
feet.  Ton  for  ton  and  man  for  man,  an  expres 
sion  meaning  that  all  the  vessels  of  a  fleet  should 
share,  according  to  tonnage  and  number  of  crew, 
in  the  prizes  taken. 

Tonee.  A  canoe  formerly  used,  on  the  coast 
of  Malabar. 

Tongs,  Shot-.  An  iron  instrument  used  in 
hoisting  or  lowering  shot  from  one  deck  to  an 
other. 

Tongue.  A  low  point  of  land.  Also,  a  mass 
of  ice  projecting  under  water  from  an  iceberg. 
The  name  is  also  applied  to  the  long  tapered  end 
of  a  piece  of  timber  which  is  joined  to  another 
piece  by  scarfing.  Tongue  of  a  bevel,  the  mov 
able  part  of  a  beveling  instrument. 

Tonnage.  The  contents  or  burden  of  a  ship 
.in  tons,  which  is  commonly  calculated  by  builders 
and  merchants  by  a  curious  rule,  given  hereafter, 
producing  what  is  called  the  builder's  tonnage. 
The  real  burden  a  ship  is  to  carry  when  brought 
down  to  the  load  water-line  can  be  ascertained 
by  the  use  of  one  of  the  several  rules  in  use  for 
finding  the  displacement  of  a  ship  and  the  making 
of  a  scale  of  displacement  therefrom. 

The  rule  established  by  law  in  the  United 
States  under  act  of  1799,  and  which  continued 
in  force  until  superseded  by  that  given  in  the 
law  of  May  6,  1864,  provided  that  from  the  ex 
treme  length  of  the  vessel  there  should  be  de 
ducted  three-fifths  of  the  breadth  ;  the  remainder 
was  multiplied  by  the  breadth  and  the  product 
by  the  depth,  which  in  the  case  of  a  double- 
decked  vessel  was  arbitrarily  assumed  as  being 
equal  to  one-half  the  breadth  ;  the  latter  product 
was  then  divided  by  95,  and  the  quotient  was 
taken  as  the  legal  tonnage  on  which  tonnage 
dues  were  to  be  paid.  It  was  thus  made  the 
interest  of  owners  to  build  excessively  deep  ships, 
the  law  in  this  way  discriminating  in  favor  of 


TOP 


812 


TOPGALLANT 


clumsy,  slow,  and  inefficient  ships,  and  discour 
aging  attempts  at  improvements  in  model. 

By  the  act  of  May  6,  1864,  vessels  are  divided 
into  six  classes  according  to  length,  those  in  each 
class  being  divided  into  a  certain  number  of 
equal  parts  or  transverse  sections,  to  which  dif 
ferent  values  are  assigned  in  computing  the  total 
tonnage  of  the  vessel ;  the  actual  depths  between 
decks  are  measured  and  taken  as  factors,  and  any 
closed-in  space  on  or  above  the  upper  deck  and 
capable  of  receiving  cargo,  etc.,  is  included  in 
the  measurement. 

The  dimensions  are  all  taken  in  feet  and  deci 
mals  of  a  foot,  and  the  number  100  is  used  as 
the  final  divisor  for  ascertaining  the  capacity 
of  the  ship  in  tons,  instead  of  95,  as  in  the  old 
law. 

Class  1.  Vessels  under  50  feet  long,  divided 
into  6  equal  parts. 

Class  2.  Vessels  50  to  100  feet  long,  divided 
into  8  equal  parts. 

Class  3.  Vessels  100  to  150  feet  long,  divided 
into  10  equal  parts. 

Class  4.  Vessels  150  to  200  feet  long,  divided 
into  12  equal  parts. 

Class  5.  Vessels  200  to  250  feet  long,  divided 
into  14  equal  parts. 

Class  6.  Vessels  over  250  feet  long,  divided 
into  16  equal  parts. 

The  details  for  making  the  measurements  and 
calculations  are  too  long  to  be  inserted  here,  but 
may  be  found  in  "  Revised  Statutes  of  the  United 
States,"  Section  4153. 

The  rule  adopted  in  England  by  the  Merchant 
Shipping  Act  of  1854  is  essentially  the  same  as 
that  established  in  this  country:  the  measure 
ments  are  made  in  feet  and  decimals,  and  the 
principles  of  calculation  are  identical.  Vessels 
are  divided  as  follows  : 

Not  exceeding  50  feet  in  length,  into  4  parts. 

Not  exceeding  120  feet  in  length,  into  6  parts. 

Not  exceeding  180  feet  in  length,  into  8  parts. 

Not  exceeding  225  feet  in  length,  into  10  parts. 

Over  225  feet  in  length,  into  12  parts. 

In  steam-vessels  the  length,  breadth,  and 
height  of  the  engine-room  are  multiplied  together, 
the  product  divided  by  100,  and  the  result  de 
ducted  from  the  gross  tonnage.  The  space  occu 
pied  by  the,propeller-shaft  is  considered  as  a  part 
of  the  engine-room. 

It  would  seem  that  the  American  method, 
employing,  as  it  does,  a  greater  number  of  divis 
ions  for  the  same  length,  should  be  slightly  more 
accurate  than  the  English,  or  afford  at  least,  on 
the  average,  a  somewhat  nearer  approximation 
to  the  true  capacity  of  a  vessel ;  either,  however, 
may  be  relied  on  generally  as  coming  within  4 
or  5  per  cent,  of  the  truth.  This  difference  may, 
in  extreme  cases,  amount  to  10  or  12  per  cent.,  a 
trifling  error  as  compared  with  those  incident  to 
the  old  system. 

The  ton  measurement  upon  which  freight  is 
charged  is  calculated  at  40  cubic  feet;  the  differ 
ence  between  that  and  the  ton  of  100  cubic  feet, 
or  that  of  the  register,  represents  the  dead  weight 
or  displacement  of  the  ship  when  light,  or  60  per 
cent,  of  the  whole,  40  per  cent,  only  being  avail 
able  flotative  power  for  cargo. 

Top.  A  platform  of  semicircular  form  rest 
ing  upon  the  trestle-trees  of  the  lower  mast  of  a 
square-rigged  vessel.  It  gives  spread  to  the  top 
mast  rigging,  which  is  set  up  to  the  rim  of  the 


top.  It  also  serves  as  a  place  for  sharp-shooters 
during  an  engagement,  and  in  a  large  vessel  is 
of  sufficient  size  for  the  use  of  a  howitzer.  It  is 
of  use  as  a  landing-place  from  which  the  light- 
yard  men  start  in  loosing  or  furling,  as  a  place 
where  topgallant  and  royal  studding-sails  are 
kept  at  sea,  and  from  which  they  are  set,  and 
where  men  are  stationed  to  set  or  take  in 
royals,  and  light  studding-sails  when  the  gear 
is  brought  into  the  top  instead  of  to  the  deck. 
The  top  is  supported  on  the  under  side  by  the 
futtock-shrouds,  which  extend  from  the  rim  on 
each  side  to  a  band  on  the  lower-mast  below  the 
cheeks.  The  breadth  of  a  main-top  is  equal  to 
one-half  the  molded  breadth  of  beam,  and  its 
length  is  five-eighths  of  its  breadth.  The  size  of 
a  fore-top  is  nine-tenths  that  of  the  main-top, 
and  the  size  of  a  mizzen-top  is  five-sevenths  that 
of  the  main-top.  To  top  a  boom,  to  raise  the 
outer  end  by  means  of  the  topping-lift.  To  top 
the  glim,  to  snuff  a  candle.  To  top  the  officer, 
to  take  upon  one's  self  airs  of  superiority. 

TOP-ARMINGS.  Hammocks  stowed  in  the  tops 
to  serve  as  a  protection  for  small-arm  men  during 
action. 

TOP-BLOCK.  A  heavy  iron-strapped  block 
through  which  the  top-pendant  reeves  in  send 
ing  a  topmast  up  or  down. 

TOP-BURTON.     See  TACKLES. 

TOP-CASTLE.  A  protected  place  at  the  mast 
heads  of  ships  built  in  the  early  days  of  the  Eng 
lish  navy,  from  which  darts  and  arrows  could  be 
thrown  upon  the  enemy's  deck. 

TOP-CHAIN.  A  chain  used  as  an  additional 
support  for  a  topsail-yard  in  case  of  injury,  during 
action,  to  the  ropes  by  which  it  is  held  in  position. 

TOP-LIGHT.  A  large  lantern  carried  in  the 
mizzen-top  of  a  flag-ship  at  night. 

TOP-LINING.  A  lining-cloth  sewed  to  the 
after  side  of  a  topsail  to  protect  it  from  chafing 
against  the  rim  of  the  top. 

TOPMAN.  A  man  stationed  for  duty  in  one 
of  the  tops. 

TOP-MAUL.     A  heavy  hammer,  resembling  a 


TOP-NETTING.  A  netting  fastened  to  the  rail 
and  stanchions  at  the  after  rim  of  a  top. 

TOP-PENDANT.  A  large  rope  used  in  sending 
a  topmast  up  or  down.  It  passes  through  the 
top-block  at  the  lower-mast  head,  then  through 
the  sheave-hole  near  the  heel  of  the  topmast,  and 
secures  at  the  head  of  the  lower-mast.  It  is  of 
sufficient  length  to  allow  the  heel  of  the  topmast 
to  reach  the  deck. 

TOP-RAIL.  A  light  iron  railing,  placed  at  the 
after  rim  of  a  top. 

TOP-RIM.  The  circular  sweep  which  forms 
the  edge  of  a  top. 

TOP-ROPE.     See  TOP-PENDANT. 

TOP-SWIVEL.     A  small  gun  formerly  used  in 
a  ship's  top. 
.  TOP-TACKLE.     See  TACKLE. 

Top-and-butt.  A  method  of  working  plank 
ing,  causing  every  other  seam  to  present  a  fair 
edge. 

Tope.  A  species  of  shark.  Also,  the  name 
of  a  small  Chinese  junk. 

Topgallant.  The  name  applied  to  the  mast, 
sail,  yard,  and  the  ropes  belonging  to  each 
which  are  next  above  the  topmast  and  topsail. 
It  is  also  applied  to  portions  of  the  deck  or  rail 
raised  above  the  rest. 


TOP-HAMPER 


813 


TORPEDO 


TOPGALLANT-FORECASTLE.  A  short  deck  in 
the  bow  of  a  vessel  above  the  spar  deck.  In 
ships  of  war  it  is  of  sufficient  size  for  the  work 
ing  of  a  gun  as  large  as  a  60-pounder,  and  a  part 
of  the  crew  can  be  berthed  underneath.  The 
cables  are  also  worked  under  the  topgallant- 
forecastle  in  sloops-of-war  and  merchant  vessels. 

TOPGALLANT-MAST.  The  mast  above  the  top 
mast.  The  topgallant-rnast  and  royal-mast  are 
usually  made  from  a  single  spar. 

TOPGALLANT-BAIL,  or  BULWARKS.  A  light 
rail  or  bulwarks  built  upon  the  main  bulwarks 
of  a  vessel. 

TOPGALLANT-SAIL.  The  sail  next  above  a 
topsail. 

TOPGALLANT-YARD.     See  YARD. 

Top-hamper.  Unnecessary  spars  and  rigging 
kept  aloft. 

Top-knot.  A  species  of  flat-fish  of  the  genus 
Rhombus  (R.  punctatus). 

Topmast.  The  mast  next  above  the  lower- 
mast.  See  MASTS. 

Topsail.     See  SAILS. 

TOPSAIL  SCHOONER.  A  schooner  which  carries 
a  square  topsail  on  her  fore-topmast.  When 
sailing  before  the  wind  a  square-sail  can  then  be 
set  upon  the  lower  yard.  A  schooner  which  has 
a  square  topsail  upon  both  fore-  and  main-top 
masts  is  called  a  two-topsail  schooner. 

TOPSAIL-SHEET  BITT.  A  bitt  or  timber-head 
near  the  lower-mast,  through  which  a  topsail- 
sheet  is  rove,  and  to  which  it  is  belayed. 

TOPSAIL-YARD.     See  YARD. 

Top-sawyer.  One  who  takes  the  leading  part 
in  any  work. 

Top-sides.  The  upper  part  of  the  ship,  in 
cluding  all  above  the  water-line. 

TOP-SIDE  LINES.  The  general  outlines  of  the 
top-sides,  either  forward  and  aft,  or  vertically. 

TOP-TIMBERS.  The  uppermost  timbers  com 
posing  the  frame  of  a  ship. 

TOP-TIMBER  LINE,  or  TOP-BREADTH.  The 
curve  limiting  the  height  of  the  sheer  at  the 
head  of  the  top -timbers. 

Tor  (Ang.-Sax.  torr).     A  high  peak  or  rock. 

Tormenter.  A  large  iron  fork  with  two 
prongs,  used  by  the  ship's  cook  in  taking  meat 
from  the  coppers. 

Tornado.  A  tempest  distinguished  by  its  re 
volving  as  well  as  progressive  motion.  See 
STORM,  REVOLVING. 

Torpedo.  A  species  of  ray  (Torpedo  vulgar  is] 
having  electric  power.  It  is  found  in  the  Medi 
terranean  and  Atlantic.  It  is  also  called  cramp- 
fish. 

Torpedo.  This  term  is  properly  applied  to 
a  torpedo  used  in  attack  only,  those  used  for  de 
fensive  warfare  being  called  submarine  mines. 

Capt.  David  Bushnell,  of  Connecticut,  was 
the  originator  of  the  idea  of  torpedo  warfare; 
but  Robert  Fulton  first  called  a  magazine  of 
powder  intended  for  use  under  water  a  torpedo. 
Bushnell  carried  on  his  experiments  before  the 
Revolution,  and  made  some  unsuccessful  at 
tempts  during  that  war  to  blow  up  the  enemy's 
vessels.  Fulton's  experiments,  carried  on  abroad 
and  afterwards  in  the  United  States,  came  to  an 
end  previous  to  the  war  of  1812.  The  non-suc 
cess  of  torpedoes  during  that  war,  and  the  general 
feeling  against  this  mode  of  warfare,  as  inhuman 
and  barbarous,  caused  all  experiments  to  cease 
for  many  years.  Both  these  inventors  thought 


it  necessary  to  construct  and  use  submarine  boats 
for  this  kind  of  warfare.  The  difficulties  met 
with  in  the  attempted  solution  of  this  problem, 
together  with  the  want  of  steam  as  a  motive- 
power,  and  the  necessity  of  using  clock-work  to 
explode  their  torpedoes,  caused  almost  all  their 
efforts  to  prove  abortive.  No  further  experi 
ments  of  importance  with  movable  torpedoes  for 
offensive  warfare  were  made  until  the  civil  war 
of  1861-65.  During  the  summer  of  18G3  they 
were  first  brought  into  general  use.  The  tor 
pedoes  employed  by  the  rebels  were  of  various 
forms  and  sizes.  They  were  usually  made  of 
stout  copper,  although  torpedoes  made  of  barrels 
and  other  vessels  wereoccasionally  extemporized; 
they  contained  from  50  to  150  pounds  of  powder, 
according  to  circumstances.  Every  description 
of  vessel  in  their  service  was  fitted  with  tor 
pedoes,  generally  a  spar  attached  to  the  vessel  by 
a  goose-neck  and  controlled  by  guys  and  tackled 
was  used.  They  also  constructed  boats  especially 
for  torpedo  warfare  ;  these  boats  were  generally 
known  as  davids,  from  their  small  size.  The 
fuzes  fitted  to  the  torpedoes  were  generally  of 
the  percussion  type,  so  as  to  explode  on  contact. 

The  complete  destruction  of  the  sloop-of-war 
"  Housatonic,"  February,  1864,  was  by  a  tor 
pedo  fitted  with  such  a  fuze,  carried  by  a  sub 
marine  boat.  The  "Minnesota"  was  consider 
ably  damaged  by  a  torpedo  containing  53  pounds 
of  powder  carried  on  the  end  of  a  spar  from  an 
ordinary  steam-launch.  The  various  attacks 
made  at  other  times  as  a  rule  did  but  little  dam 
age.  The  destruction  of  the  "Albemarle"  by 
Lieut.  Curbing  was  accomplished  by  a  torpedo 
consisting  of  a  copper  cj'lindrical  case  filled  with 
powder,  through  the  centre  of  which  there  was  a 
hollow  tube;  at  the  bottom  of  this  tube  was  a 
large  fulminate  cap;  a  small-sized  grape-shot 
was  held  at  the  upper  end  of  this  tube  "by  a  pin. 

The  torpedo  was  exploded  by  pulling  a  line 
connected  to  the  pin,  which  being  withdrawn 
allowed  the  grape-shot  to  run  down  the  hollow 
tube  inside  the  torpedo  and  explode  the  fulmi 
nate  cap. 

The  rebels  were  very  successful  in  blowing  up 
vessels  by  torpedoes  planted  in  their  rivers  and 
harbors,  but,  according  to  the  division  already 
spoken  of,  these  come  under  the  title  submarine 
mines. 

Drifting  torpedoes  were  also  used,  but  with 
indifferent  success,  on  account  of  their  primitive 
form. 

They  were  but  little  better  than  those  used  by 
Bushnell,  at  Philadelphia,  in  1777,  which  caused 
the  panic  and  engagement  known  as  "the  Bat 
tle  of  the  Kegs."  This  kind  of  torpedo  might 
be  used  with  advantage  against  pontoon  bridges, 
booms,  etc.,  and  several  kinds  have  been  devised 
for  this  purpose.  In  fact,  the  first  torpedoes 
used  were  of  this  nature.  They  are  frequently 
fired  by  the  revolution  of  a  paddle-wheel,  or 
other  action  of  the  current  upon  the  torpedo 
after  it  has  brought  up  against  the  obstruction ; 
the  current  having  no  effect  while  the  torpedo  is 
drifting  with  it. 

Another  kind  of  torpedo  is  known  as  the 
Otter,  or  towing-torpedo.  These  can  be  fired 
either  by  contact  or  electricity.  Considerable 
interest  was  manifested  a  few  years  since  in  the 
"  Barvey  towing-torpedo."  This  torpedo  was 
towed  on  the  quarter  of  the  attacking  vessel, 


TORPEDO 


814 


TORPEDO-BOAT 


which  by  passing  or  other  means  was  supposed 
to  bring  the  torpedo  in  contact  with  the  vessel  to 
be  destroyed.  While  in  theory  it  was  rather 
plausible,  in  practice  it  was  not  successful. 

There  are  some  other  types  of  towing-torpedoes, 
but  none  are  much  superior  to  the  Harvey. 

Those  torpedoes  which  possess  within"  them 
selves  the  power  to  move  through  the  water  are 
sometimes  called  locomotive-torpedoes;  to  this 
class  belong  the  Whitehead  fish-torpedo,  the 
Lay  torpedo,  and  Rocket  torpedoes. 

The  Whitehead  torpedo  is  cigar-shaped,  being 
largest  at  the  middle  and  tapering  to  each  end. 
It  is  divided  into  three  compartments ;  the  for 
ward  compartment  carries  the  charge,  the  mid 
dle  section  carries  the  adjustment  mechanism, 
in  which  lies  the  secret  of  the  invention,  and 
the  after  part  contains  the  air-  and  engine- 
chamber.  It  is  driven  by  compressed  air,  the 
engines  being  able  to  exert  a  force  of  40  indicated 
horse-power,  and  weighs  but  35  pounds.  The 
torpedoes  vary  in  size  from  14  to  19  feet  in 
length,  and  from  14  to  16  inches  in  diameter, 
and  have  a  speed  varying  from  10  to  20  knots  an 
hour  for  the  distance  of  1000  yards.  It  is  fired 
mechanically,  either  upon  contact  or  after  hav 
ing  run  to  any  desired  distance.  It  can  be  ad 
justed  so  as  to  run  any  depth  from  surface  from 
5  to  15  feet.  In  still  water  without  currents  it 
will  travel  in  a  straight  line.  It  can  be  adjusted 
to  stop  after  having  run  any  distance  up  to  its 
extreme  range,  and  after  stopping  to  sink,  float, 
or  explode.  The  torpedo  can  be  projected  from 
tubes  under  water  either  right  ahead  or  on  the 
broadside.  It  can  also  be  projected  from  the 
surface.  The  first  time  this  torpedo  was  used  in 
actual  service  was  in  the  engagement  between 
the  *•  Shah"  and  "  Huascar,"  when  it  completely 
failed;  it  was  said  the  distance  was  too  great. 
The  second  attempt  to  use  it  was  by  the  Russians 
against  the  Turks,  December,  1877.  Two  were 
fired,  both  missed,  and  went  ashore  on  the  beach. 
The  third  and  last  time  by  the  Russians,  Janu 
ary,  1878.  Their  torpedo-boats  undertook  to 
enter  the  harbor  of  Batoum  to  attack  the  Turk 
ish  fleet,  but  met  a  Turkish  revenue-steamer,  at 
which  they  discharged  their  torpedoes  and  de 
stroyed  her.  The  alarm  given  caused  this  to 
end  the  attack.  The  results  accomplished  so  far 
are  not  at  all  commensurate  with  the  money  and 
trouble  expended  on  this  torpedo. 

The  Lay  torpedo  somewhat  resembles  the 
Whitehead  torpedo  in  its  general  design.  Am- 
moniacal  gas  supplies  the  motive-power.  The 
torpedo  is  connected  with  the  ship  or  shore  by  an 
insulated  wire,  and  carries  above- water  some  vis 
ible  object.  The  wire  is  carried  on  a  reel  in  the 
torpedo,  and  pays  out  as  the  torpedo  runs  its 
course.  By  it  the  torpedo  may  be  started,  stopped, 
steered,  fired,  sunk,  raised,  etc.  It  has  been 
said  of  this  invention  that  it  can  do  everything 
but  talk.  It  can  be  discharged  from  ships  or 
from  the  shore,  but  it  is  doubtful  if  such  a  tor 
pedo  would  prove  manageable  in  a  sea-fight. 
They  are  besides  very  expensive,  and  the  suc 
cessful  handling  of  them  requires  a  person  of 
experience  and  ability.  However,  it  would  ap 
pear  to  have  advantages  over  the  Whitehead 
torpedo,  which  is  sure  to  miss  the  object  aimed 
at  when  influenced  by  tides  or  currents. 

Finally,  there  is  the  spar-torpedo,  which  re 
mains  a  favorite  with  many  of  the  oflicers  of  our 


navy.  This  is  a  great  recommendation  in  its 
favor,  as  torpedo  warfare  originated  and  has 
been  chiefly  developed  in  this  country.  Nearly 
every  success  with  offensive  torpedoes  has  been 
made  by  a  torpedo  carried  on  the  end  of  a  spar 
projecting  from  a  boat  or  vessel.  They  should 
explode  on  contact,  and  by  electricity  at  will. 
This  makes  explosion  a  certainty.  Had  it  been 
necessary  for  the  late  Commander  Cushing  to 
explode  the  torpedo  used  by  him  with  a  Farmer 
machine,  it  is  probable  he  would  not  have  de 
stroyed  the  "  Albemarle."  The  ordinary  service 
fuze  is  exploded  by  the  electricity  heating  a  fine 
platinum  thread,  which  makes  a  bridge  within 
the  fuze  itself.  These  fuzes  are  made  very  per 
fectly  at  the  Torpedo  Station. 

In  case  of  war,  the  small  steam-tugs,  yachts, 
etc.,  in  our  harbors  would  make  good  torpedo- 
boats.  They  could  be  quickly  and  cheaply  fitted 
for  service.  Doubtless  it  would  be  better  to  have 
a  large  number  of  small,  very  fast  boats,  espe 
cially  designed  for  this  purpose,  on  hand  ready  for 
an  emergency.  In  an  attack  it  is  probable  "that 
many  of  them  would  be  destroyed,  but  a  success 
ful  explosion  by  one  would  destroy  any  ironclad. 

The  torpedoes  used  on  the  "  Alarm"- are  of  a 
shape  not  unlike  an  ordinary  elongated  projec 
tile,  having  the  outboard  end  hemispherical. 
Those  for  the  bow  spar  are  4J  feet  long  and  1 
foot  in  diameter,  and  hold  100  pounds  of  pow 
der.  Those  for  the  side  spars  are  not  so  long. 
The  end  of  the  spar  enters  the  torpedo-shell  for 
about  a  foot,  there  is  a  space  then  of  about  f> 
inches  for  water  to  act  as  a  cushioning,  then 
there  is  a  diaphragm  with  an  opening  in  centre, 
for  the  water-tight  fitting  fuze.  The  wires  are 
brought  up  within  the  spar,  and  are  connected 
with  the  key-boards.  The  torpedoes  are  fired  by 
a  Farmer  dynamo-electric  machine  run  by  a 
small  steam-engine.  The  spars  run  out  under 
water  by  steam-power,  and  work  satisfactorily. 
The  torpedoes  are  of  the  same  diameter  as  the 
spar,  and  are  put  on  before  the  spar  is  run  out. 
See  SUBMARINE  MINES. — R.  M.  G.  Brown,  Lieu 
tenant  U.S.N. 

Torpedo-boat.  The  torpedo-boat  proper  is  a 
very  light  fast  boat,  carrying  no  stores  and  only 
a  few  men.  They  are  only  used  for  harbor-work, 
unless  carried  at  the  davits  of  larger  vessels  and 
lowered  in  action  at  sea.  The  term,  however, 
has  frequently  been  applied  in  a  much  more 
general  sense,  so  as  to  include  vessels  of  several 
hundred  tons  displacement,  and  also  such  tor 
pedoes  as  the  Lay  torpedo,  which  is  managed  by 
electricit}^  conveyed  through  an  insulated  wire 
from  the  shore  or  ship.  . 

David  Bushnell,  of  Connecticut,  was  the  first 
to  call  attention  to  torpedoes  and  torpedo-boats. 
He  designed  a  submarine  torpedo-boat  during  the 
latter  part  of  the  last  century.  His  boat  carried 
but  one  man,  and  held  enough  air  to  allow  him 
to  remain  below  the  surface  for  half  an  hour.  By 
an  ingenious  arrangement  of  oars  the  operator 
was  enabled  to  propel  and  steer  his  boat.  A 
magazine  containing  a  clock-work  was  carried 
on  the  boat,  and  by  a  simple  device  the  operator 
was  to  fasten  a  wood  screw  into  the  bottom  of 
the  enemy's  vessel,  which  screw  was  connected 
by  a  line  to  the  magazine  of  powder.  The  screw 
having  been  fastened  into  the  vessel's  bottom,  the 
magazine  and  clock-work  were  to  be  detached 
from  the  boat  and  left  hanging  to  the  screw, 


TORPEDO-BOAT 


815 


TORPEDO-BOAT 


after  which  the  boat  was  immediately  to  retreat. 
He  made  various  unsuccessful  attempts  to  destroy 
the  enemy's  vessels  during  the  Revolution. 
"Washington  furnished  him  with  means  to  carry 
on  his  operations,  as  also  did  the  province  of  Con 
necticut.  It  is  no  wonder  he  failed,  as  the  expe 
rience  of  a  century  has  not  produced  a  successful 
submarine  torpedo-boat. 

Robert  Fulton  next  became  enthusiastic  on  the 
subject ;  he  also  tried  to  introduce  a  submarine 
boat  for  torpedo  warfare,  but  after  many  attempts 
in  France,  England,  and  the  United  States,  was 
finally  forced  to  give  up  the  plan.  He,  however, 
met  with  some  success  in  blowing  up  vessels  with 
submarine  mines.  His  experiments  came  to  an 
end  just  previous  to  the  war  of  1812.  During 
that  war  some  ineffectual  attempts  by  different 
parties  to  destroy  British  vessels  further  les 
sened  the  low  estimation  held  of  this  method  of 
warfare.  Although  Col.  Samuel  Colt  successfully 
experimented  with  submarine  mines,  fired  by  elec 
tricity,  about  the  year  1840,  no  advancement  in 
the  science  of  offensive  torpedo  warfare  was  made 
until  the  civil  war.  The  rebels  having  been 
somewhat  successful  with  submarine  mines  in 
1862,  commenced  offensive  operations  the  fol 
lowing  year  with  torpedo-boats, — in  fact,  all  kind 
of  vessels  were  fitted  with  torpedoes.  Several 
boats  were  constructed  at  Charleston,  S.  C.  As 
a  rule  they  were  cigar-shaped,  nearly  submerged, 
and  carried  only  4  or  5  men.  They  could  steam 
6  or  7  knots,  and  were  intended  for  use  in  smooth 
water  only.  One  of  these  boats  made  an  unsuc 
cessful  attempt  on  the  ironclad  "  New  Iron 
sides"  in  October,  1863.  In  the  following  Feb 
ruary,  in  the  same  harbor,  the  sloop-of-war 
"Housatonic"  was  destroyed  by  a  submarine 
boat.  This  boat,  however,  carried  9  men,  and 
was  propelled  by  a  screw  worked  by  8  of  them. 
She  could  be  submerged  at  pleasure  to  any  de 
sired  depth,  or  could  be  propelled  on  the  surface. 
She  was  built  of  boiler-iron,  and  was  35  feet  long. 
Her  greatest  speed  was  about  4  knots  an  hour  in 
smooth  water.  She  was  carried  down  with  the 
sloop,  but  was  raised  after  the  war,  the  9  men 
being  found  in  her.  Several  unsuccessful  at 
tempts  were  soon  after  made  upon  other  vessels 
of  the  blockading  fleet.  Torpedo-boats  obtained 
such  a  reputation  that  they  were  greatly  dreaded. 
An  attack  upon  the  flag-ship  "  Minnesota,"  at 
Newport  News,  April  9,  1884,  did  considerable 
damage,  but  did  not  sink  the  frigate.  The  boat 
used  on  this  occasion  was  an  ordinary  steam- 
launch  decked  over  with  boiler-iron,  and  filled 
with  a  spar-torpedo  carrying  53  pounds  of  pow 
der.  The  destruction  of  the  "  Albemarle"  by 
Lieut.  Gushing,  in  October,  1864,  was  the  only 
occasion  during  the  war  in  which  a  torpedo-boat 
was  successfully  used  by  the  Federal  navy.  This 
boat  was  designed  by  Chief  Engineer  Woo'd,  U.  S. 
navy,  and  Mr.  J.  L.  Lay.  It  was  an  ordinary 
steam-launch,  armed  with  a  torpedo.  The  tor 
pedo  was  rigged  out  ahead  of  the  launch  on  the 
end  of  a  spar,  and  was  fired  by  pulling  a  laniard, 
which  allowed  a  small  grape-shot  to  roll  down 
against  a  fulminate  cap.  The  same  parties  after 
wards  designed  the  "  Spuyten  Dyvil,"  a  very 
complete  torpedo-boat  of  200  tons  displacement, 
but  the  termination  of  the  war  prevented  a 
thorough  test  of  efficiency. 

In  England,  of  late  years,  much  attention  has 
been  paid  to  the  construction  of  very  fast  light 


boats  for  torpedo  warfare.  Messrs.  Thornycroft 
&  Co.  and  Messrs.  Yarrow  &  Co.  are  the  best- 
known  firms  engaged  in  this  business.  The  boats 
they  construct  are  generally  of  steel,  covered 
over  with  a  light  deck.  They,  generally  speak 
ing,  are  from  50  feet  to  90  feet  in  length.  Some 
are  intended  to  be  carried  at  sea  on  large  vessels, 
being  hoisted  in  and  out  as  necessary.  Messrs. 
Thornycroft  have  also  an  arrangement  by  which 
these  boats  can  carry  and  use  the  Whitehead 
fish-torpedo.  The  spar-torpedo  has  been  used 
very  successfully  with  these  boats. 

Messrs.  Herreshoff,  of  Rhode  Island,  have  con 
structed  a  large  number  of  very  light  fast  boats 
fitted  with  the  Herreshoff  boilers.  "The  propeller 
is  under  the  centre  of  the  boat,  and  they  are 
fitted  with  a  large  balance-rudder.  They  are 
constructed  for  use  on  smooth  water  only. 

Capt.  Ericsson  has  recently  constructed  a  tor 
pedo-boat,  the  "  Destroyer"  ;  she  is  130  feet  long, 
11  feet  deep,  and  12  feet  beam.  Her  speed, 
though  good,  has  not  as  yet  been  entirely  satis 
factory.  The  torpedoes  were  to  be  discharged 
from  a  tube  under  water,  by  compressed  air  or 
other  agent,  but  as  yet  the  plan  has  not  proved 
a  practical  success. 

The  "  Alarm,"  a  torpedo-ram,  was  built  from 
plans  designed  by  Admiral  Porter,  U.S.N.  Her 
total  length,  including  a  ram  30  feet  long,  is  173 
feet,  beam  28,  and  13  feet  depth  of  hold  below 
spar-deck.  She  is  built  on  the  transverse  bracket 
system,  with  a  double  bottom.  She  has  a  ton 
nage  of  311  tons  within  the  inner  skin,  and  a 
displacement  of  720  tons.  She  was  originally 
fitted  with  the  Fowler  wheel,  an  invention  which 
enabled  the  whole  energy  of  the  main  or  driv 
ing-engines  to  be  instantly  diverted  for  steering 
purposes,  and  then  instantly  restored  for  driving 
purposes.  This  handiness  was,  however,  at  the 
expense  of  speed.  She  is  now  being  fitted  with 
the  Mallory  propeller,  by  which  it  is  hoped  she 
will  have  the  same  handiness  and,  at  the  same 
time,  the  speed  of  the  ordinary  propeller.  She 
is  protected  by  4^  inches  of  armor  on  the  bows, 
and  designed  to  tight  bows-on  at  all  times.  This 
thickness  of  armor  is  thought  to  be  sufficient  to 
cause  the  heaviest  projectile  to  glance  when  fired 
from  directly  ahead. 

There  is  a  15-inch  smooth-bore  gun  on  the 
bows,  and  she  carries  a  number  of  Gatling-guns 
on  the  rail.  The  system  of  torpedo-spars  run 
out  under  water  by  steam-power,  one  ahead  30 
feet,  and  one  on  each  side  18  feet.  The  torpedoes 
are  fitted  to  the  end  of  the  spars  before  running 
them  out.  They  are  fired  by  electricity,  as  is 
also  the  gun.  Should  the  Mallory  propeller 
prove  successful,  she  will  be  one  of  the  most  for 
midable  vessels  in  the  world,  and  of  a  type  very 
suitable  for  the  protection  of  our  coast. 

The  "Polyphemus,"  now  under  construction 
in  England,  bears  a  considerable  resemblance  to 
the  "  Alarm,"  being  a  torpedo-ram,  but  carrying 
no  gun.  She  is  to  have  a  turtle-back  armor,  and 
is  to  be  fitted  for  discharging  Whitehead  tor 
pedoes.  Length,  240  feet]  beam,  40  feet;  and 
draft,  20  feet.  A  speed  of  17  knots  over  the 
measured  mile  is  anticipated. 

The  efficiency  of  the  Whitehead  torpedo  for 
actual  war  is  by  no  means  settled :  it  has  failed 
twice  to  where  it  has  succeeded  once.  Nearly 
every  success  with  offensive  torpedoes  has  been 
accomplished  by  the  spar-torpedo. 


TORPEDO  STATION" 


816 


TOESE 


The  great  expense  and  delicate  handling  re 
quired  "in  manipulating  the  Lay  torpedo  will 
probably  prevent  its  general  use  ;  yet,  if  properly 
handled,  it  may  prove  to  be  extremely  valuable 
for  harbor  use.  The  ease  with  which  it  can  be 
turned,  stopped,  fired,  etc.,  is  very  wonderful. 

As  submarine  boats  have  apparently  been  given 
up,  it  is  probable  that  for  harbor  defense  there  is 
nothing  cheaper  and  surer  than  light  boats  with 
the  spar-torpedi).  These  would  also  be  useful  at 
sea  if  carried  by  large  vessels  and  lowered  in 
action. 

Forecast  defense,  torpedo-rams  of  the  general 
principle  of  the  "  Alarm"  would  seem  to  be  the 
best.  When  torpedoes  can  be  discharged  from 
guns  or  tubes  under  water,  torpedo-ships  for 
cruising  upon  the  high  seas  will  doubtless  come 
into  favor. — R.  M.  G.  Brown,  Lieutenant  U.S.N. 

Torpedo  Station.  The  civil  war  first  brought 
torpedo  warfare  into  prominent  notice.  In  order 
that  the  naval  service  should  be  thoroughly  in 
formed  on  this  subject,  Admiral  Porter  con 
ceived  the  idea  of  establishing  a  torpedo  school, 
where  the  officers  of  the  service  could  be  in 
structed  in  the  manufacture  and  use  of  torpe 
does.  In  this  he  was  ably  seconded  by  the 
chief  of  the  Bureau  of  Ordnance,  Eear- Ad 
miral  Case,  whose  zeal  and  ability  brought  the 
torpedo  school  up  to  its  present  standard.  Com 
mander  Matthews  was  selected  as  a  suitable 
officer  to  found  the  institution.  Accordingly, 
he  was  ordered  on  June  9,  1869,  to  duty  un 
der  the  Bureau  of  Ordnance  as  instructor  of  the 
torpedo  corps  of  the  navy.  During  the  follow 
ing  summer  he  was  ordered  to  select  a  suitable 
place  for  the  headquarters  of  the  torpedo  corps. 
As  it  would  have  required  an  act  of  Congress 
and  the  consent  of  the  Legislature  of  the  State  to 
obtain  possession  of  any  land  for  this  purpose,  it 
was  desirable  to  find  a  suitable  site  upon  land 
already  owned  by  the  general  government.  It 
was  finally  resolved  to  establish  the  station  on 
Goat  Island,  in  the  harbor  of  Newport,  R.  I., 
that  island  being  transferred,  in  accordance  with 
arrangements  made  by  Rear- Admiral  Case,  from 
the  War  to  the  Navy  Department.  In  the  fol 
lowing  September  Commander  Matthews  took 
possession,  and  commenced  building  the  neces 
sary  shops,  etc.  An  old  frame  house  was  con 
verted  into  a  temporary  machine-shop,  and  a 
laboratory  and  magazine  were  erected.  During 
the  winter  the  old  barracks,  now  the  command 
ing  officer's  quarters,  were  converted  into  offices 
and  a  manufacturing  laboratory.  In  the  spring 
of  1870  the  •"  Nina''  was  ordered  to  the  station, 
the  crew  being  for  general  use  connected  with 
the  station.  Several  officers  had  by  this  time 
been  ordered  to  duty  under  Commander  Mat 
thews,  and  a  competent  chemist  was  appointed 
to  take  charge  of  the  laboratory.  During  the 
summer  of  1870  the  north  end  of  the  old  bar 
racks  was  fitted  up  for  quarters  for  the  command 
ing  officer,  who  soon  after  took  up  his  residence 
on  the  island,  about  the  same  time  the  nitro 
glycerine  manufactory  was  established.  During 
the  summer  of  1871  three  cottages  were  built 
for  officers'  quarters,  and  the  following  sum 
mer  two  more  were  constructed,  completing  the 
present  row.  In  the  fall  of  1872  the  machine- 
shop  was  commenced.  This  important  building 
was  finished  the  following  spring.  Professor 
Farmer,  an  experienced  electrician,  was  secured 


as  a  permanent  instructor  in  1872.  The  first 
class  of  officers  ordered  for  instruction  reported 
November  1,  1870,  and  consisted  of  19  members. 
They  remained  until  April,  1871. 

The  difficulty  of  getting  officers  of  rank  and 
experience  to  again  resume  the  tasks  and  recita 
tions  of  their  school-days  was  very  considerable, 
but  the  zeal  and  patience  of  the  commanding 
officer  was  finally  rewarded  by  success.  A 
second  class  was  ordered  June  1,  and  remained 
until  January  13,  1872.  The  third  class  suc 
ceeding  this  one  remained  until  August  1,  1872. 
It  was  now  found  that  the  instructors  needed 
more  rest,  and  accordingly  the  class  ordered 
September  1  remained  until  the  following  July 
(1873),  when  there  was  a  vacation  until  Septem 
ber  1,  at  which  time  the  succeeding  class  reported,. 
Considerable  trouble  was  caused  by  the  dislike 
of  the  officers  to  the  manual  labor  necessary  in 
fitting,  laying  out,  and  firing  the  torpedoes,  as 
no  men  were  allowed  to  assist  in  this  work. 
However,  this  also  was  overcome,  and  officers  of 
rank  could  be  seen  daily  with  aprons  on,  experi 
menting  with  chemicals,  or  carrying  powder 
and  fitting  torpedoes.  All  the  work  was  done 
by  the  officers  themselves,  even  to  pulling  the 
boats  and  transporting  the  torpedoes. 

Commander  Matthews  was  relieved  by  Capt. 
Simpson  on  July  1,  1873.  During  the  summer 
of  1874  a  new  building  for  electrical  purposes 
was  erected,  a  change  was  also  made  in  regard 
to  the  time  the  classes  should  attend.  The 
officers  that  year  were  ordered  to  report  July  1, 
and  were  at  "the  school  only  four  months,  the 
practical  part  of  fitting  and  firing  the  torpedoes 
being  particularly  taught.  This  has  been  the 
custom  since  that  time,  but  the  course  of  study 
has  been  much  elaborated. 

Capt.  Simpson  was  relieved  in  June,  1875,  by 
Capt.  K.  11.  Breese,  who  was  relieved  by  CapL 
Ramsey,  the  present  commanding  officer,  in 
1878. 

The  course  of  instruction  embraces  chemistry, 
electricity,  and  physics,  with  an  additional  course 
of  instruction  in  the  practical  manufacture  of 
explosives,  including  nitro-glycerine,  dynamite, 
gun-cotton,  and  various  fulminates  used  in  tor 
pedo  warfare.  Instruction  is  given  in  the  pnuv 
tical  making  of  fuzes  and  the  testing  and  firing 
of  them.  Each  officer  is  obliged  to  fit  torpedoes, 
plant  and  fire  them.  At  the  end  of  every  term 
a  board  of  experienced  officers  is  ordered  to  wit 
ness  the  examination  of  the  officers  under  in 
struction,  and  report  to  the  Department  the  con 
dition  of  the  institution. 

The  torpedo  station  undoubtedly  accomplishes 
the  object  desired  by  its  founder,  and  the  service 
and  country  are  indebted  to  the  officers  who  by 
their  zeal  and  energy  made  the  experiment  a 
success. — R.  M.  G.  Brown,  Lieuievant  U.S.N. 

Torquay,  a  favorite  watering-place  of  Eng 
land,  Devon  County,  is  picturesquely  seated  on 
the  shore  of  a  cove  of  Torbay.  It  consists  chiefly 
of  handsome  villas  and  terraces.  It  has  a  good 
harbor,  some  timber  trade,  a  share  in  the  New 
foundland  fishery,  regular  stearn  communication 
with  Portsmouth  and  Plymouth,  and  well-sup 
plied  markets.  Pop.  21,657. 

Torrent.  A  stream  of  water  in  mountainous 
districts,  swollen  by  rains  or  melting  snow. 

Torse.  A  coarse  kind  of  hemp  used  in  the 
manufacture  of  an  inferior  quality  of  cordage. 


TORSK 


817 


TOURVILLE 


Torsk.     See  TUSK. 

Tort.     A  term  in  law  for  a  wrong  or  injury. 

Tortue  de  Met  (Fr.).  A  sea-turtle.  The  term 
is  also  applied  to  a  French  store-ship  or  trans 
port. 

Tosh  (Ena.).  A  cant  word,  meaning  to  steal 
copper  from  a  vessel's  bottom. 

Toss  the  Oars.  To  take  the  oars  from  the 
rowlocks  and  bring  them  to  a  perpendicular  posi 
tion,  with  the  ends  resting  in  the  bottom  of  the 
boat.  Oars  are  tossed  in  this  manner  as  a  salute 
from  a  boat  containing  an  officer  below  the  rank 
of  a  commanding  officer,  to  a  boat  containing  an 
admiral,  vice-admiral,  rear-admiral,  or  commo 
dore.  When  a  boat  goes  alongside  a  vessel  or  a 
wharf,  the  oars  are  tossed  and  laid  into  the  boat 
at  the  order  given  by  the  stroke -oarsman. 

Toss  up  the  Bunt.  To  roll  the  bunt  of  a 
sail  on  to  the  top  of  the  yard. 

Tot.  A  drinking-cup  holding  a  little  less  than 
half  a  pint,  in  which  the  spirit  ration  was  served 
out.  The  difference  between  this  measure  and 
the  half-pint  was  the  share  of  the  mess-cook. 

Toucan.     See  CONSTELLATION. 

Touch.  The  broadest  part  of  a  plank  worked 
top-and-butt,  which  place  is  6  feet  from  the  butt 
end.  The  sudden  angles  in  the  stern  timbers. 
Touch-and-go,  a  term  descriptive  of  any  narrow 
escape.  Touch-and-take,  an  expression  of  Nel 
son's  applied  to  a  vessel  about  to  engage  the 
enemy.  To  touch  at,  to  stop  at  a  port  for  a  short 
time,  being  on  a  passage  between  two  other 
ports.  To  touch  the  sails,  to  cause  the  weather 
leeches  of  sails  to  shake  by  sailing  too  near  the 
wind.  To  touch  up  a  sail,  to  mend  the  furl  of  a 
sail,  or  make  it  more  snug  on  the  yard. 

Touch-box.  The  box  in  which  lighted  tinder 
was  formerly  carried  by  soldiers  armed  with 
match-locks. 

Touch-hole.  A  common  name  given  to  the 
vent  of  a  gun. 

Touch-wood.  Decayed  wood  or  punk,  used 
for  producing  fire  from  a  spark. 

Toulon.  A  seaport  city  and  naval  station  of 
France,  admirably  situated  at  the  bottom  of  a 
deep  double  bay  formed  by  the  Mediterranean. 
Lat.  43°  7'  N.  ;  Ion.  5°  56'  E.  In  front  of  the 
bay  is  a  projecting  tongue  of  land,  which  nearly 
closes  its  entrance,  and  along  it,  as  well  as  the 
adjacent  points,  numerous  forts  have  been  erected. 
In  like  manner,  on  the  land  side,  the  fortifica 
tions  are  of  the  most  complete  description.  The 
arsenal  and  other  marine  establishments  are  on  a 
scale  of  almost  unrivaled  magnificence.  The 
port  is  separated  from  the  roadstead  by  moles, 
which  are  hollow  and  bomb-proof,  and  lined  by 
batteries  d-fleur-d'eau.  There  are  two  ports,  the 
eastern  one  appropriated  to  merchant  vessels, 
and  called  the  Port-Marchand,  and  the  Port- 
Militaire,  where  are  immense  magazines,  arse 
nals,  ship-building  docks,  rope-  and  sail-works, 
and  the  convict  prison.  It  is  the  seat  of  a  mari 
time  prefecture,  and  possesses  a  school  of  hydrog 
raphy,  naval  medical  school,  etc.  Pop.  71,000. 

Tourniquet.  A  bandage  with  a  screw  at 
tached  which,  when  applied  to  a  wounded  limb, 
stops  the  flow  of  blood  by  external  pressure. 

Tourville,  Aime-Hilarion  de  Cotentin,  Comte 
de,  an  illustrious  French  seaman,  was  born  at 
the  chateau  of  Tourville,  in  Normandy,  in  1642, 
and  died  in  Paris  in  1701. 

Tourville  entered  the  Order  of  Malta  at  14, 
52 


and  at  the  age  of  18  began  to  serve  in  the  galleys 
of  the  order.  Some  jealous  contemporaries  ridi 
culed  him  for  embracing  the  profession  of  arms, 
and  spitefully  represented  him  as  an  Adonis, 
more  fitted  to  serve  among  court  ladies  than  to 
endure  the  fatigues  of  the  sea-service.  Tour 
ville,  however,  early  made  such  a  reputation  in 
his  cruises  against  the  Moors  that  Louis  XIV. 
sent  for  him  to  court,  and  gave  him  the  grade 
of  capitaine  de  vaisseau. 

In  1669  the  young  captain  served,  under  the 
Duke  de  Beaufort,  at  the  relief  of  Candia,  then 
besieged  by  the  Turks,  and  further  distinguished 
himself,  in  1671-73,  in  the  war  with  Holland. 
In  1675  he  commanded  one  of  the  fleet  sent  to 
the  relief  of  Messina,  which  city  had  revolted 
against  the  Spanish  rule. 

The  following  year  he  was  made  chefd'escadron, 
and  took  part  in  the  brilliant  expedition  of  the 
celebrated  Duquesne  against  the  Algerines  and 
Tripolitans,  when  the  corsairs  received  the  most 
crushing  blows  which  had  ever  been  dealt  to 
them  up  to  that  time.  He  was  particularly  con 
spicuous  in  the  bombardment  of  Algiers. 

In  1684  he  participated  in  the  bombardment 
of  Genoa,  and,  four  years  after,  in  the  expedi 
tion  against  Holland,  during  which  he  captured 
two  Dutch  men-of-war.  Again,  in  the  August 
of  the  same  year,  he  nearly  ruined  the  city  of 
Algiers  by  bombardment. 

In  1689  he  received  the  title  of  Admiral  of  the 
Levantine  Seas,  in  which,  however,  he  was 
destined  never  to  serve,  but  was  immediately 
put  in  command  of  a  fleet  of  20  vessels,  which, 
in  connection  with  a  fleet  under  D'Estrees,  was  to 
support  the  cause  of  James  II.  This  combined 
fleet  succeeded,  in  spite  of  the  exertions  of  the 
English,  in  landing  in  Ireland  a  considerable 
amount  of  munitions  of  war  and  some  men. 

While  in  command  of  the  fleet,  in  July  of  the 
year  following  he  encountered  an  Anglo-Dutch 
fleet  in  the  Channel,  oif  the  Isle  of  Wight,  and 
in  the  engagement  which  ensued  he  captured  10 
vessels  and  burnt  5,  while  the  French  did  not 
lose  a  single  ship.  Soon  after  this  success  he 
appeared  0ff  Teignmouth,  where  he  destroyed  a 
number  of  vessels  and  carried  off  the  valuable 
cargoes  of  others. 

In  May,  1692,  Tourville  was  ordered  by  Louis 
XIV.,  for  political  reasons  not'  necessary  to  be 
detailed  here,  to  sail  from  Brest  to  meet  the 
Anglo-Dutch  fleet,  which  consisted  of  88  vessels 
of  all  rates.  Tourville  had  only  about  half  that 
number,  and  remonstrated  at  being  forced  to  an 
engagement  without  reinforcements.  He  was 
again  ordered  to  fight  the  enemy,  fort  ou  faible, 
against  any  odds.  The  hostile  fleets  met  just 
off  Cape  La  Hogue  on  May  19,  1692,  Tourville 
leading  the  attack  in  his  flag-ship,  the  "  Soleil 
RoyaV'  of  106  guns.  The  engagement  was 
most  obstinate  ;  the  opposing  fleets  renewing  the 
fighting  for  three  days.  On  the  22d  Tpurville's 
fleet  was  completely  beaten,  but  no  prizes  were 
made  by  the  allies.  The  French  historians  insist 
that  if  the  minister  of  marine,  Pontchartrain, 
and  his  royal  master  had  been  willing  to  wait  for 
the  fleet  from  Toulon,  which  had  been  delayed 
by  head-winds,  the  victory  would  have  been  on 
the  side  of  Tourville. 

In  1693  Tourville  was  made  a  marshal  of 
France,  and  the  same  year  fought  an  action 
with  the  Anglo-Dutch  fleet  off  Cape  St.  Vincent, 


TOUTER 


818 


TRAINING-PENDULUM 


in  which  there  were  heavy  losses  and  very  little 
decisive  gain  on  either  side. 

After  the  peace  of  Ryswick  (1697)  Tourville's 
health  failed,  and  he  was  obliged  to  give  up  active 
service. 

The  French  navy  owed  much  to  Tourville,  in 
morale,  organization,  and  tactics.  Saint  Simon 
says  he  was  thoroughly  conversant  with  every 
duty  of  the  marine  service,  from  that  of  carpen 
ter  to  admiral.  His  justice,  coolness,  gentleness 
of  manner  and  politeness  to  every  one ;  his  fore 
sight,  prudence,  and  distinguished  courage,  led 
all  the  young  men  of  the  navy  to  endeavor  to 
serve  under  him.  He  was  noted  for  the  clear 
ness  and  decision  of  his  orders,  and  established 
an  excellent  code  of  naval  signals. 

The  French  generally  have  a  man-of-war 
named  after  this  distinguished  sailor. 

Tourville  had  one  son,  who  became  a  colonel 
in  the  army,  and  was  killed  at  the  battle  of 
Denain  while  still  quite  a  youth. — E.  Shippen. 

Touter  (Eng.}.  A  slang  name  for  a  revenue- 
cutter.  Also  applied  to  an  officer  of  customs. 

Tow.  To  draw  a  vessel  or  boat  through  the 
water  by  means  of  a  rope  attached  to  it.  An 
article  is  towed  overboard  from  a  vessel  by  at 
taching  a  rope  and  dragging  it  through  the 
water.  A  tow,  the  vessel  towed. 

TOWAGE.  Charges  paid  for  services  rendered 
by  a  tow-boat. 

TOWINQ-BRIDLE.  A  heavy  chain  or  hawser 
to  the  bight  of  which  a  tow-line  is  attached, 
when  one  vessel  is  being  towed  by  another. 

TOWING-HOOK.  A  large  hook  sometimes  fast 
ened  to  a  towing-bridle,  to  which  the  tow-line  is 
attached. 

TOWING-PATH,  or  TOW-PATH.  The  track  on 
the  side  of  a  canal  for  horses  engaged  in  towing. 

TOWING-POST.  The  timber-head  on  a  tow- 
boat,  to  which  a  hawser  is  secured  in  towing. 

TOW-LINE.  A  small  hawser  used  for  towing 
purposes. 

Towel.  A  term  in  English  maritime  law,  sup 
posed  by  some  to  have  been  derived  from  the  ex 
pression  "  Oster  la  touaille"  in  the  laws  of  Oleron. 

Malloy  writes  :  "  If  a  mariner  shall  commit  a 
fault,  and  the  master  shall  lift  up  the  towel  three 
times  before  any  mariner,  and  he  shall  not  sub 
mit,  the  master  at  the  next  place  of  land  may 
discharge  him." 

Toxotes.  A  genus  of  acanthopterygious 
fishes,  of  which  the  only  species  known,  T. 
jaculator,  is  remarkable  for  its  power  of  spurt 
ing  water  so  as  to  bring  down  insects  from 
aquatic  plants  within  its  reach. 

T-plate.  A  plate  of  metal  cut  in  the  form 
of  the  letter  T,  used  for  securing  different  pieces 
of  material  together  by  being  bolted  or  riveted 
thereto. 

Trabaccolo.     A  coaster  of  the  Adriatic. 

Trabaleo.     An  ancient  coasting-vessel. 

Trabaria.    An  ancient  name  for  a  small  canoe. 

Track.  The  path  of  a  vessel.  Also,  to  tow  a 
boat  on  a  canal  by  means  of  men  or  horses. 
Tracks  for  field-carriage,  wooden  tracks  placed 
in  a  launch  or  other  boat  carrying  a  howitzer, 
upon  which  the  field-carriage  is  transported  from 
one  end  of  the  boat  to  the  other,  as  may  be  re 
quired.  The  landing-skids  are  tracks  extending 
from  the  bow  of  the  boat  to  the  shore,  upon 
which  the  howitzer  is  landed  or  embarked,  when 
mounted  on  a  field-carriage. 


TRACK-BOAT.  A  boat  on  a  canal  moved  by 
towing  or  tracking. 

TRACK-CHART.  A  chart  on  a  small  scale  show 
ing  the  path  of  a  ship  during  a  voyage  or  cruise. 

Trade.  The  exportation  and  importation  of 
goods  or  merchandise.  A  vessel  sailing  regu 
larly  between  the  United  States  and  China  is 
said  to  be  employed  in  the  China  trade,  etc.  She 
may  also  be  said  to  be  in  the  foreign  or  the 
coastwise  trade. 

TRADER.  A  vessel  which  makes  regular 
voyages  between  certain  ports  for  the  purpose 
of  trade  or  barter. 

TRADE-WINDS.  The  name  given  to  the  at 
mospheric  currents  of  the  northern  and  southern 
hemispheres,  which  have  a  general  direction  from 
the  northeast  in  north  latitude,  and  from  the 
southeast  in  south  latitude.  They  are  caused  by 
the  combined  action  of  the  earth's  revolution 
upon  its  axis,  and  the  cold  air  of  the  polar 
regions  moving  toward  the  equator  to  take  the 
place  of  the  heated  and  rarefied  air  which  rises 
from  that  portion  of  the  earth's  surface. 

The  direction,  force,  and  regularity  of  these 
winds  are  greatly  influenced  by  the  amount  of 
land  in  the  two  hemispheres,  its  character,  for 
mation,  etc.  On  account  of  the  excess  of  land-sur 
face  in  the  northern  hemisphere  over  thesouthern, 
the  average  breadth  of  the  belt  of  northeast  trade- 
winds  is  estimated  at  9°  less  than  that  of  the 
southeast  trade- winds.  The  limits  of  these  winds 
also  vary  with  the  declination  of  the  sun,  so  that 
with  a  high  southern  declination  the  northeast 
trades  may  extend  1°  or  2°  south  of  the  equator, 
while  with  a  high  northern  declination  the 
southeast  trade-winds  are  found  to  extend  4°  or 
6°  north  of  the  equator.  Between  these  two 
winds  a  region  of  calms,  called  doldrums,  ex 
tends  through  an  average  brea&th  of  about  6°  of 
latitude.  The  proximity  of  land  affects  these 
winds,  examples  of  which  are  seen  on  the  west 
ern  coast  of  Africa,  where  for  nearly  100  miles 
from  the  coast  the  prevailing  winds  are  from  the 
west ;  and  on  the  western  coast  of  South  America, 
where,  on  account  of  the  height  of  the  Andes, 
the  trade-winds  are  not  encountered  until  at  a 
distance  of  about  400  miles  from  land. 

At  the  commencement  of  these  winds  in  both 
hemispheres,  when  not  under  the  direct  influence 
of  land,  their  direction  is  more  from  the  east, 
and  changes  toward  the  north  and  south  as  the 
equator  is  approached.  The  average  direction 
of  the  northeast  trade-winds  is  from  E.N.E., 
while  that  of  the  southeast  trade-winds  is  from 
S.E.  by  E. 

Trail.  The  trail  of  a  field-carriage  is  that 
part  which  projects  to  the  rear  of  the  piece. 

TRAIL-BAR.  The  wooden  bar  which  fits  into 
the  socket  in  the  end  of  the  trail  of  a  howitzer- 
carriage,  by  which  the  piece  is  pointed  laterally. 

TRAIL-ROPE.  A  rope  attached  to  the  trail  of 
a  field-carriage  by  which  it  is  drawn.  Short 
wooden  bars  placed  through  the  lay  of  the  rope 
serve  as  handles  for  the  howitzer's  crew. 

Trail-board.  A  term  for  the  carved  work  be 
tween  the  cheeks  of  the  cutwater. 

Training-level  (Eng.}.  A  level  sometimes 
used  in  estimating  the  elevation  or  depression  of 
a  gun. 

Training-pendulum  (Eng.}.  An  instrument 
having  a  pendulum  and  a  level  attached,  used  in 
pointing  guns. 


TRAIN-TACKLE 


819 


TRENCHARD 


Train-tackle.     See  TACKLE. 

Trajectory.  The  curve  described  by  a  pro 
jectile  in  its  flight. 

Trammel.     A  large  net. 

Tramontana.  Literally,  from  beyond  the 
mountain.  The  word  is  applied  in  Italy  to  the 
north  wind,  blowing  from  the  Alps. 

Tran.     A  Norwegian  word  for  fish-oil. 

Trankeh.  A  vessel  or  large  boat  of  the  Per 
sian  Gulf. 

Transfer.  To  change  officers  or  men  from  one 
vessel  to  another. 

Transire  (Eng.).  A  custom-house  document 
issued  to  a  coasting-vessel. 

Transit.  The  passage  of  a  heavenly  body 
across  the  meridian  of  the  observer.  The  pass 
age  of  a  heavenly  body,  or  of  its  shadow,  across 
the  disk  of  a  larger  body.  See  ECLIPSE. 

TRANSIT  INSTRUMENT.  A  telescope  which 
moves  in  the  plane  of  the  meridian,  and  there 
fore  adapted  for  observing  the  transit  of  a  heav 
enly  body  across  the  meridian. 

Transom.  One  of  the  horizontal  timbers  com 
posing  the  stern-frame.  They  are  secured  to  the 
stern-post  in  the  same  manner  as  the  floors  to  the 
keel;  the  ends  are  beveled  and  trimmed;  the 
fashion  pieces  are  then  laid  on  and  bolted  to 
them.  The  stern-post,  transoms,  and  fashion 
pieces  compose  the  stern-frame.  Transoms  of  a 
gun-carriage,  the  parts  on  the  under  side  of  the 
carriage  by  which  the  brackets  are  connected. 
They  are  called  the  breast  and  rear  transoms. 

TRANSOM-KNEE.  A  knee  bolted  to  the  tran 
som  and  the  frames  of  the  ship,  and  lying  level 
or  in  the  same  direction  of  the  transom.  When 
these  knees  cross  the  transom  they  are  called 
sleepers. 

Transport.  A  vessel  used  for  carrying  troops 
or  munitions  of  war.  Also,  to  move  or  haul  a 
vessel  from  one  part  of  a  harbor  to  another  by 
the  use  of  hawsers. 

TRANSPORTING-BLOCK.  A  large  snatch-block 
used  in  transporting  a  vessel. 

TRANSPORTING  TRUCKS  AND  AXLES.  Trucks 
and  axles  used  in  moving  a  gun  mounted  on  a 
pivot-carriage  from  one  part  of  the  deck  to  an 
other. 

Tranter  (Eng.}.     One  who  sells  fish. 

Trap-creel  (Eng.}.  A  basket  used  in  taking 
lobsters. 

Travel.  To  slip,  as  a  thimble  upon  a  rope. 
Also,  to  revolve,  as  the  sheave  of  a  block. 

TRAVELER.  An  iron  ring  or  thimble  fitted  to 
slide  upon  a  spar  or  an  iron  rod. 

TRAVELER-IRON.  An  iron  bar  fitted  to  the 
deck,  upon  which  the  sheet  of  a  fore-and-aft  sail 
travels. 

TRAVELING-BACKSTAY.  A  backstay  fitted  to 
a  traveler  on  the  topmast,  by  which  the  mast  is 
supported  at  the  place  to  which  the  topsail-yard 
is  hoisted. 

TRAVELING-GUYS.  Guys  sometimes  fitted  on 
small  vessels  for  supporting  the  jib-boom  when 
the  jib  is  set. 

TRAVELING-MARTINGALE.  A  martingale  fitted 
to  the  jib-boom  of  a  small  vessel,  which  is  in  use 
only  when  the  jib  is  set.  A  martingale  which 
was  formerly  used  to  support  the  jib-boom  under 
the  jib-tack. 

Traverse.  The  various  courses  made  by  a 
vessel  in  beating  against  a  head  wind,  or  the 
irregular  track  made  by  a  vessel  sailing  on  dif 


ferent  courses.  A  boat' s  traverse  is  one  of  the 
athwart-ship  pieces  upon  which  the  tracks  for  a 
field-carriage  are  placed.  To  traverse  a  yard,  to 
place  it  fore-and-aft. 

TRAVERSE-BOARD.  A  board  formerly  used  in 
recording  the  courses  made  by  a  ship  during  a 
watch.  It  consisted  of  a  circular  piece  of  board 
having  marked  upon  it  all  of  the  points  of  the 
compass,  and,  upon  each  point,  eight  holes  bored. 
The  course  for  each  half-hour  was  noted  by 
placing  a  peg  in  one  of  the  holes  corresponding  to 
the  ship's  course. 

TRAVERSE-HORSE.     See  JACKSTAY. 

TRAVERSE-QUESTIONS.     Cross-examination. 

TRAVERSE-SAILING.  The  case  in  plane  sailing, 
in  which  the  ship  makes  several  courses  in  vari 
ous  directions.  The  solution  consists  in  obtain 
ing  an  equivalent  course  and  distance  from  the 
several  courses  and  distances  sailed. 

TRAVERSE-TABLE.  A  table  so  called  from  its 
use  in  traverse-sailing.  It  contains  the  true  dif 
ference  of  latitude  and  departure  corresponding 
to  every  course  (at  intervals  of  a  quarter-point 
and  also  of  degrees)  from  0  to  a  right  angle,  and 
every  distance  up  to  300  nautical  miles  (at  inter 
vals  of  one  mile).  It  is  constructed  by  solving  a 
right-angled  triangle,  of  which  one  angle  repre 
sents  the  course  and  the  hypothenuse  the  dis 
tance  ;  by  giving  these  different  and  successive 
values,  the  corresponding  values  of  the  other  two 
sides  are  found,  which  sides  represent  the  true 
difference  of  latitude  and  departure. 

TRAVERSE-WIND.  A  wind  blowing  into  a 
harbor. 

Traversier.  A  small  fishing-vessel  on  the 
coast  of  France. 

Traversum.     The  ancient  name  for  a  ferry. 

Trawl.  A  line  towed  by  a  boat,  having  at 
intervals  baited  hooks  attached  for  catching 
fish. 

TRAWL-BOAT.  A  boat  used  in  fishing  with  a 
trawl. 

TRAWL-NET.  A  small  net  dragged  on  the 
bottom  in  shoal  water  for  catching  fish. 

Trayeres.     An  ancient  term  for.  a  large  boat. 

Tread.     The  whole  length  of  a  keel  or  deck. 

Tread  Water.  To  keep  the  body  in  a  perpen 
dicular  position  at  the  surface  by  treading  or 
walking  in  the  water. 

Treble-block.     A  block  containing  3  sheaves. 

Trebling.  The  strengthening  planks  put  on  a 
vessel's  bow  to  withstand  the  pressure  of  ice. 

Trebuchet.  An  ancient  battering-engine  in 
which  stones  were  used  as  projectiles. 

Treck-schuyt.     A  Dutch  canal-boat. 

Treeing.  A  peculiar  appearance  of  the  ice  in 
Arctic  regions,  caused  by  refraction,  which  indi 
cates  the  proximity  of  open  water. 

Treenail.  A  pin  of  oak  or  locust,  of  a  cylin 
drical  form,  used  as  a  fastening  for  plank  below 
the  water-line.  This  kind  of  fastening  is  much 
used  in  building  merchant  vessels,  but  seldom 
in  the  naval  service. 

Trees  of  a  Ship.  Chess-trees,  cross-trees,  and 
trestle-trees. 

Trelawney  (Eng.).  A  thin  pudding  of  barley- 
meal. 

Trench  the  Ballast  (Eng.}.  To  trim  or  stow 
ballast. 

Trenchard,  Stephen  D.,  Rear  -  Admiral 
U.S.N.  Born  in  New  York,  July  10,  1818. 
Appointed  from  New  York,  October  23,  1834 ; 


TREND 


820 


TRIPOLI 


receiving -ship,  New  York,  1835-37;  Naval 
School,  Philadelphia,  1839-49. 

Promoted  to  passed  midshipman,  July  16, 
1840;  sloop  "Preble,"  West  India  Squadron, 
1841-44;  sloop  "Fairfield,"  Home  Squadron, 
1844-45 ;  coast  survey,  1845-49. 

Commissioned  as  lieutenant,  February  27, 
1847;  sloop  "Albany,"  Home  Squadron,  1850- 
62;  receiving-ship,  Philadelphia,  1853;  coast 
survey,  1854-57;  steam-frigate  "Powhatan," 
East  India  Squadron,  1857-59;  commanding 
steamer  "  Rhode  Island,"  supply-vessel  to  Block 
ading  Squadron,  1861-65. 

Commissioned  as  commander,  July  16,  1862 ; 
two  attacks  on  Fort  Fisher,  December,  1864,  and 
January,  1865;  navy-yard,  New  York,  1866-69. 

Commissioned  as  captain,  July  25,  1866;  com 
manding  steam-sloop  "Lancaster,"  flag -ship 
South  Atlantic  Squadron,  1869-71. 

Commissioned  as  commodore,  May  7,  1871 ; 
member  Board  of  Examiners,  1872 ;  light-house 
inspector,  1873-75. 

Commissioned  as  rear-admiral,  August  10, 
1875;  commanding  North  Atlantic  Station, 
1876-78;  member  of  Special  Board,  1879-80. 
Retired  July  10,  1880. 

Trend.  To  incline  or  extend  in  any  direction, 
as  the  coast.  The  trend  of  an  anchor  is  that 
part  of  the  shank  at  a  distance  from  the  throat 
equal  to  the  length  of  one  of  the  arms. 

Trennel.    See  TREENAIL. 

Trepang.  A  name  given  to  the  beche-de-mer, 
used  by  the  Chinese  as  an  article  of  food. 

Trestle-trees.  A  heavy  frame-work  of  tim 
ber  placed  over  the  head  of  a  lower-mast  and  top 
mast.  They  rest  upon  the  hounds  of  the  mast, 
and  sustain  the  weight  of  the  top  and  cross-trees, 
and  the  mast  above. 

Triangle.  A  geometrical  figure  having  three 
sides.  Also,  small  spars  lashed  together  around 
a  mast  in  the  shape  of  a  triangle,  used  as  a  stage 
in  painting,  scraping,  etc. 

Triangula.     See  CONSTELLATION. 

Triangulum  Australe  (Lat.  "The  Southern 
Triangle").  A  constellation  half-way,  bet  ween 
Scorpio  and  the  north  pole. 

Triatic-stay.  A  triatic-stay  is  used  in  hoist 
ing  boats  in  or  out  of  a  vessel.  It  consists  of  two 
large  pendants,  the  upper  ends  of  which  are  lashed 
to  the  foremast  and  mainmast  heads,  while  to  the 
lower  ends,  fitted  with  thimbles,  the  stay-tackles 
are  hooked.  The  lower  ends  of  the  pendants  are 
held  in  their  proper  position  by  a  span. 

Tributary.  A  stream  which  flows  into  or  sup 
plies  another  stream. 

Trice.  To  pull  up  and  secure  by  means  of  a 
lashing  or  tricing-line.  Trice  tip!  the  order  to 
raise  the  heels  of  the  studding-sail-booms  before 
the  men  lie  out  on  the  yards  in  furling  or  reef 
ing.  A  tricing-line  is  any  line  or  rope  used  to 
trice  up  an  object  with.  In  a.  trice,  in  a  moment. 

Trick.  The  time  which  a  man  remains  on 
duty  at  the  helm. 

Trie.     An  old  word,  meaning  trim. 

Triest,  the  capital  of  Kiistenland  and  the  prin 
cipal  seaport  city  of  Austro-Hungary,  is  situated 
on  the  Gulf  of  Triest,  at  the  northeast  extremity 
of  the  Adriatic  Sea,  in  lat.  45°  38'  N.,  Ion. 
13°  46'  E.  The  new  part  of  the  town  is  espe 
cially  well  built.  A  broad  canal,  deep  enough 
to  float  vessels  of  large  burden,  runs  up  from  the 
harbor  through  this  part  of  the  town.  Outside 


of  the  town  is  the  new  lazaretto,  one  of  the  best 
arranged  in  Europe.  The  harbor  admits  vessels 
of  300  tons  to  its  quays,  and  vessels  of  any  size 
anchor  safely  at  a  short  distance.  It  is  in  the 
form  of  a  crescent,  one  side  of  which  is  formed 
by  the  mole,  which  projects  northwest  into  the 
sea,  arid  terminates  in  a  broad  platform,  occupied 
partly  by  a  fort  and  partly  by  an  intermittent 
light  106  feet  above  the  sea.  On  its  north  side 
is  a  quarantine  dock,  surrounded  with  hotels  and 
every  other  convenience.  Close  to  the  harbor 
are  extensive  building-docks.  Triest  is  a  free 
port,  and  possesses  a  large  mercantile  navy,  and 
is  the  headquarters  of  the  Austrian  Lloyds,  and 
large  numbers  of  vessels  are  annually  built  here. 
It  has  an  immense  import  and  export  trade  and 
extensive  manufactories.  Population,  including 
suburbs,  110,000. 

Trigger.  A  catch  of  wood,  formerly  used  in 
launching,  which,  upon  being  struck  with  a 
maul,  would  be  displaced  and  "allow  the  ship  to 
move. 

Trigger-finger.  The  fore-finger  of  the  right 
hand. 

Trig-meat  (Eng.\     Shell-fish. 

Trim.  To  arrange  the  weights  in  a  vessel  in 
such  a  manner  as  to  obtain  a  desired  immer 
sion  or  draft  at  the  bow  and  stern.  Upon 
this  relative  draft  depends  in  a  great  degree  the 
speed  of  a  vessel  and  the  facility  with  which  she 
can  be  handled.  A  vessel  is  trimmed  by  the  head 
when  the  draft  of  water  at  the  bow  is  greater 
than  at  the  stern ;  she  is  trimmed  by  the  stern 
when  the  draft  at  the  stern  is  greatest.  Each 
vessel  has  a  certain  trim  most  favorable  to  her 
sea-going  qualities. 

Ballast  and  cargo  stowed  in  bulk  requires  to  be 
trimmed  or  spread  from  under  the  hatches  into 
the  more  inaccessible  parts  of  the  hold. 

Sails  are  trimmed  by  changing  the  position  of 
the  yards,  in  order  that  the  wind  may  act  upon 
them  at  the  proper  angle;  also,  by  hauling  the 
sheets  home  and  hoisting  the  yards  to  their 
proper  places,  in  order  that  the  sails  may  re 
ceive  the  full  force  of  the  wind.  A  boat  is 
trimmed  by  keeping  it  in  an  upright  position 
by  means  of  the  crew  or  cargo.  A  jacket  is 
said  to  be  trimmed  when  the  wearer  of  it  is 
flogged  with  a  rope's  end. 

Trink.     An  old  apparatus  for  catching  fish. 

Trip.  A  passage  made  by  a  vessel  from  one 
port  to  another.  A  round  trip  is  the  whole  voy 
age.  An  anchor  is  a-trip  when  it  is  raised  clear 
of  the  bottom.  To  trip  a  light  yard  is  to  pull  it 
into  a  perpendicular  by  means  of  the  tripping- 
line,  preparatory  to  lowering  it  to  the  deck. 

TRIPPING-LIKE.  A  small  line  attached  to  the 
snorter  of  a  topgallant-  or  royal-yard,  reach  ing  to 
the  deck,  by  which  the  yard 'is  tripped,  the  lower 
lift  and  brace  cleared  of  the  yard-arm,  and  the 
yard  guided  to  the  deck. 

Triple-star.  Three  stars  in  such  apparent 
proximity  as  to  resemble  a  single  star. 

Tripoli.  The  capital  of  the  state  of  Tripoli,  on 
the  north  coast  of  Africa.  Lat.  32°  53'  54"  N. ; 
Ion.  13°  11'  E.  It  stands  on  a  rocky  promon 
tory  washed  by  the  sea  on  the  north  and  east, 
and  connected  with  the  mainland  on  the  south 
and  west  by  a  sandy  plain.  It  is  defended  on 
the  land  side  by  a  lofty  wall  flanked  with  bastions, 
and  on  the  sea-front  by  a  formidable  line  of  bat 
teries.  The  trade  has  the  advantage  of  the  only 


TRIPPING-VALVE 


821 


TRUNK-ENGINE 


good  harbor  for  several  hundred  miles  on  the 
coast.  It  is  not  over  6  fathoms  deep,  but  has 
capacity  to  admit  whole  fleets  of  merchant  ves 
sels  in  'the  outer  roads,  where  there  is  good  an 
chorage  in  from  16  to  18  fathoms.  About  1000 
vessels  clear  this  port  annually.  Pop.  20,000. 

Tripping-valve.  A  valve  for  releasing  the 
fluid  and  relieving  the  pressure  Jn  a  hydraulic 
press  or  jack. 

Trip-shaft.  In  the  steam-engine,  a  shaft  car 
rying  devices  for  tripping  or  detaching  cut-off 
valves  from  the  main  valve-gear  in  cases  where 
they  are  actuated,  in  part,  thereby. 

Troacher  (Eng.}.  One  who  receives  and  deals 
in  smuggled  goods. 

Troite.     An  obsolete  term  for  the  cuttle-fish. 

Troll.  To  fish  by  drawing  the  hooks  through 
the  water. 

Trombone.  A  name  formerly  applied  to  the 
blunderbuss,  from  the  shape  of  its  muzzle. 

Tromp,  Martin  Van,  the  celebrated  Dutch 
admiral,  was  born  at  Briel  in  1597,  and  died  in 
1653.  When  only  11  years  old  he  served  on 
board  of  a  frigate  commanded  by  his  father. 
The  latter  was  killed  in  an  engagement  with 
the  French,  who  took  the  vessel,  and  detained 
the  boy  on  board  ship  as  a  -mousse  for  three 
years.  When  he  obtained  his  liberty  he  rose 
rapidly  in  the  Dutch  navy,  being  lieutenant  of  a 
line-of-battle  ship  at  25,  and  two  years  later 
captain  of  a  frigate.  A  vice-admiral  at  40,  he 
commanded  a  Dutch  fleet  which,  in  1639,  totally 
defeated  a  Spanish  fleet  of  superior  numbers  and 
weight  of  metal.  This  success  made  him  very 
popular  at  home,  and  he  was  also  created  a  noble 
of  France  from  the  date  of  his  victory.  In 
1652,  war  breaking  out  between  Holland  and 
England,  Van  Tromp,  in  command  of  the  fleet, 
met  Admiral  Blake,  and  in  an  engagement  with 
him  lost  2  line-of-battle  ships.  Dissatisfied  with 
this  result,  the  States-General  caused  Van  Tromp 
to  be  relieved  in  his  command  by  Van  Ruyter. 
The  former  was,  however,  restored  to  command 
in  a  few  months ;  and,  on  December  10,  1652, 
defeated  the  English  admiral,  driving  him  into 
the  Thames,  and  causing  great  alarm  in  London. 
It  was  then  that  Van  Tromp  swept  down  the 
Channel  with  a  broom  at  his  mast-head.  After 
this  he  had  many  encounters  with  the  English, 
with  varying  fortunes,  fighting  some  gallant 
actions.  , 

At  last  he  was  intercepted  by  Blake  near 
Portland  Bill,  and  badly  defeated.  In  command 
of  a  refitted  fleet  he  again  had  an  encounter  with 
the  English  fleet,  under  Monk,  upon  the  Dutch 
coast.  In  this  action  he  was  mortally  wounded, 
but  cried  out  to  his  crew,  "  Bear  up,  my  boys. 
Conduct  yourselves  so  that  my  death  may  be  as 
glorious  as  my  life  has  been  !" 

The  States-General  ordered  a  medal  struck  in 
commemoration  of  Van  Tromp,  and  erected  a 
splendid  monument  to  him  at  Delft,  "where  he 
was  buried. 

Tromp's  son,  Cornelius,  who  died  in  1691, 
rose  high  in  the  Dutch  navy,  having  attained 
the  rank  of  vice-admiral.  He  served  principally 
against  the  Moorish  pirates,  and  the  English  and 
Swedes. 

In  consequence  of  a  supposed  dereliction  in 
duty  during  the  action  in  the  Downs  with  the 
English,  in  July,  1666,  Ruyter,  under  whom 
he  was  serving,  demanded  his  dismissal,  which 


was  granted ;  but  after  two  years  he  was  rein 
stated,  and  on  RuyteV's  death  succeeded  to  the 
command  of  the  Dutch  navy.  Upon  the  peace 
with  England,  in  1675,  he  visited  that  country, 
and  was  received  most  courteously,  Charles  II. 
making  him  a  baronet. — E.  Shippen. 

Troop-boat.  A  boat  of  great  capacity  used 
in  the  transportation  of  troops. 

Troop-ship.  A  large  ship,  either  built  for 
the  purpose  or  converted  from  a  frigate  or  line- 
of-battle  ship,  used  in  carrying  troops. 

Tropic-bird.  The  Phaeton  cetherius.  Also 
called  the  boatswain,  on  account  of  the  resem 
blance  of  its  tail  to  a  marling-spike. 

Trough  of  the  Sea.  The  depression  of  the 
water  between  two  waves. 

Trounce.  An  obsolete  word,  meaning  to  pun 
ish. 

Trouncer  (Eng.}.     An  old  term  for  a  waister. 

Trout.  A  fresh-water  fish  of  the  genus  Salmo, 
variegated  with  spots,  and  esteemed  most  delicate 
food.  The  brook- trout  of  America  is  Salmo  fon- 
tinalis,  the  lake-trout,  S.  confinis.  The  Salmo 
trutta,  sea-trout,  is  similar  to  the  salmon  in  its 
habits. 

Trow  (Eng.}.  A  boat  used  on  the  river  Tyne 
for  catching  salmon. 

Truce.  A  temporary  suspension  of  hostilities 
between  opposing  forces,  agreed  upon  by  the 
commanders  for  the  purpose  of  negotiation,  etc. 
The  desire  for  such  suspension  is  indicated  by 
showing  a  white  flag,  or  a  flag  of  truce,  and  the 
approach  of  persons  under  such  a  flag  toward  the 
enemy's  lines,  or  of  a  vessel  to  a  hostile  coast, 
insures  safe  conduct  among  all  civilized  nations. 
See  FLAG. 

Truchman.     See  TRTJGMAN. 

Truck.  Small  articles  used  in  barter.  A 
wheel  of  a  gun-carriage.  A  circular  piece  of 
wood  placed  on  the  head  of  a  mast  or  flag-staff,  in 
which  the  sheave  for  the  signal-halliards  is 
placed.  A  fair-leader  is  called  a  leading  truck. 

Truckle.  The  name  given  on  the  Welsh  coast 
to  the  coracle,  a  kind  of  boat  consisting  of  a 
light  frame-work  covered  with  leather  or  oil 
cloth. 

True-blue.  An  expression  denoting  loyalty 
and  sincerity. 

True-tide  (Eng.}.  A  tide  which  sets  in  a 
regular  direction. 

True  Water  (Eng.}.  The  exact  depth  of 
water. 

Truff  (Eng.}.     A  trout. 

Trugman.     An  old  term  for  an  interpreter. 

Trumpet-fish.  A  sea-fish ;  the  Centriscus 
scolopax ;  so  called  from  its  tubular  muzzle ;  bel 
lows-fish  ;  snipe-fish. 

Trundle-head.  The  lower  drum-head  of  a 
double  capstan. 

Trundle-shot.  A  projectile  formerly  used, 
about  a  foot  and  a  half  in  length,  pointed  at 
both  ends. 

Trunk.  A  small  net  used  in  catching  lobsters 
and  crabs.  Also,  a  species  of  turtle. 

Trunk-cabin.  A  cabin  half  below  and  half 
above  the  level  of  the  spar-deck. 

Trunk- engine.  A  very  compact  form  of 
steam-engine,  in  which  the  connecting-rod  is 
jointed  directly  to  the  piston,  without  the  inter 
vention  of  a  piston-rod  or  cross-head.  The  rod 
works  within  a  hollow  cylindrical  piece,  or  trunk, 
of  sufficient  diameter  to  permit  its  free  oscilla- 


TRUNK-FISH 


822 


TUBE 


tion,  which  is  attached  to  the  piston,  and  passes 
from  the  cylinder  through  a  stuffing-box,  acting, 
also,  as  a  guide.  See  MARINE  STEAM-ENGINE. 

Trunk-fish.  The  Ostracion,  a  fish  having  a 
covering  of  solid  bony  plates. 

Trunnion.  One  of  a  pair  of  cylindrical  pro 
jections  attached  to  or  formed  upon  the  opposite 
sides  of  a  gun,  oscillating  steam-engine  cylinder, 
etc.,  at  right  angles  to  its  axis,  so  that  the  body, 
when  supported  thereby  in  suitable  bearings,  is 
free  to  oscillate  about  the  trunnion  axis. 

TRUNNION-GAUGE.  An  instrument  used  to 
measure  the  diameter  of  the  trunnion  of  a  gun. 

TRUNNION-LEDGE  AND  LEVEL.  A  small  shelf 
attached  to  the  trunnion  of  a  heavy  gun,  which 
being  placed  in  a  horizontal  position  by  means 
of  a  spirit-level,  indicates  the  degrees  of  eleva 
tion  or  depression. 

TRUNNION-RING.  A  ring  formerly  placed 
upon  a  gun  a  little  forward  of  the  trunnions. 

TRUNNION-RULE.  A  rule  used  in  the  inspec 
tion  of  guns  for  measuring  the  distance  from  the 
trunnions  to  the  base-ring. 

TRUNNION-SQUARE.,  An  instrument  used  in 
inspecting  guns  for  ascertaining  if  the  axis  of  the 
trunnions  is  perpendicular  to  the  axis  of  the 
bore. 

Truss.  A  heavy  iron  fixture  by  which  the 
centre  of  a  lower-yard  is  held  in  position  at  the 
mast,  and  which  forms  the  centre  of  motion  of 
the  yard.  Before  the  invention  of  the  iron  truss, 
rope  trusses  were  used,  with  which  the  yard  was 
kept  in  the  required  position  by  means  of  tackles 
fitted  to  the  lower  ends  of  the  truss-pendants. 
Truss  up,  to  brail  up  a  sail. 

TRUSS-HOOP.  A  heavy  iron  band  used  in 
mast-making. 

TRUSS-PARREL.  That  part  of  a  rope  truss 
which  passes  around  the  yard. 

TRUSS-PENDANT.  That  part  of  a  rope  truss 
which  is  passed  around  the  mast  and  to  which 
the  truss-tackles  are  fitted. 

TRUSS-TACKLE.  One  of  the  tackles  by  which 
the  pendants  of  a  rope  truss  are  hauled  taut. 

Truxtun,  Thomas,  Commodore  U.S.N.  Born 
in  Jamaica,  L.  I.,  February  17,  1755.  He  went 
to  sea  early  in  life,  and  during  the  war  of  the 
Revolution  established  a  high  character  for  cour 
age  and  nautical  skill  in  command  of  the  private 
armed  vessels  "St.  James,"  u  Mars,"  and  "  In 
dependence."  He  was  among  the  first  to  dis 
cuss  and  point  out  the  value  of  the  Gulf  Stream 
to  navigation.  He  was  a  fine  navigator  and 
prime  seaman.  In  1794  he  published  from  "  the 
Stone  House,  South  Second  Street,  Philadelphia," 
"A  Treatise  on  Latitude  and  Longitude,"  with 
an  appendix  on  the  formation  of  our  (then)  in 
fant  navy,  and  a  plate  showing  "  Truxtun's  Sys 
tem  of  Masting  a  44-Gun  Frigate."  He  was 
commissioned  a  captain  in  the  UTs.  navy  in  1794. 
February  9,  1799,  while  in  command  of  the  frig 
ate  "Constellation,"  he  captured  the  French 
frigate  "  L'Insurgente."  February  1,  1880,  still 
in  the  "  Constellation,"  he  fought  and  drove 
into  Curaqoa,  in  a  sinking  condition,  the  French 
frigate  "  La  Vengeance, "^being  prevented,  by  the 
loss  of  the  "  Constellation's"  mainmast,  from  tak 
ing  possession  of  his  prize.  For  this  action  Con 
gress  awarded  him  a  gold  medal.  He  fought  the 
first  battle  under  the  present  naval  organization, 
which  he  was  largely  instrumental  in  establish 
ing.  After  the  quasi-French  war  he  commanded 


the  "West  India  Station,  and  finally  was  ordered 
to  hoist  his  flag  on  the  "  President,"  44,  and  as 
sume  command  of  the  Mediterranean  Squadron, 
when,  some  question  arising  as  to  his  being  al 
lowed  a  captain  to  command  the  flag-ship,  he  re 
signed  his  commission,  in  1802,  and  took  up  his 
residence  in  Philadelphia,  of  which  city  he  was 
subsequently  elected  sheriff.  He  died  May, 
1823.  His  remains  lie  in  Christ  Church  burying- 
ground,  Fifth  and  Arch  Streets,  Philadelphia. 

Try.  A  word  meaning  to  lie  to,  but  now  sel 
dom  used.  From  this  the  trysails  received  their 
name.  To  try  back  for  a  bend,  to  pay  back 
enough  of  a  hawser  to  make  a  bend.  To  try 
down,  to  separate  oil  from  blubber  by  melting. 
To  try  the  range,  to  ascertain  the  distance  of  an 
object  by  firing  at  it. 

TRYSAIL.  A  fore-and-aft-sail  set  on  the  fore 
and  main  lower-masts  of  a  ship.  It  is  bent 
to  a  gaff,  and  is  considered  a  storm-sail,  or  one 
under  which  a  vessel  can  lie-to  easily  during  a 
gale.  See  TRY. 

TRYSAIL-BRAILS.  Ropes  used  in  taking  in  a 
trysail. 

"TRYSAIL-GAFF.  The  gaff  to  which  a  trysail  is 
bent. 

TRYSAIL-MAST.  A  small  mast  placed  abaft  a 
lower  mast,  to  which  a  trysail  is  bent  by  means 
of  hoops. 

TRYSAIL-OUTHAUL.  A  rope  by  which  the 
head  of  a  trysail  is  hauled  out  on  the  gaff. 

TRY-WORKS.  The  boilers  and  furnaces  used 
on  whale-ships  for  trying  down  blubber. 

T-square.  A  rule  having  a  cross-piece  at  one 
end  placed  at  right  angles  ;  used  in  draughting 
for  making  parallel  lines. 

Tub.  A  division-tub  is  furnished  to  each  divi 
sion  of  a  ship-of-war,  in  which  fresh  water  is 
placed  during  action.  A  fire-tub  is  placed  on 
the  berth-deck  during  action  at  the  place  where 
the  empty  passing  boxes  are  received  from  the 
deck  above.  It  is  partially  filled  with  water, 
and  is  fitted  with  a  grating  near  the  top.  As  a 
precaution  against  explosion  from  any  fire  that 
may  be  in  the  box,  each  one  is  inverted  and 
struck  over  the  tub  before  being  refilled.  Grog- 
tub,  the  tub  in  which  the  daily  allowance  of  grog 
was  formerly  mixed,  and  from  which  it  was 
served  to  the  crew.  Match-tub,  a  small  tub  hav 
ing  holes  bored  in  its  upper  head,  in  which  slow- 
matches  were  formerly  placed  during  action. 

Tube.  A  hollow  cylinder  of  any  material, 
the  length  of  which  considerably  exceeds  its 
diameter.  A  pipe.  Quill-tubes,  quill-primers. 
See  PRIMER. 

TUBE-EXPANDER.  A  tool  for  stretching  or 
expanding  the  end  of  a  tube  in  direction  of  its 
diameter,  so  as  to  cause  it  to  fit  snugly,  and  con 
fine  it,  air-tight,  to  a  tube-sheet  or  -plateby  form 
ing  a  bead  on  either  side  thereof. 

TUBE-SHEET,  or  TUBE-PLATE.  One  of  a  pair 
of  sheets  of  metal  containing  accurately-bored 
holes,  to  which  the  ends  of  the  tubes  of  a  steam- 
boiler,  condenser,  or  other  fluid-tight  apparatus 
are  secured,  either  by  expanding  or  packing 
their  ends.  These  sheets  are  firmly  built  in,  and 
form  part  of  the  structure. 

TUBULAR  BOILER.  A  boiler  in  which  a  great 
portion  of  the  heating  surface,  or  the  surface  ex 
posed  to  fire,  is  composed  of  tubes  through  or 
around  which  the  heated  gases  of  combustion 
circulate. 


TUB-FISH 


823 


TURN 


Tub-fish.  A  fish  of  the  genus  Trigla  (T.  hi- 
rundo) ;  sapphirine  gurnard. 

Tuck.  That  part  of  a  vessel  in  which  the 
after  extremities  of  the  outside  planking  end, 
either  on  the  wing-transom  or  against  the  tuck- 
timber. 

TUCK-RAIL.  A  rail  placed  at  the  upper  part 
of  the  wing-transom,  forming  an  abutment  and 
finish  to  the  ends  of  the  plank  in  square-sterned 
vessels. 

Tucker,  Samuel,  a  brave,  able,  and  successful 
naval  officer  of  the  Revolution.  Born  in  Mar- 
blehead,  Mass.,  November  1,  1747  ;  died  at  Bre 
men,  Me.,  March  10, 1833.  Son  of  a  ship-master. 
He  was  apprenticed  at  11  on  board  the  "  Royal 
George,"  and  before  the  Revolution  was  a  cap 
tain,  sailing  from  Boston  to  London.  Commis 
sioned  a  captain  in  the  Revolutionary  navy, 
March  15,  1777,  he  took  command,  in  Novem 
ber,  of  the  frigate  "  Boston,"  in  which,  in  Feb 
ruary,  1778,  he  took  out  John  Adams,  minister 
to  France.  He  took  many  prizes  in  1779 ;  aided 
in  the  defense  of  Charleston,  S.  C.,  and  was  a 

frisoner  from  its  capture,  in  May,  1780,  till  June, 
781,  when  he  took  command  of  the  "Thorn," 
and  made  many  prizes.  At  the  close  of  the  war 
he  received  the  thanks  of  Congress  for  his  ser 
vices.  In  1792  he  settled  in  Bristol,  Me.  In 
the  war  of  1812  he  captured,  by  a  ruse,  a  British 
vessel  which  had  greatly  annoyed  the  shipping 
of  Bristol  and  vicinity.  He  was  several  times  a 
member  of  the  Legislatures  of  Massachusetts  and 
of  Maine. 

Tug.  A  small  steamer  used  for  towing.  Also, 
to  row  with  great  exertion  and  make  but  little 
progress. 

Tugg  (Eng.).  A  heavy  cart  for  hauling  ship- 
timber. 

Tumble  Home.  To  narrow  in.  Said  of  the 
sides  of  a  vessel  when  they  incline  inboard  after 
reaching  a  certain  height. 

Tumbler.  An  attachment  to  the  jaws  of  a 
gaff  to  prevent  chafe  upon  the  mast.  Also,  a 
name  sometimes  given  to  the  porpoise. 

Tumble  Up.     To  hurry  on  deck  from  below. 

Tumbling  Sea.     A  rough,  irregular  sea. 

Turn-turn.  A  dish  made  in  the  West  Indies 
from  boiled  plantain. 

Tungula.  The  name  of  a  small  boat  in  the 
vicinity  of  Borneo. 

Tunis.  The  kingdom  and  city  of  Tunis  pos 
sesses,  as  its  navy,  2  small  armed  steamers,  an 
aviso  of  500  tons,  with  8  guns  and  engines  of  160 
horse-power,  and  a  transport  of  400  tons,  with  2 
guns  and  140  horse-power.  This  small  force  is 
soon  to  receive  an  accession  of  2  ironclad  moni 
tors,  now  being  built  in  France. 

Tunis,  the  capital  of  the  state  of  the  same 
name,  is  situated  at  the  mouth  of  the  Mejerda, 
on  the  west  side  of  an  oval  lagoon  connected  by 
a  narrow  strait  with  a  bay  of  the  same  name.  It 
is  surrounded  by  walls  and  defended  by  a  strong 
castle,  which  completely  commands  the  Goletta, 
or  narrow  strait  already  mentioned.  The  prin 
cipal  exports  are  oil,  soap,  wool,  hides,  cattle, 
sponges,  senna,  wax,  gold-dust,  etc.  The  manu 
factures  are  linen  and  woolen  cloths,  red  woolen 
caps,  pottery,  and  various  essences.  Lat.  36°  48' 
N. ;  Ion.  10°  24'  E.  Pop.  125,000. 

Tunny.  A  fish  of  the  genus  Thynnus,  of  the 
mackerel  family,  similar,  in  form,  to  the  mack 
erel,  but  much  larger,  rounder,  and  with  a  shorter 


snout.  It  is  one  of  the  largest  of  fishes,  tunnies 
weighing  1000  pounds  not  being  rare  in  the 
Mediterranean.  The  tunny  is  considered  excel 
lent  food. 

Turbot.  A  flat-fish  of  the  genus  Rhombus  (R. 
maximus),  with  a  body  nearly  circular.  It  grows 
to  the  weight  of  20  or  30  pounds,  and  is  much 
esteemed  by  epicures.  The  name  is  applied  in 
Scotland  to  the  halibut. 

Turkey,  Navy  of.  The  present  effective  ar 
mored  fleet  of  this  nation  comprises  15  large 
ships  of  various  types,  and  a  small  fleet  of  gun 
boats  and  river  monitors.  The  ships  are  for  the 
greater  part  of  English  and  French  build,  several 
being  of  modern  type,  furnished  with  Armstrong 
guns,  and  engineered  by  Englishmen.  Their 
principal  officer,  Hobart  Pasha,  was  formerly  an 
English  naval  officer.  The  Turkish  navy  also 
possesses  3  old  wooden  ships  of  the  line,  mount 
ing  an  aggregate  of  254  old  smooth-bore  guns;  5 
wooden  frigates,  and  7  corvettes,  mounting  about 
300  guns ;  also  21  smaller  craft  carrying  about 
80  guns.  There  are  also  4  paddle-wheel  vessels, 
mounting  4  guns  each  ;  3  sailing-cruisers  with  an 
aggregate  of  8  guns;  and  22  dispatch-boats, 
mounting  64  guns  in  all.  The  most  powerful 
ship  is  the  "Mesoodiyeh,"  built  by  the  Thames 
Ship-building  Company,  with  machinery  con 
structed  by  Messrs.  Maudslay,  Sons  &  Field. 
The  length  between  perpendiculars  is  332  feet ; 
extreme  breadth,  59  feet;  depth  of  hold,  36  feet; 
mean  draft,  25  feet ;  displacement,  8994  tons. 
The  armor-plating  on  the  sides  is  12  inches 
thick,  backed  by  the  same  thickness  of  East  In 
dia  teak.  The  armament  consists  of  twelve  18- 
ton  guns  on  the  gun-deck,  two  6J-ton  guns  on 
the  forecastle  and  one  of  the  same  weight  aft  on 
the  poop.  The  navy  is  represented  in  the  cab 
inet  by  a  minister  of  marine,  and  in  the  divan  or 
chancellery  by  an  assistant  secretary.  The  ser 
vice  is  divided  into  four  sections, — personnel,  ma 
teriel,  naval  constructions,  and  health.  The 
personnel  is  constituted  as  follows  : 

Executive  officers :  vice-admirals,  6  •,  rear-ad 
mirals,  11  ;  captains  of  ships,  131 ;  captains  of 
frigates,  23 ;  captains  of  corvettes,  54 ;  lieuten 
ant-captains  of  corvettes,  289 ;  lieutenants  of 
ships,  228 ;  ensigns,  187.  Total  executive  offi 
cers,  929.  Mechanicians,  480;  pay-officers,  33  ; 
medical  officers,  47;  staff-officers,  20.  Marine 
officers :  colonels,  2 ;  lieutenant-colonels,  7  ;  other 
officers,  82 ;  total,  91.  Total  officers,  1GOO.  Sea 
men,  active,  6000  ;  marines,  4500.  Total  officers 
and  men,  12,100.  The  navy  is  recruited  partly 
by  voluntary  enlistments  arid  partly  by  con 
scription. 

Turk's-head.  An  ornamental  knot  made  in 
the  upper  end  of  a  man-rope.  See  KNOT. 

Turn.  To  take  or  catch  a  turn,  to  pass  the 
bight  of  a,  rope  over  a  pin  or  cleat  in  order  to 
secure  it.  Turn  ahead,  to  go  ahead  slowly,  re 
ferring  to  the  engine  of  a  steamer.  To  turn  tur 
tle,  to  capsize.  To  turn  in,  to  go  to  bed.  To  turn 
in  a  dead-eye  is  to  fasten  a  shroud  around  it.  Turn 
ing-room,  sufficient  room  for  a  vessel  to  turn. 
Turn  in  the  hawses,  see  HAWSJD.  Turn  of  tlte 
tide,  the  change  from  flood  to  ebb,  and  vice  versa. 
To  turn  out,  to  get  up.  Turn  out  the  guard  !  the 
order  for  the  marines  to  form  in  line  on  the  quar 
ter-deck.  To  turn  over  men,  stores,  etc.,  to  place 
them  under  the  charge  of  another  officer.  Turn 
the  glass !  or  Turn !  the  order  to  turn  the  time- 


TURNBUCKLE 


824 


TYPHOON 


glass,  in  heaving  the  log,  when  all  of  the  stray- 
line  has  run  out.  To  turn  to  windward,  to  work 
to  windward.  Turn  up, the  hands!  an  order  for 
all  hands  to  come  on  deck. 

Turnbuckle.  A  link  for  connecting  two  parts 
of  a  bar  or  rod  together,  and  adjusting  the  whole 
to  proper  length  or  tension.  Both  ends  of  the 
link  may  be  fitted  to  screw-threads,  one  right- 
handed  and  the  other  left-handed,  or  one  end 
may  be  provided  with  a  screw-thread  and  the 
other  with  a  swivel.  The  link  is  turned  by 
means  of  a  bar  or  a  wrench. 

Turner,  Thomas,  Rear-Admiral  U.S.N.,  is  a 
native  of  Virginia.  Appointed  midshipman  from 
Virginia,  April  21,  1825;  attached  to  frigate 
"Constellation,"  Mediterranean  Squadron,  1827; 
sloop-of- war  "Warren,"  Mediterranean  Squad 
ron,  1830. 

Promoted  to  passed  midshipman,  June  4,  1831 ; 
frigate  "Constellation,"  Mediterranean  Squad 
ron,  1834,  and  frigate  "Delaware,"  same  squad 
ron,  1835. 

Commissioned  as  lieutenant,  December  22, 
1835;  frigate  "Columbus,"  East  India  Squad 
ron,  1840;  receiving-ship  at  Philadelphia,  1843; 
sloop  "  Albany,"  Home  Squadron,  1847.  Lieut. 
Turner  was  actively  engaged  in  the  war  with 
Mexico,  and  was  present  at  Tuspan,  April  7, 
1847;  receiving-ship  at  Philadelphia,  1850;  frig 
ate  "  Congress,"  Brazil  Squadron,  1851-53;  on 
ordnance  duty,  1854-57. 

Commissioned  as  commander,  September  14, 
1855;  commanding  sloop-of-war  "Saratoga," 
Home  Squadron,  1859-60.  Commander  Turner 
was  in  command  of  "  Saratoga"  in  the  engage 
ment  between  that  vessel  and  two  Spanish  steam 
ers,  the  "  Marquis  of  Havannah"  and  "  General 
Miramon,"  in  the  harbor  of  Anton  Leyardo, 
Mexico,  when  they  were  captured,  March  6, 
1860,  at  midnight. 

Commissioned  as  captain,  July  16,  1862. 

Commissioned  as  commodore,  December  13, 
1863;  commanded  frigate  "New  Ironsides," 
special  service,  1863  ;  commanded  frigate  "  New 
Ironsides"  in  the  attack  upon  Forts  Sumter, 
Moultrie,  and  Beauregard,  in  Charleston  har 
bor,  April  7,  1863.  Admiral  Dupont  was  on 
board  the  "New  Ironsides,"  and  commended 
Commodore  Turner  for  the  judgment  and  abil 
ity  with  which  he  handled  his  vessel.  Special 
duty,  New  York,  1864-65 ;  special  duty,  Phila 
delphia,  1866-67;  on  ordnance  duty,  Philadel 
phia,  1868. 

Commissioned  as  rear-admiral,  May  27,  1868 ; 
commanding  Pacific  Fleet,  1869-70.  Retired 
April  21,  1870. 

Turnpike-sailor  (Eng.}.  An  impostor,  dressed 
as  a  sailor  and  asking  charity. 

Turret.     See  IRONCLADS. 

Turtle.  The  popular  name  of  a  marine  rep 
tile  having  fin-like  paddles  instead  of  legs,  suited 
for  swimming  and  not  for  walking.  They  deposit 
their  eggs  in  the  sand  on  the  beach,  two  hundred 
being  sometimes  found  in  a  single  nest.  Some 
of  the  species  feed  on  aquatic  plants,  others  on 
crustaceans,  mollusks,  and  fishes.  The  flesh  of 
those  who  feed  on  vegetable  matter  is  much 
esteemed  for  food. 


The  green  turtle  (Chelonia  mydas)  attains  a 
weight  of  700  to  800  pounds  :  the  name  is  derived 
from  the  color  of  its  fat.  The  hawkbill  turtle  is 
valuable  as  yielding  the  best  tortoise-shell.  To 
turn  turtle,  to  capsize. 

TURTLE-CRAWL.  A  shallow  pond  where  tur 
tles  are  kept. 

TURTLE-PEG.  A  kind  of  spear  for  taking 
turtle. 

Tusk  (Eng.}.     A  fish, — the  Brosmus  vulgaris. 

'Tween-decks.  A  contraction  of  between- 
decks.  The  lower  deck  of  a  merchant  vessel. 
The  space  between  two  decks. 

Twice-laid  Rope.  Rope  made  from  second 
hand  yarns. 

Twiddling-line.  A  former  name  for  a  line 
used  to  steady  the  wheel  when  not  in  use. 

Twig.  A  slang  term,  meaning  to  know  or 
observe. 

Twig-ait  (Eng.}.     A  place  where  osiers  grow. 

Twilight  (Sax.  tweon-leoht,  doubtful  light). 
Twilight  begins  and  ends  when  the  sun  is  about 
18°  below  the  horizon ;  and  its  duration,  there 
fore,  varies  with  the  latitude,  for  the  time  which 
is  required  for  the  sun  to  rise  through  18°  verti 
cally  depends  upon  the  inclination  of  its  diurnal 
path  to  the  horizon  of  the  place,  and  is  greater  as 
this  inclination  is  less, — i.e.,  the  higher  the  lati 
tude.  The  twilight  is  the  best  time  for  observ 
ing  the  altitudes  of  the  stars  at  sea,  for  then  the 
horizon  is  in  general  clearly  visible  and  distinctly 
marked. 

Twine.     Small  cord. 

Twin-screws.  A  pair  of  screw-propellers  ar 
ranged  with  one  under  each  quarter  of  a  vessel, 
and  driven  bj7  separate  engines,  so  that  one  may 
back  while  the  other  is  going  ahead,  or  that  both 
may  act  together  in  either  direction.  This  ar 
rangement  gives  great  handiness  to  the  ship,  and 
foi4  light-draft  vessels  two  screws  are  more  effi 
cient  in  a  seaway  than  a  single  one. 

Two-blocks.  The  condition  of  a  tackle  when 
both  blocks  have  been  drawn  together. 

Two-handed  Fellow.  A  name  applied  to  a 
man  who  has  served  both  as  a  sailor  and  a 
marine. 

Twy.  The  name  given  to  a  sudden  squall  on 
some  parts  of  the  English  coast. 

Tye.  That  part  of  the  purchase  for  hoisting  a 
topsail-yard  which  is  attached  to  the  yard,  and 
passes  through  the  sheave-hole  in  the  mast  or  the 
tye-block  at  the  mast-head. 

TYE-BLOCK.  A  block  sometimes  used  at  the 
head  of  a  topmast  in  place  of  a  sheave  in  the 
mast,  through  which  the  topsail-tye  is  rove. 
A  tye-block  is  sometimes  used  on  the  topsail- 
yard  in  order  to  increase  the  purchase,  the  stand 
ing-part  of  the  tye  being  fastened  to  the  mast 
head. 

Tymoom.     A  boat  Used  on  Chinese  rivers. 

Tyndarides.  The  ancient  name  for  the  lumi 
nous  appearance  now  called  corposants. 

Typhoon  (Gr.  tuphos,  a  violent  wind  which 
whirls  up  clouds  of  dust  or  mist).  The  name 
given  to  the  hurricanes  or  revolving  storms 
which  occur  in  the  China  Sea  and  Indian  Ocean 
at  the  seasons  of  the  change  of  the  monsoons. 
See  STORM,  REVOLVING. 


825 


UNIFOKM 


U. 


U.  Abbreviation  for  you  in  the  U.  S.  General 
Service  Signal  Code.  In  the  log-book,  u  denotes 
ugly  threatening  weather. 

Udometer.     A  rain-gauge. 

Ugly.  Disagreeable ;  dangerous  ;  threaten 
ing, — applied  to  the  weather  or  sea. 

Ulcus.     An  old  term  for  the  hulk  of  a  ship. 

Uliginous.     Muddy ;  slimy. 

Ultra  Mare.     Beyond  the  sea. 

Ultra-zodiacal.  Beyond  the  limits  of  the 
zodiac. 

Umber.  An  African  bird  of  the  family  Ar- 
deidce,  allied  to  the  storks,  but  having  a  com 
pressed  bill  with  a  sharp  ridge. 

Umbrina.  A  genus  of  acanthopterygious 
fishes,  common  in  the  Mediterranean,  and  found 
also  upon  the  shores  of  England.  The  flesh  is 
white  and  of  good  flavor,  and  some  of  the  spe 
cies  are  remarkable  for  their  beauty. 

Under.  Under  canvas,  under  sail.  Underfoot, 
under  the  bows, — said  of  the  anchor  when  the 
chain  is  nearly  perpendicular.  Under  manned, 
short-handed  ;  having  an  insufficient  number  of 
men.  Under  masted,  having  masts  too  short  or 
too  slender  to  allow  of  sufficient  sail  being  car 
ried.  Under  sail,  propelled  by  the  action  of  the 
wind  on  the  sails.  Under  steam,  propelled  by 
steam-power.  Under  the  lee,  sheltered  from  the 
wind  by  some  intervening  object.  Under  the  sea, 
lying-to  in  a  gale,  and  making  bad  weather  of 
it.  Under  way,  see  AVAY.  To  under-run  a  haw 
ser,  to  haul  a  boat  along  under  a  hawser,  lifting 
it  out  of  the  water. 

Under-beveling.     See  BEVEL. 

Under-bright.  The  bright  streak  which  often 
appears  under  clouds  near  the  horizon. 

Under-current.  A  stream  which  sets  beneath 
the  surface-water  of  the  sea  whilst  that  is  either 
in  a  quiescent  state  or  moving  in  a  contrary  di 
rection.  Swift  rivers  may  run  out  at  the  surface 
whilst  the  flood-tide  runs  in  below. 

Under-tow.  An  under-current  found  at  the 
mouths  of  rivers  and  in  tide- waters. 

Underwriter.  An  insurer  ;  so  called  from  his 
underwriting  or  subscribing  the  policy  of  insur 
ance.  See  MARINE  INSURANCE. 

Undines  (Lat.  unda,  a  wave).  A  name  given 
in  the  fanciful  system  of  the  Paracelsists  to  the 
elementary  spirits  of  the  water.  They  are  of 
the  female  sex,  and  intermarry  with  human 
beings. 

Undress-uniform.     See  UNIFORM. 

Unicorn.     An  old  name  for  a  howitzer. 

Unicorn-fish.     The  sea-unicorn,  or  narwhal. 

Uniform  for  the  U.  S.  Navy.  Full-dress  uni 
form,  to  be  worn  on  occasions  of  special  ceremony. 
— Body-coat,  epaulets,  cocked  hat,  sword  with 
sword-knot,  and  blue  cloth  pantaloons. 

Undress-uniform  for  official  visits. — Frock- 
coat,  epaulets,  cocked  hat,  sword  with  knot, 


and  blue  cloth  or  white  drilling  pantaloons  to 
suit  the  season,  weather,  or  climate. 

Service  -  dress  uniform.  —  Frock  -  coat  with 
shoulder-straps,  cap,  pantaloons,  blue  or  white, 
to  suit  the  seasons  of  the  year,  weather,  or  cli 
mate. 

Officers  making  special  official  visits  of  cere 
mony  to  the  President  of  the  United  States, 
the  Secretary  of  the  Navy,  or  to  foreign  au 
thorities  and  vessels  of  war,  wear  the  full-dress 
uniform. 

When  making  an  official  visit  to  the  President 
of  the  United  States,  the  Secretary  of  the  Navy, 
or  to  the  heads  of  other  Departments  of  the  gov 
ernment,  and  to  foreign  authorities  and  vessels 
of  war,  officers  wear  the  undress-uniform  or  the 
service-dress,  as  occasion  may  require. 

Officers  serving  on  courts-martial,  courts  of 
inquiry,  boards  of  examination  or  special  boards, 
or  when  attending  as  witnesses  before  courts- 
martial  or  courts  of  inquiry,  or  in  any  other 
capacity,  wear  the  service-dress  uniform,  with 
out  swords,  unless  otherwise  specially  directed 
by  competent  authority. 

Officers,  in  their  social  intercourse,  when  it  is 
requisite  for  them  to  appear  in  evening-dress, 
may  wear  a  body-coat  of  blue  cloth,  after  the 
prevailing  style  of  a  civilian's  dress-coat,  with 
rolling  collar,  five  navy  buttons  on  each  side,  two 
at  the  waist  behind,  and  two  at  the  bottom  of  the 
skirt.  The  lace  and  corps  distinctions  on  the 
cuff,  same  as  on  full-dress  coats.  This  coat  may 
be  worn  with  or  without  epaulets,  but  not  with 
shoulder-straps  or  sword. 

It  is  optional  with  officers  to  wear  their  uni 
form  while  on  duty  in  the  Navy  Department,  at 
the  Observatory,  Hydrographic  Office,  or  on 
light-house  duty  ashore. 

Service-dress  uniform  is  worn  by  all  officers 
when  attached  to  any  vessel  of  the  navy  or  coast 
survey,  to  any  navy-yard  or  station,  or  to  any 
hospital  or  other  naval  establishment,  for  duty, 
unless  when  absent  on  leave. 

Chaplains,  when  performing  divine  service, 
may  wear  either  the  vestments  of  the  church  to 
which  they  belong,  or  the  uniform  prescribed  in 
the  regulations. 

Gloves  worn  with  uniform  are  always  to  be 
white. 

Officers  on  furlough  will  not  wear  their  uni 
form,  and  officers  are  strictly  prohibited  from 
wearing  any  part  of  it  while  suspended  from 
duty  by  sentence  of  a  court-martial. 

Officers  are  forbidden  to  wear  any  part  of  their 
uniform  with  citizen's  dress.  They  must  wear 
the  whole  of  their  uniform  or  none. 

Full  dress. — The  full-dress  body-coat  for  all 
commissioned  officers  is  of  navy-blue  cloth,  swal 
low-tailed,  double-breasted,  and  lined  with  white 
silk  serge ;  two  rows  of  large  navy  buttons  on  the 


UNIFORM 


826 


UNIFOKM 


breast,  nine  in  each  row  ;  standing  collar,  to  have 
one  strip  of  gold-embroidered  white-oak  leaves  for 
admiral  and  vice-admiral ;  to  have  a  strip  of 
navy  gold  lace  one  inch  wide  around  the  top  and 
down  the  front  for  rear-admirals,  commodores, 
captains,  and  commanders,  and  one-half  inch  wide 
for  lieutenant-commanders,  lieutenants,  masters, 
and  ensigns. 

All  staff-officers  wear  the  same  widths  of  gold 
lace  around  the  top  and  down  the  front  of  the 
collars  of  their  full-dress  body-coats  as  prescribed 
for  line-officers  with  whom  they  have  relative 
rank,  respectively. 

Midshipmen,  after  graduation,  are  allowed  a 
full-dress  double-breasted  coat,  nine  buttons  in 
each  row,  with  a  gold  cord  around  the  sleeve, 
and  an  anchor  in  gold  embroidery  on  each  side 
of  the  collar. 

The  full-dress  coat  is  worn  only  with  epaulets, 
cocked  hat,  sword  and  sword-knot. 

Midshipmen  at  the  Naval  Academy  wear  a 
strip  of  lace  one-eighth  of  an  inch  wide  around 
the  outer  edge  of  the  collar  of  their  parade- 
jackets. 

The  undress  and  service  frock-coat. — The  un 
dress  and  service  frock-coat  for  all  commissioned 
officers  is  of  navy-blue  cloth,  faced  with  the  same, 
and  lined  with  black  silk  serge ;  rolling  collar ; 
double-breasted,  with  two  rows  of  large  navy 
buttons  on  the  breast,  nine  in  each  row. 

Frock-coats  for  midshipmen  are  the  same  as 
for  commissioned  officers,  except  that  the  buttons 
will  be  of  medium  size  only. 

The  uniform  coat  for  boatswains,  gunners, 
carpenters,  and  sail-makers  is  a  frock-coat  sim 
ilar  in  every  respect  to  the  frock-coat  of  the  line 
and  staff  commissioned  officers. 

Clerks  and  mates  wear  a  double-breasted  frock- 
coat,  with  nine  navy  buttons  of  medium  size  on 
each  side. 

Sleeve  ornaments. — An  admiral  has  three,  a 
vice-admiral  two,  and  a  rear-admiral  one,  strips 
of  gold  embroidered  white-oak  leaves  on  the  cuff 
of  the  full-dress  coat.  The  undress-coat  of  an 
admiral  has  one  two-inch,  and  three  half-inch 
strips  of  gold  lace  on  the  cuffs.  A  vice-admiral 
has  but  two  strips  of  half-inch  lace  above  the 
two-inch  strip.  A  rear-admiral  has  only  one 
strip. 

Commodores  wear  one  strip  of  two-inch  gold 
lace  on  the  cuffs  of  both  full-dress  and  undress- 
coats  ;  captains,  four  strips  of  half-inch  lace ;  com 
manders,  three;  lieutenant-commanders,  two, 
with  a  strip  of  quarter-inch  lace  between  ;  lieu 
tenants,  two  ;  masters,  one;  ensigns,  one  quarter- 
inch  strip  ;  and  midshipmen  a  gold  cord. 

Staff-officers  wear  the  same  as  line-officers  with 
whom  they  rank,  the  corps  being  distinguished 
by  differently-colored  cloth  between  the  strips  of 
gold  lace.  Medical  officers  wear  cobalt-blue; 
paymasters,  white  ;  engineers,  red ;  naval  con 
structors,  dark  violet ;  professors  of  mathematics, 
olive-green. 

All  line-officers  wear  a  five-rayed  star  above 
the  gold  lace  on  the  cuffs,  the  star  for  an  admiral 
having  a  steam-frigate  raised  in  the  centre. 

Epaulets,  shoulder-straps,  etc. — All  commis 
sioned  officers  above  the  rank  of  ensign  wear 
two  gold-bullion  epaulets,  with  their  respective 
strap  ornaments  on  the  frogs. 

All  shoulder-straps  are  of  navy-blue  cloth  with 
a  border  embroidered  in  gold.  The  centre  and 


end  ornaments,  corps  distinctions,  and  indications 
of  rank  are  as  follows  : 

Admiral,  four  silver  stars,  with  a  gold  foul- 
anchor  under  each  of  the  outer  stars. 

Vice-admiral,  three  stars,  with  an  anchor  under 
the  centre  star. 

Rear-admiral,  two  stars,  with  a  silver  foul- 
anchor  in  the  centre 

Commodore,  one/star,  with  a  foul-anchor  at 
each  end  of  the  strap. 

Captain,  a  silver  spread-eagle,  with  a  foul- 
anchor  at  each  end  of  the  strap. 

Commander,  two  silver  oak-leaves,  with  a 
foul-anchor  in  the  centre. 

Lieutenant-commander,  two  gold  oak-leaves, 
with  a  foul-anchor  at  each  end. 

Lieutenant,  two  gold  bars  at  each  end,  a  foul- 
anchor  in  the  centre. 

Master,  one  gold  bar  at  each  end,  a  foul-anchor 
in  the  centre. 

Ensigns  and  midshipmen  wear  shoulder-knots 
in  lieu  of  straps  or  epaulets. 

Staff-officers  wear  the  same  strap  as  the  line- 
officers  with  whom  they  hold  relative  rank,  with 
the  following  exceptions  :  medical  officers  omit 
the  anchor ;  paymasters  substitute  an  oak-sprig 
for  the  anchor  ;  engineers,  a  device  formed  of 
four  oak-leaves  in  the  form  of  a  cross ;  naval 
constructors,  two  oak-leaves  and  an  acorn  ;  chap 
lains,  a  silver  cross  ;  professors  of  mathematics, 
one  oak-leaf  and  an  acorn  ;  secretaries,  the  letter 
<$•  in  silver. 

In  lieu  of  shoulder-straps,  boatswains  and  gun 
ners  wear  on  each  side  of  the  collar  a  gold  star  ; 
carpenters  and  sail-makers,  a  gold  diamond. 

Cocked  hat,  cap,  etc. — All  commissioned  officers 
above  the  grade  of  ensign  wear  a  black  cocked 
hat  bound  with  black  silk  lace,  and  ornamented 
with  a  gold  loop  and  a  black  cockade.  Cocked 
hats  are  always  worn  with  epaulets. 

The  cap  is  of  dark-blue  cloth,  with  a  plain 
black  silk  band,  and  may  be  worn  with  a  black 
glazed,  or  a  white  linen  cover,  as  circumstances 
demand.  The  cap  ornament  for  all  commissioned 
officers  and  midshipmen  is  a  silver  shield,  with  a 
silver  eagle  and  two  crossed  anchors  in  gold.  A 
double-looped  gold  cord  is  also  worn.  Warrant- 
officers  wear  two  gold  anchors  crossed.  Mates 
wear  a  plain,  vertical,  gold  anchor. 

Pantaloons. — For  full-dress  the  pantaloons  of 
all  commissioned  officers  is  of  blue  cloth,  with  a 
heavy  strip  of  gold  lace  down  the  outer  seams. 
For  undress  and  service-dress,  pantaloons  are  of 
blue  cloth  or  white  duck. 

Vests. — Single-breasted,  standing  collar,  nine 
small  buttons,  and  made  of  navy-blue  cloth  or 
white  duck. 

Jackets. — Jackets  may  be  worn  as  service-dress, 
except  at  general  muster,  or  on  occasions  of  special 
ceremony.  They  are  of  navy-blue  cloth,  with  a 
rolling  collar,  and  trimmed  in  the  same  manner 
as  the  service-coat.  White  linen  jackets  with 
out  straps  and  sleeve  ornaments  may  be  worn  in 
warm  weather. 

Sack-coats. — Single-breasted  sack-coats  with 
standing  collar,  cuffs  trimmed  with  black  lace 
in  lieu  of  gold,  with  the  shoulder-strap  device 
(omitting  the  duplicate  end  device)  on  the  col 
lar,  may  be  worn  under  certain  circumstances. 

Overcoats. — Overcoats  are  of  heavy  navy-blue 
beaver  or  pilot  cloth,  with  or  without  a  cape  ; 
double-breasted,  five  buttons  on  each  breast. 


UNION 


827 


TJESA  MAJOK 


On  the  collar  are  worn  the  devices  authorized  for 
sack-coats.  Mates,  clerks,  and  warrant-officers 
wear  no  device  on  their  overcoats. 

Swords,  sword-belts,  etc. — The  sword  has  a  cut- 
and-thrust  blade,  half-basket  hilt,  white  grip, 
and  a  black  leather  scabbard,  with  mountings 
of  yellow  gilt.  Midshipmen  may  wear  a  dirk. 

The  full-dress  sword-belt  of  admjral  and  vice- 
admiral  is  of  navy-blue  cloth  with  a  gold  cord 
around  the  edge,  and  a  strip  of  gold-embroidered 
white-oak  leaves  running  through  the  centre. 
The  full-dress  sword-belt  of  all  other  commis 
sioned  officers  is.of  blue  webbing  with  gold  cord 
woven  in,  the  arrangement  of  the  gold  cord  in 
dicating  the  rank  of  the  wearer.  The  service- 
dress  sword-belt  for  all  officers  is  of  plain  black 
glazed  leather. 

The  sword-knot  for  all  commissioned  officers 
is  a  gold  strap  24  inches  long,  including  the  tas 
sel,  gold  slide,  tassel  of  twelve  gold  bullions  and 
basket-worked  head. 

Union.  The  upper  inner  corner  of  a  flag, 
which  generally  contains  objects  emblematical 
of  the  country  represented  by  the  flag.  Thus, 
the  union  of  the  flag  of  the  United  States  is  a 
blue  field  containing  a  white  star  for  every  State. 
In  small  flags  there  are  ordinarily  but  thirteen 
stars, — one  for  each  of  the  original  States.  When 
a  ship  hoists  her  flag  union  down  it  is  a  signal 
of  distress. 

Union  Coupling.  A  contrivance  for  joining 
two  sections  of  small  pipe,  so  that  thej'  may  be 
readily  connected  or  disconnected  without  dis 
turbing  other  joints.  It  consists  mainly  of  a 
pair  of  cylindrical  shells,  screwed  or  otherwise 
secured  to  the  ends  of  the  pipes,  one  of  which, 
the  male  part,  has  a  screw-thread  cut  upon  its 
outer  surface,  and  the  other  a  flange  which  re 
tains  a  flanged  ring,  free  to  turn  and  provided 
with  suitable  projections  (usually  forming  a  hex 
agon)  to  receive  a  wrench,  and  on  the  interior 
surface  of  which  is  cut  a  female  screw-thread 
matching  the  thread  of  the  male  part.  The  joint 
between  the  two  parts  is  made  fluid-tight  by 
washers  or  packing  of  leather,  gum,  cotton- wick- 
ing,  etc.  See  HUSK-COUPLING. 

Union  Jack.  A  small  flag  corresponding  in 
appearance  to  the  union  of  the  national  flag. 
See  JACK. 

Universal  Coupling.  A  coupling  which  per 
mits  the  parts  united  to  assume  various  angular 
relations  to  each  other. 

Universal  Joint.  A  contrivance  for  coupling 
rotating  shafts  whose  axes  intersect  each  other  in 
a  point.  A  joint,  or  system  of  joints,  so  arranged 
between  two  pipes  or  sections  of  pipe  that  their 
axes  may  be  turned  in  any  direction  relatively 
one  to  the  other. 

Unrig.     To  strip  of  rigging. 

Unukalhai.     The  star  a  Serpentis. 

Up.  The  helm  is  up  when  the  tiller  is  borne 
over  to  windward.  Up  anchor!  the  boatswain's 
cry  to  the  men  to  take  their  stations  for  weigh 
ing  anchor.  Up-and-down,  perpendicular  ;  ver 
tical.  Up  boats!  the  order  to  the  men  to  take 
their  stations  for  running  the  boats  up  to  the 
davits.  Up  courses!  the  order  to  haul  up  the 
courses. 

Uphroe.  A  wooden  slat  with  a  range  of  holes 
through  which  the  small  lines  of  a  crow-foot  are 
rove. 

Upper  Deck.    The  spar-deck. 


Upper-works.  The  ship's  frame  above  the 
water-line. 

Upshur,  John  H.,  Commodore  U.S.N.  Born 
in  Virginia,  December  5,  1823.  Appointed  from 
Virginia,  November  4,  1841 ;  attached  to  frigate 
"  Congress,''  Mediterranean  Squadron,  1841-43  ; 
sloop  "St.  Mary's,"  Mediterranean  Squadron, 
1843-46  ;  Home  Squadron,  during  Mexican  war ; 
in  the  Naval  Battery,  during  the  bombardment 
of  Vera  Cruz  ;  Naval  School,  1847. 

Promoted  to  passed  midshipman,  August  10, 
1847;  frigate  "Cumberland,"  Mediterranean 
Squadron,  1849-50 ;  ordnance  duty,  1852  ;  store- 
ship  "Supply,"  East  India  Squadron,  1853-56. 

Promoted  to  master,  1855. 

Commissioned  as  lieutenant,  September  14, 
1855;  ordnance  duty,  Washington  Navy- 
Yard,  1856-57;  sloop  "Cumberland,"  coast  of 
Africa,  1858-59  ;  instructor  at  Naval  Academy, 
1859-60;  North  Atlantic  Blockading  Squadron, 
1861 ;  at  capture  of  forts  at  Hatteras,  N.  C. ; 
steam-frigate  "  Wabash,"  South  Atlantic  Block 
ading  Squadron,  1861  ;  present  at  battle  of  Port 
Royal;  commanding  steamer  "Flambeau," 
South  Atlantic  Blockading  Squadron,  1862-63; 
several  expeditions  up  the  rivers  of  South  Caro 
lina. 

Commissioned  as  lieutenant-commander,  July 
16,  1862;  commanding  steam-frigate  "Minne 
sota,"  flag-ship  North  Atlantic  Blockading 
Squadron,  1863-64;  commanding  steamer  "A. 
D.  Vance,"  North  Atlantic  Blockading  Squad 
ron,  1864-65;  at  capture  of  Fort  Fisher,  Janu 
ary,  1865;  commanding  steamer  "Frolic,"  Eu 
ropean  Squadron,  1865-67. 

Commissioned  as  commander,  July  25,  1866 ; 
commanding  apprentice-ship  "Saratoga,"  1868- 
70;  special  duty,  New  London,  Conn.,  1871-73. 

Commissioned  as  captain,  January  31,  1872; 
commanding  "  Brooklyn"  (second-rate),  South 
Atlantic  Station,  1875-76;  member  Board  of  In 
spection,  1877-80. 

Promoted  to  commodore,  July  11,  1880. 

Uptake.  The  portion  of  a  marine  steam- 
boiler  in  which  the  gases  of  combustion,  after 
having  passed  through  the  flues  or  tubes,  are  col 
lected  and  turned  upwards  toward  the  chimney. 

Uranus.  In  1781,  Sir  William  Herschel  dis 
covered  what  was  thought  to  be  a  comet ;  fur 
ther  observation  proved  it  to  be  a  planet.  Her 
schel  proposed  to  name  it  Georgium  Sidus  in 
honor  of  the  reigning  king  of  England.  La 
place  proposed  to  call  it  Herschel  for  its  discov 
erer.  It  finally  received  the  name  of  Uranus, 
who  in  ancient  mythology  was  the  father  of 
Saturn.  Its  mean  distance  from  the  sun  is  1828 
millions  of  miles  ;  diameter,  36,000  miles ;  ap 
parent  diameter,  4X/  ;  period  of  revolution,  84 
years.  It  is  attended  by  4  satellites  at  distances 
varying  from  120,000  to  380,000  miles.  Con 
trary  to  the  general  law,  the  motion  of  the  sat 
ellites  in  their  orbits  is  retrograde.  Symbol  $, 
the  initial  of  Herschel,  with  a  globe  suspended 
from  the  cross-bar. 

Urea.    An  armed  Spanish  fly-boat. 

Ursa  Major  (Lai.  "  The  Greater  Bear").  The 
most  brilliant  constellation  of  the  northern  hemis 
phere,  consisting  of  7  principal  stars.  By  the 
common  people  of  most  countries  this  group  is 
called  the  wagonf  the  great  dipper,  and  sometimes 
the  plow;  in  England  it  has  been  known  as 
Charles's  wain.  The  four  stars,  a,  (3,  y,  6,  form  a 


UKSA  MINOR 


828 


VANCOUVER 


trapezium,  the  longest  side  of  which  contains  a 
and  6,  y  being  in  the  opposite  angle  to  a ;  next 
to  6  is  affixed  a  scalene  triangle,  formed  by  the 
stars  e,  £  77,  which  represent  the  tail  of  the  Bear. 
The  two  stars  /?  and  a  are  called  the  pointers,  as 
they  point  to  the  pole  star.  They  are  5°  apart, 
and  hence  convenient  to  measure  distances  by. 
a  Ursce  Majoris,  Dubhe  ;  ft,  Merak ;  y,  Phecda. 
The  star  at  the  bend  of  the  handle  is  called  Mizar  ; 
near  it  is  a  small  star  ( Alcor),  which  was  regarded 
in  early  days  as  a  test  of  keen  visioil ;  the  Arabs 
called  it  Saidak,  or  the  proof.  It  is  now  easily 
seen. 

Ursa  Minor  (Lai.  "  The  Lesser  Bear").  A  con 


stellation  popularly  known  as  the  little  dipper. 
It  is  similar  in  form  to  Ursa  Major,  the  trapezium 
of  the  one  being  adjacent  to  the  triangle  of  the 
other,  a  Ursce  Minoris,  Polaris ;  ft,  Kochab. 
See  POLARIS. 

Usages.  Besides  the  general  laws  of  mer 
chants,  there  are  certain  commercial  and  sea 
faring  usages  which  prevail  in  particular  countries 
with  the  force  of  law.  Underwriters  are  bound 
by  usages  ;  and  they  are  legal  precedents  bind 
ing  in  courts-martial. 

Ushant  Team  (Eng.).  The  sobriquet  given 
to  that  portion  of  the  Channel  fleet  which  block 
aded  Brest. 


V. 


V.  In  the  log-book,  v  denotes  visibility  of 
distant  objects. 

Vacuum-gauge.  An  instrument  for  indicat 
ing  the  degree  of  vacuum,  or  the  preponderance 
of  the  atmospheric  pressure  over  that  of  the  air, 
vapor,  or  gas  contained  within  a  vessel,  such  as 
the  receiver  of  an  air-pump  or  the  condenser  of 
a  steam-engine.  Like  a  steam-  or  pressure-gauge, 
it  depends  for  its  action  upon  the  resilience  of 
metal  or  the  height  of  a  column  of  mercury  or 
water.  The  indications  are  observed  either  by 
an  index  on  a  disk,  or  a  scale  showing  the  vary 
ing  height  of  a  column  of  liquid;  and  the  unit 
of  measure  is  usually  considered  as  one  inch  in 
height  of  a  column  of  mercury. 

Vacuum-pump.  A  pump  for  exhausting  an 
air-tight  chamber  or  reservoir  of  its  fluid  con 
tents,  leaving  a  vacuum  within. 

Vacuum-valve.  A  valve  for  admitting  air 
or  other  fluid  to  a  vacuum  within  a  vessel  or 
chamber,  and  restoring  equilibrium  with  atmos 
pheric  pressure.  The  reverse-valve  of  a  steam- 
boiler  is  sometimes  called  a  vacuum-valve.  See 
REVERSE-VALVE. 

Vail.  An  old  word  for  lower ;  as,  to  vail  the 
topsails  as  a  salute  or  in  token  of  submission. 

Vakka.  A  large  canoe  of  the  Friendly 
Islands. 

Vallejo  is  situated  on  the  northeastern  shore  of 
San  Pablo  Bay,  at  the  mouth  of  Napa  Creek,  and 
near  the  west  end  of  the  Strait  of  Carquinez,  in 
Solano  County,  Cal.  It  has  a  large  and  safe  har 
bor,  and  is  accessible  to  the  largest  sea-going  ships. 
It  has  several  flouring-mills,  ship-yards,  and  shoe- 
factories.  Large  quantities  of  grain  are' shipped 
here.  It  has  manufactories  of  steam-engines, 
boilers,  sash,  doors,  etc.  A  U.  S.  navy-yard  is 
located  here,  on  Mare  Island,  for  a  description  of 
which  see  NAVY- YARD,  MARE  ISLAND,  CALI 
FORNIA.  Pop.  10,000. 

Valparaiso,  the  capital  of  the  province  of  the 
same  name,  and  the  principal  port  of  Chili,  is 
situated  on  a  large  bay  in  the  Pacific,  in  lat.  33° 
V  66"  S.,  Ion.  71°  41'  45"  W.  The  Bay  of 
Valparaiso  is  of  a  semicircular  form,  and  capable 
of  accommodating  a  very  large  fleet.  It  is  well 


sheltered  on  the  east,  south,  and  west,  but  is  en 
tirely  open  toward  the  north  ;  and  during  the 
prevalence  of  winds  from  this  quarter  in  the 
winter  season,  accompanied  by  a  heavy,  rolling 
sea,  the  shipping  is  much  exposed.  The  city  is 
the  greatest  commercial  port  of  the  Pacific  coast 
of  South  America  ;  about  3000  vessels  enter  and 
clear  the  port  annually,  and  the  city  has  an  im 
port  trade  of  $35,000,000,  and  the  exports  amount 
to  $15,000,000.  Pop.  98,000. 

Valve.  In  mechanism,  a  contrivance  for  con 
trolling  the  flow  of  confined  fluids.  Automatic 
valves,  used  in  pumps,  are  usually  made  of  hinged 
plates  or  of  flexible  material,  such  as  leather, 
gum,  etc.,  or  consist  of  lifting  disk-valves  guided 
by  spindles  or  vanes.  These  valves,  which  are 
fitted  to  seats  having  necessary  openings  for  the 
passage  of  the  fluid,  yield  readily  to  its  pressure 
in  one  direction  ;  but,  by  their  weight  or  resil 
ience,  descend  to  their  seats  and  prevent  its  re 
flux  when  the  pressure  ceases ;  stop-valves,  or 
valves  for  regulating  the  flow  of  fluid,  are  so 
arranged  as  to  be  opened,  closed,  or  adjusted  by 
hand  ;  and  the  steann-  and  exhaust-valves  of  en 
gines,  of  which  there  are  many  varieties,  are 
actuated  by  mechanism  called  valve-gear. 

VALVE-CHAMBER.  A  chamber  which  con 
tains  a  valve  (or  set  of  valves)  with  its  seat, 
guides,  and  guards,  and  in  which  it  performs  its 
functions. 

VALVE-GEAR.  The  mechanism  by  which  the 
valves  of  a  steam-engine  are  actuated  by  the 
main  running-gear.  It  includes  eccentrics, 
eccentric  straps  and  rods,  links,  pins,  cross-heads, 
rock-shafts,  and  arms  or  levers,  valve-stems,  etc. 

VALVE-SEAT.  The  surface  upon  which  a 
valve  bears  when  closed,  and  to  which  it  is  so 
accurately  fitted  as  to  prevent  the  passage  of 
fluid. 

Van.     That  part  of  a  fleet  which  is  in  front. 

Vancouver,  George,  navigator  and  explorer  of 
the  north  west  coast  of  America.  Born  about  1757; 
died  May  10,  1798.  Entering  the  navy  in  1771, 
he  accompanied  Capt.  Cook  in  his  two  last  voy 
ages,  and  in  the  latter  part  of  1780  was  appointed 
a  lieutenant ;  in  1790  he  was  made  master  and 


VANGEE 


829 


VEKA  CRUZ 


commander  of  the  "  Discovery,"  in  which  ship 
he  was  sent  out  to  ascertain  if  there  existed  in 
North  America,  between  the  30th  and  60th  de 
grees  of  north  latitude,  an  interior  sea,  or  any 
canals  of  communication  between  the  known 
gulfs  of  the  Atlantic  and  the  great  sea.  He 
sailed  from  England  April  1,  1791,  and  after  an 
examination  of  the  Sandwich  Islands,  crossed, 
in  March,  1792,  to  the  American  coast,  where  he 
received  the  surrender  of  Nootka  from  the  Span 
iards,  and  spent  the  summers  of  1792-94  in  sur 
veying  the  coast  as  far  north  as  Cook's  Inlet, 
wintering  in  the  Sandwich  Islands.  He  con 
sidered  his  explorations  to  have  settled  the  ques 
tion  of  a  northwest  passage  in  the  negative. 
Vancouver's  Island  was  named  by  him.  On  his 
return  he  surveyed  most  of  the  west  coast  of 
South  America  from  the  island  of  Chiloe,  visit 
ing  the  chief  Spanish  settlements.  He  was 
made  a  post-captain  in  1794,  and  arrived  in  Lon 
don  in  November,  1795,  in  a  state  of  declining 
health  from  the  effects  of  his  voyages,  but  de 
voted  himself  to  the  arrangement  of  his  manu 
scripts  for  publication  until  within  a  short  time 
of  his  death.  His  Voyages,  edited  by  his  brother, 
was  printed  at  the  expense  of  the  government, 
and  was  shortly  afterward  translated  into  French, 
German,  and  Swedish. 

Vangee.  A  contrivance  for  working  the 
pumps  of  a  vessel  by  means  of  a  barrel  and 
crank-breaks. 

Vangs.  Ropes  from  the  end  of  a  gaff  to  the 
side  of  the  ship  to  steady  the  gaff. 

Variables.  Those  parts  of  the  sea  where  a 
steady  wind  is  not  expected. 

Variation.  The  angle  which  the  magnetic 
meridian  makes  with  the  geographical  meridian. 
See  COMPASS. 

VARIATION-CHART.  A  chart  on  which  is 
shown,  by  curved  lines,  the  variation  of  the 
compass. 

Veer.  To  pay  out  a  rope.  To  wear  ship.  To 
change  direction, — applied  to  the  wind ;  the 
wind  hauls  forward  and  veers  aft.  It  is  also  said 
to  veer  when  it  changes  direction  against  the 
sun. 

Vega.     The  star  a  Lyrce.     See  LYRA. 

Vein.  Clear  water  in  the  openings  'between 
ice-floes. 

Velocity  (Lat.  vel/ox,  swift).  Rate  of  motion. 
The  velocity  of  a  body  is  uniform  when  it  passes 
through  equal  spaces  in  equal  times,  and  vari 
able  when  the  spaces  passed  through  in  equal 
times  are  unequal.  Velocity  is  purely  a  relative 
term,  for  there  is  nothing  which  in  itself  is  either 
swift  or  slow,  any  more  than  great  or  small. 
The  velocity  of  a  cannon-ball  appears  very  great, 
yet  it  is  slow  compared  with  the  motion  of  a 
point  on  the  earth's  equator,  carried  round  by 
the  diurnal  motion ;  and  this,  again,  is  far  in 
ferior  to  the  velocity  of  the  earth  in  its  orbit, 
which  in  its  turn  is  greatly  exceeded  by  the 
velocity  of  light. 

Initial  velocity,  in  gunnery,  is  the  velocity  of 
the  projectile  at  the  muzzle  of  the  piece ;  called 
also  muzzle  velocity. 

Remaining  velocity  is  the  velocity  of  a  pro 
jectile  at  any  point  of  its  flight  intermediate 
between  the  piece  and  the  point  of  striking. 

Terminal  velocity  is  the  velocity  with  which 
the  projectile  strikes  its  object. 

Final  velocity  is  the   uniform  velocity  with 


which  a  projectile,  descending  through  the  air, 
moves  after  the  resistance  of  the  air  has  become 
equal  to  the  accelerating  force  of  gravity.  It  is 
directly  proportional  to  the  product  of  the  diam 
eter  and  density  of  the  projectile,  and  inversely 
proportional  to  the  density  of  the  air. 

Vena  Contracta.  The  contracted  portion  of 
a  jet  of  fluid  issuing  from  an  orifice  in  a  thin 
plate  always  observed  at  a  short  distance  from 
the  orifice,  the  effective  area  of  which  is  thus  re 
duced,  at  an  average,  to  about  five-eighths  its 
actual  area. 

Vendace.  A  rare  species  of  trout,  found  in 
Lochmaben,  Dumfriesshire,  Scotland  ;  Coregonus 
WUlughbii. 

Vendaval.  A  stormy  time  on  the  coast  of 
Mexico,  in  the  autumn,  with  violent  thunder, 
lightning,  and  rain. 

Venice,  a  fortified  city  of  Northern  Italy,  one 
of  the  noblest,  most  famous,  and  singular  cities 
in  the  world,  is  built  upon  a  crowded  cluster  of 
islets  in  the  lagoons  of  the  same  name,  on  the 
northwest  of  the  Adriatic  Sea,  in  lat.  45°  25' 
N.,  Ion.  12°  20'  E.  Immediately  west  of  the 
island  of  Lido  are  the  islands  on  which  Venice 
is  built,  and  immediately  south  of  it  is  the  Porto 
di  Malamocco,  now  the  deepest  entrance  to  the 
lagoon,  and  the  seaway  for  vessels  of  the  greatest 
draft.  Venice  was  for  many  years  the  first  mari 
time  and  commercial  power  of  the  world.  The 
islands  upon  which  it  is  built  are  80  in  number, 
are  intersected  b}7  147  canals,  and  are  divided 
into  two  great  groups  by  the  Grand  Canal,  which 
is  about  two  miles  long  and  from  160  to  230  feet 
broad.  Many  of  the  inhabitants  are  employed 
in  fishing  and  in  navigating  vessels  belonging  to 
the  port,  of  which  there  are  about  30,000.  The 
value  of  the  imports  is  about  $25,000,000,  and 
exports  $12,500,000.  Lat.  45°  25'  49.5"  N.  ; 
Ion.  12°  2V  8"  E.  Pop.  129,000. 

Vent.  The  aperture  through  which  fire  is 
communicated  to  the  charge  of  a  gun.  An  axial 
vent  is  supposed  to  give  a  slight  increase  of 
initial  velocity. 

VENT-DRILL.  A  machine  for  clearing  the  vent 
of  a  gun  when  choked. 

VENT-PLUG.     A  leather  stopper  for  the  vent . 
of  a  gun  not  in  use. 

Venus.  When  most  brilliant,  Venus  is  about 
40°  from  the  sun.  When  it  appears  in  the  south 
west  just  after  sunset,  it  is  known  as  the  evening 
star, — the  Greeks  called  it  Hesperus.  When  it 
appears  in  the  southeast  just  before  sunrise,  it  is 
called  the  morning. star,  or  Lucifer.  Transits  of 
Venus  across  the  disk  of  the  sun  are  of  special 
importance  in  determining  the  solar  parallax  ;  the 
next  one  occurs  in  December,  1882.  Diameter, 
7600  miles ;  mean  distance  from  the  sun,  69 
millions  of  miles.  Symbol  9,  representing  a 
mirror. 

Vera  Cruz,  the  capital  of  the  state  of  Vera 
Cruz,  Mexico,  is  situated  in  a  sandy,  marshy, 
and  unhealthy  plain  on  the  southwest  shore  of 
the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  It  is  defended  by  the  strong 
castle  of  San  Juan  de  Ulloa,  built  upon  an  island 
about  half  a  mile  from  the  shore.  The  harbor, 
a  mere  roadstead  between  the  town  and  the 
castle,  is  very  insecure,  having  neither  good  an 
chorage  nor  sufficient  protection  from  the  north 
winds.  It  is  provided  with  a  good  stone  mole, 
and  on  the  island  of  San  Juan  de  Ulloa  there  is 
a  light-house,  showing  a  brilliant  revolving  light, 


VERITAS 


830 


VILLENEUVE 


89  feet  above  the  sea.  The  trade  of  this  city  is 
equal  to  that  of  all  the  other  Mexican  ports 
combined.  The  chief  exports  are  the  precious 
metals,  cochineal,  sugar,  flour,  indigo,  provis 
ions,  leather,  vanilla,  soap,  logwood,  and  pi 
mento.  Lat.  19°  IV  64"  N.  ;  Ion.  96°  8'  36"  W. 
Pop.  16,000. 

Veritas.  A  register  of  shipping  established 
in  Paris,  on  the  principle  of  Lloyd's  List.  See 
CLASSIFICATION. 

Vernal  Equinoctial  Point.  The  first  point  of 
Aries.  See  EQUINOCTIAL  POINT. 

Vernal  Equinox.     See  EQUINOX. 

Vernier.  A  small  graduated  scale  for  the 
measurement  of  minute  divisions  on  the  limb 
of  a  sextant,  scale  of  a  barometer,  etc. 

Vertical  Circles.  Great  circles  of  the  sphere 
intercepting  each  other  in  the  zenith  and  nadir, 
and  cutting  the  horizon  at  right  angles. 

Vespucci,  Amerigo,  was  born  at  Florence, 
March  9,  1451.  His  first  voyage  was  in  the  ex 
pedition  commanded  by  Admiral  Hojeda,  which 
sailed  from  Cadiz,  May  20,  1499.  The  continent 
of  America  received  its  name  from  this  navigator 
in  virtue  of  his  having  sailed  along  the  coast,  and 
being  the  first  to  publish  an  account  of  the  New 
World.  But  the  discovery  by  Columbus  was 
anterior  to  the  voyage  of  Vespucci.  Upon  his 
return  to  Europe  he  was  sent  to  Brazil,  and 
after  this  his  voyages  were  unimportant.  He  died 
at  Seville,  February  22,  1512. 

Vessel.  A  general  name  for  all  the  different 
sorts  of  ships,  boats,  etc.,  navigated  on  the  ocean 
or  on  rivers  and  canals. 

Vessels,  Title  to.  The  title  to  a  vessel  rests 
in  an  instrument  in  writing,  in  the  nature  of 
a  bill  of  sale,  which  is  required  by  law  to  be 
duly  acknowledged  before  a  notary  public,  or 
other  officer  authorized  to  take  acknowledgment 
of  deeds.  This  instrument,  as  well  also  as  every 
mortgage,  hypothecation,  or  conveyance  of  any 
vessel,  or  part  of  any  vessel,  must  be  recorded  in 
the  office  of  the  collector  of  customs  where  such 
vessel  is  registered  or  enrolled ;  and  without 
such  record  no  bill  of  sale,  mortgage,  hypothe 
cation,  or  conveyance,  is  valid  against  any  per 
son  other  than  the  grantor  or  mortgagor,  his 
heirs  and  devisees,  and  persons  having  actual 
notice  thereof.  It  is  made  the  duty  of  the  col 
lector  to  record  all  such  bills  of  sale,  mortgages, 
hypothecations,  or  conveyances,  and  also  all  cer 
tificates  for  discharging  and  canceling  any  such 
conveyances,  in  books"  kept  for  that  purpose,  in 
the  order  of  their  reception  ;  noting  in  such 
books,  and  also  on  the  instrument  "itself,  the 
time  when  the  same  is  received,  and  to  certify  on 
the  bill  of  sale,  mortgage,  hypothecation,  or  con 
veyance,  or  certificate  of  discharge,  or  cancella 
tion,  the  number  of  the  book  and  page  where  the 
same  is  recorded.  All  bills  of  sale  of  vessels 
registered  or  enrolled  are  required  to  set  forth 
the  part  of  the  vessel  owned  by  each  person  sell 
ing,  and  the  part  conveyed  to  each  person  pur 
chasing.  See  Revised  Statutes  U.  S.,  Sections 
4192,  4193,  4196. 

Via  Lactea.     See  GALAXY. 

Vice-Admiral.     See  ADMIRAL. 

Victualer.  A  vessel  which  carries  provisions. 
In  early  days  each  man-of-war  had  a  victualer 
especially  attached  to  her;  as,  in  Henry  VIII. 's 
reign,  we  find  the  "Nicholas  Draper,"  of  140 
tons  and  40  men,  was  victualer  to  the  "  Trinity 


Sovereign"  ;  the  "  Barbara"  of  Greenwich  to  the 
"  Gabriel  Royal,"  and  so  on. 

Vi  et  Armis.     By  force  of  arms. 

Vigia.  A  hydrographical  warning  on  a 
chart,  to  denote  that  the  pinnacle  of  a  rock,  or  a 
shoal,  may  exist  thereabout. 

Villeneuve,  Peter  Charles  John  Baptist  Syl 
vester  de,  a  French  vice-admiral,  was  born  at 
Valensoles  in  1763,  and  died  at  Rennes  in  1806. 
He  entered  the  navy  in  1778,  and  had  attained 
the  rank  of  capitaine  de  vaisseau  when  the  French 
Revolution  occurred.  He  was  made  a  rear- 
admiral  in  1796,  and  ordered  to  take  part  in  the 
Irish  expedition,  but  failed  to  do  so,  on  account 
of  adverse  winds  detaining  the  vessels  of  his 
squadron.  In  the  Egyptian  expedition  he  had 
a  command,  and  was  in  charge  of  a  division  of 
the  French  fleet  at  the  battle  of  Aboukir,  and 
came  out  of  that  terrible  action  with  four  vessels, 
which  he  succeeded  in  taking  to  Malta. 

In  1801,  Napoleon,  being  then  first  consul, 
placed  him  in  command  of  Martinique,  and  in 
1804  promoted  him  to  be  vice-admiral,  intending 
to  place  him  in  charge  of  the  naval  forces  during 
the  contemplated  descent  upon  the  English 
shores,  for  which  such  extensive  preparations 
were  making  at  Boulogne  and  elsewhere.  The 
plan  was  for  Villeneuve  and  his  fleet,  in  combi 
nation  with  the  Spanish  fleet,  under  Admiral 
Gravina,  to  sail  for  the  West  Indies,  as  if  to 
operate  against  the  British  possessions  there,  and 
thus  to  draw  off  the  bulk  of  the  British  fleet  in 
pursuit.  He  was  then  quickly  and  secretly  to 
return  to  Europe,  enter  the  Channel,  and  there 
find  the  rest  of  the  French  fleet  concentrated  to 
protect  the  crossing  of  the  army,  while  the  Eng 
lish  were  searching  for  him  in  far  distant  seas. 
Villeneuve  sailed  from  Toulon  in  January,  1805, 
with  28  sail  of  the  line,  but  put  back  on  account 
of  bad  weather,  and  by  delay  disarranged  plans 
which  depended  upon  too  many  contingencies. 
He  did  not  join  Gravina  at  Cadiz  until  April 
9,  at  least  two  months  later  than  the  arrange 
ments  called  for.  With  the  combined  fleet  he 
then  sailed  for  the  West  Indies,  where  he  took 
Fort  Diamond,  and  captured  a  valuable  convoy. 
During  this  time  Nelson,  who  was  ignorant  of 
his  destination,  was  scouring  the  Mediterranean 
in  search  of  him,  but  came  back  from  Egypt  to 
Naples,  no  wiser  than  he  went.  At  last  he  got 
upon  Villeneuve's  track,  followed  him,  and  was 
reported  at  Barbadoes.  The  French  admiral, 
having  drawn  the  English  fleet  to  a  great  dis 
tance,  then  hastened  to  return  to  Europe.  He 
captured  on  the  passage  a  most  valuable  prize 
in  a  privateer  with  a  rich  lading  of  specie  cap 
tured  from  the  Spaniards,  but  unfortunately  he 
was  detained  by  bad  weather,  and  was  42  days 
between  the  Azores  and  the  Continent.  Off 
Cape  Finistere  his  fleet  encountered  that  com 
manded  by  Sir  Robert  Calder,  consisting  of  19 
vessels,  and  an  engagement  followed,  which  was 
by  no  means  decisive,  and  the  inferior  English 
fleet  withdrew,  after  inflicting  much  damage 
upon  that  of  the  allies.  This  equivocal  victory 
irritated  Napoleon  exceedingly,  and  he  caused  a 
note  to  be  printed  in  the  Moniieur,  which  may  be 
rendered  as  follows : 

"  If  we  can  some  day  find  a  man  combining 
character,  courage,  coolness,  and  audacity,  the 
world  will  see  what  our  sailors  are  capable  of  ac 
complishing." 


VIOL 


831 


VULPECULA 


This  severe  reflection  upon  Villeneuve  was 
caused  by  his  delay  interfering  so  seriously  with 
Napoleon's  plans,  who  did  not  consider  that  he 
could  not  control  the  weather,  and  who  resented 
fiercely  Villeneuve's  failure  to  destroy  or  capture 
Calder's  squadron.  It  was  not  yet  too  late  for 
the  invasion  to  have  taken  place,  if  the  combined 
fleet  had  made  for  Brest ;  but  Villeneuve  saw  tit 
to  go  into  Cadiz,  where  Nelson,  who  had  returned 
from  his  fruitless  cruise,  at  once  blockaded  him, 
and  Bonaparte  was  obliged  to  give  up  his  cher 
ished  plan,  especially  as  the  state  of  affairs  in 
Austria  forced  him  to  give  his  personal  attention 
in  that  direction.  Villeneuve,  deeply  mortified 
by  Bonaparte's  reprimand,  determined  to  re-es 
tablish  himself  in  the  emperor's  favor  by  a  bril 
liant  and  decisive  action  with  the  English  fleet. 
Alluding  to  the  note  in  the  Moniteur,  he  wrote 
to  the  Minister  of  Marine:  "  If  it  be  true  that 
nothing  but  firmness  and  audacity  are  needful, 
I  will  leave  nothing  to  be  desired  on  that  score 
the  first  time  that  I  go  to  sea." 

He  was,  indeed,  at  that  time  making  up  his 
mind  to  measure  forces  with  his  great  adversary, 
Nelson.  Villeneuve  finally  sailed  from  Cadiz 
on  the  21st  of  October,  with  33  ships  of  the  line, 
"French  and  Spanish.  The  English  fleet  had  the 
same  number,  but  some  preponderance  in  weight 
of  metal,  and  a  great  advantage  in  discipline  and 
ability  to  manoeuvre.  The  plan  of  battle  which 
the  French  admiral  had  laid  down  was  rendered 
nugatory  by  the  audacious  movements  of  Nelson, 
who,  at  the  very  outset,  broke  the  French  line, 
and  fought  the  two  wings  separately.  It  was 
Napoleonic  strategy  applied  to  a  sea-fight.  The 
whole  world  knows  the  story.  Villeneuve,  in 
the  "  Bucentaur,"  was  soon  overmatched  and 
captured,  and  the  French  navy  received  that  day 
a  blow  from  which  it  was  many  a  year  in  recov 
ering,  while  the  English  lost  Nelson. 

Napoleon  heard  of  the  disaster  while  in  the 
midst  of  his  own  successes  in  Germany,  and 
never  pardoned  Villeneuve.  The  latter,  when 
liberated  by  the  English,  in  April,  1806,  re 
turned  to  France,  in  hopes  of  justifying  himself. 

He  wrote  to  Paris,  and  then  followed  his  let 
ter,  but  received  the  answer  of  the  Minister  of 
Marine  while  on  the  road,  which  answer  so  over 
whelmed  him  with  mortification  that  he  stabbed 
himself  through  the  heart  with  a  dagger. — E. 
Shippen. 

Viol,  or  Voyol.  A  large  messenger  formerly 
used  to  assist  in  weighing  an  anchor  by  the  cap 
stan. 

VIOL-,  or  VOYOL-BLOCK.  A  large  single- 
sheaved  block  through  which  the  "messenger 
passed  when  the  anchor  was  weighed  by  the  fore 
or  jeer  capstan. 


Virgiliae.     A  denomination  of  the  Pleiades. 

Virgo,  Constellation  of  (Lat.  "  The  Virgin"). 
The  sixth  constellation  of  the  ancient  zodiac, 
lying  between  Leo  and  Libra.  It  contains  a 
very  brilliant  star,  a  Virginia,  called  also  Spica, 
which  may  be  found  by  drawing  a  line  from 
Dubhe  through  Cor  Caroli,  and  producing  it  to  a 
little  more  than  the  same  distance  ;  or  it  may  be 
recognized  as  forming  an  equilateral  triangle 
with  Arcturus  and  /3  Leonis  (Denebola),  of  which 
it  is  the  southern  angle. 

Virgo,  Sign  of.  The  sixth  sign  of  the  ecliptic, 
including  from  150°  to  180°  of  longitude.  Owing 
to  the  precession  of  the  equinoxes,  the  constella 
tion  Virgo  is  no  longer  in  the  sign  of  this  name, 
the  constellation  Leo  having  taken  its  place. 
The  sun  is  in  Virgo  from  about  August  23  to 
about  September  23.  Symbol  "MJJ. 

Visible  Horizon.     See  HORIZON. 

Vis-viva.  The  product  of  the  mass  of  a  body 
multiplied  by  the  square  of  its  velocity.  It  is 
double  the  actual  energy  of  the  body,  which  is  its 
weight  multiplied  by  the  square  of  its  velocity 
and  divided  by  2  g.  Expressed  in  formula,  the 

m  v*        Wv* 

notation  of  which  is  evident,  — — -  =— — . 

2  2g 

Vitry.     A  kind  of  light,  durable  canvas. 

Vivier.  A  French  fishing-boat  having  a  well 
amidships  in  which  to  keep  the  fish  alive  until 
arrival  in  port. 

Vizy,  or  Vize.  An  old  name  for  the  muzzle- 
sight  on  a  musket. 

Voes.  Arms  or  inlets  of  the  sea,  or  sounds, 
in  the  Shetland  and  Orkney  Isles.  Also  applied 
to  creeks  and  bays. 

Vogovans.  From  voguer  and  avant,  chief 
rowers  in  the  galleys. 

Volans.    See  CONSTELLATION. 

Volley.  The  simultaneous  discharge  of  a 
number  of  fire-arms. 

Volligue.  A  small  boat  used  on  the  shores  of 
Asia  Minor. 

Voluntary  Stranding.  The  beaching  or  run 
ning  a  vessel  purposely  aground  to  escape  greater 
danger ;  this  act  is  treated  as  particular  average 
loss,  and  not  a  damage  to  be  made  good  by  gen 
eral  contribution. 

Voucher.  A  written  document  upon  which 
any  public  account  or  charge  is  established. 

Voyage.  A  journey  by  water,  including  both 
the  outward  and  homeward  voyages. 

Vrach.  Sea- weed  used  as  fertilizing  mate 
rial. 

Vulfe.  A  rapid  whirlpool  or  race  on  the  coast 
of  Norway. 

Vulgar  Establishment  of  the  Port.  See  TIDE. 

Vulpecula.    See  CONSTELLATION. 


w 


832 


WALKE 


W. 


W.  Abbreviation  for  word  in  the  U.  S.  Gen 
eral  Service  Signal  Code.  In  the  log-book,  w  in 
dicates  wet  dew. 

Wad.  A  plug  of  hay,  junk,  etc.,  fitted  to  the 
bore  of  a  gun,  and  placed  over  the  shot  in  load 
ing  to  keep  it  in  place.  G-rommet-wads  are  simply 
rope  grommets.  Junk-wads  are  made  of  coiled 
junk.  Selvagee-wads  are  made  of  rope-yarns, 
coiled  up  selvagee-fashion,  and  are  only  used 
with  round  shot. 

WAD-HOOK.     A  worm  (which  see). 

Wadmarel  (Eng.}.  Coarse  hairy  cloth,  used 
formerly  in  making  pea-jackets. 

Waffle-powder.  A  large-grained  powder,  de 
signed  by  Commodore  Jeffers. 

"Waft,  Weft,  or  Wheft.  A  flag  knotted  or 
stopped  in  the  middle  is  said  to  have  a  waft  in  it. 
This  is  a  signal,  used  at  the  staff  or  half-way  up 
to  the  gaff  to  show  that  a  man  is  overboard  ;  at 
the  peak,  a  desire  to  communicate  ;  at  the  mast 
head,  to  recall  boats,  etc. 

Wafter.     A  passage-boat. 

Waftors  (Eng.}.  Blunted  swords  for  exercise. 
Certain  officers  appointed  to  guard  the  coast 
fisheries. 

Wagering-policy,  or  Wager-policy.  An  in 
surance  policy  where  there  is  no  interest  in  ship 
or  cargo.  A  kind  of  wager  on  the  performance 
of  the  voyage. 

Waggel.  The  young  of  the  black-backed 
gull ,  Larus  marinus. 

Waghorn,  Thomas.  The  feasibility  of*  re 
viving  a  communication  between  Europe  and 
India  via  the  Ked  Sea  having  been  established, 
this  enterprising  Bengal  pilot  took  the  lead  in 
practically  showing  how  much  economy  in  time 
might  be  effected  by  the  formation  of  a  company 
that  could  equip  steamers  for  the  conveyance  of 
mails  and  passengers  to  and  fro.  His  scheme  was 
carried  out  by  an  enterprising  association,  bring 
ing  Bengal  10,000  miles  nearer  to  London.  He 
was  made  a  lieutenant  in  the  royal  navy,  and  re 
ceived  other  rewards. 

Waif.     Derelict  goods  ;  goods  not  claimed. 

Waist.  That  part  of  the  ship  between  the 
quarter-deck  and  forecastle. 

WAIST-ANCHOR.  The  anchor  stowed  in  the 
waist ;  the  sheet-anchor. 

WAIST-BOARDS.  Boards  put  in  the  waist  to 
prevent  the  water  from  coming  on  board,  espe 
cially  in  the  gangways. 

WAIST-BOAT.     A  boat  carried  in  the  waist. 

WAIST-BLOCKS.     Chess-trees  in  the  waist. 

WAIST-CLOTHS.  The  hammock  cloths  of  the 
waist-nettings. 

WAISTERS.  Landsmen  and  worn-out  seamen 
formerly  stationed  in  the  waist. 

WAIST-NKTTINGS.  The  boxes  on  the  rail  in 
the  waist,  in  which  hammocks  are  stowed. 

WAIST-RAIL.     The  molding-rail  in  the  waist. 


WAIST-TREE.    See  ROUGH-TREE. 

Wale-knot.     A  wall-knot. 

Wales.  Main  wales  are  the  strakes  from  the 
lower  port-sill  of  the  gun-deck  to  the  bottom 
plank.  Channel-wales,  sometimes  called  strings, 
are  those  strakes  between  the  spar-  and  main-deck 
ports  in  ships  of  three  decks,  and  spar-deck  ports 
in  those  of  two  decks.  Middle  wales  are  placed 
between  the  main-  and  gun-deck  ports  in  ships 
of  three  decks. 

WALE-PIECE.  A  piece  of  timber  bolted  hori 
zontally  along  a  dock,  about  the  height  of  the 
wales  of  a  ship,  to  serve  as  a  fender. 

WALE-REARED.     Wall-sided. 

Wales,  Philip  S.,  Surgeon-General  U.S.N. 
Born  February  27,  1837,  in  Annapolis,  Md. 
After  graduation  at  the  University  of  Maryland, 
and  a  course  of  study  in  the  Medical  Department 
of  the  University  of  Pennsylvania,  he  settled 
at  Baltimore,  Md.,  whence  he  removed  first  to 
Philadelphia,  Pa.,  and  afterwards  to  Washing 
ton,  D.  C.  Appointed  assistant  surgeon  August  7, 
1856;  Naval  Academy,  1857 ;  steam-frigate  "Mis 
sissippi,"  East  India  Squadron,  1858-60;  steamer 
"Water- Witch,"  1861.  Commissioned  as  sur 
geon,  October  12,  1861 ;  naval  hospital,  Norfolk, 
1863  ;  steamer  "  Fort  Jackson,"  North  Atlantic 
Blockading  Squadron,  1864,  and  same  vessel, 
West  Gulf  Blockading  Squadron,  1865 ;  Exam 
ining  Board,  1868;  sloop  "Portsmouth,"  South 
Atlantic  Squadron,  1868-69  ;  steam-sloop  "  Guer- 
riere,"  European  Station,  1870-72;  member 
Board  of  Examiners,  1872-74.  Commissioned 
as  medical  inspector,  June  30,  1873 ;  special 
duty,  Washington,  1874-79.  Surgeon-general 
and  chief  of  the  Bureau  of  Medicine  and  Sur 
gery,  with  relative  rank  of  commodore,  January 
26,  1880. 

Surgeon-General  Wales  is  a  member  of  the 
Academy  of  Natural  Sciences,  the  American 
Medical  Association,  and  the  Gynaecological  So 
ciety  of  Boston.  His  contributions  to  medical 
literature  comprise  "Surgical  Operations  and 
Appliances,"  "A  New  Method  of  Controlling 
the  Velum  Palati,"  "  A  New  Rectal  Dilator  and 
Explorer"  ;  papers  in  the  American  Journal  of 
Medical  Sciences  on  "  Cerebro-Spinal  Meningi 
tis,"  "  Amputation  of  Shoulder-Joint,"  "  Frac 
ture  of  Lower  Jaw,"  "  Gunshot  Wound  of 
Stomach,"  "  Ligature  of  the  Femoral  Artery," 
"  Fracture  of  Thyroid  Cartilage,"  "Operation 
for  Hydropthalmia,"  and  "Aneurism  of  the 
Heart"  ;  a  series  of  papers  in  the  Philadelphia 
Medical  and  Surgical  Reporter  on  "  Instrumental 
Diagnosis,"  with  a  paper  entitled  "Description 
of  a  New  Endoscope"  ;  a  paper  in  the  New  York 
Medical  Record  on  "  Traumatic  Tetanus,"  and 
numerous  reviews  in  various  medical  journals. 

Walke,  Henry,  Rear-Admiral  U.SiN.  Born 
in  Virginia,  Princess  Ann  County,  on  Lyn 


WALKE 


833 


WALKE 


Haven  Kiver,  Dec.  24,  1808.  Appointed  mid 
shipman  from  Ohio,  February  1,  1827  ;  attached 
to  receiving-ship  "Alert,"  Norfolk,  March  27, 
1827;  attached  to  "Natchez,"  West  Indies, 
July,  1827  ;  "  Ontario,"  Mediterranean  Station, 
February  8, 1829  ;  frigate  "  Constellation,"  June 
5,  1829  ;  detached,  November  16,  1831  ;  Naval 
School  at  Norfolk,  1831-33. 

Promoted  to  passed  midshipman,  June  10, 
1833;  "North  Carolina,"  Pacific  Station,  No 
vember,  1836,  to  July,  1839  ;  same  ship  in  New 
York  until  October  5,  1840  ;  "Boston,"  East  In 
dies  and  around  the  world  to  August  8,  1843  ;  brig 
"  Bainbridge,"  Brazil,  May  18,  1844,  to  Septem 
ber  17,  1845;  bomb-brig  "Vesuvius,"  West  In 
dies,  1847 ;  present  at  the  surrender  of  Yera 
Cruz,  Tabasco,  Tuspan,  and  Alvarado ;  trans 
ferred  to  frigate  "  Mississippi"  ;  frigate  u  Cum 
berland,  "  Mediterranean  Squadron,  1849-51. 

Promoted  to  commander,  Sept.  14,  1855  ;  com 
manded  the  "Supply,"  coast  of  Africa,  1858-59, 
and  in  the  West  Indies,  1859-60.  In  the  begin 
ning  of  the  Rebellion  Commander  Walke  ren 
dered  most  important  service  in  preventing  the 
capture  of  Fort  Pickens  by  the  Confederates, 
which  enabled  our  forces  ultimately  to  recapture 
the  navy-yard,  Forts  Barrancas  and  McCrea, 
and  Pensacola,  with  all  that  section  of  the  State 
of  Florida  which  borders  on  those  extensive  in 
land  bays.  He  also  rescued  all  our  loyal  officers, 
sailors,  marines,  and  government  employes  from 
want  and  imprisonment.  This  service  was  per 
formed  under  extraordinary  difficulties  and  un 
usual  circumstances,  which  compelled  him  to  act 
contrary  to  the  orders  of  the  commodores  on  that 
station  and  the  Secretary  of  the  Navy;  this  con 
duct,  although  highly  approved  by  all  fair- 
minded  officers,  was  censured  by  the  Secretary 
of  the  Navy.  The  late  Board  of  Rear- Admirals 
reported  that  it  was  especially  struck  with  this 
highly  creditable  and  meritorious  conduct,  and 
that  it  had  a  marked  and  important  bearing  on 
the  success  of  our  arms.  Commander  Walke  was 
the  senior  naval  officer  present  when  this  service 
was  performed.  Steamer  "  Mount  Vernon,"  May 
14,  1861 ;  ordered  as  light-house  inspector  of  llth 
district,  September  6,  1861,  but  orders  changed 
to  Mississippi  Flotilla,  September  6,  1861  ;  com 
manded  gunboat  "  Taylor,"  September  12, 1861, 
at  Cairo,  111. ;  commanded  gunboats  at  the  battle 
of  Belmont,  Nov.  7,  1861,  and  protected  the 
army  under  Gen.  Grant,  and  prevented  the  Con 
federate  army  from  cutting  off  a  portion  of  our 
troops  on  their  retreat  to  the  transports,  for 
which  he  was  highly  commended  in  the  general's 
report  of  the  battle  ;  commanded  gunboat  "  Ca- 
rondelet,"  13  guns,  partly  ironclad,  at  the  battle 
of  Fort  Henry,  February  6,  1862,— the  first  de 
cisive  victory  over  the  enemy's  fortifications  in 
the  Western  waters,  for  which  Flag-Officer  Foote 
and  all  his  officers  received  the  thanks  of  the 
Secretary  of  the  Navy,  of  Congress,  and  of  the 
State  of  Ohio  ;  commanded  the  "  Carondelet"  at 
the  battle  of  Fort  Donelson,  on  the  13th,  14th, 
and  16th  of  February,  1862 ;  commenced  the 
battle  alone  on  the  13th,  and  on  the  14th  held 
his  position  in  the  front  line  of  battle  in  the 
general  engagement,  being  the  last  to  retire  ;  the 
"  Carondelet"  was  thrice  as  long  under  fire  as 
any  other  gunboat  in  this  battle  of  two  days, 
and  her  loss  in  officers  and  men  greatly  exceeded 
that  of  all  the  rest  of  the  flotilla ;  commanded 
53 


the  "  Carondelet"  at  th.e  bombardment  of  Island 
No.  10,  March  17,  1862,  and  voluntarily  ran 
the  gauntlet  of  the  enemy's  batteries — April  4, 
1862— with  the  "Carondelet"  alone,  being  the 
first  example  of  successfully  passing  the  enemy's 
batteries  and  attacking  them  in  the  rear  on  the 
Mississippi,  and  finally  captured  the  enemy's 
batteries  below  the  island  on  the  6th  and  7th 
(with  but  little  assistance),  without  which  no 
further  attempt  would  have  been  made  to  cap 
ture  or  pass  that  island  by  our  army  and  navy. 
This  action  was  then  considered  the  most  im 
portant  victory  and  meritorious  achievement 
of  the  war,  as  it  broke  the  blockade  of  the 
enemy's  line  of  fortifications  without  the  loss 
of  a  man  on  our  side.  The  Secretary  of  the 
Navy  referring  to  it  wrote,  "  It  was  a  daring 
and  heroic  act,  well  executed,  and  deserving  a 
special  recognition.  These  fearless  acts  dismayed 
the  enemy,  and  eventuated  in  the  surrender  to 
yourself  of  Island  No.  10;  and  that  a  nation's 
thanks  were  due,  etc."  These  statements  of  the 
Secretary  of  the  Navy  were  approved  and  in 
dorsed  by  Flag-Officer  Foote.  May  11,  1862, 
Commander  Walke  led  our  fleet  at  the  battle  of 
Fort  Pillow,  with  the  first  division  of  the  flotilla 
attacked  the  enemy  and  rescued  the  gunboat 
"  Cincinnati,"  the  "Carondelet"  being  the  first, 
or  one  of  the  first  in,  and  the  last  out  of  the  battle, 
and  much  longer  under  fire  at  close  quarters 
than  the  rest  of  the  fleet,  and  she  remained  alone 
in  possession  of  the  battle-field.  In  the  battle 
of  Memphis,  June  6,  1872,  the  "  Carondelet," 
under  his  command,  was  second  in  the  line  of 
battle  with  the  flag-steamer  when  the  fleet  cap 
tured  that  of  the  enemy  (except  one  gunboat 
and  two  which  were  sunk),  with  several  of  their 
largest  steamers,  also  the  nav}--yard  and  all  their 
public  property,  with  the  city  of  Memphis.  The 
"  Carondelet,"  still  under  his  command,  was  the 
principal  gunboat  that  engaged  the  famous  Con 
federate  ram  "Arkansas,"  which  was  greatly 
her  superior  in  size  and  strength,  and  after  a 
well-contested  battle  the  latter  relinquished  the 
contest,  with  the  loss  in  killed  and  wounded 
greatly  exceeding  that  of  the  "  Carondelet." 

Commissioned  as  a  captain,  July  16,  1862; 
commanded  the  ram  "  Lafayette"  (partly  clad 
with  1-inch  iron) ;  passed  the  batteries  at  Vicks- 
burg,  April  16, 1863,  with  the  Mississippi  Flotilla, 
under  Rear- Admiral  Porter.  At  the  battle  of 
Grand  Gulf,  April  29,  1863,  he  led  the  second 
division  of  our  fleet,  which,  with  the  first,  nearly 
silenced  all  the  enen^'s  batteries  at  close  quar 
ters,  being  under  fire  more  than  5  hours,  when 
the  fleet  was  withdrawn,  and  he  was  ordered  back 
to  silence  the  main  fort,  on  the  Point  of  Rocks, 
with  the  "  Lafayette"  alone,  which  he  did  in 
about  25  minutes.  Having  passed  these  forts 
three  times  under  close  fire,  and  having  made 
the  last  attack  upon  them  alone  the  day  before 
they  were  evacuated,  the  "  Lafayette"  was  un 
der  fire  with  that  formidable  chain  of  heavy  bat 
teries  8  or  9  hours,  and  much  longer  than  the 
rest  of  the  fleet,  without  the  loss  of  any  of  her 
officers  or  crew,  and  but  one  officer  slightly 
wounded,  this  being  the  seventh  desperate  and 
victorious  battle,  in  which  there  was  but  1 
killed  and  2  wounded  under  the  command  of 
Capt.  Walke,  whose  vessels  were  always  as  much 
and  generally  more  exposed  to  the  fire  of  the 
enemy's  guns,  and  as  frequently  struck  by  their 


WALL-KNOT 


834 


WASH 


shot  and  shell  at  close  quarters  as  any  gunboat 
of  the  flotilla.  And  it  is  worthy  of  record  that 
his  officers  and  crew  were  always  required  to 
"  remember  to  keep  holy  the  Sabbath-day,"  ac 
cording  to  our  naval  regulations.  He  dis 
persed  the  Confederates  under  Gen.  Taylor  at 
Simmsport,  La.  ;  blockaded  the  mouth  of  the 
Red  River,  June  4, 1863 ;  ordered  to  the  command 
of  the  steamer  "  Fort  Jackson,"  July  24,  1863. 
Capt.  Walke  was  the  leader  and  one  of  the 
principal  actors  in  all  the  above-mentioned  ac 
tions,  and  for  one  or  two  of  these  Rear- Admirals 
Foote,  Davis,  and  Porter  were  thanked  and  pro 
moted.  September  24,  1863,  to  August  22, 1865, 
he  commanded  the  "  Sacramento"  on  special  ser 
vice  in  search  of  the  '"  Alabama,"  and  was  close 
on  her  track  when  she  was  sunk  by  the  "  Kear- 
sarge."  He  blockaded  the  Confederate  steamer 
"  Rappahannock"  at  Calais,  France,  until  the 
end  of  the  war,  and  intercepted  her  when  she 
escaped  into  British  waters  under  British  colors. 

Commissioned  as  commodore,  July  25,  1866 ; 
commanded  the  Naval  Station  at  Mound  City, 
111.,  May  1,  1868,  to  November,  1869. 

Promoted  rear-admiral,  July  13,  1870.  Retired 
voluntarily,  April  26, 1871  ;  member  Light-House 
Board,  1871-72.  Rear-Admiral  Walke's  ser 
vices  were  equal,  if  not  superior,  to  those  of  any 
other  officer  of  the  navy  with  the  forces  under 
his  command. 

Wall-knot.    See  KNOT. 

Wall-piece.     An  old  heavy  musket. 

Wall-sided.  Having  sides  nearly  perpendic 
ular. 

Walrus.  An  aquatic  mammal,  the  Triche- 
chus  rosmarus,  allied  to  the  seals,  with  long 
canine  teeth.  Its  flesh  is  good  for  food,  and  its 
skin  and  tusks  are  valuable. 

Walt  (Eng.).  An  old  word  for  crank,  or  tot 
tering. 

Walty.     Crank. 

Wane  (Eng.}.  Deficiency  in  timber;  want 
of  squareness  at  the  corners. 

Wane-cloud.     Cirro-stratus. 

Wangan.     A  provision-boat,  used  in  Maine. 

Wany.  Tapering  or  uneven ;  spoiled  by  wet, 
as  timber. 

Wapp,  or  Whap.  Formerly,  any  short  pendant 
or  thimble,  through  which  running  rigging  was 
rove.  A  rope  connecting  the  shroud  to  the 
laniard;  a  kind  of  stopper  for  the  shroud  with 
wall-knots  in  it. 

War-caperer.     A  privateer. 

Wardroom.  The  apartments  of  the  commis 
sioned  officers,  including  mess-  and  state-rooms. 
It  is  on  the  berth-deck  of  frigates  and  sloops,  but 
was  on  the  gun-deck  of  line-of-battle  ships. 

WARDROOM-COUNTRY.  The  open  space  be 
tween  the  state-rooms  in  the  wardroom. 

WARDROOM-OFFICERS.  Commissioned  officers 
messing  in  the  wardroom.  All  commissioned 
officers  in  the  U.  S.  navy  are  wardroom-officers, 
except  those  ranking  with  ensign.  When  an 
ensign,  or  an  officer  having  the  equivalent  rank, 
is  a  watch-officer  or  the  head  of  a  department, 
he  is  a  wardroom-officer. 

Ware.     See  WEAR. 

Warehousing.  Placing  goods  in  bonded 
warehouses  until  cleared. 

Warm-sided.     Mounting  many  heavy  guns. 

Warner  (Eng.}.  A  beacon,  buoy,  light,  etc., 
to  warn  vessels  of  dangers.  A  sentinel  formerly 


placed  on  heights  to  give  notice  of  the  approach 
of  vessels. 

Warning-lights.  Flash-lights,  burned  in  case 
of  emergency,  to  warn  vessels  of  danger,  etc. 

Warning- signal  (Eng.}.  A  signal  hoisted  to 
warn  vessels  not  to  cross  a  bar.  A  storm-signal. 

Warp.  A  tow-rope  or  light  hawser,  used  to 
move  a  ship  about.  (Eng.)  A  term  for  four 
herrings.  Land  between  sea-banks  and  the  sea. 
A  given  length  of  rope,  rope-yarns,  etc.  The 
threads  along  the  length  of  canvas.  Shroud- 
warp,  the  length  from  which  shrouds  are  to  be 
cut.  To  warp,  to  move  a  vessel  with  warps,  or 
lines,  fast  to  fixed  points.  To  stretch  rope-yarns 
into  fixed  lengths  for  tarring.  (Eng.}  To  flood 
land  near  rivers. 

WARPAGE.  A  charge  per  ton  for  warping 
ships. 

WARPING-BLOCK.  A  large  block  used  in  mak 
ing  warps  in  rope- walks. 

WARPING-CHOCK.  A  large  chock  placed  in  a 
port  to  lead  hawsers  through,  in  warping. 

WARPING-HOOK.  A  hook  used  by  rope-makers 
for  hanging  the  rope  on,  in  warping  yarns. 

WARPING-POST.  A  strong  post  in  a  rope- 
walk,  used  in  warping  yarns. 

Warrant.  An  instrument  conferring  author 
ity  upon  persons,  inferior  to  a  commission.  A 
writ  issued  by  an  inferior  power,  as  by  the  Sec 
retary  of  the  Navy.  A  document  assembling  a 
court-martial,  court  of  inquiry,  etc.  Dock-war 
rant,  a  custom-house  license  or  authority.  Press- 
warrant,  a  warrant  formerly  issued  giving  power 
to  press  seamen.  Brown-paper  warrants  (Eng.}, 
those  given  by  a  captain,  and  revokable  by  him. 
Acting  warrant,  a  warrant  given  by  a  com- 
mander-in-chief,  or  by  the  Secretary,  to  a  person 
temporarily  chosen  to  fill  a  warrant  office. 

WARRANT-OFFICER.  An  officer  holding  his 
position  by  virtue  of  a  warrant  issued  by  some 
power  inferior  to  the  supreme  magistrate,  as  by 
a  navy  board,  the  Secretary  of  the  Navy,  etc. 
Warrant-officers  are  selected  or  promoted  from 
seamen,  ship-carpenters,  etc.,  and  comprise  the 
boatswain,  gunner,  carpenter,  and  sailmaker. 
They  receive  at  sea,  in  the  U.  S.  navy,  from  1200 
to  1800  dollars  per  year,  according  to  length  of 
service.  They  rank  next  below  mates,  and  are 
quartered  and  messed  separately.  Formerly 
their  rooms  were  forward,  and  they  were  then 
culled  forward  officers,  but  this  name  is  no  longer 
used. 

Warranty.  A  contract  or  clause  in  marine  in 
surance  policies,  engaging  that  certain  things 
affecting  the  risk  shall  be  done,  or  shall  exist, 
etc.  Certain  warranties  are  implied  in  all  in 
struments. 

Warren,  Sir  J.  Borlase.  After  a  lengthened 
service  in  a  subordinate  grade,  this  excellent 
officer  was  fortunate  enough  to  capture  a  French 
line-of-battle  ship  and  3  frigates,  and  thus  gained 
promotion  to  the  rank  of  admiral.  In  1812, 
during  the  war  between  England  and  the  United 
States,  Sir  J.  B.  Warren  was  employed  on  the 
eastern  coast  of  America,  and  likewise  visited 
the  West  India  Islands. 

Warren-head  (Eng.}.     A  dam  across  a  river. 

War-ship,  or  War-vessel.  A  vessel  built  to 
engage  in  war :  a  national  ship,  armed  and 
equipped  for  war. 

Warth  (Eng.}.     A  ford. 

Wash.      Accumulated  silt  in   river  mouths. 


WASH-BOARD 


835 


WATCH 


Flooded  banks  or  sands.  A  shallow  inlet  or 
gulf.  The  blade  of  an  oar.  (Eng.)  A  Billings 
gate  oyster-measure,  two-thirds  of  a  bushel. 
Awash,  even  with  the  water's  edge. 

Wash-board,  or  Wash-strake.  Broad,  thin 
plank  fastened  on  the  gunwale  of  a  boat  or 
small  vessel,  to  keep  the  spray  out.  Boards 
fitted  to  the  sills  of  lower-deck  ports  of  a  liner. 
The  white  facings  of  old  naval  uniforms. 

Wash-clothes.  The  clothes  that  have  been 
washed  and  hung  on  the  clothes-lines  to  dry. 

Wash-deck  Gear.  The  brooms,  squilgees, 
holy-stones,  buckets,  etc.,  used  in  washing  decks. 

Washer.  A  ring  or  plate  of  metal,  leather, 
gum,  or  other  material  suitable  to  the  purpose 
intended,  placed  under  a  bolt-head  or  nut,  either 
for  distributing  the  strain  of  the  bolt  over  a 
greater  area  than  that  of  the  face  of  the  nut, 
relieving  the  friction  of  turning  the  nut,  or 
rendering  the  junction  tight.  A  loose  ring 
placed  between  the  hub  of  a  wheel  or  gun-truck 
and  the  linchpin.  A  ring  of  leather  or  gum  placed 
between  hose-couplings  to  prevent  leakage. 

Washington,  the  capital  of  the  United  States, 
is  finely  located  on  the  Potomac  River,  in  the 
District  of  Columbia.  Lat.  (of  Observatory) 
38°  53'  9"N.,  Ion.  77°  2'  48"  W.,from  Green 
wich.  That  portion  of  the  American  ephemeris 
which  is  designed  exclusively  for  astronomical 
use,  is  adapted  to  the  meridian  of  Washington, 
and  American  maps  are  frequently  constructed 
with  this  meridian  as  the  origin  whence  longi 
tudes  are  reckoned.  The  city  is  situated  between 
two  small  tributaries  of  the  Potomac,  the  one  on 
the  east  called  the  East  Branch ,  and  the  one  on  the 
west  called  Rock  Creek.  In  addition  to  its  being 
the  seat  of  the  national  government,  and  contain 
ing  all  the  Department  buildings,  it  is  also  the 
seat  of  the  U.  S.  Naval  Observatory,  one  of  the 
institutions  most  creditable  to  the  government, 
occupying  a  commanding  site  on  the  banks  of  the 
Potomac  southwest  of  the  President's  mansion. 
The  arsenal  on  Greenleaf's  Point,  at  the  junction 
of  the  East  Branch  with  the  Potomac,  is  one  of  the 
principal  establishments  of  its  kind  in  the  United 
States.  About  1|-  miles  northeast  from  the  arsenal 
on  the  East  Branch  is  the  navy-yard.  (See  NAVY- 
YARD,  WASHINGTON,  D.  C.)  The  government 
asylum  for  insane  soldiers  and  sailors,  and  the 
Soldiers'  Home  for  disabled  soldiers,  are  also 
located  here.  Pop.  160,000. 

Wash-water  (Eng,).     A  ford. 

Waste.  Material  which  cannot  be  utilized 
for  the  purpose  for  which  it  was  intended.  Cot 
ton-waste  is  the  portion  of  yarn  that  will  not  un 
wind  from  the  bobbins  of  cotton  machinery.  It 
is  used  for  wiping  oil  and  dirt  from  machinery,  to 
which  purpose  it  is  better  adapted  than  any  other 
substance. 

Waste-board.     See  WASH-BOARD. 

Waste-steam.  Steam  that  escapes  from  the 
safety-valve  of  a  steam-boiler,  or  leaks  through 
the  joints,  valves,  or  pistons  of  a  steam-engine. 

Waste-steam  Pipe.  A  pipe  for  conducting 
superfluous  steam  from  a  steam-boiler  or  other 
apparatus  to  some  convenient  point. 

Waste-water  Pipe.  A  pipe  for  discharging 
superfluous  water  from  a  reservoir  of  any  kind. 
Watch.  The  part  of  a  ship's  company  that 
work  her  for  an  allotted  time.  The  crew  is 
generally  divided  into  the  starboard  and  port 
watches,  but  it  may  also  be  divided  into  three 


watches,  as  is  at  times  customary  with  the 
firemen.  The  watch  are  not  required  to  keep 
their  feet,  or  even  to  keep  awake,  but  must  be 
ready  for  a  call,  and  cannot  go  below-decks. 
They  are  mustered  at  the  beginning  of,  and  often 
during,  the  watch,  by  a  midshipman,  or  other 
junior  officer,  or  by  the  captains  of  the  parts  of 
the  ship.  Both  watches,  or  all  hands,  are  called 
at  any  time  in  a  sudden  emergency,  when  the 
executive-officer  takes  charge  of  them.  The 
watch  is  set  at  8  o'clock  each  evening,  and  the 
relief  watch  is  called  generally  ten  minutes  be 
fore  12,  4,  etc.  The  watches  go  to  meals  sepa 
rately,  except  in  fair  weather,  under  steam  alone, 
when  both  may  go.  With  each  watch  is  a  boat 
swain's  mates,  one  or  two  quarter-masters,  one  or 
two  quarter-gunners,  a  carpenter's  mate,  and  a 
ship's  corporal.  The  marines  are  also  watched, 
in  connection  with  their  sentry-duty,  and  assist 
in  working  ship.  The  officers  of  the  line  (and 
engineers  when  steaming)  are  also  divided  into 
watches,  and  the  lieutenants  have  charge  of  the 
watch,  the  midshipmen  and  mates  being  junior 
officers,  stationed  on  the  forecastle  or  quarter 
deck.  The  first  and  second  lieutenants,  and 
staff-officers,  warrant-officers,  many  petty  officers, 
cooks,  stewards,  etc.,  are  not  watched,  and  me 
chanics,  etc.,  are  only  watched  at  night.  Watch 
and  watch,  the  usual  arrangement  in  two  watches, 
alternating  in  duty.  Anchor-watch,  a  detail  of 
men,  or  a  quarter-watch  kept  when  the  ship  is  at 
single  anchor.  Quarter-watch,  one-fourth  the 
working  hands, — half  of  each  watch.  The  watch 
is  divided  into  first  and  second  parts,  and  these 
comprise  the  quarter-watches.  To  relieve  the 
watch,  to  formally  shift  watches,  after  the  new 
watch  is  on  deck. 

The  length  of  time  into  which  the  day  is  di 
vided,  or  the  time  one  watch  remains  on  deck. 
First  watch,  from  8  P.M.  till  midnight.  Middle- 
watch,  or  mid-watch,  from  midnight  until  4  A.M. 
Morning-watch,  from  4  to  8  A.M.  Forenoon- 
watch,  from  8  to  12  M.  Afternoon-watch,  from 
12  M.  to  4  P.M.  Dog-watches,  two  watches  of 
two  hours'  length :  first  dog,  from  4  to  6  P.M.  ; 
second  dog,  from  6  to  8  P.M.  These  are  necessary 
for  shifting  the  two  watches,  so  as  to  give  each  a 
turn  of  8  hours  below  at  night.  There  are  no 
dog-watches  in  the  French  service,  and  instead, 
there  are  two  6-hour  watches.  Port-  or  harbor- 
watch,  an  arrangement  of  the  officers'  watches, 
by  which,  when  in  port,  two  remain  on  duty 
at  a  time,  alternating  the  watches.  By  the 
usual  arrangement  of  the  officers'  watches  at 
sea,  they  follow  each  other  in  succession.  A 
buoy  watches  when  it  floats  properly  on  the 
surface.  Watch  ho,  watch!  a  warning-cry  used 
in  heaving  the  deep-sea  lead,  to  indicate  that  the 
line  is  running  out,  and  to  warn  the  next  person 
holding  it.  To  watch  a  smooth,  to  look  out  for 
a  smooth  sea  before  putting  the  helm  down.  To 
watch  the  crew,  to  arrange  them  in  watches. 

WATCH-BELL.  A  small  bell  sometimes  used 
in  night-watches  instead  of  the  larger  ship's  bell. 

WATCH-BILL.  The  list  of  the  crew  divided 
into  watches.  It  is  generally  in  connection  with 
the  quarter-bill  and  the  station-bill.  See  WATCH-, 
QUARTER-,  AND  STATION-BILL. 

WATCH-GLASS.  A  half-hour  glass,  formerly 
used  to  indicate  time  during  the  watches. 

WATCH-GUN.  A  gun  sometimes  fired  at  8 
o'clock,  on  setting  the  watch. 


WATCH 


836 


WATCH 


WATCH-OFFICER.  From  three  to  five  officers, 
of  the  grade  of  lieutenant-commander,  lieuten 
ant,  master,  or  ensign,  are  ordered  to  each  vessel 
as  watch-officers.  Lieutenant-commanders  have 
been  seldom  assigned  to  this  duty  since  the  re 
duction  in  the  number  of  officers  in  that  grade, 
and  ensigns  are  sent  to  the  smallest  vessels  only. 

The  watch-officer,  while  on  duty,  is  the  repre 
sentative  of  the  commanding  officer,  and  his 
authority  is  subject  only  to  that  of  the  command 
ing  and  executive-officers.  He  executes  all  or 
ders  received  from  the  commanding  and  execu 
tive-officers,  and  must  conform,  in  his  manner 
of  carrying  on  duty,  to  the  regulations  and  to 
the  customs  of  the  service. 

On  taking  charge  of  the  deck,  he  informs  him 
self  of  the  position  of  the  ship  in  regard  to  all 
dangers,  as  shoals,  rocks,  land,  other  vessels,  etc. 
Throughout  his  watch  he  pays  strict  attention  to 
the  steering  and  logging,  and  is  careful  to  insert 
in  the  log-book  the  various  facts  and  data  re 
quired  by  the  instructions  in  the  regulations. 
He  reports  to  the  commanding  officer  all  facts 
of  special  interest,  such  as  the  making  of  land, 
or  of  a  sail  or  light.  He  should  never,  on  his 
own  authority,  carry  sail  beyond  the  limits  of 
prudence.  He  sees  that  the  etiquette  of  the 
quarter-deck  is  observed,  attends  all  commis 
sioned  officers  as  they  leave  the  ship,  and  re 
ceives  them  when  they  come  on  board.  During 
his  watch  he  is  responsible  for  the  proper  man 
agement  of  the  ship  under  all  circumstances,  and 
for  the  discipline  of  the  crew.  On  his  judg 
ment  frequently  depends  the  safety  of  the  ship, 
and  he  should,  therefore,  be  prepared  to  meet 
any  emergency  that  may  arise,  such  as  a  squall, 
fire,  collision,  etc. 

An  officer's  value  is  better  shown  in  avoiding 
difficulties  than  in  extricating  himself  from  them. 
If  the  subordinate  officers  and  look-outs  are  kept 
on  the  alert,  and  the  instructions  concerning  the 
running-lights,  fog-signals,  etc.,  are  strictly  en 
forced,  collisions  will  be  of  rare  occurrence.  If 
the  corporal  of  the  guard  and  master-at-arms  are 
thorough  in  their  inspections,  a  fire  can  make 
but  little  headway  before  discovered. 

And  so  in  regard  to  emergencies  in  general,  it 
may  be  observed  that  they  can  be  avoided  ordi 
narily  by  timely  precautions.  In  case  an  emer 
gency  does  occur,  there  are  two  qualities  which 
are  necessary  to  an  officer  to  carry  him  through 
creditably, — i.e.,  coolness  and  common  sense. 
Common'  sense  cannot  be  acquired, — it  is  a  natu 
ral  gift.  Coolness  is  born  of  confidence,  and 
confidence  is  inspired  by  experience;  of  this 
latter  article,  the  watch-officer  of  to-day  is  likely 
to  have  a  surfeit. 

WATCH-.  QUARTER-,  AND  STATION-BILL.  Bills 
or  lists  of  the  crew,  with  their  stations,  etc.,  at 
guns  and  on  the  yards,  prepared  by  the  execu 
tive-officer,  and  posted  so  that  the  crew  may  see 
them.  The  bills  in  the  IT.  S.  navy  are  now  uni 
form  for  all  ships,  and  consist  of  several  parts. 
A  general  description  of  the  vessel  and  of  her 
engines  is  first  given.  Next  a  description  of  her 
battery,  of  the  capacity  of  magazines,  shell-rooms, 
and  of  the  powder-tanks,  and  the  number  of 
small-arms.  A  diagram  of  the  vessel  follows, 
then  a  description  of  the  boats,  of  the  life-rafts, 
life-preservers,  pumps  and  hose,  and  of  the  ca 
pacity  of  the  water-tanks.  The  dimensions  of 
spars  and  the  sail-areas  follow,  then  the  anchors, 


chains  and  hawsers,  and  the  spare  spars  and 
sails.  A  list  of  the  officers,  the  complement  of 
the  crew,  and  the  force-bill  terminate  this  pre 
liminary  portion. 

Next  comes  the  watch-bill.  The  crew  are  di 
vided  into  several  parts,  aside  from  the  main 
division  into  two  watches,  viz.,  forecastle,  fore- 
top,  main-top,  mizzen-top,  and  after-guard,  each 
consisting  of  first  and  second  parts,  and  petty 
officers,  watched  messengers,  idlers,  mechanics, 
engineer's  force,  marines,  and  bandsmen.  Each 
man's  name  is  written,  with  his  rate  or  rank, 
opposite  a  number,  odd  numbers  in  the  starboard, 
even  in  the  port  watch,  beginning  with  1,  and 
opposite  his  name  is  also  written,  in  appropriate 
columns,  his  gun  or  division,  boat,  company, 
mess,  and  his  station  at  loosing  and  furling  sails. 
The  engineer's  watch-bill  gives  a  list  of  the  men, 
their  watch-  and  engine-room  numbers,  and 
their  rates.  The  watch-bill  is  terminated  by  a 
description  of  the  manner  of  stowing  hammocks, 
and  diagrams  of  the  decks,  showing  the  berthing 
arrangements. 

Then  follows  the  quarter-bill.  This  gives  a 
list  of  the  men,  with  their  watch-numbers,  rates, 
ship's-  or  paymaster's-numbers,  gun-numbers, 
and  stations  at  the  guns,  together  with  the 
quarter-gunners  and  officers  of  divisions.  From 
3  to  5  guns  constitute  a  division,  and  some 
times  a  pivot-gun  on  the  upper  deck  is  in  a 
division  by  itself.  Following  the  gun-divi 
sion  are  the  navigators'  division,  comprising 
those  men  who  work  and  steer  the  ship  during 
action,  the  powder-division,  to  furnish  powder, 
shot,  and  shell  to  the  guns,  the  marine-guard, 
and  the  surgeon's  and  the  paymaster's  divisions. 
A  list  is  then  given  of  the  boarders,  of  the  rifle 
men,  of  the  firemen,  pumpmen,  and  sail-trim 
mers.  A  list  of  stations  at  torpedo-exercise  and 
the  fire-bill  follow,  and  terminate  the  quarter- 
bill.  A  list  is  then  given  of  the  life-boats'  crews, 
detailing  them,  with  their  duties,  in  each  watch. 
Then  follow  the  boats'  crews,  both  for  ordinary 
work  and  for  equipping  for  action,  and  with 
the  station  of  each  person  in  abandoning  the 
ship,  in  case  of  wreck.  Each  man's  duty,  and 
the  articles  he  shall  furnish  in  providing  the 
boat,  are  prescribed.  The  battalion  organization 
then  follows,  giving  each  company  and  howitzer 
crew,  with  its  place  in  the  battalion. 

The  concluding  portion  of  the  book  is  the  sta 
tion-bill,  giving  the  officers'  stations,  diagrams  of 
the  spars,  with  the  position  of  each  looser  and 
furler,  and  the  detailed  station  of  each  man  in  the 
crew  for  the  various  evolutions  of  loosing  sail, 
furling  sail,  bending  sail,  sending  up  and  down 
light  yards,  housing  and  fidding  topmasts,  send 
ing  up  and  down  topsail-yards  and  lower-yards, 
hoisting  out  and  in  boats,  mooring  and  unmoor 
ing,  making  sail  and  getting  under  way,  setting 
and  taking  in  stun'-sails,  tacking  and  wearing, 
reefing  topsails  and  courses,  shortening  sail  and 
anchoring,  manning  yards  and  clearing  ship  for 
action.  The  combination-bill  shows  the  duties  of 
each  one  of  the  crew  in  all  these  evolutions  at  a 
glance.  Details  are  then  given  for  preparing' 
ship  for  sea,  cleaning  ship,  spreading  and  furl 
ing  awnings,  and  stopping  on  scrubbed  ham 
mocks.  The  routines  of  divisional  exercises,  and 
of  spar-  and  sail-drills  for  each  day,  and  a 
monthly,  half-monthly,  and  daily  routine,  com 
plete  the  bills.  See  ROUTINE. 


WATCHET 


837 


WATER 


Watchet  (Eng.).  Light  blue  cloth  formerly 
worn  by  sailors. 

Watch-tackle.     See  TACKLE. 

Water.  The  drinking  water  for  use  on  ship 
board  was  formerly  kept  in  casks,  stowed  in  sev 
eral  tiers,  the  lowest  being  the  ground-,  the  others 
the  riding-tiers.  More  recently,  iron  tanks,  fitted 
to  the  form  of  the  ship,  and  placed  in  the  hold, 
have  been  used.  Later,  iron  ships  have  had 
hollow  masts,  so  that  water  may  be  carried  in 
them.  Fresh  water  is  now  distilled  from  sea- 
water,  by  distilling  apparatus,  in  steamers,  and  in 
some  sailing-vessels,  and  thus  purer  water  is 
insured.  One  ton  of  coal  should  distill  7  tons  of 
fresh  water.  Each  man  is  allowed  1  gallon  of 
water  per  diem.  Water,  before  being  received 
on  board,  must  be  tested  by  the  medical  officer, 
for  impurities,  and  should  not  be  received  until 
passed  by  him.  Fresh  water  is  only  used  on  ship 
board  for  drinking  and  culinary  purposes,  by  the 
crew,  and  occasionally,  paint-work  is  scrubbed 
with  fresh  water.  To  make  water,  to  leak.  To 
water  ship,  to  take  a  supply  of  water  on  board. 
This  is  done  by  filling  the  large  casks,  and 
emptying  them  afterwards,  by  filling  the  launch 
in  fresh  water  and  towing  her  off,  or  through 
the  medium  of  a  water-boat,  or  hydrant. 

WATER-ANCHOR.     See  SEA-ANCHOR. 

WATER-BAILIFF  (Eng.).  An  officer  who 
searches  vessels  for  suspected  persons  and  goods, 
etc. 

WATER-BALLAST.  Water  used  to  ballast  a 
ship  or  boat.  When  the  tanks  are  emptied  of 
fresh  water,  it  is  sometimes  necessary  to  let  salt 
water  run  into  them,  to  be  used  as  ballast.  Some 
English  colliers  have  large  tanks  below  the  coal- 
bunkers,  to  be  filled  when  the  latter  are  emptied, 
with  salt  water,  as  ballast. 

WATER-BARK.     A  Danish  water-boat. 

WATER-BATTERY.  A  battery  nearly  on  a 
level  with  the  water. 

WATER-BEWITCHED  DRINKS  (Eng.}'.  Tea, 
geograffy,  5-water  grog,  and  other  diluted  drinks. 

WATER-BOARD.  A  board  set  up  to  windward 
in  a  boat  to  keep  the  water  out. 

WATER-BOAT.  A  boat  containing  a  large 
tank,  filled  with  fresh  water,  and  having  steam- 
or  hand-pumps  for  convejnng  it  into  ships.  A 
boat  filled  with  water  in  bulk  or  in  casks,  for 
ship's  use. 

WATER-BORNE.  Floating  on  the  water.  A 
ship  is  water-borne  when  "she  is  just  off  the 
ground. 

WATER-BRIDGE.  In  steam-boilers,  a  hollow 
bridge-wall,  of  metal,  filled  with  water  having 
circulation  with  the  water  contained  in  the  boiler. 

WATER-BUTT.  A  large  water-cask.  See 
WATER-CASKS. 

WATER-CAP.  A  cap  in  a  navy  time-fuze,  to 
prevent  the  water  from  entering  a'nd  extinguish 
ing  the  fuze. 

WATER-CASKS.  Casks  for  storing  or  bringing 
water  to  a  ship.  The  following  sizes  of  casks, 
with  their  weights  when  full,  embrace  those 
most  in  use: 

Butt— 110  gallons,  weight  1100  pounds. 

Puncheon — 72  gallons,  weight  720  pounds. 

Barrel — 36  gallons,  weight  360  pounds. 

Cask  or  kilderkin — 18~  gallons,  weight  180 
pounds. 

Small  casks  for  use  in  boats,  about  decks,  etc., 
are  called  breakers. 


WATER-CONDENSER,,  or  WATER-DISTILLER. 
See  DISTILLING  APPARATUS. 

WATER-CRAFT.  All  vessels  plying  on  the 
water. 

WATER-CROW.  The  shag,  or  lesser  cormorant. 

WATER-DOG.     A  sea-dog  ;  an  old  sailor. 

WATER-FLEAS.  The  Entomostraca,  a  group 
of  Crustacea  of  the  genera  Cyclops  and  Daphnia. 

WATER-FOX.  The  carp  ;  so  called  on  account 
of  its  cunning. 

WATER-GALL.     A  name  for  the  wind-gall. 

WATER-GAUGE.  A  sea-wall.  An  instrument 
to  measure  the  rise  of  water.  A  gauge  which 
indicates  the  quantity  or  height  of  level  of  water 
within  a  chamber  or  reservoir,  such  as  a  steam- 
boiler,  etc.  An  instrument  for  indicating  press 
ure  by  means  of  a  column  of  water. 

WATER-GAVEL  (Eng.}.  Rent  paid  for  fishing- 
rights  in  a  stream. 

WATER-GUARD.  A  custom-house  officer  em 
ployed  to  watch  incoming  vessels,  or  those  pass 
ing  out. 

WATER-HEMLOCK.  The  (Enanthe  crocata,  a 
poisonous  aquatic  plant. 

WATER-HORSE.  Codfish  stacked  in  a  pile  to 
drain. 

WATERING-PLACE.  A  locality  where  fresh 
water  may  be  procured  for  ships'  use. 

WATER-LAID  ROPE.  Rope  laid  up  against  the 
sun,  or  left-handed. 

WATER-LEG.  A  space  in  a  marine  boiler  be 
tween  the  furnaces,  filled  with  water. 

WATER-LINES.  Horizontal  lines  supposed  to 
be  described  by  the  surface  of  the  water  on  the 
bottom  or  sides  of  a  ship,  and  which  are  ex 
hibited  at  certain  parallel  depths  upon  the  sheer- 
plan.  Of  these  the  most  important  are  the  light 
water-line  and  the  load  water-line.  The  light 
water-line  is  the  line  of  immersion  of  the  ship 
when  light  or  unladen.  The  load-water  line  is 
the  line  described  around  the  ship's  body  when 
the  cargo  is  all  on  board  and  the  ship  is  ready 
for  sea.  In  the  half-breadth  plan  the  water-lines 
are  outward  curves,  limiting  the  half-breadth  of 
the  ship  at  the  same  height  as  the  corresponding 
lines  in  the  sheer  and  body  plans. 

WATER-LINE  MODEL.  A  model  made  up 
from  horizontal  or  water-lines  and  the  sheer- 
lines. 

WATER-LOGGED.  The  condition  of  a  leaky 
ship  when  she  is  so  full  of  water  as  to  be  heavy 
and  unmanageable. 

WATERMAN.  A  man  who  plies  for  hire  on 
the  water  ;  a  boatman. 

WATERMAN 'S-KNOT.  A  name  for  the  clove- 
hitch. 

WATER-MARK.  A  mark  on  a  water-gauge 
indicating  the  height  of  water. 

WATER-PADS.     River-pirates  ;  water- thieves. 

WATER-PLOW.  A  kind  of  dredging-machine 
formerly  used  in  rivers. 

WATER-ROOM.  The  space  in  a  steam-boiler 
that  is  filled  with  water. 

WATER-SAIL.  A  small  sail  set  under  the 
lower  studding-sail.  A  sail  formerly  set  under 
a  projecting  spanker-boom,  extending  to  the 
water's  edge. 

WATER-SCAPE.     A  passage  for  water 

WATER-SHELL.  A  shell  invented  by  Abel, 
filled  with  water,  and  containing  gun-cotton  in  a 
cylinder  in  the  centre. 

WATER-SHOT.      That    condition    of   a    ship 


WATEKFOED 


838 


WAY 


moored  neither  across  tide  nor  up  and  down, 
but  midway  between  the  two  positions. 

WATER-SKY.  A  dark  blue  sky  caused  by  re 
flection  of  deep  water,  seen  in  Arctic  seas. 

WATER-SNAKES.  The  marine  snakes  of  the 
genus  Hydrophis,  with  broad  flat  tails. 

WATER-SPACE.  The  space  occupied  by  the 
water  in  a  marine  boiler. 

WATER-SPOUT.  A  vertical  column  of  water 
moving  along  the  surface  of  the  sea,  having  also 
a  gyratory  motion.  As  considerable  masses  of 
water  are  raised,  they  are  dangerous  to  small 
ships.  They  may  be  broken  by  firing  into  them. 

WATER-STANG.     A  pole  across  a  stream. 


WATER-STOITP  (Eng.}. 

See  TANK. 


The  periwinkle. 

WATER-TANK.     See  TANK. 

WATER-TIGHT.  Well  calked  ;  staunch.  Not 
admitting  water. 

WATER-TUBE  BOILER.  A  steam-boiler  in 
which  the  tubes  are  so  arranged  that  the  water  is 
within  the  tubes  around  which  the  heat  circu 
lates. 

WATER-WAR  (Eng.}.    The  bore  of  the  Severn. 

WATER-WAYS.  Pieces  of  oak  or  yellow  pine 
timber  lying  in  the  angle  made  by  the  top  of  the 
deck-beams  and  inside  of  the  frame-timbers. 

WATER-WITCH.     The  dipper,  a  sea-bird. 

WATER-WRAITH.  Supposed  sea-spirits  in  the 
Shetland  Islands. 

Waterford,  the  capital  of  Waterford  County, 
Ireland,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Suir,  which 
forms  its  harbor,  and  is  lined  by  a  fine  quay 
about  1  mile  in  length ;  9  miles  from  the 
sea.  Among  the  principal  buildings  are  the 
chamber  of  commerce,  custom-house,  and  artil 
lery  barracks.  The  city  is  the  entrepot  for  a 
large  extent  of  country,  the  exports  of  which 
are  bacon,  live-stock,  dairy  and  agricultural 
produce,  salmon,  and  cotton  goods.  It  has  two 
large  ship-building  yards,  and  manufactories  of 
glass  and  starch,  with  distilleries  and  breweries. 
Pop.  24,000. 

Waters,  Captain  Daniel.  In  January,  1776, 
Capt.  Waters  was  appointed  to  the  schooner 
"  Lee,"  of  eight  6-pounders.  While  command 
ing  her  he  captured  or  assisted  in  capturing 
several  valuable  transports,  in  one  of  which 
was  Col.  Campbell,  with  a  part  of  the  71st 
British  regiment ;  in  another  a  quantity  of  mer 
chandise  which  the  British  had  plundered  from 
the  merchants  of  Boston  when  they  evacuated 
that  city.  In  command  of  the  privateer  "  Thorn" 
of  16  guns,  of  Boston,  Capt.  Waters,  in  the  year 
1778,  engaged  the  "  Governor  Tryon"  of  16  guns, 
Capt.  Stebbins,  and  the  "Sir  William  Erskine" 
of  18  guns,  Capt.  Hamilton,  each  having  a  greater 
number  of  men  than  the  "  Thorn."  The  action 
lasted  for  two  hours,  when  the  "  Tryon"  struck, 
and  the  "Erskine"  made  sail  to  escape.  The 
"Thorn"  pursued  her,  and  compelled  her  to 
strike.  Capt.  Hamilton  and  the  other  officers 
of  the  "Erskine"  were  removed  on  board  the 
"Thorn,"  and  the  "Erskine"  was  ordered  to 
follow  in  pursuit  of  the  "Tryon,"  which  ves 
sel,  however,  escaped,  owing  to  the  darkness 
of  the  night.  The  next  morning  the  "Er 
skine"  was  manned  and  ordered  for  Boston, 
leaving  the  "  Thorn''' about  60  men  only.  A 
few  days  after  this  the  "Thorn"  fell  in  with 
the  "  Sparlin"  of  18  guns  and  97  men,  and  after 
a  close  action  of  nearly  an  hour  the  "Sparlin" 
struck.  The  "Thorn"  and  her  two  prizes  ar 


rived  safe  in  Boston.  Capt.  Waters  was  appointed 
by  Congress  a  captain  of  the  navy,  March  15, 
1777,  upon  the  recommendation  of  Gen.  Wash 
ington,  by  whom  he  had  been  employed,  and 
who  wrote  of  him  in  terms  of  high  approbation. 

Wattles.  Bristles  near  the  mouths  of  certain 
fish. 

Wave.  A  volume  of  water  raised  by  the 
action  of  the  wind,  tide,  or  current,  upon  the 
ocean.  Waves  may  arise  from  no  apparent  cause, 
as  when  they  precede  or  follow  a  storm.  Waves 
are  either  natural — that  is,  proportioned  in  size 
to  the  strength  of  the  producing  force — or  acci 
dental,  being  increased  or  diminished  by  collision 
with  other  waves,  concussion  with  intervening 
bodies,  etc.  Simple  waves  are  those  proceeding 
directly  from  the  producing  causes,  without  in 
terruption  in  any  direction,  and  unaccompanied 
by  any  other  waves.  Compound  waves  occur 
when  several  producing  causes  have  resulted  in 
waves  of  different  heights,  etc.,  as  in  a  confused 
or  chopping  sea.  So  when  certain  waves  occur, 
greater  than  the  majority  in  the  same  locality,  it 
is  due  to  a  greater  cause,  or  to  their  coming  from  a 
shorter  distance.  Waves  are  in  section  cycloidal 
curves.  They  do  not  probably  extend  more  than 
2000  yards  below  the  surface,  and  the  effect  of 
generating  causes  is  less  the  farther  you  recede 
from  the  surface. 

Dimensions  and  velocity  of  waves. — The  velocity 
of  waves  is  dependent  on  their  length .  If  length 
(I)  is  known,  the  velocity  is  that  that  a  body 
would  acquire  in  falling  through  a  height 
equal  to  \  r,  where  r  is  the  radius  of  a  circle 
whose  circumference  equals  I.  This  would  give 

as  a  mathematical  expression  v  ==-*  /— — .     Where 

\    Z  7T 

g  is  the  force  of  gravity,  and  TT  the  quantity 
3.1415,  etc.,  g  may  be  taken  as  16TV  This  would 

I  I  no 

then  reduce  to  v=+\  £„,  „„„•     But  as  waves  ap- 


75.396 

proach  a  shelving  shore  their  lengths  decrease, 
but  they  become  higher,  while  their  lower  part 
decreases  in  velocity  on  account  of  friction,  and 
thus  they  break  into  surf  when  their  height 
equals  the  depth  of  the  water.  Dr.  Scoresby,  in 
1850,  measured  Atlantic  waves,  finding  some  43 
feet  high  from  trough  to  crest.  Other  waves  in 
100  feet  of  water  were  4  to  5  feet  in  height,  and 
30  to  40  feet  long,  but  did  not  extend  to  the  bot 
tom.  He  found  the  mean  height  of  Atlantic  waves 
to  be  10  feet.  Six  hundred  feet  in  breadth,  from 
crest  to  crest,  is  usual  in  waves  30  feet  high, 
and  with  a  velocity  of  32  miles  per  hour.  North 
west  gales  caused  waves  off  Cape  Horn  40  feet 
high,  but  only  32  feet  off  Cape  of  Good  Hope. 
Tidal  waves  are  caused  by  the  regular  fluctua 
tions  of  the  tides.  An  earthquake  is  often  ac 
companied  by  a  wave,  that  of  Lisbon  being  some 
40  feet  in  height,  and  that  at  Arica,  more  than 
50  feet  high. 

WAVE-LINE.  A  method  of  shaping  the  hull 
of  a  vessel,  invented  by  Scott  Russell,  in  which 
the  lines  of  the  vessel  were  cycloidal,  or  approach 
ing  that  curve  in  character. 

WAVESON.  Goods  found  floating  on  the  waves 
after  shipwreck. 

Way.  The  progress  of  a  ship  through  the 
water.  Head-way,  motion  ahead.  Stern-way, 
motion  astern.  Fresh-way,  increased  motion 
from  any  cause.  To  be  under  way,  to  be  in  mo- 


WAY-GATE 


839 


"WEATHER 


tion.  To  have  way,  to  have  motion  through  the 
water.  To  gather  way,  to  acquire  motion  through 
the  water.  To  lose  way,  to  cease  moving.  See 
LEE- WAY. 

GETTING  UNDER  WAY.  The  manoeuvre  by 
which  a  vessel  is  released  from  the  restraint  of 
anchors  and  cables  and  placed  under  the  control 
of  its  motive-power. 

The  manner  of  performing  the  evolution  may 
differ  with  the  force  and  direction  of  wind,  tide, 
or  current,  rig  of  vessel,  motive-power,  whether 
steam  or  sail,  and  the  berth  in  which  the  vessel 
may  be  anchored. 

Except  when  fixed  moorings  are  employed,  the 
anchor  or  anchors  are  hove  up  by  means  of  the 
capstan,  windlass,  or  deck-tackle. 

When  great  haste  is  necessary  the  cable  may 
be  slipped  by  unshackling  it  as  near  the  hawse- 
pipe  as  possible,  and  allowing  that  part  con 
nected  with  the  anchor  to  go  overboard,  having 
first  attached  a  buoy  by  which  it  can  be  easily 
recovered. 

With  a  vessel  under  steani  the  evolution  is 
the  most  simple,  as  she  is  tp^  a  great  extent  inde 
pendent  of  both  wind  and" tide.  The  anchor  be 
ing  aweigh,  the  engmcis  started,  and  the  vessel 
is  at  once  under  the/control  of  the  machinery  and 
helm. 

When  sail-pmver  alone  is  used,  the  operation 
is  more  difficult,  as  the  direction  and  force  of 
wind  and  current  must  be  regarded,  and  also 
the  proximity  of  dangers  or  of  other  vessels. 
The  cable  is  hove  in  to  a  short  stay  when  sail  is 
rn0^-  -^i,  in  the  case  of  a  square-rigged  vessel, 
t'J1}®  j»6Jj  are  braced  in  such  a  manner  as  to  as- 
gjsides  tn/lvjng  tjje  requireci  direction  and  head- 
Pfhs  vessel  after  the  anchor  is  aweigh  ; 
enc  edj  can  on]y  ke  determined  by  the  action 
ofs1esPejvind  and  current  upon  the  vessel,  their 
rela^6 /  strength,  and  the  direction  in  which  it 
is  nec^sary  that  the  vessel  should  move.  The 
anchor  is  then  hove  up,  the  head-sails  hoisted 
when  the  anchor  is  aweigh,  the  helm  used  as  re 
quired  to  bring  the  vessel  on  her  course,  and  the 
yards  are  trimmed  as  may  be  necessary. 

The; time  at  which  the  square-sails  should  be 
set  m,6y  depend  upon  the  direction  of  the  wind 
witii  the  desired  course  of  the  vessel ;  for  if  that 
course  will  bring  the  wind  well  aft,  the  anchor 
is  first  weighed,  the  vessel  turned  in  the  required 
direction  by  means  of  the  head-sails  and  helm, 
and:  all  sail  made  when  she  is  upon  her  course. 

With  a  fore-and-aft-rigged  vessel  the  process 
is  similar,  but  it  is  more  simple  on  account  of 
the  advantages  of  rig. 

'  To  get  under  way  from  fixed  moorings  the 
cable  which  is  shackled  to  the  buoy  is  replaced 
*by  a  slip-rope,  which  is  let  go  at  the  proper  mo 
ment  and  the  delay  of  heaving  up  the  anchor  is 
avoided.  In  a  crowded  harbor  it  may  be  neces- 
-ary  to  heave  up  the  anchor  and  warp  the  vessel 
lear  of  others  before  proceeding  to  make  sail,  or 
.?  the  vessel  is  anchored  in  the  vicinity  of  dan 
gers,  a  part  of  the  manoeuvre  may  consist  in 
taking  a  temporary  berth  bv  using  a  kedge. — 
E.  T.  Strong,  Lieutenant  U.S.N. 

Way-gate.     The  tail-race  of  a  mill. 

Ways.     See  SHIP,  LAUNCHING  OF. 

Weak-fish.  A  fish  of  the  genus  Otolithus  (0. 
regalis). 

Weal  (Eng.}.  A  wicker-basket  for  catching 
eels. 


Wear.  A  weir.  To  put  a  ship  on  the  other 
tack  by  turning  her  bow  away  from  the  wind. 
Wear  is  more  generally  used  than  veer  in  this 
sense. 

Weather.  To  sail  to  windward  of.  To  weather 
a  ship,  to  get  to  windward  of  her ;  to  sustain  the  ef 
fects  of  the  weather.  To  weather  a  gale,  to  come 
out  of  a  storm  safely.  To  weather  the  cape,  figur 
atively,  to  become  skilled.  To  weather  difficulties, 
to  contend  with  and  surmount  difficulties. 
Weather  side,  the  side  next  to  the  wind. 

The  air  or  atmosphere,  with  respect  to  its  state 
of  dryness  or  moisture,  heat  or  cold,  clearness  or 
cloudiness,  or  any  other  physical  state ;  as,  dry, 
cold,  wet,  hot,  warm,  calm,  pleasant,  windy, 
squally,  fair,  foul,  stormy,  rainy,  cloudy,  clear 
weather.  Stress  of  weather,  tempestuous  weather, 
violent  winds.  The  following  notation  is  used 
by  seamen  to  indicate  states  of  the  weather,  in 
the  log-book : 

Beaufort  Weather  Notation. 


s.  Snow. 

t.  Thunder. 

u.  Ugly,  threatening. 

v.  Visibility,  clearness. 

w.  Wet  dew. 

A  bar  ( — )  under  any  letter 
augments  its  signification, 
and  a  bar  and  a  dot  -s-  in 
dicates  heavy  and  continu 
ous  weather  of  the  kind 
denoted. 


b.  Blue  sky. 

c.  Clouds  (detached). 

d.  Drizzling  rain. 
/.  Foggy. 

g.  Gloomy. 

h.  Hail. 

/.  Lightning. 

m.  Misty. 

o.  Overcast. 

p.  Passing  showers. 

q.  Squally. 

r.  Rainy. 

WEATHER-ANCHOR.  The  anchor  laid  out  to 
windward,  by  which  the  ship  will  ride,  when 
tides  permit. 

WEATHER-BITT.  To  take  an  extra  turn  of  the 
cable  about  the  bitts  in  bad  weather.  See  BITTS. 

WEATHER-BOARD.  The  side  of  the  ship  to 
windward.  Planks  placed  in  the  ports  of  a  ship 
in  ordinary,  inclined  so  that  the  water  may  run 
off. 

WEATHER-BORNE.  Oppressed  by  wind  and 
sea. 

WEATHER-BOUND.     Detained  by  wind  or  sea. 

WEATHER-BREEDERS.  Wind-dogs,  fog-dogs, 
and  other  indications  of  bad  weather. 

WEATHER-CLOTH.  A  covering  for  the  ham 
mocks,  boats,  etc.,  of  painted  canvas.  A  tar 
paulin,  placed  in  the  weather  rigging,  to  shield 
the  men  and  officers  on  watch. 

WEATHER-COIL  (Eng.).  The  position  of  the 
ship  when  she  has  been  reversed  so  as  to  head  op 
posite  to  her  former  course,  either  by  a  shift  of 
wind,  or  by  the  helm,  or  swell  in  calm  weather. 
To  resume  the  course  when  taken  aback,  by 
making  a  stern-board  and  backing  around. 

WEATHER-EYE.  A  figurative  term,  "Keep 
your  weather-eye  open"  ;  be  on  your  guard. 

WEATHER-GAGE,  or  WEATHER-GAUGE.  The 
position  of  a  ship  to  windward  of  another, — a 
'position  of  great  advantage  in  the  days  of  sail 
ing-ships,  but  not  so  much  so  now. 

WEATHER-GALL.     See  WIND-GALL. 

WEATHER-GLASS.     The  barometer. 

WEATHER-GLEAM.  A  clear  sky  near  the 
horizon  after  stormy  weather. 

WEATHER-GO.  The  end  of  a  rainbow  in  the 
morning. 

WEATHER-HEAD.     A  secondary  rainbow. 

WEATHER-HELM.     See  HELM. 

WEATHER-LURCH.  A  sudden  and  heavy  roll 
to  windward. 


WEAVER 


840 


WELLS 


WEATHERLY.  Holding  a  good  wind,  and 
making  little  leeway ;  working  well  to  wind 
ward. 

WEATHERMOST.     The  farthest  to  windward. 

WEATHER-RHYMES.  Seamen  find  it  conve 
nient  to  express  many  important  facts  in  these 
rhymes,  and  a  few  of  the  more  prominent  are 
here  given : 

"  A  weather-gall  at  morn, 
Fine  weather  all  gone." 

"A  rainbow  (or  red  sky)  in  the  morning, 
Sailors  take  warning ; 
A  rainbow  (or  red  sky)  at  night 
Is  the  sailor's  delight." 

"The  evening  gray  and  the  morning  red, 
Put  on  your  hat  or  you'll  wet  your  head." 

"When  the  wind  shifts  against  the  sun, 
Trust  it  not,  for  back  it  will  run." 

"  When  the  sun  sets  in  a  clear, 
An  easterly  wind  you  need  not  fear." 

"  The  evening  red  and  morning  gray 
Are  sure  signs  of  a  fine  day ; 
But  the  evening  gray  and  morning  red 
Make  the  sailor  shake  his  head." 

"  With  the  rain  before  the  wind. 
Your  topsail  halliards  you  must  mind ; 
But  when  the  wind's  before  the  rain, 
You  may  hoist  your  topsails  up  again." 


Or 


Or, 


"  When  rain  comes  before  wind, 
Halliards,  sheets,  and  braces  mind; 
When  wind  comes  before  rain, 
Soon  you  may  make  sail  again." 


1  First  rise  after  very  low 
Indicates  a  stronger  blow.' 


"When  rise  begins  after  low, 
Squalls  expect  and  clear  blow." 

"Long  foretold,  long  last, 
Short  notice,  soon  past." 

"  When  the  glass  falls  low 
Prepare  for  a  blow  ; 
When  it  rises  high 
Let  all  your  kites  fly." 

"  Mackerel  sky  and  mares'  tails 
Make  tall  ships  carry  low  sails." 

WEATHER-ROLL.  The  roll  of  a  ship  to  wind 
ward. 

WEATHER-ROPE.  An  old  term  for  tarred 
rope. 

WEATHER-SHORE.  A  shore  to  windward  of 
the  ship. 

WEATHER-SIDE.  The  side  toward  the  wind. 
At  sea,  the  weather-side  is  the  royal  side,— that 
is,  the  weather  gangway  is  not  a  loafing-place. 
The  weather  side  of  the  quarter-deck  is  for  the 
officer  of  the  deck,  captain,  and  executive-officer 
only,  and  the  weather-side  of  the  gun-deck  is 
kept  clear. 

WEATHER-TIDE.  A  tide  running  toward  the 
wind. 

WEATHER-WHEEL.  The  helmsman  on  the 
weather-side  of  the  wheel. 

Weaver.  A  fish  of  the  perch  family;  the 
Trachinus  vipera. 

Wedding-knot.  A  crossed  seizing  between 
two  eyes  in  ropes. 

Wedge.  Mast-wedges,  wedges  placed  about 
the  ma.st  in  the  partners,  for  confining  it  in  place. 
Launching-wedges,  wedges  used  to  lift  a  ship  in 


launching.     Set-wedge,  a  wedge   used   to   drive 
together  two  timbers. 

Wedge-fid.  A  fid  in  two  parts,  wedge- 
shaped. 

Weed.     To  clear  rigging,  etc.,  of  rope-yarns. 

Weel.     A  baited  basket-trap  for  catching  fish. 

Weep.  To  ooze  in  small  quantities,  as  the 
water  from  the  side  of  a  ship. 

Weever.     See  WEAVER. 

Weevil.  The  Curculio,  a  variety  of  which  is 
very  destructive  to  bread,  rice,  etc. 

Weft.     See  WAFT. 

Weigh.  To  weigh  anchor,  to  lift  the  anchor 
from  the  bottom. 

Weighage.  A  charge  for  weighing  goods  at 
a  dock. 

Weight-nails.  Nails  of  great  size,  larger 
than  deck-nails,  with  flat  heads. 

Weight  of  Metal.  The  weight  of  iron  that  a 
ship  can  throw  at  one  round  from  all  her  guns. 
A  line-of-battle  ship,  mounting  74  guns,  would 
have  thrown  but  1570  pounds  of  rnetal  200  years 
ago,  but  the  recent  frigates,  such  as  the  "  Alex 
andra,"  throw  upwards  of  4000  pounds,  and  the 
Italian  "  Duilio"  will  throw  at  a  round  8000 
pounds  of  metal. 

Weir.  An  old  term  for  sea-weed.  An  inclo- 
sure  in  which  fish  are  caught.  A  dam  across  a 
river. 

Well.     An  inclosure  from   the  hold  to  the 
lower  deck,  protecting  the  pump  from  injury. 
An  aperture  in  the  upper-works  of  the  stern  of 
a  steamer,    for   the   propeller   to  travel  in.^  A 
compartment  in  a  fishing-vessel  in  whif"a   cjfc 
circulates  ;  in  this  fish  are  preserved  aliveouia  a\{ 
synonymous  with  belay.     To  well  off,  to 
leak  by  surrounding  it  with  a  temporary      Wher 
well,  carried  above  the  water-line. 

WELL-BOAT.  A  fishing-boat  provided <]uail  a 
well.  is' 

WELL-CABIN.  A  cabin  in  a  small  ves;  el  en 
tered  from  above,  with  no  ports  or  ventilation 
from  the  sides. 

Well  Fare  Ye !  (Eng.}.  An  expression  for 
merly  used  to  encourage  the  men  at  heavy 
heaving. 

Well-found.     Fully  provided  or  equipped. 

Wells,  Clark  H.,  Commodore  U.S.N.  Born 
in  Reading,  Pa.,  September  22,  1822.  Ap 
pointed  midshipman  from  Pennsylvania,  Sep 
tember  25,  1840;  attached  to  the  line-of-battle 
ship  "North  Carolina,"  1840  ;  frigate  "  Brandy- 
wine"  and  sloop  *"  Fairfield,"  Mediterranetn 
Station,  1840-41  ;  razee  "  Independence,"  Home 
Squadron,  1842-43;  sloop  "Levant,"  Pacific 
Station,  1844-45 ;  Naval  School,  Annapolis,  Md., 
1846. 

Graduated  and  became  a  passed  midshipman, 
July  11,  1846  ;  during  the  Mexican  war,  attached 
to  the  brig  "  Somers,"  blockading  Yera  Cruz,  in 
1846,  and  to  gunboat  "  Petrel,"  1846-47,  during 
which  time  the  latter  vessel  was  one  of  Tatinall's 
flotilla  in  the  attack  upon  the  Castle  of  San  Juan 
de  Ulloa  and  the  city  of  Yera  Cruz ;  took  part 
also  in  the  capture  of  Tuspan  and  Tampico  ; 
to  the  East  Indies,  and  around  the  world  in 
sloop  "Plymouth"  and  brig  "Dolphin,"  1848- 
51;  receiving-ship  "Princeton,"  in  1852,  and 
Naval  Observatory ;  store-ship  "  Fredonia,"  at 
Valparaiso,  Chili, 'in  1852-55. 

Promoted  to  master  in  1855. 

Commissioned  as  lieutenant,  September,  1855; 


WELLS 


841 


WERDEN 


Naval  Observatory,  Washington,  D.  C.,  in  1856  ; 
served  as  executive-officer  of  the  bark  "  Reso 
lute,"  originally  an  English  man-of-war,  aban 
doned  in  the  Arctic  seas,  and  subsequently  re 
covered  by  the  American  whale-ship  "  George 
Henry,"  which  vessel  found  her  in  a  field  of  ice 
some  900  miles  from  where  her  crew  left  her. 
Congress,  by  a  joint  resolution  dated  August  28, 
1856,  purchased  her  from  the  salvors,  and  ordered 
her  restoration  to  the  British  government,  which 
order  was  complied  with  on  her  arrival  in  Eng 
land,  where  she  was  honored  by  a  visit  from  the 
queen  of  England  and  Prince  Albert,  to  whom 
the  vessel  was  presented  by  Capt.  Hartstene ;  in 
the  "Niagara,"  1857;  employed  in  the  first 
Atlantic  Cable  Expedition,  and  then  joined  the 
"Susquehanna,"  in  1858,  one  of  the  Mediter 
ranean  Squadron  ;  shortly  afterwards  the  vessel 
was  sent  to  the  West  Indies,  and  to  Greytown, 
Central  America,  when  the  yellow  fever  broke 
out  on  board,  carrying  off  60  of  her  crew  and  2 
officers,  which  necessitated  her  return  North,  and 
being  put  out  of  commission ;  in  the  same  year 
was  attached  to  the  "Water-Witch,"  Home 
Squadron;  executive-officer  of  "  Metacomet," 
Paraguay  Expedition,  in  1859 ;  when  the  Re 
bellion  broke  out,  was  ordered  as  executive- 
officer  of  the  "  Susquehanna,"  then  commanded 
by  Capt.  James  Lardner,  now  rear-admiral,  and 
which  vessel  took  a  very  prominent  part  in  the 
battle  of  Port  Royal,  S.  C.,  sustaining  consider 
able  damage  by  the  fire  from  the  two  forts, 
Hilton  Head  and  Bay  Point,  having  been  struck 
some  35  times,  and  losing  several  of  her  crew, 
besides  the  wounded  ;  received  a  commendatory 
letter  from  Rear-Adrniral  Lardner  for  services 
rendered  on  that  occasion  ;  the  "  Susquehanna" 
was  especially  mentioned  in  the  official  report  of 
the  late  Rear-Admiral  Dupont,  who  commanded 
the  expedition  ;  was  sent  several  times  with  a  de 
tachment  of  sailors  and  marines  to  reinforce  the 
"  Unadilla,"  when  much  exposed  to  night  attacks 
in  Wright  River,  S.  C. ;  was  present  at  the  oc 
cupation  of  Fernandina,  Fla.,  the  enemy  having 
abandoned  the  place  on  the  appearance  of  the 
expedition  under  the  late  Rear- Admiral  Dupont ; 
was  then  transferred  to  the  sloop-of-war  "  Van- 
dalia,"  engaged  in  the  blockading  of  Warsaw 
Sound  and  Charleston,  S.  C.,  for  a  number  of 
months ;  transferred  to  the  command  of  the 
sloop-of-war  u  Dale,"  and  brought  her  to  Phila 
delphia. 

Commissioned  as  lieutenant-cOmmander,  July 
16,  1862 ;  executive-officer  of  the  navy-yard, 
Philadelphia,  in  1863 ;  applied  for  and  received 
orders  to  command  the  "  Galena,"  when  rebuilt 
as  a  wooden  vessel ;  joined  the  West  Gulf  Squad 
ron  in  1864;  was  sent  several  times  by  the  late 
Admiral  Farragut,  then  in  command  of  the  fleet, 
to  shell  a  blockade-runner,  ashore  under  the 
guns  of  Fort  Morgan  ;  was  engaged  in  the  battle 
of  Mobile,  and  during  the  passage  of  the  forts 
the  "Galena"  was  secured  to  the  "Oneida," 
bringing  up  the  rear,  both  vessels  being  exposed 
to  the  fire  of  the  forts  from  the  commencement 
to  the  close  of  the  action,  also  from  the  rebel 
ram  "Tennessee";  when  near  the  forts,  a  shell 
from  the  latter  exploded  one  of  the  boilers  6f  the 
"  Oneida,"  which  necessitated  her  being  turned 
in  by  her  consort,  the  "Galena,"  and  after 
Capt.  Mullany,  of  the  former  vessel,  had  his 
arm  shot  off,  which  occurred  opposite  the  forts. 


The  services  of  the  "  Galena"  were  duly  ac 
knowledged  in  the  official  report  of  the  action  by 
Admiral  Farragut,  and  a  commendatory  letter 
was  received  from  him,  in  which  he  says,  "  That 
in  your  case  I  depart  from  my  usual  custom,  not 
to  give  letters  for  good  conduct  in  time  of  war, 
where  there  is  an  immediate  commander  first  to 
forward  it,  but,  inasmuch  as  Capt.  Mullany  was 
wounded,  and  the  command  of  the  two  vessels 
('Oneida'  and  'Galena')  devolved  upon  you, 
and  were  carried  through  the  battle  with  great 
gallantry,  I  take  pleasure  in  giving  my  official 
testimony  to  your  very  meritorious  conduct  in 
that  engagement,  and  trust  that  in  the  future  it 
may  be  of  service  to  you."  East  Gulf  Squadron, 
in  1864;  refitted  in  Philadelphia,  and  joined 
the  fleet  of  Admiral  Porter,  in  the  James  River, 
and  remained  there  until  the  close  of  the  war; 
commanded  the  "  Kansas,"  South  Atlantic  Sta 
tion,  in  1864-66 ;  visited  most  of  the  ports  of 
that  station  ;  received  a  letter  of  thanks  from  the 
English  government  and  the  British  admiral  for 
going  to  the  assistance  of  H.  B.  M.  gunboat 
"Gleaner,"  reported  to  be  dangerously  ashore 
in  Maldonado  Bay ;  the  services  of  the  "Kan 
sas"  were  also  acknowledged  by  the  British  ad 
miral  for  assisting  in  rescuing  an  English  mer 
chant-vessel,  aground  on  the  English  Bank, 
River  La  Plata. 

Commissioned  as  commander,  July  25,  1866, 
and  was  one  of  the  number  selected  for  promo 
tion  by  a  board  of  officers  for  services  in  the  war ; 
attached  to  the  navy-yard,  Portsmouth,  N.  H., 
in  1868-70;  sent  to  Europe,  in  1870,  in  com 
mand  of  the  "  Shenandoah." 

Promoted  to  captain,  June  19,  1871 ;  visited 
most  of  the  ports  on  the  Mediterranean,  and 
during  this  cruise,  which  continued  until  1874, 
received  a  letter  of  thanks  from  the  Italian  gov 
ernment,  for  assistance  rendered  to  the  Italian 
ironclad  "  Compt  de  Verde,"  in  the  harbor  of 
Spezia,  which  vessel  broke  from  her  moorings  in 
a  gale  of  wind,  and  came  near  drifting  on  the 
rocks ;  received  the  decoration  of  the  Legion 
of  Honor  from  President  Thiers,  of  France, 
and  Congress,  by  a  joint  resolution,  March  3, 
1875,  authorized  its  acceptance ;  detached  from 
the  "Shenandoah"  at  Key  West,  Fla.,  January 
31,  1874;  February  26,  1874,  ordered  as  execu 
tive-officer  of  the  navy-yard,  Boston,  Mass.; 
transferred  as  captain  of  the  navy-yard,  Phila 
delphia,  and  equipment-officer,  October,  1874 ; 
thence  to  League  Island  Navy-Yard,  January 
1,  1876,  and  ordered  in  command  of  that  station, 
January  10,  1876;  detached,  November  1,  1877, 
on  the  completion  of  the  full  term  of  three  years 
on  duty  at  the  Philadelphia  Station  ;  1878-79,  on 
court-martial  and  board  duties,  and  member  of 
Board  of  Visitors  to  the  Naval  Academy  in  1878  j 
chief  signal  officer,  1879-80. 

Promoted  to  commodore,  January  22,  1880. 

Welshman's  Breeches.  See  DUTCHMAN'S 
BREECHES. 

Welt.  A  batten  riveted  over  a  seam  in  steam- 
boilers.  Welt-joint,  one  made  with  a  welt. 

Wentle-trap.     A  shell ;  the  Scalnria  pretiosn. 

Werden,  Reed,  Rear-Admiral  U.S.N.  Born 
in  Pennsylvania,  1818.  Appointed  from  Ohio, 
January  9,  1834;  attached  to  schooner  "  Enter 
prise,"  Brazil  Squadron,  1834-35;  sloop-of-war 
"  Ontario,"  Brazil  Squadron,  1836  ;  sloop-of-war 
"Erie,"  Brazil  Squadron,  1837;  sloop-of-war 


WEST 


842 


WHALE 


"  Cyane,"  Mediterranean  Squadron,  1838-39; 
Naval  School,  Philadelphia,  1840. 

Promoted  to  passed  midshipman,  July  16, 
1840;  sailed  for  China  in  the  sloop-of-war 
"Boston,"  October,  1840;  frigate  "  Constella 
tion,"  East  India  Squadron,  1841-42;  sloop-of- 
war  "  Boston,"  East  India  Squadron,  as  master, 
1842-43 ;  receiving-ship,  New  York,  1844. 

Commissioned  as  lieutenant,  February  27, 
1847 ;  sloop-of-war  "Germantown,"  Home  Squad 
ron,  1847  ;  commanded  a  party  of  seamen  at  the 
capture  of  Tuspan,  Mexico;  receiving-ship 
"Vermont,"  Boston,  1848;  sloop-of-war  "  Van- 
dalia,"  Pacific  Squadron,  1849-52  ;  naval  rendez 
vous,  Baltimore,  1853;  sloop-of-war  "Albany," 
Home  and  West  India  Squadrons,  1853-54; 
special  duty,  West  Indies,  1855 ;  Naval  Observa 
tory,  Washington,  D.  C.,  1856;  frigate  "Cum 
berland,"  on  the  coast  of  Africa,  1857-59  ;  frigate 
"  Minnesota,"  Home  Squadron,  18G1 ;  command 
ing  steamer  "  Yankee,"  North  Atlantic  Block 
ading  Squadron,  1861  ;  commanding  steamer 
"  Stars  and  Stripes,"  North  Atlantic  Blockading 
Squadron,  1862 ;  at  the  capture  of  Roanoke 
Island  and  Newbern;  commanding  steamer 
"Connemaugh,"  South  Atlantic  Blockading 
Squadron,  1862-63. 

Commissioned  as  commander  July  16,  1862; 
navy-yard,  Philadelphia,  1864 ;  fleet-captain, 
East  Gulf  Blockading  Squadron,  1864-65;  com 
manding  "Powhatan,"  East  Gulf  Blockading 
Squadron,  1865  ;  blockaded  the  rebel  ram  "Stone 
wall,"  in  the  port  of  Havana,  West  Indies, 
until  her  surrender  to  the  Spanish  government ; 
special  duty  at  navy-yard,  New  York,  1865 ; 
commanding  "  Bienville,"  West  Indies,  1866. 

Commissioned  as  captain,  July  25,  1866  ;  navy- 
yard,  Mare  Island,  California,  1868-71. 

Commissioned  as  commodore,  April  27,  1871 ; 
commanding  naval  station,  New  London,  1872- 

Commissionedas  rear-admiral,  February,  1875; 
commanding  South  Pacific  Station,  1875-76. 
Retired  March  27,  1877. 

West.  The  point  ninety  degrees  to  the  left  of 
north.  So  called  in  all  European  languages, 
except  Italian,  where  it  is  Ponente  (setting). 

WESTERLY.  Moving  toward  the  west,  as  a 
current,  or  from  the  west,  as  a  wind.  Tend 
ing  toward  the  west. 

WESTING.  The  distance  in  nautical  miles 
made  good  to  the  westward. 

West-country  Parson  (Eng.).  A  fish;  the 
hake  (Gadus  marducius), — so  called  from  a  black 
streak  on  its  back. 

Wester,  or  Waster  (Eng.).    A  salmon  trident. 

Wet.  To  wet  sails,  to  throw  water  on  the 
sails,  in  order  to  make  them  hold  wind  better. 
This  was  formerly  done  with  a  sheet,  but  after 
wards  a  pump  and  hose  were  substituted.  To 
wet  a  commission,  to  give  an  entertainment  on 
getting  a  new  commission.  Wet  provisions,  salt 
beef  and  pork,  vinegar,  molasses,  canned  beef, 
and  spirits.  Wet  goods  are  charged  to  the  owner 
and  master  of  a  vessel. 

Wethers.     The  flukes  of  a  harpoon. 

Wet-nurse.  This  term  is  used  to  signify  an 
officer  acting  as  an  instructor  over  a  junior  in 
watch-duty.  See  NURSE. 

Wexford,  capital  of  Wexford  County,  Ireland, 
on  the  right  banks  of  the  Glaney,  where  it  widens 
into  Wexford  harbor.  The  city  contains  a  cham 


ber  of  commerce,  ship-building  docks,  s»ome  malt 
ing  establishments,  and  has  an  acth/e  export 
trade  in  cattle,  dairy  and  agricultural  produce, 
timber,  tallow,  hides,  cotton,  yarn,  am*  wool. 
Pop.  13,000. 

Whale.  The  popular  name  of  the 
cetaceans,  particularly  of  those  belonging  to 
families  Balsenidse  and  Physeterida?,  or  Cat°- 
dontidae.  The  latter  of  these  families  has  be£Ii 
already  noticed  under  Cachalot  (which  see). 
The  baleen  whale,  popularly  known  as  the 
Greenland  Whale  (Balcena  mysticetus),  derives 
its  name  from  the  plates  of  whalebone,  or  baleen, 
with  which  its  inouth  is  furnished  in  lieu  of 
teeth.  These  are  arranged  in  two  series,  con 
sisting  each  of  several  hundred  plates,  which  are 
suspended  from  the  roof  of  the  mouth,  extending 
from  each  side  of  its  middle  line  like  the  barbs 
of  a  feather,  and  terminating  in  a  fringe  of  fibres 
or  pliant  bristles.  Through  this  apparatus  are 
strained  out  of  the  water  containing  them  the 
small  crustaceans  and  mollusks  which  constitute 
the  food  of  the  whale,  the  water  being  allowed 
to  escape  by  the  sides  of  the  mouth.  Only  very 
small  animals  can  pass  through  the  gullet  of  the 
whale  on  account  of  its  extreme  narrowness,  its 
diameter,  even  in  a  large  whale,  being,  it  is  said, 
not  more  than  an  inch  and  a  half.  The  head 
is  very  large,  constituting  from  a  third  to  a  fourth 
of  the  whole  length  of  the  animal,  which  varies 
from  50  to  70  feet.  The  skull  is  un symmetrical, 
the  right  side  being  larger  than  the  left.  The 
eyes  are  small,  but  the  animal's  sense  of  sight 
seems  to  be  acute.  The  mouth  is  very  large. 
The  tongue  is  a  soft,  thick  mass,  not  extending 
beyond  the  back  of  the  mouth.  The  flesh  is  red, 
firm,  and  coarse.  The  skin  is  naked,  with  the 
exception  of  a  few  bristles  about  the  jaws,  and 
its  surface  is  moistened  by  an  oily  fluid.  The 
lower  surface  of  the  true  skin  extends  into  a 
thick  layer  of  blubber, — an  open  net-work  of 
fibres  in  which  fat  is  held,  and  which  serves  the 
double  purpose  of  keeping  the  animal  warm  and 
of  making  the  specific  gravity  of  the  body  much 
lighter  than  it  would  otherwise  be.  In  the 
genus  Balcena  there  is  no  dorsal  fin,  nor  elevation 
of  the  back  corresponding  to  it,  as  in  some  of  the 
familjT.  The  pectoral  fins  are  8  or  9  feet  long,  4 
or  5  broad,  and  are  placed  about  2  feet  behind 
the  angles  of  the  mouth.  The  tail-fin  consists 
of  2  lobes  of  great  breadth,  measuring  from  20 
to  25  feet  across  in  the  larger  specimens,  and  is 
wielded  by  muscles  of  enormous  power.  It  is 
this  part  which  constitutes  the  animal's  sole  or 
gan  of  offense  and  defense.  The  body  is  thickest 
just  behind  the  pectoral  fins,  whence  it  tapers 
conically  toward  the  tail,  and  slightly  toward 
the  head.  On  the  highest  part  of  the  head  are 
situated  the  blow-holes,  which  are  from  8  to  12 
inches  long,  but  of  comparatively  small  breadth. 
The  upper  parts  of  the  body  are  velvety  black, 
— but  in  very  old  whales  sometimes  become  pi- 
bald, — the  lower  parts  are  white.  The  whale  has 
usually  but  one  young  at  a  birth.  The  period  of 
gestation  is  unknown,  but  that  of  suckling  lasts 
a  year.  The  mother  manifests  great  affection  for 
her  offspring. 

The  Southern,  or  Cape  Whale  (Balcena  Aus 
tralia),  formerly  regarded  as  identical  with  the 
Greenland  Whale,  is  now  considered  as  a  distinct 
species,  the  head  being  smaller  in  proportion 
than  that  of  the  northern  species,  and  the  color 


WHALE 


843 


WHEEL 


a  uniform  black.  It  attains  a  length  of  50  or  60 
feet,  and  is  usually  found  in  comparatively  shal 
low  water  near  the  coasts.  Its  range  embraces 
not  only  the  colder  parts  of  the  southern  hemis 
phere,  but  also  the  temperate  regions  and  the 
tropics.  Another  variety,  the  Right  Whale 
(Balcena  cisarctica),  heretofore  identified  with 
the  Greenland  Whale,  is  now  recognized  as  more 
nearly  resembling  the  Cape  Whale.  It  diifers 
from  the  former  in  having  the  body  more  slender, 
and  the  head  proportionally  smaller;  the  under 
jaw  very  deep,  round,  and  broad  ;  and  the  plates 
of  baleen  comparatively  short.  It  is  of  a  black 
color,  except  as  to  the  lower  part  of  the  head, 
which  is  a  brilliant  white. 

The  species  of  the  genus  Megoptera  are  called 
Hump-backed  Whales.  They  have  a  rudimen 
tary  dorsal  fin,  in  the  form  of  an  elevation  of  the 
back.  There  are  several  species,  but  some  of 
them  are  very  imperfectly  known. 

The  genus  Balcenoptera,  Physalus,  or  Rorqua- 
lus,  belonging  to  the  same  family  (Balcenidce) 
to  which  the  Greenland  Whale  belongs,  is  dis 
tinguished  by  its  species  having  a  dorsal  fin  ;  an 
upper  jaw  less  arched  than  in  the  Greenland 
Whale  ;  much  shorter  plates  of  baleen,  or  whale 
bone  ;  and  along  the  throat  and  belly  numerous 
longitudinal  folds,  allowing  the  distention  of  the 
integuments  so  as  to  form  a  great  pouch  for  the 
reception  of  water  and  prey,  to  be  afterwards 
sifted  by  the  plates  of  baleen.  The  cetaceans  of 
this  genus  are  the  largest  animals  now  existing, 
their  length  being  greater,  and  their  girth  at 
least  as  great  as  those  of  the  Greenland  Whales. 

WHALE-BIRD.  A  small  bird  seen  in  whaling- 
grounds,  hovering  about  shoals  of  whales,  hunt 
ing  for  food. 

WHALE-BOAT.  A  long,  narrow  boat,  from  20 
to  50  feet  in  length,  and  from  4  to  10  feet  beam, 
sharp  at  both  ends,  and  admirably  fitted  for  all 
uses  at  sea.  Whale-boats  are  supplied  to  men- 
of-war,  from  one  to  three  to  each,  and  are  either 
single-banked  or  double-banked.  Some  gigs  are 
whale-boats.  These  boats  are  best  in  a  surf,  and 
they  should  then  be  steered  with  a  long  oar  in 
stead  of  a  rudder.  See  SURF. 

WHALE-CALF.     The  young  whale. 

WHALE-CHARTS.  Charts  prepared  by  Com 
modore  Maury,  giving  the  localities  where  whales 
abounded. 

WHALE-FISHERIES.  The  Northmen  were  the 
first  to  hunt  the  whale  before  the  10th  century. 
After  them  the  Biscayans  engaged  in  the  whale- 
fishery  from  the  12th  to  the  loth  centuries.  But 
the  Dutch  and  English  were  the  first  to  hunt  in 
Arctic  regions,  beginning  in  1GOO.  Large  boun 
ties  were  paid  to  whale-ships,  and  companies 
formed  to  prosecute  the  fisheries.  The  Dutch 
fisheries  flourished  some  30  years,  the  English 
much  longer.  In  1789  the  English  had  161  ves 
sels  engaged  in  the  whale-fisheries,  but  this  num 
ber  diminished  steadily  to  82  in  1795,  to  61  in 
1800,  then  increased  gradually  to  91  in  1805,  and 
112  in  1814,  and  in  1815  there  were  150  vessels 
and  6000  men  engaged  in  it.  From  this  time  it 
has  gradually  declined.  Hull,  Peterhead,  and 
London  are  the  principal  whaling  ports.  The 
United  States  began  the  hunt  for  whales  in  1690, 
and  from  1758  to  1775  Massachusetts  alone  sent 
out  annually  183  vessels  north  and  121  south  to 
fish  for  whales.  In  1858,  680  ships  were  em 
ployed,  but  since  then  the  trade  has  very  much 


declined.  Nantucket,  New  Bedford,  and  Glouces 
ter  have  been  the  great  whaling  ports.  The  word 
whale- fisheries  also  is  used  to  denote  the  locali 
ties  in  which  the  capture  of  whales  is  carried  on. 
See  WHALING-GROUND. 

WHALE-LINE.  Rope  about  2  inches  in  cir 
cumference,  made  of  the  best  Russia  hemp, 
tarred  and  laid  up  by  hand.  It  is  used  for  har 
poon-lines.  Is  also  made  of  manilla  hemp. 

WHALER.  A  whaling- vessel,  or  one  employed 
in  the  whale-fishery.  A  man  employed  in  the 
whale-fishery. 

WHALE'S  FOOD.  The  Clio  borealis,  a  mollusk 
on  which  the  whale  feeds. 

WHALE-SHOT.  Sperm  oil  when  just  from  the 
whale. 

WHALING-FLEET.  The  body  of  whaling-ves 
sels  belonging  to  a  port  or  country. 

WHALING-GROUND.  The  localities  in  which 
whales  are  found.  For  the  right  whale  this  is 
on  the  coasts  of  Greenland  and  in  Davis  Strait, 
and  in  the  North  Pacific  and  Arctic  Oceans ;  for 
the  southern  whale,  in  the  South  Pacific  and 
Antarctic  Oceans  ;  for  humpbacks,  the  neigh 
borhood  of  the  Bermudas  ;  for  sperm-whales,  in 
all  tropical  and  temperate  seas. 

WHALING  VOYAGE.  A  voyage  out  after 
whales,  and  back  with  the  oil. 

Whanger.     A  fish-curer  in  Newfoundland. 

Whapper.  A  large  turtle,  of  7  to  8  hundred 
weight,  found  near  Ascension  Island. 

Wharf.  A  structure  of  wood,  iron,  or  stone 
erected  on  the  shore  at  the  water's  edge,  for  the 
convenience  of  vessels  in  loading  and  unloading. 
Gun-wharf,  a  wharf  at  an  ordnance-yard  or  in 
a  navy-yard,  appropriated  to  the  use  of  the  ord 
nance  department.  Sufferance-wharf,  in  Eng 
lish  law,  is  a  wharf  where  only  certain  goods  may 
be  landed.  Wharves  where  all  kinds  of  goods 
are  landed  are  there  known  as  legal  quays.  Sheer- 
wharf,  a  wharf  in  a  navy-yard  on  which  the 
sheers  are  erected. 

WHARFAGE.  Wharves  in  general.  Wharf 
age-dues,  dues  or  fees  for  landing  or  shipping 
goods  at  a  wharf. 

WHARF-BOAT.  A  boat  moored  at  the  side  of 
a  river  and  used  as  a  wharf. 

WHARF-HOUSE.     A  house  built  on  a  wharf. 

WHARFINGER.  One  who  keeps  a  wharf,  or 
who  has  the  care  of  it. 

WHARF-RATS.  The  small  boys  and  loafers 
that  infest  wharves  in  large  cities. 

WHARF-STEAD  (Eng.).     A  river-ford. 

What  Ship  is  That  ?  A  quizzing  question  put 
to  a  sailor  using  a  long  word. 

Whaup.  The  large  curlew,  Numenius  arcua- 
tus. 

Wheel.  A  circular  frame  connected  to  the 
tiller  by  the  wheel-ropes.  In  small  craft  it  is  not 
necessary. 

WHEEL-HOUSE.  A  small  house  erected  on 
the  deck,  hurricane-deck,  or  bridge  of  many 
ships  for  the  purpose  of  sheltering  the  helms 
man.  The  paddle-box  of  a  steamer. 

WHEEL-ROPES.  Ropes  or  chains  leading  from 
the  tiller  or  helm  through  blocks  in  the  decks 
and  trunks  under  the  beams  to  the  barrel  of  the 
steering-wheel,  where  they  are  fastened.  Soft, 
pliable  rope  must  be  used.  In  the  U.  S.  navy 
hide-rope  is  generally  used,  and  wire-rope  for 
steam  steering-gear.  See  STEERING  APPARATUS, 
RUDDER. 


WHEFT 


844 


WHITING 


Wheft.     See  WAFT. 

Whelk.     A  shell-fish ;  the  Buccinum  undatum. 

Whelps.  The  projecting  parts  on  every  other 
square  of  a  capstan-barrel. 

Where  Away?  A  query  in  regard  to  the 
bearing  of  an  object  reported  by  the  look-out. 

Wherry.  A  decked  vessel  used  in  fishing  in 
English  waters,  sometimes  having  two  lug-sails, 
at  others  two  shoulder-of-mutton  sails.  A  small 
light  row-boat  for  one  person. 

Whiff.  A  sudden  and  transient  puff  of  wind. 
A  fish  of  the  genus  Pleuronectus ;  the  Rhombus 
cardina.  A  fish  of  the  turbot  group ;  the  Rhom 
bus  megastoma.  To  fish  for  mackerel  by  trolling 
from  a  boat  in  rapid  motion. 

Whimbrel.  The  smaller  curlew,  Numenius 
phcepus, 

Whimsey.  A  small  crane  for  hoisting  goods 
into  warehouses. 

Whinyard  (Eng.}.  An  old  name  for  a  hanger 
or  cutlass. 

Whip.  A  small  and  light  purchase.  Single 
whip,  a  rope  rove  through  a  single  block.  Dou 
ble  whip,  a  rope  rove  through  two  single  blocks, 
the  standing-part  being  near  or  fast  to  the  upper 
block.  Whip  upon  whip,  one  whip  applied  to 
the  falls  of  another.  Whip  and  runner,  a  whip 
whose  block  is  attached  to  a  pendant,  itself  rove 
through  a  block  and  applied  to  the  weight.  To 
whip,  to  bind  the  end  of  a  rope  with  twine  to 
prevent  it  from  unlaying. 

WHIPPING.  Turns  of  small-stuff  or  twine 
around  the  end  of  a  rope  to  keep  it  from  unlay 
ing. 

Whip-jack.     A  fresh-water  sailor. 

Whippers  (Eng.}.  Men  who  clear  colliers  in 
the  Thames  River. 

Whip-ray.     The  sting-ray,  or  stingaree. 

Whip-staff.  A  strong  bar  fastened  to  the 
tiller,  to  move  it  more  easily. 

Whirler,  or  Troughton's  Top  (Eng.}.  An  in 
strument  intended  to  serve  as  an  artificial  hori 
zon  at  sea,  counteracting  the  motion  of  the  ship 
by  a  centrifugal  motion  given  to  it. 

Whirlpool.  An  eddy  or  vortex,  where  the 
water  moves  in  circles,  caused  by  the  meeting 
of  powerful  currents.  The  most  celebrated  ones 
are  the  Oarofalo,  or  ancient  Charybdis,  on  the 
coast  of  Sicily,  and  the  Malstrom  and  Salten- 
strom,  on  the  Norway  coast. 

Whirls.  Small  hooks  set  in  wooden  or  iron 
cylinders,  which  are  moved  by  a  band  extending 
to  the  wheel,  and  generally  used  in  sets  of  three. 
They  are  used  to  give  the  twist  to  the  yarns  in 
making  rope.  See  ROPE,  SMALL-STUFF. 

Whirlwind.  A  violent  wind  moving  on  its 
axis,  and  having  also  a  progressive  movement. 

Whiskers.  Two  booms,  or  iron  bars,  project 
ing  on  either  side  of  the  bowsprit,  serving  as  out 
riggers  to  the  jib-guys.  They  are  the  successors 
of  the  spritsail-yard.  Sometimes  they  are  dis 
pensed  with  in  small  vessels,  and  instead  of  them 
a  small  boom  (called  a  spread-yard)  is  lashed 
across  the  forecastle. 

Whistle.  Whistling  is  not  tolerated  in  a  man- 
of-war.  It  is  an  old  superstition  that  whistling 
in  a  calm  brings  on  a  breeze,  and  also  that  whis 
tling  during  a  gale  increases  its  violence.  To 
whistle  psalms  to  the'taffrail,  to  give  unheeded 
advice.  To  wet  one's  whistle,  to  take  a  drink. 

Whistle-fish.  A  species  of  cod  ;  the  Moiella 
vulgaris. 


White-bait.  A  small  sea-fish  of  the  herring 
kind  ;  the  Clupea  alba. 

White  Boot-top.  A  painted  line  or  ribband 
carried  around  the  ship  under  the  hammock- 
nettings. 

White-caps,  or  White-horses.  The  white 
patches  caused  by  the  breaking  of  the  crests  of 
waves  in  deep  water.  They  are  caused  by  the 
wind,  and  indicate  that  it  will  freshen. 

White-coat.     The  skin  of  a  young  seal. 

White-feather.  A  symbol  of  cowardice, — a 
white  feather  in  a  cock's  tail  being  considered  a 
proof  of  cross-breeding. 

White-fish.  The  hard-head.  A  small  fish 
(the  Alosa  menhaden],  used  for  fertilizing  land. 
A  fish  of  the  salmon  family  (Coregonus  albus), 
abundant  in  the  American  lakes.  The  Beluga 
catodon,  or  white-whale.  A  general  name  for 
ling,  cod,  halibut,  haddock,  and  tusk,  and  for 
roach  and  dace,  whose  scales  are  used  to  make 
artificial  pearls. 

White-herring.  A  pickled  herring.  A  fresh 
or  unsalted  herring. 

White-horse,  or  White  Horse-fish.  A  ray  ; 
the  Raiafullonica.  See  WHITE-CAPS. 

White-lappel  (Eng.}.  A  nickname  for  a  lieu 
tenant,  alluding  to  white  lappels  formerly  worn 
on  the  coat. 

White-nun.  The  Mergus  albellus,  a  mer 
ganser,  or  goosander,  with  a  white  belly,  breast, 
and  throat. 

White-powder.  A  chlorate  explosive  mixture, 
composed  of  3  parts  of  potassium  chlorate,  1 
part  white  sugar,  1  part  potassium  ferrocyanide. 
It  is  also  called  German  powder.  It  is  ex 
tremely  sensitive,  and  dangerous  to  use.  See 
EXPLOSIVES. 

White-rope.     TTntarred  hemp  rope. 

White-shark.     See  SHARK. 

White-squall.    See  SQUALL. 

White-tape  (Eng.}.  A  smuggler's  name  for  gin. 

White-water.  Water  over  shallow  sand 
banks,  white  by  the  reflection  from  the  bottom. 

White-whale.     The  Beluga.     See  WHALE. 

Whiting,  William  B.,  Commodore  U.S.N. 
Born  in  New  York,  November  13,  1813.  Ap 
pointed  from  New  York,  February  2,  1829 ;  at 
tached  to  receiving-ship  at  New  York,  1831 ; 
sloop  "Falmouth,"  Pacific  Squadron,  1831-33; 
surveys  of  San  Lorenzo,  including  Boca  del  Di 
ablo,  1832;  surveys  of  Bays  of  Ferrol  and  Sa- 
mana,  and  island  of  Lobos  de  Tierra,  1833; 
schooner  "  Dolphin,"  Pacific  Squadron,  1833; 
frigate  "Potomac,"  Pacific  Squadron,  1833-34; 
receiving-ship  at  New  York,  1835  ;  frigate  "  Con 
stellation,"  West  India  Squadron,  1835-36. 

Promoted  to  passed  midshipman,  June  4, 1836; 
receiving-ship  at  New  York,  1836-37  ;  coast  sur 
vey,  1837-42  ;  survey  of  Potomac,  1842-43  ;  frig 
ate  "  Macedonian,"  coast  of  Africa,  1843-45  ;  sur 
veys  of  Las  Palmas  and  Bay  of  Gando,  1844 ; 
Observatory,  Washington,  1845-50;  was  em 
ployed,  1847,  under  direction  of  the  Navy  De 
partment,  in  drawing  plans  of  the  castle  of  San 
Juan  de  Ulloa  and  the  approaches  to  Vera  Cruz  ; 
coast  survey,  1851-52;  sloop  "  Vandalia,"  East 
India  Squadron,  1852-56  ;  surveys  of  Mew  Bay 
and  Cumsingmoon,  1852 ;  surveys  of  west  coast 
of  Loo  Choo,  including  Deep  Bay,  1853;  sur 
veys  of  Toobootch,  Shah  Bay,  Yeddo  Bay,  and 
Hakodadi,  1854;  retired,  1855;  Naval  Observ 
atory,  Washington,  1861-71. 


WHITING 


845 


WILSON 


Commissioned  as  commander,  July  21,  1861. 

Commissioned  as  captain,  1867. 

Commissioned  as  commodore,  1871. 

Whiting.  A  sea-fish  ;  the  Merlangus  vulgaris. 
The  Salmo  albus,  or  white-salmon. 

Widow's  Men  (Eng.}.  Imaginary  men  for 
merly  borne  on  the  ship's  books,  for  pay  in  every 
ship  in  commission.  The  pay  was  applied  to  a 
widow's  pension  fund. 

Wild.  Wild-roadstead,  an  unsheltered,  open 
roadstead.  To  fire  wild,  to  fire  guns  with  bad 
aim.  To  steer  wild,  to  steer  badly. 

Wild-fire.     See  FIRE-SHIPS. 

Wild-wind.     An  old  term  for  a  whirlwind. 

Wilkes,  Charles,  Rear- Admiral  U.S. N.  Born 
in  New  York  City,  in  1801.  He  entered  the  navy 
as  midshipman,  January  1,  1818,  joining  the 
"  Franklin,"  74,  Capt.  Stewart,  going  to  the 
Mediterranean;  was  transferred  to  the  "  Guer- 
riere,"  but  back  again  to  the  "Franklin"  in 
1820;  went  to  the  Pacific  Station  in  the  same 
ship  in  1821,  returning  in  1822;  on  furlough  in 
1820-25. 

Promoted  to  lieutenant,  April  28,  1826 ;  on 
waiting  orders,  1827-28.  In  1829,  was  on  duty, 
preparing  for  exploring  expeditions,  and  in  1830, 
was  on  duty  at  Chart  Depot,  in  Washington. 
In  18oO,  was  attached  to  the  "  Delaware,"  74,  on 
the  Home  Station,  and  in  1831,  to  the  sloop 
"Boston,"  in  the  Mediterranean.  In  1833  he 
was  on  duty  again,  preparing  for  explorations. 
From  1834-37,  was  on  special  duty,  being  in 
charge  of  chronometers  part  of  the  time  in 
1835.'  In  1838,  was  ordered  to  the  brig  "  Por 
poise,"  to  prepare  for,  and  in  August  sailed  on 
an  exploring  expedition,  in  command  of  2  sloops, 
a  brig,  store-ship,  and  2  schooners.  While 
absent,  he  explored  the  islands  of  the  Pacific, 
and  made  important  discoveries  in  the  Antarctic 
continent,  and  returned  to  New  York  in  June, 
1842.  Was  tried  on  charges  of  irregularities, 
and  reprimanded  for  illegal  punishments.  He 
was  in  the  coast  survey  during  1842-43,  and  was 
promoted  to  commander,  July  13,  1843  ;  was  on 
special  duty  at  Washington,  connected  with  the 
exploring  expedition,  from  1844-61  ;  was  pro 
moted  to  captain,  April  4,  1855.  He  wrote  the 
narrative  of  the  expedition,  was  the  author  of  the 
volume  on  "  Meteorology,"  and  also  published, 
in  1849,  a  work  called  "  Western  America,"  and 
in  1856,  "  Theory  of  the  Winds."  He  was  given 
command  of  the  "San  Jacinto"  in  1861,  and 
sailed  in  search  of  the  privateer  "Sumter,"  and 
on  the  8th  of  November  took  from  the  English 
mail-steamer  "Trent"  the  persons  of  Messrs. 
Mason  and  Slidell,  Confederate  commissioners 
to  England.  He  was  complimented  for  this  by 
the  Secretary  of  the  Navy,  although  the  prison 
ers  were  given  up,  it  being  an  illegal  capture. 
In  1862,  commanded  James  River  Flotilla ; 
shelled  City  Point,  August  28;  in  1863,  com 
manded  a  special  West  India  Squadron,  and 
captured  many  blockade-runners. 

Promoted  to  commodore,  July  16,  1862,  and 
retired  in  1864. 

Promoted  to  rear-admiral,  July  25,  1866,  and 
died  at  Washington  on  the  8th  of  February,  1877, 
aged  76,  having  been  in  the  service  59  years. — 
F.  S.  Bassett,  Lieutenant  U.8.N. 

Williwaw.     A  light,  sudden  whirlwind. 

Willock.     The  guillemot  (  Uria  troile}. 

Wilson,  Theodore   D.,    Naval    Constructor 


U.S.N.  Born  in  Brooklyn,  May  11,  1840; 
served  a  regular  apprenticeship  as  shipwright 
under  Naval  Constructor  B.  F.  Delano,  U.S.N., 
at  the  navy-yard,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y. ;  served  for 
three  months  at  the  outbreak  of  the  war  as  a 
non-commissioned  officer  in  the  13th  Regiment, 
N.  Y.  M.  On  the  return  of  the  regiment  he  was 
appointed  a  carpenter  in  the  navy  from  August 
3,  1861,  serving  afloat  in  the  North  Atlantic 
Blockading  Squadron  until  1863,  during  which 
time  he  took  part  in  the  fight  with  the  "  Merri- 
mac,"  and  was  in  several  minor  engagements 
on  the  coast.  On  December  15,  1863,  he  was 
ordered  to  special  duty  under  Rear-Admiral 
Gregory,  general  superintendent  of  work  out 
side  of  navy-yards,  and  by  his  order  was  in 
trusted  with  the  building,  repairing,  and  altera 
tions  of  scores  of  vessels,  involving  the  exercise 
of  great  judgment  and  skill. 

Mr.  Wilson  remained  on  this  important  duty 
until  May  17,  1866,  when  he  was  appointed  as 
sistant  naval  constructor  in  the  navy.  Or 
dered  to  duty  in  charge  of  the  construction 
department  of  the  navy-yard,  Pensacola,  Fla.  ; 
detached  December  28,  1867,  he  was  ordered  to 
the  navy-yard,  Philadelphia,  Pa.  While  at 
tached  to  this  station  as  assistant  to  Naval  Con 
structor  S.  M.  Pook  (deceased)  he  finished  and 
launched  the  "  Omaha,"  completed  the  rebuild 
ing  of  the  "  Juniata,"  commenced  the  rebuilding 
of  the  frigate  "  Brooklyn,"  and  repaired  the 
"Sangamon"  and  "Dictator";  detached  on 
the  3d  of  July,  1869,  he  was  ordered  to  the 
Naval  Academy  as  instructor  in  ship-building 
and  naval  architecture,  where  he  remained  for 
a  period  of  four  years,  giving  great  satisfaction. 
During  the  summer  of  1870  he  was  ordered  by 
the  Secretary  of  the  Navy  to  England  and 
France  on  special  service,  for  the  purpose  of  ob 
serving  personally  the  improvements  in  the  con 
struction  of  iron  vessels  of  war.  This  duty  was 
satisfactorily  performed  and  much  reliable  infor 
mation  obtained.  Detached  from  Naval  Acad 
emy  July  16,  1873,  he  was  ordered  in  charge  of 
the  department  of  construction  and  repair  at 
the  navy-yard,  Washington,  D.  C.,  and  while 
there  rebuilt  the  sloop-of-war  "  Shawmut"  and 
fitted  her  for  sea,  and  put  the  sloop-of-war 
"  Nipsic"  in  frame. 

He  was  promoted,  and  commissioned  as  naval 
constructor  from  July  1,  1873;  detached  and 
ordered  to  the  navy-yard,  Portsmouth,  N.  H., 
June  1,  1874,  where  he  has  been  stationed  for  a 
period  of  seven  and  one-half  years.  He  had  the 
supervision  of  the  work  on  the  "Plymouth," 
"Kearsarge,"  and  "  Wachusett,"  finished  the 
sloop-of-war  "  Enterprise,"  launched  the  sloop- 
of-war  "  Essex,"  fitted  for  sea  the  sloop-of-war 
"  Marion,"  rebuilt  and  fitted  out  the  sloop-of- 
war  "Ticonderoga,"  rebuilt  and  fitted  for  sea 
the  corvette  "  Lancaster,"  the  latter  vessel  being 
almost  entirely  rebuilt  from  his  own  designs. 

Mr.  Wilson  is  a  member  of  the  Institution  of 
Naval  Architects,  England,  and  is,  the  author 
of  "Ship-building,  Practical  and  Theoretical," 
which  is  now  used  as  the  text-book  at  the^Naval 
Academy.  He  has  been  longer  in  the  service 
than  any  officer  on  the  constructors'  list,  and  is 
the  only  officer  who  has  served  actively  both  in 
the  army  and  navy,  ashore  and  afloat.  Selected 
one  of  two  constructors  from  the  active  list  as  a 
member  of  the  Naval  Advisory  Board,  for  the 


WINCH 


846 


WIND 


purpose  of  recommending  a  plan  for  the  recon 
structing  of  vessels  in  the  navy. 

Winch.  A  simple  machine  having  a  hori 
zontal  shaft  turned  by  a  crank  or  lever.  Steam- 
winches  are  frequently  furnished  to  ships  for 
hoisting  boats,  ashes,  etc.  A  rope-winch  is  used 
in  laying  up  rope.  See  ROPE. 

Wind.  To  turn  a  ship  end  for  end  by  warps, 
boats,  a  tug,  or  by  her  sails  or  engine.  To  blow 
a  call  ;  to  pipe.  To  wind  away,  to  steer  through 
a  tortuous  channel. 

Wind.  A  current  of  air  in  motion.  The 
winds  were  the  mariner's  chief  reliance  until 
the  advent  of  steam.  On  them  all  sailing-ships 
depend,  and  they  have  always  been  the  study  of 
sailors.  The  Greeks  personified  the  winds. 
Boreas,  Zephyrs,  Euros,  and  Notos  (north,  south, 
east,  and  west  winds)  were  to  them  actual  per 
sons,  causing  disasters  or  bringing  favoring 
breezes.  A  general  belief  existed  in  the  Middle 
Ages  that  they  were  salable.  The  Finns  and 
Huns  sold  them  for  centuries,  and  Eric  the 
Norseman  was  quite  an  agent  of  the  elements. 
They  delivered  1,  2,  or  3  knots  in  return  for 
fees  ;  to  untie  1  brought  a  good  wind,  2  a  very 
strong  wind,  and  3  a  tempest.  Bessie  Miller,  an 
Orkney  maiden,  sold  them  as  late  as  1814  to  the 
fishermen,  at  6d  a  man.  Witches  were  generally 
believed  to  deal  in  them,  and  the  spirit  of  the 
storm-wind  has  yet  his  believers. 

Winds  are  named  from  the  direction  from 
which  they  blow,  and  receive  the  compass- 
names,  as  west  winds,  east  winds,  etc.  Reign 
ing  winds,  lending  winds,  trade-winds,  monsoons, 
cyclones,  typhoons,  sea-  and  land-breezes,  also  are 
designations  of  particular  classes  of  winds  A 
gentle  wind  is  a  zephyr,  while  a  breeze  is  more 
forcible,  a  wind  next,  a  gale  next,  then  a  tem 
pest,  and  a  hurricane  or  tornado.  In  the  Med 
iterranean  various  local  names  apply  to  the 
winds,  as  Tramontana  and  Gli  Secchi  (the  dry 
winds)  for  the  north  winds,  Solano,  Levante, 
Bentu  de  Sole,  and  Chocolatero  for  the  east  winds, 
Mezzo  giorno,  Simoom,  and  Siume  for  southerly 
winds,  Ponente  and  Liberator  for  west  winds, 
Gregale  and  Bora  for  northeast  winds,  Scirocco, 
Maledetto  (evil),  Levante,  Molezzo,  and  Furiante 
(when  strong)  for  the  southeast  winds,  Venda- 
vales,  Lehe.ches,  Virazones,  Labeschades  (when 
squally),  Ouragani  (when  tempestuous),  Lab- 


betch,  and  Siffanto  for  southwest  winds,  Mistral, 
Mistrasu,  Bize,  Grippe,  Vent  de  cers,  Maestrale, 
and  Mamatete  (when  light)  for  the  northwest 
winds,  Provenzale  for  north-northwest  winds, 
Imbattu,  for  sea-breezes,  Rampinu  for  land- 
breezes,  Raggiature  for  land-squalls,  Burrasche 
and  Raffiche  for  hard  squalls,  Bonaccia  for  calms, 
and  Golfada  for  hard  gales. 

Generally  speaking,  winds  are  prevailing  winds, 
periodical  winds,  or  variable  winds.  Prevailing 
winds  are  those  that  blow  a  great  part  of  the  time 
from  one  direction.  Such  are  the  trade-winds, 
and  others  less  known.  South  and  southwest 
winds  prevail  on  the  west  coast  of  Africa  all 
the  year.  Periodical  winds  are  those  that  blow 
a  certain  part  of  the  time  in  each  year  from 
a  certain  direction.  Such  are  the  monsoons. 
Besides  these,  on  the  coast  of  Africa  from  Cape 
Verde  to  Sierra  Leone  southwest  winds  blow 
from  June  to  September,  and  northeast  winds 
from  October  to  May,  and  on  the  east  coast  of 
Africa  northerly  and  southerly  winds  alternate 
in  winter  and  summer.  The  Levante  blows  from 
the  northeast  in  the  ^Egean  Sea  from  9.30  A.M. 
during  the  day  only.  As  a  rule,  beyond  the 
trade-winds  the  winds  prevail  toward  the  pole. 
But  by  far  the  greater  part  of  the  inter-trade 
region  is  occupied  by  variable  winds,  depending 
on  circumstances  of  temperature,  pressure,  moist 
ure,  and  magnetism  for  their  force  and  direction. 

As  a  general  rule,  barometric  changes  of  press 
ure  are  followed  by  changes  in  the  wind,  and 
these,  in  connection  with  careful  observations 
of  changes  in  temperature  and  the  hygrometric 
condition  of  the  atmosphere,  indicate  to  the  mar 
iner  to  some  extent  the  nature  of  the  change  in 
the  wind.  When  the  wind  in  the  northern 
hemisphere  shifts  with  the  sun — i.e.,  from  left  to 
right — it  is  said  to  haul,  when  in  the  opposite 
direction  it  is  said  to  back.  The  former  change 
is  more  of  a  permanent  character,  the  latter  a 
temporary  and  unsettled  change.  In  the  southern 
hemisphere,  this  is  reversed.  In  general,  a  rise  in 
the  barometer  indicates  polar,  and  therefore 
drier,  winds  ;  a  fall,  equatorial  and  wet  winds.  A 
violent  wind  is  &  gale,  storm,  hurricane,,  typhoon, 
cyclone,  or  tornado.  The  following  table  gives 
the  rate  and  pressure  of  winds,  with  the  adopted 
notation  in  use  among  sailors,  devised  by  Beau 
fort : 


Miles  per 
Hour. 

Feet  per 
Minute. 

Pressure  in 
Pounds  per  Square 
Foot. 

Beaufort 
Number. 

Description1  of 
Wind. 

Speed  of  a  good  ship,  or  sail  she 
could  carry. 

0 

00 

.000 

0 

Calm. 

Nnlhing—  all  sail. 

1 

88 

.005 

1 

Light  air. 

All  sail—  just  steerage-way. 

2 
3 

176 

264 

.020 
.044 

2 

Light  breeze. 

One  to  two  knots. 

4 

5 

352 
440 

.079 
.123 

3      . 

Gentle  breeze. 

Three  to  four  knots. 

10 
15 

880 
1320 

.492 
1.107 

4 

Moderate  breeze. 

Five  to  six  knots. 

20 

1700 

1.970 

5 

Fresh  breeze. 

Close-hauled  royals. 

25 
30 

2200 
2640 

3.067           \ 
4.429           ; 

6 

Strong  breeze. 

Single  reefs,  topgallant-sails. 

35 
40 

3080 
3520 

6.027           1 
7.870          J 

7 

Moderate  gale. 

Double  reefs  and  jib,  etc. 

45 

3960 

9.900 

8 

Fresh  gale. 

Three  reefs  and  courses. 

60 

4400 

12.304 

9 

Strong  gale. 

Close  reefs  and  courses. 

60 

70 

5280 
6160 

17.788 

24.153 

10 
11 

Whole  gale. 
Storm. 

Main-topsail  nnd  foresail,  close-reefed. 
Storm  stay-sails. 

80 

7"40 

31.490           ) 

Hurricane    or    tor 

No  canvas. 

100 

8800 

49.200           J 

nado. 

WINDAGE 


847 


"WIKE 


With  regard  to  the  position  of  the  ship  with 
reference  to  the  wind,  she  is  close  to  the  wind,  by 
the  wind,  or  on  a  wind,  when  the  yards  are  braced 
up  and  the  wind  blows  from  a  quarter  from  4  to 
6  points  from  the  bow.  The  wind  is  a  head  wind, 
a  leading  wind,  a  fair  wind,  a  free  wind,  a  large 
wind,  or  a  scant  wind,  as  it  blows  toward  the  sails 
from  different  angles  with  the  keel.  In  the  wind, 
with  the  wind  ahead,  so  that  the  sails  shake.  In 
the  wind's  eye,  directly  toward  the  wind.  Down 
the  wind,  in  the  same  direction  the  wind  is  blow 
ing.  Between  wind  and  water,  near  the  water- 
line  ;  in  that  sector  of  the  ship's  side  which,  when 
she  rolls,  is  covered  and  uncovered  by  the  water. 
All  in  the  wind  forward,  sir !  a  notification  from 
the  officer  of  the  forecastle  that  the  head-sails 
shake.  When  the  wind  goes  toward  the  bow  of 
a  ship  it  is  said  to  haul,  when  towards  the  stern, 
to  veer  or  draw  aft.  Wind  in  the  teeth,  wind 
directly  ahead,  or  against  the  course. 

WIND-HANDS.  Long  stratus  clouds,  supposed 
to  indicate  wind. 

WIND-BOUND.     Detained  by  contrary  winds. 

WIND-PALL.  A  violent  rush  of  w'ind  from 
high  land.  Also,  a  good  stroke  of  luck. 

WIND-GAGE.     See  ANEMOMETER. 

WIND-GALL.  Aluminous  halo  on  the  edge  of 
a  distant  cloud,  where  there  is  rain,  generally  to 
windward,  and  the  precursor  of  bad  weather. 
Similar  halos  are  seen  to  leeward. 

WIND-RODE.  A  ship  is  wind-rode  when  rid 
ing  by  the  force  of  the  wind,  independent  of 
the  tides,  or  against  their  force. 

WIND-SAIL.  A  funnel  of  canvas,  used  to  ad 
mit  air  into  the  lower  part  of  a  ship.  It  is  cir 
cular,  distended  by  hoops,  and  hoisted  by  hal 
liards,  while  near  the  head  large  flaps,  extended 
by  bowlines,  catch  the  air  and.  direct  it  into  an 
aperture  in  the  side  of  the  wind-sail.  Another 
kind  has  the  head  entirely  open,  and  there  are 
four  flaps,  so  as  to  fix  it,  and  avoid  constant  trim 
ming  with  every  shift  of  wind  or  swing  of  the 
ship.  A  wind  sail  is  also  sometimes  used  pro 
truding  from  the  hawse-holes,  to  catch  the  wind 
when  at  anchor.  Wind-sails  are  named  from 
the  hatches  down  which  they  lead,  or  from  the 
part  of  the  ship  they  ventilate. 

WIND-TAUT.  A  vessel  at  anchor  heeling  over 
to  the  force  of  the  wind. 

WIND-TIGHT.  A  cask  when  it  does  not  leak 
is  wind-tight  and  water-tight. 

WINDWARD.  Toward  the  wind.  The  weather- 
side.  To  lay  an  anchor  out  to  windward,  a  fig 
urative  expression,  signifying  to  adopt  precau 
tionary  measures ;  borrowed  from  a  seamanlike 
manoeuvre  in  times  of  necessity.  To  ply  to  wind 
ward,  to  work  the  ship  on  a  wind. 

WINDWARD-SAILING.  Turning  to  windward, 
or  navigating  a  ship  toward  the  wind  by  mak 
ing  frequent  tacks. 

WINDWARD-SET.  A  set  toward  the  wind,  or 
a  flow  in  that 'direction. 

WINDWARD-TIDE.     See  WEATHER-TIDE. 

Windage.  The  crescent-shaped  space  between 
a  shot  and  the  bore  of  a  gun,  due  to  their  differ 
ence  of  diameter. 

Winding-tackle.     See  TACKLES. 

Windlass.  A  machine  moved  by  levers  or 
bars,  used  in  small  vessels  for  raising  the  anchor. 
A  large  horizontal  cylinder  of  wood  rests  in  up 
right  pieces  bolted  to  the  deck,  and  called  car- 
rick-heads,  carrick-bitts,  windlass-heads,  or  wind- 


lass-bitts.  Strong  knees  support  these  bitts.  On 
the  horizontal  roller  or  barrel  are  whelps,  and 
around  it  the  chain  is  wound  when  heaving  up. 
Two  chocks  support  the  middle  portion,  and  on  it 
two  ratchet-pawls  work  in  ratchets  on  the  cylin 
der.  The  ordinary  windlass  is  moved  by  hand 
spikes  inserted  in  holes  in  the  cylinder.  Another 
has  brakes  like  a  pump,  whose  rods  are  connected 
to  pawl-boxes  on  either  side  of  the  cylinder. 
These  have  pawls  which  take  in  ratchets  on  the 
cylinder  on  the  up  and  down  stroke.  Another 
form  has  a  brake  acting  by  friction  on  the  cyl 
inder  on  the  up-stroke. 

The  windlass  is  more  powerful  than  the  cap 
stan,  but  fewer  men  can  be  used  with  it.  In  the 
lever-windlass,  when  the  levers  are  perpendicu 
lar,  each  man  exerts  from  20  to  30  pounds  on  it, 
but  when  they  are  horizontal,  this  is  increased 
to  140  or  150  pounds.  A  windlass-capstan  is  a 
combination  of  the  two,  in  which  a  windlass 
moves  the  spindle  of  a  capstan  by  gearing.  It 
was  patented  in  1866,  but  is  little  used. 

WINDLASS,  SPANISH.  See  SPANISH  WIND 
LASS. 

Windle-stray.  A  kind  of  sea-side  grass  or 
reed. 

Windlipper.  The  first  ripples  on  smooth 
water,  caused  by  a  breeze. 

Wine  and  Beer.  These  are  allowed  to  sea 
men  in  all  navies  except  that  of  the  United 
States.  (See  SPIRIT -RATION.)  Officers  are  al 
lowed  fermented  drinks,  but  rfoi  spirituous 
liquors. 

Wine  of  Height  (E-ng.}.  An  extra  allowance 
formerly  given  to  men  on  the  accomplishment 
of  some  difficult  navigation. 

Wing.  The  projecting  part  of  a  steamer's 
deck  before  and  abaft  the  paddle-boxes.  The 
extremities  of  a  fleet  or  squadron,  either  in  line 
or  in  any  order  of  sailing.  The  part  of  the  hold 
and  orlop  nearest  the  side  of  the  ship.  The 
wings  near  the  water-line  should  be  kept  clear, 
so  that  access  may  be  had  to  them  during  ac 
tion  to  stop  shot-holes.  To  wing  up  ballast,  to 
carry  the  bottom  weights  high  up  to  ease  the 
rolling  motion. 

WING-AND-WING.  Before  the  wind  with 
studding-sails  on  both  sides.  In  a  fore-and-aft- 
rigged  vessel,  before  the  wind  with  the  mainsail 
on  one  side  and  the  foresail  on  the  other. 

WING-PASSAGE.  A  passage  formerly  left  in 
large  ships  about  the  wings,  to  afford  a  ready  ac 
cess  to  the  side  of  the  ship  in  action. 

WING-SAIL.  A  quadrilateral  sail  bent  to 
hoops  on  the  mainmast,  and  to  the  gaff  of  a 
ketch. 

WING-TRANSOM.  The  largest  or  main  transom 
in  the  stern-frame. 

WING-WALE.     The  sponson-rim. 

Winnold-weather  (Eng.).  Stormy  March 
weather. 

Winter-fish  (Eng.}.     Dried  cod  and  ling. 

Winter-gull,  or  Winter-mew.  A  gull ;  the 
Larus  canus. 

Winter-quarters.  The  quarters  of  a  block 
ading  fleet  during  the  wintry  gales.  In  the 
Arctic,  the  spots  where  ships  winter  from  October 
to  July. 

Wiper.    See  CAM. 

WIPER-SHAFT.     A  shaft  carrying  a  wiper. 

Wire.  Plain,  galvanized,  tempered,  annealed, 
and  galvanized  annealed  iron  and  steel  wires 


WISBY 


848 


WOOD 


are  used  in  making  wire-rope,  each  possessing 
peculiar  properties. 

Wisby,  Laws  or  Code  of.  An  early  mari 
time  code  framed  at  Wisby,  in  England.  See 
MARITIME  LAW. 

Wise,  Henry  Augustus,  Captain  U.S.N. 
Born  in  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  May  2,  1819;  died 
at  Naples,  April,  1869.  Son  of  George  Stuart 
Wise,  an  officer  of  the  U.  S.  navy,  who  came 
from  an  old  royalist  family,  several  of  whom 
were  taken  prisoners,  after  the  Penruddock  re 
bellion,  and  sent  to  Virginia,  about  1665.  At 
the  age  of  14,  by  the  influence  of  his  cousin, 
Gov.  Wise,  he  was  appointed  a  midshipman, 
and  first  sailed  under  Capt.  John  Percival, 
the  "Jack  Percy"  of  his  "Tales  for  the  Ma 
rines."  He  served  in  the  squadron  on  the  coasts 
of  Florida  during  the«Seminole  war,  and  after 
promotion  to  a  lieutenancy,  in  the  Pacific,  in 
California,  and  Mexico  during  the  war  of  1846- 
48.  On  his  return  to  the  United  States  he  mar 
ried  the  daughter  of  Edward  Everett.  In  1862 
he  was  promoted  to  commander,  and  made  as 
sistant  chief  of  the  Bureau  of  Ordnance  and 
Hydrography  ;  captain,  January,  1867  ;  resigned 
his  connection  with  the  Ordnance  Bureau, 
January,  1869.  He  published  in  1849,  "Los 
Gringos";  in  1855,  "Tales  for  the  Marines"; 
"Scampavias,"  1857;  "Captain  Brand  of  the 
Schooner  Centipede,"  1860. 

Wishes.     Lowlands  frequently  overflowed. 

Wishy-washy.     Weak  ;  over- watered. 

Wismar.  A  fortified  seaport  town  of  North 
Germany,  at  the  head  of  a  deep  bay  of  the 
Baltic.  It  has  manufactories  of  tobacco  and 
sail-cloth,  and  important  breweries  and  distil 
leries.  Its  harbor  is  commodious,  and  nearly 
landlocked  by  the  island  of  Poel.  It  has  large 
ship-building  docks.  Pop.  15,000. 

With,  Withe,  or  Wythe.  An  iron  hoop  or 
ring  fitted  to  the  end  of  a  spar  or  boom,  to  pass 
another  spar  through,  so  as  to  hold  it  in  place. 

With  the  Sun.  "in  the  direction  in  which  the 
sun  appears  to  move, — i.e.,  from  left  to  right.  In 
the  direction  in  which  the.hands  of  a  watch  move. 

Withershins.    See  WIDDERSHINS. 

Witheys  (Eng.).  A  low  place  near  rivers 
•where  willows  grow. 

Witness.  A  pile  of  earth  left  in  digging  a 
dock,  etc.,  to  judge  how  much  has  been  removed. 

Witness.  Military  and  naval  courts  sum 
mon  witnesses  through  the  judge-advocate  or 
recorder.  Any  person  subject  to  the  jurisdic 
tion  of  the  United  States  can  be  compelled  to  ap 
pear  and  testify.  In  the  event  of  refusal,  the 
judge-advocate  is  authorized  to  issue  a  process 
of  attachment,  similar  in  form  to  that  employed 
by  the  civil  courts,  and  the  person  appointed  to 
serve  such  attachment  is  justified  in  using  need 
ful  force  to  secure  obedience.  The  same  rules 
of  evidence  obtain  in  the  main  as  in  civil  courts, 
and  a  witness  cannot  be  required  to  criminate 
himself.  All  testimony  is  given  under  oath  or 
affirmation  (see  OATHS),  and  a  witness  who  will 
fully  gives  false  evidence,  or  corruptly  suborns 
others  to  do  so,  "  shall,  and  may  be  prosecuted  in 
any  court  of  justice  in  the  United  States."  A 
witness  who  refuses  to  testify,  or  "  behaves  with 
contempt  to  the  court,  may  be  imprisoned,  at  the 
discretion  of  the  court,  for  a  term  not  exceeding 
two  months." 

Witnesses  are  not  to  be  summoned  at  the  expense 


of  the  United  States,  unless  their  testimony  is 
material  and  necessary.  Civilian  witnesses,  not 
in  government  employ,  are  entitled  to  mileage  at 
the  rate  of  8  cents  per  mile,  and  to  a  per  diem 
of  2  dollars,  from  and  to  their  domiciles.  They 
must  have  certificates  of  attendance  from  the 
judge-advocate.  Those  belonging  to  the  navy 
and  marine  corps  receive  mileage  both  ways  if 
officers,  and  actual  transportation  if  enlisted  men 
(Navy  Kegulations,  1876).  Witnesses  neces 
sary  to  substantiate  charges  against  merchant- 
seamen,  sent  home  on  men-of-war  from  foreign 
stations  to  be  tried,  must  accompany  them  (ibid.). 
Naval  witnesses  are  to  appear  in  service  dress 
(ibid.}.  All  witnesses  are  required  to  withdraw 
when  charges  and  specifications  are  read,  and  to 
remain  outside  of  court  until  called.  Exceptions 
to  competency  are  to  be  made  before  the  witness 
is  sworn,  but,  if  at  any  stage  of  a  trial  incom- 
petency  appear,  the  court  may  stop  the  witness 
and  disregard  the  testimony.  Witnesses  must 
be  sworn  in  open  court,  and  in  the  presence  of 
the  accused ;  they  must  not  converse  with  each 
other  concerning  the  trial.  All  questions  must 
be  put  in  writing,  and  the  testimony  read  over 
for  correction  before  the  witness  is  discharged 
or  withdraws.  Any  member  of  a  court,  the 
judge-advocate  or  recorder,  can  be  a  witness 
for  either  prosecution  or  defense.  When  the 
senior  member  is  called,  the  next  in  rank  ad 
ministers  the  oath.  When  the  judge-advocate 
takes  the  stand,  the  senior  member  swears  him, 
and  he  may  record  his  own  testimony  if  there  be 
no  clerk.  A  member  called  as  a  witness  is  not 
thereby  disqualified  for  the  duties  incident  to 
his  membership,  including  those  in  regard  to 
the  admissibility  of  questions  put  to  himself. 
A  witness  for  the  prosecution  may  also  be  called 
for  the  defense,  and  need  be  sworn  but  once  in 
each  case.  A  court-martial  can  call  witnesses 
not  previously  summoned  by  either  side,  and 
this  even  after  both  have  closed  their  case. 
The  accused  person  is  entitled  to  a  list  of  the 
witnesses  to  be  presented  against  him,  and  to 
have  such  as  are  essential  to  his  proper  defense 
summoned.  His  affidavit  can  be  required  as  to 
the  materiality  of  a  witness,  and  he  can,  at  his 
own  request,  but  not  otherwise,  be  sworn  as  a 
competent  witness.  His  failure  to  so  request  is 
not  to  create  any  presumption  against  him  (act 
approved  March  16,  1878).  See  COURTS-MAR 
TIAL,  PROVOST-MARSHAL. — H.  C.  Cochrane,  Cap 
tain  U.S.M.C. 

Wittee-wittee.  A  fish-hook  of  mother-of- 
pearl,  with  hair-bait  on  it,  made  in  the  Pacific 
Islands. 

Woare  (Eng.}.  An  old  name  for  sea- weed. 
A  beach-  or  shore-margin. 

Wolf,  or  Wolf-net.     A  kind  of  fishing-net. 

Wolf-fish.  The  cat-fish,  or  Anarrichas  lupus, 
a  fish  2  to  3  feet  in  length,  with  large  teeth. 
Also  called  sea-wolf. 

Wongs  (En a.}.     Same  as  wishes. 

Wood,  William  Maxwell,  Surgeon-General 
U.S.N.  Appointed  from  Maryland,  May  16, 
1829 ;  entered  the  service  as  assistant  surgeon. 
Commissioned  as  surgeon,  1838  ;  steamer"  Poin- 
sett,"  Home  Squadron,  1838-42;  served  at  that 
time  in  co-operation  with  the  army  in  the  Semi- 
nole  war;  Naval  Station,  .Baltimore,  1843;  fleet- 
surgeon,  Pacific  Squadron,  1844-46  ;  in  this  pe 
riod  he  rendered  the  service  referred  to  in  the 


WOOD 


849 


WORDEN 


following  official  documents.  Commodore  Sloat, 
commander-in-chief  of  the  Pacific  Squadron, 
writes  him  :  "I  am  most  happy  to  acknowledge 
the  very  important  services  you  rendered  the 
government,  and  the  squadron  in  the  Pacific, 
under  my  command,  at  the  breaking  out  of  the 
Mexican  war.  The  information  you  furnished 
me  at  Mazatlan,  from  Guadalaxara  (at  the  risk 
of  your  life),  was  the  only  reliable  information 
I  received  of  that  event,  and  which  induced  me 
to  proceed  immediately  to  California,  and  upon 
my  own  responsibility  to  take  possession  of  that 
country.  I  have  always  considered  the  perform 
ance  of  your  journey  through  Mexico  at  that 
time  as  an  extraordinary  feat,  requiring  great 
presence  of  mind  and  address.  How  you  escaped 
from  the  heart  of  an  enemy's  country  and  such 
a  people  has  always  been  a  wonder  to  me,  and 
has  been  so  characterized  on  all  occasions."  The 
chairman  of  the  Naval  Committee  of  the  Senate 
commented  on  his  valuable  services  as  follows  : 
"  Every  intelligent  mind  must  at  once  appreciate 
the  importance  of  the  service  which  you  have 
rendered  the  country,  and  your  personal  hazard 
in  traveling  through  the  heart  of  the  enemy's 
country,  communicating  with  your  military  su 
perior,  and  furnishing  him  with  the  sole  and 
otherwise  unattainable  information  upon  which 
he  based  the  acquisition  of  California.  The  im 
portance  of  this  acquisition  can  best  be  estimated 
by  asking  ourselves,  What  would  have  been  our 
national  position  in  the  Pacific  and  upon  our 
Oregon  frontier  had  Great  Britain,  instead  of 
ourselves,  acquired  permanent  possession  of  it  ? 
I  have  always  contended  that  its  acquisition  con 
stitutes  one  of  the  navy's  strongest  claims  upon 
the  gratitude  of  the  nation,  and  this  chapter  in 
its  history,  furnished  by  your  own  service,  but 
strengthens  this  conviction."  Receiving-ship, 
Baltimore,  1847-48;  steamer  "Michigan,"  on 
the  lakes,  1850-51;  Naval  Station,  Sackett's. 
Harbor,  New  York,  1853-55  ;  fleet-surgeon,  East 
India  Squadron,  1856-58 ;  during  this  service, 
taking  part  in  the  Chinese  war,  and,  on  board 
the  flag-ship,  participating  in  the  brilliant  cap 
ture  (by  Commodore  Armstrong  and  the  late 
Admiral,  then  Commander,  Foote)  of  the  4  forts 
on  the  Canton  River;  steamer  "  Michigan,"  on 
the  lakes,  1859-61  ;  fleet-surgeon,  North  Atlantic 
Blockading  Squadron,  during  the  Rebellion ;  par 
ticipating,  on  board  the  flag-ship  "Minnesota," 
in  the  first  battle  of  ironclads, — that  of  the 
"Monitor"  with  the  "  Merrimac"  and  other 
vessels  of  the  Confederate  squadron,  in  Hampton 
Roads,  also  in  the  capture  of  Sewell's  Point; 
Baltimore,  1866-67  ;  president  of  the  Examining 
Board,  1868;  chief  of  Bureau  of  Medicine  and 
Surgery,  1870.  Retired,  1871  ;  died,  1880. 

Wood.  To  take  in  wood.  To  run  a  gun  out 
against  the  side  of  the  port,  port-sill,  or  water 
ways.  Wood  has  universally  been  used  in  the 
construction  of  ships,  but  is  fast  being  replaced 
by  metal.  (See  SHIP.)  Various  kinds  of  wood 
are  used  in  the  construction  of  a  ship,  and  many 
of  the  more  expensive  and  ornamental  kinds  are 
used  in  the  interior  decorations  of  steamers, 
yachts,  and  even  of  men-of-war.  The  following 
are  the  chief  woods  used  in  ship-building  :  pine, 
fir,  larch,  cedar,  ash,  locust,  elm,  red  willow,  wal 
nut,  acacia,  gum-wood,  greenheart,  cocoa-wood, 
lignum-vitse,  teak-wood,  saul,  sisso,  peon-wood. 

WOOD-AMD- WOOD.      A   close   union    of    two 
54 


pieces  of  timber.  A  nail-head,  flush  with  the 
wood. 

WOOD- ENDS.     Hood-ends. 

WOODEN  WALLS.  The  fleet;  a  term  origi 
nating  with  the  Athenians,  but  since  appropri 
ated  by  the  English. 

WOODEN  WINGS.     Lee-boards. 

WOODLOCK.  A  piece  put  in  the  throating  or 
score  of  the  pintle  above  the  load  water-line,  or 
as  near  it  as  possible,  to  prevent  the  rudder  from 
unshipping.  One  end  abuts  under  the  lower  side 
of  the  brace  and  the  other  against  the  score.  It 
is  coppered  before  being  put  in,  and  when  in 
place  is  secured  by  driving  a  copper  bolt  through 
it  into  the  stock  of  the  rudder. 

WOOD-MULLS  (Eng.).  Thick  hose  worn  by 
fishermen, 

WOOD-SHEATHING.     See  SHEATHING. 

WOOD-TAB.  Tar  obtained  from  wood  by  dis 
tillation. 

Woof  (Eng.}.  The  gray  gurnard.  The  weft 
or  cross  threads  in  cloth. 

Woold.  To  wind  rope  about  a  mast  or  yard 
where  it  is  fished. 

WOOLDER.  A  bandage.  A  stick  used  in 
woolding.  The  bolt  of  a  Spanish  windlass.  The 
handle  of  a  rope-maker' s-top. 

WOOLDING.  The  act  of  binding  with  rope. 
The  rope  used  in  binding  a  mast  or  spar. 

Wool-packs.  Light  fleecy  cumulus  clouds  in 
a  blue  sky. 

Woolwich,  County  of  Kent,  England,  and  for 
merly  a  naval  port,  is  the  seat  of  the  chief  gov 
ernment  arsenal  of  Great  Britain.  It  stands  on 
the  south  bank  of  the  Thames,  7  miles  E.S.E.  of 
St.  Paul's,  London,  and  now  included  in  the  me 
tropolis.  The  dock-yard,  the  most  ancient  in  the 
kingdom,  has  been  enlarged  of  late  .years,  and 
has  some  very  fine  docks  ;  some  of  the  largest 
ships  of  the  British  navy  were  launched  from  it. 
The  yard  comprises  large  dry-docks,  and  a  basin 
400  feet  long  by  300  feet  wide.  The  Royal  Ar 
senal,  the  largest  in  Great  Britain,  contains  not 
only  the  largest  stores  of  all  kinds,  but  it  com 
prises  also  establishments  for  manufacturing 
them,  and  for  constructing  gun-carriages  and 
preparing  ammunition  for  cannon  and  small- 
arms.  It  is  the  seat  of  the  Royal  Military  Acad 
emy  for  the  education  of  cadets  destined  for  the 
artillery  and  engineers,  and  is  also  the  headquar 
ters  of  the  royal  horse  and  foot  artillery  and 
sappers  and  miners,  for  whom  and  other  corps 
there  are  extensive  barracks  here.  Pop.  36,000. 

Word.     The  watch-word. 

Worden,  John  L.,  Rear-Admiral  U.S.N. 
Born  in  New  York,  March  12,  1818.  Appointed 
from  New  York,  January  12, 1835  ;  sloop  "Erie," 
Brazil  Squadron,  1836-37 ;  Naval  School,  Phila 
delphia,  1840. 

Promoted  to  passed  midshipman,  July  16, 
1840;  store-ship  "Relief,"  Pacific  Squadron, 
1843;  special  duty,  1845;  Naval  Observatory, 
1846  ;  store-ship  "Southampton,"  Pacific  Squad 
ron,  1846-47. 

Commissioned  as  lieutenant,  November  30, 
1846;  frigate  "Ohio,"  Pacific  Squadron,  1848- 
50  ;  Naval  Observatory,  Washington,  1851-52  ; 
frigate  "  Cumberland,"  Mediterranean  Squad 
ron,  1853-55;  Naval  Observatory,  Washington, 
1856 ;  navy-yard,  New  York,  1857-58 ;  sloop 
"Savannah,"  Home  Squadron,  1859;  Home 
Squadron,  1860;  commanded  ironclad  "  Moni- 


WORK 


850 


WRECK 


tor"  in  her  engagement  with  rebel  ironclad 
"  Merriraac,"  inllampton  Roads,  March  9, 1862. 
During  the  action  Capt.  Worden  was  injured  in 
the  eyes  by  the  explosion  of  a  shell  from  the 
"  Merrimac"  upon  the  outside  of  the  eye-hole  of 
the  pilot-house  exactly  opposite  his  eye. 

Commissioned  as  commander,  July  12,  1862 ; 
commanding  ironclad  steamer  "  Montauk," 
South  Atlantic  Blockading  Squadron  ;  com 
manded  the  ironclad  "  Montauk"  in  the  block 
ading  fleet  in  Ossabaw  Sound,  and  engaged  Fort 
McAllister,  on  the  Ogeechee  River,  January  27, 
1863,  and  again,  February  1,  1863  ;  attacked  and 
destroyed  the  rebel  privateer  "  Nashville"  under 
the  guns  of  Fort  McAllister,  on  February  28, 
1863  ;  commanded  the  u  Montauk"  in  the  attack 
made  by  Admiral  Dupont,  with  the  ironclad 
fleet,  on"  the  defenses  of  Charleston,  on  April  7, 
1863. 

Commissioned  as  captain,  February  3,  1863. 
Capt.  Worden  was  promoted  out  of  the  line 
and  received  the  thanks  of  Congress  for  distin 
guished  gallantry  in  the  engagement  with  the 
"  Merrimac,"  and  in  other  battles  in  which  he 
had  taken  part.  Special  duty,  New  York,  1834- 
66;  commanded  the  steam-sloop  "Pensacola," 
North  Pacific  Squadron,  1867  ;  special  duty, 
1868. 

Commissioned  as  commodore,  May  27,  1868 ; 
superintendent  Naval  Academy,  1870-74. 

Commissioned  as  rear-admiral,  November  20, 
1872 ;  commanding  European  Station,  1875-77  ; 
member  of  Board  of  Examiners  since  December 
29,  1877. 

Work.  The  product  of  force  and  'motion  in 
overcoming  resistance ;  its  unit  is  one  foot-pound. 
To  labor  or  strain  ;  as  a  ship  works  in  a  sea.  To 
perform  ;  to  operate.  To  work  ship,  to  direct  or 
manage  a  vessel  by  sails  and  helm.  To  work  the 
engine,  to  put  it  "in  motion.  T*.)  work  a  dai/'s 
work,  to  compute  the  run  and  position  of  the 
ship  for  a  day.  To  work  an  observation,  a  lunar 
distance,  etc.,  to  make  the  calculations  necessary 
to  find  the  latitude,  etc.,  from  the  observations 
made.  To  work  a  lunar,  figuratively,  to  sleep 
during  a  conversation;  to  proceed  with  effort 
or  laboriously.  To  work  to  windward,  to  gain 
to  windward  by  successive  tacks.  To  work  a 
passage,  to  pay  for  a  passage  by  doing  duty. 
To  work  double  tides,  to  work  three  days  in  two, 
or  to  work  two  tides'  work  in  24  hours.  To  work 
up  junk,  etc.,  to  make  over  junk,  old  yarns, 
etc.,  into  gaskets,  foxes,  and  the  like.  Working 
up,  keeping  men  beyond  hours,  or  working  need 
lessly,  as  a  punishment.  To  work  off  dead-horse, 
to  perform  work  paid  for  in  advance.  See 
POWER. 

WORKING-HOURS.  In  a  navy-yard  the  time 
from  bell-ring  to  12,  and  from  1  to  bell-ring. 
The  bell  rings  at  7  or  7.30  A.M.,  and  at  5  or  6 
P.M.  On  board  ship,  working-hours  are  from  8 
A.M.  to  4  P.M.,  except  during  meals. 

WORKING-PARTY.  A  gang  of  men  employed 
in  any  specified  labor. 

Worm.  To  wind  a  small  rope  spirally  in  the 
spaces  between  the  strands  of  a  large  rope.  A 
rope  is  wormed  before  being  parceled  and  served. 
WORM.  A  piece  of  metallic  pipe  coiled  in  the 
form  of  a  helix  or  spiral,  used  in  distilling.  It 
is  immersed  in  a  vessel  of  constantly  circulating 
cold  water,  the  vapor  entering  at  one  end  being 
condensed  before  reaching  the  other. 


A  helical  piece  of  steel  wire  with  a  sharp  point, 
attached  to  a  staff,  for  withdrawing  a  cartridge 
from  a  gun.  A  small  worm  is  attached  to  a  gun 
sponge  for  the  purpose  of  withdrawing  fragments 
of  unconsumed  cartridge.  A  screw-thread.  See 
TEREDO  NAVALIS. 

WORM-EATEN.  Perforated  by  the  ravages  of 
the  teredo  navalis. 

WORMING.     Small-stuff  used  to  worm  a  rope. 

WORM-WHEEL.  A  toothed  wheel,  the  teeth 
of  which  are  acted  upon,  as  a  nut,  by  a  short 
screw  or  worm.  It  is  an  imperfect  piece  of 
mechanism,  as  the  bearing  contact  can  be  only  a 
point. 

*  Wrack.  A  marine  plant  (the  Zostera  marina], 
from  which  kelp  is  made  ;  also  called  sea-wrack, 
sea-ioreck,  sea-oak,  and  sea-tangle. 

Wrain-bolt.  A  ring-bolt  used  by  shipwrights 
to  bend  and  bind  the  planks  in  place  until  they 
are  bolted. 

Wrain-staff.  A  stout  piece  of  wood,  fitting 
into  the  ring  of  a  wrain-bolt,  to  tighten  it  up,  and 
so  bind  the  planks  in  place. 

Wrasse.  The  Crenilabrus  tinea,  or  old-wife. 
A  genera  of  fish  (the  Labrus),  containing  some  21 
species. 

Wreck.  To  destroy  or  wreck  a  vessel.  To 
plunder  goods  from  a  wrecked  vessel,  or  to 
gather  stranded  goods  from  the  beach.  The  de 
struction  of,  or  serious  injury  to  a  vessel  by 
a  stress  of  weather,  or  by  being  cast  on  shore,  on 
a  rock,  etc.  The  ruins  of  a  stranded  or  wrecked 
ship.  Goods  cast  up  on  land  from  a  wrecked 
vessel. 

Among  the  ancients,  shipwrecked  persons  and 
vessels  were  lawful  prize,  but  toward  the  end 
of  the  Roman  empire,  better  laws  protected  per 
sons  and  property.  The  ancient  practice  was 
revived  during  the  Middle  Ages,  when  pirac}r 
was  common.  This  practice  of  selling  or  killing 
the  persons  and  destroying  the  ships  was  con 
tinued  down  to  1680  in  Uie  north  of  Europe. 
Early  English  laws  gave  wrecks  to  the  king,  but 
by  laws  passed  during  the  reign  of  Henry  III., 
goods,  if  marked,  could  be  claimed  within  a  year 
and  a  day.  But  in  the  reign  of  Queen  Anne,  laws 
were  enacted  enjoining  all  magistrates  to  sum 
mon  people  to  assist  in  saving  wrecked  persons, 
goods,  etc.,  on  the  English  coast,  and  the  estab 
lishment  of  a  coast-guard  and  live-saving  service 
has  aided  there,  as  elsewhere,  in  ameliorating  the 
lot  of  shipwrecked  persons.  Superintendents  of 
wreck  and  receivers  of  wreck  were  appointed 
some  years  since  in  England,  to  look  out  for 
them.  Wise  rules  as  to  their  conduct,  and  also 
laws  as  to  salvage,  etc.,  have  been  productive  of 
much  good  in  England. 

The  number  of  wrecks  is  yearly  great.  From 
1793  to  1829,  there  were  annually  lost  577  ves 
sels  of  the  English  mercantile  'navy,  or  one- 
fortieth  of  the  entire  amount.  In  the  5  years, 
1863-67,  there  were  7646  wrecks  and  1873  collis 
ions,  or  in  all,  9519  vessels  and  3459  lives  lost  in 
the  English  merchant  service.  About  $12,000,- 
000  and  800  lives  represent  the  yearly  loss  to 
that  nation  alone.  In  1874,  1999  sailing-vessels, 
or  3.5  per  cent,  .of  all  in  the  world,  were  lost. 
Previous  to  this,  in  1870,  2313  were  lost,  in  1871, 
3426,  in  1872,  2682,  and  in  1873,  2165.  In  1873 
there  were  204  steamers,  or 4  percent,  of  all,  lost ; 
and  in  1874,  175,  or  8J  per  cent.  49,322  vessels 
were  wrecked  on  the  English  coast  in  25  years 


WRECK 


851 


WRECK 


(1855-1880).  Disasters  to  steamers  on  the  line  of 
travel  between  Europe  and  America  have  been 
frequent.  From  1840-78,  there  were  40  steamers 
lost  and  4362  lives  sacrificed.  Wrecks  occur 
from  causes  connected  with — 1.  Weather,  as 
gales,  currents,  seas,  fog,  lightning,  etc.  2.  De 
fective  vessels,  compasses,  chart*,  etc.  3.  Inef 
ficient  officers.  4.  Machinery  and  boilers.  5. 
Miscellaneous,  as  accident,  fire,  collision,  leaks, 
absence  of  buoys  or  lights,  scuttling,  and  other 
causes. 

Annual  reports  of  wrecks  are  now  made,  and 
summaries  published  from  time  to  time,  notably 
by  the  Bureau  Yeritas,  of  Paris,  and  Lloyd's,  in 
London.  The  United  States  Life-Saving  Service 
publishes  full  statistics  for  the  United  States.  In 
1876,  1281  casualties  occurred  to  American  ves 
sels,  nearly  half  being  total  losses.  In  1876-77, 
there  were  85  vessels  foundered,  220  stranded, 
39  collided,  and  178  lost  from  other  causes, 
making  a  total  of  528  vessels  lost,  involving  the 
sum  of  $14,500,000,  and  1573  were  damaged, 
worth  in  all  more  than  $63,000,000.  In  1877- 
78,  there  foundered  79  vessels,  while  231  were 
lost  by  stranding,  35  by  collisions,  and  105  from 
other  causes,  besides  1492  damaged ;  598  lives 
were  lost,  and  the  value  of  these  vessels  was 
$51,000,000,  of  which  $12,000,000  was  lost.  In 
1879-80  there  were  300  disasters,  67  vessels  being 
lost.  The  decrease  was  15.72  per  cent,  in  num 
ber,  and  16  per  cent,  in  tonnage  from  one  to  the 
other  year.  November,  December,  and  January 
are  the  worst  months,  and  the  most  wrecks  then 
occur. 

WRECKAGE.  Spars,  rigging,  and  other  float 
ing  wreck-stuff. 

WRECK -ARTILLERY.  Wreck  -  artillery,  or 
wreck-ordnance,  comprises  such  devices  as  are 
designed  to  establish  communication  between 
the  shore  and  stranded  vessels  by  means  of  a 
projectile  carrying  a  line  from  the  shore  to  the 
vessel,  or  vice  versa. 

There  are  two  principal  methods  of  effecting 
this  intercommunication, — one  by  means  of  a 
line  carrying  a  projectile  impelled  by  the  explo 
sive  force  of  powder  contained  in  a  gun  or  mor 
tar,  and  the  other,  in  which  the  impelling  force 
is  generated  in  the  projectile  itself. 

To  the  former  class  belong  all  guns,  mortars, 
and  muskets  used  for  throwing  line-carrying 
projectiles  ;  to  the  latter,  belong  the  several  life- 
saving  rocket  systems. 

The  U.  S.  Life-Saving  Service  has  retained  the 
gun  and  mortar  system. 

This  government  first  used  the  old-fashioned 
cast-iron  eprouvette  mortar,  throwing  a  24-pound 
round  ball ;  then  followed  a  small  number  of 
3-inch  Parrott  mortars,  which  gave  way  in 
1878-79  to  the  2.5-inch  Lyle  gun. 

The  Parrott  mortar  was  made  of  cast  iron  lined 
with  a  steel  tube.  The  projectile  was  oblong, 
rounded  at  the  front  end,  and  somewhat  pointed 
at  the  rear  end,  near  which  was  pierced  a  hole 
for  attaching  the  line.  When  loaded  the  rear 
end  of  this  projectile  extends  beyond  the  muzzle 
of  the  piece. 

The  Lyle  gun  and  system  was  devised  and 
perfected  by  Lieut.  D.  A.  Lyle,  Ordnance  De 
partment  U.S.A.,  in  1877. 

It,  like  the  Parrott,  is  a  development  of  the 
Manby  system,  invented  during  the  early  part 
of  the  present  century.  Lieut.  Lyle  prepared 


guns  of  three  different  calibres, — 2,  2.5,  and  3 
inches ;  the  calibre  to  depend  on  the  range  re 
quired  and  the  size  of  line  to  be  used.  All 
these  guns  are  made  of  bronze,  mounted  on. 
wooden  beds  or  carriages  strengthened  with 
wrought  iron. 

The  2.5-inch  Lyle  gun  has  been  adopted  by  the 
U.  S.  Life-Saving  Service,  and  200  of  them  have 
been  made,  the  greater  part  of  which  are  in  use. 
The  braided  linen  lines  made  by  the  Silver  Lake 
Company,  of  Newtonville,  Mass.,  is  used  in  this 
country,  as  giving  the  greatest  satisfaction  for 
shot-lines.  These  lines,  like  all  others,  deterio 
rate  with  the  lapse  of  time  when  stored,  and 
should  be  replaced  every  two  or  three  years,  else 
breaks  will  occur  in  firing. 

The  Lyle  projectile  is  made  of  cast  iron,  and 
is  cylindro-ogival  in  form.  A  wrought-iron 
shank  having  an  eye  at  its  rear  end  is  screwed 
into  the  base  of  the  shot  to  which  the  line  is  at 
tached.  The  projectile  is  fired  base  first,  and  is 
reversed  by  the  strain  of  the  line. 

I.  Instructions  for  Use  of  Lyle  Gun. — Keep  the 
bore  of  the  gun  clean  at  all  times.     There  is  often 
a  deposit  left  after  firing,  near  the  seat  of  the 
charge,  which  prevents  the  projectile  from  going 
entirely  down  to  the  cartridge.      This  deposit 
should  always  be  removed.* 

The  projectiles  should  be  kept  free  from  rust. 
The  use  of  emery-cloth  and  the  application  of  a 
little  oil  will  protect  the  shot  from  rust. 

In  loading,  always  measure  the  distance  from 
the  charge  to  the  muzzle  with  the  ramrod  or 
wiper  and  apply  it  to  the  shot.  In  this  man 
ner  the  gunner  can  always  tell  whether  the  pro 
jectile  is  fully  down  or  is  obstructed  by  dirt  or 
sand. 

If  the  piece  be  fired  when  the  projectile  is  not 
"  home,"  it  strains  the  gun  unnecessarily. 

II.  Directions  for  Firing. — Having  the  gun 
and  apparatus   on   the  ground,  to  prepare  for 
firing : 

1.  Select  a  place  where  the  gun  and  carriage 
may  recoil  without  striking  rocks  or  other  ob 
structions. 

2.  Note  the  position  of  the  vessel  to  be  re 
lieved  5  her  distance  from  the  shore,  the  direction 
and  approximate  force  of  the  wind. 

3.  Place  the  gun  in  position,  making  allow 
ance  for  the  force  of  the  wind  and  for  the  drift 
of  the  line. 

4.  Place  the  faking-box  and  line  on  the  wind 
ward  side  of  the  gun,  and  two  or  three  feet  from 
it, — not  more.     The  box  should  be  on  a  line  with 
the  muzzle  of  the  gun.     Loosen  the  hasps,  in 
vert  the  box,  and  incline  it  to  the  front  at  an 
angle  of  about  45°. 

5.  See  that  the  vent  is  clear  by  inserting  the 
priming- wire. 

6.  Wipe  off  the  shot  with  care,  freeing  it  from 
dirt  and  sand. 

7.  Remove  the  frame  and  faking-pins,  press 
ing  at  the  same  time  gently  upon  the  "false" 
bottom  to  keep  the  fakes  in  place.     Then  remove 
the  "false"  bottom   by  lifting  it  slowly  until 
clear  of  the  box. 

8.  Seize  the  end  of  the  line,  drawing  out  just 
enough  to  reach  to  the  gun  without  disturbing 
the  fakes  in  the  box,  pass  the  end  through  the 

*  Generally  removed  by  using  a  wet  sponge.  In  very  cold 
weather,  alcohol  should  be  used  instead  of  water  to  prevent 
freezing. 


WRECK 


852 


WRECK 


eye-hole  in  the  shank  and  tie  two  or  three  half- 
hitches  in  it,  drawing  the  knot  down  close  to 
the  eye  ;  then  wet  about  three  or  four  feet  of  the 
line. 

9.  Remove  the  tompion  or  muzzle-cover  from ., 

the  piece. 

10.  Insert  the  cartridge. 

11.  Insert  the  projectile  slowly  until  it  resti 
upon  the  cartridge. 

12.  Prick  the  cartridge  with  the  priming-wire 
to  avoid  disturbing   the  elevation  after  being 
given. 

13.  Set  the  "  combination  level"  to  the  desired 

14.  Place  the  lower  arm  of  the  level  length 
wise  upon  the  chase. 

15.  Elevate  the  muzzle  until  the  bubble  of  the 
level  stands  at  the  middle  of  the  tube. 

16.  Adjust  the  quoin. 

17.  Unroll  the  lanyard  and  insert  the  hook  in 
the  wire  loop  of  the  friction-primer. 

18.  Insert  the  primer  gently  in  the  vent. 

19.  Stand  clear  of  the  line. 

20.  Fire  the  piece. 

NOTE. — If  any  of  the  fakes  should  slide  from 
the  box  to  the  ground,  place  the  loose  line  in 
small  fakes  not  more  than  18  inches  long  in  front 
of  the  box.  The  necessity  for  this  operation 
should  be  avoided  if  possible. 

• 
Comparison. 

Weight  of  Weight  of  „,.*  Extreme 

Piece.        Piece  with  Projectile,  ^undk  Kange' 

Bed,  pounds.  pounds.  P°uaas-  yards. 

Old  mortar 288  24  312  421 

3o"Parrott r,35  33  568  631 

3"Parrott 288  22  310  473 

2.5"Lyle 185  17  202  695 

2"  Lyle 89  13  102  477 

The  weight  of  the  Lyle  gun,  with  carriage,  as 
adopted,  is  162  pounds  ;  quoin,  4.5  pounds  ;  pro 
jectile,  18.7  pounds;  total,  about  185  pounds. 
This  projectile  carries  braided  lines,  Nos.  3£,  4, 
4£,  5,  6,  7,  8,  9,  and  10,  over  ranges  varying  from 
300  to  over  600  yards,  depending  on  the  size  of 
line,  charge  of  powder,  and  elevation  used. 

In  1866  the  French  adopted  two  pieces  of  ord 
nance,  le  perrier  and  L'espingole,  for  projecting 
lines  over  shipwrecked  vessels.  Later,  M.  Del- 
vigne  invented  a  gun  for  the  same  purpose.  All 
these  pieces  project  line-carrying  arrows  (fleches) 
of  wood  or  iron. 

Comparison. 

Weight  Weight  of  Diameter  Extreme 

Piece.          of  Gun,  Projectile,  of  Range, 

pounds.      pounds.  Line.  yards. 

Le  perrier 182.9             11.0  0.177"  355 

L'espingole 44.1               4.4  0.177"  196 

Delvigne 44.1             17.6  0.315"  328 

M.  Delvigne  obtains  a  range  varying  from  196 
to  382  yards,  depending  on  weights  of  projectile 
and  powder-charge,  elevation,  size  of  line,  di 
rection  and  force  of  wind.  He  claims  cheapness 
and  portability  combined,  with  an  equal  or  better 
range  than  that  obtained  with  either  le  perrier 
or  Vespingole. 

The  English  have  discarded  the  clumsy  system 
of  Capt.  Manby,  and  now  use  the  Boxer  life- 
saving  rocket. 

The  Boxer  rocket  consists  of  two  rocket  bodies, 
placed  end  to  end,  with  a  conical  cavity  in  each. 
A  portion  of  solid  composition  separates  the  two 


cavities,  so  that  the  forward  rocket  is  not  ignited 
until  the  composition  in  the  partition  and  rear 
one  is  consumed.  The  consecutive  ignition  of 
the  rockets  prolongs  the  time  of  burning  and  of 
flight,  thereby  extending  the  range.  The  line  is 
attached  to  a  long  stick  fastened  on  one  side  of 
the  rocket.  The  latter  is  fired  from  a  stand  made 
for  the  purpose  ;  the  line  steadying  the  flight  and 
tending  to  prevent  its  deflection  from  the  plane 
of  fire. 

The  end  of  the  line  attached  to  the  rocket  is 
wet,  but  that  does  not  always  prevent  its  being 
burned  off  by  the  intense  heat  of  the  flame  that 
issues  from  the  vent.  In  firing,  a  fuze  is  in 
serted  in  the  vent  at  the  rear  end  of  the  case, 
and  ignited  by  means  of  a  port-fire. 

The  rocket  bodies  are  made  of  Bessemer  metal. 
The    Germans    employ   5-   and    8-centimetre 
rockets  for  carrying  lines  over  stranded  vessels. 

These  rockets  have  strong  metallic  bodies,  with 
pointed  heads  and  tripodaf  bases,  into  which  the 
rocket-sticks  are  screwed  so  as  to  be  in  the  pro 
longation  of  the  axis  of  the  rocket.  A  chain 
fastened  to  the  end  of  the  stick  extends  to  the 
rear,  in  order  to  protect  the  line  from  the  flames 
of  the  burning  composition.  The  line  is  attached 
to  the  end  of  the  chain. 

They  also  possess  an  8-centimetre  anchor-rocket 
for  carrying  a  line  beyond  the  breakers,  to  be 
used  in  hauling  a  life-boat  through  the  surf  after 
launching.  This  rocket  carries  an  anchor-head 
with  four  flukes  or  palms  at  right  angles  to  each 
other. 

With  a  fair  bottom,  the  "holding"  capacity 
of  this  anchor  is  good. 

The  German  rockets  all  have  a  fixed  fuze  in 
the  prolongation  of  the  axis,  which  is  ignited  by 
a  short  port-fire  called  a  pillenlicht.  The  rockets 
are  fired  from  an  inclined  sheet-metal  trough. 
The  elevation  is  given  \>y  a  quadrant. 

The  English,  Germans,  and  Americans  all  have 
their  shot-  or  rocket-lines  put  up  in  boxes. 

The  lines  are  stowed  away  in  tiers  of  peculiar 
loops,  called  "fakes,"  in  such  a  manner  that  they 
do  not  become  entangled. 

The  line  is  wound  or  faked  upon  a  frame  car 
rying  spindle-shaped  pins,  that  hold  the  loops 
in  position  until  conveyed  to  the  firing-point, 
when  the  box  is  inverted,  the  frame  and  pins 
withdrawn,  leaving  the  line  in  readiness  for 
firing. 

The  Russians  make  use  of  a  metallic  case- 
rocket,  with  a  stick  screwed  into  the  rear  end  in 
the  prolongation  of  the  axis.  Six  holes  or  pos 
terior  vents  furnish  egress  to  the  gases  generated 
by  ignition. 

In  this  system  the  line  is  not  directly  attached 
to  the  rocket.  A  chain  is  fastened  to  the  line  to 
protect  it  from  the  flame ;  the  free  end  of  the 
chain  terminates  in  a  ring  that  is  placed  upon  a 
projection  on  the  front  end  of  the  stand.  The 
under  side  of  the  rear  end  of  the  rocket-stick  is 
armed  with  a  strong  iron  hook,  which  engages 
the  ring  as  the  rocket  leaves  the  tube,  and  carries 
out  the  chain  and  its  appendant  line. 

The  rocket-tube  or  stand  is  mounted  on  a  tri 
pod,  and  consists  of  a  rectangular  sheet-iron 
tube,  placed  with  one  of  its  diagonal  planes  in  a 
vertical  position. 

A  graduated  brass  semicircle  on  one  side,  fur 
nished  with  a  clamp-screw,  serves  to  fix  the  ele 
vation. 


WRECK 


853 


WYMAN 


Comparison  of  Rocket  System. 


Weight  of  Rocket, 
Kind.  complete, 

pounds. 

Boxer  (English) 17.5 

5  cm.  German 15.5 

8  cm.  German 42. 

8  cm.  German  anchor..46.5 
Russian 25.5 


Weight  Extreme 

of  Stand,  Range, 

pounds.  yards. 

30  540 

35  404 

35  545 

35        about  400 

39^  ? 


The  range  of  all  line-carrying  projectiles  de 
pends  on  their  weight,  form,  on  the  weight  of 
the  powder-charge  or  composition,  elevation, 
size  of  line,  direction,  and  force  of  wind. 

The  great  advantage  of  rockets  is  their  porta 
bility,  but  this  is  more  than  counterbalanced  by 
their  erratic  flight,  their  liability  to  deteriorate 
from  storage,  from  the  expansion  and  contraction 
due  to  changes  of  temperature,  which  loosen  the 
composition  from  the  case,  allowing  the  flanres  to 
envelop  the  whole  mass,  and  producing  more 
gas-pressure  than  the  case  can  stand. 

Again,  they  are  very  expensive,  which  pre 
cludes  any  attempt  at  extended  practice  by  crews 
of  surfmen. 

The  Massachusetts  Humane  Society  has 
adopted  for  use  at  their  life-saving  stations — 
partially,  at  least — the  Hunt  line-carrying  pro 
jectile.  This  shot  consists  of  a  tin  cylinder,  with 
a  leaden  head  cast  upon  one  end.  Just  above 
this  head  is  a  galvanized  sheet-iron  band,  which 
surrounds  the  tin  case  to  give  greater  stiffness  to 
it,  and  to  prevent  upsetting  by  the  shock  of  dis 
charge.  A  coil  of  small  line,  about  0.12  of  an 
inch  in  diameter,  is  inserted  in  the  case,  which 
is  closed  by  a  wooden  plug  having  a  hole  in  the 
centre,  through  which  the  line  is  drawn  as  the 
shot  describes  its  trajectory.  Four  trapeziform 
pieces  of  tin,  styled  "  wings,"  are  soldered  to  the 
outside  of  the  case,  near  the  rear  end,  to  control 
the  flight. 

These  wings  perform  a  similar  function  to  the 
feathers  on  an  arrow.  A  second  coil  of  line  is 
placed  at  the  firing-point.  The  line  is  payed  out 
from  the  two  coils  simultaneously. 

Among  other  line-carrying  projectiles  may  be 
mentioned  those  of  Lieut.-Commander  W.  M. 
Folger,  U.  S.  Navy,  Capt.  Butler,  TJ.  S.  Army, 
Capt.  Chandler,  TJ.  S.  Navy,  Mr.  Tatham,  of 
Philadelphia,  Mr.  Spencer,  of  New  York,  and 
the  Lyle-Emery  grapple-shot. — D.  A.  Lyle,  Lieu 
tenant  of  Ordnance,  U.S.A. 

WRECK-CHART.  A  chart  giving  the  locality 
and  date  of  shipwrecks  on  any  coast. 

WRECK-CLEARER.  A  station  at  quarters,  the 
same  as  sail-trimmer. 

WRECKER.  One  who  wrecks  ships  or  causes 
them  to  be  wrecked  by  false  lights,  etc.  One 
who  visits  or  searches  wrecks  for  the  sake  of 
plunder.  One  employed  in  saving  life  and  prop 
erty  from  wrecked  vessels. 

WRECK-FREE.  An  exemption  from  forfeiture 
of  wrecked  goods. 

WRECKING-COMPANY.  A  company  organized 
to  save  ships  or  their  cargoes  after  wreck. 


WRECKING-PUMP.  -A  powerful  pump  used 
about  wrecks,  with  large  suction-  and  discharge- 
pipes. 

WRECK-MASTER.  A  person  given  charge  of 
a  wreck  or  stranded  goods  by  owners  or  salvors. 

WRECKING-TUG.  A  boat  fitted  with  special 
appliances  for  raising,  towing,  or  clearing  a 
wreck. 

Wrench.  An  instrument  for  screwing  or  un 
screwing  bolts  and  nuts,  or  pieces  connected  by 
screw-threads.  It  may  be  either  a  solid  piece, 
or  lever,  fitted  to  a  certain-sized  nut,  etc.,  or 
adjustable  to  different  sizes;  as,  a  screw-  or 
monkey-wrench,  or  a  key- wrench. 

Wright's  Sailing.  Same  as  Mercator's  sail 
ing. 

Wring.  To  bend,  twist,  or  strain.  To  wring  a 
mast,  to  distort  it  by  setting  up  shrouds  un 
equally,  etc.,  or  by  any  strain  about  the  mast 
head.  To  wring  a  capstan,  to  strain  it  unduly 
and  twist  the  parts  of  it  out  of  place. 

WRING-BOLT.     See  WRAIN-BOLT. 

WRING-STAVE.     See  WRAIN-STAFF. 

Wrung-head.     See  RUNG-HEAD. 

Wyman,  Robert  H.,  Rear-Admiral  U.S.N. 
Appointed  midshipman,  1837  ;  attached  to  razee 
"  Independence"  and  sloop  "  Fairfield,"  Brazils, 
1837-38;  sloop  "John  Adams,"  East  Indies, 
1838-40;  Brazil  Squadron,  1840-42;  at  Naval 
School,  1842-43. 

Promoted  to  passed-midshipman,  June  29, 
1843  ;  East  Indies,  1843-46  ;  served  in  the  Gulf 
during  the  Mexican  war ;  present  at  the  siege 
of  Vera  Cruz  ;  Observatory,  Washington,  1848  ; 
receiving-ship  at  Boston,  1849-50. 

Commissioned  as  lieutenant,  July  16,  1850; 
sloop  "St.  Mary's,"  Pacific  and  East  India 
Squadrons,  1850-52;  Observatory,  Washington, 
1853-54  ;  practice-ship  "  Preble,"  1855-56  ;  razee 
"Independence"  and  sloop  "St.  Mary's,"  Pa 
cific,  1856-59;  practice-ships,  1859-60;  sloop 
"Richmond,"  1860-61;  commanding  steamers 
"Yankee"  and  "Pocahontas,"  1861;  "Paw 
nee,"  South  Atlantic  Blockading  Squadron, 
1861-62  ;  battle  of  Port  Royal,  November,  1861  ; 
commanding  Potomac  Flotilla,  1862. 

Commissioned  as  commander,  July  16,  1862 ; 
commanding  steamer  "  Sonoma"  in  James 
River,  and  "  Wachusett"  and  "Santiago  de 
Cuba,"  West  India  Squadron,  1862-63;  special 
duty,  Washington,  1863 ;  special  duty,  Navy 
Department,  1864—65;  commanding  steam-frigate 
"  Colorado,"  flag-ship  European  Squadron,  1865 
-67. 

Commissioned  as  captain,  July  25,  1866 ;  com 
manding  steam-sloop  "  Ticonderoga,"  European 
Squadron,  1867-69  ;  Hydrographic  Office.  Wash 
ington,  1869-70;  in  charge  of  Hydrographic 
Office,  1871-77. 

Commissioned  as  commodore,  July  19t  1872. 

Promoted  to  rear-admiral,  April  26,  1878; 
special  duty,  Washington,  1878  ;  commanding 
North  Atlantic  Station  since  January  15,  1879. 


XANTHO 


854 


YACHTS 


X. 


Xantho.  A  genus  of  brachyurous  crustaceans, 
containing  numerous  species,  and  existing  in  all 
seas. 

Xebec.  A  Mediterranean  coasting-vessel  from 
200  to  400  tons,  and  carrying  from  18  to  24  small 
guns.  It  is  sharp-built,  with  far-projecting  bow 
and  stern,  flat  floor,  and  very  convex  decks.  It 
has  three  masts,  with  the  fore-raking  forward, 
and  sometimes  the  others  also,  and  a  bowsprit 
and  stern-boom.  Square  yards  are  used  on  the 
fore  and  main  when  the  wind  is  fair,  but  are  re 
placed  by  lateen-sails  when  it  is  not.  Oars  are 


sometimes  used.  Square  topsails  are  sometimes 
seen  on  all  three  masts. 

Xero-potamo.  Torrents  in  Greece,  dry  at  times. 

Xiphias.  A  genus  of  acanthopterygious  fishes, 
including  the  sword-fish.  A  constellation  in  the 
southern  hemisphere,  called  also  dorado  and 
sword-fish. 

Xugia.  The  second  bank  of  rowers  in  a 
trireme. 

Xylogodine.  Dittmar's  powder,  an  explosive 
compound  of  nitric  or  sulphuric  acid  and  gly 
cerine  cellulose.  See  EXPLOSIVES. 


Y. 


Y.  Abbreviation  for  why  in  the  U.  S.  General 
Service  Signal  Code. 

Yachts  and  Yachting.  1.  Derivation.^ — Web 
ster  defines  the  word  yacht  to  mean  "  a  light  and 
elegantly  furnished  vessel,  used  either  for  private 
parties  of  pleasure,  or  as  a  vessel  of  state  to  con 
vey  princes,  etc.,  from  one  place  to  another;  a 
sea-going  vessel  used  only  for  pleasure-trips, 
racing,  and  the  like."  The  word  "yacht"  is 
unquestionably  to  be  traced  to  the  old  Danish 
"jagt,"  implying  a  vessel  for  the  chase  of  others, 
such  as  the  capture  of  pirates  and  smugglers. 
As  a  matter  of  course,  speed  was  in  them  an 
essential,  and  the  same  property  being  largely 
aimed  at  in  pleasure-craft,  the  original  meaning 
of  the  word  was  gradually  widened  until  the  in 
terpretation  given  by  Webster  became  generally 
accepted.  While  many  vikings  of  the  olden 
times  indulged  in  pleasure-cruising,  combining 
a  voyage  of  exploration  with  the  adventures  of 
the  chase,  or  the  excitement  of  a  piratical  descent 
upon  an  enemy's  coast,  the  first  authentic  record 
we  have  of  any  vessel  built  and  owned  especially 
for  the  purposes  of  yachting  dates  back  to  1588, 
when  the  "Rat  of  Wight"  was  launched  at 
Cowes,  England.  From  that  day  the  sport  may 
be  said  to  have  firmly  planted  itself  in  the  favor 
of  the  English  people,  and  the  town  of  Cowes 
has  ever  since  maintained  the  first  position  among 
the  yachting  ports  of  the  world.  From  the 
original  little  "Rat"  has  grown  a  vast  fleet  of 
fine  vessels  of  all  types  and  sizes,  representing 


in  the  aggregate  millions  of  money,  and  employ 
ing  a  large  body  of  men  in  the  capacity  of  sailors 
and  attendants.  In  1661,  Charles  II.  sailed 
the  first  regular  match  on  record,  on  the  river 
Thames,  from  Greenwich  to  Gravesend,  his  com 
petitor  being  his  brother,  the  Duke  of  York.  In 
the  words  of  a  historian  of  the  times,  "  the  king 
lost  it  going,  the  wind  being  contrary,  but  saved 
stakes  in  returning,  his  majesty  sometimes  steer 
ing  himself."  From  this  the  modern  critic  will 
conclude  that  the  king's  yacht  was  not  good  for 
much  in  windward  work,  but  had  the  advantage 
of  the  opposing  craft  on.  the  free  run  home. 
Charles  II.  and  his  brother  may  fairly  be  rated 
as  the  first  "  Corinthians"  in  history,  for  they 
handled  the  tiller  and  evidently  skippered  their 
yachts  themselves.  The  construction  of  yachts 
became  common  enough  in  the  18th  century,  and 
their  numbers  had  increased  so  rapidly  in  and 
about  Cork  Harbor,  that  the  first  club,  or  organ 
ized  association,  to  promote  the  sport  was  founded 
in  1720,  under  the  title  of  "  Cork  Harbor  Water 
Club."  Cowes  followed  in  1810,  the  club  con 
taining  some  vessels  of  considerable  tonnage,  in 
which  the  features  of  the  man-of-war  were  more 
or  less  closely  imitated,  while  the  older  boats  of 
the  Cork  club  partook  of  the  nature  of  open  har 
bor  craft,  being  shaped  something  like  a  walnut, 
with  the  mast  amidships  and  the  bowsprit  point 
ing  skyward.  The  pastime  soon  became  fashion 
able,  being  patronized  by  the  Duke  of  Clarence, 
afterwards  George  IV.  'The  Royal  Yacht  Club, 


YACHTS 


855 


YACHTS 


in  reality  the  parent  of  all  similar  institutions  of 
modern  times,  was  organized  and  adopted  a  seal 
in  1812,  at  which  time  the  number  of  legitimate 
yachts  reached  about  50,  belonging  almost  ex 
clusively  to  noblemen  and  functionaries  of  the 
government.  The  number  rapidly  grew,  until 
in  1850  it  is  estimated  there  were  500  afloat. 
From  all  sorts  of  nondescripts,  racing  had  gradu 
ally  developed  something  like  a  recognized  type 
or  standard  in  the  prevalence  of  the  "  cod's  head 
and  mackerel  tail"  form,  as  the  bluff  bows  and 
sharp  sterns  of  the  day  were  denominated.  The 
largest  athwartship  section,  or  in  technical  par 
lance,  the  midship  section  of  these  yachts  was 
full  and  round  bilged  with  a  moderate  angle 
of  dead-rise  to  the  floor,  the  whole  being  copied 
from  the  carrying  vessels  of  the  times.  Even  at 
this  early  period  the  rules  by  which  tonnage  was 
calculated  began  to  exert  a  powerful  influence 
upon  the  shape  of  the  hull,  and  as  measurement 
for  racing  purposes  has  really  had  more  to  do 
than  any  other  cause  in  directing  the  course  of 
builders  and  modelers,  it  will  be  well  to  follow  its 
influences  closely.  In  order  that  large  and  small 
vessels  might  be  raced  together  with  some  degree 
of  fairness  a  certain  amount  of  time  was  granted 
by  the  former  to  the  latter,  depending  generally 
upon  the  length  of  the  course  sailed  and  the  dif 
ference  in  size.  To  obtain  a  gauge  of  size  the 
first  rule  applied  was  that  in  vogue  in  the  con 
temporary  commercial  marine. 

Tonnage  was  measured  by  multiplying  together 
the  length  on  the  keel  and  the  breadth  and  the 
depth,  and  then  dividing  by  94,  the  result  being 
assumed  as  the  actual  contents  of  the  vessel 
expressed  in  tons.  Owing  to  the  difficulty  of 
measuring  depth,  and  the  general  conformity 
thereof  to  one-half  the  vessel's  breadth,  the  latter 
fraction  was  substituted  in  the  rule  in  place  of 
the  actual  depth.  It  worked  well  enough  as  long 
as  constructors  were  inclined  to  follow  such  pro 
portions.  Yacht-builders,  however,  were  not 
slow  to  discover  the  weak  points  of  the  tonnage 
rule,  and,  appreciating  the  advantage  of  size  in 
relation  to  speed,  they  reduced  the  beam  and 
increased  the  depth  in  successive  models,  obtain 
ing  by  such  stratagem  a  large  boat  which  would 
nominally  be  of  small  tonnage.  The  success  of 
such  craft  in  overpowering  their  smaller  rivals 
rated  at  the  same,  or  even  a  larger  figure,  soon 
made  the  narrow  and  deep  hull  quite  the  fashion, 
all  sorts  of  virtues  being  imputed  to  it,  the  sup 
posed  virtues  having  no  other  foundation  in  truth 
than  in  the  additional  size  smuggled  in  at  a  race 
and  the  increased  momentum  in  a  seaway.  Nor 
did  the  builders  stop  with  the  modifications  indi 
cated,  but  they  gained  still  further  advantage  by 
giving  a  violent  rake  to  the  stern-post,  and  an 
overhang  to  the  stem,  so  completely  circumvent 
ing  the  object  of  measuring  the  length  on  keel, 
that  yacht  clubs  were  finally  compelled  to  stretch 
their  tape-line  on  deck  from  stem-head  to  stern- 
post  instead.  In  later  years,  the  persistent 
evader  of  the  spirit  of  measurement  crooked  or 
elbowed  the  upper  part  of  the  stern-post  to  save 
what  he  could  on  the  length,  and  finally  took 
to  moving  the  post  bodily  forward,  until  his 
sharp  practice  was  at  last  checkmated  by  meas 
uring  for  length  on  the  line  of  flotation  itself. 
These  alterations  in  the  rule  produced  in  succes 
sion  the  various  types  of  yachts  which,  in  their 
day,  were  regarded  as  invincible  and  as  the  high 


est  development  of  naval  architecture,  though 
being,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  simply  more  or  less 
successful  evasions  of  equity,  and  owing  their 
fame  to  untaxed  superiority  in  size  more  than  to 
anything  else.  Wanhill,  of  Poole,  gained  fame 
in  this  way  between  1840  and  1850,  when  great 
depth  and  dead-rise  obtained  such  prominence 
by  the  performance  of  his  "Cygnet,"  "Hero 
ine,"  and  others,  while  Harvey,  of  Wivenhoe,  in 
1852,  then  an  apprentice  in  his  father's  yard, 
carried  the  rake  of  the  stern-post  to  the  greatest 
extreme,  in  rebuilding  the  well-known  little  cut 
ter  "  Kitten,"  of  10  tons,  now  owned  in  Boston, 
Mass.  The  amount  of  experimenting  and  inno 
vation  incidental  to  the  manreuvring  for  untaxed 
size  was  not  entirely  without  its  advantages  to 
naval  architecture.  A  great  deal  was  added  to 
our  store  of  practical  knowledge  concerning  the 
behavior  of  vessels  of  various  kinds.  While 
Scott  Kussell  and  others  were  engaged  in  formu 
lating  the  theories  of  the  science,  yacht-builders 
contributed  their  quota  in  the  way  of  actual 
experiment.  The  most  notable  influence  upon 
the  design  of  vessels  for  speed  was  produced  by 
the  arrival  of  the  schooner  "America"  at  Cowes, 
July  31,  1851.  She  may  be  said  to  have  fairly 
opened  the  eyes  of  the  world  to  the  fact  that 
America  was  rapidly  assuming  a  leading  rank  as 
a  maritime  nation,  and  that  the  greatest  pitch  of 
perfection  in  model  was  to  be  found  in  the  ports 
of  the  new  continent,  and  not  in  those  of  the  old. 
The  "America"  was  built  in  1851,  by  George 
Steers,  for  Mr.  J.  C.  Stevens,  commodore  of  the 
New  York  Yacht  Club,  then  a  young,  and  the 
only  organization  of  the  kind  on  this  side  of  the 
Atlantic.  The  schooner  was  87£  feet  long  on  the 
load-line,  22.2  feet  beam  at  the  same  line,  and 
had  a  mean  draft  to  the  rabbet  of  8.2  feet.  Her 
load  displacement  in  cubic  feet  was  5133.2,  or 
146.6  tons.  She  carried  45  tons  of  ballast ;  her 
hull  weighed  60,  and  the  equipment  41J  tons. 
The  area  of  her  3  lower  sails  was  5263  square 
feet.  After  her  voyage  across,  made  under  short 
spars,  she  was  refitted  at  Havre,  and  on  the  22d 
of  August,  1851,  started  in  a  race  for  the  Royal 
Yacht  Squadron  cup  around  the  Isle  of  Wight, 
beating  the  entire  English  fleet  out  of  sight. 
Subsequently  she  defeated  the  "  Titania,"  and  was 
then  bought  by  Lord  de  Blacquiere.  Under  the 
management  of  her  English  crew  she  was  beaten 
by  the  "Arrow"  and  "Mosquito,"  but  in  turn 
vanquished  the  Swedish  schooner  "  Sverige,"  a 
smart  vessel,  built  on  much  the  same  principles 
as  the  "  America,"  but  lacking  the  latter's  beauty 
and  harmony  of  lines.  The  great  victory  of  the 
transatlantic  visitor  caused  a  profound  sensation 
among  the  nautical  public. 

She  differed  radically  from  the  English  boats  of 
the  day  in  having  a  long,  fine,  and  hollow  en 
trance,  with  very  easy  section-lines  to  her  after 
body,  and  carried  the  greatest  breadth,  as  well  as 
her  centres,  abaft  the  middle.  In  short,  she  was 
a  "  cod's  head  and  mackerel  tail,"  but  turned  end 
for  end,  while  the  Englishmen  had  nothing  bet 
ter  to  pit  against  her  than  the  round-bodied, 
bluff-bowed  old  boxes  belonging  to  a  bj'gone 
age.  The  "  America's"  sails  were  cut  so  as  to 
set  flat  on  the  wind,  while  in  the  English  fleet 
the  old  "square-riggers"  idea  of  bellying  canvas 
still  held  sway.  In  a  few  words,  the  English 
yachtsman  was  behind  the  age.  Nor  was  he  long 
in  discovering  this,  for  he  set  to  work  energetic- 


YACHTS 


856 


YACHTS 


ally  remodeling  and  altering,  with  the  form  of 
the  "  America"  always  in  view.  From  the  date 
of  her  visit  the  birth  of  the  really  modern  period 
of  yachting  may  be  reckoned.  "Wave-lines," 
and  "wave-line"  areas  of  the  cycloidal  family, 
became  the  standards  of  the  new  departure,  to 
which  it  may  be  said  all  the  successful  yachts  of 
the  present  era  closely  conform.  The  "America" 
was,  however,  by  no  means  the  first  representa 
tive  of  the  new  departure  in  design,  though  the 
prominence  she  achieved  by  her  victory  at 
Cowes  gave  a  greater  impetus  to  the  new  order 
of  things  than  anything  else  could  have  accom 
plished.  Steers  himself  had  built  a  number  of 
successful  yachts  on  the  same  principles  prior  to 
the  construction  of  the  world-renowned  schooner, 
and  others  in  Europe  had  already  discerned  the 
true  path,  and  had  put  the  wave-line  theory  into 
practice.  The  most  notable  example  abroad  of 
the  early  introduction  of  the  long  and  hollow 
bow  and  cycloidal  design  is  the  cutter  "  Mos 
quito"  of  40  tons.  She  is  also  the  first  authentic 
iron  yacht  of  note.  Both  Mr.  Ditchburn  and 
Mr.  Waterman  claim  the  honor  of  originating 
the  plans  from  which  the  cutter  was  built  by 
Mare,  of  Blackwell,  in  1848.  Her  record  as  a 
racer  is  a  brilliant  one,  and  upon  one  occasion 
she  gave  a  good  account  of  herself  in  a  match 
with  the  "America."  Like  that  schooner,  the 
"  Mosquito"  is  a  vessel  of  extraordinary  beauty 
and  fairness  in  all  her  proportions,  and  it  is  an 
open  question  whether  at  this  late  day  anything 
superior  or  even  equal  to  these  two  representa 
tive  yachts  has  ever  been  launched.  It  is  quite 
certain  that  we  have  nothing  to  equal  the  "Amer 
ica"  on  this  side  of  the  Atlantic,  either  in  point 
of  speed  or  seaworthiness,  and  were  it  not  for  the 
faulty  tonnage  rule  in  vogue  in  England,  it  is 
doubtful  whether  anything  of  superior  mold  to 
the  "Mosquito"  has -left  the  builders'  hands 
across  the  sea.  The  tonnage  rule  places  such 
a  heavy  premium  upon  narrow  boats,  that  the 
comparatively  beamy  "  Mosquito"  would  be 
rated  so  much  in  excess  of  her  real  size  as  to 
seriously  interfere  with  her  chances  in  a  race 
with  the  lean  English  cutters  of  to-day.  Both 
these  yachts  are  remarkable,  because  at  one 
jump  their  projectors  gave  to  the  world  two 
craft  which  have  been  standards  ever  since,  and 
two  craft  which  must  certainly  be  counted  nearly 
faultless  in  form.  Mechanical  structure  and  con 
trivances  have  undergone  changes  and  improve 
ments,  details  have. been  perfected,  but  in  form — 
in  the  principles  of  design  exemplified  by  the 
"  America"  and  the  "  Mosquito" — the  world  has 
not  advanced  an  iota.  The  efforts  of  later  years 
have  been  to  equal,  rather  than  to  surpass  them. 
Since  1851,  a  great  refinement  in  model,  canvas, 
gear,  and  ballasting  of  the  world's  yachting 
marine  has  taken  place  in  consequence,  espe 
cially  in  England;  but  the  old  Thames  rule, 
now  renovated  in  some  details,  and  disguised 
under  the  nameof  Yacht-Racing  Association  rule, 
still  has  such  an  effect  upon  the  form  of  yachts, 
that  the  representative  boats  of  England  and 
America  have  become  widely  divergent  in  all 
their  chief  characteristics.  Fortunatety,  actual 
experiment  has  shown  that  the  peculiar  type  of 
vessel  fostered  by  the  Yacht- Racing  Association 
rule  is  not  incompatible  with  the  essentials  a 
rough-water  yacht  should  possess,  and  if  it  cir 
cumscribes  the  latitude  of  the  designer,  it,  at  all 


events,  does  not  hinder  the  production  of  a  style 
especially  suited  to  the  wants  and  necessities  of 
British  waters ;  the  worst  which  can  be  urged 
against  the  modern  English  cutter  being  her 
great  first  cost,  as  lead  ballast  has  in  them  become 
a  necessity.  In  America,  on  the  other  hand, 
through  the  custom  of  measuring  by  length 
only,  without  regard  to  the  other  two  cardinal 
dimensions,  the  builder  has  to  an  equal  extent 
been  driven  to  the  adoption  of  one  set  form,  from 
which  he  finds  escape  impossible.  The  size  he  needs 
must  be  sought  in  those  directions  which  are  not 
taxed  in  racing.  Hence  the  prevalence,  even 
among  our  large  yachts,  of  great  breadth  of 
beam,  and  the  consequent  shallowness  of  hold 
and  flat  floor.  While  we  have  not  advanced  in 
the  least  in  form,  the  Englishman  may  be  said 
to  have  created,  if  not  invented,  an  entirely  new 
style  of  craft,  many  features  of  which  we  are  now 
tardily  beginning  to  copy.  If  to  us  the  English 
man  owes  his  conversion  from  the  ancient  faith 
of  bluff  bows  and  bellowing  sails,  so  have  we  in 
turn  learned  from  him  the  value  of  ballast  on  the 
keel,  of  easy  forms  and  large  displacement  for 
work  in  open  water,  and  from  him  we  have 
taken  the  handy  rigs  of  the  cutter  and  yawl, 
which  have  of  late  come  into  popularity.  From 
the  small  nucleus  of  500  yachts  30  years  ago, 
the  fleets  of  the  world  have  grown  with  great 
strides,  until  those  of  Great  Britain  alone  number 
3000  sail  and  over,  "  Lloyd's  Yacht  Register" 
for  1880  showing  more  than  2500  of  which  sta 
tistics  have  been  gathered.  The  following  table 
will  give  an  idea  of  the  classification,  according 
to  size  and  rig,  of  this  fleet  up  to  1878 : 


Number  of  Yachts. 


1850. 


5  tons,  not  exceeding  9  tons. 

.    50 

10 

• 

19    "    . 

.127 

20 

« 

29    " 

.    85 

30 

" 

39     " 

.    59 

40 

" 

50     " 

.    41 

50 

" 

60    " 

.    27 

60 

" 

80    " 

.    40 

Qf\         «                  it 

100    " 

..  15 

100    "        "          «        150    " 

..  33 

150     "         "           "         200     "    . 

..     9 

Above  200  tons  10 

Steam-yachts  , 

Total 503 

According  to  Rigs. 

1850. 

Cutters 372 

Schooners ,  ..    76 

Yawls 45 

Other  rigs 7 

Steamers 3 


1864. 

52 

137 

207 

113 

69 

44 

47 

£9 

36 

53 

30 

15 

33 

895 


1864. 

574 

207 

54 

27 


1878. 

160 

300 

403 

180 

96 

89 

50 


87 


40 
282 


1883 


1878. 
754 
328 
3-28 


Tonnage. 

1850.  1864.  1878.          1880. 

Average 44  44  47  45 

Gross  tonnage 22,141          39,485          89,420       120,000 

This  fleet  in  1880  employed  no  less  than  12,000 
hands  regularly  under  pay,  and  re{,n.>sents  a 
value  of  nearly  ten  million  dollars. 

If  we  turn  to  America,  we  find  even  a  more 
rapid  development  of  the  sport,  considering  the 
want  of  leisure  and  wealth  prevailing  in  a  new 
country. 

Statistics  relating  to  the  earlier  days  are  of 


YACHTS 


857 


YACHTS 


course  very  meagre,  but  enough  can  be  gathered 
from  the  following  compilations  to  see  that  if  the 
advance  in  the  future  keeps  pace  with  that  of 
the  past  decade,  we  may  soon  expect  to  surpass 
Great  Britain  in  the  number  of  our  yachts, 
though  it  will  be  a  long  time  before  we  can 
out-ton  the  average  of  her  fleet.  ,  At  the  close 
of  "  the  war,"  in  1865,  there  were  only  10  organ 
ized  clubs  in  America,  with  hardly  800  members. 
In  1879  we  find  100  organized  clubs,  with  a 
membership  of  over  7500.  The  fleet  in  1865 
consisted  of  about  200  cabin  yachts  and  150 
"open  boats."  In  1879  it  had  grown  to  530 
cabin  yachts  of  which  records  could  be  obtained, 
and  the  fleet  has  since  then  been  still  further  in 
creased  by  new  additions  to  fully  600.  In  1879 
they  were  classified  as  follows : 

150  schooners,  average 52  tons. 


308  sloops, 
40  steamers, 
20  yawls, 
10  cutters, 


Total,  530 


14 

35 

20 

25 

Average,  27 


In  addition,  there  are  now  some  500  small 
yachts  and  open  boats  under  5  tons,  of  the 
jib-and-mainsail  and  cat-boat  varieties,  and 
also  a  score  of  catamarans.  During  the  past 
year  the  popularity  of  the  cutter  and  yawl  has 
developed,  and  the  leading  clubs  have  from  three 
to  a  dozen  each  of  the  new-fashioned  rigs.  The 
total  tonnage  for  1880  may  be  set  down  as  about 
18,000  tons,  employing  2000  hands,  and  repre 
senting  nearly  $1,500,000.  The  racing  statistics 
subjoined  serve  to  give  an  idea  of  the  extent  of 
that  phase  of  the  sport  and  the  activity  of 
recent  years : 


Classification. 

1875. 

1878. 

1879. 

Number  of  starters  

2373 

2365 

144 

237 

261 

436 

713 

684 

"        "  winners  

307 

467 

508 

10 

9/4 

Races  in  Boston  and  East  
"      "    New  York  waters  
"   Philadelphia  waters  
"      "   Southern  waters  
"      on  lakes  and  in  West  

48 
59 
5 
7 
20 
45 

80 
61 
26 
13 
44 
49 

107 
53 
32 
20 

55 
58 

Number  of  winners  over  40  feet 

31 

38 

Number  of  winners  under  40  feet 

436 

470 

130 

132 

"       "        "         sloop-rigged... 
Number  of  winners  schooner-rigged 
"       "        "      not  classified  

'.r.! 

167 
24 
146 

205 
31 
140 

2.  Types  of  Yachts. — Of  late  there  seems  to  be 
a  tendency  among  architects  and  owners  in  Amer 
ica  to  devise  what  may  be  termed  a  "happy 
mean"  between  the  extreme  types  representing 
the  customary  practice  of  Great  Britain  and  this 
country.  The  principal  characteristics  of  the  two 
varieties,  and  the  possibility  of  striking  the  most 
satisfactory  results  by  adopting  something  about 
half-way  between  them,  can  be  gathered  from  the 
following.  The  British  yacht  is  the  outgrowth, 
on  the  one  hand,  of  the  old  Thames  rule  of 
measurement,  and  on  the  other,  of  the  demand 
for  capable  qualities  of  all  kinds  in  rough  water. 


These  requisites  have  been  successfully  attained 
in  the  most  recent  specimens,  such  as  the  famous 
"Vanduara"  and  the  "Samoena,"  both  of  90 
tons,  the  "  Jullanar"  and  "Florinda,"  of  100 
tons,  and  among  the  smaller  classes  by  such 
splendid  performers  as  "Neva,"  "Britannia," 
"Vanessa,"  "Louise,"  "Madge,"  and  down  to 
the  beautiful  little  5-ton  cutters  "Freda,"  "  Co- 
ralie,"  "  Vril,"  and  a  host  of  others.  They  are 
all  yachts  of  great  length  and  depth  in  propor 
tion  to  their  beam,  and  have  much  of  their  bal 
last  in  lead  on  the  keel.  Their  sea-going  quali 
ties  are  of  the  highest  order,  and  leave  little  to 
be  desired.  They  are  fast  in  very  light  winds 
and  in  heavy  weather.  They  are  uncapsizable, 
having  their  greatest  range  of  stability  when  on 
their  beam-ends,  require  only  small  rigs,  are 
easy  on  their  helms,  sure  in  stays  even  in  rough 
water,  and  under  complete  control.  The  objec 
tions  to  such  boats  may  be  counted  as  their  com 
paratively  great  first  cost,  their  excessive  heel 
ing,  and  their  large  draft  of  water.  None  of 
these  objections  are  serious,  and  upon  consider 
ation  lose  much  of  their  force.  Their  great  cost 
arises  from  the  universal  excellence  of  their  build, 
such  as  the  use  of  copper  and  through  fastenings, 
the  best  material,  hard-wood  trimmings,  a  very 
complete  inventory  in  all  departments,  and  the 
prevalence  of  lead  as  ballast.  As  the  latter  is 
becoming  the  metal  generally  used  in  all  first- 
class  yachts,  even  in  America,  the  expense  at 
taching  to  British  boats  arises  rather  from  their 
superior  quality  than  from  considerations  of 
model.  Their  excessive  heeling  takes  place 
only  in  strong  lower-sail  winds;  in  light  weather 
and  when  reefed  down  the  objection  disappears, 
for  they  are  stiff  enough  for  comfort  under  such 
circumstances.  In  the  matter  of  draft,  practice 
proves  a  liberal  amount  an  obstacle  only  in  iso 
lated  cases  or  under  special  circumstances.  The 
normal  condition  of  boats  supplied  with  centre 
boards,  ostensibly  to  obviate  large  draft,  is  with 
the  board  down,  in  which  condition  they  actu 
ally  draw  more  water  than  if  supplied  with  a 
keel.  There  are  times  when  the  option  of  rais 
ing  the  board  is  a  decided  advantage,  but  the 
occasions  for  so  doing  are  rare  enough  to  ques 
tion  the  advisability  of  foregoing  the  advantages 
inherent  to  the  fixed  keel,  including  the  low  po 
sition  of  the  "outside"  ballast,  better  perform 
ance  in  open  water,  stronger  construction,  and 
increased  room  in  the  accommodations,  — an  item 
of  importance  in  boats  of  moderate  tonnage. 
Concerning  speed,  it  has  by  no  means  been 
proven  that  centre-board  yachts  are  faster  than 
keel  vessels,  though  the  former  have  generally 
been  developed  in  form  to  a  higher  degree  than 
the  latter  in  America,  and  have  created  the  im 
pression  that  the  centre-board  is  an  essential  to 
high  speed.  The  schooner  "America"  in  com 
petent  hands,  although  a  keel,  is  still  without  a 
peer  in  the  centre-board  fleet,  and  enough  races 
have  been  sailed  between  the  best  of  the  two 
classes  to  cause  professional  men  to  question  the 
supposed  superiority  of  the  board  itself.  The 
following  tables  show  in  a  marked  manner  the 
change  in  form  which  has  been  going  on  in  the 
British  fleet,  and  how  the  old  round  ships  have 
been  displaced  by  the  modern  craft  in  compliance 
with  the  pressure  of  measurement  and  the  rough- 
water  qualities  the  yachtsmen  abroad  value  so 
highly : 


YACHTS 


858 


YACHTS 


The  Old  British  Fleet. 


Name. 

When 
Built. 

Length  on 
Load-line. 

Beam  on 
Load-line. 

Depth 
Amidships. 

Mean  Draft 
to  Rabbet. 

Displacement 
in  Tons. 

Area  of 
Lower  Sails. 

Rig. 

30  75 

917 

5 

3.15 

9.20 

Cutter. 

Mazeppa  

1851 

37 

9.90 

7 

4.80 

14.11 

1232  square  feet. 

35.70 

10.50 

6 

4 

14.20 

1326      "        " 

Sloop. 

Emily   

1854 

39 

11 

6 

5 

22 

1600      " 

Cutter. 

Cygnet  
Mosquito  

1846 
1848 

50.90 
59.20 
57.80 

12.60 
15.30 
18.80 

10 
10.8 

7.25 
8.80 
7.25 

45.43 
69.25 
92.70 

2179      "        " 
3077      "        " 

Pearl  

1852 

65.30 
70 

19.50 
14 

"8.'9 

8 
6.25 

127.50 
65 

3200  square  feet. 

Schooner. 

28  8 

11  20 

336.20 

u 

9220 

22.66 

12 

9.60 

228 

« 

102.80 

27.40 

11.50 

434 

9003  square  feet. 

Ship. 

Meteor 

1856 

68.80 

15.70 

8.8 

6.75 

55 

3515      "        " 

Sloop. 

Weight  of  Yachts  built  prior  to  1856. 


Name. 

Hull. 

Ballast. 

Equipment. 

Total 
Displacement. 

Tons. 
1.70 

Tons. 
5.5 

Tons. 
2 

Tons. 
9.20 

Vesper            

2.86 

8.5 

2.5 

14.11 

2.20 

9.5 

2.5 

14.20 

550 

11.5 

6 

22 

820 

285 

87 

45.40 

Emerald               

28 

51 

13.7 

92.70 

20 

30 

15 

65 

39 

60 

285 

127.50 

Meteor  

17 

18 

20 

55 

Modern  British  Yachts.* 


Name. 

When  built. 

Length  on 
Load-line. 

Beam  on  Load- 
line. 

f 
R 

Mean  Draft 
to  Rabbet. 

Displacement 
in  Tons. 

Area  of  Lower 
Sails. 

Extreme 
Draft. 

Rig. 

Guinevere  
Egeria  

1868 
1865 

121 
937 

23 
19 

13.3 
101 

11 

98 

297 
142 

8611  square  feet. 

12 
125 

Schooner. 

Sea-Belle           

1874 

905 

189 

11  6 

10 

155 

5785      "        " 

12 

„ 

Aline 

1860 

100 

209 

11  3 

9  4 

190 

6710      "        " 

11  6 

„ 

Cambria  

1868 

100 

205 

11  6 

9 

167 

6418      "        " 

124 

„ 

Livonia  

1871 

1075 

23  3 

11  9 

108 

215 

7618       "        " 

12  8 

„ 

Gwendolin             

1870 

100 

205 

123 

10  6 

202 

13 

« 

1879 

728 

18  3 

8  2 

7 

11  5 

Miranda  

1876 

885 

18 

I'-*  7 

11  2 

5800      "        " 

1872 

793 

173 

11  1 

10 

4405      "        " 

12  3 

1875 

100 

16  8 

13  1 

"Ynwl 

Florinda 

1873 

85  7 

19  1 

10  8 

1866 

735 

15  8 

9  6 

8  6 

12  2 

Bloodhound  

1874 
1873 

59.8 
47 

12.1 
9  8 

7.8 

7 

47 

2600      "        " 

9.4 

Madcap...., 

1871 

448 

10  1 

6  9 

7  5 

K 

Lily 

1875 

36  6 

g 

7  4- 

Freda  

1880 
1876 

50.8 
31  3 

9.8 

9.6 

7 

35.5 

1980      "        " 

9 

" 

Heathen  Chinee  

1876 

18 

7 

4.9 

2.8 

3.5 

335      " 

4.2 

Sloop. 

Weights  of  Modern  British  Yachts. 


Name. 

Ballast. 

Ratio  to  Dis 
placement. 

Name. 

Ballast. 

Ratio  to  Dis 
placement. 

Gwendolin  
Cambria  

90  tons. 
65    " 

.445 
.389 

Vanessa  
Freda  

16.5  tons. 
19       " 

.579 
.535 

Sea-Belle  
Florinda  

70 
73 
62 

.325 
.471 
.361 

Lily  
Pastime  
Freda  

6.8    " 
8.4    " 
4.6    " 

.523 
.538 
.605 

Jullanar  
Arrow  

80 
40 

.506 
377 

Heathen  Chinee  

1.8    " 

.500 

Bloodhound  

26 

564 

*  This  table  has  been  taken  in  part  from  Kemp's  "  Yacht  Designing,"  Field  office,  London. 


YACHTS                               859                               YACHTS 

American  Yachts. 

Name. 

Big. 

Built. 

Lepg*h 
over  all. 

Length  on 
Water-line. 

Beam. 

Depth. 

Draft  with 
out  Board. 

Draft  with 
Board. 

Schooner. 

i< 
« 

Ci 

M 

1C 

K 
«( 

1C 

Sloop. 

Cutter. 
Sloop. 

« 
« 

ct 

Schooner. 

Sloop. 

<( 
Cutter. 
Cat. 
Sloop. 
Cutter. 
Cat. 
Sloop. 
Cat. 
<t 

Sloop. 

1867 
1871 
1851 

1878 
1880 
1869 
1871 
1873 
1877 
1873 
1866 
1871 
1874 
1865 
1870 
1865 
1863 
1866 
1872 
1868 
1872 
1865 
1865 
1865 
1851 
1872 
1871 
1875 
1867 
1867 
1861 
1874 
1869 
1861 
1873 
1868 
1874 
1867 
1874 
1873 
1868 
1858 
1875 
1871 
1864 
1873 
1875 

i'869 
1864 
1853 
1867 
1871 
1866 
1873 
1871 
1866 
1872 
1871 
1869 
1869 
1859 
1880 
1879 
1880 
1878 
1879 
1875 
1876 
1880 
1878 
1880 
1880 
1880 
1879 
1880 
1880 
1880 
1880 
1873 
1880 
1877 
1871 
1877 
1872 
1873 

135 
107.10 
100.6 
113.9 
88.7 
84 
68.3 
76.4 
85 
65.8 
120.9 
117.2 
90 
73.3 
58.3 
108 
82 
82 
61 
106.4 
76 
96.2 
112 
104 
82.9 
1019 
122 
55.6 
64.2 
49 
50 
66.6 
62 
53 
49 
54.2 
72 
33.11 
326 
476 
72.6 
53.6 
2-4 
45 
52.1 
47 
47 

"si'.iT 
4411 

52.5 
50 
391 
558 
34.9 
62.5 
35.6 
66 
51.1 
25 
40 
60 
96.6 
56.6 
53 
73 
114 
140 
59.9 
73 
46.6 

"47.5" 
67.5 
36 
58.6 
45 
36 
26 
26.7 
54 
17 
27.6 
17 
21.6 
48 

119.4 
96.5 
90.6 
100.7 
78 
80 
60.6 
67.11 
78.3 
55.2 
116.5 
101.11 
80 
66.11 
54.3 
95 
76.6 
79 
55.5 
95.2 
63.6 
87.6 
101 
86 
74.7 
86.4 
103.10 
50 
66.6 
43 
45.6 
61.8 
57 
48 
42.9 
52 
66 
31.1 
27.8 
39 
65 
49.9 
22 
41 
48 
43 
42 

"46"'" 
39.8 
47.3 
46.10 
56.4 
49 
27.6 
56.5 
32.3 
52.4 
44.11 
22.3 
35 
55 
78.6 
48 
45 
65 
95 
121 
55.9 
65 
40.6 

"42.9" 
61 
33 
54 
38.4 
30.2 
26 
24.6 
45* 
17.8 
27.6 
16.2 
19 
41 

27.4 
25.6 
22.6 
24 
21.6 
21 
18.9 
18.6 
21.7 
17 
24.9 
24 
22.6 
22.4 
16.5 
23.4 
21 
23.9 
18 
24.3 
19.6 
22.4 
25 
24.11 
24.3 
23.5 
23.6 
16.6 
17.4 
13 
17.6 
20.2 
20.3 
18.3 
15.6 
18 
23.9 
11.4 
10.7 
14.6 
21.3 
18.6 
7.6 
14 
18.6 
15 
15 

9.6 
8.4 
9.3 
11.8 
8.3 
7 
6.11 
6 
8.3 
6 
9.9 
9.9 
6.6 
5.11 
5.9 
10 
7 
7 
7 
7.9 
6.2 
8.5 
9 
7 
6.6 
8.2 
8.6 
5.6 
5.1 
5 
4 
6.6 
5.5 
6.3 
4.8 
4.9 
6.9 
4 
4.6 
4.8 
6.6 
4.4 
2 
4.10 
4.2 
4.3 
4.6 

12.8 
511 
11.6 
116 
7.6 
7.1 
4.5 
5 
7.7 
4.8 
12 
11 
6.6 
5 
6 
10.6 
7.2 
6 
7 
7.3 
4.6 
6.8 
8.4 
6 
6.5 
6.5 
12 
4.6 
4 
3.6 
3.9 
5.6 
5 
4.3 
3.11 
4.10 
5 
3 
4.11 
4.4 
6.3 
4.6 
1.2 
3.9 
4.6 
3.6 
3.9 

Keel. 
22 

Keel. 

18 
17 
12.8 
18 
18 
10 
Keel. 

15 
14 
14 
Keel. 
14 
17 
Keel. 
19 
13 
18 
20 
17 
16 
18 
Keel. 
11 
11 
10 
9 
18 
15 
16 
12 
12 
17 
10 
Keel. 
11 
14 
11 
6 
9 
11 
13 
13 

12 
10 
Keel. 
12 
14 
14 
Keel. 

9 
14 
10.6 
4 
10 
12 
18 
Keel. 
«( 

31.6 
10 
16 
11 

13 
15 
10 
12 
12 
Keel. 
9 
Keel. 
14 
5.6 
9 
5 
Keel. 
12 

Magic          

Peerless           

Clio  

Clytie             

Cornelia                 

Dreadnaught  

Kstclle                           

Eva         

Fearless            

Meta 

Idler  

Palmer    

Silvie  

Viking 

Wanderer   

Active                        

Addie 

Alpha    

Drift 

Egeria        

Elaine 

Fannie  

Gael 

Genia      

Gracie 

Haswell  

Idle  Hour               

Kaiser  

Kate              

Lizzie  L 

Nimbus 

Orion      

15.1 
14.4 
14.10 
16.2 
14.6 
17.6 
12.2 
17.3 
13 
20.9 
16 
9 
144 
18.8 
23 
15.6 
15.3 
20.6 
20.6 
30.4 
18.4 
18.6 
153 

5.2 
4.5 
5.4 
6.3 
4.6 
5.4 
6.1 
7.9 
5.9 
5.11 
5.6 
3 
4.6 
6 
9.3 
7 
7 
8.6 
10.6 
9.4 
4.3 
7.9 
5.2 

4.8 
3.3 
7 
5.3 
3 
4.9 
5 
8.9 
3.10 
5.9 
4.4 
1.5 
3.9 
5 
7.6 
7.6 
6.9 
9 
11.3 
6 
4.4 
7.0 
4.3 

Qui  Vive 

Ray        

Sadie                      

Vanitas             ..  .         

Vindex  

Violet        .          

Vision 

Vixen 

Volante           

White-Cap 

Wliite  Wing       

Republic                      

Frolic 

Caroline           

White-Cap 

Mohawk*                 

Peri 

Corsair 

17 
19.10 
12.6 
16.6 
15 
12 
11 
10.3 
15.3 
8.6 
12 
7.6 
8.6 
15.6 

6 
7.8 
4.9 
6.6 
5 
5.1 
39 
4 
7.3 
2.9 
2.10 
2.3 
3 
4.10 

4 
5.8 
3.10 
4.6 
4.6 
6 
3.6 
5 
7 
2 
2 
1.9 
3 
4.2 

Mischief    

Elephant              

^Eolus  

Georgie  and  Annie  

Cohillt  

W   T   i>eg 

Bluebell|| 

Rul>y||           

Ella  Treadwell 

*  Capsi/ed  in  a  squall,  drowning  owner  and  passengers. 
Francisco  Bay.  $  Philadelphia  racing  boat,  partly  decked. 
Uses  shifting  "ballast.  ||  Boston  racing  boats,  partly  decked. 


t  Has  jib-headed  or  Bermuda  mainsail  for  strong  winds  of  San 
Uses  shifting  ballast.  3  New  York  racing  boat,  partly  decked. 
Use  fixed  ballast. 


YACHTS 


860 


YACHTS 


Spars  of  American  Schooner-Yachts. 


Name. 

* 

5 

Mainmast  Deck 
to  Hounds. 

Foremast  Deck  to 
Hounds. 

Main-topmast, 
Extreme  Length. 

1 

a 

i 

i 

Main-gafif. 

Fore-gaff. 

4 

p  . 
o-g 

1 

^ 

Schooner. 

73 

68.6 

52 

50 

81 

35 

47 

33 

30 

36 

•« 

69.5 

,69.5 

44 

43 

72.5 

31 

34.5 

30 

24.5 

33 

« 

71 

62.6 

25 

58 

Lug. 

26 

25 

18 

« 

66.6 

63.6 

41.3 

41.3 

69 

29 

36.6 

27.3 

20 

16 

Mohawk 

i< 

78.6 

77 

60 

55 

90 

39 

41.6 

38 

30 

24 

u 

56 

54 

35 

34 

58 

24 

27.6 

23 

35 

c< 

59 

57 

34 

33 

62 

27 

34 

25 

20 

16 

White-Cap  

Republic 

M 

58 
61 

56 
59 

20 
37 

20 
35 

56 
60 

20 

26 

28 
30 

19 
25 

18 

Southern  Cross  

l< 

64 
36 

62 
34 

38 
26 

32 

25 

60 
38 

22 
15 

30 
20 

22 
14 

38 
15 

12 

Caroline                      .       . 

It 

•68 

37 

18 

18 

40 

15.8 

18.6 

15.8 

15 

7 

The  length  of  jib-boom  of  "  Intrepid"  and  "  Norna"  is  given  from  cap  to  stay,  bowsprit  and  jib-boom  of  "  Crusader,"  "  White 
Cap,"  and  ''Southern  Cross"  are  in  one  stick. 

The  "  America"  carried  a  jib  only.  Area  of  "  Columbia's"  lower  sails,  8000  square  feet. 

"Intrepid"  and  "  Norna"  are  rigged  as  cruisers.  Area  of  "  America's"  lower  sails,  5263  square  feet. 

Area  of ''  Sappho's"  lower  sails,  10,223  square  feet.  Area  of  "  Mohawk's"  lower  sails,  10,500  square  feet. 


Spars  of  American  Sloop- Yachts. 


Name. 

*•  T3 
"o  3 

3 

1 

F 

S  2 
S  a 
§•8 

Arrow  

64 

63.11 

33 

3214 

28 

30ft 

44 

23 

20 

22 

Ella  Treadwell  
Wave  

35ft 
30ft 

44 

42 

23.6 

28 

18 
20 

20 

28 

Peri    

35 

38 

19 

22 

22 

Corsair 

43 

44 

23 

23 

24  6 

Elephant  

38 

35 

206 

15 

18  9 

Bloodhound  

54 
43 

53 

45 

34 
25 

23 
19 

27 
31 

Fanita 

48 

47 

26 

20 

23  6 

Georgie  and  Annie.. 
Sunbeam 

31 

37 

44 
31  6 

19 
16 

12 

Hesper  

41 

46 

26  6 

25 

31 

Cohill  

27 

17 

Bluebell 

17ft 

226 

10 

Ruby 

2->ft 

28 

14 

... 

W.  T.Lee  

26ft 

35 

18 

26f 

** 

h  signifies  hoist  of  mainsail. 

x  extreme  length  of  mast. 

/  foot  of  jib. 

The  leech  of"  Bluebell's"  mainsail  is  24.9  feet. 

The  leech  of  "  Ruby's"  mainsail  is  36  feet. 


Ballast  of  American  Yachts. 


Name.  Tons. 

Sappho 80 

Columbia _ 35 

Mohawk 40 

America  46 

Southern  Cross 7 

Intrepid* 65 

Crusader 28 

Republic 27 

Frolicf '..'..'.'..  1« 


Name.  Tons. 

Caroline^ 6.5 

Arrow 23 

Mischief 27 

Elephant 7 

Fanita „ 14 

Regina .. 13 

^olus 7 

Comfortg 5 

Sunbeam... 3.5 


*  25  tons  was  in  lead  on  the  keel, 
t  1%  tons  lead  on  keel. 
1  2i/£  tons  lead  on  keel. 
\  1  ton  iron  on  keel. 


In  American  practice,  we  find  the  wide,  light- 
draft  boats  still  prevailing,  although  a  gradual 
change  in  the  direction  of  more  depth  has  been 


steadily  showing  itself.  Owing  to  the  fact  that 
yachting  on  this  side  of  the  Atlantic  had  its 
origin  in  river-sailing,  and  since  much  of  our 
sailing  is  still  done  in  sheltered  waters,  it  is 
quite  natural  that  the  prevailing  type  of  boat 
should  have  been  largely  influenced  thereby, 
and  that  sea-going  qualities  in  hull  and  rig 
should  have  been  neglected.  With  tne  accu 
mulation  of  wealth  and  greater  leisure  comes  the 
desire  to  extend  our  cruising-grounds  and  to 
undertake  more  or  less  distant  voyages,  and  a 
modification  of  model  is  taking  place  in  response. 
The  chief  recommendations  of  the  wide  and 
shallow  boat  are  her  great  stiffness  and  conse 
quent  comfort,  cheap  first  cost  as  long  as  we  re 
main  satisfied  with  iron  ballast,  quickness  in 
stays,  great  speed  in  strong,  lower-sail  winds  in 
smooth  water,  and  last,  the  option  of  raising  or 
lowering  the  centre-board  as  before  alluded  to. 
The  objections  to  such  boats  are  serious  and 
numerous.  They  are  very  hard  on  their  helms, 
easily  capsized  in  a  squall  or  through  want  of 
close  attention  ;  they  have  little  deck-room  ow 
ing  to  the  almost  universal  presence  of  a  raised 
house  over  the  cabin  to  afford  head-room  below, 
and  to  the  length  of  which  the  available  accom 
modations  are  limited  in  yachts  of  less  than  50 
feet.  They  require  large  sails  to  drive  them  ; 
they  are  not  reliable  in  stays  in  rough  water, 
and  they  are  exceedingly  bad  and  violent  sea- 
boats.  In  light  airs  they  are  slow,  while  in  a 
seaway  they  are  leewardly,  and  cannot  work  to 
windward  unless  the  seas  are  long,  easy  swells. 
Owing  to  their  large  draft  with  the  centre 
board  down,  there  is  much  danger  of  twisting 
the  latter  by  "sounding"  in  shoal  water,  and 
the  trunk  or  well  containing  the  board  is  liable 
to  give  trouble  on  account  of  leaking  when 
strained.  The  boats  are  expensive  in  wear  and 
tear,  and  not  long-lived  without  heavy  scantling 
and  kneeing,  deducting  materially  from  the 
amount  of  ballast,  sails,  and  speed.  The  sloop- 
rig,  consisting  of  a  large  mainsail  and  jib,  is  not 
adapted  to  yachts  of  fair  tonnage,  its  unhandi 
ness  involving  large  crews  and  being  productive 
of  danger  in  bad  weather  ;  its  toleration  is  to  be 
traced  to  the  prevalence  of  river-sailing  in  small 


YACHTS 


861 


YACHTS 


boats  in  years  past.  As  an  escape  from  the 
sloop's  unhandiness  the  American  yachtsman 
has  always  exhibited  great  partiality  for  the 
schooner-rig,  thereby  sacrificing  much  of  his 
boat's  weatherliness  and  speed  to  handiness  In 
medium-sized  yachts,  of  40  to  70  feet,  the  adop 
tion  of  the  cutter-  or  yawl-rig  gives  the  necessary 
control  over  the  canvas  and  insures  the  best  sail 
ing  results.  The  number  of  cutters  and  yawls 
has  increased  at  a  rapid  pace  during  the  past  two 
years,  the  yawl  having  almost  entirely  super 
seded  the  sloop  in  the  San  Francisco  Yacht  Club. 
These  rigs  require  only  to  become  better  known 
to  be  appreciated  and  adopted  in  place  of  the 
sloop  and  small  schooner,  neither  of  which  is 
appropriate  to  the  work  in  view.  As  far  as 
practice  has  developed  there  is  no  difference  in 
speed  between  the  cutter-  and  sloop-rig,  the 
better  disposition  of  the  weights  in  the  former, 
and  the  superior  facility  of  handling  and  trim 
ming  the  double  head-sail,  more  than  counter 
balancing  the  presumed  advantage  of  having  all 
head-sail  in  one.  The  yawl  is  slightly  inferior 
in  speed  to  both,  but  more  efficient  again  than 
the  schooner.  It  is,  in  fact,  a  cross  between  the 
two.  For  cruising  it  is  to  be  recommended  as  a 
safe  and  snug  rig,  always  leaving  the  yacht 
under  control  while  shortening  or  making  sail, 
and  offering  the  greatest  inducements  to  short- 
handed  crews.  There  seems  little  doubt  that  a 
well-considered  average  between  the  customs 
of  the  two  leading  maritime  nations  would  lead 
to  the  best  results.  Both  countries  have  gone  to 
extremes  in  opposing  directions  so  far  as  model  is 
concerned,  owing  to  the  special  causes  already 
cited.  A  design  seeking  a  compromise,  in  which 
the  points  of  excellence  of  each  type  are  repre 
sented  and  liable  to  none  of  their  weaknesses  in 
as  great  a  degree,  will  supply  the  demands  of  the 
great  majority,  who  value  "  all  round"  qualities 
rather  than  great  perfection  in  one  direction  at 
a  sacrifice  of  equally  as  important  requirements 
in  another.  If  the  ideal  design  be  supplied  with 
beam  enough  to  obtain  fair  stiffness,  or  statical 
stability,  in  conjunction  with  a  keel  and  low 
ballast,  the  principal  advantage  of  the  sloop  has 
been  incorporated  with  the  keel  cutter.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  excessive  draft  of  the  latter,  her 
narrow  cabins,  u  tenderness,"  and  all  lead  ballast 
disappear  without  interfering  with  the  acknowl 
edged  excellence  of  good  depth  and  moderate 
beam  in  open  water-work.  If  the  fine  lines, 
skillful  and  handsome  form  of  the  American 
yacht,  can  be  engrafted  upon  a  moderately 
beamy  cutter,  the  yachting  world  will  be  a  de 
cided*  gainer.  In  British  waters  the  peculiar 
measurement  rule  stands  in  the  way  ;  in  Amer 
ica,  only  prejudice  and  the  custom  of  confining 
ourselves  to  sheltered  waters  near  home.  Both 
are  giving  way ;  the  venturesome  yachtsman 
learns  by'experience  that  his  shoal,  flat-bottom 
craft,  however  convenient  for  harbor-work,  is 
not  to  be  trusted  at  sea,  and  his  influence  is 
henceforth  exerted  in  behalf  of  the  modifications 
which  have  recently  taken  root  and  produced 
some  of  the  most  satisfactory  yachts  afloat. 
The  fleet  of  the  future,  on  this  side  of  the  At 
lantic,  will  probably  take  shape  accordingly,  and 
boats  of  wholesome  dimensions  and  sailor-like 
rigs  will  displace  the  make-shifts  of  the  day. 
The  prevailing  type  at  present  can  be  gathered 
from  the  tables  on  pages  859,  860. 


Eacing  boats  like  the  "  W.  T.  Lee"  carry  50  to 
75  bags  filled  with  sand,  weighing  50  pounds 
each.  In  the  Delaware  racing  boats,  such  as 
the  "Cohill,"  the  crew  "  lay  out"  to  windward 
by  means  of  rope-spans. 

In  general,  owing  to  the  diversity  of  model 
and  scantling,  and  the  habit  of  over-sparring, 
the  ballast  carried  by  American  yachts  varies 
very  much  in  boats  of  the  same  tonnage.  The 
wide  boats  with  little  dead-rise  weigh  much 
more  than  those  of  the  same  tonnage,  but  of  less 
beam  and  more  depth.  This  and  their  excessive 
stability  of  form  causes  them  to  sail  with  very 
little  ballast.  Such  boats  are  treacherous  in 
rough  water  or  squally  winds,  and  are  rapidly 
going  out  of  favor. 

3.  Steam-  Yachts. — In  yachts  propelled  by  steam 
the  naval  architect  is  freed  from  the  necessity  of 
supplying  excessive  stability,  and  the  problem  of 
successful  design  becomes  much  simplified  in 
consequence.  As  might  be  expected,  such  ves 
sels  take  on  a  great  variety  of  form  according  to 
the  wants  they  are  to  supply.  The  steam-cruiser 
becomes  an  elongated  box,  with  the  ends  more 
or  less  fined  away  and  the  bilge  rounded  off; 
the  river-yacht,  a  light  cockle-shell  with  flaring 
sides,  a  sharp  entrance  and  fine  run,  her  lack  of 
depth  being  made  good  by  superstructures  of 
joiner- work;  and  the  high-speed  launch  assumes 
the  form  of  a  lean  ribbed  racer  with  knife-like 
entrance  and  attenuated  after  body,  the  entire 
displacement  being  devoted  to  the  weights  of 
hull  and  driving-power.  In  all  these  yachts  the 
engineer  legitimately  supplants  the  architect  to 
a  great  extent,  and  the  sailor  gives  way  to  the 
stoker.  No  strict  classification  of  steam-yachts 
can  be  made,  one  type  blending  into  the  other  as 
we  pass  from  river-craft  to  those  designed  to  nav 
igate  the  open  sea.  For  small  boats  the  usual 
style  of  construction  with  wooden  frames  and 
skin  still  prevails,  although  composite  build, 
iron  frames  with  wood  planking,  has  been  success 
fully  introduced  where  lightness  and  toughness 
becomes  a  prime  necessity  in  the  pursuit  of 
high  rates  of  speed. 

^Practical  Construction. — Owing  to  the  diver 
sity  of  the  work  expected  from  yachts,  much 
latitude  is  permissible  in  practical  construction. 
Generally  too  much  stress  is  laid  upon  the  im 
portance  of  heavy  scantling,  while  the  durability 
of  the  material,  its  capability  of  taking  and  hold 
ing  fastenings,  and  especially  the  character  of 
the  latter,  are  too  often  overlooked.  Where 
little  "through"  fastening  or  clinching  and 
heading  is  done,  the  material  should  be  propor 
tionally  longer.  If  much  clinch-work  is  made 
use  of,  scantling  may  be  considerably  reduced, 
the  structure  becoming  light  and  tough,  and  a 
unity  throughout.  The  weight  thereby  saved 
will  be  so  much  more  to  go  to  account  of  ballast, 
and  a  larger  sail  spread,  and  speed.  Oak,  hack 
matack,  chestnut,  and  Oregon  fir  are  used  for 
frames  ;  cedar,  oak,  white  and  yellow  pine  for 
plank  and  ceiling ;  white  pine  for  decks ;  oak, 
mahogany,  and  walnut  for  combings  and  fittings  ; 
locust  for  bitts,  pin-rails,  and  stanchions ;  and 
sometimes  teak  for  waist  and  hatches.  Knees 
are  of  oak  and  hackmatack,  also  of  chestnut. 
The  kinds  of  wood  vary  much,  according  to 
what  the  local  markets  afford.  Anything  that 
is  to  give  form,  hold  fastenings,  or  stand  chafe 
and  wear,  should  be  of  hard  wood  ;  the  rest  may 


YACHTS 


862 


YACHTS 


British  Steam- Yachts. 


5- 

3§ 

Name  and 
Owner. 

j2  | 

It 
fl'2-g 

I 

1 

Engines  and 
Maker. 

Big. 

Built. 

Builder. 

General  Char 
acter. 

c  ^ 

Sf  -2  % 

£ 

0, 

g 

i 

2*' 

£ 

1 

W 

Wanderer,     C.     J. 
Lambert. 

708 

185.4 

29.2 

16.1 

100 

C.  I.     25"  &  50"  X 
30".     Day,      Sum 
mers  &  Co.,  South- 

3  masts.  Top 
sail  schr. 

1878 

Steele, 
Greenock. 

Composite  hull. 
Auxil.  steam. 

hampton. 

Sunbeam,  Thomas 
Brassey. 

532 

159 

27.6 

13.9 

70 

C.  I.      24"  &  42"  X 
21".     Laird,  Birk- 
enhead. 

3  ma«ts.  Top 
sail  schr. 

1874 

Bowdler, 
Seacombe. 

Composite  hull. 
Auxil.  steam. 

Eothen,    J.     Ash- 
bury. 

340 

152 

22.2 

12.2 

70 

C.  I.     2:i"  &  40"  X 
30".    Stewart,  Lon 
don. 

3  masts. 
Schooner. 

ISfA 

Ash,  Lon 
don. 

Iron.  Sea-going. 

Cecil,  Mrs.    C.  A. 
Gamble. 

272 

139 

20.8 

11.3 

45 

C.  I.     21"  &  36"  X 
21".     Penn  &  Sons, 

3  masts. 
Pole  schr. 

1872 

Earle's, 
Hull. 

Iron.  Sea-going. 

Greenwich. 

Cinderella,  G.   W. 

228 

134 

19.3 

9.2 

68 

C.  I.      17"  &  34"  X 

2  masts. 

1874 

Seath,  Ruth- 

Iron.  Sea-going. 

H.  Warder. 

20".      Campbell    &    Pole  schr. 

erglen. 

Son,  Glasgow. 

Elspeth,     Col.     J. 
Campbell. 

174 

130 

17 

9.3 

45 

C.  I.      17"  &  32"  X      2  mastg- 
24".  J.  &  G.  Thorn-    Pole  schr. 

1877 

Thomson, 
Glasgow. 

Iron.  Sea-going. 

son,  Glasgow. 

Ina.W.  Colquhoun. 

126 

103.2 

16.5 

7.6 

40 

C.  I.      15"  &  36"   X 
18".     Henderson  & 

2  masts. 
Pole  schr. 

1870 

Henderson, 
Renfrew. 

Wood.  Coasting. 

Co.,  Renfrew. 

Anthracite,  R.  Mc- 
Calmint. 

97 

86.4 

16.1 

10 

40 

Perkins   patent.     8", 
16"  &  23"  X  15". 

2  masts. 
Pole  schr. 

1878 

Schlesinger,  Iron.  Sea-going. 
Newcastle. 

Gueta,  R.  S.  Scott. 

86 

95 

14.1 

7.9 

40 

C.  I.      10"  &  20"  X 
18".    Scott    &  Co., 

2  masts. 
Pole  schr. 

1878 

Scott  &   Co., 
Greenock. 

Iron.  Sea-going. 

Greenock. 

Firefly,  J.S.  White. 

54 

71.4 

13.2 

5.9 

15 

C.I.     9"&  18"X9". 

2  masts. 

1877 

Day  &  Sum 

Iron.    Coasting. 

Day    &     Summers, 

Pole  echr. 

mers, 

Southampton. 

Southamp 

ton. 

Fox,  Gen.  Dickson. 

33 

59.5 

11.3 

5.9 

20 

I.      9"  &   9"  X  -10". 

2  masts. 

1877 

Wntkins, 

Wood.  Coasting. 

Vesper,           Ports 

Pole  schr. 

London. 

mouth. 

Glow-Worm,  J.  R. 
Bridson. 

21 

50 

10 

5.5 

10 

I.      8"   &    8"   X   »". 
Yates,  Blackburn. 

1878 

Allsup,  Pres 
ton. 

Wood.    Bay  ser 
vice. 

Gamecock,      Capt. 

12 

4S.1 

7.6 

3.8 

g 

I.     6"  X  8"-      Thor- 

1875 

Thorney- 

WnnH             Poliin 

Coleraan. 

neycroft,  Chiswick. 

croft,  Chis-     launch.  Speed, 

wick. 

15  milfs. 

Gitana,     Baroness 

71 

90 

12.7 

13.2 

90 

C.  I.      Three    cylin 

1876 

Thorney-       ^Stc  el  hull.  Cabin 

Rothschild. 

ders.          Thorney- 

croft,  Chis-     launch.  Speed, 

croft,  Chiswick. 

wick.               24  miles. 

Sphinx,    J.  Mack. 

5 

33 

6 

3 



I.    5"  X  6".     Millei 

Lugger. 

1880 

Miller         &  Wood.         Open 

&  Tupp,  London. 

Tupp,  Lon 

launch. 

don. 

Miranda  

45.5 

6.5 

70 

I.    Two  cylinders. 

1874 

Thorn  ey- 

fitnol                  f'nl.in 

croft.  Chis-!    launch.  Speed, 

wick. 

20  miles. 

C.  L— Compound  inverted  engines.    The  diameter  and  numbor  of  cylinders  and  their  stroke  are  given  in  inches. 

I. — Inverted  engines. 

The  "  Miranda"  is  one  of  Thorneycroft's  hia;h-spee  I  launches.  Her  engines  indicate  11  horse-power  with  300  revolutions 
and  a  spec  i  of  11  mile*.  With  50D  revolutions  they  indicate  42  horse-power;  speed,  16  miles.  With  600  revolutions  they 
indicate  71  horse-power;  speed,  over  2J  miles. 


be  of  the  pine  family,  but  should  be  free  of  sap. 
Spars  are  of  spruce  or  Oregon  pine.  Always 
build  under  cover  when  possible.  All  surfaces 
exposed  to  the  weather  should  be  well  painted, 
except  decks,  combings,  and  rails,  when  kept 
"bright"  for  stylish  appearance.  They  should 
be  scraped  or  holy-stoned  often  enough  to  pre 
vent  the  gathering  of  fungus  or  weather-eaten 
spots,  as  they  rapidly  extend.  A  good  plan  is 
to  whitewash  or  coat  with  Stockholm  tar  all  in 
accessible  parts  inside,  and  especially  the  skin 
which  is  to  receive  the  iron  ballast.  If  the 
wood  has  not  been  well  seasoned,  especial  means 
should  be  provided  for  the  circulation  of  air 
between  the  frames  by  supplying  automatic 
valves  in  the  covering-board,  or 'boring  holes  in 
the  clamps  between  the  beams.  Iron  coming 


in  contact  with  salt  water  should.be  galvanized, 
and  an  extra  allowance  made  to  its  thickness 
where  strength  is  an  object.  In  general,  all  the 
rules  which  apply  to  ship-building  should  govern 
the  practice  of  yacht-builders,  "it  may  be  said 
that  yachts  as  a  class  are  too  lightly  and  care 
lessly  built,  and  much  too  lightly  and  negli 
gently  rigged  and  incompletely  fitted.  The  fol 
lowing  rules  will  serve  as  a  guide,  though  they 
may  be  departed  from  according  to  the  service  a 
yacht  is  intended  for.  Where  a  vessel's  form  is 
abnormal,  allowances  must  be  made  in  propor 
tion  to  the  increased  strains.  In  long  and  nar 
row  boats,  greater  longitudinal  strength  must  be 
provided,  and  in  wide,  flat-floored  boats,  addi 
tional  athwartship  strength,  and  ties  must  be 
introduced  for  stiffening  purposes. 


YACHTS 


863 


YACHTS 


American  Steam- Yachts. 


1 

1 

fl 

i 

i 

I 

Name  and 
Builder. 

|| 

03 

Engines  and 
Makers. 

|| 

Boilers. 

Big. 

Character. 

rj  J^. 

| 

VI 

-M  £•< 

' 

« 

i 

!§ 

i 

1 

1 

ii 

•2  ^ 

Corsair,  William 
Cramp  &  Sons, 

1880 

185 
T65~ 

23.8 

14 

10.5 

C.I.    24"&44X 

24". 

9 
13     > 

2  tubular.    10.5' 
long,  11'  diam 

Schooner. 

Iron.  Flush-deck. 
Sea-going. 

Philadelphia. 
Polynia,     Ward, 

1880 

157 

18 

10 

9 

C.  I.    24"  &  32" 

9 

eter. 
2  tubular.  10  feet 

3  masts. 

Iron.  Flush-deck. 

Stanton  &  Co., 

146 

X  24." 

14 

diameter,  11  ft, 

Pole  schr. 

Sea-going. 

Newburgh. 
Henriette,  Ward, 

1880 

205 

26 

12 

C.  I.    45"  &  38" 

10.5 

long. 
2  tubular. 

Topsail 

Wood.  Flush-deck. 

Stanton  &  Co., 

164 

X  40". 

~16 

echooner. 

Sea-going.  Area 

Newburgh. 

of    sails,  25,000 

Gleam,       Herre- 
shoff,     Bristol, 

1880 

120 
110 

16 

6.5 



C.  I.  1014"  &  18" 
X18". 



Patent  coil.  5'  8" 
diameter.  Her- 

Schooner. 

feet. 
Composite.       Bay 
service.     Speed, 

R.  I. 

inn 

reshotf. 

20  miles. 

Leila          Herre- 

1878 

JLUU 

15 

6 

C.  I.  9"  &  16"  X 

Patent  coil.   5'  8" 

2  masts. 

Composite.  Joiner 

sho'ff,     Bristol, 

92 

diameter.  Her- 

Pole  schr. 

work        house. 

R.I. 

QA 

reshoff. 

Bay  service. 

Julie,   Piepgrass, 
Greenpoint. 

1880 

oO 

70 

13 

4.8 



c.i.  n"&8"X 

10". 

1  return  tubular, 
5.5'     diameter, 

2  masts. 
Pole  schr. 

Wood.         Joiner- 
work        house. 

6.5'  long. 

Bay   and    river 

QJ_ 

5 

service. 

Emu,  Sam.  Pine, 
Brooklyn. 

1830 

77 

18 

6 

4.5 

Simple.    2  cylin 
der,  10"  X  10". 

If 

Tubular.      6'  di 
ameter,  7'  long. 



Wood.      Bay  and 
river.       Joiner- 

work  house. 

Bretagne,  Reany 

1880 

240 

32.5 

19 

14 

C.I.  28"&50"X 

4  blades. 

2  return  tubular. 

Bark.* 

Wood.          Flush- 

&  Malster,  Bal 

210 

33". 

13' 

12'  long,  10.5' 

deck.  Sea-going. 

timore. 

21' 

wide,  13'  high. 

Ideal              

1874 

130 

20.2 

3 

7 

Schooner. 

Wood.      Coasting 

110 

and  bay  service. 

Lurline  

1879 

96.8 

16.7 

6 

6.2 

Schooner. 

Wood.     Bay   and 

88.2 

river.       Joiner- 

101 

work  house. 

Ocean  Gem  

1875 

16 

6 

g 

Schooner.    Wood.      Bav   and 

92 

river.       Joiner- 

Lookout 

1876 

105 

16.3 

5  2 

5 

work  house. 
"Wood.    River  ser 

96 

vice.        Joiner- 

90 

work  house. 

Emily         

1869 

16 

5 

4.5 

Schooner. 

Wood.      Bay  and 

82 

River.     Joiner- 

93 

work  house. 

Elf 

1874 

12 

g 

5.3 

Schooner. 

Wood.       Coasting 

79 

and  bay.  Flush- 

64 

deck. 

Paddle  steamer. 

1880 

12 

j 

1.8 

^simr»lft    inrlin^fl 

Wheels    8' 

Vertical.  7'  high, 

Light    draft     for 

58 

16"  X  20". 

diameter. 

52"  diameter. 

shoal        water. 

Joi  ner-work 

31.3 

house. 

TTprr  AqVi  nfT 

188C 

331 

8.8 

3  8 

1.7  m. 

C  I    4  5"  &  7"  X 

Patent    coil.      6 

Composite.     Open 

launch 

V. 

44 

sq.  ft.  grate. 

launch.  For  ten 

der          service. 

Speed,  11  miles. 

U.  S.  navy 

1880 

33.7 

8.6 

3.8 

2.1m. 

TTio-Ti  nrp««!  1  PV! 

35 

Return    tubular. 

"W  o  o  d.       ()  p  e  n 

launch. 

S"  X  8".'          '' 

54' 

6.5  sq.  ft.  grate. 

launch.    For 

tender    service. 

26 

Speed,  8.5  miles. 

New  York  Safety 
Steam  -  Power 

1880 

25 

5.8 

2.8 

2.3 

Simple.      1    cyl., 
3"  X  5". 

36 

Vertical.         28" 
high,45"diam. 



Wood.       Open 
launch.     Speed, 

Co.'s  launch. 

55.2 

7  miles. 

Javelin    by  Her- 

1879 

8.6 

4.6 

2 

C  I     5"  &  9"  X 

37 

Patent  coil.    8.5 

Wood.           Cabin 

reshoff. 

50.9 

'10'". 

56.7 

sq.  ft.  grate. 

launch.    Speed, 

14  miles. 

1 

*  The  "  Bretagne"  is  sparred  as  follows  :  foremast,  deck  to  hounds,  46  feet;  topmast,  37  feet;  mainmast,  deck  to  hounds,  48 
feet;  topmast, 37  feet;  mizzen-mast,  48  feet;  yards,  60,  46,  and  30  feet;  bowsprit  outboard,  15  feet. 

C.  I. — Compound  inverted  engines. 

Patent  Coil. — The  Herreshoff  coil  boiler  weighs  one  half  and  consumes  one  half  the  coal  (for  power  developed)  of  the  ordi 
nary  locomotive  boiler,  and  is  rapidly  displacing  the  latter  in  yachts.  It  requires  only  a  few  minutes  to  raise  steam.  See  New 
York  Forest  and  Stream,  vols.  xiv.  and  xv. 

m. — Mean  draft  loaded  with  7  persons  on  board. 


"When  ballast  is  carried  on  the  keel,  the  latter 
is  made  larger,  both  from  considerations  of 
strength  as  well  as  to  obtain  the  room  required 
for  the  weight.  Some  English  yachts  carry 
nearly  all  their  ballast  on  the  keel.  Thick  keels 


have  not  proven  a  hindrance  to  speed.  The  bal 
last  is  held  to  the  keel  by  through  bolts  with  nuts 
and  washers.  A  new  plan  is  to  cast  the  floors  of 
iron  or  lead,  thereby  bringing  the  inside  ballast 
as  low  as  possible. 


YACHTS 


864 


YACHTS 


Wooden  Yachts. 


II 

II 


bet\ 
res. 


ft 
o,. 


n&& 

f*  I 

J*  ft  a 

I 


II 

*  I 

¥ 

s 


25 
34 
46 
60 
80 
100 


IS 


5 

•x 

$ 


/row  Yachts. — According  to  Lloyd's  rules,  the 
following  table  is  based  upon  the  proportions  as 
well  as  the  tonnage  of  the  yacht.  The  scantlings 
are  for  boats  of  not  unusual  form. 

The  number  for  regulating  sizes  of  frames,  re 
versed  frames,  and  floors  is  obtained  by  the  addi 
tion  of  the  half  beam  amidships,  the  depth  from 
upper  part  of  keel  to  top  of  upper  deck  beams, 


and  the  girth  of  the  half-midship  frame  measured 
from  centre  line  at  top  of  keel  to  the  upper  deck 
stringer-plate  in  feet. 

The  number  for  regulating  sizes  of  keel,  stem, 
stern-post,  keelson,  and  outside  plating  arid 
deck,  etc.,  is  obtained  by  multiplying  that  which 
regulates  the  size  of  frames,  etc.,  by  the  length  of 
the  vessel. 


Iron  Yachts. 


111 


1100 
170>) 
3100 
5100 
6800 


7X1% 


10 


3% 


These  examples  are  of  actual  steam-yachts  of 
25,  50,  100,  250,  and  400  tons  respectively. 

On  the  two  smaller  ones  angle-irons  are  worked 
over  the  floors  in  place  of  a  keelson.  The  larger 
ones  have  also  angle-irons  on  upper  and  lower 
edge  of  the  keelson-plate,  besides  deck-stringer 
and  tie-plates.  The  garboards  and  sheer-strakes 
are  somewhat  heavier  than  the  side  plating.  The 
plating  tapers  at  each  end.  Up  to  the  number 
3500,  reverse  frames  need  be  fitted  only  under  bal 
last,  engines,  and  boilers.  From  3500  up  to  6500, 
reverse  frames  are  required  on  every  frame,  and 
should  run  well  up  to  the  turn  of  the  bilge.  If 
over  6500,  every  other  one  must  be  run  up  to  the 
gunwale.  Bulk-heads  are  made  of  \  inch  iron, 
and  stiffened  with  angle-iron.  In  steel  yachts  a 
deduction  of  10  to  15  per  cent,  may  be  allowed, 
but  is  not  advisable  in  open- water  yachts,  as  the 
thin  platinc:  is  liable  to  buckle  and  corrode 
through.  The  size  of  beams  depends  upon  the 
beam  of  the  yacht.  For  8  feet  beam  angle-iron 
is  used,  1}  X  2  X  i  5  for  12  feet  beam,  3£  X  2£  X 
A;  for  15  feet  beam,  4^X3X^;  for  20  feet 
beam  bulb-iron  takes  its  place,  5XfV,  with 
double  angle-irons  at  the  upper  edge,  2  X  2  X 
ft  ;  for  25  feet  beam,  6£  X  &  bulb-,  with  angle- 
irons  2JX2JXA-  Kivets  for  J  plate  are  f 


inch  in  diameter ;  for  J  plate,  £  inch  ;  for  £  plate, 
£  inch.  The  corresponding  spacing  should  be  H, 
2J,  3^  inches  between  centres  for  water-tight 
work.  Double  those  distances  nearly  for  ordi 
nary  work.  The  same  rules  and  tables  apply  to 
iron  sailing-yachts. 

Anchors,  Chains,  and  Hawsers. 


II 

1 

a 

a 

_fl 

'S 

e  . 

»| 

S?  is 

Approximate 
on  Watei 

Number  of  A 

\ 

Diameter  of 
for  Same 

Circumferem 
Suitable  Ua 

25 

2 

50-  75 

A 

34 

2 

80-100 

4 

46 

2 

135-150 

4 

4^ 

60 

3 

200-225 

§ 

5 

80 

3 

375-425 

\k 

6 

100 

4 

625-700 

H 

6^ 

For  steam-yachts  deduct  20  to  33  per   cent., 
the  greater  difference  being  between  small  yachts. 


YACHTS 


YACHTS 


Spars  and  Sails. — The  masts  of  sloops,  cutters, 
and  yawls,  when  supplied  with  a  single  head-sail 
only,  are  stepped  from  28  to  33  per  cent,  of  the 
load-line  from  the  forward  end.  When  rigged 
with  double  head-sail,  the  mast  is  stepped  40  to 

45  per  cent,  from  forward,  to  allow  foot  enough 
to  the  fore-stay-sail.     In  schooners  the  position 
of  the  masts  varies  much,  the  object  to  be  kept 
in  view  being  the  balancing  of  the  centre  of  the 
sails,  and  the  centre  of  the  immersed  longitudinal 
plane.     The  former,  known  as  the  "centre  of 
effort,"  should  be  placed  slightly  forward  of  the 
latter  in  round-bodied  boats  with  flare  to  the  bows, 
and  in  narrow,  long-bowed,  deep  boats,  it  may 
be  placed  almost  directly  over  the  centre  of  lat 
eral   resistance.     This   plan   of  arranging   sails 
works  very  well  in  vessels  which  are  not  ex 
travagant  in   form.     Practical    men    term   the 
operation  "hanging'' a  vessel,  and  often  obtain 
an  excellent  balance  by  .the  thumb  rules  derived 
from  long  experience.     In  English  cutters  masts 
are  stayed  about  plurnb.    Some  of  their  schooners 
have  a  moderate  rake  of  1  to  8  or  1  to  10.  Amer 
ican  sloops  have  a  rake  of  1  to  10  or  less,  and 
some  of  our  yachts  have  none  at  all.     Rake  is 
purely  a  matter  of  fashion,  and  has  not  been 
found  of  any  practical  value,  unless  in  excep 
tional  cases,  where  lifting  power  was  desired  in 
the  sails,  or  to  bring  the  dynamical  moment  of 
the  spars  farther  aft.     Masts  are  given  1  inch  in 
diameter  to  every  4  feet  of  length,  booms  and 
gaffs  1  to  every  5'feet. 

Fixed  bowsprits  of  small  yachts  are  made  of 
more  or  less  rectangular  section,  with  the  long 
est  side  placed  transversely.  English  yachts  have 
running  bowsprits,  which  can  be  reefed  or  housed 
in  bad  weather,  when  a  small  jib  is  set.  Storm- 
jibs  in  American  sloops  are  carried  out  and 
hooked  to  an  eye-bolt  about  half-way  out  on 
the  bowsprit.  Fixed  bowsprits  are  objectionable 
in  sea-going  yachts  unless  very  short,  and  are 
disappearing  in  such  craft.  Topmasts  should 
be  long,  half  the  length  of  the  mast,  and  housed 
when  not  wanted.  Fixed  topmasts  will  serve  in 
small  craft  intended  for  river-work  only.  Sails 
for  yachts  of  moderate  size  are  made  of  10-ounce 
duck,  for  large  boats  of  No.  7  and  No.  6  canvas, 
while  storm-sails  are  made  of  No.  5  and  No.  4. 
The  numbers  of  canvas  are  regulated  by  the 
weight  of  a  bolt  or  yard.  Thus,  No.  1  weighs 

46  pounds  to  the  bolt  of  40  yards  ;  No.  2  weighs 
43  pounds ;  No.  3  weighs  40  pounds,  and  so  on. 
Bolt-rope  should  be  of  the  best  Riga  hemp,  the 
yarns  tightly  twisted,  but  the  strands  not  laid 
up  too  tightly.     It  is  about  If  inches  in  circum 
ference  for  head  and  foot  of  schooners'  sails,  and 
2£  and  2  inches  for  luff  and  leach.     For  small 
yachts  1J  to  2  inches,  and  for  sailing-boats  from 
1  to  1J  inches,  a  "drawing-string"  in  the  after- 
seam  often  taking  the  place  of  the  bolt-rope  on 
the  leach  of  the  mainsail.     For  storm-sails  add 
10  or  15  per  cent. 

6.  Organization. — Yacht  clubs  are  organized 
with  a  board  of  officers  composed  of  a  commo 
dore,  vice-commodore,  treasurer,  secretary,  and 
measurer.  To  these  a  rear-commodore  is  added 
when  the  fleet  is  numerous  enough  to  justify  it. 
The  constitution  of  a  club  provides  for  the  elec 
tion  of  officers, — generally  once  a  year, — specifies 
their  duties,  the  manner  of  voting,  rules  govern 
ing  the  admission  of  new  members,  honorary 
members,  life  members,  meetings,  assessments, 
55 


and  amendments.  The  duty  of  the  commodore 
is  to  take  command  when  cruising  in  squadron, 
to  preside  at  meetings,  to  enforce  the  rules  and 
regulations,  and  he  may  call  special  meetings. 
The  vice-commodore  acts  for  him  in  his  ab 
sence,  and  the  rear-commodore  in  the  event 
of  both  being  absent.  The  latter  two  also  take 
command  of  subdivisions  of  the  fleet.  The  sec 
retary  keeps  the  records  of  the  club,  roll  of  mem 
bers,  list  of  yachts,  etc.,  and  does  all  the  corre 
spondence  incidental  to  his  duties.  The  treasurer 
takes  charge  of  all  dues,  fines,  and  moneys,  and 
keeps  an  account  of  the  same,  reporting  at  spe 
cified  times  to  the  club.  The  measurer  takes  the 
dimensions  of  yachts  necessary  to  calculate  their 
racing-measurement  and  time-allowance,  for 
which  he  generally  receives  a  fee  to  compensate 
for  time  and  expense.  On  all  matters  concerning 
the  yachts  voting  is  restricted  to  owners;  on  gen 
eral  subjects  all  members  have  a  vote.  A  regatta 
committee  is  also  elected  to  arrange  and  supervise 
the  details  of  all  club  regattas  and  matches,  and 
also  to  act  as  judges,  time-keepers,  etc.,  for  the 
same.  The  house  committee  looks  after  the  club 
headquarters,  annual  dinners,  etc.,  and  the  com 
mittee  on  membership  reports  for  or  against  the 
propriety  of  electing  applicants.  The  by-laws 
define  the  dues,  when  payable,  when  overdue, 
and  how  they  are  to  be  enforced.  They  specify 
dates  and  places  of  meetings,  manner  of  notify 
ing  members,  club-signals,  hoisting  colors,  and 
discipline  in  general,  compensation  to  officers, 
expulsions,  publication  of  club-books,  regatta- 
courses,  etc. 

SAILING   RULES. 

The  most  perfect  and  clearly-defined  sailing 
rules,  now  universally  accepted,  are  those 
adopted  by  the  Yacht-Racing  Association  of 
Great  Britain,  and  we  cannot  do  better  in  Amer 
ica  than  accept  them  as  they  stand,  barring  the 
rule  of  measurement,  which  is  open  to  the  ob 
jections  before  noted.  They  are  as  follows  : 

1.  Management  of  races. — All  races,  and  all 
yachts  sailing  therein,  shall  be  under  the  direction 
of  the  flag-officers  or  sailing  committee  of  the  club 
under  whose  auspices  the  races  are  being  sailed. 
All  matters  shall  be  subject  to  their  approval  and 
control;  and  all  doubts,  questions,  and  disputes 
which  may  arise  shall  be  subject  to  their  decision. 
Their  decisions  shall  be  based  upon  these  rules  so 
far  as  they  will  apply,  but  as  no  rules  can  be  de 
vised  capable  of  meeting  every  incident  and  ac 
cident  of  sailing,  the  sailing  committee  should 
keep  in  view  the  ordinary  customs  of  the  sea, 
and  discourage  all  attempts   to  win  a  race  by 
other  means  than  fair  sailing  and  superior  speed 
and  skill.  The  decisions  of  the  sailing  committee 
shall  be  final,  unless  they  think  fit,  on  the  appli 
cation  of  the  parties  interested,  or  otherwise,  to 
refer  the  questions  at  issue  for  the  decision  of  the 
council  of  the  Yacht-Racing  Association.     No 
member  of  the   sailing   committee    or    council 
shall  take  part  in  the  decision  upon  any  disputed 
question  in  which  he  is  directly  interested.     The 
sailing  committee,  or  any  officer  appointed  to 
take  charge  for  the  day,  shall  award  the  prizes 
subject  to  Rule  31.     If  any  yacht  be  disqualified, 
the  next  in  order  shall  be  awarded  the  prize. 

2.  Postponement  of  races. — The  sailing  com 
mittee,  or  officer  in  charge  for  the  day,  shall  have 


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power  to  postpone  any  race,  should  unfavorable 
weather  render  such  a  course  desirable. 

3.  Tonnage. — Cites   the   English   manner  of 
measuring  tonnage   by  multiplying  length  on 
load  line," less  the  beam,  by  the  beam,  and  again 
by  the  half  beam.     For  this  rule  it  is  better  to 
adopt  some  method  more  compatible  with  the 
needs  of  American  yachts,  such  as  the  addition 
of  length  and  beam,  the  multiplication  of  the 
two,  the  multiplication  of  all  three  cardinal  di 
mensions,  or  something  in  conformity  with  the 
remarks  at  the  close  of  this  article.     The  rules 
of  the  Seawanhaka    and    Koyal    Nova    Scotia 
Yacht  Clubs  will  serve  as  guides  where  tonnage 
is  estimated  by  a  consideration  of  two  or  three 
dimensions. 

4.  Time  allowance. — Time  shall  be  allowed  on 
arrival  for  difference  in  tonnage,  according   to 
the  annexed  scale,  increased  or  decreased  in  pro 
portion  to  the  length  of  different  courses. 

Shortening  course. — If  it  is  necessary  during  a 
race  to  shorten  the  course,  the  signal-flag  denot 
ing  the  race  hoisted  under  the  white  peter,  or 
in  case  of  fog  or  darkness  two  guns  fired  shall 
show  that  the  race  is  to  finish  with  the  round 
about  to  be  completed,  and  the  time  allowance 
shall  be  reduced  in  proportion. 

5.  Entries. — Entries  shall  be  made  with  the 
secretary  at  least  48  hours  previous  to  noon  of  the 
day  appointed  for  starting  each  race.     In  case 
of  a  Sunday  intervening,   24  hours    shall    be 
added.     Entries  may  be  made  by  telegram,  and 
it  shall  be  deemed  sufficient  that  the  same  shall 
have  been  dispatched  before  noon  of  the  day  on 
which  the  entries  close,  subject  to  the  provision 
as  to  Sundays. 

Form  of  entry. — To  be  signed  by  the  owner, 
or  his  representative,  previous  to  the  race  : 

Please  to  enter  the  yacht  for  the 

race  at  ,  on  the 

Her  distinguishing  flag  is  ;  her  rig 

is  ;  and  her  tonnage  is 

tons.  I  undertake  that  while  sailing  under  this 
entry  she  shall  not  have  on  board  any  bags  of 
shot;  that  all  her  ballast  shall  be  properly  stowed 
under  the  platform  or  in  lockers,  and  shall  not 
be  shifted  or  trimmed  in  any  way  whatever ;  and 
that  I  will  obey  and  be  bound  by  the  Sailing 
Kules  of  the  Yacht-Racing  Association. 

Races  re-sailed. — Should  any  yacht  duly  entered 
for  a  race  not  start,  or  having  started  should  she 
give  up  or  be  disabled  during  the  race,  such 
yacht  shall,  in  the  event  of  the  race  being  re- 
sailed,  be  entitled  to  start ;  but  no  new  entries 
shall  be  received  under  any  circumstances  what 
ever  for  a  postponed  race. 

6.  Ownership. — Each  yacht  entered  for  a  race 
must  be  the  bona  fide  property  of  the  person  or 
persons  in  whose  name  or  names  she  is  entered, 
who  must  be  a  member  or  members  of  a  recog 
nized  yacht  club. 

7.  Only  one  yacht  of  same  owner. — No  owner 
shall  be  allowed  to  enter  more  than  one  yacht  in 
a  race,  except  in  cases  in  which  a  prize  is  given  for 
each  rig,  when  one  yacht  of  each  rig  may  be  en 
tered,  nor  shall  he  be  entitled  to  enter  the  same 
yacht  under  different  rigs  for  any  race. 

8.  One  yacht  entitled  to  sail  over. — When  a  prize 
has  been  offered  for  competition,  any  yacht  duly 
entered  may  claim  to  sail  over  the  course  and 
shall  be  entitled  to  the  prize ;  subject,  however, 
to  Rule  2. 


9.  Sliding  keels. — No  yachts  which  are  fitted  to 
shift  keels,  or  to  otherwise  alter  their  form,  shall 
be  permitted  to  enter. 

10.  Member  on  board. — Every  yacht  sailing  in 
a  race  shall  have  on  board  a  member  of  a  recog 
nized    yacht    club,   who,    before    the    prize    is 
awarded,  shall  sign  a  declaration  that  the  yacht 
under  his  charge  has  strictly  conformed  to  all  the 
sailing  regulations,  as  follows : 

Declaration  that  rules  have  been  observed.— I 
hereby  declare  that  the  yacht  whilst 

sailing  in  the  race  this  day,  has 

strictly  observed  the  sailing  rules  and  regula 
tions. 

11.  Distinguishing  flo.gs. — Each    yacht  must 
carry,  at  her  main-topmast  head,  a  rectangular 
distinguishing  flag  of  a  suitable  size,  which  must 
not  be  hauled  down  unless  she  gives  up  the  race. 
If  the  topmast  be  lowered  on  deck  or  carried 
away,  the  flag  must  be  re-hoisted  in  a  conspic 
uous  place  as  soon  as  possible. 

12.  Instructions. — Every  yacht  entered  for  a 
race  shall,  at  the  time  of  entry,  or  as  soon  after 
as  possible,  be  supplied  with  written  or  printed 
instructions  as  to  the  conditions  of  the  race,  the 
course  to  be  sailed,  marks,  etc.    Nothing  shall  be 
considered  as  a  mark  in  the  course  unless  spe 
cially  named  as  such  in  these  instructions. 

13.  Sails. — There  shall  be  no  restrictions  as  to 
sails,   or  the   manner   of  setting  and   working 
them ;  but  steam-power  must  not  be  used   for 
hoisting  sails. 

14.  Crew  and  friends. — There  shall  be  no  limit 
as  to  the  number  of  paid  hands,  and  no  restrictions 
as  to  the  number  of  friends,  or  to  their  working. 
No  paid  hand  shall  join  or  leave  a  yacht  after 
the  signal  to  start.     [This  rule  is  not  intended  to 
apply  to  Corinthian  matches.] 

15.  Fittings  and  ballast. — All  yachts  exceeding 

5  tons  shall  be  fitted  below  deck  with  the  ordi 
nary  fittings  of  a  yacht,  including  two  transverse 
bulk-heads  of  wood,  and  their  platforms  shall  be 
kept  down  and  bulk-heads  standing.     No  water 
shall  be  started  from  or  taken  into  the  tanks 
after  the  signal  to  start  has   been   made.     No 
more  than  the  usual  anchors  and  chains  shall  be 
carried  during  a  race,  which  must  not  be  used 
as  shifting  ballast,  or  for  altering  the  trim  of  the 
yacht.     No  bags  of  shot  shall  be  on  board,  and 
all  ballast  shall  be  properly  stowed  under  the 
platform  or  in  lockers,  and  shall  not  be  shifted 
or  trimmed  in  any  way  whatever  during  a  race. 
No  ballast  shall  be  shipped  or  unshipped  after  9 
P.M.  of  the  day  previous  to  the  race.    A  race  re- 
sailed  shall,  so  far  as  regards  this  rule,  be  con 
sidered  a  new  race. 

16.  Boats  and    life-buoys. — Every   yacht   ex 
ceeding  30  and  under  70  tons,  shall  carry  a  boat 
on  deck  not  less  than  10  feet  in  length  and  3  feet 

6  inches  beam,  and  every  yacht  of  70  tons  and 
over,  one  of  not  less  than  12  feet  in  length  and 
3  feet  6  inches  beam,  with  oars  lashed  in  them, 
ready  for  immediate  use.    Each  yacht  shall  carry 
at  least  one  life-buoy  on  deck  ready  for  use. 

17.  Starting. — The    yachts    shall    start    from 
moorings,  or  under  way,  as  directed  by  the  sail 
ing  committee.     Half  an  hour  before  the  time  of 
starting  one  of  the  following  flags  of  the  Com 
mercial  Code  shall  be  hoisted  as  a  preparative 
flag  for  the  yachts  of  each  successive  race  ;    in 
case  of  a  start  from  anchors  or  moorings  to  take 
up  their  stations  for  the  start  with  head-sails 


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down,  or  all  sails  down,  as  the  sailing  committee 
may  direct ;  or  in  case  the  start  be  a  flying  one, 
to  approach  the  starting-line,  viz.  : 

B  of  Commercial  Code  for  the  yachts  of  the  1st  race. 

C 2d     " 

D  3d     " 

f  4th   " 

and  so  on. 

Signals  to  start — Five  minutes  before  the  start 
the  preparative  flag  shall  be  lowered,  a  blue  peter 
hoisted,  and  a  gun  fired  ;  after  which,  the  yachts 
in  the  race  shall  be  amenable  to  the  rules.  At 
the  expiration  of  five  minutes  exactly,  the  blue 
peter  shall  be  hauled  down  and  a  second  gun 
fired  as  a  signal  to  start.  If  the  start  is  to  be 
made  from  anchors  or  moorings,  lots  shall  be 
drawn  for  stations,  and  springs  shall  be  allowed 
on  the  same  bridle  or  anchor  chain  or  warp 
as  the  bow-fasts,  but  are  not  to  be  carried  to  a 
buoy,  pier,  other  vessel,  or  fixed  object. 

Dragging  moorings, — If  any  yacht  lets  go  or 
T>arts  her  bridle  before  the  signal  to  start,  or  if 
she  drags  any  moorings  or  anchor  to  which  she 
is  made  fast  for  the  purpose  of  starting,  she  shall 
be  liable  to  be  disqualified,  unless  such  parting 
or  dragging  be  explained  to  the  satisfaction  of 
the  committee,  or  unless  she  has  returned,  after 
the  signal  to  start,  within  the  line  of  starting- 
buoys,  so  as  not  to  obtain  any  advantage  by  the 
accident. 

Crossing  the  line. — In  a  flying  start,  if  any 
yacht,  or  any  part  of  her  hull  or  spars,  be  on  or 
across  the  line  before  the  signal  to  start  is  made, 
she  must  return  and  recross  the  line  ;  a  yacht  so 
returning,  or  one  working  into  position  from  the 
wrong  side  of  the  line  after  the  signal  to  start 
has  been  made,  must  keep  clear  of  all  competing 
yachts.  Should  the  gun  miss  fire,  the  lowering 
of  the  blue  peter  shall  be  the  signal  to  start. 

18.  Meeting  end-on. — If  two  yachts  are  meeting 
end-on,  or  nearly  end-on,  so  as  to  involve  risk  of 
collision,  the  helms  of  both  shall  be  put  to  port, 
so  that  each  may  pass  on  the  port  side  of  the 
other. 

19.  Two  yachts  crossing. — "When  two  yachts  are 
crossing  so  as  to  involve  risk  of  collision,  then 
if  they  have   the  wind  on   diiferent  sides,   the 
yacht  with  the  wind  on  the  port  side  shall  keep 
out  of  the  way  of  the  yacht  with  the  wind  on  the 
starboard  side,  except  in  the  case  in  which  the 
yacht  with  the  wind  on  the  port  side  is  close- 
hauled  and  the  other  yacht  free,  in  which  case 
the  latter  yacht  shall  keep  out  of  the  way  ;  but 
if  they  have  the  wind  on  the  same  side,  or  if  one 
of  them  has  the  wind  aft,  then  the  yacht  which 
is  to  windward  shall  keep  out  of  the  way  of  the 
yacht  which  is  to  leeward. 

20.  Overtaking,  rounding -mark*,  etc. — A  yacht 
overtaking  another  yacht  shall  keep  out  of  the 
way  of   the    last-mentioned    yacht,    but   when 
rounding  any  buoy  or  vessel  used  to  mark  out 
the  course,  if  two  yachts  are  not  clear  of  each 
other  at  the  time  the  leading  yacht  is  close  to, 
and  actually  rounding   the   mark,    the  outside 
yacht  must  give  the  other  room  to  pass  clear  of 
it,  whether  it  be  the  lee  or  weather  yacht  which 
is   in  danger  of  fouling   the   mark.     No  yacht 
shall  be  considered  clear  of  another  yacht,  unless 
so  much  ahead  as  to  give  a  free  choice  to  the  other 
on    which   side  she  will  pass.      An   overtaking 
yacht   shall    not,   however,   be  justified   in   at 
tempting    to    establish    an    overlap,   and    thus 


force  a  passage  between  the  leading  yacht  and 
the  mark  after  the  latter  yacht  has  altered  her 
helm  for  the  purpose  of  rounding. 

21.  Obstructions  to  sea-room. — When  passing  a 
pier,  shoal,  rock,  vessel,  or  other  obstruction  to 
sea-room,   should   yachts    not  be  clear  of  each 
other,  the  outside  yacht   or  yachts   must  give 
room  to  the  yacht  in  danger  of  fouling  such  ob 
struction,  whether  she  be  the  weather  or  the  lee 
ward  yacht ;  provided  always  that  an  overlap 
has  been   established   before  an  obstruction  is 
actually  reached. 

22.  Luffing  and  bearing  away. — A  yacht  may 
luff  as  she  pleases  to  prevent  another  yacht  pass 
ing  to  windward,  but  must  never  bear  away  out 
of  her  course  to  hinder  the  other  passing  to  lee 
ward, — the  lee  side   to   be   considered   that  on 
which  the  leading  yacht  of  the  two  carries  her 
main-boom.      The  overtaking  vessel,  if  to  lee 
ward,  must  not  luff  until  she  has  drawn  clear 
ahead  of  the  yacht  she  has  overtaken. 

23.  Close-hauled   approaching  shore. — If  two 
yachts  are  standing  towards  a  shore  or  shoal,  or 
towards  any  buoy,  boat,  or  vessel,  and  the  yacht 
to  leeward  is  likely  to  run  aground,  or  foul  of 
such   buoy,  boat,  or   vessel   (a  mark-vessel  ex- 
cepted),  and  is  not  able  to  tack  without  coming 
into  collision  with  the  yacht  to  windward,  the  lat 
ter  shall  at  once  tack,  on  being  hailed  to  .do  so  by 
the  owner  of  the  leeward  yacht,  or  the  person 
acting  as  his  representative,  who  shall  be  bound 
to  see  that  his  own  vessel  tacks  at  the  same  time. 

24.  Running  aground,  etc. — Any  yacht  running 
on  shore,  or  foul  of  a  buoy,  vessel,  or  other  ob 
struction,   may   use    her    own    anchors,   boats, 
warps,  etc.,  to  get  off,  but  may  not  receive  any 
assistance  except  from  the  crew  of  the  vessel 
fouled.     Any  anchor,  boat,  or  warp  used  must 
be  taken  on  board  again  before  she  continues 
the  race. 

25.  Fouling  yachts,  marks,  etc. — Each  yacht 
must  go  fairly  round  the  course ;  and  must  not 
touch  any  buoy,  boat,  or  vessel  used  to  mark  it 
out,  but  shall  not  be  disqualified  if  wrongfully 
compelled  to  do  so  by  another  yacht.    Any  yacht 
causing  a  mark-vessel  to  in  any  way  -shift  her 
position  to  avoid  being  fouled  by  such  yacht, 
shall  be  disqualified.    If  a  yacht,  in  consequence 
of  her  neglect  of  any  of  these  rules,  shall  foul 
another  yacht,  or  compel  other  yachts  to  foul, 
she  shall  forfeit  all  claim  to  the  prize,  and  shall 
pay  all  damages. 

26.  Means  of  propulsion. — No  towing,  sweep 
ing,  poling,  or  pushing,  or  any  mode  of  propul 
sion  except  sails,  shall  be  allowed. 

27.  Anchoring. — A  yacht  may  anchor  during  a 
race,  but  must  weigh  her  anchor  again,  and  not 
slip.     No  yacht  shall  during  a  race  make  fast  to 
any  buoy,  stage,  or  pier,  or  send  an  anchor  out 
in  a  boat,  except  for  the  purpose  of  Kule  24. 

.  28.  Sounding. — No  other  means  of  sounding 
than  the  lead  and  line  allowed. 

29.  Side-lights. — All  yachts  sailing  in  a  race  at 
night  shall  observe  the  Board  of  Trade  rule  as  to 
the  carrying  of  side-lights. 

30.  Man  overboard. — In  case  of  a  man  falling 
overboard   from   a   competing   yacht,  all    other 
yachts  in  a  position  to  do  so  shall  use  their  ut 
most  endeavors  to  render  assistance ;  and  if  it 
should  appear  that  any  yacht  was  thereby  pre 
vented  winning  the  race,  the  committee  shall 
have  power  to  order  it  to  be  re-sailed  between 


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any  yacht  or  yachts  so  prevented  and  the  actual 
winner. 

31.  Protests. — Should  the  owner  of  any  yacht, 
or  the  person  acting  as  his  representative,  con 
sider  that  he  has  a  fair  ground  of  complaint 
against  another  for  foul  sailing,  or  any  violation 
of  these  rules,  he  must,  if  it  arise  during  the  race, 
signify  the  same  on  first  passing  the  committee 
vessel,  by  showing  an  ensign  conspicuously  in 
the  main  rigging.     The  protest  shall  be  made  in 
writing,  and  under  such  regulations  (if  any)  as 
the  sailing  committee    may   have  determined, 
within  12 'hours  of  the  arrival  of  the  protesting 
yacht,  and  shall  be  heard  by  the  sailing  commit 
tee  and  decided,  after  such  'inquiries  as  they  may 
consider  necessary.     They  shall  also,  without  a 
protest,  disqualify  any  yacht,  should  it  come  to 
their  knowledge  that  she  has  committed  a  breach 
of  the  rules. 

32.  Removal  of  flag-boat. — Should  any  flag-ves 
sel  or  other  mark  be  removed  from  its  proper  po 
sition,  either  by  accident  or  design,  the  race  shall 
be  sailed  over  again,  or  not,  at  the  discretion  of 
the  sailing  committee. 

33.  Penalty  for  disobeying  rules. — Any  yacht 
disobeying  or  infringing  any  of  these  rules,  which 
shall  apply  to  all  yachts  whether  sailing  in  the 
same  or  different  races,  shall  be  disqualified  from 
receiving  any  prize  she  would  otherwise  have 
won,  and  her  owner  shall  be  liable  for  all  dam 
ages  arising  therefrom. 

Should  a  flagrant  breach  of  these  rules  be 
proved  against  any  yacht,  her  sailing-master 
may  be  disqualified  by  the  council  for  one  season 
from  sailing  in  an}rrace  held  under  the  Rules  of 
the  Yacht- Racing  Association. 

34.  Cruising  trim. — When  yachts  are  ordered 
to  sail  in  cruising  trim,  the  following  rules  are 
to  be  strictly  observed  ; 

1.  No  doors,  tables,  cabin  skylights,  or  other 
cabin  or  deck  fittings  (davits  excepted)  shall  be 
removed  from  their  places  before  or  during  the 
race. 

2.  No  sails  or  other  gear  shall  be  put  into  the 
main  cabin  in  yachts  exceeding  40  tons. 

3.  Anchors  and  chains  suitable  to  the  size  of  the 
yacht  shall  be  carried,  one  at  the  cat-head  (or  in 
yachts  of  40  tons  and  under,  at  the  usual  place  on 
the  bow),  which  anchor  shall  not  be  unshackled 
from  the  chain  before  or  during  the  race. 

4.  Every  yacht  exceeding  30  and  under  70  tons, 
shall  carry  a  boat  on  deck  not  less  than  10  feet 
in  length  and  3  feet  6  inches  beam,— a  yacht  of 
70  tons  and  over,  her  usual  cutter  anddinghey. 

5.  No  extra  hands,  except  a  pilot,  beyond  the 
regular  crew  of  the  yacht,  shall  be  allowed. 

APPENDIX. 

The  Yacht-Racing  Association  further  recom 
mends/or  the  consideration  of  sailing  committees: 

1st.  Allowance  to  schooners  and  yawls. — That  as 
mixed  races  are  no  satisfactory  test  of  the  rela 
tive  speed  of  yachts,  the  different  rigs  should, 
whenever  practicable,  be  kept  separate;  but 
when  mixed  races  are  unavoidable,  the  follow 
ing  rule  shall  be  observed  : 

The  tonnage  of  schooners  and  yawls  to  be 
reckoned  for  time  allowance  as  follows,  viz., 
schooners  at  three-fifths,  and  yawls  at  four-fifths 
of  their  actual  tonnage  ;  provided  that  in  case  of 
a  yawl,  her  main-boom  when  in  its  place  and 


parallel  to  the  deck,  does  not  extend  more  than 
one-fifth  her  extreme  beam  abaft  the  aft  side  of 
her  stern-post  on  deck.  In  calculating  the  de 
duction  for  difference  of  rig,  the  tonnage  by 
certificate  to  the  exact  fraction  to  be  used.  The 
time  allowances  to  be  calculated  from  each 
vessel's  reduced  tonnage.  Schooners  and  yawls 
shall  not  be  allowed  to  enter  in  classes  of  40  tons 
and  under  at  the  reduced  tonnage. 

2d.  Flying  starts. — That  flying  starts  should 
be  adopted  when  practicable,  but  no  time  should 
be  allowed  for  delay  in  starting. 

3d.  No  limit  to  race. — That  any  limit  to  the 
time  for  concluding  a  race  should  be  avoided  as 
far  as  possible. 

4th  Classification. — That  the  classification  of 
yachts  should,  when  practicable,  be  as  follows  : 

Not  exceeding 5  tons. 

Above  5  tons  and  not  exceeding 10  " 

"     10    «•  "  "         15  " 

"     15    "  "  "        20  " 

"     20    "  "  "        40  " 

«     40    "          "  "        80  " 

"     80    " 

5th.  Courses. — That  as  distance  is  an  important 
element  in  the  calculation  of  time  allowance,  the 
marks  and  flag-boats  should  be  placed  so  as  to 
mark  as  accurately  as  possible  the  length  of  the 
course,  for  which  time  is  allowed. 

6th.  Rounding  marks. — That  in  heavy  weather 
it  should  be  arranged,  if  practicable,  for  yachts 
to  stay  instead  of  g.ybe  round  marks. 

7th.  Room  at  starting. — Sailing  committees 
should  be  particularly  careful  to  provide  ample 
room  between  the  points  marking  the  starting- 
line. 

Measurement. — The  sole  object  of  measurement 
and  allowing  time  is  to  enable  yachts  of  various 
sizes  to  compete  upon  terms  of  equality.  A  fair 
and  logical  rule  must  therefore  be  based  upon 
size.  Any  rule  which  places  a  tax  upon  model 
is  erroneous  in  foundation  and  misleading  in  its 
workings.  Rules  based  upon  any  one  or  two 
dimensions,  however  much  they  may  be  the 
custom,  are  manifestly  not  equitable,  because 
they  do  not  tax  differences  of  size,  but  differences 
of  model  in  the  one  or  two  particular  directions 
measured.  They  do  not  tax  size  because  any 
one  or  any  two  dimensions  added  or  multiplied 
are  in  no  wise  an  expression  of  size,  nor  does 
such  measurement  necessarily  represent  the  ratio 
of  size  between  the  vessels  gauged.  Yachts  will 
shrink  in  the  direction  taxed,  as  witness  the 
short,  dumpy  American  sloop  seeking  to  escape 
the  penalty  of  length,  and  the  English  cutter 
squeezed  into  untaxed  depth,  the  designer  being 
restricted  to  their  production  against  his  will.  A 
measurement  of  actual  magnitude  is  the  only 
mode  which  satisfies  the  fundamental  proposition 
from  which  the  reasoning  takes  its  start.  A 
rule  taxing  the  actual  size  of  a  vessel  does  not  in 
the  slightest  degree  tax  shape  or  model ;  it  taxes 
quantity  only,  and  not  its  location.  Under  such 
a  system  the  designer  is  left  absolutely  free,  and 
can  mold  a  given  quantity  into  any  shape  he 
deems  most  desirable  ;  he  may  proportion  length, 
beam,  and  depth  to  his  taste,  and  a  rival  will 
not  be  compelled  to  pay  unjustly  because  he  may 
prefer  some  other  shape,  involving  an  excess  in 
one  or  two  directions  without  any  excess  in  size. 
The  rule  of  the  New  York  Yacht  Club  is  the 
most  perfect  in  theory,  and,  so  far  as  racing  is 


YACHTS 


869 


YARD 


concerned,  gives  the  fullest  satisfaction.  It  calls 
for  the  measurement  of  the  actual  cubical  con 
tents  of  a  yacht  to  the  outside  of  her  plank. 
There  exists  one  objection  to  it  in  practical  ap 
plication.  It  does  not  admit  of  quick  and  ready 
gauging,  nor  can  a  yacht's  size  be  easily  verified 
upon  the  spot  by  an  owner  or  a  regatta  com 
mittee.  A  simplification  of  the  method  of  arriv 
ing  at  the  same  results  with  sufficient  accuracy 
for  practice  is  desirable.  To  this  end  a  multi 
plication  of  all  three  chief  dimensions,  length, 
depth,  and  breadth,  has  been  adopted  with  suc 
cess  by  some  clubs  as  a  short-cut  leading  to  like 
results.  The-  correctness  of  this  plan  is  based 
upon  the  assumption  that  the  true  size  of  all  fast 
yachts  bears  so  nearly  a  like  proportion  to  their 
circumscribed  solids  that  the  products  of  the 
three  extreme  dimensions  will  express  the  ratio 
of  their  sizes  to  one  another  with  sufficient  accu 


racy  for  racing  purposes.  The  only  danger  to 
be  apprehended  from  a  general  and  permanent 
adhesion  to  this  rule  arises  from  the  probability 
of  cutting  down  freeboard,  and  thereby  decreas 
ing  the  depth,  and  with  it  the  racing  size  of 
yachts,  whose  owners  would  sail  them  only  in 
fair  weather.  A  long  string  of  prizes  won  in 
midsummer  breezes  would  be  a  strong  induce 
ment  for  others  to  follow  suit,  and  one  of  the 
most  desirable  qualities  of  a  cruising  boat — am 
ple  freeboard — would  be  sacrificed  to  the  greed 
for  prizes.  Should  this  fear  turn  out  to  be  well 
grounded,  the  tendency  can  be  counteracted  by 
including  in  the  rule  of  measurement  a  standard 
amount  "of  freeboard,  which  would  at  once  re 
move  the  inducement  to  cripple  cruising  effi 
ciency  in  the  manner  indicated.  The  rule  and 
allowances  of  the  New  York  Yacht  Club  are  as 
follows : 


TABLE    OF   ALLOWANCES 


In  Minutes  and  Decimals,  by  a  Yacht  measuring  Sixteen  Thousand  Cubic  Feet,  to   Yachts  of  the 

Measurements  given  below. 


1 

i 

i 

i 

1 

i 

i 

i 

1 

1 

1 

g 

i 

i 

i 

t 

£ 

§ 

£ 

§ 

m 

§ 

£ 

fl 

£ 

i 

a 

£ 

§ 

£ 

§ 

3 

i 

3 

i 

•1 

J 

3 

| 

3 

3 

| 

•2 

p 

3 

| 

3 

3 

3 

0 

** 

° 

< 

0 

^ 

0 

< 

° 

* 

0 

* 

o 

? 

•< 

15.900 

.0275 

13900 

.7677 

11.900 

2.0413 

9.900 

4  2323 

7.900 

80018 

5.900 

144869 

3.900 

25.6441 

1.900 

44.8393 

15800 

.0558 

13.800 

.8164 

11.800 

2.1249 

9.800 

4.3762 

7.800 

8.2493 

5.800 

14.9128 

3.800  26  3768 

1.800  46.0999 

15.700 

.0848 

13.700 

.8663 

11.700 

2.2108 

9.700 

4.5240 

7.700 

8.5037 

5.700 

15.3504 

3.700  27.1297 

1.700  47.3951 

15600 

.1146 

13.600 

.9176 

11600 

22991 

9.600 

4.6759 

7.600 

8.7650 

5.600 

15.8000 

3  600  27.9033 

1  .600  48.7260 

15.500 

.1453 

13.500 

.9704 

11.500 

2.3899 

9.500 

4.8320 

7.500 

90356 

6.500 

16.2620 

3.500  28.6981 

1.500  '50.0935 

15.400 

.1708  ; 

13.400 

1.0245 

11.400  2.4*31 

9.400 

4.9924 

7.400 

9.3095 

5.400 

16.7368 

3.400 

295148 

1.400151.4985 

15.300 

.2091 

13.:tOO  1.0802 

11.300 

2.5789 

9.300 

5.1572 

7.300 

9.5930 

5.300 

17  2245 

3.300 

30.3540 

1.300  j  62.9423 

15.200 

.2424 

13.200  1  1374 

11.200 

2.6773 

9.200 

5.3265 

7.200 

9.8843 

5.200 

17.7257 

3.2001  31.2162 

1.200154.4257 

15.100 

.27(55 

13.100  1.1962 

11.100 

2.7784 

9.100 

5.5005 

7.100 

10.1836 

5.100 

18.2406 

3.100 

32.1022 

1.100  '  55.H99 

15.000 

.3117 

lrt.0001  1.2566 

11.000 

2.8823 

9.000 

5.6793 

7.000 

10.4912 

5000  I  18.7698 

H.OOO  33.0125 

l.OHO  i  57.5160 

14.900 

.3477 

12.90'J  1.3187 

10.900 

2  9891 

8900 

5.80:19 

6.900 

10.8072 

4.900 

19.3134 

2.900 

33.9178 

.900  !  59.1252 

14.800 

.3848 

12.800;1.3824 

10.800 

3.0988 

8.800 

6.0317 

6.800 

111319 

4.800 

19.8720 

2.80d 

34.9089 

.800 

60.7786 

14.700 

.4229 

12.700  1.4479 

10.700 

3.2115 

8.700 

6.2156 

6.700 

11.4^5 

4.700 

20.4460 

2.700 

35.8964 

.700 

624775 

14.600 

.4620  ! 

12.600 

1.5153! 

10600 

3.3273 

8.600 

6.4448 

6600 

11.8083 

4.600 

21.0358 

2.600 

3(5.9110 

.600 

64.2232 

14.500 
14.400 

.5022 
.54:55 

12.500  1.5844  | 
12.400  1.6555 

10.500 
10.400 

3.4163 
3.5686 

8.500 
8.400 

6.6496 
6.8599 

6.500 
6.400 

12.16)5 
125225 

4.500 
4.400 

216418 
22.2644 

2.500 
2.400 

37  9536 
39.0248 

.500 
.400 

66.0108 
67.8598 

14.300 

.58(50  ; 

12.300  jl.7285 

10.300 

3.6942 

8.300  |  7.0761 

6.300 

12.8943 

4.300 

22904.' 

2.300 

40.1255 

.300  i  69.7534 

14.200 

.6296  1 

12.200  1.8036 

10.200 

3.8233 

8.200 

7.2982 

6.200 

13.2764 

4.200 

23.5616 

2.200 

41.2564 

.200  i  71.6991 

14.100 

.6744 

12.100  1.8807 

10.100 

3.9560 

8.100 

7.5264 

6.100 

13.6690 

4.100 

24.2370 

2.100 

42.4185 

.100 

73.6984 

14.000 

.7204 

12.000 

1.9599 

10.000 

4.0923 

8.000 

7.7609 

6.000 

14.U724 

4.000 

24.9310 

2.000 

43.6125 

The  water-line  of  each  yacht  shall  be  divided 
into  four  equal  parts,  and  a  section  taken  at  each 
point  of  division,  making  five  sections.  The  area 
of  each  section,  from  the  rabbet-line  of  the  keel  to 
the  line  of  the  lowest  point  of  the  top  of  the  plank- 
shear,  as  described  in  the  rules,  shall  be  measured 
and  determined  in  square  feet,  and  the  cubical 
contents  of  the  yacht  shall  then  be  got  by  the 
following  formula  taken  from  Chapman's  rules 
for  measuring  vessels  : 

To  the  sum  of  the  areas  of  the  first  and  last 
sections  add  the  sum  of  the  areas  of  the  even  sec 
tions  multiplied  by  4,  and  the  areas  of  the  odd 
sections  multiplied  by  2.  Multiply  this  sum  by 
one-third  of  the  distance  between  the  sections, 
and  add  the  cubical  contents  of  the  overhangs, 
measured  in  each  case,  as  shall,  from  the  form 
of  the  boat,  be  most  expedient,  and  the  result 
thus  obtained  shall,  for  the  purposes  of  this 
measurement,  be  deemed  the  cubical  contents 
of  the  yacht. 

To  find  the  allowance  to  a  yacht  whose  meas 
urement  comes  between  any  two  even  hundreds 
in  the  tables,  deduct  from  the  allowance  to  the 


even  hundreds  next  below  hers,  such  proportion 
of  the  difference  between  that  allowance  and  the 
one  next  above  it  in  the  table  as  the  excess  of  her 
measurement  over  the  lower  hundred  bears  to 
one  hundred. — C.  P.  Kunhardt,  N.A. 

Yarage.  The  power  of  moving  or  being  man 
aged  at  sea ;  said  with  reference  to  a  ship. 

Yard.  A  spar  suspended  from  a  mast,  to 
which  the  head  of  a  sail  is  bent.  Stun'sail-yards 
are  suspended  from  the  yard-arms  by  their  hal 
liards.  The  centre  of  a  yard  is  called  the  slings, 
the  extremities,  the  yard-arms,  and  the  inter 
mediate  parts,  the  quarters.  Yards  for  lateen- 
and  lug-sails  have  their  halliards  bent  on  near  the 
forward  end  ;  yards  for  square-sails  are  supported 
at  their  centres  by  slings,  tyes,  or  halliards,  and 
at  the  extremities  by  lifts.  Lower  yards  are 
fixed,  being  attached  to  the  mast  by  trusses, 
which  permit  angular  movement  only ;  all  other 
yards  are  confined  to  the  masts  by  parrels,  which 
permit  a  vertical  as  well  as  an 'angular  move 
ment  of  the  yards.  Yards  are  hoisted  by  hal 
liards,  and  trimmed  by  braces.  Lower  yards 
are  supported  by  the  lower-masts  ;  topsail-yards, 


TARE 


870 


YELLOW  FEVER 


topqallant-yards,  and  royal-yards  follow  in  order, 
and  traverse  up  and  down  their  respective  masts. 
Skysail-yards  are  sometimes  carried,  and  are 
placed  next  above  the  royals.  A  rjaff-topsa.il 
yard  is  a  small  yard  to  which  the  head  of  a  gaff- 
topsail  is  sometimes  bent. 

Yard  is  also  the  popular  name  given  to  the 
three  stars  in  Orion's  belt.  See  NAVY-YARD. 

YARD-ARM.  The  extremity  of  a  yard.  Yard- 
arm  and  yard-arm,  the  situation  of  ships  close 
alongside  each  other. 

YARD-ARM  CLEATS.  Wooden  wedges  nailed 
to  the  yard-arm  to  prevent  the  lifts  and  braces 
from  slipping  in. 

YARD-ROPE.  A  rope  bent  to  the  slings  of 
a  vard  by  which  it  is  swayed  aloft  or  lowered. 

YARD-TACKLE.  A  heavy  tackle  hooked  to 
lower  yards,  and  used  in  hoisting  heavy  articles 
in  or  out. 

Yare.  Be  yare  at  the  helm !  quick  with  the 
helm  ! — an  old  nautical  phrase 

Yarmouth,  County  of  Norfolk,  England,  is 
situated  on  a  narrow  strip  of  land  between  the 
sea  and  the  river  Yare.  The  quay,  considered 
one  of  the  finest  in  Britain,  extends  along  the 
river  for  about  1  mile.  On  the  coast  are  several 
batteries  and  barracks  for  1000  men.  The  har 
bor  is  in  the  Yare,  and  is  accessible  by  vessels 
of  about  200  tons,  and  the  navigation  of  the 
coast  is  dangerous,  but  Yarmouth  Roads,  which 
extend  between  the  coast  and  a  line  of  sand 
banks  a  short  distance  off  shore,  are  a  safe  an 
chorage.  Ship-building  is  carried  on,  and  it  has 
a  manufactory  of  silk  goods,  but  the  principal 
industry  is  the  herring-fishery,  and  as  much  as 
9000  tons  of  fish  have  been  shipped  from  here  in 
a  year.  Pop.  35,000. 

YARMOUTH  CAPON.   A  red  herring  ;  a  bloater. 

YARMOUTH  HERRING-BOAT.  A  clinch-built 
boat  with  lug-sails,  used  in  the  herring-fishery. 

Yarn.  A  rope-yarn.  A  tale ;  a  story.  To 
spin  a  yarn,  to  relate  a  story. 

Yaugh.     An  old  term  for  a  small  yacht. 

Yaw.  To  deviate  from  the  course.  Yawing 
is  caused  by  a  heavy  sea  under  the  quarter,  by 
bad  steering,  or  by  an  injudicious  arrangement 
of  the  sails. 

YAW-SIGHTED.     Squint-eyed. 

Yawl.  A  small  fishing-vessel.  A  carvel- 
built  vessel  of  the  cutter  class  with  a  jigger  and 
short  main-boom.  An  English  man-of-war's 
boat,  carvel-built,  and  pulling  generally  12  oars. 

Yaw-yaws.  A  nickname  for  seamen  from  the 
Baltic. 

Year.  The  period  in  which  the  earth  com 
pletes  a  revolution  in  her  orbit.  Some  point 
must  be  taken  to  mark  the  origin  whence  the 
revolution  is  reckoned  ;  if  a  fixed  star  be  taken, 
the  period  is  called  a  sidereal  year  (365d  6h  9m 
9.68) ;  if  the  first  point  of  Aries,  the  period  is 
known  as  the  solar,  equinoctial,  or  tropical  year 
(365*  5h  48m  49.7s).  The  anomalistic  year  is  the 
period  between  two  successive  returns  of  the 
earth  to  perihelion.  The  civil  year  consists  of 
an  integral  number  of  days, — a  common  of  365 
and  leap-year  of  366  days.  See  CALENDAR. 

Yell.  An  old  sea-term  to  express  a  rolling 
motion. 

Yellow  Admiral  (Eng.}.  A.  retired  post-cap 
tain  who,  not  having  served  his  time  in  that  rank, 
is  not  entitled  to  promotion. 

Yellow-belly.     A  dago  ;  a  mulatto. 


Yellow  Fever  ( Ti/phus  icterodes,  fievre  jaune, 
fiebre  amarilla,  gelbesfieber,  mal  de  Siam,  etc.}. 
An  acute,  specific,  infectious  disease,  of  a  single 
paroxysm  and  remarkable  malignancy,  origi 
nating  on  the  coasts  and  included  islands  of  the 
great  intercontinental  gulf  of  the  western  hem 
isphere,  as  does  cholera  in  those  of  the  Indo- 
Chinese  gulf.  Like  cholera  also,  it  spreads  from 
its  region  of  origin  (the  "yellow  fever  zone"), 
following  the  paths  of  commerce,  into  other  parts 
of  the  world,  but  never  becomes  naturalized  (en 
demic)  outside  of  its  geographical  habitat.  It  is 
limited  to  the  neighborhood  of  the  sea,  and  to 
elevations  not  exceeding  2500  feet.  For  its  con 
tinued  activity  are  required  a  temperature  not 
below  72°  F.,  a  humid  atmosphere,  the  presence 
of  its  specific  cause  and  of  decomposing  organic 
matter,  and,  probably,  a  peculiar  but  unknown 
meteorological  condition  (perhaps,  as  suggested 
by  Dr.  Findlay,  of  Havana,  a  highly  alkaline 
atmosphere). 

Yellow  fever  is  mentioned  as  attacking  the 
Spanish  conquistadores,  at  San  Domingo,  in 
1494  ;  and  is  first  recorded  at  Porto  Kico  in  1508, 
Darien  in  1514,  Guadaloupe  in  1635,  Marti 
nique  in  1641,  Havana  in  1761,  etc.  It  was 
introduced  into  Rio  de  Janeiro  and  the  west  coast 
of  South  America  about  1849,  by  the  stream  of 
travel  attracted  to  California  at  the  time  of  the 
gold  excitement,  and,  like  many  an  exotic  plant, 
has  often  flourished  more  vigorously  in  its  new 
than  in  its  old  home.  The  name  mal  de  Siam  orig 
inates  from  its  supposed  introduction  into  Mar 
tinique  from  that  country  by  the"0riflamme,"  in 
1690.  The  "  Oriflamme"  did  not,  however,  come 
directly  from  Siam,  and  yellow  fever  had  cer 
tainly  appeared  in  Martinique  as  early  as  1641. 
Increased  commerce  has  facilitated  the  dissemi 
nation  of  the  yellow  fever  poison,  which  is  as 
portable  as  merchandise,  until  there  is  now 
scarcely  a  port  within  its  climatic  limits  which 
has  not  suffered  from  one  or  more  epidemics. 
Notable  examples  are  the  epidemics  at  Philadel 
phia  in  1793,  Gibraltar  in  1828,  New  Orleans 
in  1853,  and  Memphis  in  1878-79,  which  are 
considered  as  epochs  in  the  history  of  yellow 
fever,  from  the  fact  that  each  has  been  reported 
upon  by  observers  of  remarkable  trustworthiness 
(Drs.  Benj.  Rush,  Simon,  E.  H.  Barton,  and  the 
National  Board  of  Health).  The  importance  of 
yellow  fever  from  a  military  stand-point  attaches 
rather  to  the  navy  lhan  to  the  army,  since  soldiers 
can  always  be  moved  from  an  unhealthy  locality 
and  segregated  from  sources  of  infection.  Its 
terrors  are  immeasurably  augmented  when  they 
invade  the  inhabitants  of  a  ship  at  sea,  where  the 
sick  cannot  be  separated  from  the  well,  and  all 
possibility  of  escape  by  flight  is  cut  off,  while 
close  crowding  affords  great  facilities  to  its  in 
crease.  An  early  instance  in  the  history  of  the 
U.  S.  navy  was  the  ship  "Gen.  Green,"  in 
which  yellow  fever  appeared  while  making  a 
voyage  from  Newport  to  Havana,  in  1799,  and, 
notwithstanding  efforts  at  disinfection  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Chesapeake  on  her  homeward  voy 
age,  reappeared  at  sea,  and  continued  to  spread 
while  she  lay  at  Newport,  attacking  even  those 
who  bathed  near  the  ship.  The  "  Macedonian" 
suffered  from  yellow  fever  at  Havana,  in  May, 
1822,  so  severely,  that  she  returned  to  Norfolk  in 
July,  and  was  put  out  of  commission.  Of  376 
persons  on  board,  101  died  in  this  short  time. 


YELLOW  FEVER 


871 


YELLOW  TAIL 


Yellow  fever  appeared  on  board  of  the  British 
steamer  "Eclair,"  at  Sierra  Leone,  in  1845, 
whence  she  sailed  to  Boa  Vista.  There  the  dis 
ease  spread  rapidly,  although  the  crew  was 
landed  on  an  island,  and  of  4  officers  from  the 
"Growler,"  who  visited  the  empty  ship  as  a 
board  of  survey,  3  had  yellow  fever.  She  re 
turned  to  England  in  September,  having  41  cases 
at  sea.  The  pilot  who  boarded  her  was  attacked. 
In  1847,  after  having  been  cleansed  and  disin 
fected,  the  "  Eolair"  sailed  for  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope,  but  was  obliged  to  put  in  at  Ascension 
with  yellow  fever  again  on  board.  The  "  Sus- 
quehanna"  suffered  from  yellow  fever  at  Grey 
Town  in  1856,  and  landed  200  cases  at  Jamaica 
and  New  York.  She  was  repeatedly  broken  out, 
cleansed,  and  exposed  to  a  freezing  temperature, 
to  be  finally  abandoned  as  incorrigibly  infected. 
The  "Plymouth"  had  a  return  of  yellow  fever 
in  the  spring  of  1879,  before  touching  at  any 
port,  after  having  been  broken  out,  disinfected, 
and  exposed  to  the  low  temperature  of  Boston 
during  most  of  the  preceding  winter.  At  this 
writing  (May,  1880)  the  "  Marion"  is  reported  at 
Montevideo,  with  yellow  fever  on  board,  under 
going  disinfection.  Of  late  years  the  ports  of 
Havana,  Rio  de  Janeiro,  and  St.  Thomas  have 
most  frequently  been  credited  with  being  the 
sources  of  yellow  fever  epidemics,  the  two  latter, 
in  particular,  so  far  as  men-of-war  are  concerned. 
Severe  naval  epidemics  have  also  occurred  at  the 
navy-yard,  Pensacola,  and  at  Key  West. 

Yellow  fever  is  characterized  by  a  period  of 
incubation  seldom  exceeding  5  days,  a  sudden 
and  prostrating  onset,  with  high  body  tempera 
ture  (105°-107°  F.),  flushed  face,  suffusion  of  the 
eyes,  and  albuminous  urine,  deficient  in  chlorides. 
To  the  paroxysm,  which  lasts  from  24  to  48  hours, 
succeeds  a  "stage  of  calm,"  during  which  the 
fever  subsides,  hemorrhages  occur  from  the  nose, 
gums,  stomach  (black  vomit),  and  intestines 
(tarry  stools),  and  a  yellow  tint  colors  the  whole 
surface,  deepening  during  convalescence  or  after 
death.  Renewal  of  fever,  or  a  sudden  rise  in 
body  temperature,  indicate  a  fatal  termination, 
which  generally  occurs  between  the  fourth  and 
seventh  day.  After  death  there  is  a  notable  rise 
in  the  body  temperature  (to  105°  F.),  which  lasts 
for  12  hours,  putrefaction  progresses  rapidly,  and 
an  odor,  said  to  be  peculiar  to  the  disease,  is 
developed.  The  blood  is  found  to  be  thin,  fluid, 
of  acid  reaction,  with  its  white  corpuscles  in 
creased  in  number  and  undergoing  fatty  degen 
eration.  It  is  said  to  contain  a  great  excess  of 
urea  (Dr.  Joseph  Jones,  of  New  Orleans).  The 
liver  is  also  subject  to  fatty  degeneration,  and 
presents  a  fawn-yellow  color.  Lesions  have  been 
observed  in  the  kidneys,  spleen,  and  nervous  sys 
tem,  but  are  not  invariably  characteristic  of  this 
disease.  No  peculiar  organism  has  yet  been  dis 
covered  in  the  blood  of  yellow  fever  patients 
where  proper  precautions  against  its  artificial 
introduction  have  been  observed.  When  death 
does  not  occur,  convalescence  is  tedious,  and 
likely  to  be  interrupted  by  changes  of  weather 
or  sfight  imprudence,  the  blood  having  become 
profoundly  impaired  as  to  its  nutritive  functions 
during  the  paroxysm.  There  is  no  drug  which 
has  been  proved  to  be  a  specific  cure,  the  most 
successful  treatment  confining  itself  to  hygienic 
measures,  fluid  diet,  promotion  of  perspiration, 
and  a  free  use  of  ice. 


The  cause  of  yellow  fever  has  not  yet  been  dis 
covered.  It  is,  however,  known  to  be  portable 
and  specific  (reproducing  its  like  and  no  other 
disease),  is  almost  certainly  material,  and  is  very 
probably  either  a  living  organism  or  a  substance 
resulting  therefrom  (as  alcohol,  acetic  and  lactic 
acids  result  from  the  growth  of  fungi  and  bacte 
ria).  It  is  capable  of  lying  dormant  indefinitely 
under  a  low  temperature  and  unfavorable  con 
ditions,  to  revive  when  congenial  surroundings 
are  restored.  In  this  regard  it  suggests  a  parallel 
with  the  passive  forms  of  many  fungi.  Decom- 
.posing  organic  matter,  coal,  and  especially  decay 
ing  sea-weed  and  rotten  wood,  favor  its  develop 
ment,  wood  affected  with  dry  rot  (see  DRY  ROT) 
appearing  to  afford  peculiar  facilities  to  its  pres 
ervation  in  a  dormant  state. 

Prevention  should  include  such  construction  as 
will  obstruct  the  development  of  dry  rot  and 
afford  no  inaccessible  recesses  in  a  ship,  cleanli 
ness,  ventilation,  anchorage  at  a  distance  from 
shore,  and  a  rigid  observance  of  sanitary  regula 
tions  relating  to  intercourse  with  the  shore, 
clothing,  food,  hours  of  labor,  and  fresh-water 
supply. 

Disinfection  by  chemicals,  such  as  carbolic 
acid,  chlorine,  sulphate  of  iron,  etc.,  has  not 
proved  satisfactory,  the  foul  odors  which  these 
agents  destroy  having  no  necessary  connection 
with  yellow  fever.  Exposure  to  a  low  tempera 
ture  causes  the  disease  to  cease  for  the  time,  but 
has  not  always  prevented  its  later  recurrence,  as 
in  the  cases  of  the  "  Susquehanna"  and  "Plym 
outh,"  and  experiments  upon  low  organisms 
found  to  be  connected  with  other  diseases  have 
shown  that  their  vitality  is  not  destroyed  even  by 
so  low  a  temperature  as  — 10°  F.  Live  steam  was 
injected  into  the  holds  of  the  "  Don"  (at  Santa 
Cruz)  and  "  Mahaska"  (at  New  Orleans)  in 
1867,  with  success,  the  vessels  remaining  on  the 
station  without  any  return  of  the  disease.  Sul 
phurous  acid  gas  and  air  at  a  temperature  ex 
ceeding  260°  F.  have  been  found  to  be  alike  fatal 
to  all  living  organisms,  and  a  naval  board 
ordered  to  investigate  the  subject,  has  this  year 
(1880)  recommended  the  use  of  this  gas,  super 
heated,  in  the  holds  of  infected  vessels.  (Aitken's 
"Practice  of  Medicine,"  art.  Yellow  Fever; 
Ziemssen's  "  Cyclopaedia ;"  "La  fievre  jaune  a 
la  Martinique,"  par  L.  B.  Berenger  Feraud, 
M.D.,  Paris,  1878;  "Naval  Medical  Essays," 
Bureau  of  Medicine  and  Surgery,  Washington, 
1873-75-79;  "  Preliminary  Report  of  the  Havana 
Yellow  Fever  Commission,"  Supp.  National 
Board  of  Health  Bulletin,  November,  1879 ; 
Dr.  A.  Stille,  Medical,  Record,  N.  Y.,  March  1, 
1879;  "Disinfectants,"  G.  W.  Sternberg,  Sur 
geon  U.S.A.,  National  Board  of  Health  Bulle 
tin,  January  17,  1880;  "Pathological  Histology 
of  Yellow  Fever,"  Surgeon  J.  J.  Woodward, 
U.S.A.,  4th  Supplement  do.  ;  Surgeon  J.  S. 
Billings,  U.S.A.,  in  Contemporary  Review, 
January,  1880,  etc.) — J.  H.  Kidder,  Surgeon 
U.S.N. 

Yellowing  (Eng.}.  The  overslaughing  of  cap 
tains  in  a  flag-promotion. 

Yellow  Jack.  Yellow  fever.  The  quaran 
tine  flag. 

Yellow  Tail.  A  well-known  tropical  fish, 
often  in  company  with  whip-rays  ;  it  is  about  4 
feet  long,  with  a  great  head,  large  eyes,  and 
many  fins. 


YEO-HEAVE-YEO 


872 


ZUMBKA 


Yeo-heave-yeo !  The  chant  of  merchant 
sailors  in  hauling  and  heaving. 

Yeoman.  An  appointed  officer  who  has  charge 
of  stores  and  keeps  the  accounts  in  his  special 
department ;  as,  ship's  yeoman,  paymaster's  yeo 
man,  engineer's  yeoman. 

Yoke."  An  athwartship  piece  of  wood  or  metal 
fitted  over  the  head  of  a  hoat's  rudder,  and  serv 
ing  as  a  substitute  for  a  tiller. 

YOKE-LINES.     Lines  from  each  extremity  of 


a  yoke  and  extending  to  the  stern-sheets,  and 
used  in  steering  a  boat. 

Young  Gentlemen.  A  general  designation 
for  midshipmen. 

Young  Ice.     Ice  recently  formed. 

Youngsters.  A  general  term  for  young  offi 
cers,  or  men.  See  OLDSTER. 

Young  Wind.  The  commencement  of  the 
land-  or  sea-breeze. 

Yow-yow.    A  small  Chinese  sampan. 


Z. 


Z.    In  the  log-book,  z  denotes  haze. 

Zambo.  A  sobriquet  on  the  Spanish  Main 
for  a  race  produced  by  the  union  of  the  negro 
and  the  Indian  ;  it  literally  means  bow-legged. 

Zenith.  The  superior  pole  of  the  celestial 
horizon  ;  the  point  of  the  heavens  directly  over 
head. 

ZENITH-DISTANCE.  The  angular  distance  of 
a  heavenly  body  from  the  zenith  ;  the  complement 
of  the  altitude. 

Zephyr.     The  west  wind.     A  gentle  breeze. 

Zero.  The  point  from  which  the  marks  on  a 
graduated  scale  are  numbered,  the  marks  pro 
gressing  in  one  direction  being  read  plus,  and 
those  in  the  contrary  direction  minus.  A  zero 
as  a  point  of  reference  may  be  established  arbi 
trarily.  The  absolute  zero  of  temperature,  the 
most  convenient  base  for  scientific  computations, 
as  computed  from  the  apparent  law  of  expansion 
of  a  perfect  gas,  is  461.2  degrees  below  the  zero 
of  Fahrenheit. 

Zodiac  (Gr.,  from  zddion,  the  diminutive  of 
zdon,  an  animal).  That  region  of  the  heavens 
within  which  the  apparent  motions  of  the  sun, 
moon,  and  the  most  conspicuous  of  the  planets 
are  confined.  The  apparent  paths  of  the  moon 
and  all  the  known  planets  were  found  to  be  spiral 
curves  of  more  or  less  complexity,  and  described 
with  very  unequal  velocities  in  their  different 
parts.  These  bodies  were  observed,  however,  to 
have  this  in  common,  that  the  general  direction 
of  their  motions  is  the  same  with  that  of  the  sun, 
viz.,  from  west  to  east,  contrary  to  that  in  which 
both  they  and  the  stars  appear  to  be  carried  by 
thediurnal  motion  of  the  heavens ;  and,  moreover, 
that  they  cross  and  recross  the  ecliptic  at  regular 
and  equal  intervals  of  time,  never  deviating  from 
the  ecliptic  on  either  side  more  than  8°  or  9°.  It 
is  this  zone  of  about  17°  broad,  having  the  ecliptic 
running  along  its  middle,  which  was  named  the 
zodiac.  Before  the  discovery  of  the  asteroids,  the 
zodiac  restricted  to  the  above  limits  formed  the 
zone  of  the  moving  bodies  of  the  heavens.  But 
the  orbits  of  many  of  the  asteroids  have  a  very  con 
siderable  inclination  to  theecliptic, — Pallas  nearly 
35°,  so  that  the  significance  of  the  zone  of  the 
zodiac  is  now,  except  in  the  most  general  sense, 
all  but  obsolete.  The  term  zodiac  is  derived  from 
the  constellations  of  this  zone  being  anciently 
figured  as  "animals."  Its  circuit  was  divided 
into  12  equal  parts,  the  "  sign"  or  symbol  of  each 
being  taken  from  the  constellation  with  which  it 
then  coincided.  They  are  as  follows  : 


NORTHERN  SIGNS. 


T  Aries,  the  Ram. 
8  Taurus,  the  Bull. 
H  Gemini,  the  Twins. 


Cancer,  the  Crab. 
Lfio,  th«  Lion. 
Virgo,  the  Virgin. 


SOUTHERN  SIGNS. 

£:  Libra,  the  Balance.  l£>  Capricornus,  the  Goat. 

\\[  Scorpio,  the  Scorpion.       ^  Aquarius,  tlte  Water-bearer. 
f  Sagittarius,  the  Archer.     X  Pisces,  the  Fishes. 


These  constellations,  however,  do  not  cover  the 
same  parts  of  the  ecliptic  they  formerly  did,  in 
consequence  of  the  retrograde  motion  of  the  first 
point  of  Aries  along  the  ecliptic,  from  which  its 
divisions  are  reckoned.  Hence  the  necessity  of 
distinguishing  between  the  signs  of  the  ecliptic 
or  zodiac  and  the  constellations  of  the  zodiac,  the 
former  being  purely  technical  subdivisions  of 
ecliptic  of  30°  each,  commencing  from  the  first 
point  of  Aries. 

ZODIACAL  LIGHT.  A  cone  of  faint  light  ap 
parently  proceeding  from  the  rising  or  the  setting 
sun  ;  it  is  most  commonly  seen  in  the  tropics. 

Zoel,  or  Saul.  A  timber  much  used  in  the 
construction  of  the  vessels  of  India. 

Zone  (Gr.  zone,  a  belt).  In  consequence  of 
the  obliquity  of  the  ecliptic,  the  earth's  surface  is 
naturally  divided  into  5  zones.  The  torrid  zone 
embraces  the  region  situated  between  the  paral 
lels  23°  28'  N.,  and  23°  28'  S.  ;  at  some  season 
of  the  year  the  sun  will  be  in  the  zenith  of  each 
point  of  this  region.  The  temperate  zones  extend 
from  the  torrid  zone  to  the  parallels  66°  32'  N., 
and  66°  32'  S.  ;  the  sun  is  seen  to  rise  every  day, 
and  it  is  never  in  the  zenith  of  any  point  of 
these  zones.  The  frigid  zones  extend  from  the 
poles  to  the  temperate  zones  ;  at  some  time  during 
the  year  the  sun  will  be  below  the  horizon  for 
more  than  24  hours,  and  at  another  time  it  will 
be  above  the  horizon  for  more  than  24  hours,  the 
length  of  this  time  depending  upon  the  proximity 
of  the  point  to  the  pole. 

Zopissa.  Tar  or  pitch  scraped  off  the  bot 
toms  of  old  ships,  and  thought  to  be  good  for 
ulcers.  Also,  a  highly  preservative  varnish  in 
use  by  the  ancients  for  ship's  bottoms,  sarcoph 
agi,  etc. 

Zuben  el  Chamali.     /?  Librce. 

Zuben  el  Genubi.     a  Librae. 

Zuhn.  A  species  of  rush  from  which  inferior 
canvas  and  cordage  is  made,  in  the  East. 

Zumbra.     A  small  Spanish  row-boat. 


Ry" 


LD  21A-50m-8,'61 
(Cl795slO)476B 


GENERAL  LIBRARY  -  U.C.  BERKELEY 


THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 


